title: Iván Rodríguez

text: Prior to the 2005 season, Jose Canseco, in his controversial book "", claimed to have personally injected Rodríguez with anabolic steroids during their time as teammates on the Texas Rangers. Rodríguez denied the allegations and said he was "in shock" over Canseco's claims. Rodríguez arrived at spring training in 2005 weighing 193 lbs.; his 2004 playing weight had been 215 lbs. Given that Major League Baseball implemented a more stringent regime of testing for performance-enhancing drugs in 2005, the "significant weight loss" experienced by Rodríguez "raised more than a few eyebrows". Rodríguez asserted that his weight loss was the result of changes in his diet and exercise. Asked by a reporter in 2009 whether his name was on the list of 104 players who tested positive for steroids during baseball's 2003 survey testing, Rodríguez responded, "Only God knows."


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: Despite the off-season controversy, the 2005 season turned out to be another All-Star year for Rodríguez. He was selected to the Major League Baseball All-Star Game for the 12th time in his career, and he participated in the Century 21 Home Run Derby on the day before the All-Star game, finishing second to Bobby Abreu of the Philadelphia Phillies in his home stadium of Comerica Park. For the season, he batted .276 with 14 home runs and 50 runs batted in. On October 26, 2005, Major League Baseball named him the catcher on their Latino Legends Team.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: In 2006, Rodríguez returned to throwing out runners attempting to steal a base at a very high percentage, as he did in his earlier career; he was first in the league in this category, throwing out 45.7 percent of all runners attempting to steal a base. On May 9, 2006, Rodríguez played first base for the Tigers. That game, a 7–6 loss to the Baltimore Orioles, was the first time that he played a position other than catcher in his 1,914 Major League games. On August 15, 2006, he also made his first Major League appearance at second base after regular second baseman Plácido Polanco was injured in a game in Boston. Rodríguez was honored with a Fielding Bible Award as the best fielding catcher in MLB in 2006. Rodríguez would help the Tigers upset the Yankees in the 2006 ALDS and the A's in the 2006 ALCS to help Detroit win the pennant.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: On April 16, 2007, he batted in six runs on the way to a 12–5 victory over the Kansas City Royals. On June 12 he caught Justin Verlander's first no-hitter, the second no-hitter he caught in his career. In 2007, Rodríguez walked in only 1.8 percent of his plate appearances, the lowest percentage in the major leagues. On October 9, the Tigers announced that they were picking up the fifth-year, $13 million option on Rodríguez's contract, keeping him on the Tigers team through at least the 2008 season. The team could have bought out the option for $3 million and allowed him to become a free agent.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: In spring training in 2008 he led the major leagues with eight home runs. On April 10 against Boston, he got his 2,500th hit.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: On July 30, 2008, Rodríguez was traded to the New York Yankees for relief pitcher Kyle Farnsworth after starting Yankee catcher Jorge Posada had season-ending surgery. While Rodríguez wanted to leave Detroit due to Tigers manager Jim Leyland's decision to use rotating catchers, he wound up sharing catching duties with back-up Yankee catcher José Molina, starting only 26 of the remaining 55 games of the 2008 season. With his customary number 7 having been retired by the Yankees for Mickey Mantle, Rodríguez changed his jersey number to 12. He finished the year with a .278 batting average with his time on the Yankees being his worst part of the season.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: In preparation for the 2009 World Baseball Classic, Rodríguez returned to the Puerto Rico Baseball League (formerly LBPPR) during the offseason, following ten years of absence. Playing for the Criollos de Caguas, he gathered a batting average of .370 with three runs batted in and one home run in six games during the regular season. Upon leaving the team on vacation, Rodríguez noted that his intention was to return to action if the Criollos advanced to the playoffs. He returned to action in a "sudden death" game for the final postseason space, but the team lost and was eliminated. On January 8, 2008, the Leones de Ponce reclaimed Rodríguez in the last turn of a special post-season draft, where players from eliminated teams were selected to reinforce those that qualified. In the first week of December 2009, Rodríguez re-joined the Criollos de Caguas in the PRBL.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: On March 20, 2009, Rodríguez signed a one-year deal worth $1.5 million with the Houston Astros. Rodríguez was given the opportunity to make an additional $1.5 million in performance bonuses. In a situation similar to his tenure with the Yankees, his customary number 7 had been retired by the Astros in honor of Craig Biggio, so Rodríguez initially wore jersey number 12, then later changed to number 77 mid-season.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: On May 17, 2009, Rodríguez hit his 300th career home run off of Chicago Cubs pitcher Rich Harden at Wrigley Field. On June 17, 2009, Rodríguez caught his 2,227th career game, passing Carlton Fisk for the most games caught in a career; the game was against his former team (the Rangers) at Rangers Ballpark in Arlington.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: On August 18, 2009, Rodríguez was traded to the Texas Rangers for minor league reliever Matt Nevarez and two PTBNL. Teammate David Murphy switched his uniform number to #14 so Rodríguez could wear the #7 he previously wore with the Rangers. In his first game back with the Rangers, Rodríguez went 3-for-4 with an RBI double and two singles. He hit his first home run with the Rangers since 2002 on August 29, a solo shot against Minnesota Twins reliever José Mijares.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: He finished the 2009 season ranked first in major league history with 13,910 putouts as a catcher, ahead of Brad Ausmus (12,671).


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: Following the 2009 season, Rodríguez filed for free agency, declining the Rangers' offer of salary arbitration. On December 11, 2009, Rodríguez signed a two-year, $6 million contract with the Washington Nationals.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: Rodríguez hit his first home run as a member of the Nationals on May 6 against Tim Hudson of the Atlanta Braves. Facing the New York Mets at Citi Field four days later, he went 4-for-4 and drove in the eventual game-winning RBI. On May 24, Rodríguez was hitting .325, but was placed on the 15-day disabled list due to a back sprain. Rodríguez returned from the DL in time to catch for Stephen Strasburg's Major League debut on June 8, 2010. Nationals pitching coach Steve McCatty instructed Strasburg to throw whatever Rodriguez called, which he did the entire game, except for the first pitch. Strasburg struck out 14 batters and walked none over seven complete innings, which has been described as one of the greatest major league pitching debuts of all time. In a postgame interview, Pudge reacted that "[e]verybody [was] impressed with what this kid did."


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: Nationals GM Mike Rizzo later said signing Rodriguez to the team "turned out to be one of the best things we’ve done. He taught us to be a professional franchise."


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: In 2,543 games over 21 seasons, Rodríguez posted a .296 batting average (2,844-for-9,592) with 1,354 runs, 572 doubles, 51 triples, 311 home runs, 1,332 RBI, 127 stolen bases, 513 bases on balls, .334 on-base percentage and .464 slugging percentage. Defensively, he recorded a .991 fielding percentage. In 40 postseason games, he hit .255 (39-for-153) with 17 runs, 9 doubles, 4 home runs, 25 RBI and 14 walks.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: Rodríguez represented Puerto Rico in the 2006 World Baseball Classic. Rodríguez was one of several Major League Baseball players that committed to represent their birthplaces before the organization of the tournament. He also played for Puerto Rico in the 2009 World Baseball Classic and was named to the classic's All-World Baseball Classic team.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: Rodríguez announced his retirement on April 18, 2012. He signed a one-day contract with the Rangers on April 23, retiring as a member of the team. Rodríguez also threw out the ceremonial first pitch during the Rangers home game against the New York Yankees. Instead of throwing out the ceremonial first pitch from the mound, he went to his usual position behind the plate and threw from behind home plate to second base to Michael Young. Rodríguez was inducted into the Texas Sports Hall of Fame on February 27, 2014. He also joined FOX Sports Southwest in 2014 as an analyst for pre and postgame television coverage.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: In 2017, Rodríguez became eligible for induction into the Baseball Hall of Fame. Richard Justice of MLB.com argued that he was "unquestionably" a Hall of Fame-caliber player, writing on MLB.com in 2012 that he batted better than .290 with more than 2,500 hits, 550 doubles, 300 home runs and 1,300 RBI, an accomplishment equaled only by four all-time greats: Hank Aaron, George Brett, Babe Ruth and Barry Bonds. Justice acknowledged that like Bonds, Rodríguez may have difficulty winning election to the Hall of Fame due to suspicion that he used steroids during his career, "USA Today" expressed similar sentiments. On January 18, 2017, Rodríguez was elected to the Hall of Fame on his first ballot, receiving 76% of the vote. He became the first former Washington Nationals player in the Hall of Fame.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: Rodriguez was inducted into the Hall of Fame in Cooperstown on July 30, 2017. On August 12, 2017, the Rangers retired his jersey #7 with the team (and the opponent, Houston Astros) wearing throwback jerseys to the 1999 era in which Rodriguez played.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: In August 2017, Rodríguez was selected by then-Governor Ricardo Rosselló as one of Puerto Rico's five shadow representatives.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: Rodríguez married Maribel Rivera on June 20, 1991. That same night, having been called up from double A (Rodriguez bypassed AAA) by the Texas Rangers, Rodríguez made his major league debut, in which he threw out two White Sox would-be base stealers. Rodríguez has three children: Dereck, Amanda, and Ivanna. In 1993, Rodríguez and his wife founded the "Ivan "Pudge" Rodríguez Foundation", whose purpose is to help families in Puerto Rico, Dallas and Fort Worth, Texas. Rodríguez has also stated that the Make-a-Wish Foundation is one of his charities of choice. Their 15-year marriage ended in 2006 and Rodríguez married Colombia native Patricia Gómez in 2007.


title: College town

text: A college town or university town is a community (often a separate town or city, but in some cases a town/city neighborhood or a district) that is dominated by its university population. The university may be large, or there may be several smaller institutions such as liberal arts colleges clustered, or the residential population may be small, but college towns in all cases are so dubbed because the presence of the educational institution(s) pervades economic and social life. Many local residents may be employed by the university—which may be the largest employer in the community—many businesses cater primarily to the university, and the student population may outnumber the local population.


title: College town

text: In Europe, a university town is generally characterised by having an ancient university. The economy of the city is closely related with the university activity and highly supported by the entire university structure, which may include university hospitals and clinics, printing houses, libraries, laboratories, business incubators, student rooms, dining halls, students' unions, student societies, and academic festivities. Moreover, the history of the city is often intertwined with that of the university. Many European university towns have not been merely important places of science and education, but also centres of political, cultural and social influence throughout the centuries. As an example of this, Paris also illustrates the course of educational history with the Sorbonne and the Grande école.


title: College town

text: Besides a highly educated and largely transient population, a stereotypical college town often has many people in non-traditional lifestyles and subcultures and with a high tolerance for unconventionality in general, and has a very active musical or cultural scene. The majority of the population is usually politically liberal. Many have become centres of technological research and innovative startups. Universities with start-up centers can be large cities like Munich, but also small cities like Trieste.


title: College town

text: Although the concept of a university town has developed since the European Middle Ages, equivalents already existed in earlier times and in non-European cultures. For example, in later Classical times the city of Athens – no longer having any political or military power, but renowned as the greatest center of learning in the Roman Empire – had many of the characteristics of a university town, and is sometimes called such by modern scholars.


title: College town

text: As in the case of a company town, the large and transient university population may come into conflict with other townspeople. Students may come from outside the area, and perhaps subscribe to a different—sometimes radically different—culture. Most students are young people, whose living habits may be different from older people.


title: College town

text: Economically, the high spending power of the university and of its students in aggregate may inflate the cost of living above that of the region. It is common for university employees to commute from surrounding areas, finding the cost of living in town too expensive.


title: College town

text: "Studentification," in which a growing student population move in large numbers to traditionally non-student neighborhoods, may be perceived as a form of invasion or gentrification. It may be due to university enrollment expanding beyond the capacity of on-campus housing, inadequate zoning enforcement, and/or student culture. Neighborhood associations may work to limit conversion of family homes to student rentals, while some local residents may oppose the construction of large on-campus dormitories or expansion of fraternity and sorority houses, forcing a growing enrollment to seek housing in town. Moreover, a single-family home can be converted into several smaller rental units, or shared by a number of students whose combined resources exceed those of a typical single-family rental—a strong incentive for absentee landlords to cater to students.


title: College town

text: In the US, educational institutions are often exempted from local taxes, so in the absence of a system for payments in lieu of taxes, the university population will disproportionately burden parts of the local public infrastructure, such as roads or law enforcement. Some analysts argue that students relieve the burden on other parts of the local public infrastructure, such as local primary and secondary schools, by far the most costly line item in most North American city and town budgets, by providing tax revenues through local sales tax and property tax paid by landlords. When a university expands its facilities, the potential loss of property tax revenue is thus a concern, in addition to local desire to preserve open space or historic neighborhoods.


title: College town

text: As a result, local people may resent the university and its students. The students, in turn, may criticize the local residents' taking jobs at the university provided by student tuition and fees, and accepting the tax revenues (e.g. local sales tax, property tax on rented properties) that students generate, but resenting students' lifestyles. Some students refer to other inhabitants as "townies", a term with somewhat derogatory connotations.


title: College town

text: This "town and gown" dichotomy notwithstanding, students and the outside community typically find a peaceful (even friendly) coexistence, with the town receiving significant economic and cultural benefits from the university, and the students often adapting to the culture of the town.


title: College town

text: While noise, traffic, and other quality of life issues have not been resolved, some advocates of New Urbanism have led the development of neighborhoods in college towns by specifically capitalizing on their proximity to university life. For instance, some universities have developed properties to allow faculty and staff members to walk to work, reducing demand for limited on-campus parking; Duke University's Trinity Heights development is a key example. In many cases, developers have built communities where access to the university (even if not directly adjacent) is promoted as an advantage.


title: College town

text: Student housing is also an important component of college towns. In the United States most state universities have 50 percent or more of their enrolled students living off-campus. This trend, which began in the 1960s, originally meant the conversion of near campus single-family homes to student housing, creating "student ghettos."


title: College town

text: Colleges and other developers began building purpose-built off-campus student housing areas in the 1970s in more college towns. Beginning around 2000 in the United States, nationwide real estate investment trusts (REIT) and publicly traded corporations began developing student housing complexes.


title: College town

text: Another notable development since the 1990s is the surge in popularity of retirees relocating to college towns. Retirees are attracted to these locations because of cultural and educational opportunities, college athletic events, good medical facilities (often at teaching hospitals affiliated with medical schools), a low cost of living, and often a pedestrian- or public transit-friendly development pattern. Several development companies now specialize in constructing retirement communities in college towns. In some cases the communities have developed formal relationships with the local institution.


title: College town

text: The demand for housing from students, faculty, staff, and retirees kept college town home prices stable during the housing market downturn that began in 2005.


title: Elizabeth Hartman

text: Mary Elizabeth Hartman (December 23, 1943 – June 10, 1987) was an American actress of the stage and screen. She debuted in the popular 1965 film "A Patch of Blue", playing a blind girl named Selina D'Arcy, opposite Sidney Poitier, a role for which she was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress and a Golden Globe Award.


title: Elizabeth Hartman

text: She appeared in Francis Ford Coppola's "You're a Big Boy Now" as Barbara Darling, for which she was nominated for a second Golden Globe Award.


title: Elizabeth Hartman

text: Hartman also starred opposite Clint Eastwood and Geraldine Page in Don Siegel's "The Beguiled", and the 1973 film "Walking Tall".


title: Elizabeth Hartman

text: On stage, Hartman is remembered for her interpretations of Laura Wingfield in "The Glass Menagerie", for which she won Ohio's "Actress of the Year" award, and Emily Webb in the 1969 Broadway production of "Our Town". Hartman retired from acting in 1982 after portraying Mrs. Brisby in Don Bluth's first animated feature, "The Secret of NIMH" (1982).


title: Elizabeth Hartman

text: Mary Elizabeth Hartman was born December 23, 1943, in Youngstown, Ohio, the daughter of Claire (née Mullaly; 1918–1997) and B.C. Hartman (1914–1964). She had a sister, Janet, and a brother, William. She was a standout dramatic student at Boardman High School, where she graduated in 1961. She won a statewide award for best actress in a high school production for her performance as Laura in "The Glass Menagerie". She performed in several productions at the Youngstown Playhouse during her youth, including "A Clearing in the Woods" by Arthur Laurents and "Our Town". She attended Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, where she met her future husband, Gill Dennis, and spent her summers acting with the Kenley Players.


title: Elizabeth Hartman

text: Hartman also performed at the Cleveland Playhouse in several productions, including "The Madwoman of Chaillot" and "Bus Stop". She was encouraged to move to New York City and begin auditioning for plays there. In 1964, Hartman was signed to play the ingénue lead in the comedy "Everybody Out, the Castle is Sinking", which was not a success, however her performance was again positively received, and film producers took notice.


title: Elizabeth Hartman

text: In 1964, Hartman was screen-tested by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and Warner Brothers. In the early autumn of 1964, she was offered a leading role in "A Patch of Blue", opposite Sidney Poitier and Shelley Winters. The role won widespread critical acclaim for Hartman, a fact proudly noted by the news media in her hometown. During this time, her father, who worked in construction, died. The role also won an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress for Hartman. At the time of her nomination in 1966, Elizabeth Hartman (who was 23 years old) was the youngest nominee ever in the Best Actress category. That same year, she received an achievement award from the National Association of Theatre Owners. Hartman also won a Golden Globe for New Star of the Year for her performance. In 1966, she starred as Laura opposite Mercedes McCambridge as Amanda in a production of "The Glass Menagerie" in Pittsburgh.


title: Elizabeth Hartman

text: In January 1967, columnist Dorothy Manners reported that Hartman had been cast in the role of Neely O'Hara in the movie version of "Valley of the Dolls", beating out some more famous Hollywood actresses. She had allegedly made a successful screen test winning over director Mark Robson and producer David Weisbart, the former already enthralled with her performance in "You're a Big Boy Now". However, the following month, it was announced that Oscar-winner Patty Duke had signed on to play Neely, albeit against her agent's advice. Duke's over the top performance almost ruined her career.


title: Elizabeth Hartman

text: Between the mid-1960s and early 1970s, Hartman appeared in three well-received films, two of which starred Broadway and Hollywood legend Geraldine Page, "The Group" (1966), "You're a Big Boy Now" (1966), and "The Beguiled" (1971). Portraying Pauline Mullins, the wife of former Sheriff Buford Pusser, she starred in the cult classic and major box office hit "Walking Tall" (1973). In 1975, Hartman starred in the premiere of Tom Rickman's play "Balaam", a play about political intrigue in Washington, D.C. The production was mounted in Old Town Pasadena, California, by the Pasadena Repertory Theatre located in The Hotel Carver. It was directed by Hartman's husband, Gill Dennis. In 1981, she starred in a touring production of "Morning's at Seven", but left the tour due to declining mental health. Her last on-screen performance was in 1981's horror-spoof, "Full Moon High", where she appeared as Miss Montgomery. In 1982, she appeared in Don Bluth's "The Secret of NIMH", where she portrayed the film's protagonist, Mrs. Brisby. She was highly praised for the performance; however, this proved to be her last Hollywood film role.


title: Elizabeth Hartman

text: Throughout much of her life, Hartman suffered from depression. In 1978, she was treated at The Institute of Living in Hartford, Connecticut. In 1984, she divorced her husband, screenwriter Gill Dennis, after a five-year separation. In the last few years of her life, she gave up acting altogether and worked at a museum in Pittsburgh while receiving treatment for her condition at an outpatient clinic. In 1981, she returned to theater, portraying Myrtle Brown in a regional stage production of "Morning's at Seven". Her sister and caretaker, Janet, told the "Los Angeles Times":


title: Elizabeth Hartman

text: "She was very suicidal...  As soon as I arrived, she took an overdose of sleeping pills and was rushed to intensive care. But, the next night, she appeared on stage and she was wonderful. I spent two weeks with her to try to get her to the theater every night. She was frightened of everyone and everything. We'd go to breakfast, and she'd get up and dash out as though somebody was after her".


title: Elizabeth Hartman

text: On June 10, 1987, Hartman died after jumping from the window of her fifth floor apartment. Earlier that morning, she had reportedly called her psychiatrist saying that she felt despondent. Hartman was buried at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in her hometown.


title: Elizabeth Hartman

text: Initial newspaper reports of Hartman's suicide were vague. Mainly because detectives were unable to identify the body, and having become a recluse years earlier Hartman’s neighbours did not know for sure who she was either.


title: Elizabeth Hartman

text: Among the few friends who remained close from her Hollywood days were Francis Ford Coppola and Geraldine Page, both of whom continued to communicate with and support Hartman throughout her life and career. Page, who costarred with Hartman in two film productions, died of a heart attack on June 13, 1987. News of Hartman's suicide was published on page 28 of "The New York Times" on June 12, 1987.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: Luzhniki Stadium (, "Stadion Luzhniki") is the national stadium of Russia, located in its capital city, Moscow. The full name of the stadium is Grand Sports Arena of the Luzhniki Olympic Complex. Its total seating capacity of 81,000 makes it the largest football stadium in Russia and the ninth-largest stadium in Europe. The stadium is a part of the Luzhniki Olympic Complex, and is located in Khamovniki District of the Central Administrative Okrug of Moscow city. The name "Luzhniki" derives from the flood meadows in the bend of Moskva River where the stadium was built, translating roughly as "The Meadows". The stadium is located at Luzhniki Street, 24, Moscow.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: Luzhniki was the main stadium of the 1980 Olympic Games, hosting the opening and closing ceremonies, as well as some of the competitions, including the final of the football tournament. A UEFA Category 4 stadium, Luzhniki hosted the UEFA Cup final in 1999 and UEFA Champions League final in 2008. The stadium also hosted such events as Summer Universiade, Goodwill Games and World Athletics Championships. It was the main stadium of the 2018 FIFA World Cup and hosted 7 matches of the tournament, including the opening match and the final.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: In the past, its field has been used as the home ground for many years of football rivals Spartak Moscow and CSKA Moscow. It is currently used for some matches of the Russia national football team, as well as being used for various other sporting events and for concerts. Luzhniki Stadium is currently the temporary home ground of FC Torpedo Moscow.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: The stadium is located in Khamovniki District of the Central Administrative Okrug of Moscow city, south-west of the city center. The name "Luzhniki" derives from the flood meadows in the bend of Moskva River where the stadium was built, translating roughly as "The Meadows". It was necessary to find a very large plot of land, preferably in a green area close to the city center that could fit into the transport map of the capital without too much difficulty.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: According to one of the architects: "On a sunny spring day of 1954, we, a group of architects and engineers who were tasked with designing the Central stadium, climbed onto a large paved area on the Lenin Hills [which after the Soviet era would revert to their old name, the Sparrow Hills ]... the proximity of the river, green mass of clean, fresh air – this circumstance alone mattered to select the area of the future city of sports... In addition, Luzhniki is located relatively close to the city center and convenient access to major transport systems with all parts of the capital".


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: It was one of the few major European football stadia to use an artificial pitch, having installed a FIFA-approved FieldTurf pitch in 2002. However, a temporary natural grass pitch was installed for the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final. The game between Chelsea and Manchester United was the first UEFA Champions League final held in Russia. On the match day, UEFA gave Luzhniki its elite status.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: In August 2016 a permanent hybrid turf was installed, consisting of 95 percent natural grass reinforced with plastic.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: On 23 December 1954, the Government of the USSR adopted a resolution on the construction of a stadium in the Luzhniki area in Moscow. The decision of the Soviet Government was a response to a specific current international situation: By the early 1950s, Soviet athletes took to the world stage for the first time after World War II (rus. the Great Patriotic War), participating in the Olympic Games. The 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki brought the Soviet team 71 medals (of which 22 gold) and second place in the unofficial team standings.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: It was a success, but the increased athletic development of the Soviet Union, which was a matter of state policy, required the construction of a new sports complex. The proposed complex was to meet all modern international standards and at the same time serve as a training base for the Olympic team and arena for large domestic and international competitions.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: The stadium was built in 1955–56 as the Grand Arena of the Central Lenin Stadium. The design began in January 1955 and was completed in 90 days by the architects Alexander Vlasov, Igor Rozhin, Nikolai Ullas, Alexander Khryakov and engineers Vsevolod Nasonov, Nikolai Reznikov, Vasily Polikarpov. Building materials came from Leningrad and the Armenian SSR, electrical and oak beams for the spectator benches from the Ukrainian SSR, furniture from Riga and Kaunas, glass was brought from Minsk, electrical equipment from Podolsk in Moscow Oblast, and larch lumber from Irkutsk in Siberia. It was necessary to demolish a whole area of dilapidated buildings (including the Trinity Church, which is supposed to be restored). Because the soil was heavily waterlogged, almost the entire area of the foundations of the complex had to be raised half a meter. 10,000 piles were hammered into the ground and dredgers reclaimed about 3 million cubic metres of soil. The total area of the stadium occupies 160 hectares. Eight thousand people moved home to make place for the stadium. The Church Tikhvin, an architectural monument of the 18th century was moved, too.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: The stadium was officially opened on 31 July 1956, with a friendly football match between the RSFSR and China. 100 thousand spectators welcomed the event. The stadium was built in just 450 days. It was the national stadium of the Soviet Union, and is now the national stadium of Russia. In 1960 a 26-foot bronze statue of Lenin by sculptor Matvei Manizer, which was created for Expo 58 in Brussel, was placed on the square in front of the main stadium entrance.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: In 1976–1979 the sports complex was repaired for the first time. The stadium was the chief venue for the 1980 Summer Olympics, the spectator capacity being 103,000 at that time. The events hosted in this stadium were the opening and closing ceremonies, athletics, football finals, and the individual jumping grand prix.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: Then General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee and Chairman of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet Leonid Brezhnev declared the XXII Summer Olympic Games open.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: On 20 October 1982, disaster struck during a UEFA Cup match between FC Spartak Moscow and HFC Haarlem. 66 people died in the stampede, which made it Russia's worst sporting disaster and most famous cover-up at the time.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: In the spring of 1992, the state enterprise, including the sports complex, was privatized and renamed the Luzhniki Olympic Complex, and by June of the same year, Lenin's name was removed. An extensive renovation in 1996 saw the construction of a roof over the stands, and the refurbishment of the seating areas, resulting in a decrease in capacity. Till the renovation, the stadium could accommodate 81 thousand people.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: The stadium hosted the 1999 UEFA Cup Final in which Parma defeated Marseille in the second UEFA Cup final to be played as a single fixture.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: The Luzhniki Stadium was chosen by the UEFA to host the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final won by Manchester United who beat Chelsea in the first all-English Champions League final on 21 May. The match passed incident-free and a spokesman for the British Embassy in Moscow said, "The security and logistical arrangements put in place by the Russian authorities have been first-rate, as has been their cooperation with their visiting counterparts from the UK."


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: The original stadium was demolished in 2013 to give a way for the construction of a new stadium. However, the self-supported cover was retained. The facade wall was retained as well, due to its architectural value, and was later reconnected to the new building. Construction of the new stadium was completed in 2017. The total cost of repairs was 24 billion rubles.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: The 2018 FIFA World Cup was held in Russia with the Luzhniki Stadium selected as the venue for the opening match and also the final, which was held on 15 July 2018. For the 2018 World Cup the stadium organized six checkpoints with 39 inspection lanes and seven pedestrian points with 427 points for the passage of spectators. About 900 scanners, 3000 cameras and monitors were installed. Special seats were provided for fans with disabilities. The stadium's capacity was increased from 78,000 to 81,000 seats, partly caused by the removal of the athletics track around the pitch. In 2018 FIFA named the stadium as best arena in the world.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: The stadium joins Rome's Stadio Olimpico, London's old Wembley Stadium, Berlin's Olympiastadion and Munich's Olympiastadion as the only stadiums to have hosted the finals of the FIFA World Cup and UEFA's European Cup/Champions League and featured as a main stadium of the Summer Olympic Games. Saint Denis' Stade de France is scheduled to become another in 2024.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: When the Luzhniki Stadium hosted the final game of the 1957 Ice Hockey World Championship between Sweden and the Soviet Union, it was attended by a crowd of 55,000 and set a new world record at the time. On 23 May 1963, Fidel Castro made a historic speech in Luzhniki Stadium during his record 38-day visit to the Soviet Union.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: New Japan Pro-Wrestling, the Japanese professional wrestling promotion, ran a show in 1989. Luzhniki Stadium also makes an appearance in the Russian supernatural thriller film "Night Watch" (), during the power shut-down scene when the power station goes into overload. The stadium is seen with a match taking place, and then the lights go out.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: In 2008, Manchester United beat Chelsea on penalties after a 1–1 draw to win their third European Cup. This was United's third appearance in the final, and Chelsea's first.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: On 18 March 2022, Russian president Vladimir Putin held a rally at the stadium marking the eighth anniversary of the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation and to draw support for Russia's invasion of Ukraine. It was attended by approximately 200,000 supporters, according to police, with media reports suggesting that state employees were bussed to the rally while others were paid or forced to attend.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: Luzhniki Stadium hosted seven games of the 2018 FIFA World Cup, including the opening and the final matches.


title: Luzhniki Stadium

text: During the World Cup, Luzhniki had six access control stations with 39 inspection lines, and seven access control points with 427 entrances for fans arriving on foot. The grounds were serviced by 3,000 surveillance cameras and about 900 scanners, monitors, and detectors.


title: French orthography

text: French orthography encompasses the spelling and punctuation of the French language. It is based on a combination of phonemic and historical principles. The spelling of words is largely based on the pronunciation of Old French c. 1100–1200 AD, and has stayed more or less the same since then, despite enormous changes to the pronunciation of the language in the intervening years. Even in the late 17th century, with the publication of the first French dictionary by the Académie française, there were attempts to reform French orthography.


title: French orthography

text: This has resulted in a complicated relationship between spelling and sound, especially for vowels; a multitude of silent letters; and many homophones—e.g., "/////" (all pronounced ) and "//" (all pronounced ). This is conspicuous in verbs: ' (you speak), ' (I speak) and ' (they speak) all sound like . Later attempts to respell some words in accordance with their Latin etymologies further increased the number of silent letters (e.g., ' vs. older ' – compare English "tense", which reflects the original spelling – and ' vs. older "").


title: French orthography

text: Nevertheless, there are rules governing French orthography which allow for a reasonable degree of accuracy when pronouncing French words from their written forms. The reverse operation, producing written forms from pronunciation, is much more ambiguous. The French alphabet uses a number of diacritics including the circumflex. A system of braille has been developed for people who are visually impaired.


title: French orthography

text: The French alphabet is based on the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet, uppercase and lowercase, with five diacritics and two orthographic ligatures.


title: French orthography

text: The letters and are rarely used except in loanwords and regional words. The phoneme sound is usually written ; the sound is usually written anywhere but before , before , and sometimes at the ends of words. However, is common in the metric prefix kilo- (originally from Greek "khilia" "a thousand"): "kilogramme, kilomètre, kilowatt, kilohertz," etc.


title: French orthography

text: The usual diacritics are the acute (, "accent aigu"), the grave (, "accent grave"), the circumflex (, "accent circonflexe"), the diaeresis (, "tréma"), and the cedilla (, "cédille"). Diacritics have no effect on the primary alphabetical order.


title: French orthography

text: The tilde diacritical mark ( ˜ ) above n is occasionally used in French for words and names of Spanish origin that have been incorporated into the language (e.g., "El Niño"). Like the other diacritics, the tilde has no impact on the primary alphabetical order.


title: French orthography

text: Diacritics are often omitted on capital letters, mainly for technical reasons. It is widely believed that they are not required; however both the Académie française and the Office québécois de la langue française reject this usage and confirm that "in French, the accent has full orthographic value", except for acronyms but not for abbreviations (e.g., "CEE", "ALENA", but "É.-U."). Nevertheless, diacritics are often ignored in word games, including crosswords, Scrabble, and "Des chiffres et des lettres".


title: French orthography

text: The two ligatures "œ" and "æ" have orthographic value. For determining alphabetical order, these ligatures are treated like the sequences "oe" and "ae".


title: French orthography

text: (, "o-e entrelacé" or "o et e collés/liés") This ligature is a mandatory contraction of in certain words. Some of these are native French words, with the pronunciation or , e.g., "chœur" "choir" , "cœur" "heart" , "mœurs" "moods (related to moral)" , "nœud" "knot" , "sœur" "sister" , "œuf" "egg" , "œuvre" "work (of art)" , "vœu" "vow" . It usually appears in the combination "œu"; "œil" "eye" is an exception. Many of these words were originally written with the digraph "eu"; the "o" in the ligature represents a sometimes artificial attempt to imitate the Latin spelling: Latin "bovem" > Old French "buef"/"beuf" > Modern French "bœuf".


title: French orthography

text: "Œ" is also used in words of Greek origin, as the Latin rendering of the Greek diphthong "οι", e.g., "cœlacanthe" "coelacanth". These words used to be pronounced with the vowel , but in recent years a spelling pronunciation with has taken hold, e.g., "œsophage" or , "Œdipe" or etc. The pronunciation with is often seen to be more correct.


title: French orthography

text: When "œ" is found after the letter "c", the "c" can be pronounced in some cases ("cœur"), or in others ("cœlacanthe").


title: French orthography

text: The ligature œ is not used when both letters contribute different sounds. For example, when is part of a prefix ("coexister"), or when is part of a suffix ("minoen"), or in the word "moelle" and its derivatives.


title: French orthography

text: (, "a-e entrelacé" or "a, e collés/liés") This ligature is rare, appearing only in some words of Latin and Greek origin like "tænia", "ex æquo", "cæcum", "æthuse" (as named "dog’s parsley"). It generally represents the vowel , like .


title: French orthography

text: French digraphs and trigraphs have both historical and phonological origins. In the first case, it is a vestige of the spelling in the word's original language (usually Latin or Greek) maintained in modern French, for example, the use of in words like "téléphone", in words like "théorème", or in "chaotique". In the second case, a digraph is due to an archaic pronunciation, such as , , , , and , or is merely a convenient way to expand the twenty-six-letter alphabet to cover all relevant phonemes, as in , , , , , and . Some cases are a mixture of these or are used for purely pragmatic reasons, such as for in "il mangeait" ('he ate'), where the serves to indicate a "soft" inherent in the verb's root, similar to the significance of a cedilla to .


title: French orthography

text: Some exceptions apply to the rules governing the pronunciation of word-final consonants. See Liaison (French) for details.


title: French orthography

text: There are no longer silent k's in French. They appeared in skunks, knock-out, knickerbockers and knickers, but from now onwards, the is also pronounced. The only consonants always pronounced equally in French are now and . Also, is always pronounced , even in .


title: French orthography

text: The spelling of French words of Greek origin is complicated by a number of digraphs which originated in the Latin transcriptions. The digraphs , , and normally represent , , and in Greek loanwords, respectively; and the ligatures and in Greek loanwords represent the same vowel as (). Further, many words in the international scientific vocabulary were constructed in French from Greek roots and have kept their digraphs (e.g., "stratosphère", "photographie").


title: French orthography

text: The Oaths of Strasbourg from 842 is the earliest text written in the early form of French called Romance or Gallo-Romance.


title: French orthography

text: The Gaulish language of the inhabitants of Gaul disappeared progressively over the course of Roman rule as the Latin language began to replace it. Vulgar Latin, a generally lower register of Classical Latin spoken by the Roman soldiers, merchants and even patricians in quotidian speech, and adopted by the natives, evolved slowly, taking the forms of different spoken Roman vernaculars according to the region of the country.


title: French orthography

text: Eventually the different forms of Vulgar Latin would evolve into three branches in the Gallo-Romance language sub-family, the langues d'oïl north of the Loire, the langues d'oc in the south, and the Franco-Provençal languages in part of the east.


title: French orthography

text: In the 9th century, the Romance vernaculars were already quite far from Latin. For example, to understand the Bible, written in Latin, footnotes were necessary. With consolidation of royal power, beginning in the 13th century, the "Francien" vernacular, the langue d'oil variety in usage then on the Île-de-France, brought it little by little to the other languages and evolved toward Classic French.


title: French orthography

text: The languages found in the manuscripts dating from the 9th century to the 13th century form what is known as Old French or "ancien français." These languages continued to evolve until, in the 14th century to the 16th century, Middle French ("moyen français") emerged.


title: French orthography

text: During the Middle French period (c. 1300–1600), modern spelling practices were largely established. This happened especially during the 16th century, under the influence of printers. The overall trend was towards continuity with Old French spelling, although some changes were made under the influence of changed pronunciation habits; for example, the Old French distinction between the diphthongs "eu" and "ue" was eliminated in favor of consistent "eu", as both diphthongs had come to be pronounced or (depending on the surrounding sounds). However, many other distinctions that had become equally superfluous were maintained, e.g. between "s" and soft "c" or between "ai" and "ei". It is likely that etymology was the guiding factor here: the distinctions "s/c" and "ai/ei" reflect corresponding distinctions in the spelling of the underlying Latin words, whereas no such distinction exists in the case of "eu/ue".


title: French orthography

text: This period also saw the development of some explicitly etymological spellings, e.g. "temps" ("time"), "vingt" ("twenty") and "poids" ("weight") (note that in many cases, the etymologizing was sloppy or occasionally completely incorrect; "vingt" reflects Latin "viginti", with the "g" in the wrong place, and "poids" actually reflects Latin "pensum", with no "d" at all; the spelling "poids" is due to an incorrect derivation from Latin "pondus"). The trend towards etymologizing sometimes produced absurd (and generally rejected) spellings such as "sçapvoir" for normal "savoir" ("to know"), which attempted to combine Latin "sapere" ("to be wise", the correct origin of "savoir") with "scire" ("to know").


title: French orthography

text: Modern French spelling was codified in the late 17th century by the Académie française, based largely on previously established spelling conventions. Some reforms have occurred since then, but most have been fairly minor. The most significant changes have been:


title: French orthography

text: In October 1989, Michel Rocard, then-Prime Minister of France, established the High Council of the French Language () in Paris. He designated experts — among them linguists, representatives of the Académie française and lexicographers — to propose standardizing several points, a few of those points being:


title: French orthography

text: Quickly, the experts set to work. Their conclusions were submitted to Belgian and Québécois linguistic political organizations. They were likewise submitted to the Académie française, which endorsed them unanimously, saying:


title: French orthography

text: "Current orthography remains that of usage, and the 'recommendations' of the High Council of the French language only enter into play with words that may be written in a different manner without being considered as incorrect or as faults."


title: French orthography

text: The changes were published in the "Journal officiel de la République française" in December 1990. At the time the proposed changes were considered to be suggestions. In 2016, schoolbooks in France began to use the newer recommended spellings, with instruction to teachers that both old and new spellings be deemed correct.


title: French orthography

text: In France, the exclamation mark, question mark, semicolon, colon, percentage mark, currency symbols, hash, and guillemet all require a non-breaking space before and after the punctuation mark. Outside of France, this rule is often ignored. Computer software may aid or hinder the application of this rule, depending on the degree of localisation, as it is marked differently from most other Western punctuation.


title: French orthography

text: Traditionally, the "specific" part of placenames, street names, and organization names are hyphenated (usually namesakes).


title: French orthography

text: However, this rule is not uniformly observed in official names, e.g., either or , but normally has no hyphens.


title: French orthography

text: The names of Montreal Metro stations are consistently hyphenated when suitable, but those of Paris Métro stations mostly ignore this rule. (For more examples, see )


title: Tom Pryce

text: Thomas Maldwyn Pryce (11 June 1949 – 5 March 1977) was a British racing driver from Wales known for winning the Brands Hatch Race of Champions, a non-championship Formula One race, in 1975 and for the circumstances surrounding his death. Pryce is the only Welsh driver to have won a Formula One race and is also the only Welshman to lead a Formula One World Championship Grand Prix: two laps of the 1975 British Grand Prix.


title: Tom Pryce

text: Pryce started his career in Formula One with the small Token team, making his only start for them at the 1974 Belgian Grand Prix. Shortly after winning the Formula Three support race for the 1974 Monaco Grand Prix, Pryce joined the Shadow team and scored his first points in Germany in only his fourth race. Pryce later claimed two podium finishes, his first in Austria in 1975 and the second in Brazil a year later. Pryce was considered by his team and most of its contemporaries as a great wet-weather driver.


title: Tom Pryce

text: In his four seasons in the sport with the Shadow team from 1974 to 1977, Pryce was identified as a potential future race winner and future world champion. Although the car was often unreliable and rarely in the points, it was on occasion quick enough to grab headlines.


title: Tom Pryce

text: During the practice session for the 1977 South African Grand Prix, run in wet conditions, Pryce was faster than everyone, including world champion drivers Niki Lauda and James Hunt. During the race, he collided at high speed with a safety marshal, Frederik Jansen van Vuuren, and both men were killed. A memorial to Pryce was unveiled in 2009 in his home town of Ruthin.


title: Tom Pryce

text: Tom Pryce was born on 11 June 1949 in Ruthin, Denbighshire, Wales, to Jack and Gwyneth Pryce ( Hughes). Jack had served in the Royal Air Force as a tail-gunner on a Lancaster bomber before joining the local police force. Gwyneth was a district nurse. Pryce's older brother, David, died at the age of three leaving Tom an only child for much of the time he was growing up, although his parents did foster a young girl called Sandra for a while. Pryce, known to his friends as Mald, attended Nantglyn Primary School, Denbighshire. The family later moved to Towyn, Denbighshire, due to Jack's job.


title: Tom Pryce

text: Pryce took an interest in cars while driving a baker's van at the age of 10, before informing his parents that he wanted to be a racing driver. During an interview with Alan Henry in 1975, he stated that he had wanted to become a pilot, but thought he was not intelligent enough. Like many future Formula One drivers, Pryce had a childhood racing hero. In his case it was Lotus's Scottish driver Jim Clark. Pryce's mother recalled that he was very upset when Clark died at the Hockenheimring in April 1968. His father noted that "he was very upset when Jochen Rindt was killed, too". After he left school at 16, Pryce's mother insisted that he take an apprenticeship as a tractor mechanic at Llandrillo Technical College, giving him "something to fall back on", as she put it, if his career as a racing driver was unsuccessful.


title: Tom Pryce

text: In 1975 Pryce married Fenella, more commonly known as Nella, whom he met at a disco in Otford, Kent in 1973. Following the death of her husband, Nella went on to run an antiques store in Fulham, London with Janet Brise, the widow of Tony Brise, who died in a plane crash in 1975 with fellow racing driver, Graham Hill and later moved to France.


title: Tom Pryce

text: Tom Pryce's helmet design was, in comparison to later drivers', simple and restrained. His helmet was plain white all over until 1970. At that year's race at Castle Combe, his father asked Pryce to make his helmet stand out more so that he could easily identify him in a pack of cars. Pryce added five black vertical lines to his helmet, placed just above his visor. From that time the only change to this design was the addition of a Welsh flag to the side of his helmet in 1974.


title: Tom Pryce

text: Pryce's first steps into motor racing came at the Mallory Park circuit in Leicestershire when he was 20. Pryce was put through his paces by Trevor Taylor, an ex-Team Lotus driver and old teammate of Pryce's childhood hero Clark. He later became a star in the Formula 5000 series. From there, Pryce went on to compete in the "Daily Express Crusader Championship", a series run by "Motor Racing Stables" for racing school pupils using Lotus 51 Formula Ford cars. Races alternated between the Brands Hatch and Silverstone circuits; Pryce made his début at the former. "The races were £35 a time. But I sold my Mini and my parents offered all the help and encouragement I could wish for" Pryce recalled to Alan Henry.


title: Tom Pryce

text: The prize for the overall winner of the series was a Formula Ford Lola T200 worth £1,500. The series was decided at the last round, held at Silverstone, the day before the 1970 Formula One International Trophy. Pryce qualified on the third row for the race, which was held in rain. Jack Pryce remembered that his son was rubbing his hands in delight: "he always loved racing in the rain". The early part of the race was led by a driver called Chris Smith but then heavy rain started and Pryce was able to catch up with Smith and overtake him before winning by a comfortable margin. He was given his Lola by Sir Max Aitken.


title: Tom Pryce

text: Pryce took his new car to Brands Hatch, where he was allowed to house it in one of the old stables at the bottom of the paddock. Pryce soon abandoned his farming career and moved to a guest house in West Kingsdown, near the Brands Hatch circuit. Pryce continued to make a name for himself during 1971, entering a new twin-seater Sportscar category called Formula F100, which he won with what was described by motorsports author David Tremayne as "embarrassing ease". He then moved up to Formula Super Vee, driving the then-choice Royale RP9, for Team Rumsey Investments, and soon made his Formula Three début for the same manufacturer at Brands Hatch.


title: Tom Pryce

text: In that race at Brands Hatch, Pryce took an unfancied Royale RP11 to first place in the Formula Three support race for the 1972 Formula One Race of Champions against many established Formula Three drivers such as Roger Williamson, Jochen Mass and James Hunt. So large was Pryce's advantage at the end of the race, many of the other teams voiced an opinion that Pryce's car had run the race underweight; it turned out that the circuit's weighbridge certificate had expired and everyone's cars had been underweight. Pryce retired from the leading group in the following two rounds at Oulton Park and Zandvoort, and then during practice for the support race of the 1972 Monaco Grand Prix his car came to a stop at "Casino Square" after a wire had come loose. He had exited his car to correct the problem when Peter Lamplough lost control of his car and struck the Royale RP11. Pryce was knocked into a shop window and broke a leg.


title: Tom Pryce

text: The Welshman was back in action two weeks after his incident in Monaco. Pryce also ran in the Formula SuperVee series, winning the series by a comfortable margin, "I won just about every race I went in for" Pryce recalled. A run with Royale's Formula Atlantic works team was also in store for Pryce during 1972, where he took pole position for the final three rounds of the championship and won the final round at Brands Hatch.


title: Tom Pryce

text: He continued racing in Formula Atlantic in 1973, winning three races. Royale soon had plans to enter Formula Two, such was the Welshman's talent. The ambition to run in the Formula Two championship was planned to be financially fuelled by a Liechtenstein driver, Manfred Schurti. These plans only resulted in one of Royale's F2 cars being built before the project was scrapped and Bob King, the head of Royale, left the company.


title: Tom Pryce

text: Following an invitation to test one of his cars, Pryce found himself racing in the Formula Two series with Ron Dennis's "Rondel Racing" outfit. His best result for the team came at the Norisring where he was leading the race until a brake failure meant he had to give up first place to teammate Tim Schenken. At the end of 1973, Pryce won the Grovewood Award for his efforts during the year. Jack Pryce recalled that his son did not want to win the award, as he thought it was "a jinx on a driver's career".


title: Tom Pryce

text: At the age of 25, Pryce graduated to Formula One, the highest category of circuit racing defined by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), motorsport's world governing body, joining the newly formed Token Racing team. The team was created by Tony Vlassopulos and Ken Grob after the original Token team closed down in 1973 due to a lack of financial backing which had led to the end of the previous "Rondel Racing" outfit. Pryce was given the seat thanks to his backing from Titan Properties, and what David Tremayne described as "evident promise". Pryce made his début for the team at the BRDC International Trophy, a non-championship Formula One event held at Silverstone, but lack of an airbox and an engine cover, along with his shortage of experience in the car, made him the slowest driver of the 16 competitors during qualifying: 26 seconds slower than James Hunt's Hesketh in pole position. The Welshman retired 15 laps into the race with a gear linkage problem. Pryce's World Championship début came at the 1974 Belgian Grand Prix, where he qualified in 20th place, 3 seconds slower than the fastest time set by Clay Regazzoni. Once again, he failed to finish, completing 66 laps before retiring after a collision with Jody Scheckter's Tyrrell.


title: Tom Pryce

text: Pryce was refused entry to the 1974 Monaco Formula One Grand Prix, as he was deemed "inexperienced". Tony Vlassopulos decided to prove a point and replaced normal Formula 3 driver Buzz Buzaglo, with Pryce for the supporting Formula Three race, driving for "Ippokampos Racing", in a March 743, which he won by 20.8 seconds.


title: Tom Pryce

text: Following his drive in Monaco, and a short spell in Formula Two, Pryce was signed by Shadow as replacement for Brian Redman, who had in turn replaced the late Peter Revson. Pryce made his début for the team in Holland. He qualified in 11th position, less than 0.4 seconds slower than his teammate, Jean-Pierre Jarier, who was in his second full season of Formula One competition. Pryce retired on the first lap of the race after a collision with James Hunt at the first corner broke his Shadow DN3's rear suspension. Pryce qualified third in his second Grand Prix for the team, in France, 0.32 seconds slower than Niki Lauda's pole position time but nearly half a second quicker than Jarier. Once again, Pryce's race ended at the first corner, when minor contact with Carlos Reutemann's Brabham deflected Pryce's Shadow into the path of James Hunt. The second collision between the two British drivers in as many races eliminated them both. Later in the season, Pryce received 100 bottles of champagne for finishing fastest in the practice session for the at Brands Hatch. He went on to qualify on the fourth row of the starting grid.


title: Tom Pryce

text: Pryce scored the first point of his career in Germany, at the most challenging circuit on the F1 calendar at the time, the 14.2 mile Nürburgring circuit. After finishing 6th from 11th on the grid, he then qualified in 16th for the next Grand Prix in Austria, but spun off on lap 22, ending his race. He qualified in 22nd place in Italy, and finished 12 places higher. His season ended with an engine failure in Canada, and the Shadow severely off the pace at Watkins Glen in the United States. At the end of the season Pryce was equal 18th in the Drivers' Championship with veteran Graham Hill and Vittorio Brambilla.


title: Tom Pryce

text: At the start of the 1975 season, Pryce's future was subject to much speculation. Rumour linked him with a drive at Lotus, the team run by Colin Chapman, who had been keeping an eye on Pryce's progress throughout 1973 and 1974. At the time, Lotus was experiencing financial difficulties and reports suggested that Shadow and Lotus would swap Pryce and Swede Ronnie Peterson. The trade was viewed as a good acquisition for both teams, as Pryce was considered a driver of the same ability as Peterson, but would cost Lotus less, while Peterson could attract sponsorship to the relatively new Shadow team. The deal never materialised, although Shadow team manager Alan Rees claims that it came very close to being completed.


title: Tom Pryce

text: Pryce's Shadow teammate, Jean-Pierre Jarier, out-qualified him in the early part of the 1975 season, as the French driver had the new Shadow DN5 car, while Pryce was in the older DN3. It was not until the third round, the , that Pryce was able to use a DN5. The team's fourth race of the season was the non-championship Race of Champions held at Brands Hatch. Pryce qualified on pole position and, following a poor start, passed Peterson and Jacky Ickx before closing an eight-second gap to race leader Jody Scheckter, whose engine failed while Pryce harried him, letting Pryce through to become the first Welshman to win a Formula One race. Pryce showed other signs of promise during the season, most notably in Monaco and Silverstone where he qualified on the front row of the grid, the latter being in pole position. Pryce also achieved his first World Championship podium finish, in extremely wet conditions at the and finished in the points four more times. The highest of those came in Germany where he finished fourth, despite the fact that while he was running second behind Carlos Reutemann fuel had been leaking into the cockpit of his DN5 during the final laps around the Nürburgring, reportedly "searing his skin and almost blinding him with fumes". The Welshman later received the "Prix Rouge et Blanc Jo Siffert award", named after the Swiss Formula One driver, for this achievement.


title: Tom Pryce

text: At the end of December 1975, Pryce and Dave Richards, future head of the Prodrive motorsports engineering company, entered a Lancia Stratos in the Tour of Epynt, a rally event contested by many established rallying names. Pryce needed little persuasion to team up for the one-off event on home soil with Richards, both of whom were from Ruthin. Pryce crashed into a bridge into the first stage, but still competed in the afternoon stages after his car was rebuilt.


title: Tom Pryce

text: Once the 1976 Formula One World Championship season got under way Pryce instantly added a second podium finish to his tally, at the first round in Brazil. This came at the expense of continuing teammate Jarier, who was caught out by oil on the track from James Hunt's McLaren. Both Shadows enjoyed reasonable competitiveness during the next two races at Kyalami and Long Beach. Changes in car regulations, meaning that teams had to lower their airboxes and mount the cars' rear wings further forward, along with revised Goodyear tyres, meant the Shadow DN5B lost much of its competitiveness; Pryce still achieved a second points scoring finish of the season in Britain. The new Shadow DN8 was not introduced until the twelfth round at Zandvoort, where Pryce qualified the new car in third, and finished the race only one place lower in fourth: it was the last points scoring finish of his career. The Welshman finished his last full season 12th in the Drivers' Championship with 10 points, 59 points behind World Champion James Hunt.


title: Tom Pryce

text: Rumors that Pryce would run as Mario Andretti's teammate for the Lotus team in 1978 were strong, as it coincided with the end of his contract with Shadow. A Lotus mechanic of the era even claimed many years later that the signing of Tom Pryce for the team would have become a reality if he had not died, as Peterson was hired at the last minute after an express offer from Chapman for a succulent amount of money in exchange for being Mario Andretti's number two in replacement of Gunnar Nilsson, who was going to go to the Arrows team in 1978 to team up with Riccardo Patrese. This latter fact was confirmed by Patrese in "Motorsport" magazine in an interview by Simon Taylor in 2010.


title: Tom Pryce

text: Jarier left Shadow before the start of the 1977 Formula One season, for ATS, and was replaced by Italian Renzo Zorzi, who was later rated by Jackie Oliver, part of the managerial team at Shadow, as "the worst driver we [the Shadow team] ever had". The new signing brought in sponsorship from Italy, easing Shadow's financial position. Pryce started the first race of the year in Argentina in ninth place and stayed with the leading group until a gear linkage failure on the 45th lap of the 52 lap race. Following a long pit stop to fix the fault, he was not classified. Pryce qualified 12th for the second round in Brazil, but on lap 34 retired from the race, while running in second place, as the result of an engine failure.


title: Tom Pryce

text: In 2016, in an academic paper that reported a mathematical modeling study that assessed the relative influence of driver and machine, Pryce was ranked the 28th best Formula One driver of all time.


title: Tom Pryce

text: Tom Pryce began his final race weekend, the 1977 South African Grand Prix at Kyalami, by setting the fastest time in the Wednesday practice session, held in wet weather. Pryce posted a time of 1 minute 31.57 seconds with the next best, the eventual 1977 World Champion Niki Lauda, one second slower. The weather dried up prior to the Thursday session, and he slipped back down the grid to fifteenth place, almost two seconds slower than James Hunt's pole position time.


title: Tom Pryce

text: Pryce made a poor start to the Grand Prix in his DN8 and by the end of the first lap was in last place. Pryce started to climb back up the field during the next couple of laps, overtaking Brett Lunger and teammate Renzo Zorzi on lap two, and Alex Ribeiro and Boy Hayje the following lap. By lap 18 Pryce had moved from 22nd to 13th place.


title: Tom Pryce

text: On lap 22, Zorzi pulled off to the left side of the main straight, just after the brow of a hill and a bridge over the track. He was having problems with his fuel metering unit, and fuel was pumping directly onto the engine, which then caught fire. Zorzi did not immediately get out of his car as he could not disconnect the oxygen pipe from his helmet.


title: Tom Pryce

text: The situation caused two marshals from the pit wall on the opposite side of the track to intervene. The first marshal to cross the track was a 25-year-old panel beater named Bill, and the second was 19-year-old Frederik "Frikkie" Jansen van Vuuren, who was carrying a fire extinguisher. George Witt, the chief pit marshal for the race, said that the policy of the circuit was that in cases of fire, two marshals must attend and a further two act as back-up in case the first pair's extinguishers were not effective enough. Witt also recalled that both marshals crossed the track without prior permission. The former narrowly made it across the track, but the latter did not. As the two men started to run across the track, the cars driven by Hans-Joachim Stuck and Pryce came over the brow of a rise in the track.


title: Tom Pryce

text: Pryce was directly behind Stuck's car along the main straight. Stuck saw Jansen van Vuuren and moved to the right to avoid both marshals, missing Bill by what Tremayne calls "millimetres". From his position Pryce could not see Jansen van Vuuren and was unable to react as quickly as Stuck had done. He struck the teenage marshal at approximately 270 km/h (170 mph). Jansen van Vuuren was thrown into the air and landed a few yards in front of Zorzi's car. He died on impact, and his body was badly mutilated by Pryce's car. The fire extinguisher he had been carrying smashed into Pryce's head, before striking the Shadow's roll hoop. The force of the impact was such that the extinguisher was thrown up and over the adjacent grandstand. It landed in the car park to the rear of the stand, where it hit a parked car and jammed its door shut.


title: Tom Pryce

text: The impact with the fire extinguisher wrenched Pryce's helmet upward sharply. Death was almost certainly instantaneous. Pryce's Shadow DN8, now with its driver dead at the wheel, continued at speed down the main straight towards the first corner, called "Crowthorne". The car left the track to the right, scraping the metal barriers, hitting an entrance for emergency vehicles, and veering back onto the track. It then hit Jacques Laffite's Ligier, sending both Pryce and Laffite head-on into the barriers. Jansen van Vuuren's injuries were so extensive that, initially, his body was identified only after the race director had summoned all of the race marshals and he was not among them.


title: Tom Pryce

text: The eventual race winner was Austrian Niki Lauda, his first win since his near fatal accident during the 1976 German Grand Prix. At first he announced it was the greatest victory of his career, but when told on the victory podium of Pryce's death, he said that "there was no joy after that".


title: Tom Pryce

text: Pryce's death was met with great grief from all those who knew him, especially his wife Nella, his parents Jack and Gwyneth and the Shadow team. His body was buried at St Bartholomew's Church in Otford, near Sevenoaks, Kent, the same church where he and Nella were married two years earlier.


title: Tom Pryce

text: Pryce's performances in a Formula One car earned him much respect amongst the F1 paddock. David Tremayne named his son after the Welshman. The Tom Pryce Award, also known as the Tom Pryce Trophy, was instigated, and is given annually to Welsh personalities who have made an outstanding contribution to motoring or transport.


title: Tom Pryce

text: During its re-design, the Anglesey Circuit in North Wales named the Tom Pryce Straight after a request from Ruthin Town Council. Eddie Knipe, a South African living in Sevenoaks, sought permission from Nella Pryce to approach the Ruthin Town Council to commemorate her late husband. Having gained her consent and that of Tom's parents, a trust was established in 2006 under the chairmanship of David Richards to create a memorial to Tom Pryce in Ruthin. Neil Dalrymple, a local artist, was commissioned by Ruthin Town Council in 2008 to design an plaque and in February 2009, an auction of Formula One pit passes to fund its manufacture was announced. The memorial was unveiled on 11 June 2009, on what would have been Pryce's 60th birthday.


title: Join (SQL)

text: A join clause in SQL – corresponding to a join operation in relational algebra – combines columns from one or more tables into a new table. Informally, a join stitches two tables and puts on the same row records with matching fields : codice_1, codice_2, codice_3, codice_4 and codice_5.


title: Join (SQL)

text: Note that in codice_9, "Williams" has not yet been assigned to a department. Also, no employees have been assigned to the "Marketing" department.


title: Join (SQL)

text: codice_10 returns the Cartesian product of rows from tables in the join. In other words, it will produce rows which combine each row from the first table with each row from the second table.


title: Join (SQL)

text: codice_10 does not itself apply any predicate to filter rows from the joined table. The results of a codice_10 can be filtered using a codice_13 clause, which may then produce the equivalent of an inner join.


title: Join (SQL)

text: An inner join requires each row in the two joined tables to have matching column values, and is a commonly used join operation in applications but should not be assumed to be the best choice in all situations. Inner join creates a new result table by combining column values of two tables (A and B) based upon the join-predicate. The query compares each row of A with each row of B to find all pairs of rows that satisfy the join-predicate. When the join-predicate is satisfied by matching non-NULL values, column values for each matched pair of rows of A and B are combined into a result row.


title: Join (SQL)

text: The result of the join can be defined as the outcome of first taking the Cartesian product (or Cross join) of all rows in the tables (combining every row in table A with every row in table B) and then returning all rows that satisfy the join predicate. Actual SQL implementations normally use other approaches, such as hash joins or sort-merge joins, since computing the Cartesian product is slower and would often require a prohibitively large amount of memory to store.


title: Join (SQL)

text: SQL specifies two different syntactical ways to express joins: the "explicit join notation" and the "implicit join notation". The "implicit join notation" is no longer considered a best practice, although database systems still support it.


title: Join (SQL)

text: The "explicit join notation" uses the codice_14 keyword, optionally preceded by the codice_1 keyword, to specify the table to join, and the codice_16 keyword to specify the predicates for the join, as in the following example:


title: Join (SQL)

text: The "implicit join notation" simply lists the tables for joining, in the codice_17 clause of the codice_18 statement, using commas to separate them. Thus it specifies a cross join, and the codice_13 clause may apply additional filter-predicates (which function comparably to the join-predicates in the explicit notation).


title: Join (SQL)

text: The queries given in the examples above will join the Employee and Department tables using the DepartmentID column of both tables. Where the DepartmentID of these tables match (i.e. the join-predicate is satisfied), the query will combine the "LastName", "DepartmentID" and "DepartmentName" columns from the two tables into a result row. Where the DepartmentID does not match, no result row is generated.


title: Join (SQL)

text: The employee "Williams" and the department "Marketing" do not appear in the query execution results. Neither of these has any matching rows in the other respective table: "Williams" has no associated department, and no employee has the department ID 35 ("Marketing"). Depending on the desired results, this behavior may be a subtle bug, which can be avoided by replacing the inner join with an outer join.


title: Join (SQL)

text: Programmers should take special care when joining tables on columns that can contain NULL values, since NULL will never match any other value (not even NULL itself), unless the join condition explicitly uses a combination predicate that first checks that the joins columns are codice_20 before applying the remaining predicate condition(s). The Inner Join can only be safely used in a database that enforces referential integrity or where the join columns are guaranteed not to be NULL. Many transaction processing relational databases rely on Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability (ACID) data update standards to ensure data integrity, making inner joins an appropriate choice. However, transaction databases usually also have desirable join columns that are allowed to be NULL. Many reporting relational database and data warehouses use high volume Extract, Transform, Load (ETL) batch updates which make referential integrity difficult or impossible to enforce, resulting in potentially NULL join columns that an SQL query author cannot modify and which cause inner joins to omit data with no indication of an error. The choice to use an inner join depends on the database design and data characteristics. A left outer join can usually be substituted for an inner join when the join columns in one table may contain NULL values.


title: Join (SQL)

text: Any data column that may be NULL (empty) should never be used as a link in an inner join, unless the intended result is to eliminate the rows with the NULL value. If NULL join columns are to be deliberately removed from the result set, an inner join can be faster than an outer join because the table join and filtering is done in a single step. Conversely, an inner join can result in disastrously slow performance or even a server crash when used in a large volume query in combination with database functions in an SQL Where clause. A function in an SQL Where clause can result in the database ignoring relatively compact table indexes. The database may read and inner join the selected columns from both tables before reducing the number of rows using the filter that depends on a calculated value, resulting in a relatively enormous amount of inefficient processing.


title: Join (SQL)

text: When a result set is produced by joining several tables, including master tables used to look up full-text descriptions of numeric identifier codes (a Lookup table), a NULL value in any one of the foreign keys can result in the entire row being eliminated from the result set, with no indication of error. A complex SQL query that includes one or more inner joins and several outer joins has the same risk for NULL values in the inner join link columns.


title: Join (SQL)

text: A commitment to SQL code containing inner joins assumes NULL join columns will not be introduced by future changes, including vendor updates, design changes and bulk processing outside of the application's data validation rules such as data conversions, migrations, bulk imports and merges.


title: Join (SQL)

text: An equi-join is a specific type of comparator-based join, that uses only equality comparisons in the join-predicate. Using other comparison operators (such as codice_21) disqualifies a join as an equi-join. The query shown above has already provided an example of an equi-join:


title: Join (SQL)

text: If columns in an equi-join have the same name, SQL-92 provides an optional shorthand notation for expressing equi-joins, by way of the codice_22 construct:


title: Join (SQL)

text: The codice_22 construct is more than mere syntactic sugar, however, since the result set differs from the result set of the version with the explicit predicate. Specifically, any columns mentioned in the codice_22 list will appear only once, with an unqualified name, rather than once for each table in the join. In the case above, there will be a single codice_25 column and no codice_26 or codice_27.


title: Join (SQL)

text: The natural join is a special case of equi-join. Natural join (⋈) is a binary operator that is written as ("R" ⋈ "S") where "R" and "S" are relations. The result of the natural join is the set of all combinations of tuples in "R" and "S" that are equal on their common attribute names. For an example consider the tables "Employee" and "Dept" and their natural join:


title: Join (SQL)

text: This can also be used to define composition of relations. For example, the composition of "Employee" and "Dept" is their join as shown above, projected on all but the common attribute "DeptName". In category theory, the join is precisely the fiber product.


title: Join (SQL)

text: The natural join is arguably one of the most important operators since it is the relational counterpart of logical AND. Note that if the same variable appears in each of two predicates that are connected by AND, then that variable stands for the same thing and both appearances must always be substituted by the same value. In particular, the natural join allows the combination of relations that are associated by a foreign key. For example, in the above example a foreign key probably holds from "Employee"."DeptName" to "Dept"."DeptName" and then the natural join of "Employee" and "Dept" combines all employees with their departments. This works because the foreign key holds between attributes with the same name. If this is not the case such as in the foreign key from "Dept"."manager" to "Employee"."Name" then these columns have to be renamed before the natural join is taken. Such a join is sometimes also referred to as an equi-join.


title: Join (SQL)

text: where "Fun" is a predicate that is true for a relation "r" if and only if "r" is a function. It is usually required that "R" and "S" must have at least one common attribute, but if this constraint is omitted, and "R" and "S" have no common attributes, then the natural join becomes exactly the Cartesian product.


title: Join (SQL)

text: The natural join can be simulated with Codd's primitives as follows. Let "c", …, "c" be the attribute names common to "R" and "S", "r", …, "r" be the attribute names unique to "R" and let "s", …, "s" be the attributes unique to "S". Furthermore, assume that the attribute names "x", …, "x" are neither in "R" nor in "S". In a first step the common attribute names in "S" can now be renamed:


title: Join (SQL)

text: A natural join is a type of equi-join where the join predicate arises implicitly by comparing all columns in both tables that have the same column-names in the joined tables. The resulting joined table contains only one column for each pair of equally named columns. In the case that no columns with the same names are found, the result is a cross join.


title: Join (SQL)

text: Most experts agree that NATURAL JOINs are dangerous and therefore strongly discourage their use. The danger comes from inadvertently adding a new column, named the same as another column in the other table. An existing natural join might then "naturally" use the new column for comparisons, making comparisons/matches using different criteria (from different columns) than before. Thus an existing query could produce different results, even though the data in the tables have not been changed, but only augmented. The use of column names to automatically determine table links is not an option in large databases with hundreds or thousands of tables where it would place an unrealistic constraint on naming conventions. Real world databases are commonly designed with foreign key data that is not consistently populated (NULL values are allowed), due to business rules and context. It is common practice to modify column names of similar data in different tables and this lack of rigid consistency relegates natural joins to a theoretical concept for discussion.


title: Join (SQL)

text: As with the explicit codice_22 clause, only one DepartmentID column occurs in the joined table, with no qualifier:


title: Join (SQL)

text: PostgreSQL, MySQL and Oracle support natural joins; Microsoft T-SQL and IBM DB2 do not. The columns used in the join are implicit so the join code does not show which columns are expected, and a change in column names may change the results. In the standard, natural joins are part of the optional F401, "Extended joined table", package.


title: Join (SQL)

text: In many database environments the column names are controlled by an outside vendor, not the query developer. A natural join assumes stability and consistency in column names which can change during vendor mandated version upgrades.


title: Join (SQL)

text: The joined table retains each row—even if no other matching row exists. Outer joins subdivide further into left outer joins, right outer joins, and full outer joins, depending on which table's rows are retained: left, right, or both (in this case "left" and "right" refer to the two sides of the codice_14 keyword). Like inner joins, one can further sub-categorize all types of outer joins as equi-joins, natural joins, codice_31 ("θ"-join), etc.


title: Join (SQL)

text: The result of a left outer join (or simply left join) for tables A and B always contains all rows of the "left" table (A), even if the join-condition does not find any matching row in the "right" table (B). This means that if the codice_16 clause matches 0 (zero) rows in B (for a given row in A), the join will still return a row in the result (for that row)—but with NULL in each column from B. A left outer join returns all the values from an inner join plus all values in the left table that do not match to the right table, including rows with NULL (empty) values in the link column.


title: Join (SQL)

text: For example, this allows us to find an employee's department, but still shows employees that have not been assigned to a department (contrary to the inner-join example above, where unassigned employees were excluded from the result).


title: Join (SQL)

text: Example of a left outer join (the codice_33 keyword is optional), with the additional result row (compared with the inner join) italicized:


title: Join (SQL)

text: A right outer join (or right join) closely resembles a left outer join, except with the treatment of the tables reversed. Every row from the "right" table (B) will appear in the joined table at least once. If no matching row from the "left" table (A) exists, NULL will appear in columns from A for those rows that have no match in B.


title: Join (SQL)

text: A right outer join returns all the values from the right table and matched values from the left table (NULL in the case of no matching join predicate). For example, this allows us to find each employee and his or her department, but still show departments that have no employees.


title: Join (SQL)

text: Below is an example of a right outer join (the codice_33 keyword is optional), with the additional result row italicized:


title: Join (SQL)

text: Right and left outer joins are functionally equivalent. Neither provides any functionality that the other does not, so right and left outer joins may replace each other as long as the table order is switched.


title: Join (SQL)

text: Conceptually, a full outer join combines the effect of applying both left and right outer joins. Where rows in the FULL OUTER JOINed tables do not match, the result set will have NULL values for every column of the table that lacks a matching row. For those rows that do match, a single row will be produced in the result set (containing columns populated from both tables).


title: Join (SQL)

text: For example, this allows us to see each employee who is in a department and each department that has an employee, but also see each employee who is not part of a department and each department which doesn't have an employee.


title: Join (SQL)

text: Some database systems do not support the full outer join functionality directly, but they can emulate it through the use of an inner join and UNION ALL selects of the "single table rows" from left and right tables respectively. The same example can appear as follows:


title: Join (SQL)

text: If there were two separate tables for employees and a query which requested employees in the first table having the same country as employees in the second table, a normal join operation could be used to find the answer table. However, all the employee information is contained within a single large table.


title: Join (SQL)

text: Only one of the two middle pairings is needed to satisfy the original question, and the topmost and bottommost are of no interest at all in this example.


title: Join (SQL)

text: The effect of an outer join can also be obtained using a UNION ALL between an INNER JOIN and a SELECT of the rows in the "main" table that do not fulfill the join condition. For example,


title: Join (SQL)

text: Much work in database-systems has aimed at efficient implementation of joins, because relational systems commonly call for joins, yet face difficulties in optimising their efficient execution. The problem arises because inner joins operate both commutatively and associatively. In practice, this means that the user merely supplies the list of tables for joining and the join conditions to use, and the database system has the task of determining the most efficient way to perform the operation. A query optimizer determines how to execute a query containing joins. A query optimizer has two basic freedoms:


title: Join (SQL)

text: Many join-algorithms treat their inputs differently. One can refer to the inputs to a join as the "outer" and "inner" join operands, or "left" and "right", respectively. In the case of nested loops, for example, the database system will scan the entire inner relation for each row of the outer relation.


title: Join (SQL)

text: These names derive from the appearance of the query plan if drawn as a tree, with the outer join relation on the left and the inner relation on the right (as convention dictates).


title: Join (SQL)

text: Three fundamental algorithms for performing a join operation exist: nested loop join, sort-merge join and hash join.


title: Join (SQL)

text: Join indexes are database indexes that facilitate the processing of join queries in data warehouses: they are currently (2012) available in implementations by Oracle and Teradata.


title: Join (SQL)

text: In the Teradata implementation, specified columns, aggregate functions on columns, or components of date columns from one or more tables are specified using a syntax similar to the definition of a database view: up to 64 columns/column expressions can be specified in a single join index. Optionally, a column that defines the primary key of the composite data may also be specified: on parallel hardware, the column values are used to partition the index's contents across multiple disks. When the source tables are updated interactively by users, the contents of the join index are automatically updated. Any query whose WHERE clause specifies any combination of columns or column expressions that are an exact subset of those defined in a join index (a so-called "covering query") will cause the join index, rather than the original tables and their indexes, to be consulted during query execution.


title: Join (SQL)

text: The Oracle implementation limits itself to using bitmap indexes. A "bitmap join index" is used for low-cardinality columns (i.e., columns containing fewer than 300 distinct values, according to the Oracle documentation): it combines low-cardinality columns from multiple related tables. The example Oracle uses is that of an inventory system, where different suppliers provide different parts. The schema has three linked tables: two "master tables", Part and Supplier, and a "detail table", Inventory. The last is a many-to-many table linking Supplier to Part, and contains the most rows. Every part has a Part Type, and every supplier is based in the US, and has a State column. There are not more than 60 states+territories in the US, and not more than 300 Part Types. The bitmap join index is defined using a standard three-table join on the three tables above, and specifying the Part_Type and Supplier_State columns for the index. However, it is defined on the Inventory table, even though the columns Part_Type and Supplier_State are "borrowed" from Supplier and Part respectively.


title: Join (SQL)

text: As for Teradata, an Oracle bitmap join index is only utilized to answer a query when the query's WHERE clause specifies columns limited to those that are included in the join index.


title: Join (SQL)

text: Some database systems allow the user to force the system to read the tables in a join in a particular order. This is used when the join optimizer chooses to read the tables in an inefficient order. For example, in MySQL the command codice_43 reads the tables in exactly the order listed in the query.


title: Subsidy

text: A subsidy or government incentive is a form of financial aid or support extended to an economic sector (business, or individual) generally with the aim of promoting economic and social policy. Although commonly extended from the government, the term subsidy can relate to any type of support – for example from NGOs or as implicit subsidies. Subsidies come in various forms including: direct (cash grants, interest-free loans) and indirect (tax breaks, insurance, low-interest loans, accelerated depreciation, rent rebates).


title: Subsidy

text: Furthermore, they can be broad or narrow, legal or illegal, ethical or unethical. The most common forms of subsidies are those to the producer or the consumer. Producer/production subsidies ensure producers are better off by either supplying market price support, direct support, or payments to factors of production. Consumer/consumption subsidies commonly reduce the price of goods and services to the consumer. For example, in the US at one time it was cheaper to buy gasoline than bottled water.


title: Subsidy

text: A production subsidy encourages suppliers to increase the output of a particular product by partially offsetting the production costs or losses. The objective of production subsidies is to expand production of a particular product more so that the market would promote but without raising the final price to consumers. This type of subsidy is predominantly found in developed markets. Other examples of production subsidies include the assistance in the creation of a new firm (Enterprise Investment Scheme), industry (industrial policy) and even the development of certain areas (regional policy). Production subsidies are critically discussed in the literature as they can cause many problems including the additional cost of storing the extra produced products, depressing world market prices, and incentivizing producers to over-produce, for example, a farmer overproducing in terms of his land's carrying capacity..


title: Subsidy

text: A consumption subsidy is one that subsidizes the behavior of consumers. This type of subsidies are most common in developing countries where governments subsidise such things as food, water, electricity and education on the basis that no matter how impoverished, all should be allowed those most basic requirements. For example, some governments offer 'lifeline' rates for electricity, that is, the first increment of electricity each month is subsidized. Evidence from recent studies suggests that government expenditures on subsidies remain high in many countries, often amounting to several percentage points of GDP. Subsidization on such a scale implies substantial opportunity costs. There are at least three compelling reasons for studying government subsidy behavior. First, subsidies are a major instrument of government expenditure policy. Second, on a domestic level, subsidies affect domestic resource allocation decisions, income distribution, and expenditure productivity. A consumer subsidy is a shift in demand as the subsidy is given directly to consumers.


title: Subsidy

text: An export subsidy is a support from the government for products that are exported, as a means of assisting the country's balance of payments. Usha Haley and George Haley identified the subsidies to manufacturing industry provided by the Chinese government and how they have altered trade patterns. Traditionally, economists have argued that subsidies benefit consumers but hurt the subsidizing countries. Haley and Haley provided data to show that over the decade after China joined the World Trade Organization industrial subsidies have helped give China an advantage in industries in which they previously enjoyed no comparative advantage such as the steel, glass, paper, auto parts, and solar industries. China's shores have also collapsed from overfishing and industrialization, which is why the Chinese government heavily subsidizes its fishermen, who sail the world in search of new grounds.


title: Subsidy

text: Export subsidy is known for being abused. For example, some exporters substantially over declare the value of their goods so as to benefit more from the export subsidy. Another method is to export a batch of goods to a foreign country but the same goods will be re-imported by the same trader via a circuitous route and changing the product description so as to obscure their origin. Thus the trader benefits from the export subsidy without creating real trade value to the economy. Export subsidy as such can become a self-defeating and disruptive policy.


title: Subsidy

text: Adam Smith observed that special government subsidies enabled exporters to sell abroad at substantial ongoing losses. He did not regard that as a sound and sustainable policy. That was because “… under normal industrial-commercial conditions their own interests soon oblige loss-making businesses to deploy their capital in other ways – or to move into markets where the sales prices do cover the supply costs and yield ordinary profits. Like other mercantilist schemes and devices, export bounties are a means of trying to force business capital into channels it would not naturally enter. The schemes are invariably costly and damaging in various ways.”


title: Subsidy

text: An import subsidy is support from the government for products that are imported. Rarer than an export subsidy, an import subsidy further reduces the price to consumers for imported goods. Import subsidies have various effects depending on the subject. For example, consumers in the importing country are better off and experience an increase in consumer welfare due to the decrease in price of the imported goods, as well as the decrease in price of the domestic substitute goods. Conversely, the consumers in the exporting country experience a decrease in consumer welfare due to an increase in the price of their domestic goods. Furthermore, producers of the importing country experience a loss of welfare due to a decrease of the price for the good in their market, while on the other side, the exporters of the producing country experience an increase in well being due to the increase in demand. Ultimately, the import subsidy is rarely used due to an overall loss of welfare for the country due to a decrease in domestic production and a reduction in production throughout the world. However, that can result in a redistribution of income.