title: Killer Croc

text: While institutionalized in Arkham, Killer Croc meets Sybil Silverlock, a woman with dissociative identity disorder. He bonds with her softer personality, and she shows him a picture of her daughter, Olive. Sybil has him promise to look after Olive if he ever gets out. After the destruction of Arkham Asylum, Killer Croc escapes and travels to Gotham Academy, where he watches over Olive, and tells her about her mother, who was rendered comatose by the asylum's destruction. After Batman confronts them, Olive and Killer Croc escape to a swamp. Before parting, he tells her that, if she is like her mother, to come and find him one day.


title: Killer Croc

text: He recently helped Harley Quinn and her friends fight a gang of other Batman villains in Coney Island.


title: Killer Croc

text: In the pages of "DC Rebirth" with the Suicide Squad, Killer Croc and the Squad go on a mission to retrieve a "cosmic item" from a Russian undersea prison, revealed to be a portal to the Phantom Zone, and come face-to-face with General Zod. He attacks the Squad and, when spotting Zod about to kill June Moone/Enchantress, Croc saves her just in time. After the mission, back in their cells, June Moone and Croc have a heartfelt conversation and embrace each other. Killer Croc and June Moone enjoy New York City and decide to explore their romance in the future. Croc encourages her to try, but later expresses fear and sheds tears that he will lose her if she is able to achieve her dream. Enchantress's rampage in New York City lasts until it is revealed that it is an editor from a magazine company who rejected June. After being convinced by Croc to reevaluate her, he decided to give her some freelance work. Moved by Waylon's actions, June reigns in the Enchantress and thanks her love for helping her.


title: Killer Croc

text: Wall escapes the battle after downloading the file. Two days later in the cell, Croc mourns, and breaks down in tears over June Moone's "death", as Rick told him that June Moone is the only one who did not see him as monstrous. He eventually leaves the Squad.


title: Killer Croc

text: In Harley Quinn's series, Killer Croc joined the Penguin's plans to take over New York, but went off on his own to take Coney Island, revealing that he was on display there in a freak show as a kid driving out the other villains. After it was all torn down, Harley convinced him to join her side and help take it all back from the Penguin.


title: Killer Croc

text: Killer Croc, now just going by Waylon has taken over Tusk's hotel in Monster Town, granting second chances to any monster in need.


title: Killer Croc

text: In "Joker War" event tie-in Croc has enough after Joker and his goons made their way to Monstertown and tore it to pieces. He decided to create a new one in the sewers of Gotham, hoping that he and the others would be left alone. He also explained how his mutated friends came to be. Croc wants to bring others down to the sewers for protection from the war above. Batman attempts to warn Croc of the dangers of the chemicals in the water, but, unfortunately, Croc doesn’t believe him. He orders his team to kill Batman. After making a deal with Batman, they fight and lose. Croc and his gang settled in their cells. He promises them the best of care, including a reversal of their conditions, if a cure can be found.


title: Killer Croc

text: In "infinite Frontier", Croc along with Firefly, Knockout and Cheshire are brought on by Clayface potential allies seeking a second chance bring them together to defend the Allytown. Eventually they have success and begin to repair the damage.


title: Killer Croc

text: Killer Croc's backstory explains that he was born with a condition resembling epidermolytic hyperkeratosis, a disfiguring skin disorder. However, it is actually a form of regressive atavism, meaning that he has inherited traits of ancestral species of the human race, such as reptiles. This condition has been augmented by the presence of a metagene. Consequently, he has several extraordinary physical abilities relating to his endurance, speed, and strength, making him able to lift up to two tons.


title: Killer Croc

text: His skin is hardened to the degree that it is nearly impenetrable to ordinary forms of abrasion, including high caliber weapons fired from a distance. He also possesses an extraordinary amount of super-strength; for example, he was able to tear a bank vault door off of its hinges with minimal effort. He has demonstrated regenerative powers, allowing him to heal and restore lost limbs and teeth. He possesses superhuman reflexes and speed, especially while he is moving underwater. He can also see through his crocodile eyelids. Killer Croc also has an enhanced sense of smell. Once he has become familiar with a person's scent, he can track them from miles away. As his appearance and personality has grown more and more bestial, his misanthropy has increased dramatically. He is jealous and hateful of "normal" people and often lashes out violently without provocation. As a result of these feelings of jealousy, Croc will often entertain himself by grabbing hold of small, pointy objects as a source of comfort.


title: Killer Croc

text: Croc's main weakness is consistently portrayed in most adaptations, aside from "The Batman" series, as being his low intellect. He typically resorts to brute force to solve most problems, allowing Batman to outmaneuver him in combat by thinking his way through the problems he faces in defeating the powerful Croc. Batman regularly describes his foe as an animal rather than a man. He acts almost solely on instinct and hardly ever takes the time to plan or rationalize his actions. This is a departure from his initial portrayal, where he was shown to be a ruthless and intelligent criminal who was able to plot his ascent from henchman to The Squid to perhaps the most powerful force in Gotham organized crime before being defeated by the Batman.


title: Killer Croc

text: In recent years, Killer Croc has been portrayed as being much more reptilian than in past incarnations. An action figure made by Kenner in 1998 featured a tail and dinosaur-like feet. When Mattel got the license to make DC products in the early 2000s, they released their own version of Killer Croc, sculpted by Four Horsemen Studios. This version also featured a tail and dinosaur feet. In late 2005, a re-release of this figure was modified so that the tail, along with his shirt, was removed. This version also sports a more "human" head.


title: Killer Croc

text: The 2002-2003 "Batman" storyline "" featured a more bestial Croc who had been mutated against his will to appear more reptilian. This version of the character was drawn by artist Jim Lee. In "The New 52", he is shown to have a crocodile-like head, though how this came to be has not yet been revealed. Such a design had previously appeared in "Red Hood and the Outlaws", drawn by Kenneth Rocafort.


title: Killer Croc

text: A number of alternate universes in DC Comics publications allow writers to introduce variations on Killer Croc, in which the character's origins, behavior, and morality differ from the mainstream setting.


title: Killer Croc

text: Killer Croc appears in the "" series, primarily voiced by Steve Blum while Khary Payton voices a younger version in "". This version is physically larger than most traditional depictions, retains his cannibalistic nature, and possesses a healing factor that allows him to regenerate lost limbs, but mutates him further. He appears as a boss in "", "Arkham Origins", and "", as well as "" via DLC, and makes a minor appearance in "".


title: Sneeze

text: A sneeze (also known as sternutation) is a semi-autonomous, convulsive expulsion of air from the lungs through the nose and mouth, usually caused by foreign particles irritating the nasal mucosa. A sneeze expels air forcibly from the mouth and nose in an explosive, spasmodic involuntary action. This action allows for mucus to escape through the nasal cavity. Sneezing is possibly linked to sudden exposure to bright light, sudden change (fall) in temperature, breeze of cold air, a particularly full stomach, exposure to allergens, or viral infection. Because sneezes can spread disease through infectious aerosol droplets, it is recommended to cover one's mouth and nose with the forearm, the inside of the elbow, a tissue or a handkerchief while sneezing. In addition to covering the mouth, looking down is also recommended in order to change the direction of the droplets spread and avoid high concentration in the human breathing heights.


title: Sneeze

text: The function of sneezing is to expel mucus containing foreign particles or irritants and cleanse the nasal cavity. During a sneeze, the soft palate and palatine uvula depress while the back of the tongue elevates to partially close the passage to the mouth, creating a venturi (similar to a carburetor) due to Bernoulli's principle so that air ejected from the lungs is accelerated through the mouth and thus creating a low pressure point at the back of the nose. This way air is forced in through the front of the nose and the expelled mucus and contaminants are launched out the mouth. Sneezing with the mouth closed does expel mucus through the nose but is not recommended because it creates a very high pressure in the head and is potentially harmful.


title: Sneeze

text: Sneezing cannot occur during sleep due to REM atonia – a bodily state where motor neurons are not stimulated and reflex signals are not relayed to the brain. Sufficient external stimulants, however, may cause a person to wake from sleep to sneeze, but any sneezing occurring afterwards would take place with a partially awake status at minimum.


title: Sneeze

text: Sneezing typically occurs when foreign particles or sufficient external stimulants pass through the nasal hairs to reach the nasal mucosa. This triggers the release of histamines, which irritate the nerve cells in the nose, resulting in signals being sent to the brain to initiate the sneeze through the trigeminal nerve network. The brain then relates this initial signal, activates the pharyngeal and tracheal muscles and creates a large opening of the nasal and oral cavities, resulting in a powerful release of air and bioparticles. The powerful nature of a sneeze is attributed to its involvement of numerous organs of the upper body – it is a reflexive response involving the face, throat, and chest muscles.


title: Sneeze

text: The neural regions involved in the sneeze reflex are located in the brainstem along the ventromedial part of the spinal trigeminal nucleus and the adjacent pontine-medullary lateral reticular formation. This region appears to control the epipharyngeal, intrinsic laryngeal and respiratory muscles, and the combined activity of these muscles serve as the basis for the generation of a sneeze.


title: Sneeze

text: The sneeze reflex involves contraction of a number of different muscles and muscle groups throughout the body, typically including the eyelids. The common suggestion that it is impossible to sneeze with one's eyes open is, however, inaccurate. Other than irritating foreign particles, allergies or possible illness, another stimulus is sudden exposure to bright light – a condition known as photic sneeze reflex (PSR). Walking out of a dark building into sunshine may trigger PSR, or the ACHOO (autosomal dominant compulsive helio-ophthalmic outbursts of sneezing) syndrome as it's also called. The tendency to sneeze upon exposure to bright light is an autosomal dominant trait and affects 18-35% of the human population. A rarer trigger, observed in some individuals, is the fullness of the stomach immediately after a large meal. This is known as snatiation and is regarded as a medical disorder passed along genetically as an autosomal dominant trait.


title: Sneeze

text: While generally harmless in healthy individuals, sneezes spread disease through the infectious aerosol droplets, commonly ranging from 0.5 to 5 µm. A sneeze can produce 40,000 droplets. To reduce the possibility of thus spreading disease (such as the flu), one holds the forearm, the inside of the elbow, a tissue or a handkerchief in front of one's mouth and nose when sneezing. Using one's hand for that purpose has recently fallen into disuse as it is considered inappropriate, since it promotes spreading germs through human contact (such as handshaking) or by commonly touched objects (most notably doorknobs).


title: Sneeze

text: Until recently, the maximum visible distance over which the sneeze plumes (or puffs) travel was observed at , and the maximum sneeze velocity derived was 4.5 m/s (about 10 mph). In 2020, sneezes were recorded generating plumes of up to .


title: Sneeze

text: Proven methods to reduce sneezing generally advocate reducing interaction with irritants, such as keeping pets out of the house to avoid animal dander; ensuring the timely and continuous removal of dirt and dust particles through proper housekeeping; replacing filters for furnaces and air-handling units; air filtration devices and humidifiers; and staying away from industrial and agricultural zones. Tickling the roof of the mouth with the tongue can stop a sneeze. Some people, however, find sneezes to be pleasurable and would not want to prevent them.


title: Sneeze

text: Holding in sneezes, such as by pinching the nose or holding one's breath, is not recommended as the air pressure places undue stress on the lungs and airways. One computer simulation suggests holding in a sneeze results in a burst of air pressure of 39 kPa, approximately 24 times that of a normal sneeze.


title: Sneeze

text: In Ancient Greece, sneezes were believed to be prophetic signs from the gods. In 401 BC, for instance, the Athenian general Xenophon gave a speech exhorting his fellow soldiers to fight against the Persians. A soldier underscored his conclusion with a sneeze. Thinking that this sneeze was a favorable sign from the gods, the soldiers were impressed. Another divine moment of sneezing for the Greeks occurs in the story of Odysseus. His waiting wife Penelope, hearing Odysseus may be alive, says that he and his son would take revenge on the suitors if he were to return. At that moment, their son sneezes loudly and Penelope laughs with joy, reassured that it is a sign from the gods (Odyssey 17: 541-550). It may be because this belief survived through the centuries, that in certain parts of Greece today, when someone is asserting something and the listener sneezes promptly at the end of the assertion, the former responds "bless you and I am speaking the truth", or "bless you and here is the truth" ("", "ya sou ki alithia leo", or "", "ya sou ke na ki i alithia"). A similar practice is also followed in India. If either the person just having made a not most obvious statement in Flemish, or some listener sneezes, often one of the listeneners will say "It is beniesd", literally "It's sneezed upon", as if a proof of truth – usually self-ironically recalling this old superstitious habit, without either suggesting doubt or intending an actual confirmation, but making any apology by the sneezer for the interruption superfluous as the remark is received by smiles.


title: Sneeze

text: In Europe, principally around the early Middle Ages, it was believed that one's life was in fact tied to one's breath – a belief reflected in the word "expire" (originally meaning "to exhale") gaining the additional meaning of "to come to an end" or "to die". This connection, coupled with the significant amount of breath expelled from the body during a sneeze, had likely led people to believe that sneezing could easily be fatal. Such a theory could explain the reasoning behind the traditional English phrase, "God bless you", in response to a sneeze, the origins of which are not entirely clear (see "Traditional Responses To A Sneeze" below for alternative explanations). Sir Raymond Henry Payne Crawfurd, for instance, the registrar of the Royal College of Physicians, in his 1909 book, "The Last Days of Charles II", states that, when the controversial monarch was on his deathbed, his medical attendants administered a concoction of cowslips and extract of ammonia to promote sneezing. However, it is not known if this promotion of sneezing was done to hasten his death (as "coup de grâce") or as an ultimate attempt at treatment.


title: Sneeze

text: In certain parts of Eastern Asia, particularly in Chinese culture, Korean culture, Japanese culture and Vietnamese culture, a sneeze without an obvious cause was generally perceived as a sign that someone was talking about the sneezer at that very moment. This can be seen in the "Book of Songs" (a collection of Chinese poems) in ancient China as early as 1000 BC, and in Japan this belief is still depicted in present-day manga and anime. In China, Vietnam, South Korea, and Japan, for instance, there is a superstition that if talking behind someone's back causes the person being talked about to sneeze; as such, the sneezer can tell if something good is being said (one sneeze), someone is thinking about you (two sneezes in a row), even if someone is in love with you (three sneezes in a row) or if this is a sign that they are about to catch a cold (multiple sneezes).


title: Sneeze

text: Parallel beliefs are known to exist around the world, particularly in contemporary Greek, Slavic, Celtic, English, French, and Indian cultures. Similarly, in Nepal, sneezers are believed to be remembered by someone at that particular moment.


title: Sneeze

text: In English, the onomatopoeia for sneezes is usually spelled 'achoo' and it is similar to that of different cultures.


title: Sneeze

text: In Indian culture, especially in northern parts of India, Bengali (Bangladesh and Bengal of India) culture and also in Iran, it has been a common superstition that a sneeze taking place before the start of any work was a sign of impending bad interruption. It was thus customary to pause in order to drink water or break any work rhythm before resuming the job at hand in order to prevent any misfortune from occurring.


title: Sneeze

text: Contrarily, in Polish culture, especially in the Kresy Wschodnie borderlands, a popular belief persists that sneezes may be an inauspicious sign that, depending on the local version, either someone unspecified or one's mother-in-law speaks ill of the person sneezing at that moment. In other regions, however, this superstition concerns hiccups rather than sneezing. As with other Catholic countries, such as Mexico, Italy, or Ireland, the remnants of pagan culture are fostered in Polish peasant idiosyncratic superstitions.


title: Sneeze

text: The practice among Islamic culture, in turn, has largely been based on various prophetic traditions and the teachings of the prophet Muhammad. An example of this is Al-Bukhaari's narrations from Abu Hurayrah that Muhammad once said:


title: Sneeze

text: "When one of you sneezes, let him say, "Al-hamdu-Lillah"" (Praise be to God)", and let his brother or companion say to him, "Yarhamuk Allah"" (May God have mercy on you)". If he says, "Yarhamuk-Allah", then let [the sneezer] say, "Yahdeekum Allah wa yuslihu baalakum"" (May God guide you and rectify your condition)"."


title: Sneeze

text: In English-speaking countries, one common verbal response to another person's sneeze is "[May God] bless you".


title: Sneeze

text: Another less common verbal response in the United States and Canada to another's sneeze is ""Gesundheit"", which is a German word that means, appropriately, "good health".


title: Sneeze

text: Several hypotheses exist for why the custom arose of saying "bless you" or "God bless you" in the context of sneezing:


title: Sneeze

text: Some people may sneeze during the initial phases of sexual arousal. Doctors suspect that the phenomenon might arise from a case of crossed wires in the autonomic nervous system, which regulates a number of functions in the body, including "waking up" the genitals during sexual arousal. The nose, like the genitals, contains erectile tissue. This phenomenon may prepare the vomeronasal organ for increased detection of pheromones.


title: Sneeze

text: A sneeze has been compared to an orgasm, since both orgasms and sneeze reflexes involve tingling, bodily stretching, tension and release. On this subject, sexologist Vanessa Thompson from the University of Sydney states, "Sneezing and orgasms both produce feel-good chemicals called endorphins but the amount produced by a sneeze is far less than an orgasm."


title: Sneeze

text: According to Dr. Holly Boyer from the University of Minnesota, there is a pleasurable effect during a sneeze, where she states, "the muscle tension that builds up in your chest causes pressure, and when you sneeze and the muscles relax, it releases pressure. Anytime you release pressure, it feels good...There's also some evidence that endorphins are released, which causes your body to feel good". Endorphins induce the brain's reward system, and because sneezes occur in a quick burst, so does the pleasure.


title: Sneeze

text: Sneezing is not confined to humans or even mammals. Many animals including cats, dogs, chickens and iguanas sneeze. African wild dogs use sneezing as a form of communication, especially when considering a consensus in a pack on whether or not to hunt. Some breeds of dog are predisposed to reverse sneezing.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 9)

text: The ninth series of "The Great British Bake Off" began on 28 August 2018, with this being the second series to be broadcast on Channel 4. The series is presented by Noel Fielding and Sandi Toksvig, with judges Paul Hollywood and Prue Leith. This series saw a few changes to the usual format: the first episode being Biscuit Week (the previous 8 series began with a Cake Week), the documentary inserts were dropped, and the finale included the competitors doing a technical challenge outside the tent for the first time.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 9)

text: Breaking with tradition, this year the series kicked off with biscuit week. For the first challenge of the series, the bakers were tasked to bake 24 regional biscuits that needed to be all identical, and said something about them and a place in the British Isles. For the first technical challenge of this series, they are tasked to make one of Paul's childhood favourites - Wagon Wheels. Finally, for the showstopper, the bakers had to create a spectacular 3D biscuit self-portrait that needed to be constructed with layers of biscuits and judged while placed upright on an easel stand.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 9)

text: For their signature bakes, the bakers were required to create a traybake sliced into 16 identical pieces. The technical challenge was set by Prue, which featured a cake with an unusual ingredient: Le Gâteau Vert, one of French painter Claude Monet's favourite birthday treats. The cake featured a pistachio genoise sponge sandwiched by a pistachio Crème au Beurre and covered by a green fondant coloured by spinach. For the showstopper, the bakers were required to create a technically demanding chocolate collar cake, featuring at least two tiers.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 9)

text: For their signature bakes the bakers had three hours to create a British classic: 12 Chelsea buns. In the technical challenge the bakers, using Paul's recipe, were tasked to make a batch of 8 grilled non-yeasted garlic naan breads, brushed with garlic ghee and topped with coriander, in only one hour. Finally, for their 5-hour showstopper, the bakers were asked to create a three-tiered Korovai, elaborately decorated for a celebratory occasion; most of the bakers chose the traditional wedding theme.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 9)

text: At the start of this episode, it was announced that Terry was not able to compete this week due to illness. But, with the agreement of all, he would be allowed to come back to the competition the following week. For their signature bakes, the bakers were required to create a meringue roulade. For their technical challenge, using Prue's recipe, the bakers were tasked to produce a raspberry blancmange served with 12 Langues de Chat biscuits. For their showstoppers, the bakers were tasked to create a spectacular melting chocolate ball dessert: a chocolate sphere which would be melted away with a hot sauce, revealing the dessert hidden inside. After the three challenges, Briony and Karen were left as the bottom two. However, nobody was eliminated this week, as the judges deemed it would be unfair to send anyone home with Terry's absence. However, this meant two bakers would be eliminated the following week.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 9)

text: For the signature challenge, the bakers were tasked to bake a ginger cake. For the technical challenge, using Paul's recipe, the bakers must create a batch of 12 Ma'amoul, an ancient pastry from the Middle East that none of the bakers had heard of. In the batch, 6 of the ma'amoul must be filled with walnuts and shaped with a mould, and the other 6 must be filled with a date paste and decorated by pinching the dough with ma'amoul tongs. For their showstoppers, the bakers were tasked to create a beautiful, gravity-defying spiced biscuit chandelier. Prue was unwell during the showstoppers round, and as a result, Paul was left as the solo judge.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 9)

text: For the signature challenge, the bakers were tasked to make 12 samosas, in which 6 must be savoury and the other 6 must be sweet. The samosas must also be served with a dip to complement them. The technical challenge was set by Prue, and the bakers were required to make 6 Puits D'amour, meaning "well of love". For the showstopper challenge, the bakers were tasked to create a shaped banquet pie that would be beautifully decorated enough to act as a centrepiece at a Tudor banquet.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 9)

text: The remaining six bakers were required in the signature challenge to make eight savoury vegan tartlets of two different fillings using shortcrust pastry that contained no butter or eggs. For the technical challenge, using Prue's recipe, the bakers were tasked to make a vegan tropical fruit pavlova using aquafaba in place of egg whites to create the meringue. For the showstopper, the bakers were tasked to create a beautiful vegan celebratory cake.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 9)

text: In the quarterfinal signature challenge, the final five bakers were tasked to make a rye bread and make two types of "Smørrebrød" using it. For the technical challenge, the bakers were instructed to make 14 "Æbleskiver" containing a cinnamon and apple filling, and served with a strawberry jam dipping sauce. For the showstopper challenge, the bakers were required to make a kagemand or a kagekone, a traditional Danish birthday cake made from Danish pastry that resembles a boy or a girl. The bakers' kagemand/kagekone must be based on someone the bakers recognised and they must use at least three different confectionery making skills within it.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 9)

text: In the Pâtisserie semifinal signature challenge, the bakers were tasked to make 24 dipped Madeleines in two designs and flavours, in 90 minutes. For the technical challenge, the bakers tackled Prue's complex recipe for Torta Setteveli, a seven-layered cake containing two light chocolate genoise sponges, hazelnut bavarois, crunchy praline base and a chocolate mousse, topped with a chocolate mirror glaze, to be completed in four 1/2 hours. For the penultimate showstopper challenge, the bakers created a Parisian pâtisserie window containing 36 pâtisserie in three types: choux pastry, and puff pastry mille-feuille, in five hours.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 9)

text: For the final signature challenge, the last three bakers were required to make 12 iced doughnuts of two types, filled and ring, in three hours. The technical challenge was another Bake Off first, where the bakers were asked to carry out the challenge outside the tent. Using Paul's recipe, the bakers needed to produce 6 pita breads in 90 minutes, to be served with three different dips: baba ghanoush, smoked garlic salsa verde and burnt pepper salsa, using the open campfire set up outside. For the final showstopper, the bakers were asked to create an incredible landscape dessert with at least three different elements within it, in four and a half hours. During the showstopper, one of Rahul's storage glass jars exploded under the intense heat, which resulted in shards of broken glass shattered all over his bench and potentially contaminated his bakes. This required cleaning up from the production team. As a result, he was given an extra 15 minutes for the challenge.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 9)

text: The Great Christmas Bake Off featured Liam Charles (Series 8), Flo Atkins (Series 8), Andrew Smyth (Series 7) and Jane Beedle (Series 7). The special was won by Jane Beedle.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 9)

text: The Great Festive Bake Off featured the return of winner Candice Brown (Series 7), Steven Carter-Bailey (Series 8), Tamal Ray (Series 6) and Kate Henry (Series 5). The special was won by Steven Carter-Bailey.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 9)

text: For the signature challenge, the bakers were asked to create a dozen of iced biscuits based on the theme of The Twelve Days of Christmas, which can be the bakers' own personal interpretation. The technical challenge was set by Paul, where the bakers were tasked to produce 6 Icelandic Laufabrauð in 1 1/4 hours. The final showstopper challenge gave the bakers four hours to make a cake in the shape of a Christmas present that reveals a spectacular hidden design when cut open.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 9)

text: The returning bakers were tasked to bake an iced stollen wreath for their signature challenge in only three hours. The technical challenge was set by Prue, who asked the bakers to make 4 snow eggs crowned with delicate spun sugar cages. For the final showstopper challenge, the bakers were tasked to make a 3D New Year's Resolution Cake, where all decorations must be edible.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 9)

text: The final was watched by an overnight viewing audience figure of 7.5 million, down from the previous final of 7.7 million and the lowest since 2012. The ratings below are cumulative figures over longer periods, and they include multiple-screen viewing figures (on TV, computer, tablet and smartphone), the first year this system was implemented, and the figures are therefore slightly higher than it would have been without the multiple-screen viewing figures.


title: Pat Buttram

text: Maxwell Emmett "Pat" Buttram (June 19, 1915 – January 8, 1994) was an American character actor. Buttram was known for playing the sidekick of Gene Autry and for playing the character of Mr. Haney in the television series "Green Acres". He had a distinctive voice that, in his own words, "never quite made it through puberty."


title: Pat Buttram

text: Buttram was born on June 19, 1915, in Addison, Alabama, to Wilson McDaniel Buttram, a Methodist minister, and his wife Mary Emmett Maxwell. He had an older brother, Augustus McDaniel Buttram, and five other elder siblings. When "Pat" Buttram was a year old, his father was transferred to Nauvoo, Alabama. Buttram graduated from Mortimer Jordan High School, then located in Morris, Alabama, then entered Birmingham–Southern College to study for the Methodist ministry.


title: Pat Buttram

text: Buttram performed in college plays and on a local radio station, then became a regular on the "National Barn Dance" broadcast on WLS (AM) in Chicago. He also had his own program on CBS.


title: Pat Buttram

text: Buttram went to Hollywood in the 1940s and became a sidekick to Roy Rogers. However, because Rogers already had two regulars, Buttram was dropped.


title: Pat Buttram

text: He was then picked by Gene Autry, recently returned from his World War II service in the U.S. Army Air Corps, to work with him. Buttram co-starred with Autry in more than 40 films and in over 100 episodes of Autry's television show. Buttram's first Autry film was "The Strawberry Roan" in 1948. In the late 1940s, Buttram joined Autry on his radio show "Melody Ranch" and then on television with "The Gene Autry Show". During the first television season, Buttram went by Pat or Patrick, with a variety of last names. From the second season forward, he used his own name.


title: Pat Buttram

text: Buttram also played Mr. Eustace Haney in the 1965–1971 television comedy "Green Acres". He did voice work for several Disney animated features, playing Napoleon (hound dog) in "The Aristocats", the Sheriff of Nottingham (a wolf) in "Robin Hood", Luke (muskrat) in "The Rescuers", Chief (hunting dog) in "The Fox and the Hound", and one of the Toon bullets in "Who Framed Roger Rabbit". He had a recurring role as the voice of Cactus Jake on "Garfield and Friends". One of his later roles was a cameo in "Back to the Future Part III". His final voice-over was "A Goofy Movie", released a year after his death. Buttram is credited as one of the writers on the "Hee Haw" television show for two episodes in 1969 and 1970.


title: Pat Buttram

text: Buttram made the oft-quoted observation about the 1971 "rural purge", in which CBS canceled many programs with a rural theme or setting: "CBS canceled everything with a tree in it – including "Lassie"," referring to the cancellations of "Green Acres", "The Beverly Hillbillies" and "Petticoat Junction".


title: Pat Buttram

text: In 1936, Buttram married Dorothy McFadden. The couple adopted a daughter but divorced in 1946. In 1952, he married actress Sheila Ryan; the marriage ended with her death in 1975. They had a daughter named Kathrine (nicknamed Kerry), born in 1954. Buttram retired from acting in 1980 and made his home in his native Winston County, Alabama. However, he returned to California, where he made frequent personal appearances.


title: Pat Buttram

text: Buttram was a staunch Republican who helped Ronald Reagan spice up his speeches with political quips. In 1993, Buttram expressed surprise that with the inauguration of Bill Clinton and Al Gore as president of the United States and vice president of the United States, respectively, so many Hollywood actors were "taken with that whole country-boy image they tried to project". According to his niece Mary Buttram Young, "Uncle Pat would always say 'I'm from Alabama – I can see right through that'."


title: Pat Buttram

text: Buttram died in 1994 at the age of 78 of kidney failure at the UCLA Medical Center in Los Angeles. He is interred at the cemetery at the Maxwell Chapel United Methodist Church in the Pebble community near Haleyville, Alabama.


title: Pat Buttram

text: In 1988, Buttram was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and one on the "Alabama Stars of Fame" in Birmingham, Alabama.


title: Liam Lawson

text: Liam Lawson (born 11 February 2002) is a New Zealand motor racing driver set to compete in the 2023 Super Formula Championship with Team Mugen. Lawson, who is mentored by three-time New Zealand Grand Prix winner Ken Smith, previously competed for the Carlin team in the FIA Formula 2 Championship. He is a previous Toyota Racing Series champion and member of the Red Bull Junior Team, In 2021, he also raced for the Red Bull AF Corse team in the Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters, partnering Alex Albon, narrowly missing out on the championship in the last round.


title: Liam Lawson

text: Born in Hastings but raised in Pukekohe, Lawson began karting at the age of seven, competing in numerous championships across New Zealand, including two karting titles in 2014. Each year he returns to the Kartsport Auckland Go Kart Club just off the State Highway 1 on Rosebank Road, Avondale and competes in the big City of Sails race on Auckland Anniversary Weekend according to Speedhive myLaps, the transponder company that was used.


title: Liam Lawson

text: In 2015, Lawson made his single-seater debut in the Formula First Manfeild Winter Series with Sabre Motorsport, taking a win and ten podiums to finish second overall. A few months later, he joined Sabre to contest the NZ Formula First championship, taking a win and three podiums on his way to sixth in the championship and the Rookie of the Year title. The following year, Lawson graduated to the NZ F1600 Championship Series. There he dominated proceedings, claiming fourteen of the fifteen victories on offer to become the youngest champion in not just the series' history, but the youngest ever Formula Ford champion in world at the time.


title: Liam Lawson

text: In 2017, Lawson moved up to the Australian F4 championship with BRM, taking five wins to finish as vice-champion in only his rookie season. The following year, Lawson remained at Formula 4 level, moving across to contest the ADAC Formula 4 championship with Van Amersfoort Racing and received backing from Turner's, the New Zealand used car network that had previously sponsored IndyCar champion Scott Dixon. Claiming three wins and three pole positions, Lawson's performances saw him claim his second consecutive F4 vice-champion position, behind Lirim Zendeli.


title: Liam Lawson

text: In November 2018, Lawson joined M2 Competition for the 2019 championship. Lawson dominated on debut at Highlands, taking 2 races wins by over nine-seconds each and won the Dorothy Smith Memorial Trophy as a result of winning Race 3. Claiming three additional wins across the season, Lawson secured the title at the New Zealand Grand Prix after a season long battle with Ferrari junior and fellow countryman Marcus Armstrong.


title: Liam Lawson

text: Lawson had been set to join the inaugural season of the Formula European Masters with Motopark, alongside fellow Red Bull Junior Yuki Tsunoda, but followed the German outfit to the Euroformula Open Championship when Formula European Masters was cancelled due to a lack of entrants. Lawson won the opening races at Paul Ricard, and also in Pau. He would go on to take two more victories to become runner-up to Marino Sato. He did however, win the rookies' championship.


title: Liam Lawson

text: In November 2018, Lawson competed in the season finale of the Asian F3 championship with Irish outfit Pinnacle Motorsport. He proceeded to dominate the weekend, taking all wins, fastest laps and pole positions on offer to finish eighth in the championship.


title: Liam Lawson

text: In March 2019, Lawson joined MP Motorsport to contest the inaugural championship, alongside Richard Verschoor and Simo Laaksonen. His debut at Barcelona, did not go well, qualifying lowest of the MP Motorsport drivers before suffering a throttle motor failure in Race 1. The second round at Paul Ricard went much better, with him scoring his first points in ninth place in Race 1 and then improving to fifth place in Race 2. The Red Bull Ring round was rather forgetful, taking 14th and 25th. An impressive qualifying saw him at Silverstone in seventh, and in Race 1 Lawson dropped back to eighth. It gave him reverse pole for Race 2. Lawson held the lead for nearly half race distance before being overtaken by Leonardo Pulcini and Robert Shwartzman, eventually finishing third. This gave him and MP Motorsport's first podium of the season. Following that, Lawson did not score at all at both the Hungary and Spa-Francorchamps rounds. At Monza, Lawson he claimed 13th. However, he managed to progress up to seventh in Race 1, giving him a front row start for Race 2. At the start, Lawson dropped to fourth after being passed by Jake Hughes and fellow Red Bull junior Yuki Tsunoda. A few laps later, he was able to pass polesitter Fabio Scherer and later re-pass Hughes. Lawson would eventually finish second behind Tsunoda, taking his second podium of the season, earning another breakthrough. Starting 23th for the final round at Sochi, Lawson only improved to 18th in Race 1. He charged back to eighth, stealing a point after overtaking Max Fewtrell and Christian Lundgaard on the last lap. Overall, Lawson was the highest scoring MP Motorsport driver with 41 points and scoring all two of the team's podiums. He finished 11th in the championship.


title: Liam Lawson

text: Just two weeks after the final round, Lawson was announced to compete at that year's Macau Grand Prix, remaining with MP Motorsport. Lawson qualified 15th, but in the qualification race slipped back to 20th. What follows was a storming drive, eventually coming through to finish seventh.


title: Liam Lawson

text: The following year for the 2020 season, Lawson switched to Hitech Grand Prix, joining fellow Red Bull Junior Dennis Hauger and Max Fewtrell. Lawson qualified 12th in the Austrian race, and charged to sixth. Race 2 was much better though, improving to third. He then passed Clément Novalak and David Beckmann to move into the race lead. Despite a last minute charge from ex-teammate Richard Verschoor, Lawson managed to hold on and grab his maiden victory in the series. For the 2nd Austrian round, Lawson qualified tenth. In treacherous wet conditions in Race 1 he managed an eighth place. Starting third for Race 2, Lawson remained in the position until lap 4, where he made the double pass on Jake Hughes and Théo Pourchaire. Lawson and Hughes would then be involved in a race-long battle, constantly trading first and second with each other. On lap 21, the battle would finally come to a stop as Lawson and Hughes collided, ending both their races and handing the win to Pourchaire. A double retirement for Lawson at Hungary followed. Lawson started in eleventh, but a chaotic start saw him up to fourth within a handful of corners. Lawson's race would end on lap 5, with fire pouring out of his car prompting to his retirement. In Race 2, Lawson lost power on lap 8 and retired with an engine issue.


title: Liam Lawson

text: Lawson would then score in every race for the rest of the year. In Silverstone, Lawson missed out on a pole by 0.058s to Logan Sargeant. He would turn it around, overtaking Sargeant on the outside of Stowe corner on the opening lap. Midway through the race, he would be fend off Oscar Piastri to take his second win. In Race 2, Lawson finished seventh. For the 2nd Silverstone round, Lawson again qualified second, also behind Sargeant. Unfortunately, he was unable to repeat his previous success, this time being passed by Hughes at the start. He would end up in third, and despite the result, he stated that "the pace wasn't dissimilar" compared to his winning pace a week before. Lawson narrowly missed a podium in the second race going wide battling with Pourchaire at the penultimate corner and getting pipped by David Beckmann losing out on fourth by 0.019s. Lawson had another great qualifying in third for Barcelona, despite an engine issue likely preventing his chances for pole. Lawson stayed in third until the third last lap, where he overtook Sargeant to finish second. Lawson claimed seventh for Race 2 and his consistent podium scoring elevated him to third place in the championship.


title: Liam Lawson

text: Lawson qualified seventh in Spa-Francorchamps. He eventually finished ninth after being passed by Olli Caldwell on the penultimate lap. Starting second in Race 2, he had a torrid start, falling to fifth by the first lap, and soon sixth. But he charged back to third, including a late pass on Pourchaire. Lawson initially qualified fourth in Monza. However, following numerous penalties from other drivers saw him inherit pole position. Lawson survived an attack from the start by Matteo Nannini, but he came out with damage to his car following contact with Nannini. Lawson eventually conceded the lead to Pourchaire on lap 4. His race started going downhill from that point, eventually finishing sixth. Lawson took the Race 2 lead on lap 8, squabbling with Lirim Zendeli. But just two laps later, he was passed by Hughes. Lawson crossed the line in second, but after the race, he was demoted ten seconds for forcing Zendeli off-track, and was re-classified seventh. For the Mugello season finale, Lawson qualified a poor 13th but was promoted to 11th. In Race 1, he lingered in 11th for most of the race, until lap 17 where he passed Jack Doohan. In Race 2, Lawson led a dominant lights-to-flag victory, winning by eight seconds. Overall, Lawson finished fifth in the championship with 143 points. He claimed six podiums including three wins and a fastest lap throughout the season.


title: Liam Lawson

text: In December 2017, Lawson partook in the Mazda Road to Indy Shootout, finishing as the fastest driver but losing out on the scholarship to Ireland's Keith Donegan.


title: Liam Lawson

text: Lawson competed in the 2021 DTM, driving a Red Bull-sponsored Ferrari for the AF Corse team alongside F1 reserve driver Alex Albon. He was taking part in the DTM concurrently with his first Formula 2 season.


title: Liam Lawson

text: On 19 June 2021, Lawson won the opening race of the 2021 DTM in Monza, becoming the youngest-ever race winner in the series. After a spin in the second Monza race cost him a points finish, he finished second in both races at the Lausitzring in the next round, where he was leading the second race until a problem in the pits cost him a win.


title: Liam Lawson

text: After failing to score points in three of the four races in the next two rounds, he got his second victory in the DTM on 4 September 2021 in the first race of the fifth round at the Red Bull Ring, which also marked the first time he started a DTM race from pole position. The following day, he went on to claim his third victory in the DTM by winning the second race at the Red Bull Ring after starting from second position.


title: Liam Lawson

text: After four podium finishes and a fourth-place finish in the next five races, Lawson qualified on pole position for the final race of the season at the Norisring. Prior to the start of the race, he was leading the drivers' championship by 19 points ahead of Kelvin van der Linde in second and 22 points ahead of Maximilian Götz in third, respectively. However, Lawson's car was damaged in a first-lap collision with van der Linde, which left him lapping 20 seconds off the pace after re-joining the race. Towards the end of the race, Mercedes gave team orders to Lucas Auer, who dominated the race, and Philip Ellis to allow Götz to claim the lead and secure his third win of the season, which put him three points ahead of Lawson in the final standings for the drivers' championship. After the race, Lawson was visibly disappointed with his second-place finish in the drivers' championship. He said he was "pushed off" by van der Linde and called the South African "the dirtiest guy [he's] ever raced against." Van der Linde was given a five-second penalty for the manoeuvre, prior to receiving a puncture in another battle with Götz in the closing stages of the race.


title: Liam Lawson

text: Lawson took part in the 2020 post-season testing with Hitech Grand Prix. On 15 January 2021, Lawson was announced to be competing in the 2021 FIA Formula 2 Championship with them alongside Jüri Vips. Lawson qualified eighth at the opening round in Bahrain. During the first sprint race, Lawson made a good start, straightaway taking the lead from David Beckmann and Théo Pourchaire. Towards the last few laps Jehan Daruvala closed on him but Lawson was able to fend off him and thus take his maiden win on his debut. On his win, Lawson described that "[Daruvala] was a lot faster, I thought he was going to get me". However, it would be turned around in the second sprint. Lawson made good progress initially, avoiding the chaos at the start and moving up to third by Lap 5. However on Lap 15, Felipe Drugovich and Christian Lundgaard caught Lawson, in which Drugovich collided and spun him, taking him out. Lawson finished on the podium once again in third, after passing Richard Verschoor on the last lap. Lawson sat 2nd in the championship, but the weekend would turn out to be the best of the season. Lawson qualified 12th at Monaco, and made up to ninth in Sprint Race 1. Starting first after Marcus Armstrong was unable to take the grid, Lawson was overtaken by Oscar Piastri. On Lap 5, Lawson was able to get back past Piastri, making a heroic overtake on him at La Rascasse. Lawson would go on to dominate and win by seven seconds. Heartbreakingly, he was later stripped of his victory for using a prohibited throttle map at the start of the race, handing the win to Dan Ticktum. Lawson later described his disqualification as "hard to swallow". Lawson ended his disappointing weekend in seventh in the feature race.


title: Liam Lawson

text: Lawson took his maiden pole position at the third round in Baku, forming a Hitech front row lockout. However, the first sprint race quickly ended for Lawson, when Piastri put Lawson into the wall, damaging the suspension. Lawson demonstrated a fightback in the second sprint, up to 11th on lap 4. More incidents ahead followed, and Lawson was up in sixth. However, he had to change the brake bias in the car on lap 12, losing places to Ticktum and Piastri. Despite that, Lawson passed Piastri on the very next lap to finish seventh. In the feature race, Lawson was overtaken by Jüri Vips at the first corner. He then aggressively defended against Théo Pourchaire pushing him off-track leading to a 10 second time penalty for Lawson. He put up a small charge, eventually finished sixth. Lawson qualified 11th in Silverstone, one place off reverse pole. Lawson made up positions at the start of the first sprint to finish seventh. During the second sprint, Lawson ran in fourth for majority of the race before being passed by Piastri on lap 18 of 21, eventually finishing fifth. In the feature race, Lawson had a poor race only finishing in 11th where he started.


title: Liam Lawson

text: In Monza, Lawson qualified fourth. Starting seventh for the first sprint, Lawson was up in fourth after Ticktum and Drugovich collided, However, on lap 5 while battling for third with Pourchaire, Lawson damaged his front wing and was forced to pit. He made another comeback, finishing fifth thanks to mishaps and a penalty for drivers ahead of him. Lawson drove another good race in the second sprint, finishing fourth after a late move on David Beckmann. Lawson made a superior start in the feature race, passing Jehan Daruvala and Guanyu Zhou on the first lap to second. While pitting under the safety car, Lawson was held up in the pit lane and fell back to net fourth place. On lap 22, just as he was about to overtake Daruvala, a power loss saw Lawson pull out of the race and prevent him from another point-scoring finish. Lawson qualified eighth at Sochi Autodrom. While running in third in the first sprint, Lawson damaged his rear-left suspension against the wall, ending his race. Lawson finished seventh in the feature race after a slow start.


title: Liam Lawson

text: Lawson qualified tenth at the Jeddah Corniche Circuit and started from reverse pole in the first sprint. But into the first corner, he was out dragged by fellow kiwi Marcus Armstrong. Despite a late charge, Lawson was unable to overtake him and had to settle for second, taking his first podium since the Bahrain round. Lawson was set for a top 10 finish in the second sprint, but on the third last lap, crashed out. He finished the aborted feature race in ninth. Lawson qualified seventh for the season finale at Yas Marina. Starting fourth for the first sprint, Lawson made up a position on Ticktum to third, but eventually finished fifth after being overtaken by both Prema cars. Lawson finished sixth in the second sprint after a late pass on Daruvala. On the first lap of the feature race, Lawson spun as Jack Doohan ahead spun out of the race, but fortunately Lawson only lost a position. While running in eighth in the dying moments of the race, Lawson was forced to park his car with an engine issue. Overall, Lawson finished ninth in the championship, with 103 points. During his maiden campaign, he scored one win and three podiums.


title: Liam Lawson

text: On 14 January 2022, Lawson announced that he would race for Carlin in the 2022 season alongside American Logan Sargeant.


title: Liam Lawson

text: Lawson qualified sixth for his first race for Carlin at Bahrain. In the sprint race he achieved a third placed podium after passing Ralph Boschung late in the race. He made up a position during the start of the feature race, and when leaders where faced with obstacles on their own, Lawson kept his nose clean to take second place. Following the round, Lawson said that he was "more comfortable" in F2 following his dual campaign with DTM in 2021. Lawson qualified fifth in Jeddah and would start the sprint race in the same position. After race leader Dennis Hauger made an error going through the pitlane during the safety car, Lawson was promoted to the podium places. As soon as the safety car was withdrawn, Lawson quickly overtook Calan Williams and later Jake Hughes to take his first win of the season and second overall. Lawson was set to continue his podium streak running in third during the feature race, but a loose front-left wheel after his pitstop forced him to retire just before the exit of the pitlane. Despite that, he remained second in the championship.


title: Liam Lawson

text: Lawson had a below par qualifying in Imola, qualifying only 14th. He made a great start, moving up to tenth. He then overtook Ayumu Iwasa and then gained a position following Boschung's retirement, stealing a point in eighth. In the feature race, Lawson was set for more points, until the safety car was brought out on lap 6, which destroyed his pit strategy as he started on hards. Running in 13th after his pit stop, his steering wheel broke, slamming him into the wall and ending his race, in what was to be a frustrating weekend. Lawson once again qualifying poorly, this time even lower in 16th. He had an electric start in the sprint race, but missed points in 9th. Lawson had another good feature race start, making up seven positions at the start. After the round of pit stops, Lawson sat sixth, but with drivers behind on fresher tyres, fell to ninth at the flag.


title: Liam Lawson

text: At the Monaco round, Lawson soared to his first pole of the year. However, his lap was deleted and was relegated to fifth place after failing to slow during yellow flags. Additionally, Lawson was given a 5-place grid drop for the sprint race to start 11th. The rest of his weekend was uneventful, he gained a point in the sprint race with eighth. His car then stalled on the grid during the feature race and he would eventually retire with engine issues while running 12th. In Baku, Lawson secured second place in qualifying, behind former teammate Jüri Vips. In the sprint race, Lawson had a quiet race until the safety car restart on lap 19, where he moved from seventh to third within a minute. He would claim third place and his first podium since the second round. In the feature race, a messy pit stop saw Lawson lose a few places. Following a safety car restart, Lawson was hit from behind by Jack Doohan, which punctured Lawson's tyre and was forced back to the pits. He would finish 15th.


title: Liam Lawson

text: In Silverstone, Lawson secured fifth in qualifying. He made contact with another rival during the sprint race, sustaining front wing damage. He was forced to pit for repairs and finished 20th. In the feature race, Lawson overtook Felipe Drugovich and Frederik Vesti at the start to move into third, and stayed in that position to take another podium. For the Red Bull Ring round, Lawson qualified 14th. He stalled on the starting grid for the sprint race, and his day got worse as his car suffered problems to pull him out of the race. In the feature race, Lawson made the right call to put slick tyres at the start and it rewarded him with tenth place and a solitary point.


title: Liam Lawson

text: In Paul Ricard, Lawson ranked ninth in qualifying. Starting second in the sprint race, he was overtaken by Marcus Armstrong at the start but quickly dispatched him on lap 4. Following a safety car restart, Lawson hunted Jehan Daruvala and passed him on lap 16, to take his second win of the year. He followed his win with a sixth placed finish in the feature race. Lawson qualified 11th in Hungary, just one place short for reverse pole. He battled to sixth place in the sprint race after making some great overtakes. In the feature race, Lawson started on the harder tyres and lost positions at the start. Despite that, he was able to make use his grippier tyres at the end to secure seventh.


title: Liam Lawson

text: At Spa-Francorchamps, Lawson qualified in sixth place. A cheeky start saw him take to the grass in the sprint race to move into second place. He then overtook Ralph Boschung on lap 2 to dominate the field and claim another win. In the feature race, Lawson had a battle with Enzo Fittipaldi in which he won out, and took a third place to cap off his best F2 weekend to date. In Zandvoort, Lawson ended qualifying in sixth position. He made up a place on Vips at the start, but ended the sprint race fourth as he was unable to overtake Hauger. In the feature race, along with a few others, Lawson started on the harder tyres. This would end up not working, as Marino Sato brought out the safety car which bunched the field mid-race. As cars were not allowed to pit under safety car conditions, Lawson ended the race 12th.


title: Liam Lawson

text: In Monza, Lawson qualified second alongside Doohan. He had an average start in the sprint race, but fell to 11th. He was involved in several duels but powered through to finish in sixth place, later promoted to fifth due to a post-race penalty from Richard Verschoor. In the feature race, a slow start for Doohan saw Lawson take the lead, but during the safety car pitted a lap later than the likes of Daruvala and Armstrong. His day got worse as he was spun around by Vips, and sustained front wing damage. He finished 13th, last of the runners.


title: Liam Lawson

text: Lawson took his fourth victory of the season in the sprint race at Abu Dhabi, having conserved his tyres better than Richard Verschoor, whom he overtook on lap 10. He took a third-place finish in the feature that weekend, allowing him to finish third in the driver's championship with 149 points.


title: Liam Lawson

text: In July 2021, he got his first taste of an F1 car at the 2021 Goodwood Festival Of Speed, driving the 2011 Red Bull RB7. Lawson took part of the Abu Dhabi Young Driver Test at the end of the 2021 season with Scuderia AlphaTauri, driving the AT02. For the 2022 season, he serves as a reserve/test driver for AlphaTauri. In March 2022 Franz Tost revealed that Lawson would make his Formula One debut in a free practice session for them during the season. He made his first free practice debut at the 2022 Belgian Grand Prix, combining with his F2 weekend.


title: Liam Lawson

text: Following Jüri Vips's racial slur during a Twitch livestream (in which, incidentally, Lawson was also present) during June 2022, Christian Horner confirmed that Lawson had been promoted to replace the latter as the reserve driver for Red Bull Racing, sharing this role with AlphaTauri. Lawson made another FP1 appearance with AlphaTauri at the 2022 Mexico City Grand Prix. He made his Red Bull debut during practice at the season-ending . Lawson then took part in the post-season tests in Abu Dhabi driving the Red Bull.


title: Liam Lawson

text: Lawson left F2 at the end of 2022 and is set to contest in the 2023 Super Formula Championship with Team Mugen alongside reigning champion Tomoki Nojiri.


title: Bankim Chandra Chatterjee

text: Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (also Chattopadhayay) CIE (26 or 27 June 1838 – 8 April 1894) was an Indian novelist, poet, Essayist and journalist. He was the author of the 1882 Bengali language novel "Anandamath", which is one of the landmarks of modern Bengali and Indian literature. He was the composer of "Vande Mataram", written in highly sanskritized Bengali, personifying Bengal as a mother goddess and inspiring activists during the Indian Independence Movement. Chattopadhayay wrote fourteen novels and many serious, serio-comic, satirical, scientific and critical treatises in Bengali. He is known as Sahitya Samrat (Emperor of Literature) in Bengali.


title: Bankim Chandra Chatterjee

text: Chattopadhayay is widely regarded as a key figure in literary renaissance of Bengal as well as the broader Indian subcontinent. Some of his writings, including novels, essays, and commentaries, were a breakaway from traditional verse-oriented Indian writings,


title: Bankim Chandra Chatterjee

text: Chattopadhayay was born in the village of Kanthalpara in the town of North 24 Parganas, Naihati, in an orthodox Bengali Brahmin family, the youngest of three brothers, to Yadav Chandra Chattopadhayay and Durgadebi. His ancestors hailed from Deshmukho village in Hooghly District. His father, a government official, went on to become the Deputy Collector of Midnapur. One of his brothers, Sanjib Chandra Chattopadhyay was also a novelist and is known for his book "Palamau". Bankim Chandra and his elder brother both went to Hooghly Collegiate School (then Governmental Zilla School), where he wrote his first poem. He was educated at the Hooghly Mohsin College and later at Presidency College, Kolkata, graduating with a degree in arts in 1859. He later attended the University of Calcutta and was one of two candidates who passed the final exam to become the school's first graduates. He later obtained a degree in law in 1869. Following his father's footsteps, Bankimchandra joined the Subordinate Executive Service. In 1858, he was appointed a Deputy Magistrate (the same type of position held by his father) of Jessore. After merging of the services in 1863, he went on to become Deputy Magistrate & Deputy Collector, retiring from government service in 1891. His years at work were replete with incidents that brought him into conflict with the colonial government. He was, however, made a Companion of the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire (CMEOIE) in 1894. He also received the title of Rai Bahadur in 1891.


title: Bankim Chandra Chatterjee

text: Chattopadhyay's earliest publications were in Ishwar Chandra Gupta's weekly newspaper "Sangbad Prabhakar". He began his literary career as a writer of verse before turning to fiction. His first attempt was a novel in Bengali submitted for a declared prize. He did not win and the novelette was never published. His first fiction to appear in print was the English novel "Rajmohan's Wife". "Durgeshnandini", his first Bengali romance and the first ever novel in Bengali, was published in 1865. His essay ‘Shakuntala, Miranda ebong Desdemona’ (1873) is considered as the first attempt of comparative analysis of different literatures in Bengali and is studied closely in school of comparative literature of Jadavpur University.


title: Bankim Chandra Chatterjee

text: One of the many novels of Chattopadhyay that are entitled to be termed as historical fiction is "Rajsimha" (1881, rewritten and enlarged 1893). "Anandamath" (The Abbey of Bliss, 1882) is a political novel which depicts a Sannyasi (Hindu ascetic) army fighting a British force. The book calls for the rise of Indian nationalism. The novel was also the source of the song "Vande Mataram" (I worship my Motherland for she truly is my mother) which, set to music by Rabindranath Tagore, was taken up by many Indian nationalists, and is now the National Song of India. The plot of the novel is loosely set on the Sannyasi Rebellion. He imagined untrained Sannyasi soldiers fighting and defeating the British East India Company; ultimately, however, he accepted that the British Empire could not be defeated. The novel first appeared in serial form in "Bangadarshan", the literary magazine that Chattopadhyay founded in 1872. "Vande Mataram" became prominent during the Swadeshi movement, which was sparked by Lord Curzon's attempt to partition Bengal into a Hindu majority West and Muslim majority East. Drawing from the Shakti tradition of Bengali Hindus, Chattopadhyay personified India as a Mother Goddess known as Bharat Mata, which gave the song a Hindu undertone.


title: Bankim Chandra Chatterjee

text: Bankim was particularly impressed by the historical Gaudiya Vaishnava cultural efflorescence of the 14th and 15th centuries in Bengal. Chattopadhyay's commentary on the Bhagavad Gita was published eight years after his death and contained his comments up to the 19th Verse of Chapter 4.


title: Bankim Chandra Chatterjee

text: In a long essay on Sankhya philosophy, he argues that the central philosophical foundation of the overwhelming part of religious beliefs in India, including even Buddhism, lies in the philosophy of Sankhya. He was a critique of the philosophy in the sense of its emphasis on personal "vairagya" (renunciation) rather than political and social power.


title: Bankim Chandra Chatterjee

text: "Bankim Chandra had equal strength in both his hands, he was a true "sabyasachi" (ambidextrous). With one hand, he created literary works of excellence; and with the other, he guided young and aspiring authors. With one hand, he ignited the light of literary enlightenment; and with the other, he blew away the smoke and ash of ignorance and ill conceived notions”


title: Bankim Chandra Chatterjee

text: Chattopadhyay's debut novel was an English one, "Rajmohan's Wife" (1864) and he also started writing his religious and philosophical essays in English.


title: Bolo tie

text: A bolo tie (sometimes bola tie or shoestring necktie) is a type of necktie consisting of a piece of cord or braided leather with decorative metal tips (called aiguillettes) and secured with an ornamental clasp or slide.


title: Bolo tie

text: In the United States, bolo ties are widely associated with Western wear and are generally most common in the western areas of the country. Bolo tie slides and tips in silver have been part of Hopi, Navajo, Zuni, and Puebloan silversmithing traditions since the mid-20th century.


title: Bolo tie

text: The bolo tie was made the official neckwear of Arizona on April 22, 1971 by Governor Jack Williams. New Mexico passed a non-binding measure to designate the bolo as the state's official neckwear in 1987. On March 13, 2007, New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson signed into law that the bolo tie was the state's official tie. Also in 2007, the bolo tie was named the official tie of Texas.


title: Bolo tie

text: In the United Kingdom, bolo ties are known as bootlace ties. They were popular with 1950s Teddy Boys, who wore them with drape suits.


title: Bolo tie

text: Bolo ties became fashionable in the 1980s with rockabilly revivalists and new wavers. The bolo tie returned as a popular fashion accessory in the fall of 1988 when male Hollywood stars would be frequently found wearing them. Chain stores like Jeanswest and Merry-Go-Round sold multiple choices for all occasions.


title: Bolo tie

text: During the 1980s and 1990s bolo ties, some elegant and expensive, were sold in Japan, Korea, and China. Some had fancy, hand-made cords and unusual tips. Sales overseas skyrocketed post-1970s; this was due to the overflow from the United States, where it had fallen out of fashion in the 1980s.


title: Bolo tie

text: Author John Bloom (a.k.a. horror host and drive-in expert Joe Bob Briggs) is known by his trademark wearing of various bolo ties during his televised and live shows. He has helped popularize the wearing of bolo ties while hosting the TNT television series "MonsterVision" from 1996 to 2000, and "The Last Drive-in with Joe Bob Briggs" on Shudder from 2018–present.


title: Bolo tie

text: During the 2013 NFL season, San Diego Chargers quarterback Philip Rivers captured media attention for his frequent use of bolo ties. He was noted wearing it again after defeating the Cincinnati Bengals in the 2013–14 NFL playoffs.


title: Bolo tie

text: Victor Cedarstaff of Wickenburg, Arizona claims to have invented the bolo tie in the late 1940s and later patented his slide design.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: Ancient Greek architecture came from the Greek-speaking people ("Hellenic" people) whose culture flourished on the Greek mainland, the Peloponnese, the Aegean Islands, and in colonies in Anatolia and Italy for a period from about 900 BC until the 1st century AD, with the earliest remaining architectural works dating from around 600 BC.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: Ancient Greek architecture is best known from its temples, many of which are found throughout the region, with the Parthenon regarded, now as in ancient times, as the prime example. Most remains are very incomplete ruins, but a number survive substantially intact, mostly outside modern Greece. The second important type of building that survives all over the Hellenic world is the open-air theatre, with the earliest dating from around 525–480 BC. Other architectural forms that are still in evidence are the processional gateway ("propylon"), the public square ("agora") surrounded by storied colonnade ("stoa"), the town council building ("bouleuterion"), the public monument, the monumental tomb ("mausoleum") and the "stadium".


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: Ancient Greek architecture is distinguished by its highly formalised characteristics, both of structure and decoration. This is particularly so in the case of temples where each building appears to have been conceived as a sculptural entity within the landscape, most often raised on high ground so that the elegance of its proportions and the effects of light on its surfaces might be viewed from all angles. Nikolaus Pevsner refers to "the plastic shape of the [Greek] temple [...] placed before us with a physical presence more intense, more alive than that of any later building".


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The formal vocabulary of ancient Greek architecture, in particular the division of architectural style into three defined orders: the Doric Order, the Ionic Order and the Corinthian Order, was to have a profound effect on Western architecture of later periods. The architecture of ancient Rome grew out of that of Greece and maintained its influence in Italy unbroken until the present day. From the Renaissance, revivals of Classicism have kept alive not only the precise forms and ordered details of Greek architecture, but also its concept of architectural beauty based on balance and proportion. The successive styles of Neoclassical architecture and Greek Revival architecture followed and adapted ancient Greek styles closely.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The mainland and islands of Greece are very rocky, with deeply indented coastline, and rugged mountain ranges with few substantial forests. The most freely available building material is stone. Limestone was readily available and easily worked. There is an abundance of high quality white marble both on the mainland and islands, particularly Paros and Naxos. This finely grained material was a major contributing factor to precision of detail, both architectural and sculptural, that adorned ancient Greek architecture. Deposits of high-quality potter's clay were found throughout Greece and the Islands, with major deposits near Athens. It was used not only for pottery vessels but also roof tiles and architectural decoration.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The climate of Greece is maritime, with both the coldness of winter and the heat of summer tempered by sea breezes. This led to a lifestyle where many activities took place outdoors. Hence temples were placed on hilltops, their exteriors designed as a visual focus of gatherings and processions, while theatres were often an enhancement of a naturally occurring sloping site where people could sit, rather than a containing structure. Colonnades encircling buildings, or surrounding courtyards provided shelter from the sun and from sudden winter storms.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The light of Greece may be another important factor in the development of the particular character of ancient Greek architecture. The light is often extremely bright, with both the sky and the sea vividly blue. The clear light and sharp shadows give a precision to the details of the landscape, pale rocky outcrops and seashore. This clarity is alternated with periods of haze that varies in colour to the light on it. In this characteristic environment, the ancient Greek architects constructed buildings that were marked by the precision of detail. The gleaming marble surfaces were smooth, curved, fluted, or ornately sculpted to reflect the sun, cast graded shadows and change in colour with the ever-changing light of day.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: Historians divide ancient Greek civilization into two eras, the Hellenic period (from around 900 BC to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC), and the Hellenistic period (323 BC to 30 AD). During the earlier Hellenic period, substantial works of architecture began to appear around 600 BC. During the later (Hellenistic) period, Greek culture spread as a result of Alexander's conquest of other lands, and later as a result of the rise of the Roman Empire, which adopted much of Greek culture.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: Before the Hellenic era, two major cultures had dominated the region: the Minoan (c. 2800–1100 BC), and the Mycenaean (c. 1500–1100 BC). Minoan is the name given by modern historians to the culture of the people of ancient Crete, known for its elaborate and richly decorated palaces, and for its pottery, the most famous of which painted with floral and motifs of sea life. The Mycenaean culture, which flourished on the Peloponnesus, was quite different in character. Its people built citadels, fortifications and tombs rather than palaces, and decorated their pottery with bands of marching soldiers rather than octopus and seaweed. Both these civilizations came to an end around 1100 BC, that of Crete possibly because of volcanic devastation, and that of Mycenae because of an invasion by the Dorian people who lived on the Greek mainland. Following these events, there was a period from which only a village level of culture seems to have existed. This period is thus often referred to as the Greek Dark Age.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The art history of the Hellenic era is generally subdivided into four periods: the Protogeometric (1100–900 BC), the Geometric (900–700 BC), the Archaic (700–500 BC) and the Classical (500–323 BC) with sculpture being further divided into Severe Classical, High Classical and Late Classical. The first signs of the particular artistic character that defines ancient Greek architecture are to be seen in the pottery of the Dorian Greeks from the 10th century BC. Already at this period it is created with a sense of proportion, symmetry and balance not apparent in similar pottery from Crete and Mycenae. The decoration is precisely geometric, and ordered neatly into zones on defined areas of each vessel. These qualities were to manifest themselves not only through a millennium of Greek pottery making, but also in the architecture that was to emerge in the 6th century. The major development that occurred was in the growing use of the human figure as the major decorative motif, and the increasing surety with which humanity, its mythology, activities and passions were depicted.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The development in the depiction of the human form in pottery was accompanied by a similar development in sculpture. The tiny stylised bronzes of the Geometric period gave way to life-sized highly formalised monolithic representation in the Archaic period. The Classical period was marked by a rapid development towards idealised but increasingly lifelike depictions of gods in human form. This development had a direct effect on the sculptural decoration of temples, as many of the greatest extant works of ancient Greek sculpture once adorned temples, and many of the largest recorded statues of the age, such as the lost chryselephantine statues of Zeus at the Temple of Zeus at Olympia and Athena at the Parthenon, Athens, both over 40 feet high, were once housed in them.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The religion of ancient Greece was a form of nature worship that grew out of the beliefs of earlier cultures. However, unlike earlier cultures, the man was no longer perceived as being threatened by nature, but as its sublime product. The natural elements were personified as gods of the complete human form, and very human behaviour.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The home of the gods was thought to be Olympus, the highest mountain in Greece. The most important deities were: Zeus, the supreme god and ruler of the sky; Hera, his wife and goddess of marriage; Athena, goddess of wisdom; Poseidon, the god of the sea; Demeter, goddess of the harvest; Apollo, the god of the sun, law, healing, plague, reason, music and poetry; Artemis, goddess of the moon, the hunt and the wilderness; Aphrodite, goddess of love; Ares, God of war; Hermes, the god of commerce and travellers, Hephaestus, the god of fire and metalwork, and Dionysus, the god of wine and fruit-bearing plants. Worship, like many other activities, was done in the community, in the open. However, by 600 BC, the gods were often represented by large statues and it was necessary to provide a building in which each of these could be housed. This led to the development of temples.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The ancient Greeks perceived order in the universe, and in turn, applied order and reason to their creations. Their humanist philosophy put mankind at the centre of things and promoted well-ordered societies and the development of democracy. At the same time, the respect for human intellect demanded a reason, and promoted a passion for enquiry, logic, challenge, and problem-solving. The architecture of the ancient Greeks, and in particular, temple architecture, responds to these challenges with a passion for beauty, and for order and symmetry which is the product of a continual search for perfection, rather than a simple application of a set of working rules.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: There is a clear division between the architecture of the preceding Mycenaean and Minoan cultures and that of the ancient Greeks, with much of the techniques and an understanding of their style being lost when these civilisations fell.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: Mycenaean architecture is marked by massive fortifications, typically surrounding a citadel with a royal palace, much smaller than the rambling Minoan "palaces", and relatively few other buildings. The megaron, a rectangular hall with a hearth in the centre, was the largest room in the palaces, and also larger houses. Sun-dried brick above rubble bases were the usual materials, with wooden columns and roof-beams. Rows of ashlar stone orthostats lined the base of walls in some prominent locations.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The Minoan architecture of Crete was of the trabeated form like that of ancient Greece. It employed wooden columns with capitals, but the wooden columns were of a very different form to Doric columns, being narrow at the base and splaying upward. The earliest forms of columns in Greece seem to have developed independently. As with Minoan architecture, ancient Greek domestic architecture centred on open spaces or courtyards surrounded by colonnades. This form was adapted to the construction of hypostyle halls within the larger temples. The evolution that occurred in architecture was towards the public building, first and foremost the temple, rather than towards grand domestic architecture such as had evolved in Crete, if the Cretan "palaces" were indeed domestic, which remains very uncertain.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: Some Mycenaean tombs are marked by circular structures and tapered domes with flat-bedded, cantilevered courses. This architectural form did not carry over into the architecture of ancient Greece, but reappeared about 400 BC in the interior of large monumental tombs such as the Lion Tomb at Knidos (c. 350 BC).


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The Greek word for the family or household, "oikos", is also the name for the house. Houses followed several different types. It is probable that many of the earliest houses were simple structures of two rooms, with an open porch or pronaos, above which rose a low pitched gable or pediment. This form is thought to have contributed to temple architecture.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The construction of many houses employed walls of sun-dried clay bricks or wooden framework filled with fibrous material such as straw or seaweed covered with clay or plaster, on a base of stone which protected the more vulnerable elements from damp. The roofs were probably of thatch with eaves which overhung the permeable walls. Many larger houses, such as those at Delos, were built of stone and plastered. The roofing material for the substantial house was tile. Houses of the wealthy had mosaic floors and demonstrated the Classical style.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: Many houses centred on a wide passage or "pasta" which ran the length of the house and opened at one side onto a small courtyard which admitted light and air. Larger houses had a fully developed peristyle (courtyard) at the centre, with the rooms arranged around it. Some houses had an upper floor which appears to have been reserved for the use of the women of the family.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: City houses were built with adjoining walls and were divided into small blocks by narrow streets. Shops were sometimes located in the rooms towards the street. City houses were inward-facing, with major openings looking onto the central courtyard, rather than the street.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The rectangular temple is the most common and best-known form of Greek public architecture. This rectilinear structure borrows from the Late Helladic, Mycenaean megaron, which contained a central throne room, vestibule, and porch. The temple did not serve the same function as a modern church, since the altar stood under the open sky in the "temenos" or sacred precinct, often directly before the temple. Temples served as the location of a cult image and as a storage place or strong room for the treasury associated with the cult of the god in question, and as a place for devotees of the god to leave their votive offerings, such as statues, helmets and weapons. Some Greek temples appear to have been oriented astronomically. The temple was generally part of a religious precinct known as the "acropolis". According to Aristotle, "the site should be a spot seen far and wide, which gives good elevation to virtue and towers over the neighbourhood". Small circular temples, "tholoi" were also constructed, as well as small temple-like buildings that served as treasuries for specific groups of donors.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: During the late 5th and 4th centuries BC, town planning became an important consideration of Greek builders, with towns such as Paestum and Priene being laid out with a regular grid of paved streets and an agora or central market place surrounded by a colonnade or stoa. The completely restored Stoa of Attalos can be seen in Athens. Towns were also equipped with a public fountain where water could be collected for household use. The development of regular town plans is associated with Hippodamus of Miletus, a pupil of Pythagoras.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: Public buildings became "dignified and gracious structures", and were sited so that they related to each other architecturally. The propylon or porch, formed the entrance to temple sanctuaries and other significant sites with the best-surviving example being the Propylaea on the Acropolis of Athens. The bouleuterion was a large public building with a hypostyle hall that served as a court house and as a meeting place for the town council (boule). Remnants of bouleuterion survive at Athens, Olympia and Miletus, the latter having held up to 1,200 people.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: Every Greek town had an open-air theatre. These were used for both public meetings as well as dramatic performances. The theatre was usually set in a hillside outside the town, and had rows of tiered seating set in a semicircle around the central performance area, the "orchestra". Behind the orchestra was a low building called the "skênê", which served as a store-room, a dressing room, and also as a backdrop to the action taking place in the orchestra. A number of Greek theatres survive almost intact, the best known being at Epidaurus by the architect Polykleitos the Younger.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: Greek towns of substantial size also had a palaestra or a gymnasium, the social centre for male citizens which included spectator areas, baths, toilets and club rooms. Other buildings associated with sports include the hippodrome for horse racing, of which only remnants have survived, and the stadium for foot racing, 600 feet in length, of which examples exist at Olympia, Delphi, Epidaurus and Ephesus, while the Panathinaiko Stadium in Athens, which seats 45,000 people, was restored in the 19th century and was used in the 1896, 1906 and 2004 Olympic Games.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The architecture of ancient Greece is of a trabeated or "post and lintel" form, i.e. it is composed of upright beams (posts) supporting horizontal beams (lintels). Although the existent buildings of the era are constructed in stone, it is clear that the origin of the style lies in simple wooden structures, with vertical posts supporting beams which carried a ridged roof. The posts and beams divided the walls into regular compartments which could be left as openings, or filled with sun dried bricks, lathes or straw and covered with clay daub or plaster. Alternately, the spaces might be filled with rubble. It is likely that many early houses and temples were constructed with an open porch or "pronaos" above which rose a low pitched gable or pediment.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The earliest temples, built to enshrine statues of deities, were probably of wooden construction, later replaced by the more durable stone temples many of which are still in evidence today. The signs of the original timber nature of the architecture were maintained in the stone buildings.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: A few of these temples are very large, with several, such as the Temple of Zeus Olympus and the Olympians at Athens being well over 300 feet in length, but most were less than half this size. It appears that some of the large temples began as wooden constructions in which the columns were replaced piecemeal as stone became available. This, at least was the interpretation of the historian Pausanias looking at the Temple of Hera at Olympia in the 2nd century AD.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The stone columns are made of a series of solid stone cylinders or "drums" that rest on each other without mortar, but were sometimes centred with a bronze pin. The columns are wider at the base than at the top, tapering with an outward curve known as entasis. Each column has a capital of two parts, the upper, on which rests the lintels, being square and called the abacus. The part of the capital that rises from the column itself is called the echinus. It differs according to the order, being plain in the Doric order, fluted in the Ionic and foliate in the Corinthian. Doric and usually Ionic capitals are cut with vertical grooves known as fluting. This fluting or grooving of the columns is a retention of an element of the original wooden architecture.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The columns of a temple support a structure that rises in two main stages, the entablature and the pediment.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The entablature is the major horizontal structural element supporting the roof and encircling the entire building. It is composed of three parts. Resting on the columns is the architrave made of a series of stone "lintels" that spanned the space between the columns, and meet each other at a joint directly above the centre of each column.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: Above the architrave is a second horizontal stage called the frieze. The frieze is one of the major decorative elements of the building and carries a sculptured relief. In the case of Ionic and Corinthian architecture, the relief decoration runs in a continuous band, but in the Doric order, it is divided into sections called metopes, which fill the spaces between vertical rectangular blocks called triglyphs. The triglyphs are vertically grooved like the Doric columns, and retain the form of the wooden beams that would once have supported the roof.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The upper band of the entablature is called the cornice, which is generally ornately decorated on its lower edge. The cornice retains the shape of the beams that would once have supported the wooden roof at each end of the building. At the front and rear of each temple, the entablature supports a triangular structure called the pediment. The tympanum is the triangular space framed by the cornices and the location of the most significant sculptural decoration on the exterior of the building.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: Every temple rested on a masonry base called the crepidoma, generally of three steps, of which the upper one which carried the columns was the stylobate. Masonry walls were employed for temples from about 600 BC onwards. Masonry of all types was used for ancient Greek buildings, including rubble, but the finest ashlar masonry was usually employed for temple walls, in regular courses and large sizes to minimise the joints. The blocks were rough hewn and hauled from quarries to be cut and bedded very precisely, with mortar hardly ever being used. Blocks, particularly those of columns and parts of the building bearing loads were sometimes fixed in place or reinforced with iron clamps, dowels and rods of wood, bronze or iron fixed in lead to minimise corrosion.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: Door and window openings were spanned with a lintel, which in a stone building limited the possible width of the opening. The distance between columns was similarly affected by the nature of the lintel, columns on the exterior of buildings and carrying stone lintels being closer together than those on the interior, which carried wooden lintels. Door and window openings narrowed towards the top. Temples were constructed without windows, the light to the naos entering through the door. It has been suggested that some temples were lit from openings in the roof. A door of the Ionic Order at the Erechtheion (17 feet high and 7.5 feet wide at the top) retains many of its features intact, including mouldings, and an entablature supported on console brackets.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The widest span of a temple roof was across the cella, or inner chamber. In a large building, this space contains columns to support the roof, the architectural form being known as hypostyle. It appears that, although the architecture of ancient Greece was initially of wooden construction, the early builders did not have the concept of the diagonal truss as a stabilising member. This is evidenced by the nature of temple construction in the 6th century BC, where the rows of columns supporting the roof the cella rise higher than the outer walls, unnecessary if roof trusses are employed as an integral part of the wooden roof. The indication is that initially all the rafters were supported directly by the entablature, walls and hypostyle, rather than on a trussed wooden frame, which came into use in Greek architecture only in the 3rd century BC.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: Ancient Greek buildings of timber, clay and plaster construction were probably roofed with thatch. With the rise of stone architecture came the appearance of fired ceramic roof tiles. These early roof tiles showed an S-shape, with the pan and cover tile forming one piece. They were much larger than modern roof tiles, being up to long, wide, thick and weighing around apiece. Only stone walls, which were replacing the earlier mudbrick and wood walls, were strong enough to support the weight of a tiled roof.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The earliest finds of roof tiles of the Archaic period in Greece are documented from a very restricted area around Corinth, where fired tiles began to replace thatched roofs at the temples of Apollo and Poseidon between 700 and 650 BC. Spreading rapidly, roof tiles were within fifty years in evidence for a large number of sites around the Eastern Mediterranean, including Mainland Greece, Western Asia Minor, Southern and Central Italy. Being more expensive and labour-intensive to produce than thatch, their introduction has been explained by the fact that their fireproof quality would have given desired protection to the costly temples. As a side-effect, it has been assumed that the new stone and tile construction also ushered in the end of overhanging eaves in Greek architecture, as they made the need for an extended roof as rain protection for the mudbrick walls obsolete.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: Vaults and arches were not generally used, but begin to appear in tombs (in a "beehive" or cantilevered form such as used in Mycenaea) and occasionally, as an external feature, exedrae of voussoired construction from the 5th century BC. The dome and vault never became significant structural features, as they were to become in ancient Roman architecture.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: Most ancient Greek temples were rectangular, and were approximately twice as long as they were wide, with some notable exceptions such as the enormous Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens with a length of nearly 2 times its width. A number of surviving temple-like structures are circular, and are referred to as "tholos". The smallest temples are less than 25 metres (approx. 75 feet) in length, or in the case of the circular "tholos", in diameter. The great majority of temples are between 30 and 60 metres (approx. 100–200 feet) in length. A small group of Doric temples, including the Parthenon, are between 60 and 80 metres (approx. 200–260 feet) in length. The largest temples, mainly Ionic and Corinthian, but including the Doric Temple of the Olympian Zeus, Agrigento, were between 90 and 120 metres (approx. 300–390 feet) in length.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The temple rises from a stepped base or stylobate, which elevates the structure above the ground on which it stands. Early examples, such as the Temple of Zeus at Olympus, have two steps, but the majority, like the Parthenon, have three, with the exceptional example of the Temple of Apollo at Didyma having six. The core of the building is a masonry-built "naos" within which is a cella, a windowless room originally housing the statue of the god. The cella generally has a porch or "pronaos" before it, and perhaps a second chamber or "antenaos" serving as a treasury or repository for trophies and gifts. The chambers were lit by a single large doorway, fitted with a wrought iron grill. Some rooms appear to have been illuminated by skylights.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: On the stylobate, often completely surrounding the naos, stand rows of columns. Each temple is defined as being of a particular type, with two terms: one describing the number of columns across the entrance front, and the other defining their distribution.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The ideal of proportion that was used by ancient Greek architects in designing temples was not a simple mathematical progression using a square module. The math involved a more complex geometrical progression, the so-called golden mean. The ratio is similar to that of the growth patterns of many spiral forms that occur in nature such as rams' horns, nautilus shells, fern fronds, and vine tendrils and which were a source of decorative motifs employed by ancient Greek architects as particularly in evidence in the volutes of capitals of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The ancient Greek architects took a philosophic approach to the rules and proportions. The determining factor in the mathematics of any notable work of architecture was its ultimate appearance. The architects calculated for perspective, for the optical illusions that make edges of objects appear concave and for the fact that columns that are viewed against the sky look different from those adjacent that are viewed against a shadowed wall. Because of these factors, the architects adjusted the plans so that the major lines of any significant building are rarely straight. The most obvious adjustment is to the profile of columns, which narrow from base to top. However, the narrowing is not regular, but gently curved so that each columns appears to have a slight swelling, called "entasis" below the middle. The "entasis" is never sufficiently pronounced as to make the swelling wider than the base; it is controlled by a slight reduction in the rate of decrease of diameter.


title: Ancient Greek architecture

text: The Parthenon, the Temple to the Goddess Athena on the Acropolis in Athens, is referred to by many as the pinnacle of ancient Greek architecture. Helen Gardner refers to its "unsurpassable excellence", to be surveyed, studied and emulated by architects of later ages. Yet, as Gardner points out, there is hardly a straight line in the building. Banister Fletcher calculated that the "stylobate" curves upward so that its centres at either end rise about above the outer corners, and on the longer sides. A slightly greater adjustment has been made to the entablature. The columns at the ends of the building are not vertical but are inclined towards the centre, with those at the corners being out of plumb by about . These outer columns are both slightly wider than their neighbours and are slightly closer than any of the others.