text: The McCarran–Walter Act of 1952 recognized that previous nationality laws had discriminated against married women and sought to remove inequalities by replacing gendered identifiers with the term "spouse". It provided that children born outside of the United States had derivative citizenship if at least one of its unmarried parents was a citizen of the United States and had resided in the country for one year prior to the child's birth. If the parents were married, the citizen parent had to have lived five years in the United States after attaining age 14 and cumulatively have resided for ten years in the United States. Exception was made for active duty military personnel's service to be considered residence in the United States. The residency requirement in the United States meant that if a citizen parent, who was not in the military, was under the age of 19 when the child was born abroad, their child could not derive citizenship from the citizen parent. Though amended in 1978 and 1984, the discrimination based upon marital status and age remained unchanged until 1986. At that time, the law was amended to shorten the parent's residency time in the United States to five years, with at least 2 of those years being after the 14th birthday of the parent.


title: Birthright citizenship in the United States

text: In the case of "Inglis v. Trustees of Sailor's Snug Harbor", the Supreme Court decided the question of the disposition of the estate of a man born in New York State in 1776. The Supreme Court resolved complicated questions of how citizenship had been derived during the Revolutionary War. The court found that the jus soli is so consistent in American Law as to automatically grant American citizenship to children born in New York City between the Declaration of Independence and the Landing at Kip's Bay in 1776, but not to children born in New York during the British occupation that followed.


text: Nothing is better settled at the common law than the doctrine that the children even of aliens born in a country while the parents are resident there under the protection of the government and owing a temporary allegiance thereto are subjects by birth.


text: In the "Slaughter-House Cases", —a civil rights case not dealing specifically with birthright citizenship—a majority of the Supreme Court mentioned in passing that "the phrase 'subject to its jurisdiction' was intended to exclude from its operation children of ministers, consuls, and citizens or subjects of foreign States born within the United States".


text: In "Elk v. Wilkins", , the Supreme Court denied the birthright citizenship claim of an "Ameerican Indian" (referring there to Native Americans). The court ruled that being born in the territory of the United States is not sufficient for citizenship; those who wish to claim citizenship by birth must be born subject to the jurisdiction of the United States. The court's majority held that the children of Native Americans were


text: Thus, Native Americans who voluntarily quit their tribes would not automatically become U.S. citizens. Native Americans were granted U.S. citizenship by Congress half a century later in the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924, which rendered the "Elk" decision obsolete.


text: In the case of "United States v. Wong Kim Ark", , the Supreme Court was presented with the following question:


text: Ethel Mackenzie was an American-born woman who married a British subject in 1909. When she attempted to register to vote in 1911 in California, Mackenzie was refused because she was not a citizen. She was advised that if her husband became a US citizen, she could register, but Mackenzie believed that her citizenship was a birthright and refused to have her husband naturalize. Mackenzie filed a suit in the California federal courts against the San Francisco Election Commissioners. She alleged she had not lost her nationality under the Expatriation Act of 1907 by virtue of the birthright citizenship provisions of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Her claim was denied and she escalated the case to the Supreme Court. In "Mackenzie v. Hare" 239 U.S. 299, 311 (1915), the justices ruled that "Marriage of an American woman with a foreigner is tantamount to voluntary expatriation".


text: "Plyler v. Doe", , involved illegal alien children and their rights to public education. This case did not explicitly address the question of babies born in the United States to illegal immigrant parents; the children dealt with in the case were born outside the U.S. and had entered the country illegally along with their parents.


text: The court did suggest (in "dicta") that illegal immigrants are "within the jurisdiction" of the states in which they reside, and that


text: In 2006 judge James Chiun-Yue Ho, who President Donald Trump would later appoint to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, wrote in a law review article that with the "Plyler" decision "any doubt was put to rest" whether the 1898 "Wong Kim Ark" decision applied to illegal aliens given that "[in "Plyler"] "all nine justices agreed" that the Equal Protection Clause protects legal and illegal aliens alike. And all nine reached that conclusion precisely because illegal aliens are 'subject to the jurisdiction' of the U.S., no less than legal aliens and U.S. citizens."


text: Since the majority of Canadians live in the relatively thin strip of land close to the long border with the United States, Canadians in need of urgent medical care are occasionally transferred to nearby American medical centers. In some circumstances, Canadian mothers facing high-risk births have given birth in American hospitals. Such children are American citizens by birthright.


text: In these circumstances, Canadian laws are similar to those of the United States. Babies born in Canada of American parents are also Canadian citizens by birthright.


text: In both of these situations, the birthright citizenship is passed on to their children, born decades later. In some cases, births in American hospital (sometimes called "border babies") have resulted in persons who lived for much of their lives in Canada without knowing that they had never had official Canadian citizenship. Some of these people have been called Lost Canadians.


text: Another problem arises where a Canadian child, born to Canadian parents in a U.S. border hospital, is treated as a dual citizen and added to the United States tax base on this basis despite having never lived, worked nor studied in that nation. While Canadian income tax is payable only by those who reside or earn income in Canada, the U.S. Internal Revenue Service taxes its citizens worldwide. Campobello Island is particularly problematic as, while legally part of New Brunswick, the only year-round fixed link off the island leads not to Canada but to Lubec, Maine—leading to many Canadians whose families have lived on Campobello for generations not being able to claim to be born in Canada.


text: During the original debate over the 14th Amendment Senator Jacob M. Howard of Michigan—the sponsor of the Amendment, though the Citizenship Clause was written by Senator Wade—described the clause as having the same content, despite different wording, as the earlier Civil Rights Act of 1866, namely, that it excludes American Indians who maintain their tribal ties and "persons born in the United States who are foreigners, aliens, who belong to the families of ambassadors or foreign ministers". Others also agreed that the children of ambassadors and foreign ministers were to be excluded. Concerning the children born in the United States to parents who are not U.S. citizens (and not foreign diplomats), three senators, including Senate Judiciary Committee Chairman Lyman Trumbull, the author of the Civil Rights Act, as well as President Andrew Johnson, agreed, asserting that both the Civil Rights Act and the 14th Amendment would confer citizenship on them at birth, and no senator offered a contrary opinion.


text: Most of the debate on this section of the Amendment centered on whether the wording in the Civil Rights Act or Howard's proposal more effectively excluded Aboriginal Americans on reservations and in U.S. territories from citizenship. Senator James R. Doolittle of Wisconsin asserted that all Native Americans are subject to the jurisdiction of the United States, so that the phrase "Indians not taxed" would be preferable, but Trumbull and Howard disputed this, arguing that the U.S. government did not have full jurisdiction over Native American tribes, which govern themselves and make treaties with the United States.


text: In 1912 in his "Treatise on the Laws Governing the Exclusion and Expulsion of Aliens in the United States", Clement Lincoln Bouvé argued that based on the 14th Amendment, "Wong Kim Ark", and other case law, "...the child born of alien parents who, though under the immigration law they have no right to do so and are subject at any time to deportation thereunder, are nevertheless residing in the United States and owe temporary allegiance thereto, is necessarily born in allegiance to, and, therefore, is a citizen of this country."


text: Edward Erler in 2007 argued that since the "Wong Kim Ark" case dealt with someone whose parents were in the United States legally, there is no valid basis under the 14th Amendment for the practice of granting citizenship to U.S.-born children of illegal immigrants: "Even if the logic is that Wong Kim Ark became a citizen by birth with the permission of the United States when it admitted his parents to the country, no such permission has been given to those who enter illegally." Akhil Amar responded to Erler, "I'm not sure that his Pandora's box can be limited to children of illegal aliens. It is a thin edge of a very big and dangerous wedge that I think runs squarely into "Wong Kim Ark"." Similarly, Angelo Ancheta criticized the "consent-based theory of citizenship", saying that "The Fourteenth Amendment was designed to ensure citizenship for 'all persons' born in the United States, particularly in response to ambiguities in legal status that attached to being the descendants of an outsider class, namely slaves."


text: In the late 1990s opposition arose over the longstanding practice of granting automatic citizenship on a "jus soli" basis. Fears grew in some circles that the existing law encouraged parents-to-be to come to the United States to have children (sometimes called birth tourism) in order to improve the parents' chances of attaining legal residency themselves. Some media correspondents and public leaders, including former congressman Virgil Goode, have controversially dubbed this the "anchor baby" situation, and politicians have proposed legislation on this basis that might alter how birthright citizenship is awarded.


text: A Pew Hispanic Center analysis of Census Bureau data determined that about 8 percent of children born in the United States in 2008—about 340,000—were offspring of "unauthorized immigrants". In total, about four million American-born children of unauthorized immigrant parents resided in this country in 2009, along with about 1.1 million foreign-born children of unauthorized immigrant parents.


text: The Center for Immigration Studies—a think tank which favors stricter controls on immigration—claims that between 300,000 and 400,000 children are born each year to illegal immigrants in the U.S.


text: Bills have been introduced from time to time in Congress which have sought to declare American-born children of foreign nationals not to be "subject to the jurisdiction of the United States", and thus not entitled to citizenship via the 14th Amendment, unless at least one parent was an American citizen or a lawful permanent resident.


text: In 1993, Sen. Harry Reid (D-Nev.) introduced legislation that would limit birthright citizenship to the children of U.S. citizens and legally resident aliens, and similar bills have been introduced by other legislators in every Congress since. For example, U.S. Representative Nathan Deal, a Republican from the State of Georgia, introduced the "Citizenship Reform Act of 2005" (H.R. 698) in the 109th Congress, the "Birthright Citizenship Act of 2007" (H.R. 1940) in the 110th Congress, and the "Birthright Citizenship Act of 2009" (H.R. 1868) in the 111th Congress. However, neither these nor any similar bill has ever been passed by Congress.


text: Some legislators, unsure whether such Acts of Congress would survive court challenges, have proposed that the Citizenship Clause be changed through a constitutional amendment. Senate Joint Resolution 6, introduced on January 16, 2009 in the 111th Congress, proposes such an amendment; however, neither this, nor any other proposed amendment, has yet been approved by Congress for ratification by the states.


text: President Donald Trump said on October 30, 2018, that he intends to remove, by means of an executive order, the right of citizenship from people born in the U.S. to foreign nationals. In August 2019, "USA Today" reported that the new policy will make U.S. service members and government employees whose child is not automatically a United States citizen go through a different process to apply for their child's citizenship and that, according to estimates by the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS), this will impact approximately 20 to 25 people annually. No such executive order had materialized by the time President Trump left office in 2021.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: The Hyundai Tiburon () known in Europe as the Hyundai Coupé (현대 쿠페) is a sports coupe that was produced by the South Korean manufacturer Hyundai from 1996 to 2008.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: The name "Tiburon", a slight variation of "tiburón", the Spanish word for "shark", is the name given to the North American, Australian, New Zealand, South African, and Austrian production of the vehicle. It was known as the Hyundai Coupe in some European markets and Indonesia. It had been branded as the Tuscani (투스카니) and Turbulence (터뷸런스) in the home South Korean market.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: The model had been released in two generations (RC) over its lifespan and in that time these generations have been subject to periodic facelifts. These facelifts have attempted to keep the car up to date with various safety improvements and a mixture of changes to exterior and interior styling. The RD Tiburon was in production for 5 years from 1996 to 2001. The GK Tiburon was introduced in 2002 (as a 2003 model) and ended production in 2008 before being replaced by the Hyundai Veloster.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: Tiburon first began production in late 1996. This generation took several design cues from the "HCD-II Epoch" concept that debuted at the 1993 Detroit Auto Show. It was available in a few foreign markets with engine choices of either 1.6L or 1.8L. In the United States, the Tiburon was first offered in 1997 with base models using the Elantra's 1.8L engine while the upscale FX received a 2.0L four-cylinder engine. The 2.0L was rated at at the crankshaft (the car's manual specifies at the flywheel). Base weight was around 2,550 lb (1,150 kg), giving the RD Tiburon a higher power-to-weight ratio than the newer GK 2.0L. The 2.0L produces a 0–60 mph time of ~8.3, with a 1/4 mile time of ~16 seconds. In 1998 the Tiburon lost its weaker 1.8L engine, giving both models the 2.0L. All versions of the Tiburon manufactured from 1996 to 2002 are known as "RD" Tiburons. The MacPherson strut suspension was co-developed with Porsche.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: Its appearance was a revival of coke bottle styling, popular during the 1960s and 1970s. There were various options, with or without ABS, 2 airbags, leather, and sunroof.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: Various special editions were also produced, focusing primarily on cosmetic modifications and improvements. In the UK, Hyundai's entrance into the Formula 2 World Rally Championship saw the release of the "F2" and "F2 Evolution" models in 1998 and 1999 respectively.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: The "F2" (non-Evolution) was released in July 1998. Only available in the UK, the "F2" model sold approximately 1100 units in total during 1998 and 1999, (making the "F2" a slightly rarer model than the "F2 Evolution" which followed). An enhanced version of the UK-spec 2.0 SE, the "F2" was available in a choice of three colours; Black (solid), Bright Silver (metallic), or Racing Blue (mica). (This latter colour, a vivid bright blue, was unique to the "F2"; no other Hyundai models were ever made available in Racing Blue (mica)). The "F2" modifications included 16" diameter x 7.5J multi-spoke DTM-style alloy wheels. These wheels were fitted with carbon-fibre effect centre-caps incorporating the "F2" logo within. According to Hyundai's "Coupe F2 Tyre Supplement Handbook", (supplied with each new Coupe F2), these wheels were described as "Motorsport-style alloy wheels". The wheels were actually Team Dynamics DTM, which were manufactured in England by . These wheels were high-quality for an OEM alloy wheel, weighing only 17.6 lbs (8.0 kg) per corner and closely emulating the style of the TSW Hockenheim R.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: Tyres were Pirelli 225/40/16 P7000 directional, their 225 width and 40 profile made these the most aggressive standard-fit tyre supplied with any RD (or RD2) Hyundai Coupe. The "F2" also featured a deeper and more aggressive front spoiler, incorporating an oval chrome mesh grille insert. There was also "F2" badging on the front wings and rear valance, an uprated CD/tuner stereo by Sony (CDX C5000R with RDS), "Coupe F2" monogrammed aluminium kick plates, a unique leather-and-aluminium gearstick and a discreet "Coupe F2" badge on the ashtray fascia. The front carpet mats were inlaid with rectangular silver-coloured "Coupe F2" badges. According to the Hyundai Coupe F2 brochure, total on-the-road price was £17,999 (as of July 1998).


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: Two further items were available free to the first five-hundred Hyundai Coupe F2 buyers. Firstly, there was a large aluminium-bound "F2" art book, (including various artistic photographs and designer images of the Coupe F2). These books were signed inside by rally driver Kenneth Eriksson, (one of Hyundai's drivers in the F2 World Rally Championship at the time). Secondly, there was an aluminium key-fob, fitted with an LED light and supplied in a small silver-coloured box labelled "Lexon Design Concept". Both of these items were packaged together in a large silver cardboard box with "F2" printed onto the lid. These items were supplied by the dealer upon collection of the new car. During 1998, there was prominent press and billboard advertising in the UK to promote the new "Coupe F2". These advertisements incorporated the tag-line, "On average, men think about the F2 every 6 seconds."


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: The "F2 Evolution" became available on 14 June 1999, almost one-year after the "F2" had appeared. The "F2" was discontinued and the new "F2 Evolution" effectively replaced it. The "F2 Evolution" was available with just two colour options, either Silver (metallic) or Cobalt Blue (metallic). It was intended as a limited edition of 1500 units, (though 1513 units were eventually produced). The design was led by McLaren F1 stylist Peter Stevens in conjunction with Hyundai World Rally Team's support company Motor Sport Developments (MSD).


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: Standard 2.0 SE Coupes were delivered to MSD for mechanical and cosmetic modification. These modifications included a bigger front bumper/spoiler, a modified (larger and higher) rear spoiler with end-plates (these spoilers were designed by Stevens to create zero lift rather than ultimate downforce), a high-lift inlet camshaft (taken from the 1997 1.8-litre Lantra engine) and a 6"x4" freeflow exhaust by Magnex (suppliers to Aston Martin). Wheels were 16" diameter x 7.0J 5-spoke alloys manufactured by TSW (with Yokohama 205/45/16 tyres). There were "F2 Evolution" badges on the front wings and rear valance. Vehicle security was provided by a Thatcham-approved Category 1 alarm/immobiliser system. Inside, there was an uprated Sony stereo, "Coupe F2 Evolution" monogrammed aluminium kick plates, thicker lambswool carpets and cream instrument dials incorporating "F2 Evolution" logos. The front carpet mats were inlaid with silver-coloured circular "Coupe F2 Evolution" badges. The armrest lid between the front seats was covered in stitched leather (rather than the molded plastic found on lesser models). The gear leaver gaiter was of smooth leather, with a chrome trim surround at the base, manufactured by Richbrook. The gear-knob was of a unique design and had a chrome finish. Additionally, new brake pads were co-developed for the F2 Evolution by MSD and AP Racing, these new pads provided better "bite" and improved fade resistance.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: The mechanical changes were limited to the camshaft and exhaust improvements. Together these modifications saw an increase in power to and torque to .


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: Each car was supplied with a metal MSD badge. This was fitted onto the bulkhead inside the engine bay. This badge displayed the MSD build number of each particular conversion to "F2 Evolution" spec.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: Unlike with the previous year's "F2" model, this time no dealer-supplied art-book was supplied. However, a range of "F2 Evolution" lifestyle accessories were made available through Hyundai dealerships, such as "F2 Evolution" branded pens, chairs, clothing and umbrellas etc.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: According to Hyundai's product-launch literature, total on-the-road price for the "F2 Evolution" was £19,299 (as of June 1999).


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: The RD2 Tiburon is an update on the original RD platform and was released for sale in 1999. The RD2 received a facelift that altered the front and rear bumpers and also provided a refreshed interior dash. In South Korea, the RD2 Tiburon was marketed as the "Tiburon Turbulence".


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: The RD2 headlights have separate enclosures for the high and low beams giving the four headlight look, similar to the third generation Honda/Acura Integra and the sixth generation Toyota Celica. The rear bumper is also reformed receiving larger taillights. The same 2.0L engine was carried over producing identical performance. ABS, leather seats, and a sunroof were available in a package.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: The previous-generation Tiburon was discontinued in 2001 after five years in production. Hyundai launched a revised Tiburon in 2002 for the 2003 model year, giving it new styling, larger dimensions, and an optional V6 engine. Tiburon's wheelbase and overall length grew slightly compared to the previous version, increasing curb weight by about . In the US, base and GT V6 models were offered with standard front side airbags and optional anti-lock brakes. Base Tiburons retained the 2.0-liter four-cylinder engine, while GT V6 coupes got the new 2.7-liter V6 from Hyundai's Sonata and Santa Fe. A five-speed manual transmission was standard, and a four-speed automatic was optional. The automatic unit had a manual shift gate. Also optional on the GT V6 was a six-speed manual gearbox. Base models and GT V6 automatics rode on 16-inch tires, versus 17-inch for the GT V6 manual models. Tuscani models had all the upgrades being the "Elite" model with separate badging to set it apart from all other models. Both had standard four-wheel disc brakes. Leather upholstery was standard in the GT V6, as well as a rear spoiler (high spoiler std. on 6-speed only). Aluminium pedals and a sunroof were optional.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: In 2004, all GT V6s received 17" wheels. A "special edition" of the GT V6 was also released. It featured a "Special Edition" decal-style badge underneath "Tiburon", sport cloth upholstery, a Kenwood stereo, red painted front brake calipers, and multigauges above the radio. Only the 6-speed and automatic transmissions were available. The special edition was available in Jet Black, Rally Red, and Sunburst Yellow only. The new design received praise from a number of automotive journalists, some of which compared it to the Ferrari 456.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: In 2005 Hyundai facelifted the Tiburon and reshuffled the model lineup; offering GS, GT, and SE models. The SE was now a separate trim from the GT models. Hyundai's four-cylinder engine went into the GS, while the other two held the 2.7-liter V6. A five-speed manual transmission was standard. A four-speed automatic with a manual shift was optional for GS and GT models, but the SE had exclusive use of a six-speed manual gearbox. Anti-lock brakes was standard on the SE and optional for the GT coupe, which could be equipped with leather upholstery. GS coupes rode on 16-inch wheels, versus 17-inch for other models. All-disc brakes and front side airbags were standard. Anti-lock brakes were made standard on all 2006 model Tiburons.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: In the UK, three models were available before and after the 2005 facelift: the 1.6S, 2.0SE and V6. The 1.6S had a single exhaust and leather seats were optional, although following the 2005 facelift half-leather seats were standard. Both other models have twin exhausts and leather seats as standard. The six-speed gearbox was also standard on the V6 model.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: A popular modification saw owners of the first GK model removing the air-filter resonator box. The resonator box was located directly in front of the front left hand side wheel, behind the fender. This allowed for a greater airflow to the air filter, gaining a minimal increase of brake horsepower (bhp). Hyundai, seeking cost cuts, adopted this modification for 2004+ models. Hyundai also released a new color for their 2006 Tiburon called Regatta blue, between Tidal Wave blue and Midnight blue, which is Metallic. This color is also available for the 2007 Elantra and Tiburon.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: In Greece (S145 model) and perhaps other countries, due to high taxation in hi-displacement engines, a 1.6-liter Turbocharged engine was available for some years, producing 145 PS(107 kW) at 5,800 rpm and 190 Nm (128 lbf) of torque at 4,300 rpm and making the 1233 kg vehicle capable of accelerating from 0–100 km/h (0–62 mph) in 9.3 seconds and achieving a top speed of 210 km/h (131 mph). Fuel consumption was 6.4L/100 km (36.8 mpg).


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: Hyundai conducted minor tweaks to the 'GK' model in September 2004 for the 2005 model year. The vehicle incorporated reworked sleeker blackened "smoked" headlights, redesigned rear tail lights, more aggressive front air dam, a different range of alloy wheel designs, colored stitching on leather seats (half leather seats available for the 1.6 range).


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: In 2006, Hyundai released the GT Limited Model. This was an upgrade from the GT V6. It included an upgraded tan leather interior, automatic climate controls, a 440w Infinity 6-disc in dash stereo with 10" subwoofer, an upgraded gauge cluster, and side markers. The GT LTD came in black, Blue, and midnight blue.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: In Australia, a limited edition TS was released in October 2005. It had a unique "tiger orange" color paintjob (a color that was not available for any other model) and an extra high rear spoiler. The TS also sported stiffer suspension dampening and a slightly thicker (22mm) rear sway bar. Black leather trim with red stitching, sunroof and other extras were included as standard. The name TS stands for "Tiger Shark", referring to its exclusive orange color and the shark origins of the Tiburon name.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: Only 80 of these 2005 TS models were released. Each had an individually numbered ID plate inside the driver's door frame. Number 1 had a manual transmission, and number 80 had an automatic transmission.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: A limited edition TS of the 2006 model was also released in 2006. It was available in a unique "vivid blue" paintjob. Only 62 of these were released. These also had a plaque inside the drivers side door, however, this didn't list the build number unlike the 2005 edition.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: A more comprehensive facelift was launched in November 2006 for the 2007 model year, named the Coupe SIII in markets such as the UK, this time altering the appearance of the car enough to designate it the fourth generation or GK F/L2 reminiscent of the RD1 and RD2 denotations.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: The headlights are thinner and angled more aggressively; somewhat similar to the original Tiburon headlights with more straight/sharp lines. The tail lights are similar to the RD2 and GK1 but are somewhat smaller and reflect an aftermarket styling. The fenders lose the "gill fins" and other small changes are seen.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: The interior is updated with brushed aluminium accents, new blue backlight scheme for gauges and instrumentation and new seats.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: Hyundai later introduced the limited, special edition TSIII (UK). This upgraded, limited edition included quilted leather interior with embroidered logos, stiffer sports suspension, quad exhaust exit pipes, a higher level rear spoiler and an anthracite finish to the alloy wheels. The performance of the TSIII remained the same as the SIII. This is the last model made.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: The 2004–2007 models received a 4/5 star rating from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration in the USA.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: In the US, the 5-speed retained standard on the GS, GT, and GT Limited, while the upscale SE model came only with a six-speed manual. A four-speed automatic transmission with Shiftronic was available for all models.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: In the UK and Middle East, the 5-speed manual is standard on the 1.6L and 2.0L versions, while a 6-speed is standard on the top of line 2.7L FX model, A four-speed automatic transmission with Shiftronic was available for 2.0L & 2.7L as well.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: In some markets the model is sold and branded as a Tuscani. For example, in South Korea. The Tuscani wears a circular badge containing a smaller circle of black and grey horizontal bars which is overlaid with a letter 'T' painted gold on the left and silver on the right. Even in markets where the car is sold as a Hyundai Tiburon or Hyundai Coupe, the name Tuscani has become quite popular. Many cars have been modified aftermarket to be rebadged with Tuscani emblems. In Canada, a special edition of the Tiburon is sold as a "Tuscani edition". There was a rumour that Hyundai is considering a plan to branch off the Tuscani name as a complete sub brand for more exclusive, sporty, and upmarket models. The existence of the name is most likely to achieve greater sales where the Hyundai name has cloying associations with more budget products.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: In some markets, the badge was used with the Tiburon name. For example, the photo of the badge is from the front an Australian 2005 model Tiburon TS, which used the badge on the front and rear exterior with the Hyundai logo on the steering wheel.


title: Hyundai Tiburon

text: In some markets secondary badging may denote engine size and variations such as trim, wheel, and other options. These badges include GS, GT, SE and FX, although some use FX across the entire range available. In certain markets, certain exterior colors are not available and identification may require noticing subtle local differences such as alloy wheels, spoilers or dealer fit options such as in car entertainment systems. These can all change from year to year and from market to market, so the variation is quite significant. One notable difference is that the 1.6 engine always has a single exhaust on the right hand side, in all markets where it is sold.


title: Mask

text: A mask is an object normally worn on the face, typically for protection, disguise, performance, or entertainment and often they have been employed for rituals and rights. Masks have been used since antiquity for both ceremonial and practical purposes, as well as in the performing arts and for entertainment. They are usually worn on the face, although they may also be positioned for effect elsewhere on the wearer's body.


title: Mask

text: More generally in art history, especially sculpture, "mask" is the term for a face without a body that is not modelled in the round (which would make it a "head"), but for example appears in low relief.


title: Mask

text: The word "mask" appeared in English in the 1530s, from Middle French "masque" "covering to hide or guard the face", derived in turn from Italian "maschera", from Medieval Latin "masca" "mask, specter, nightmare". This word is of uncertain origin, perhaps from Arabic "maskharah" مَسْخَرَۃٌ "buffoon", from the verb "sakhira" "to ridicule". However, it may also come from Provençal "mascarar" "to black (the face)" (or the related Catalan "mascarar", Old French "mascurer"). This in turn is of uncertain origin – perhaps from a Germanic source akin to English "mesh", but perhaps from "mask-" "black", a borrowing from a pre-Indo-European language. One German author claims the word "mask" is originally derived from the Spanish "más que la cara" (literally, "more than the face" or "added face"), which evolved to "máscara", while the Arabic "maskharat" – referring to the buffoonery which is possible only by disguising the face – would be based on these Spanish roots. Other related forms are Hebrew "masecha"= "mask"; Arabic "maskhara" مَسْخَرَ = "he ridiculed, he mocked", "masakha" مَسَخَ = "he transfomed" (transitive).


title: Mask

text: The use of masks in rituals or ceremonies is a very ancient human practice across the world, although masks can also be worn for protection, in hunting, in sports, in feasts, or in wars – or simply used as ornamentation. Some ceremonial or decorative masks were not designed to be worn. Although the religious use of masks has waned, masks are used sometimes in drama therapy or psychotherapy.


title: Mask

text: One of the challenges in anthropology is finding the precise derivation of human culture and early activities, the invention and use of the mask is only one area of unsolved inquiry. The use of masks dates back several millennia. It is conjectured that the first masks may have been used by primitive people to associate the wearer with some kind of unimpeachable authority, such as a deity, or to otherwise lend credence to the person's claim on a given social role.


title: Mask

text: The oldest masks that have been discovered are 9,000 years old, being held by the Musée "Bible et Terre Sainte" (Paris), and the Israel Museum (Jerusalem). Most probably the practice of masking is much older however – the earliest known anthropomorphic artwork is circa 30,000–40,000 years old. The use of masks is demonstrated graphically at some of these sites. Insofar as masks involved the use of war-paint, leather, vegetative material, or wooden material, such masks failed to be preserved, however, they are visible in paleolithic cave drawings, of which dozens have been preserved. At the neanderthal Roche-Cotard site in France, a flintstone likeness of a face was found that is approximately 35,000 years old, but it is not clear whether it was intended as a mask.


title: Mask

text: In the Greek bacchanalia and the Dionysus cult, which involved the use of masks, the ordinary controls on behaviour were temporarily suspended, and people cavorted in merry revelry outside their ordinary rank or status. René Guénon claims that in the Roman saturnalia festivals, the ordinary roles were often inverted. Sometimes a slave or a criminal was temporarily granted the insignia and status of royalty, only to be killed after the festival ended. The Carnival of Venice, in which all are equal behind their masks, dates back to 1268 AD. The use of carnivalesque masks in the Jewish Purim festivities probably originated in the late 15th century, although some Jewish authors claim it has always been part of Judaic tradition.


title: Mask

text: The North American Iroquois tribes used masks for healing purposes (see False Face Society). In the Himalayas, masks functioned above all as mediators of supernatural forces. Yup'ik masks could be small finger masks, but also masks hung from the ceiling or carried by several people. Masks have been created with plastic surgery for mutilated soldiers.


title: Mask

text: Masks in various forms – sacred, practical, or playful – have played a crucial historical role in the development of understandings about "what it means to be human", because they permit the imaginative experience of "what it is like" to be transformed into a different identity (or to affirm an existing social or spiritual identity). Not all cultures have known the use of masks, but most of them have.


title: Mask

text: Throughout the world, masks are used for their expressive power as a feature of masked performance – both ritually and in various theatre traditions. The ritual and theatrical definitions of mask usage frequently overlap and merge but still provide a useful basis for categorisation. The image of juxtaposed Comedy and Tragedy masks are widely used to represent the Performing Arts, and specifically drama.


title: Mask

text: In many dramatic traditions including the theatre of ancient Greece, the classical Noh drama of Japan (14th century to present), the traditional Lhamo drama of Tibet, Talchum in Korea, and the Topeng dance of Indonesia, masks were or are typically worn by all the performers, with several different types of mask used for different types of character.


title: Mask

text: In Ancient Rome, the word "persona" meant 'a mask'; it also referred to an individual who had full Roman citizenship. A citizen could demonstrate his or her lineage through "imagines", death masks of the ancestors. These were wax casts kept in a "lararium", the family shrine. Rites of passage, such as initiation of young members of the family, or funerals, were carried out at the shrine under the watch of the ancestral masks. At funerals, professional actors would wear these masks to perform deeds of the lives of the ancestors, thus linking the role of mask as a ritual object and in theatre.


title: Mask

text: Masks are a familiar and vivid element in many folk and traditional pageants, ceremonies, rituals, and festivals, and are often of an ancient origin. The mask is normally a part of a costume that adorns the whole body and embodies a tradition important to the religious and/or social life of the community as whole or a particular group within the community. Masks are used almost universally and maintain their power and mystery both for their wearers and their audience. The continued popularity of wearing masks at carnival, and for children at parties and for festivals such as Halloween are good examples. Nowadays these are usually mass-produced plastic masks, often associated with popular films, television programmes, or cartoon characters – they are, however, reminders of the enduring power of pretence and play and the power and appeal of masks.


title: Mask

text: Ritual masks occur throughout the world, and although they tend to share many characteristics, highly distinctive forms have developed. The function of the masks may be magical or religious; they may appear in rites of passage or as a make-up for a form of theatre. Equally masks may disguise a penitent or preside over important ceremonies; they may help mediate with spirits, or offer a protective role to the members of a society who use their powers. Biologist Jeremy Griffith has suggested that ritual masks, as representations of the human face, are extremely revealing of the two fundamental aspects of the human psychological condition: firstly, the repression of a cooperative, instinctive self or soul; and secondly, the extremely angry state of the unjustly condemned conscious thinking egocentric intellect.


title: Mask

text: There are a wide variety of masks used in Africa. In West Africa, masks are used in masquerades that form part of religious ceremonies enacted to communicate with spirits and ancestors. Examples are the masquerades of the Yoruba, Igbo, and Edo cultures, including Egungun Masquerades and Northern Edo Masquerades. The masks are usually carved with an extraordinary skill and variety by artists who will usually have received their training as an apprentice to a master carver – frequently it is a tradition that has been passed down within a family through many generations. Such an artist holds a respected position in tribal society because of the work that he or she creates, embodying not only complex craft techniques but also spiritual/social and symbolic knowledge. African masks are also used in the Mas or Masquerade of the Caribbean Carnival.


title: Mask

text: Djolé (also known as Jolé or Yolé) is a mask-dance from Temine people in Sierra Leone. Males wear the mask, although it does depict a female.


title: Mask

text: Many African masks represent animals. Some African tribes believe that the animal masks can help them communicate with the spirits who live in forests or open savannas. People of Burkina Faso known as the Bwa and Nuna call to the spirit to stop destruction. The Dogon of Mali have complex religions that also have animal masks. Their three main cults use seventy-eight different types of masks. Most of the ceremonies of the Dogon culture are secret, although the antelope dance is shown to non-Dogons. The antelope masks are rough rectangular boxes with several horns coming out of the top. The Dogons are expert agriculturists and the antelope symbolizes a hard-working farmer.


title: Mask

text: Another culture that has a very rich agricultural tradition is the Bamana people of Mali. The antelope (called Chiwara) is believed to have taught man the secrets of agriculture. Although the Dogons and Bamana people both believe the antelope symbolises agriculture, they interpret elements the masks differently. To the Bamana people, swords represent the sprouting of grain.


title: Mask

text: Masks may also indicate a culture's ideal of feminine beauty. The masks of Punu of Gabon have highly arched eyebrows, almost almond-shaped eyes and a narrow chin. The raised strip running from both sides of the nose to the ears represent jewellery. Dark black hairstyle, tops the mask off. The whiteness of the face represents the whiteness and beauty of the spirit world. Only men wear the masks and perform the dances with high stilts despite the fact that the masks represent women. One of the most beautiful representations of female beauty is the Idia's Mask of Benin in present-day Edo State of Nigeria. It is believed to have been commissioned by a king of Benin in memory of his mother. To honor his dead mother, the king wore the mask on his hip during special ceremonies.


title: Mask

text: The Senoufo people of the Ivory Coast represent tranquility by making masks with eyes half-shut and lines drawn near the mouth. The Temne of Sierra Leone use masks with small eyes and mouths to represent humility and humbleness. They represent wisdom by making bulging forehead. Other masks that have exaggerated long faces and broad foreheads symbolize the soberness of one's duty that comes with power. War masks are also popular. The Grebo of the Ivory Coast and Liberia carve masks with round eyes to represent alertness and anger, with the straight nose to represent unwillingness to retreat.


title: Mask

text: Today, the qualities of African art are beginning to be more understood and appreciated. However, most African masks are now being produced for the tourist trade. Although they often show skilled craftsmanship, they nearly always lack the spiritual character of the traditional tribal masks.


title: Mask

text: The variety and beauty of the masks of Melanesia are almost as highly developed as in Africa. It is a culture where ancestor worship is dominant and religious ceremonies are devoted to ancestors. Inevitably, many of the mask types relate to use in these ceremonies and are linked with the activities of secret societies. The mask is regarded as an instrument of revelation, giving form to the sacred. This is often accomplished by linking the mask to an ancestral presence, and thus bringing the past into the present.


title: Mask

text: As a culture of scattered islands and peninsulars, Melanesian mask forms have developed in a highly diversified fashion, with a great deal of variety in their construction and aesthetic. In Papua New Guinea, six-metre-high totem masks are placed to protect the living from spirits; whereas the "duk-duk" and "tubuan" masks of New Guinea are used to enforce social codes by intimidation. They are conical masks, made from cane and leaves.


title: Mask

text: Arctic Coastal groups have tended towards simple religious practice but a highly evolved and rich mythology, especially concerning hunting. In some areas, annual shamanic ceremonies involved masked dances and these strongly abstracted masks are arguably the most striking artifacts produced in this region.


title: Mask

text: Inuit groups vary widely and do not share a common mythology or language. Not surprisingly their mask traditions are also often different, although their masks are often made out of driftwood, animal skins, bones, and feathers. In some areas Inuit women use finger masks during storytelling and dancing.


title: Mask

text: Pacific Northwest Coastal indigenous groups were generally highly skilled woodworkers. Their masks were often master-pieces of carving, sometimes with movable jaws, or a mask within a mask, and parts moved by pulling cords. The carving of masks was an important feature of wood craft, along with many other features that often combined the utilitarian with the symbolic, such as shields, canoes, poles, and houses.


title: Mask

text: Woodland tribes, especially in the North-East and around the Great Lakes, cross-fertilized culturally with one another. The Iroquois made spectacular wooden ‘false face’ masks, used in healing ceremonies and carved from living trees. These masks appear in a great variety of shapes, depending on their precise function.


title: Mask

text: Pueblo craftsmen produced impressive work for masked religious ritual, especially the Hopi and Zuni. The "kachinas", god/spirits, frequently take the form of highly distinctive and elaborate masks that are used in ritual dances. These are usually made of leather with appendages of fur, feathers or leaves. Some cover the face, some the whole head and are often highly abstracted forms. Navajo masks appear to be inspired by the Pueblo prototypes.


title: Mask

text: In more recent times, masking is a common feature of Mardi Gras traditions, most notably in New Orleans. Costumes and masks (originally inspired by masquerade balls) are frequently worn by krewe members on Mardi Gras Day. Laws against concealing one's identity with a mask are suspended for the day.


title: Mask

text: Distinctive styles of masks began to emerge in pre-Hispanic America about 1200 BC, although there is evidence of far older mask forms. In the Andes, masks were used to dress the faces of the dead. These were originally made of fabric, but later burial masks were sometimes made of beaten copper or gold, and occasionally of clay.


title: Mask

text: For the Aztecs, human skulls were prized as war trophies, and skull masks were not uncommon. Masks were also used as part of court entertainments, possibly combining political with religious significance.


title: Mask

text: In post-colonial Latin America, pre-Columbian traditions merged with Christian rituals, and syncretic masquerades and ceremonies, such as All Souls/Day of the Dead developed, despite efforts of the Church to stamp out the indigenous traditions. Masks remain an important feature of popular carnivals and religious dances, such as The Dance of the Moors and Christians. Mexico, in particular, retains a great deal of creativity in the production of masks, encouraged by collectors. Wrestling matches, where it is common for the participants to wear masks, are very popular, and many of the wrestlers can be considered folk heroes. For instance, the popular wrestler El Santo continued wearing his mask after retirement, revealed his face briefly only in old age, and was buried wearing his silver mask.


title: Mask

text: In China, masks are thought to have originated in ancient religious ceremonies. Images of people wearing masks have been found in rock paintings along the Yangtze. Later mask forms brings together myths and symbols from shamanism and Buddhism.


title: Mask

text: "Shigong" dance masks were used in shamanic rituals to thank the gods, while "nuo" dance masks protected from bad spirits. Wedding masks were used to pray for good luck and a lasting marriage, and "Swallowing Animal" masks were associated with protecting the home and symbolised the "swallowing" of disaster. Opera masks were used in a basic "common" form of opera performed without a stage or backdrops. These led to colourful facial patterns that we see in today's Peking opera.


title: Mask

text: Masked characters, usually divinities, are a central feature of Indian dramatic forms, many based on depicting the epics Mahabharata and Ramayana. Countries that have had strong Indian cultural influences – Cambodia, Burma, Indonesia, Thailand, and Lao – have developed the Indian forms, combined with local myths, and developed their own characteristic styles.


title: Mask

text: The masks are usually highly exaggerated and formalised, and share an aesthetic with the carved images of monstrous heads that dominate the facades of Hindu and Buddhist temples. These faces or "Kirtimukhas", 'Visages of Glory', are intended to ward off evil and are associated with the animal world as well as the divine. During ceremonies, these visages are given active form in the great mask dramas of the South and South-eastern Asian region.


title: Mask

text: In Indonesia, the mask dance predates Hindu-Buddhist influences. It is believed that the use of masks is related to the cult of the ancestors, which considered dancers the interpreters of the gods. Native Indonesian tribes such as Dayak have masked Hudoq dance that represents nature spirits. In Java and Bali, masked dance is commonly called "topeng" and demonstrated Hindu influences as it often feature epics such as "Ramayana" and "Mahabharata". The native story of Panji also popular in topeng masked dance. Indonesian topeng dance styles are widely distributed, such as topeng Bali, Cirebon, Betawi, Malang, Yogyakarta, and Solo.


title: Mask

text: Japanese masks are part of a very old and highly sophisticated and stylized theatrical tradition. Although the roots are in prehistoric myths and cults, they have developed into refined art forms. The oldest masks are the "gigaku". The form no longer exists, and was probably a type of dance presentation. The "bugaku" developed from this – a complex dance-drama that used masks with moveable jaws.


title: Mask

text: The "nō" or noh mask evolved from the gigaku and bugaku and are acted entirely by men. The masks are worn throughout very long performances and are consequently very light. The "nō" mask is the supreme achievement of Japanese mask-making. "Nō" masks represent gods, men, women, madmen and devils, and each category has many sub-divisions. "Kyōgen" are short farces with their own masks, and accompany the tragic nō plays. Kabuki is the theatre of modern Japan, rooted in the older forms, but in this form masks are replaced by painted faces.


title: Mask

text: Korean masks have a long tradition associated with shamanism and later in ritual dance. Korean masks were used in war, on both soldiers and their horses; ceremonially, for burial rites in jade and bronze and for shamanistic ceremonies to drive away evil spirits; to remember the faces of great historical figures in death masks; and in the arts, particularly in ritual dances, courtly, and theatrical plays. The present uses are as miniature masks for tourist souvenirs, or on mobile phones, where they hang as good-luck talismans.


title: Mask

text: Theatre in the Middle East, as elsewhere, was initially of a ritual nature, dramatising human relationships with nature, the deities, and other human beings. It grew out of sacred rites of myths and legends performed by priests and lay actors at fixed times and often in fixed locations. Folk theatre – mime, mask, puppetry, farce, juggling – had a ritual context in that it was performed at religious or rites of passage such as days of naming, circumcisions, and marriages. Over time, some of these contextual ritual enactments became divorced from their religious meaning and they were performed throughout the year. Some 2500 years ago, kings and commoners alike were entertained by dance and mime accompanied by music where the dancers often wore masks, a vestige of an earlier era when such dances were enacted as religious rites. According to George Goyan, this practice evoked that of Roman funeral rites where masked actor-dancers represented the deceased with motions and gestures mimicking those of the deceased while singing the praise of their lives (see " Masks in Performance" above).


title: Mask

text: The oldest representations of masks in Europe are animal masks, such as the cave paintings of Lascaux in the Dordogne in southern France. Such masks survive in the alpine regions of Austria and Switzerland, and may be connected with hunting or shamanism. Masks are used throughout Europe in modern times, and are frequently integrated into regional folk celebrations and customs. Old masks are preserved and can be seen in museums and other collections, and much research has been undertaken into the historical origins of masks. Most probably represent nature spirits, and as a result many of the associated customs are seasonal. The original significance would have survived only until the introduction of Christianity, which incorporated many of the customs into its own traditions. In that process their meanings were changed also so, for example, old gods and goddesses originally associated with the celebrations were demonised and viewed as mere devils, or were subjugated to the Abrahamic God.


title: Mask

text: Many of the masks and characters used in European festivals belong to the contrasting categories of the 'good', or 'idealised beauty', set against the 'ugly' or 'beastly' and grotesque. This is particularly true of the Germanic and Central European festivals. Another common type is the Fool, sometimes considered to be the synthesis of the two contrasting types, Handsome and Ugly. Masks also tend to be associated with New Year and Carnival festivals.


title: Mask

text: The debate about the meaning of these and other mask forms continues in Europe, where monsters, bears, wild men, harlequins, hobby horses, and other fanciful characters appear in carnivals throughout the continent. It is generally accepted that the masks, noise, colour, and clamour are meant to drive away the forces of darkness and winter, and open the way for the spirits of light and the coming of spring. In Sardinia existed the tradition of "Mamuthones e Issohadores" of Mamoiada; "Boes e Merdules" of Ottana; "Thurpos" of Orotelli; "S'Urtzu", "Su 'Omadore" and "Sos Mamutzones" of Samugheo.


title: Mask

text: Another tradition of European masks developed, more self-consciously, from court and civic events, or entertainments managed by guilds and co-fraternities. These grew out of the earlier revels and had become evident by the 15th century in places such as Rome and Venice, where they developed as entertainments to enliven towns and cities. Thus the Maundy Thursday carnival in St. Marks Square in Venice, attended by the Doge and aristocracy, also involved the guilds, including a guild of maskmakers. There is evidence of 'commedia dell'arte'-inspired Venetian masks and by the late 16th century the Venetian Carnival began to reach its peak and eventually lasted a whole 'season' from January until Lent. By the 18th century, it was already a tourist attraction, Goethe saying that he was ugly enough not to need a mask. The carnival was repressed during the Napoleonic Republic, although in the 1980s its costumes and the masks aping the 18th century heyday were revived. It appears other cities in central Europe were influenced by the Venetian model.


title: Mask

text: During the Reformation, many of these carnival customs began to die out in Protestant regions, although they seem to have survived in Catholic areas despite the opposition of the ecclesiastical authorities. So by the 19th century, the carnivals of the relatively wealthy bourgeois town communities, with elaborate masques and costumes, existed side by side with the ragged and essentially folkloric customs of the rural areas. Although these civic masquerades and their masks may have retained elements drawn from popular culture, the survival of carnival in the 19th century was often a consequence of a self-conscious 'folklore' movement that accompanied the rise of nationalism in many European countries. Nowadays, during carnival in the Netherlands masks are often replaced with face paint for more comfort.


title: Mask

text: In the beginning of the new century, on 19 August 2004, the Bulgarian archaeologist Georgi Kitov discovered a 673 g gold mask in the burial mound "Svetitsata" near Shipka, Central Bulgaria. It is a very fine piece of workmanship made out of massive 23 karat gold. Unlike other masks discovered in the Balkans (of which three are in Republic of Macedonia and two in Greece), it is now kept in the National Archaeological Museum in Sofia. It is considered to be the mask of a Thracian king, presumably Teres.


title: Mask

text: Masks play a key part within world theatre traditions, particularly non-western theatre forms. They also continue to be a vital force within contemporary theatre, and their usage takes a variety of forms.


title: Mask

text: In many cultural traditions, the masked performer is a central concept and is highly valued. In the western tradition, actors in Ancient Greek theatre wore masks, as they do in traditional Japanese Noh drama. In some Greek masks, the wide and open mouth of the mask contained a brass megaphone enabling the voice of the wearer to be projected into the large auditoria. In medieval Europe, masks were used in mystery and miracle plays to portray allegorical creatures, and the performer representing God frequently wore a gold or gilt mask. During the Renaissance, masques and ballet de cour developed – courtly masked entertainments that continued as part of ballet conventions until the late eighteenth century. The masked characters of the Commedia dell'arte included the ancestors of the modern clown. In contemporary western theatre, the mask is often used alongside puppetry to create a theatre that is essentially visual, rather than verbal, and many of its practitioners have been visual artists.


title: Mask

text: Masks are an important part of many theatre forms throughout world cultures, and their usage in theatre has often developed from, or continues to be part of old, highly sophisticated, stylized theatrical traditions.


title: Mask

text: Masks and puppets were often incorporated into the theatre work of European avant-garde artists from the turn of the nineteenth century. Alfred Jarry, Pablo Picasso, Oskar Schlemmer, other artists of the Bauhaus School, as well as surrealists and Dadaists, experimented with theatre forms and masks in their work.


title: Mask

text: In the 20th century, many theatre practitioners, such as Meyerhold, Edward Gordon Craig, Jacques Copeau, and others in their lineage, attempted to move away from Naturalism. They turned to sources such as Oriental Theatre (particularly Japanese Noh theatre) and commedia dell'arte, both of which forms feature masks prominently.


title: Mask

text: Edward Gordon Craig (1872–1966) in "A Note on Masks" (1910) proposed the virtues of using masks over the naturalism of the actor. Craig was highly influential, and his ideas were taken up by Brecht, Cocteau, Genet, Eugene O'Neill – and later by Arden, Grotowski, Brook, and others who "attempted to restore a ritualistic if not actually religious significance to theatre".


title: Mask

text: Copeau, in his attempts to "Naturalise" actors, decided to use masks to liberate them from their "excessive awkwardness". In turn, Copeau's work with masks was taken on by his students including Etienne Decroux and later, via Jean Daste and Jacques Lecoq. Lecoq, having worked as movement director at Teatro Piccalo in Italy, was influenced by the Commedia tradition. Lecoq met Amleto Satori, a sculptor, and they collaborated on reviving the techniques of making traditional leather Commedia masks. Later, developing Copeau's "noble mask", Lecoq would ask Satori to make him "masques neutre" (the neutral mask). For Lecoq, masks became an important training tool, the neutral mask being designed to facilitate a state of openness in the student-performers, moving gradually on to character and expressive masks, and finally to "the smallest mask in the world" the clown's red-nose. One highly important feature of Lecoq's use of mask, wasn't so much its visual impact on stage, but how it changed the performers movement on stage. It was a body-based approach to mask work, rather than a visually led one. Lecoq's pedagogy has been hugely influential for theatre practitioners in Europe working with mask and has been exported widely across the world. This work with masks also relates to performing with portable structures and puppetry. Students of Lecoq have continued using masks in their work after leaving the school, such as in John Wright's "Trestle Theatre".


title: Mask

text: In America, mask-work was slower to arrive, but the Guerrilla Theatre movement, typified by groups such as the San Francisco Mime Troupe and Bread and Puppet Theatre took advantage of it. Influenced by modern dance, modern mime, Commedia dell'arte and Brecht such groups took to the streets to perform highly political theatre. Peter Schumann, the founder of Bread and Puppet theatre, made particular use of German Carnival masks. Bread and Puppet inspired other practitioners around the world, many of whom used masks in their work. In the US and Canada, these companies include In the Heart of the Beast Puppet and Mask Theater of Minneapolis; Arm-of-the Sea Theatre from New York State; Snake Theater from California; and Shadowland Theatre of Toronto, Ontario. These companies, and others, have a strong social agenda, and combine masks, music and puppetry to create a visual theatrical form. Another route masks took into American Theatre was via dancer/choreographers such as Mary Wigman, who had been using masks in dance and had emigrated to America to flee the Nazi regime.


title: Mask

text: In Europe, Schumann's influence combined with the early avant-garde artists to encourage groups such as Moving Picture Mime Show and Welfare State (both in the UK). These companies had a big influence on the next generation of groups working in visual theatre, including IOU and Horse and Bamboo Theatre, who create a theatre in which masks are used along with puppets, film and other visual forms, with an emphasis on the narrative structure.


title: Mask

text: Masks are also familiar as pieces of kit associated with practical functions, usually protective. There has been a proliferation of such masks recently but there is a long history of protective armour and even medical masks to ward off plague. The contrast with performance masks is not always clear-cut. Ritual and theatrical masks themselves can be considered to be practical, and protective masks in a sports context in particular are often designed to enhance the appearance of the wearer.


title: Mask

text: Protective masks are pieces of kit or equipment worn on the head and face to afford protection to the wearer, and today usually have these functions:


title: Mask

text: In Roman gladiatorial tournaments masks were sometimes used. From archaeological evidence it is clear that these were not only protective but also helped make the wearer appear more intimidating. In medieval Europe and in Japan soldiers and samurai wore similarly ferocious-looking protective armour, extending to face-masks. In the 16th century, the Visard was worn by women to protect from sunburn. Today this function is attributed to thin balaclavas.


title: Mask

text: In sport the protective mask will often have a secondary function to make the wearer appear more impressive as a competitor.


title: Mask

text: Before strong transparent materials such as polycarbonate were invented, visors to protect the face had to be opaque with small eyeslits, and were a sort of mask, as often in mediaeval suits of armour, and (for example) Old Norse "grímr" meant "mask or visor".


title: Mask

text: Masks are sometimes used to avoid recognition. As a disguise the mask acts as a form of protection for the wearer who wishes to assume a role or task without being identified by others.


title: Mask

text: While the niqāb usually shows membership of some Islamic community, its purpose is not to hinder recognition, although it falls under some anti-mask laws such as the French ban on face covering.


title: Mask

text: An interesting example of a sports mask that confounds the protective function is the wrestling mask, a mask most widely used in the Mexican/Latin lucha libre style of wrestling. In modern lucha libre, masks are colourfully designed to evoke the images of animals, gods, ancient heroes, and other archetypes. The mask is considered "sacred" to some degree, placing its role closer to the ritual and performance function.


title: Mask

text: Masks are sometimes used to punish the wearer either by signalling their humiliation or causing direct suffering:


title: Mask

text: Decorative masks may be worn as part of a costume outside of ritual or ceremonial functions. This is often described as a masque, and relates closely to carnival styles. For example, attendants of a costume party will sometimes wear masks as part of their costumes.


title: Mask

text: Several artists in the 20th and 21st century, such as Isamaya Ffrench and Damselfrau, create masks as wearable art.


title: Mask

text: Masks have been used in many horror films to conceal the identities of the killer. Notable examples include Jason Voorhees of the "Friday the 13th" series, Jigsaw Killer from Saw, Ghostface of the "Scream" series, and Michael Myers of the "Halloween" series.


title: 2021 US Open (tennis)

text: The 2021 US Open was the 141st edition of tennis' US Open and the fourth and final Grand Slam event of the year. It was held on outdoor hard courts at the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center in Flushing Meadows, New York City.


title: 2021 US Open (tennis)

text: Daniil Medvedev won the men's singles title. Emma Raducanu won the women's singles title, becoming the first qualifier, male or female, to reach a major final and win a major title.


title: 2021 US Open (tennis)

text: Dominic Thiem and Naomi Osaka were the men's and women's singles defending champions. However, Thiem withdrew from the tournament due to a wrist injury causing him to end his season early. Osaka lost in the third round to Leylah Fernandez.


title: 2021 US Open (tennis)

text: Both Dylan Alcott and Diede de Groot achieved the Golden Slam in wheelchair quad singles and wheelchair women's singles, respectively, by winning all four majors and the Paralympics in 2021. Alfie Hewett and Gordon Reid also achieved the Grand Slam in wheelchair men's doubles by winning all four majors in 2021. Novak Djokovic was attempting to be the first man to complete a calendar Grand Slam in men's singles since Rod Laver in 1969, having won the men's singles tournaments at the 2021 Australian Open, French Open and Wimbledon, but unlike Alcott and de Groot who won the Olympic medal (Djokovic lost to Alexander Zverev in the semifinal for the gold medal match at the Olympics in 2021), he lost to Medvedev in the final.


title: 2021 US Open (tennis)

text: This was the first Major tournament since the 1997 Australian Open not to feature Roger Federer, Rafael Nadal, Serena Williams, or Venus Williams in the main singles draw.


title: 2021 US Open (tennis)

text: The United States Tennis Association allowed the return of spectators after the 2020 tournament was held behind closed doors due to the COVID-19 pandemic in New York. Due to a surge in COVID-19 cases resulting from the delta variant of the virus, spectators had to present a negative COVID-19 test or proof of vaccination in order to be allowed to enter the grounds.


title: 2021 US Open (tennis)

text: The 2021 US Open was the 141st edition of the tournament and took place at the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center in Flushing Meadows–Corona Park of Queens in New York City, United States.


title: 2021 US Open (tennis)

text: The tournament was an event run by the International Tennis Federation (ITF) and part of the 2021 ATP Tour and the 2021 WTA Tour calendars under the Grand Slam category. The tournament consisted of both men's and women's singles and doubles draws, as both doubles draws returned to the standard 64 players, and singles players remained in standard 128-person format in each category. There were also singles and doubles events for both boys and girls (players under 18).


title: 2021 US Open (tennis)

text: The tournament was played on hard courts and took place over a series of 17 courts with Laykold surface, including the three existing main showcourts – Arthur Ashe Stadium, Louis Armstrong Stadium and Grandstand.


title: 2021 US Open (tennis)

text: Wheelchair events were held on September 9 as scheduled. Unlike previous events on scheduling conflicts with the tournament and the Summer Paralympic Games, the 2020 Summer Paralympics (which was delayed from 2020 due to the pandemic) were held during the first week of the tournament.


title: 2021 US Open (tennis)

text: Below is a series of tables for each of the competitions showing the ranking points on offer for each event.


title: 2021 US Open (tennis)

text: The US Open has the richest prize purse of all Grand Slams. The total prize money compensation for the 2021 US Open is $57.5 million.


title: Roquefort

text: Roquefort is a sheep milk cheese from Southern France, and is one of the world's best known blue cheeses. Though similar cheeses are produced elsewhere, EU law dictates that only those cheeses aged in the natural Combalou caves of Roquefort-sur-Soulzon may bear the name Roquefort, as it is a recognised geographical indication, or has a protected designation of origin.


title: Roquefort

text: The cheese is white, tangy, crumbly and slightly moist, with distinctive veins of blue mold. It has a characteristic fragrance and flavor with a notable taste of butyric acid; the blue veins provide a sharp tang. It has no rind; the exterior is edible and slightly salty. A typical wheel of Roquefort weighs between , and is about thick. Each kilogram of finished cheese requires about 4.5 liters of milk to produce. In France, Roquefort is often called the "King of Cheeses" or the "Cheese of Kings", although those names are also used for other cheeses.


title: Roquefort

text: Legend has it that the cheese was discovered when a youth, eating his lunch of bread and ewes' milk cheese, saw a beautiful girl in the distance. Abandoning his meal in a nearby cave, he ran to meet her. When he returned a few months later, the mold ("Penicillium roqueforti") had transformed his plain cheese into Roquefort.


title: Roquefort

text: In 79 AD, Pliny the Elder praised the cheeses of Lozère and Gévaudan and reported their popularity in ancient Rome; in 1737, Jean Astruc suggested that this was a reference to an ancestor of Roquefort. The theory was widely taken up, and by the 1860s was being promoted by the "Société des Caves". Others have dismissed the idea, on the grounds that Pliny does not clearly identify a blue cheese. There is no clear consensus on the meaning of Pliny's description—it has been variously interpreted as a reference to fromage frais, cheese pickled in grape-juice, and even fondue, as well as a reference to Roquefort.


title: Roquefort

text: By the middle ages, Roquefort had become a recognized cheese. On 4 June 1411, Charles VI granted a monopoly for the ripening of the cheese to the people of Roquefort-sur-Soulzon as they had been doing for centuries.


title: Roquefort

text: By 1820, Roquefort was producing 300 tonnes a year, a figure that steadily increased throughout the next century so that by 1914 it was 9,250.


title: Roquefort

text: In 1925, the cheese was the recipient of France's first "Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée" when regulations controlling its production and naming were first defined. In 1961, in a landmark ruling that removed imitation, the "Tribunal de Grande Instance" at Millau decreed that, although the method for the manufacture of the cheese could be followed across the south of France, only those cheeses whose ripening occurred in the natural caves of Mont Combalou in Roquefort-sur-Soulzon were permitted to bear the name Roquefort.


title: Roquefort

text: The mold that gives Roquefort its distinctive character ("Penicillium roqueforti") is found in the soil of the local caves. Traditionally, the cheesemakers extracted it by leaving bread in the caves for six to eight weeks until it was consumed by the mold. The interior of the bread was then dried to produce a powder. In modern times, the mold can be grown in a laboratory, which allows for greater consistency. The mold may either be added to the curd or introduced as an aerosol through holes poked in the rind.


title: Roquefort

text: Roquefort is made entirely from the milk of the Lacaune breed of sheep. Prior to the AOC regulations of 1925, a small amount of cow's or goat's milk was sometimes added. Around of milk is required to make one kilogram of Roquefort.


title: Roquefort

text: The cheese is produced throughout the "département" of Aveyron and part of the nearby "départements" of Aude, Lozère, Gard, Hérault and Tarn.


title: Roquefort

text: , there are seven Roquefort producers. The largest-volume brand by far is made by the "Société des Caves de Roquefort" (a subsidiary of Lactalis), which holds several caves and opens its facilities to tourists, and accounts for around 60% of all production. Roquefort Papillon is also a well-known brand. The five other producers, each holding only one cave, are Carles, , , Vernières and Le Vieux Berger.


title: Roquefort

text: Around three million cheeses were made in 2005 (18,830 tons) making it, after Comté, France's second-most-popular cheese.


title: Roquefort

text: Production of Roquefort cheese entails "4,500 people who herd special ewes on 2,100 farms producing milk ... in a carefully defined oval grazing area across the Larzac Plain and up and down nearby hills and valleys." Total production in 2008 of about 19,000 tons was reported. The proportion of Roquefort exported to the United States remained small, only 450 tons out of 3,700 in total exports. Spain, with purchases of 1,000 tons, was by far the largest foreign customer. In early 2009, Susan Schwab, the then-outgoing US Trade Representative, announced a 300% tariff on the cheese, apparently the highest level by far of any in the package of tariffs placed on dozens of European luxury goods in response to a European ban on hormone-treated US beef. The tariff was suspended several months later as the US and EU settled the dispute.


title: Roquefort

text: The regional cuisine in and around Aveyron includes many Roquefort-based recipes for main-course meat sauces, savory tarts and quiches, pies, and fillings.


title: Roquefort

text: Contrary to popular belief, "Penicillium roqueforti" does not produce penicillin. However, due to the presence of other anti-inflammatory proteins, it was common in country districts for shepherds to apply this cheese to wounds to avoid gangrene.


title: Roquefort

text: The regulations that govern the production of Roquefort have been laid down over a number of decrees by the INAO. These include:


title: Roquefort

text: According to a 2012 study, Roquefort contains anti-inflammatory compounds. A study from 2013 found that proteins from Roquefort cheese inhibit chlamydia propagation and LPS (lipopolysaccharide) leukocyte migration.


title: New York's 14th congressional district

text: New York's 14th congressional district is a congressional district for the United States House of Representatives located in New York City, represented by Democrat Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez.


title: New York's 14th congressional district

text: The district includes the eastern part of The Bronx and part of north-central Queens. The Queens portion includes the neighborhoods of College Point, Corona, East Elmhurst, Elmhurst, Jackson Heights, and Woodside. The Bronx portion of the district includes the neighborhoods of City Island, Country Club, Van Nest, Morris Park, Parkchester, Pelham Bay, Schuylerville, and Throggs Neck. Roughly half of the population of the district is of Hispanic or Latino heritage, making it one of the more Latino districts in New York. Before redistricting for the 2012 election, much of the area was in New York's 7th congressional district.


title: New York's 14th congressional district

text: During the 1970s, this area was the ; in the 1980s it was the . The district was a Brooklyn-based seat until 1982 when it became the Staten Island district. In 1992 it became the East Side of Manhattan district, which for most of its existence had been the . In 2012, the district shifted to the former territory of the 7th district in Queens and the Bronx. From 2003 to 2013, the district encompassed much of what is now New York's 12th congressional district, including Central Park and the East Side of Manhattan; all of Roosevelt Island; and the neighborhoods of Astoria, Long Island City, and Sunnyside in Queens.


title: New York's 14th congressional district

text: Note that in New York State electoral politics there are numerous minor parties at various points on the political spectrum. Certain parties will invariably endorse either the Republican or Democratic candidate for every office, hence the state electoral results contain both the party votes, and the final candidate votes (Listed as "Recap").


title: Thiagarajan Kumararaja

text: Thiagarajan Kumararaja is an Indian film director and screenwriter. He made his feature film debut with the critically acclaimed neo-noir gangster film "Aaranya Kaandam" (2011), which earned him the Indira Gandhi Award for Best Debut Film of a Director at the 59th National Film Awards.


title: Thiagarajan Kumararaja

text: Thiagarajan Kumararaja was born and raised in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. His parents thought he would pick up bad habits if he stepped out, so he stayed mostly at home. He likes books of Sujatha, Rajesh Kumar, Kovi Manisekaran & Sandilyan. But the real entertainment was the bus ride from his home in Porur to Santhome Higher Secondary School. He used to stand next to the driver, observing the driver. "I wanted to be a PTC bus driver," he says. At the Class XII failed in Mathematics subject. On his words "If I didn’t like the teacher, I wouldn’t study."


title: Thiagarajan Kumararaja

text: He enrolled for a Visual Communications course at the Loyola College, Chennai, but dropped out shortly after to make films. Kumararaja cited that it was composer Ilaiyaraaja's music that animated him to come to films and to study Visual Communications in the first place. However, he discontinued his studies in 1998 and started to work as a freelance copywriter and photographer for a while. He went on to shoot advertisement films and also directed a five-part documentary on South Indian Temples, "Sthala Puranam" for Vijay TV. In 2005, he participated at the one-minute film competition "60 Seconds to Fame" by Ability Foundation, aiming for the prize money. His short film "Becky" was awarded the first prize at the Ability Fest 2005. Kumararaja then collaborated with Pushkar-Gayathri, writing the dialogue of their directorial debut "Oram Po" (2007). He also wrote song lyrics for their second project "Va" (2010) as well. Through Pushkar-Gayathri, Kumararaja met S. P. B. Charan, who agreed to produce his first feature film "Aaranya Kaandam".


title: Thiagarajan Kumararaja

text: Kumararaja began writing his maiden film in December 2006. Although he had wanted to make a "racy film" – he wrote the climax part first, before going on to add multiple storylines – he said that the film had eventually turned out to be a "leisurely paced film, taking its own time to unfold". Kumararaja met Charan in January 2007 and narrated him the script for two hours. Filming was supposed to commence by late 2007, but Charan opted to produce another film first. "Aaranya Kaandam" was launched in December 2008, starring Ravi Krishna and Sampath Raj, with Bollywood actor Jackie Shroff, who was being introducing to Tamil films. Kumararaja took more than one and a half years to complete the film, which was entirely shot in and around Chennai. Upon completion, the film ran into trouble when the regional censor board in Chennai refused to clear it, demanding 52 cuts due to profanity and excessive violence. Kumararaja expressed that he made the film for a matured audience and not for children, while adding that he expected difficulties in the censorship. Since he wanted to present the film uncompromisingly to the audiences, he and Charan approached the Central Tribunal at Delhi, that cleared the film. Dubbed as the first neo-noir film in Tamil cinema, "Aaranya Kaandam" opened to strong critical acclaim, winning the Grand Jury Award for Best Film at the 2010 South Asian International Film Festival, and two prizes at the 59th National Film Awards, including the Indira Gandhi Award for Best Debut Film of a Director for Kumararaja.


title: Thiagarajan Kumararaja

text: In 2015, he was involved as a script consultant for the Tamil film "Yennai Arindhaal", which was co-written and directed by Gautham Vasudev Menon.


title: Mahavishnu Orchestra

text: The Mahavishnu Orchestra were a jazz fusion band formed in New York City in 1971, led by English guitarist John McLaughlin. The group underwent several line-up changes throughout its history across its two periods of activity, from 1971 to 1976 and from 1984 to 1987. With its first line-up consisting of musicians Billy Cobham, Jan Hammer, Jerry Goodman, and Rick Laird, the band received its initial acclaim for its complex, intense music consisting of a blend of Indian classical music, jazz, and psychedelic rock as well as its dynamic live performances between 1971 and 1973. Many members of the band have gone on to acclaimed careers of their own in the jazz and jazz fusion genres.


title: Mahavishnu Orchestra

text: By mid-1971, McLaughlin had been a member of Miles Davis' band and Tony Williams' Lifetime, and released three solo albums. He then set about forming his own jazz fusion group, the first line-up of which featured Panamanian drummer Billy Cobham, Irish bassist Rick Laird, Czech keyboardist Jan Hammer, and American violinist Jerry Goodman. Cobham and Goodman had played on McLaughlin's third solo album "My Goal's Beyond" (1971). McLaughlin's first choice for violinist was Frenchman Jean-Luc Ponty, but he was unable to join due to immigration problems. After listening to various albums he hired Goodman, formerly of The Flock. Though American bassist Tony Levin was the first person McLaughlin wanted, Laird had known McLaughlin for several years and accepted the invitation. Hammer was found through a mutual friendship with Miroslav Vitous of the jazz fusion group Weather Report. The group's name originates from Indian spiritual leader and guru Sri Chinmoy, of whom McLaughlin had become a follower, who gave him the name Mahavishnu, "Maha" meaning "great" in Sanskrit and "vishnu" after the Hindu deity Vishnu.


title: Mahavishnu Orchestra

text: With the line-up secured, the five met in New York City in July 1971 and rehearsed for one week. They adopted an instrumental fusion sound characterised by electric rock, funk, complex time signatures, and arrangements influenced by McLaughlin's interest in Indian classical music. Their debut gigs followed at the Gaslight at the Au Go Go as the opening act for bluesman John Lee Hooker. McLaughlin recalled: "The first set was shaky but the second set just took off and every night it was great. They wanted to hold us over and a few days after the second week ... we went into the studio". McLaughlin secured a record deal with Columbia Records, giving the green light to record an album.


title: Mahavishnu Orchestra

text: "The Inner Mounting Flame" was released in November 1971, peaking at No. 11 on the "Billboard" Jazz Albums and No. 89 on the "Billboard" 200. This was followed by "Birds of Fire" (1973). Due to the pressures of sudden fame, exhaustion and a lack of communication, the original band began to tire. The stress was further exacerbated by problematic recording sessions in June 1973 at London's Trident Studios that found some of the players not speaking to others. Their project was never fully completed. Cobham was disappointed and felt that the group "were knocking on the door of something really new. Something unique, something that had never been done before in rock and roll." This was followed by the release of their first live album "Between Nothingness & Eternity", which featured material from the Trident sessions.


title: Mahavishnu Orchestra

text: Later in 1973, Hammer and Goodman expressed their frustrations about McLaughlin's leadership in an interview for "Crawdaddy" magazine. An attempt was made to improve group relations by having each member introduced as they walked on stage, and tunes by Hammer, Laird, and Goodman mixed into the live set. It was not enough, however, and the five played their final gig on December 30. According to Laird, the band did not say goodbye to each other afterward. In January 1974, McLaughlin split the group. Laird spoke about the group weeks later, claiming that despite McLaughlin's having composed most of the group's tunes, the rest of the band contributed "a great deal" and did not receive credit. He was also critical of Cobham's claim that the group had rejected his musical ideas, and that Hammer, Goodman, and Laird pushed to have their songs performed because of "an ego trip".


title: Mahavishnu Orchestra

text: After the original group dissolved, it reformed in 1974 with a new cast of musicians behind McLaughlin: Jean-Luc Ponty (who had performed with Frank Zappa and the Mothers of Invention) on violin, Gayle Moran on keyboards, Ralphe Armstrong on bass, and Narada Michael Walden on percussion, Steven Kindler and Carol Shive on violin, Marcia Westbrook on viola, Phil Hirschi on cello, Steve Frankevich and Bob Knapp on brass. This "new" Mahavishnu Orchestra (which McLaughlin has reportedly called the "real" Mahavishnu Orchestra) changed personnel slightly between 1974's "Apocalypse" and "Visions of the Emerald Beyond" in 1975. "Apocalypse" was recorded in London with the London Symphony Orchestra under the direction of Michael Tilson Thomas, with George Martin producing and Geoff Emerick engineering the sessions. The band was then reduced to a four-piece for 1976's "Inner Worlds", with Jean-Luc Ponty leaving after a heated disagreement about writing credits on the "Visions" album, and Gayle Moran being replaced with Stu Goldberg. Ponty would later settle over the royalties for the tracks "Pegasus" and "Opus 1" for an undisclosed amount of money.


title: Mahavishnu Orchestra

text: After the dissolution of this version of the Orchestra, McLaughlin formed another group called Shakti to explore his interest in Indian music; following that, he went on to form other bands including the One Truth Band and the Translators, and a guitar trio with Al Di Meola and flamenco guitarist Paco de Lucía.


title: Mahavishnu Orchestra

text: In 1984, McLaughlin reformed the Mahavishnu Orchestra with Bill Evans on saxophones, Jonas Hellborg on bass, Mitchel Forman on keyboards, and original member Billy Cobham on drums. Cobham participated in the sessions for their self-titled 1984 album, but was replaced by Danny Gottlieb for live work, and Jim Beard replaced Mitchel Forman for the latter period of this band's life. This band's overall sound was different from the original Mahavishnu Orchestra, in particular because of McLaughlin's extensive use of the Synclavier synthesizer system.


title: Mahavishnu Orchestra

text: McLaughlin then worked with a number of incarnations of the John McLaughlin Guitar Trio, all of which featured Trilok Gurtu on percussion, and, at various times, Jeff Berlin, Kai Eckhardt, and Dominique di Piazza on bass. He then formed the Free Spirits, a guitar, organ and drums trio, with Joey DeFrancesco on Hammond organ and trumpet, and Dennis Chambers on drums, as well as touring and recording again with Al Di Meola and Paco de Lucía.


title: Mahavishnu Orchestra

text: Billy Cobham went on to perform as a solo artist, recording many albums including "Total Eclipse", "Crosswinds" and "Spectrum", and toured with the "Billy Cobham & George Duke Band" for many years. Jan Hammer went on to collaborate with Jeff Beck (together with Narada Michael Walden) in Beck's acclaimed album "Wired" and also recorded a live album with Beck. He released several solo albums and composed the theme and incidental music for the hit 1980s TV show, "Miami Vice". Jerry Goodman recorded the album "Like Children" with Mahavishnu keyboard alumnus Jan Hammer. Starting in 1985 he recorded three solo albums for Private Music and went on tour with his own band, as well as with Shadowfax and the Dixie Dregs. Rick Laird played with Stan Getz and Chick Corea as well as releasing one solo LP, "Soft Focus", but retired from the music business in 1982. He had worked both as a bass teacher and photographer since then. He died on July 4, 2021, at the age of 80.


title: Mahavishnu Orchestra

text: Mahavishnu Orchestra has been cited as an influence on many bands of different genres. Greg Ginn, guitarist and main composer of hardcore punk band Black Flag, cited their early records which inspired him to record more progressive guitar work and even record instrumental albums. There has been a resurgence of interest in the Mahavishnu Orchestra in recent years, with bands like The Mars Volta, Opeth, Black Midi, and the Dillinger Escape Plan, naming them as an influence. Jon Fishman, the drummer for Phish has also cited them as an influence. There have been no less than five major tribute recordings released. In addition, a book "Power, Passion and Beauty: The Story of the Legendary Mahavishnu Orchestra" by Walter Kolosky (AbstractLogix Books) has been published. It contains interviews with all of the band’s members and quotes obtained specifically for the book from many famous admirers such as Jeff Beck, Pat Metheny, the artist Peter Max, Bill Bruford and many more. The Mahavishnu Orchestra have also been sampled in contemporary music, most notably by Massive Attack on their track "Unfinished Sympathy", which sampled "Planetary Citizen", resulting in the band's being sued by Ralphe Armstrong, who received a healthy out-of-court settlement. "You Know, You Know" was sampled on Massive Attack's "One Love" and Mos Def's "Kalifornia."


title: Barrister Babu

text: Barrister Babu is an Indian Hindi-language social drama television series that premiered February 11, 2020 on Colors TV and ended on November 12, 2021. It was produced by Shashi Sumeet Productions. It starred Pravisht Mishra as Anirudh and Anchal Sahu / Aurra Bhatnagar Badoni as Bondita . The series revolves around Anirudh Roy Choudhary, a young London-educated Gold medalist barrister, and his inquisitive child bride, Bondita Das. Anirudh fights the oppressive and patriarchal society to educate Bondita to become a barrister.


title: Barrister Babu

text: Set in the pre-independence era in rural Bengal, Aniruddh Roy Choudhary, a 22-year-old barrister, returns from London to Tulsipur, a village where his family practices zamindari, to eliminate customs and societal beliefs which prevent the progress of women. He is set to marry his childhood sweetheart, Saudamini Bhaumik. Meanwhile, Bondita Das is a 8-year-old (about to turn nine) Bengali Hindu girl, who lives with her widowed mother Sumati, maternal uncle Sundaram, aunt Devoleena, and cousin Sampoorna. While Sampoorna was getting married to Aniruddh's best-friend Saurabh, Sundaram and Devoleena decided to have Bondita marry an elderly man, to get money for Sampoorna's dowries. On wedding day, Aniruddh come across Bondita's child marriage, with a groom around the age of her grandfather, and revolts against it. He even seeks help from the authorities to stop the unfair marriage but faces resistance. However, the marriage never took place, as the elderly man suddenly dies midway through rituals. But the man's relatives and other attendees consider the marriage to be properly completed and hence, declares Bondita to be the widow, and sets her to become a part of "Sati". Aniruddh pledges to save Bondita to Sumati. When all his other attempts to do so are in vain, he marries her as a last resort, which saves her life. Confused himself, Aniruddh brings Bondita to his home, where his family is shocked to find him married. Soon, Saudamini also learn about the marriage and eventually, plots to separate Aniruddh and Bondita. Aniruddh's father, Binoy, who wanted Aniruddh to settle in London and practice profession there, supports Saudamini in her evil attempts, believing she can make his dream come true if Aniruddh marries her. Aniruddh sees Bondita as his responsibility rather than wife.


title: Barrister Babu

text: After initial confusion, Aniruddh's uncle, Trilochan, accepts Bondita, to save their family reputations and starts to prepare her as Roy Choudharys' daughter-in-law. Bondita's first problem in her new in-laws' home was due to her drenching bed at night, which was caused by traumatization after she saw her father die from snakebite before her eyes. With Aniruddh's help, Bondita overcomes this problem. She eventually impresses Trilochan, and he becomes fond of her.


title: Barrister Babu

text: A con man named Brijwasi Babu, pretending to be Lord Krishna devotee, arrives in Tulsipur. After overhearing a conversation between Bondita and Sampoorna, he traps Bondita into aiding him in his scheme to deceit people and take money from them. As the fraud runs away, Bondita is exposed as his accomplice. Aniruddh thinks Bondita did this intentionally and sends her back to her mother, where people mistreat her and even tries to kill her as she is perceived ominous for being left by her husband. Soon Devoleena sells Bondita to a brothel in Calcutta owned by a woman named Tara Bai. Aniruddh learns about Bondita's mistreatments and rushes to bring her back but is too late as she has already been taken to the brothel. Aniruddh manages to track her to Calcutta into Tara Bai's brothel and attempts to rescue her, only to get beaten up by Tara Bai's men and stabbed by Tara Bai herself. Saurabh saves dying Aniruddh in time. Aniruddh returns to the brothel with Saurabh, disguised this time, and rescues Bondita and all the other girls of the brothel.


title: Barrister Babu

text: Meanwhile, Trilochan discovers Saudamini's evil plots. To save herself from being exposed, she pushes him, resulting in his paralysis due to head injuries. After Aniruddh and Bondita returns home, Aniruddh also discovers Saudamini's plans and exposes her. She is expelled from Roy Choudhary mansion, while Bondita cures Trilochan and is finally embraced by everyone in Roy Choudhary family.


title: Barrister Babu

text: Aniruddh decides to admit Bondita to school but required permission from the chief of village as there were no girls' school in the village. Aniruddh goes to seek permission from him, a British officer, Sir John Greenwood, along with Binoy and Trilochan who also come to apply for a factory and to inform that farmers of the village do not want to cultivate indigoes. They are all surprised to see Saudamini as Sir Greenwood's newly wedded wife with a new identity of "Betty" and realises that she has smartly tricked her husband to be impressed with her, marry her and hate the Roy Choudharys, to avenge her insults and expulsion from their house. Sir Greenwood insults them in front of his guests, and eventually challenges Aniruddh to a competition, with conditions that if he loses, he'd permit Bondita to go to school and resign from his position, so they can build their factory and the farmers do not have to cultivate indigoes anymore, but if Aniruddh lost, he must relinquish his Barrister degree and his family and become Greenwood's slave for the rest of his life. Aniruddh accepts the challenge and recruits the girls he rescued from the brothel for his team, while Greenwood recruits some of the most talented and intelligent boys in the arena. Aniruddh prepares the girls himself and they manage to win the competition, overcoming many traps set by Saudamini.


title: Barrister Babu

text: After his defeat, Sir Greenwood leaves Tulsipur forever. When Saudamini wanted to accompany him, he insults her and verbally declares separation with her. Seeking revenge, she kidnaps and locks Bondita in a chemical factory. After Aniruddh's attempt to save her goes in vain, Saurabh successfully saves her, but dies himself during the attempt. Aniruddh gets Saudamini arrested on charges of murder and attempted murder. Blaming Aniruddh for the death of his son, Saurabh's father Premlal, who worked for Trilochan, attempts to murder him, by setting up a little girl to pretend to be Aniruddh's late mother Shubhra's reincarnation. However, Bondita realises and exposes his plot in time, and Premlal is also sent to prison.


title: Barrister Babu

text: Meanwhile, Devoleena and Sundaram cleverly traps and insists Binoy to marry widowed Sampoorna. After marriage, Sampoorna eventually turns against Bondita and starts creating problem in her life, including once taking advantage of her menarche.