title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: On 11 July, Salisbury went to Buckingham Palace without notifying his Cabinet colleagues and resigned. The King invited Balfour to form a new government later that day. Before accepting, Balfour met Chamberlain, who said he was content to remain Colonial Secretary. Despite Chamberlain's organisational skills and immense popularity, many Conservatives still mistrusted his Radicalism, and Chamberlain was aware of the difficulties that would be presented by being part of a Liberal Unionist minority leading a Conservative majority. Balfour and Chamberlain were both aware that the Unionist government's survival depended on their co-operation.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: One of Balfour's first acts as Prime Minister was the introduction of an Education Act, intended to promote National Efficiency. Though Chamberlain supported the cause, the Balfour Act abolished the 2,568 school boards established under the Elementary Education Act 1870 which remained popular with Nonconformists and Radicals and replaced them with local education authorities to administer a state centred system of primary, secondary and technical schools. The Bill would also give ratepayers' money to voluntary Church of England schools; opposition to that provision in the 1870 Act had spurred on Chamberlain's first involvement in politics.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: Chamberlain was aware that the Bill would estrange Nonconformists, Radicals and many Liberal Unionists from the government, but could not oppose it without risking his cabinet post. In response to Chamberlain's warning and suggestion that voluntary Church schools receive funds from central rather than local government, Robert Laurie Morant replied that the Boer War had drained the Exchequer. Chamberlain did temporarily secure a major concession: local authorities would be given the discretion over the issue of rate aid to voluntary schools. Yet even this was renounced before the Act's passage in December 1902. Chamberlain wrote fatalistically, "I consider the Unionist cause is hopeless at the next election, and we shall certainly lose the majority of the Liberal Unionists once and for all."


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: On 23 October 1902, Chamberlain met with Theodor Herzl and expressed his sympathy to the Zionist cause. He was open to Herzl's plan for settlement on the Sinai Peninsula near Arish, but his support was conditional on approval from the Cairo authorities. On 24 April 1903, convinced that such approval would not come, Chamberlain offered Herzl a territory in British East Africa. The proposal came to be known as the Uganda Scheme, as Chamberlain saw the land as he was passing by on the Uganda Railway, though the territory in question was in modern Kenya. The proposal was rejected by both the Zionist Organization and British settlers in East Africa but was a major break-through for the Zionists, as Great Britain had engaged them diplomatically and recognised a need to find a territory appropriate for Jewish autonomy under British suzerainty.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: From 26 December 1902 to 25 February 1903, Chamberlain left Britain for a South African tour, seeking to promote Anglo-Afrikaner conciliation and integration into the British Empire. In Natal, Chamberlain was given a rapturous welcome. In the former Transvaal, he met Boer leaders who were attempting unsuccessfully to alter the peace terms. The reception given to Chamberlain in the former Orange Free State, (at the time renamed the Orange River Colony) was surprisingly friendly, although he engaged in a two-hour argument with General James Barry Munnik Hertzog, who accused the British government of violating three terms of the treaty.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: During his visit, Chamberlain became convinced that the Boer territories required a period of government by the British crown before being granted self-governance within the empire. In the Cape, Chamberlain found that the Afrikaner Bond was more affable regarding his visit than many members of the English speaking Progressive Party, now under the leadership of Jameson, who called Chamberlain 'the callous devil from Birmingham.' Chamberlain successfully persuaded the Prime Minister, John Gordon Sprigg, to hold elections as soon as possible, a positive act considering the hostile nature of the Cape Parliament since 1899. During the tour, Chamberlain and his wife visited 29 towns, and he delivered 64 speeches and received 84 deputations.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: As an extension of Chamberlain's desire for Imperial Federation against a growing global shift toward Germany and the United States of America, he sought to unify and strengthen the imperial economy on the model of Otto von Bismarck's "Zollverein" and the American protective system. This desire was manifested in the policy of imperial preference, which imposed tariffs on foreign imports to favour imperial trade and generate revenue to finance social improvements. To do so, Chamberlain prepared to end the free trade consensus that had dominated British economics since the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: In April 1902, Chamberlain dined with the Hughligans, a small parliamentary clique led by Lord Hugh Cecil. Winston Churchill, among its members in attendance, later recalled:


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: "As [Chamberlain] rose to leave he paused at the door, and turning said with much deliberation, 'You young gentlemen have entertained me royally, and in return I will give you a priceless secret. Tariffs! They are the politics of the future, and of the near future. Study them closely and make yourself masters of them, and you will not regret your hospitality to me.'"


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: In the same month, Chancellor Michael Hicks Beach levied a small duty on corn imports to raise revenue for the War. Chamberlain was further encouraged in June by a report from Gerald Balfour, the President of the Board of Trade and the Prime Minister's younger brother, recommending reciprocal trade agreements with the colonies. In July, the Colonial Conference convened in London and passed a resolution endorsing Imperial Preference. Chamberlain was confident his proposals were gathering popularity, and he brought imperial preference before the Cabinet on 21 October before embarking on his South African tour. Despite vigorous opposition by the new Chancellor, Charles Thomson Ritchie, the Cabinet was generally favourable towards the proposal. In November, the Cabinet agreed to remit the corn tax in favour of the self-governing colonies in the upcoming budget. Chamberlain thus departed for his tour thinking that he had gained the agreement of the Cabinet.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: While Chamberlain spent the winter in South Africa, Ritchie worked to reverse the Cabinet's decision. In March 1903, Ritchie asked Balfour to schedule a meeting to propose the budget to the Cabinet. Balfour refused and warned Chamberlain of Ritchie's continued opposition. Chamberlain arrived in Southampton on 14 March prepared to struggle with Ritchie for the maintenance of the corn tax, but he was shocked to find the majority of the Cabinet in agreement with Ritchie. Balfour chose not to oppose Ritchie, for fear of losing his Chancellor on the eve of the budget. Chamberlain accepted defeat.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: On 23 April, the Chancellor presented his free trade budget without opposition. Chamberlain bided his time and retaliated in a speech on 15 May at Bingley Hall, before which he remarked to the event's organiser, "You can burn your leaflets. We are going to talk about something else." In his speech, he lamented the demise of the corn tax and insisted that imperial preference, which he hoped would dominate the next general election, was the only means to maintain the Empire. His impromptu speech stunned Balfour, who had just publicly insisted imperial preference could wait, and the Cabinet. On 28 May, Chamberlain reiterated his challenge in the House of Commons amidst cheers from many Unionists.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: To defuse Chamberlain's rebellion, Balfour devoted the summer to the study of the question of imperial preference versus free trade. He publicly professed support for neither policy, earning him criticism from the Liberals. Serious debate was sidelined while the Board of Trade compiled statistics, but a Cabinet meeting on 13 August failed to agree, and a final decision was postponed until 14 September, which Balfour hoped would allow Chamberlain time to moderate his position. Content to lose die-hard free trade supporters, Balfour prepared a memorandum containing a number of radical economic reforms.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: Five days in advance of the scheduled meeting, Chamberlain dramatically sent a letter of resignation to Balfour on 9 September, explaining his wish to campaign publicly for imperial preference outside the Cabinet. An hour before the meeting, Chamberlain and Balfour agreed that Chamberlain would publicly resign if the Cabinet could not be persuaded to adopt the new policy, and Austen Chamberlain would be promoted to Chancellor to speak for his father inside the Cabinet. If Chamberlain's public campaign was successful, Balfour could endorse imperial preference at the next general election.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: When the Cabinet failed to endorse his proposals, Chamberlain resigned. Balfour did not tell the meeting about Chamberlain's letter, instead telling many members he believed that Chamberlain was not serious. He then forced the resignations of Ritchie and Lord Balfour of Burleigh. The next day, Lord George Hamilton resigned, as did Devonshire. After Devonshire's resignation, Chamberlain asserted his authority over the Liberal Unionists, and the National Union of Conservative and Unionist Associations declared majority support for tariff reform.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: On 6 October 1903, Chamberlain began the campaign with a speech at Glasgow. With firm support from provincial Unionists and most of the press, Chamberlain extolled the virtues of imperialism and imperial preference to vast crowds. The newly formed Tariff Reform League received vast funding, allowing it to print and distribute large numbers of leaflets and even to play Chamberlain's recorded messages to public meetings by gramophone.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: Chamberlain himself spoke at Greenock, Newcastle, Liverpool, and Leeds, within the first month. At Greenock, he argued free trade threatened British industry, declaring, "Sugar is gone. Silk has gone. Iron is threatened. Wool is threatened. Cotton will go! How long are you going to stand it? At the present moment these industries... are like sheep in a field." At Liverpool, Chamberlain was escorted by mounted police amidst wild cheering. Intending to enlist the working class, Chamberlain assured his audience that tariff reform ensured low unemployment, campaigning with the slogan, "Tariff Reform Means Work for All." When the "Daily News" countered that official import prices demonstrated a loaf of bread under tariff reform would be smaller than under free trade, Chamberlain arranged for two loaves to be baked based upon the respective prices. On 4 November 1903, Chamberlain put the loaves on display at Bingley Hall and, raising them aloft, asked the audience, "Is it not a sporting question... as to which is the larger?" While Chamberlain toured the country, Shadow Chancellor H. H. Asquith followed, preaching the virtues of free trade in the same venues only days later. Asquith's Liberals healed divisions to rally for free trade while Unionist divisions became more apparent.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: The campaign had a brief intermission in February 1904, when Chamberlain, suffering from gout and neuralgia, took a two-month holiday. Around this time, he decided that the Unionists were likely to lose the next election and criticised Balfour, who had endorsed cautious protectionism but was unwilling to go further or announce an early general election, for delaying the inevitable. Chamberlain now hoped Balfour's guarded fiscal doctrine would fail, probably with a strategy of eventually leading the Unionists on a purely protectionist platform after their expected defeat in the general election. He wrote to his son Neville that "The Free Traders are "common" enemies. We must clear them out of the party & let them disappear."


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: By the end of 1904, the Tariff Reform League's numerous branches rivaled the Conservative National Union, and Chamberlain attempted to secure the League's representation inside Conservative Central Office. Balfour maintained his programme of retaliatory tariffs and attempted to minimise the apparent differences between Chamberlain and himself. Publicly, Chamberlain claimed that Balfour's stance was a precursor to full imperial preference. Approaching seventy years of age in 1905, Chamberlain continued to campaign for tariff reform with zeal and energy. Reconciliation appeared imminent when Balfour agreed to a general election after the 1906 Colonial Conference, but Balfour rescinded the agreement after backbench opposition and demanded party unity. Chamberlain ignored his demand and intensified the campaign in November 1905, resulting directly in Balfour's resignation on 4 December.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: The Liberal Party won the 1906 general election by a landslide. The Unionists, divided and out of favour with many former supporters, were reduced to just 157 seats in the House of Commons, though Chamberlain and his followers increased their majorities in the West Midlands.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: Balfour lost his seat in East Manchester, and although the Unionists were now out of government for the first time in a decade, Chamberlain's position among them was at its apex. With the support of approximately 102 of the remaining 157 Unionists, Chamberlain became acting Leader of the Opposition after the election, and it appeared that he might become permanent leader or win a major concession in favour of tariff reform. Chamberlain asked for a party meeting, and Balfour (returned to the Commons) agreed on 14 February 1906 in the "Valentine letters" to concede that,


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: "Fiscal Reform is, and must remain, the constructive work of the Unionist Party. That the objects of such reforms are to secure more equal terms of competition for British trade, and closer commercial union within the Colonies."


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: Although in opposition, it appeared that Chamberlain had successfully associated the Unionists with the cause of tariff reform, and Balfour would be compelled to accede to Chamberlain's future demands.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: On 8 July 1906, Chamberlain celebrated his seventieth birthday and Birmingham was enlivened for a number of days by official luncheons, public addresses, parades, bands and an influx of thousands of congratulatory telegrams. Tens of thousands of people crowded into the city for Chamberlain's passionate 10 July speech promoting the virtues of Radicalism and imperialism.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: On 13 July, Chamberlain collapsed while dressing for dinner in the bathroom of his house at Prince's Gardens. Mary found the door locked and called out, receiving the weakened reply, "I can't get out." Returning with help, she found him exhausted on the floor, having turned the handle from the inside. He had suffered a stroke that paralysed his right side. After a month, Chamberlain was able to walk a small number of steps and resolved to overcome his disabilities. Although unaffected mentally, his sight had deteriorated, compelling him to wear spectacles instead of his monocle. His ability to read was diminished, forcing Mary to read him newspapers and letters. He lost the ability to write with his right hand and his speech altered noticeably. Chamberlain's colleague William Hewins noted, "His voice has lost all its old ring. ... He speaks very slowly and articulates with evident difficulty." Chamberlain barely regained his ability to walk.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: Though he lost all hope of recovering his health and returning to active politics, Chamberlain continued to follow and support the tariff reform campaign and his son Austen's career. He opposed Liberal proposals to remove the House of Lords' veto and gave his blessing to Unionist opposition to Home Rule for Ireland. In the two general elections of 1910, he was returned unopposed in his West Birmingham constituency. In January 1914, Chamberlain decided to not seek re-election.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: On 2 July 1914, six days before his 78th birthday, Chamberlain suffered a heart attack and died in his wife's arms, surrounded by his family.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: Telegrams of condolence arrived from across the world. Prime Minister H. H. Asquith, Chamberlain's adversary a decade before, led the tributes in the House of Commons, declaring, "In [Chamberlain's] striking personality, vivid, masterful, resolute, tenacious, there were no blurred or nebulous outlines, there were no relaxed fibres, there were no moods of doubt and hesitation, there were no pauses of lethargy or fear.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: His family refused an offer of an official burial at Westminster Abbey and a Unitarian ceremony was held in Birmingham. He was laid to rest at Key Hill Cemetery, Hockley, in the same grave as his first two wives, close to that of his parents. On 31 March 1916, the Chamberlain Memorial, a bust created by sculptor Mark Tweed, was unveiled at Westminster Abbey. Among those present were Arthur Balfour, Bonar Law, Chamberlain's sons Austen and Neville (then Lord Mayor of Birmingham), and other members of the Chamberlain, Hutton and Martineau families.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: Winston Churchill called Chamberlain "a splendid piebald: first black, then white, or, in political terms, first fiery red, then true blue". That is the conventional view of Chamberlain's politics – that he became gradually more conservative, beginning to the left of the Liberal party and ending to the right of the Conservatives. An alternative view is that he was always a radical in home affairs and an imperialist in foreign affairs, and that those stances were not in great conflict with each other – with both he rejected "laissez-faire capitalism". For instance, after leaving the Liberals he remained a proponent of workmen's compensation and old-age pensions.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: Historian R. J. A. Adams writes: "A great patriot who burned to guarantee his country's future, Chamberlain's brilliance and impatience guaranteed that he would be judged a political messiah to some, but an unstable destroyer to many more."


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: He is commemorated by the large Chamberlain Memorial in Chamberlain Square, in central Birmingham, erected in 1880; and by the large cast-iron Chamberlain Clock in the city's Jewellery Quarter, erected in 1903 (in both cases, therefore, during his lifetime). His Birmingham home, Highbury Hall, is now a civic conference venue and a venue for civil marriages, and is open occasionally to the public. Highbury Hall is situated in Moseley, two kilometers from Winterbourne House and Garden which was commissioned as a family home for Chamberlain's niece Margaret by her husband John Nettlefold: Winterbourne is now owned by the University of Birmingham.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: Midland Metro named an AnsaldoBreda T-69 tram in his honour. Joseph Chamberlain Sixth Form College in Birmingham is named after him. Chamberlain School, a pre-kindergarten-to-grade-12 public school in Grassy Lake, Alberta, Canada, is named in his honour: the name was chosen by William Salvage, a British immigrant and prosperous farmer, who donated land for its construction in 1910.


title: Joseph Chamberlain

text: The University of Birmingham may be considered Chamberlain's most enduring legacy. He proposed the establishment of a university to complete his vision for the city, seeking to provide "a great school of universal instruction", so that "the most important work of original research should be continuously carried on under most favourable circumstances". He is regarded as the University's main founder and was its first Chancellor. He was largely responsible for its gaining its royal charter in 1900, and for the development of the Edgbaston campus. The 100-metre tall Joseph Chamberlain Memorial Clock Tower ("Old Joe") is named in his honour and is the tallest free-standing clock tower in the world.


title: Elizabeth Bennet

text: Elizabeth Bennet is the protagonist in the 1813 novel "Pride and Prejudice" by Jane Austen. She is often referred to as Eliza or Lizzy by her friends and family. Elizabeth is the second child in a family of five daughters. Though the circumstances of the time and environment push her to seek a marriage of convenience for economic security, Elizabeth wishes to marry for love.


title: Elizabeth Bennet

text: Elizabeth is regarded as the most admirable and endearing of Austen's heroines. She is considered one of the most beloved characters in British literature because of her complexity. Austen herself described Elizabeth as "as delightful a creature as ever appeared in print."


title: Elizabeth Bennet

text: Elizabeth is the second eldest of the five Bennet sisters of the Longbourn estate, situated near the fictional market village of Meryton in Hertfordshire, England. She is 20 years old by the middle of the novel. Elizabeth is described as an intelligent young woman, with "a lively, playful disposition, which delighted in anything ridiculous". She often presents a playful good-natured impertinence without being offensive. Early in the novel, she is depicted as being personally proud of her wit and her accuracy in judging the social behaviour and intentions of others.


title: Elizabeth Bennet

text: Her father is a landowner, but his daughters cannot inherit because the estate is entailed upon the male line (it can only be inherited by male relatives). Upon Mr Bennet's death, Longbourn will therefore be inherited by his cousin and nearest male relation, Mr William Collins, a clergyman for the Rosings Estate in Kent owned by Lady Catherine de Bourgh. This future provides the cause of Mrs Bennet's eagerness to marry her daughters off to wealthy men.


title: Elizabeth Bennet

text: Elizabeth is her father's favourite, described by him as having "something more of quickness than her sisters". In contrast, she is the least dear to her mother, especially after Elizabeth refuses Mr Collins' marriage proposal. Her mother tends to contrast her negatively with her sisters Jane and Lydia, whom she considers superior in beauty and disposition, respectively, and fails to understand her husband's preference. Elizabeth is often upset and embarrassed by her mother's and three younger sisters' impropriety and silliness.


title: Elizabeth Bennet

text: Within her neighbourhood, Elizabeth is considered a beauty and a charming young woman with "fine eyes", to which Mr Darcy is first drawn. Darcy is later attracted more particularly to her "light and pleasing" figure, the "easy playfulness" of her manners, her mind and personality, and eventually considers her "one of the handsomest women" in his acquaintance.


title: Elizabeth Bennet

text: From the beginning, opinions have been divided on the character. Anne Isabella Milbanke gave a glowing review of the novel, while Mary Russell Mitford criticizes Elizabeth's lack of taste. The modern exegetes are torn between admiration for the vitality of the character and the disappointment of seeing Elizabeth intentionally suppress her verve and submit, at least outwardly, to male authority. In Susan Fraiman's essay "The Humiliation of Elizabeth Bennett", the author criticises the fact that Elizabeth must forgo her development as a woman in order to ensure the success of "ties among men [such as her father and Darcy] with agendas of their own". The Bennet sisters have only a relatively small dowry of £1,000; and as their family's estate will pass out of their hands when their father dies, the family faces a major social decline, giving the Bennet girls only a limited time in which to find a husband. About feminist criticism of the character, the French critic Roger Martin du Gard wrote that the primary purpose of Austen was to provide "jouissance" (enjoyment) to her readers, not preach, but the character of Elizabeth is able to manoeuvre within the male-dominated power structure of Regency England to assert her interests in a system that favours her father, Mr Darcy, and the other male characters. Gard noted that the novel hardly glorifies patriarchy since it is strongly implied that it was the financial irresponsibility of Mr Bennet that has placed his family in a precarious social position. Furthermore, it is Elizabeth who criticises her father for not doing more to teach her sisters Lydia and Catherine the value of a good character, which Mr Bennet disregards, leading to Lydia's eloping with Wickham. Unlike the more superficial and/or selfish characters like Lydia, Wickham, Mr Collins, and Charlotte, who regard marriage as a simple matter of satisfying their own desires, for the more mature Elizabeth marriage is the cause of much reflection and serious thought on her part.


title: Elizabeth Bennet

text: The British literacy critic Robert Irvine stated that the reference in the novel to the militia being mobilised and lacking sufficient barracks, requiring them to set up camps in the countryside dates the setting of the novel to the years 1793–1795 as the militia was mobilised in 1793 after France declared war on Great Britain and the last of the barracks for the militia were completed by 1796. Irvine argued that a central concern in Britain in the 1790s, when Austen wrote the first draft of "Pride and Prejudice" under the title "First Impressions" was the need for British elites, both national and regional to rally around the flag in face of the challenge from revolutionary France. It is known that Austen was working on "First Impressions" by 1796 (it is not clear when she began working on the book) and finished off "First Impressions" in 1797. Irvine states that the character of Elizabeth is clearly middle-class, while Mr Darcy is part of the aristocracy. Irvine wrote "Elizabeth, in the end, is awed by Pemberly, and her story ends with her delighted submission to Darcy in marriage. It is "gratitude" that forms the foundation of Elizabeth Bennet's "love" for Fitzwilliam Darcy: caught in a reciprocal gaze with Darcy's portrait at Pemberly, impressed with the evidence of his social power that surrounds her, Elizabeth 'thought of his regard with a deeper sentiment of gratitude than it had ever raised before' ... Elizabeth's desire for Darcy does not happen "despite" the difference in their social situation: it is "produced" by that difference, and can be read as a vindication of the hierarchy which constructs that difference in the first place". Irvine observes that Darcy spends about half his time in London while for people in Meryton London is a stylish place that is very far away, observing that a key difference is when one of the Bennet family is ill, they use the services of a local apothecary while Mr Darcy calls upon a surgeon from London. In this regard, Irvine argued that the marriage of Elizabeth and Darcy stands for the union of local and national elites in Britain implicitly against the challenge to the status quo represented by the French Republic.


title: Elizabeth Bennet

text: By contrast, the American scholar Rachel Brownstein argued that Elizabeth rejects two offers of marriage by the time she arrives at Pemberley, and notes in rejecting Mr Collins that the narrator of the novel paraphrases the feminist Mary Wollstonecraft that Elizabeth cannot love him because she is "a rational creature speaking the truth from her heart". Brownstein notes that it is reading Darcy's letter following her first rejection of him that leads her to say "Till this moment, I never knew myself". Brownstein further states that Austen has it both ways in depicting Elizabeth as she uses much irony. After Elizabeth rejects Darcy and then realizes she loves him, she comments "no such happy marriage could now teach the admiring multitude what connubial felicity really was" as if she herself is aware that she is a character in a romance novel. Later, she tells Darcy in thanking him for paying off Wickham's debts and ensuring Lydia's marriage that they might be in the wrong, "for what become of the moral, if our comfort springs from a breach of promise, for I ought not to have mentioned the subject?".


title: Elizabeth Bennet

text: Brownstein argues that Austen's ironical way of depicting Elizabeth allows her to present her heroine as both a "proto-feminist" and a "fairy-tale heroine". At one point, Elizabeth says: "I am resolved to act in that manner, which will, in my own opinion, constitute my happiness, without reference to "you", or to any other person wholly unconnected with me". The American scholar Claudia Johnson wrote that this was a surprisingly strong statement for a female character in 1813. Likewise, Elizabeth does not defer to the traditional elite, saying of Lady Catherine's opposition to her marrying Darcy: "Neither duty nor honor nor gratitude have any possible claim on me, in the present instance. No principle of either, would be violated by my marriage with Mr Darcy". In the same, Elizabeth defends her love of laughter as somewhat life-improving by saying: "I hope I never ridicule what is wise or good". Elizabeth regards herself as competent to judge what is "wise and good", and refuses to let others dictate to her what she may or may not laugh at, making her one of the most individualistic of Austen heroines. However, Johnson noted that Austen hedged her bets here, reflecting the strict censorship imposed in Britain during the wars with France; Elizabeth reaffirms her wish to be part of the elite by marrying Darcy, instead of challenging it, as she says: "He is a gentleman; I am a gentleman's daughter; so far we are equal." In the same way Austen avoids the issue of filial obedience – questioning of which would have marked her out as a "radical" – by having Mrs Bennet tell her daughter she must marry Collins where her father says she must not. However, the way in which both Elizabeth's parents are portrayed as, if not bad parents, then at least not entirely good parents, implies that Elizabeth is more sensible and able to judge people better than both her mother and father, making her the best one to decide who her husband should be. Reflecting her strong character, Elizabeth complains that Bingley is a "slave of his designing friends", noting for all his pleasantness that he does not have it in him to really stand up for himself; Johnson wrote the "politically potent metaphor" of describing Bingley as a "slave" was a potential reflection of Austen's abolitionist sentiments.


title: Elizabeth Bennet

text: Susan Morgan regards Elizabeth's major flaw to be that she is "morally disengaged" – taking much of her philosophy from her father, Elizabeth observes her neighbours, never becoming morally obligated to make a stand. Elizabeth sees herself as an ironic observer of the world, making fun of those around her. Elizabeth's self-destination is one of skepticism and opposition to the world around her, and much of the novel concerns her struggle to find her own place in a world she rejects. At one point, Elizabeth tells Darcy: "Follies and nonsense, whims and inconsistencies do divert me, I own, and I laught at them whenever I can". Though Elizabeth is portrayed as intelligent, she often misjudges people around her because of her naivety – for example, misunderstanding the social pressures on her friend Charlotte to get married, being taken in completely for a time by Wickham and misjudging Darcy's character. After hearing Wickham's account disparaging Darcy's character, and being advised by her sister Jane not to jump to conclusions, Elizabeth confidently tells her "I beg your pardon – one knows exactly what to think".


title: Elizabeth Bennet

text: However, Elizabeth is able to see, albeit belatedly, that Wickham had misled her about Darcy, admitting she was too influenced by "every charm of air and address". Gary Kelly argued that Austen as the daughter of a Church of England minister would have been very familiar with the Anglican view of life as a "romantic journey" in which God watches over stories of human pride, folly, fall and redemption by free will and the ability to learn from one's mistakes. Kelly argued that aspects of the Anglican understanding of life and the universe can be seen in Elizabeth, who, after rejecting Darcy and then receiving his letter explaining his actions, rethinks her view of him, and comes to understand that her pride and prejudice had blinded her to who he really was, marking the beginning of her romantic journey of "suffering and endurance" that ends happily for her.


title: Elizabeth Bennet

text: After seeing Pemberley, Elizabeth realizes Darcy's good character, and sees a chance to become part of society without compromising her values. At Pemberley, Elizabeth sees the "whole scene" from one viewpoint and then sees the "objects were taking different positions" from another viewpoint while remaining beautiful, which is a metaphor for how her subjectivity had influenced her view of the world. Like other Austen heroines, Elizabeth likes to escape into the gardens and nature in general when under pressure. For Austen, gardens were not only places of reflection and relaxation, but also symbols of femininity and of England. The American scholar Alison Sulloway wrote: "Austen had seen and suffered enough causal exploitation so that she took the pastoral world under her tender but unobtrusive fictional protection, just as she felt protective towards human figures under the threat of abuse or neglect". Beyond that, Napoleon had often talked of a desire to make England's fair gardens and fields his own, speaking as if England "...was a mere woman, ripe for his exploitation", so for Austen, the beauty of the English countryside served as a symbol of the England her brothers serving in the Royal Navy were fighting to protect. Elizabeth's connection with nature leads to appreciate the beauty of Pemberley, which allows hers to see the good in Darcy. Notably, Elizabeth is not guided by financial considerations, and refuses to seek favour with the wealthy aristocrat Lady Catherine de Bourgh. Despite Mr Darcy's wealth, Elizabeth turns down his first marriage proposal and only accepts him after she realises that she loves him. Johnson wrote that given the values of Regency England, it was inevitable and expected that a young woman should be married, but Elizabeth makes it clear that what she wants is to marry a man she loves, not just to be married to somebody, which was a quietly subversive message for the time.


title: Elizabeth Bennet

text: In the early 19th century, there was a genre of "conduct books" settling out what were the rules for "propriety" for young women, and the scholar Mary Poovey argued in her 1984 book "The Proper Lady and the Woman Writer", which examined the "conduct books", that one of the main messages was that a "proper young lady" never expresses any sexual desire for a man. Poovey argued that in this context, Elizabeth's wit is a merely her way of defending herself from the rules of "propriety" set out by the conduct books as opposed to being a subversive force. In this regard, Poovey argued that Austen played it safe by having Elizabeth abandon her wit when she falls in love with Darcy, taking her struggle into effort to mortify Darcy's pride instead of seeking him out because she loves him. The conduct books used a double meaning of the word modesty, which meant both to be outwardly polite in one's conduct and to be ignorant of one's sexuality. This double meaning of modesty placed women in a bind, since any young woman who outwardly conformed to expectations of modesty was not really modest at all, as she was attempting to hide her awareness of sexuality. In the novel, when Elizabeth rejects Mr Collins's marriage proposal, she explains she is being modest in rejecting an offer from a man she cannot love, which leads her to be condemned for not really being modest. Mr Collins often cites one of the more popular "conduct books", "Sermons to Young Women", which was published in 1766, but was especially popular in the decades from 1790 to 1810. Unlike the conduct books which declared that women should look back on the past as a way of self-examination, Elizabeth says: "Think only of the past as its remembrance gives you pleasure".


title: Elizabeth Bennet

text: Johnson wrote that changes in expectations for women's behavior since Austen's time has led many readers today to miss "Elizabeth's outrageous unconventionality" as she breaks many of the rules for women set out by the "conduct books". Johnson noted that Collins approvingly quotes from "Sermons to Young Women" that women should never display any "briskness of air and levity of deportment", qualities that contrasted strongly with Elizabeth who has "a lively, playful disposition, which delighted in anything ridiculous". The liveliness of Elizabeth also extends to the physical sphere, as she displays what Johnson called "an unladylike athleticism". Elizabeth walks for miles, and constantly jumps, runs and rambles about, which was not considered conventional behavior for a well-bred lady in Regency England. The narrator says that Elizabeth's temper is "to be happy", and Johnson wrote that her constant joy in life is what "makes her and her novel so distinctive". Johnson wrote: "Elizabeth's relationship with Darcy resonates with a physical passion...The rapport between these two from start to finish is intimate, even racy". Johnson wrote that the way in which Elizabeth and Darcy pursue each other in secret puts their relationship "on the verge of an impropriety unique in Austen's fiction". Many of the remarks made by Elizabeth to Darcy such as "Despise me if you dare" or his "I am not afraid of you" resound with sexual tension, which reflected "Austen's implicit approval of erotic love".


title: Elizabeth Bennet

text: In her letter to Cassandra dated 29 January 1813, Jane Austen wrote: "I must confess that I think her as delightful a creature as ever appeared in print, and how I shall be able to tolerate those who do not like her at least I do not know". Austen herself wrote to Cassandra about one fan of her books that "Her liking Darcy & Elizth is enough". The book notes that "Follies and nonsense, whims and inconsistencies" are what delight Elizabeth, which Brownstein noted also applied to Austen as well. This mix of energy and intelligence, and her gaiety and resilience make Elizabeth a true Stendhal heroine according to Tony Tanner, and he adds that there are not many English heroines that we can say that of. Elizabeth Bowen, however, found her charmless, whilst to Edmund Crispin's fictional detective Gervase Fen she and her sisters were "intolerable...those husband-hunting minxes in "Pride and Prejudice"".


title: Elizabeth Bennet

text: The character of Elizabeth Bennet, marked by intelligence and independent thinking, and her romance with the proud Mr. Darcy have carried over into various theatrical retellings. Helen Fielding's novel "Bridget Jones's Diary", as well as the film series of the same name, is a modern adaptation of "Pride and Prejudice", with Elizabeth as Renée Zellweger's title character. In Gurinder Chadha's Bollywood adaptation, "Bride and Prejudice", Aishwarya Rai plays the Elizabeth character, Lalita Bakshi. In the 2008 television film "Lost in Austen", actress Gemma Arterton plays a version of Lizzy who switches places with a modern-day young woman. Lily James starred as the zombie-slaying Elizabeth Bennet in the film version of "Pride and Prejudice and Zombies", a popular novel by Seth Grahame-Smith. "Fire Island" is a modern day retelling of "Pride and Prejudice", recasting the Bennett family as a queer found family, with screenwriter Joel Kim Booster starring as the Elizabeth corollary.


title: Elizabeth Bennet

text: One of the most notable portrayals of the character has been that of Keira Knightley in "Pride & Prejudice", directed by Joe Wright. Knightley received a Best Actress Academy Award nomination for her performance.


title: Elizabeth Bennet

text: The character has most recently been used in "The Lizzie Bennet Diaries", a project which is partly headed by YouTube vlogger Hank Green, and depicts Elizabeth (played by Ashley Clements) as a modern-day woman in America posting video blogs about her life along with her friend 'Charlotte Lu' a character based on Charlotte Lucas.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: Boogie-woogie is a genre of blues music that became popular during the late 1920s, developed in African-American communities since 1870s. It was eventually extended from piano, to piano duo and trio, guitar, big band, country and western music, and gospel. While standard blues traditionally expresses a variety of emotions, boogie-woogie is mainly associated with dancing (although not the competitive dance known as boogie-woogie, a term of convenience in that sport). The genre had a significant influence on rhythm and blues and rock and roll.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: Boogie-woogie is characterized by a regular left-hand bass figure, which is transposed following the chord changes.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: Boogie-woogie is not strictly a solo piano style; it can accompany singers and be featured in orchestras and small combos. It is sometimes called ""eight to the bar"", as much of it is written in common time () time using eighth notes (quavers) (see time signature). The chord progressions are typically based on I–IV–V–I (with many formal variations of it, such as I/i–IV/iv–v/I, as well as chords that lead into these ones).


title: Boogie-woogie

text: For the most part, boogie-woogie tunes are twelve-bar blues, although the style has been applied to popular songs such as "Swanee River" and hymns such as "Just a Closer Walk with Thee".


title: Boogie-woogie

text: Several African terms have been suggested as having some interesting linguistic precursors to "boogie": Among them are the:


title: Boogie-woogie

text: In sheet music literature prior to 1900, there are at least three examples of the word "boogie" in music titles in the archives of the Library of Congress. In 1901, "Hoogie Boogie" appeared in the title of published sheet music, the first known instance where a redoubling of the word "Boogie" occurs in the title of published music. (In 1880, "The Boogie Man" had occurred as the title of published music.) The first use of "Boogie" in a recording title appears to be a "blue cylinder" recording made by Edison of the "American Quartet" performing "That Syncopated Boogie Boo" in 1913. The "Oxford English Dictionary" states that the word is a reduplication of "boogie", which was used for "rent parties" as early as 1913.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: "Boogie" next occurs in the title of Wilbur Sweatman's April 1917 recording of "Boogie Rag". None of these sheet music or audio recording examples contain the musical elements that would identify them as boogie-woogie. The 1919 recordings (two takes) of "Weary Blues" by the Louisiana Five contained the same boogie-woogie bass figure as appears in the 1915 "Weary Blues" sheet music by Artie Matthews. Tennison has recognized these 1919 recordings as the earliest sound recordings which contain a boogie-woogie bass figure.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: Blind Lemon Jefferson used the term "Booga Rooga" to refer to a guitar bass figure that he used in "Match Box Blues". Jefferson may have heard the term from Huddie "Lead Belly" Ledbetter, who played frequently with Jefferson. Lead Belly, who was born in Mooringsport, La., and grew up in Harrison County, Texas, in the community of Leigh, said he first heard boogie-woogie piano in the Caddo Lake area of northeast Texas in 1899. He said it influenced his guitar-playing. Lead Belly also said he heard boogie-woogie piano in the Fannin Street district of Shreveport, Louisiana. Some of the players he heard were Dave Alexander, who recorded for Decca in 1937 as "Black Ivory King", and a piano player called Pine Top (not Pine Top Smith, who was not born until 1904, but possibly Pine Top Williams or Pine Top Hill.) Lead Belly was among the first guitar-players to adapt the rolling bass of boogie-woogie piano.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: Texas, as the state of origin, became reinforced by Jelly Roll Morton, who said he heard the boogie piano style there early in the 20th century, as did Leadbelly and Bunk Johnson, according to Rosetta Reitz.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: The first time the modern-day spelling of "boogie-woogie" was used in a title of a published audio recording of music appears to be Pine Top Smith's December 1928 recording titled "Pine Top's Boogie Woogie", a song whose lyrics contain dance instructions to "boogie-woogie".


title: Boogie-woogie

text: The earliest documented inquiries into the geographical origin of boogie-woogie occurred in the late 1930s when oral histories from the oldest living Americans of both African and European descent revealed a broad consensus that boogie-woogie piano was first played in Texas in the early 1870s. Additional citations place the origins of boogie-woogie in the Piney Woods of northeast Texas.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: Max Harrison (in the book "Jazz" edited by Hentoff and McCarthy in 1959) and Mack McCormick (in the liner notes to his Treasury of Field Recordings, Vol. 2) concluded that "Fast Western" was the first term by which boogie-woogie was known. He stated that "in Houston, Dallas, and Galveston — all Negro piano players played that way. This style was often referred to as a 'fast western' or 'fast blues' as differentiated from the 'slow blues' of New Orleans and St. Louis. At these gatherings the ragtime and blues boys could easily tell from what section of the country a man came, even going so far as to name the town, by his interpretation of a piece."


title: Boogie-woogie

text: According to Tennison, when he interviewed Lee Ree Sullivan in Texarkana in 1986, Sullivan told him that he was familiar with "Fast Western" and "Fast Texas" as terms to refer to boogie-woogie in general, but not to denote the use of any specific bass figure used in boogie-woogie. Sullivan said that "Fast Western" and "Fast Texas" were terms that derived from the Texas Western Railroad Company of Harrison County. The company was chartered on February 16, 1852 and changed its name to "Southern Pacific" in 1856. It built its first track from Marshall, Texas Swanson's Landing at Caddo Lake in 1857. (This Texas-based "Southern Pacific" was not connected to the more well known Southern Pacific originating in San Francisco, California.) The Southern Pacific of Texas was bought by the newly formed Texas and Pacific Railway on March 21, 1872.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: Although the Texas Western Railroad Company changed its name to Southern Pacific, Sullivan said the name "Texas Western" stuck among the slaves who constructed the railroad.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: A key to identifying the geographical area in which boogie-woogie originated is understanding the relationship of boogie-woogie music with the steam railroad, both in the sense of how the music might have been influenced by sounds associated with the arrival of steam locomotives as well as the cultural impact the sudden emergence of the railroad might have had.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: The railroad did not arrive in northeast Texas as an extension of track from existing lines from the north or the east. Rather, the first railroad locomotives and iron rails were brought to northeast Texas via steamboats from New Orleans via the Mississippi and Red Rivers and Caddo Lake to Swanson's Landing, located on the Louisiana/Texas state line. Beginning with the formation of the Texas Western Railroad Company in Marshall, Texas, through the subsequent establishment in 1871 of the Texas and Pacific Railway company, which located its headquarters and shops there, Marshall was the only railroad hub in the Piney Woods of northeast Texas at the time the music developed. The sudden appearance of steam locomotives and the building of mainline tracks and tap lines to serve logging operations was pivotal to the creation of the music in terms of its sound and rhythm. It was also crucial to the rapid migration of the musical style from the rural barrel house camps to the cities and towns served by the Texas and Pacific Railway Company.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: "Although the neighboring states of Arkansas, Louisiana, and Missouri would also produce boogie-woogie players and their boogie-woogie tunes, and despite the fact that Chicago would become known as the center for this music through such pianists as Jimmy Yancey, Albert Ammons, and Meade "Lux" Lewis, Texas was home to an environment that fostered creation of boogie-style: the lumber, cattle, turpentine, and oil industries, all served by an expanding railway system from the northern corner of East Texas to the Gulf Coast and from the Louisiana border to Dallas and West Texas." Alan Lomax wrote: "Anonymous black musicians, longing to grab a train and ride away from their troubles, incorporated the rhythms of the steam locomotive and the moan of their whistles into the new dance music they were playing in jukes and dance halls. Boogie-woogie forever changed piano playing, as ham-handed black piano players transformed the instrument into a polyrhythmic railroad train."


title: Boogie-woogie

text: In the 1986 television broadcast of Britain's "The South Bank Show" about boogie-woogie, music historian Paul Oliver noted: "Now the conductors were used to the logging camp pianists clamoring aboard, telling them a few stories, jumping off the train, getting into another logging camp, and playing again for eight hours, barrel house. In this way the music got around—all through Texas—and eventually, of course, out of Texas. Now when this new form of piano music came from Texas, it moved out towards Louisiana. It was brought by people like George W. Thomas, an early pianist who was already living in New Orleans by about 1910 and writing "New Orleans Hop Scop Blues", which really has some of the characteristics of the music that we came to know as Boogie."


title: Boogie-woogie

text: Paul Oliver also wrote that George W. Thomas "composed the theme of the New Orleans Hop Scop Blues — in spite of its title — based on the blues he had heard played by the pianists of East Texas." On February 12, 2007, Oliver confirmed to John Tennison that it was Sippie Wallace who told Oliver that performances by East Texas pianists had formed the basis for George Thomas's "Hop Scop Blues".


title: Boogie-woogie

text: Brothers George Thomas and Hersal Thomas migrated from Texas to Chicago and brought boogie-woogie with them, influencing a number of pianists, including Jimmy Yancey, Meade Lux Lewis, and Albert Ammons. Many elements now recognized as foundational elements of boogie-woogie are present in their 1922 song "The Fives".


title: Boogie-woogie

text: Early generation boogie-woogie players recognized basic boogie-woogie bass lines by geographical locations with which they associated them. Lee Ree Sullivan identified a number of these left hand bass lines for Tennison in 1986. From the primitive to the complex, those identifications indicate that the most primitive form of the music was associated with Marshall, Texas – and that the left-hand bass lines grew more complex as the distance from Marshall increased.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: The most primitive of these left hand bass lines is the one that was called "the Marshall". It is a simple, four-beats-to-the-bar figure. The second-most primitive bass-line, called "the Jefferson", is also four-beats-to-the-bar, but goes down in pitch on the last note in each four-note cycle. It has been suggested that this downturn in pitch reveals a possible New Orleans influence. Jefferson, Texas, about 17 miles north of Marshall, was the westernmost port of a steamboat route that connected to New Orleans via Caddo Lake, the Red River, and the Mississippi River.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: The remaining bass lines rise in complexity with distance from Marshall, Texas as one would expect variations and innovations would occur as the territory in which the music has been introduced expands.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: In January 2010, John Tennison summarized his research into the origins of boogie-woogie with the conclusion that Marshall, Texas is "the municipality whose boundaries are most likely to encompass or be closest to the point on the map which is the geographic center of gravity for all instances of Boogie Woogie performance between 1870 and 1880".


title: Boogie-woogie

text: Tennison states: "Given the account of Elliot Paul, and given that Lead Belly witnessed boogie-woogie in 1899 in the Arklatex; and given the North to South migration of the Thomas family; and given the Texas & Pacific headquarters in Marshall in the early 1870s; and given that Harrison County had the largest slave population in the state of Texas; and given the fact that the best-documented and largest-scale turpentine camps in Texas did not occur until after 1900 in Southeast Texas, it is most probable that boogie-woogie spread from Northeast to Southeast Texas, rather than from Southeast to Northeast Texas, or by having developed diffusely with an even density over all of the Piney Woods of East Texas. It would not be surprising if there was as yet undiscovered evidence of the earliest boogie-woogie performances buried (metaphorically or literally) in Northeast Texas."


title: Boogie-woogie

text: On May 13, 2010, the Marshall City Commission enacted an official declaration naming Marshall as the "birthplace" of boogie-woogie music, and embarked on a program to encourage additional historical research and to stimulate interest in and appreciation for the early African-American culture in northeast Texas that played a vital role in creating boogie-woogie music. "Birthplace of Boogie Woogie" was registered by the Marshall Convention and Visitors on June 21, 2011.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: A song titled "Tin Roof Blues" was published in 1923 by the Clarence Williams Publishing Company. Compositional credit is given to Richard M. Jones. The Jones composition uses a boogie bass in the introduction with some variation throughout. In February 1923, Joseph Samuels' Tampa Blue Jazz Band recorded the George W. Thomas number "The Fives" for Okeh Records, considered the first example of jazz band boogie-woogie.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: Jimmy Blythe's recording of "Chicago Stomps" from April 1924 is sometimes called the first complete boogie-woogie piano solo record.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: The first boogie-woogie hit was "Pinetop's Boogie Woogie" by Pinetop Smith, recorded in 1928 and first released in 1929. Smith's record was the first boogie-woogie recording to be a commercial hit, and helped establish "boogie-woogie" as the name of the style. It was closely followed by another example of pure boogie-woogie, "Honky Tonk Train Blues" by Meade Lux Lewis, recorded by Paramount Records(1927), first released in March 1930. The performance emulated a railroad trip, perhaps lending credence to the "train theory".


title: Boogie-woogie

text: Boogie-woogie gained further public attention in 1938, thanks to the "From Spirituals to Swing" concert in Carnegie Hall promoted by record producer John Hammond. The concert featured Big Joe Turner and Pete Johnson performing Turner's tribute to Johnson, "Roll 'Em Pete", as well as Meade Lux Lewis performing "Honky Tonk Train Blues" and Albert Ammons playing "Swanee River Boogie". "Roll 'Em Pete" is now considered to be an early rock and roll song.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: These three pianists, with Turner, took up residence in the Café Society night club in New York City where they were popular with the sophisticated set. They often played in combinations of two and even three pianos, creating a richly textured piano performance.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: After the Carnegie Hall concert, it was only natural for swing bands to incorporate the boogie-woogie beat into some of their music. Tommy Dorsey's band recorded an updated version of "Pine Top's Boogie Woogie" in 1938, which (as "Boogie Woogie") became a hit in 1943 and 1945, and was to become the swing era's second best seller, only second to Glenn Miller's "In the Mood". In 1939, at the suggestion of Columbia Records producer John Hammond, Harry James recorded the singles Boo-Woo and Woo-Woo with Pete Johnson and Albert Ammons. Also from 1939, the Will Bradley orchestra had a string of boogie hits such as the original versions of "Beat Me Daddy (Eight To The Bar)" and "Down the Road a Piece", both 1940, and "Scrub Me Mamma With A Boogie Beat", in 1941. That same year, The Andrews Sisters had a top 10 hit single with their recording of "Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy".


title: Boogie-woogie

text: The popularity of the Carnegie Hall concert meant work for many of the fellow boogie players and also led to the adaptation of boogie-woogie sounds to many other forms of music. Tommy Dorsey's band had a hit with "T.D.'s Boogie Woogie" as arranged by Sy Oliver, and soon there were boogie-woogie songs, recorded and printed, of many different stripes. These included most famously, in the big-band genre, the ubiquitous "Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy", which was revamped by Christina Aguilera as her 2006 hit, "Candyman".


title: Boogie-woogie

text: The boogie-woogie fad lasted from the late 1930s into the early 1950s, and made a major contribution to the development of jump blues and ultimately to rock and roll, epitomized by Fats Domino, Little Richard and Jerry Lee Lewis. Louis Jordan is a famous jump blues musician. Boogie-woogie is still to be heard in clubs and on records throughout Europe and North America. Big Joe Duskin displayed on his 1979 album, "Cincinnati Stomp", a command of piano blues and boogie-woogie, which he had absorbed at first hand in the 1940s from Albert Ammons and Pete Johnson.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: The trickle of what was initially called hillbilly boogie, or Okie boogie (later to be renamed country boogie), became a flood beginning around late 1945. One notable country boogie song from this period was the Delmore Brothers' "Freight Train Boogie". More representative examples can be found in some of the songs of Western swing pioneer Bob Wills. The hillbilly boogie period lasted into the 1950s, the last recordings of this era were made by Tennessee Ernie Ford with Cliffie Stone and his orchestra with the guitar duo Jimmy Bryant and Speedy West. Bill Haley and the Saddlemen recorded "Sundown Boogie" in 1952, which once again featured the guitar playing the boogie-woogie rhythm.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: Boogie-woogie continued in country music through the end of the 20th century. The Charlie Daniels Band (whose earlier tune "The South's Gonna Do It Again" uses boogie-woogie influences) released "Boogie Woogie Fiddle Country Blues" in 1988, and three years later in 1991 Brooks & Dunn had a huge hit with "Boot Scootin' Boogie". In addition, some tradition-minded country artists, such as Asleep at the Wheel, Merle Haggard, and George Strait, incorporated boogie-woogie in their recordings.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: In the many styles of blues, especially Chicago blues and (more recently) West Coast blues, some pianists and guitarists were influenced by, and employed, the traditional boogie-woogie styles. Some of the earliest and most influential were Big Maceo Merriweather and Sunnyland Slim. Otis Spann and Pinetop Perkins, two of the best-known blues pianists, are heavily boogie-woogie influenced, with the latter taking both his name and signature tune from Pinetop Smith.


title: Boogie-woogie

text: In Western classical music, the composer Conlon Nancarrow was also deeply influenced by boogie-woogie, as many of his early works for player piano demonstrate. "A Wonderful Time Up There" is a boogie-woogie gospel song. In 1943, Morton Gould composed "Boogie-Woogie Etude" for classical pianist José Iturbi, who premiered and recorded it that year. Povel Ramel's first hit in 1944 was "Johanssons boogie-woogie-vals" where he mixed boogie-woogie with waltz. 21st-century commentators have also noted the characteristics of boogie-woogie in the third variation of the second movement of Ludwig van Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 32, written between 1821 and 1822.


title: Hattie Morahan

text: Harriet Jane Morahan (born 7 October 1978) is an English actress. Her roles include Sister Clara in "The Golden Compass" (2007), Gale Benson in "The Bank Job" (2008), Alice in "The Bletchley Circle" (2012–2014), Ann in "Mr. Holmes" (2015), Rose Coyne in "My Mother and Other Strangers" (2016), and Agathe/The Enchantress in "Beauty and the Beast" (2017).


title: Hattie Morahan

text: Morahan was born on 7 October 1978 in Lambeth, London. She is the younger daughter of director Christopher Morahan and actress Anna Carteret. Her older sister Rebecca is a theatre director, and her half-brother Andy is a music video and film director. As a child, she attended parties thrown by Sir Laurence Olivier, who once helped her with her mathematics homework.


title: Hattie Morahan

text: Morahan was educated at Frensham Heights School. She wanted to attend Newcastle University, but her father encouraged her to follow older sister Rebecca to New Hall, Cambridge, where she graduated with a BA in English in 2000. While at Cambridge, she directed and appeared in student productions, including "A View from the Bridge", which won her 'the most outstanding performance' award at the 1999 National Student Drama Festival for her role as Catherine.


title: Hattie Morahan

text: Following Cambridge, Morahan's parents encouraged her to attend the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, but she was eager to begin working and told her parents she would enroll only if she was not working professionally within a year.


title: Hattie Morahan

text: Morahan made her professional debut at 17, playing the leading role of Una Gwithian in a two-part BBC television adaptation of "The Peacock Spring" (1996).


title: Hattie Morahan

text: Morahan joined the Royal Shakespeare Company in 2001, making her theatre debut at Stratford-upon-Avon in "Love in a Wood" and her London debut at the Barbican Theatre (that December) in "Hamlet". Other credits for the company included "Night of the Soul" and "Prisoner's Dilemma".


title: Hattie Morahan

text: At the Tricycle Theatre in March 2004 she played Ruby, a 1960s hippie who becomes a disenchanted 1980s political wife, for the Oxford Stage Company revival of Peter Flannery's "Singer". In the same year she first worked with Katie Mitchell at the National Theatre when she starred in the title role of Euripides' "Iphigenia at Aulis".


title: Hattie Morahan

text: In July 2005, she appeared again at the National in Nick Dear's "Power", staged in the Cottesloe Theatre and also won acclaim at the West Yorkshire Playhouse, Leeds, in September 2005 playing Viola in Ian Brown's production of "Twelfth Night".


title: Hattie Morahan

text: In 2006, she played the leading role, of Penelope Toop, in Douglas Hodge's touring revival of Philip King's hit farce "See How They Run". In the same year, for her Lyttelton Theatre performance as Nina in Katie Mitchell's staging of Chekhov's "The Seagull", she was awarded second prize in the Ian Charleson Awards 2007.


title: Hattie Morahan

text: TV credits include "Bodies" and BBC One's "Outnumbered", where she portrays recurring character Jane. She has appeared in series 1, 2 and 4 of "Outnumbered", as well as the Christmas Specials in 2009, 2011 and 2012.


title: Hattie Morahan

text: In January 2008, she appeared in the film "The Bank Job", and she played a mounted policewoman in the ITV comedy drama pilot "Bike Squad".


title: Hattie Morahan

text: Giving a career enhancing performance, she also played Elinor Dashwood in BBC One's three-part adaptation, by Andrew Davies, of Jane Austen's novel "Sense and Sensibility", first broadcast on New Year's Day 2008. On 13 June 2008, she won Best Actress at the 14th Shanghai Television Festival for her performance.


title: Hattie Morahan

text: On 26 February 2008, she played Libby, a graduate investigating mis-selling of bank loans, in D.J. Britton's radio play "When Greed Becomes Fear", a BBC Radio 4 Afternoon Play 'inspired by the sub-prime lending fiasco in America.'


title: Hattie Morahan

text: She worked again with director Katie Mitchell, co-starring with Benedict Cumberbatch in "The City", a new, darkly comic mystery play by Martin Crimp, 24 April – 7 June 2008.


title: Hattie Morahan

text: In July 2008, she returned to the National to appear in "...some trace of her", Katie Mitchell's adaptation of Dostoyevsky's "The Idiot", co-starring Ben Whishaw at the Cottesloe Theatre, while later in the year she played Mary in T.S. Eliot's "The Family Reunion" at the Donmar Warehouse. She returned to the National in April 2009 to play Kay Conway in Rupert Goold's production of J. B. Priestley's "Time and the Conways" in the Lyttelton auditorium and also Dawn in Caryl Churchill's "Three More Sleepless Nights" in the same season.


title: Hattie Morahan

text: On 28 February 2010, she appeared as Miss Enid in "Lark Rise to Candleford", and then as Martina Twain in the BBC adaptation of Martin Amis's "Money". In the theatre, she played Annie in "The Real Thing" by Tom Stoppard at The Old Vic theatre, directed by Anna Mackmin, from April to June 2010; a year later returning to the stage in Thea Sharrock's pared-down Sheffield Crucible revival of David Hare's 1978 "Plenty": "Morahan affords the heady sensation of watching an actress at the top of her game" (Sunday Times, Culture, 14 February 2011).


title: Hattie Morahan

text: From 29 June to 26 July 2012, she played the lead role of Nora, opposite Dominic Rowan's Torvald, in a new version of "A Doll's House" by Simon Stephens at London's Young Vic Theatre, in a production directed by Carrie Cracknell and designed by Ian MacNeil. Her performance saw her named Best Actress at the 2012 Evening Standard Awards and the 2012 Critics' Circle Theatre Awards.


title: Hattie Morahan

text: From 8 August to 26 October 2013, Morahan reprised her role as Nora Helmer alongside Dominic Rowan, who returned as her husband Torvald, at the Duke of York's Theatre London.


title: Hattie Morahan

text: In July 2015, Morahan played the role of doomed mother Elizabeth Aldridge in the BBC's two-part television adaptation of Sadie Jones' debut novel "The Outcast". "The Guardian"s Julia Raeside was impressed with Morahan's portrayal, writing, "She is so perfectly cast, the lack of her is palpable on screen. We miss her too." The following year, Morahan starred in the five-part BBC series "My Mother and Other Strangers".


title: Hattie Morahan

text: Morahan has been in a relationship with actor and director Blake Ritson since they met at Cambridge University in the late 1990s; the pair have been engaged since the mid 2000s. She worked as script supervisor on three of his short films and as costume designer and a performer on "Good Boy" (2008). "He needs help behind the scenes," she told "The Sunday Times". "I'm happy to supply it. I just like to get on with it." Morahan gave birth to the couple's daughter, Amity, in August 2016.


title: Catherine Hickland

text: Catherine Hickland (born February 11, 1956) is an American film, stage, and television actress, as well as a singer, author and cosmetics-company CEO and hypnotist. She began her career in television in 1978, appearing in guest roles on several series before being cast in a recurring role on "Texas" from 1980 to 1981. She also had supporting roles in the comedy film "The Last Married Couple in America" (1980), and the horror films "Ghost Town" (1988) and "Witchery" (1988).


title: Catherine Hickland

text: In 1995, Hickland appeared as Fantine in a Broadway production of "Les Misérables". From 1998 to 2008, she appeared in the U.S. soap opera "One Life to Live", playing the character of Lindsay Rappaport, reprising the role again in 2009 and 2012. Hickland is also the CEO of Cat Cosmetics, her own cosmetics line that she started in 2001.


title: Catherine Hickland

text: Hickland was born and raised in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, to Arthur and Mary Hickland; her father was a dentist, and her mother a dental ceramist. She has one brother and one sister. Hickland graduated from Fort Lauderdale High School in 1974. She enrolled at Florida Atlantic University, but dropped out after two years to take a job as a flight attendant for National Airlines. After six months, she made a commercial for the airline and left for Los Angeles to study acting.


title: Catherine Hickland

text: Hickland played in a number of daytime dramas. Her first major role was on "Texas" as Dr. Courtney Marshall from 1980 to 1981, followed by the role of Julie Clegg McCandless on "Capitol" from 1984 to 1987, and the dual role of Jenny Diamond from 1985 to 1986.


title: Catherine Hickland

text: While engaged to her future husband David Hasselhoff, she played a role in his series "Knight Rider" as Stephanie "Stevie" Mason, who, in the story, was engaged to Michael Knight (Hasselhoff's character). She appeared in three episodes: "White Bird" (March 4, 1983), "Let It Be Me" (May 13, 1984), and "The Scent of Roses" (January 3, 1986). In 1985, Hickland appeared in 15 episodes of the game show "Body Language. She also appears on the debut David Hasselhoff record" Night Rocker", singing on "Our First Night Together" and "Let It Be Me".


title: Catherine Hickland

text: In 1987, she filled in for Katherine Kelly Lang as Brooke Logan on the serial "The Bold and the Beautiful", while Lang was sick. She also played Tess Wilder on "Loving" (1993–1995) and "The City" (1995–1997). From 1998 to 2009, Hickland portrayed Lindsay Rappaport on "One Life to Live", reprising her role towards the end of the show's run in 2012.


title: Catherine Hickland

text: As a guest star, Hickland appeared in numerous television series, including "CHiPs" (1983), "Airwolf" (1985), and "Law & Order" and "" (2001–2005).


title: Catherine Hickland

text: Hickland also appeared on Broadway in the musical "Les Misérables" as Fantine in 1995. Also she performed live, singing with the National Symphony de Lyon in Lyon, France, in 1995. In 2001, she released a music CD, "Sincerely Broadway", and that same year started a cosmetics line, Cat Cosmetics, for which she serves as CEO. She has also written a column on cosmetics and skin care for "Soap Opera Digest".


title: Catherine Hickland

text: Hickland's first book, "The 30 Day Heartbreak Cure - A Guide to Getting Over Him and Back Out There One Month From Today" was published in December 2008 by Simon & Schuster. Her second book, released in December 2014, is titled "Cat & Fern's Excellent God Adventure: Daily Inspirations for 365 Days of Heaven On Earth", written with Fern Underwood and Lindsay Harrison.


title: Catherine Hickland

text: Hickland's first marriage was to Richard Ernest Knowlton on October 10, 1981, in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. They divorced on March 23, 1982. From March 24, 1984, to March 1, 1989, she was married to David Hasselhoff. On June 27, 1992, Hickland married "All My Children" star Michael E. Knight, with whom she lived in Manhattan until their divorce in 2006. After that marriage ended, Hickland married producer Todd Fisher on December 22, 2012. The couple have a home in Las Vegas and a ranch in California.


title: Geyser

text: A geyser (, ) is a spring characterized by an intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and accompanied by steam. As a fairly rare phenomenon, the formation of geysers is due to particular hydrogeological conditions that exist only in a few places on Earth. Generally all geyser field sites are located near active volcanic areas, and the geyser effect is due to the proximity of magma. Generally, surface water works its way down to an average depth of around where it contacts hot rocks. The resultant boiling of the pressurized water results in the geyser effect of hot water and steam spraying out of the geyser's surface vent (a hydrothermal explosion).


title: Geyser

text: A geyser's eruptive activity may change or cease due to ongoing mineral deposition within the geyser plumbing, exchange of functions with nearby hot springs, earthquake influences, and human intervention. Like many other natural phenomena, geysers are not unique to Earth. Jet-like eruptions, often referred to as cryogeysers, have been observed on several of the moons of the outer solar system. Due to the low ambient pressures, these eruptions consist of vapor without liquid; they are made more easily visible by particles of dust and ice carried aloft by the gas. Water vapor jets have been observed near the south pole of Saturn's moon Enceladus, while nitrogen eruptions have been observed on Neptune's moon Triton. There are also signs of carbon dioxide eruptions from the southern polar ice cap of Mars. In the case of Enceladus, the plumes are believed to be driven by internal energy. In the cases of the venting on Mars and Triton, the activity may be a result of solar heating via a solid-state greenhouse effect. In all three cases, there is no evidence of the subsurface hydrological system which differentiates terrestrial geysers from other sorts of venting, such as fumaroles.


title: Geyser

text: The term 'geyser' in English dates back to the late 18th century and comes from Geysir, which is a geyser in Iceland. Its name means "one who gushes".


title: Geyser

text: Geysers are nonpermanent geological features. Geysers are generally associated with volcanic areas. As the water boils, the resulting pressure forces a superheated column of steam and water to the surface through the geyser's internal plumbing. The formation of geysers specifically requires the combination of three geologic conditions that are usually found in volcanic terrain: intense heat, water, and a plumbing system.


title: Geyser

text: The heat needed for geyser formation comes from magma that needs to be close to the surface of the earth. In order for the heated water to form a geyser, a plumbing system (made of fractures, fissures, porous spaces, and sometimes cavities) is required. This includes a reservoir to hold the water while it is being heated. Geysers are generally aligned along faults.


title: Geyser

text: Geyser activity, like all hot spring activity, is caused by surface water gradually seeping down through the ground until it meets rock heated by magma. In non-eruptive hot springs, the geothermally heated water then rises back toward the surface by convection through porous and fractured rocks, while in geysers, the water instead is explosively forced upwards by the high pressure created when water boils below. Geysers also differ from non-eruptive hot springs in their subterranean structure; many consist of a small vent at the surface connected to one or more narrow tubes that lead to underground reservoirs of water and pressure tight rock.


title: Geyser

text: As the geyser fills, the water at the top of the column cools off, but because of the narrowness of the channel, convective cooling of the water in the reservoir is impossible. The cooler water above presses down on the hotter water beneath, not unlike the lid of a pressure cooker, allowing the water in the reservoir to become superheated, i.e. to remain liquid at temperatures well above the standard-pressure boiling point.


title: Geyser

text: Ultimately, the temperatures near the bottom of the geyser rise to a point where boiling begins which forces steam bubbles to rise to the top of the column. As they burst through the geyser's vent, some water overflows or splashes out, reducing the weight of the column and thus the pressure on the water below. With this release of pressure, the superheated water flashes into steam, boiling violently throughout the column. The resulting froth of expanding steam and hot water then sprays out of the geyser vent.


title: Geyser

text: A key requirement that enables a geyser to erupt is a material called geyserite found in rocks nearby the geyser. Geyserite—mostly silicon dioxide (SiO), is dissolved from the rocks and gets deposited on the walls of the geyser's plumbing system and on the surface. The deposits make the channels carrying the water up to the surface pressure-tight. This allows the pressure to be carried all the way to the top and not be leaked out into the loose gravel or soil that are normally under the geyser fields.


title: Geyser

text: Eventually the water remaining in the geyser cools back to below the boiling point and the eruption ends; heated groundwater begins seeping back into the reservoir, and the whole cycle begins again. The duration of eruptions and time between successive eruptions vary greatly from geyser to geyser; Strokkur in Iceland erupts for a few seconds every few minutes, while Grand Geyser in the United States erupts for up to 10 minutes every 8–12 hours.


title: Geyser

text: There are two types of geysers: "fountain geysers" which erupt from pools of water, typically in a series of intense, even violent, bursts; and "cone geysers" which erupt from cones or mounds of siliceous sinter (including geyserite), usually in steady jets that last anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes. Old Faithful, perhaps the best-known geyser at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a cone geyser. Grand Geyser, the tallest predictable geyser on earth, (although Geysir in Iceland is taller, it is not predictable), also at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a fountain geyser.


title: Geyser

text: There are many volcanic areas in the world that have hot springs, mud pots and fumaroles, but very few have erupting geysers. The main reason for their rarity is because multiple intense transient forces must occur simultaneously for a geyser to exist. For example, even when other necessary conditions exist, if the rock structure is loose, eruptions will erode the channels and rapidly destroy any nascent geysers.


title: Geyser

text: As a result, most geysers form in places where there is volcanic rhyolite rock which dissolves in hot water and forms mineral deposits called siliceous sinter, or geyserite, along the inside of the plumbing systems which are very slender. Over time, these deposits strengthen the channel walls by cementing the rock together tightly, thus enabling the geyser to persist.


title: Geyser

text: Geysers are fragile phenomena and if conditions change, they may go dormant or extinct. Many have been destroyed simply by people throwing debris into them while others have ceased to erupt due to dewatering by geothermal power plants. However, the Geysir in Iceland has had periods of activity and dormancy. During its long dormant periods, eruptions were sometimes artificially induced—often on special occasions—by the addition of surfactant soaps to the water.


title: Geyser

text: The specific colours of geysers derive from the fact that despite the apparently harsh conditions, life is often found in them (and also in other hot habitats) in the form of thermophilic prokaryotes. No known eukaryote can survive over .


title: Geyser

text: In the 1960s, when the research of the biology of geysers first appeared, scientists were generally convinced that no life can survive above around —the upper limit for the survival of cyanobacteria, as the structure of key cellular proteins and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) would be destroyed. The optimal temperature for thermophilic bacteria was placed even lower, around .


title: Geyser

text: However, the observations proved that it is actually possible for life to exist at high temperatures and that some bacteria even prefer temperatures higher than the boiling point of water. Dozens of such bacteria are known.


title: Geyser

text: Thermophiles prefer temperatures from , whilst hyperthermophiles grow better at temperatures as high as . As they have heat-stable enzymes that retain their activity even at high temperatures, they have been used as a source of thermostable tools, that are important in medicine and biotechnology, for example in manufacturing antibiotics, plastics, detergents (by the use of heat-stable enzymes lipases, pullulanases and proteases), and fermentation products (for example ethanol is produced). Among these, the first discovered and the most important for biotechnology is "Thermus aquaticus".


title: Geyser

text: Geysers are quite rare, requiring a combination of water, heat, and fortuitous plumbing. The combination exists in few places on Earth.


title: Geyser

text: Yellowstone is the largest geyser locale, containing thousands of hot springs, and approximately 300 to 500 geysers. It is home to half of the world's total number of geysers in its nine geyser basins. It is located mostly in Wyoming, USA, with small portions in Montana and Idaho. Yellowstone includes the world's tallest active geyser (Steamboat Geyser in Norris Geyser Basin).


title: Geyser

text: The Valley of Geysers () located in the Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia is the second largest concentration of geysers in the world. The area was discovered and explored by Tatyana Ustinova in 1941. Approximately 200 geysers exist in the area along with many hot-water springs and perpetual spouters. The area was formed due to a vigorous volcanic activity. The peculiar way of eruptions is an important feature of these geysers. Most of the geysers erupt at angles, and only very few have the geyser cones that exist at many other of the world's geyser fields. On June 3, 2007, a massive mudflow influenced two thirds of the valley. It was then reported that a thermal lake was forming above the valley. Few days later, waters were observed to have receded somewhat, exposing some of the submerged features. Velikan Geyser, one of the field's largest, was not buried in the slide and has recently been observed to be active.


title: Geyser

text: The name "El Tatio" comes from the Quechua word for "oven". El Tatio is located in the high valleys on the Andes surrounded by many active volcanoes in Chile, South America at around above mean sea level. The valley is home to approximately 80 geysers at present. It became the largest geyser field in the Southern Hemisphere after the destruction of many of the New Zealand geysers (see below), and is the third largest geyser field in the world. The salient feature of these geysers is that the height of their eruptions is very low, the tallest being only high, but with steam columns that can be over high. The average geyser eruption height at El Tatio is about .


title: Geyser

text: The Taupō Volcanic Zone is located on New Zealand's North Island. It is long by and lies over a subduction zone in the Earth's crust. Mount Ruapehu marks its southwestern end, while the submarine Whakatāne seamount ( beyond Whakaari / White Island) is considered its northeastern limit. Many geysers in this zone were destroyed due to geothermal developments and a hydroelectric reservoir, but several dozen geysers still exist. In the beginning of the 20th century, the largest geyser ever known, the Waimangu Geyser existed in this zone. It began erupting in 1900 and erupted periodically for four years until a landslide changed the local water table. Eruptions of Waimangu would typically reach and some superbursts are known to have reached . Recent scientific work indicates that the Earth's crust below the zone may be as little as thick. Beneath this lies a film of magma wide and long.


title: Geyser

text: Due to the high rate of volcanic activity in Iceland, it is home to some of the most famous geysers in the world. There are around 20–29 active geysers in the country as well as numerous formerly active geysers. Icelandic geysers are distributed in the zone stretching from south-west to north-east, along the boundary between the Eurasian Plate and the North American Plate. Most of the Icelandic geysers are comparatively short-lived, it is also characteristic that many geysers here are reactivated or newly created after earthquakes, becoming dormant or extinct after some years or some decades.


title: Geyser

text: Two most prominent geysers of Iceland are located in Haukadalur. "The Great Geysir", which first erupted in the 14th century, gave rise to the word "geyser". By 1896, Geysir was almost dormant before an earthquake that year caused eruptions to begin again, occurring several times a day, but in 1916, eruptions all but ceased. Throughout much of the 20th century, eruptions did happen from time to time, usually following earthquakes. Some man-made improvements were made to the spring and eruptions were forced with soap on special occasions. Earthquakes in June 2000 subsequently reawakened the giant for a time but it is not currently erupting regularly. The nearby Strokkur geyser erupts every 5–8 minutes to a height of some .


title: Geyser

text: Geysers are known to have existed in at least a dozen other areas on the island. Some former geysers have developed historical farms, which benefitted from the use of the hot water since medieval times.


title: Geyser

text: There used to be two large geysers fields in Nevada—Beowawe and Steamboat Springs—but they were destroyed by the installation of nearby geothermal power plants. At the plants, geothermal drilling reduced the available heat and lowered the local water table to the point that geyser activity could no longer be sustained.


title: Geyser

text: Many of New Zealand's geysers have been destroyed by humans in the last century. Several New Zealand geysers have also become dormant or extinct by natural means. The main remaining field is Whakarewarewa at Rotorua. Two thirds of the geysers at Orakei Korako were flooded by the construction of the hydroelectric Ohakuri dam in 1961. The Wairakei field was lost to a geothermal power plant in 1958. The Taupō Spa field was lost when the Waikato River level was deliberately altered in the 1950s. The Rotomahana field was destroyed by the 1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera.


title: Geyser

text: There are various other types of geysers which are different in nature compared to the normal steam-driven geysers. These geysers differ not only in their style of eruption but also in the cause that makes them erupt.


title: Geyser

text: In a number of places where there is geothermal activity, wells have been drilled and fitted with impermeable casements that allow them to erupt like geysers. The vents of such geysers are artificial, but are tapped into natural hydrothermal systems. These so-called "artificial geysers", technically known as "erupting geothermal wells", are not true geysers. Little Old Faithful Geyser, in Calistoga, California, is an example. The geyser erupts from the casing of a well drilled in the late 19th century. According to Dr. John Rinehart in his book "A Guide to Geyser Gazing" (1976 p. 49), a man had drilled into the geyser in search for water. He had "simply opened up a dead geyser".


title: Geyser

text: In the case of the Big Mine Run Geyser in Ashland, Pennsylvania, the heat powering the geyser (which erupts from an abandoned mine vent) comes not from geothermal power, but from the long-simmering Centralia mine fire.


title: Geyser

text: This is a natural hot spring that spouts water constantly without stopping for recharge. Some of these are incorrectly called geysers, but because they are not periodic in nature they are not considered true geysers.


title: Geyser

text: Geysers are used for various activities such as electricity generation, heating and tourism. Many geothermal reserves are found all around the world. The geyser fields in Iceland are some of the most commercially viable geyser locations in the world. Since the 1920s hot water directed from the geysers has been used to heat greenhouses and to grow food that otherwise could not have been cultivated in Iceland's inhospitable climate. Steam and hot water from the geysers has also been used for heating homes since 1943 in Iceland. In 1979 the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) actively promoted development of geothermal energy in the "Geysers-Calistoga Known Geothermal Resource Area" (KGRA) near Calistoga, California through a variety of research programs and the Geothermal Loan Guarantee Program. The Department is obligated by law to assess the potential environmental impacts of geothermal development.


title: Geyser

text: There are many bodies in the Solar System where jet-like eruptions, often termed cryogeysers ("cryo" meaning "icy cold"), have been observed or are believed to occur. Despite the name and unlike geysers on Earth, these represent eruptions of volatiles, together with entrained dust or ice particles, without liquid. There is no evidence that the physical processes involved are similar to geysers. These plumes could more closely resemble fumaroles.


title: Academic discipline

text: An academic discipline or academic field is a subdivision of knowledge that is taught and researched at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined (in part) and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned societies and academic departments or faculties within colleges and universities to which their practitioners belong. Academic disciplines are conventionally divided into the humanities, including language, art and cultural studies, and the scientific disciplines, such as physics, chemistry, and biology; the social sciences are sometimes considered a third category.


title: Academic discipline

text: Individuals associated with academic disciplines are commonly referred to as "experts" or "specialists". Others, who may have studied liberal arts or systems theory rather than concentrating in a specific academic discipline, are classified as "generalists".


title: Academic discipline

text: While academic disciplines in and of themselves are more or less focused practices, scholarly approaches such as multidisciplinarity/interdisciplinarity, transdisciplinarity, and cross-disciplinarity integrate aspects from multiple academic disciplines, therefore addressing any problems that may arise from narrow concentration within specialized fields of study. For example, professionals may encounter trouble communicating across academic disciplines because of differences in language, specified concepts, or methodology.


title: Academic discipline

text: Some researchers believe that academic disciplines may, in the future, be replaced by what is known as Mode 2 or "post-academic science", which involves the acquisition of cross-disciplinary knowledge through the collaboration of specialists from various academic disciplines.


title: Academic discipline

text: It is also known as a "field of study", "field of inquiry", "research field" and "branch of knowledge". The different terms are used in different countries and fields.


title: Academic discipline

text: The University of Paris in 1231 consisted of four faculties: Theology, Medicine, Canon Law and Arts. Educational institutions originally used the term "discipline" to catalog and archive the new and expanding body of information produced by the scholarly community. Disciplinary designations originated in German universities during the beginning of the nineteenth century.


title: Academic discipline

text: Most academic disciplines have their roots in the mid-to-late-nineteenth century secularization of universities, when the traditional curricula were supplemented with non-classical languages and literatures, social sciences such as political science, economics, sociology and public administration, and natural science and technology disciplines such as physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering.


title: Academic discipline

text: In the early twentieth century, new academic disciplines such as education and psychology were added. In the 1970s and 1980s, there was an explosion of new academic disciplines focusing on specific themes, such as media studies, women's studies, and Africana studies. Many academic disciplines designed as preparation for careers and professions, such as nursing, hospitality management, and corrections, also emerged in the universities. Finally, interdisciplinary scientific fields of study such as biochemistry and geophysics gained prominence as their contribution to knowledge became widely recognized. Some new disciplines, such as public administration, can be found in more than one disciplinary setting; some public administration programs are associated with business schools (thus emphasizing the public management aspect), while others are linked to the political science field (emphasizing the policy analysis aspect).


title: Academic discipline

text: As the twentieth century approached, these designations were gradually adopted by other countries and became the accepted conventional subjects. However, these designations differed between various countries. In the twentieth century, the natural science disciplines included: physics, chemistry, biology, geology, and astronomy. The social science disciplines included: economics, politics, sociology, and psychology.


title: Academic discipline

text: Prior to the twentieth century, categories were broad and general, which was expected due to the lack of interest in science at the time. With rare exceptions, practitioners of science tended to be amateurs and were referred to as "natural historians" and "natural philosophers"—labels that date back to Aristotle—instead of "scientists". Natural history referred to what we now call life sciences and natural philosophy referred to the current physical sciences.


title: Academic discipline

text: Prior to the twentieth century, few opportunities existed for science as an occupation outside the educational system. Higher education provided the institutional structure for scientific investigation, as well as economic support for research and teaching. Soon, the volume of scientific information rapidly increased and researchers realized the importance of concentrating on smaller, narrower fields of scientific activity. Because of this narrowing, scientific specializations emerged. As these specializations developed, modern scientific disciplines in universities also improved their sophistication. Eventually, academia's identified disciplines became the foundations for scholars of specific specialized interests and expertise.


title: Academic discipline

text: An influential critique of the concept of academic disciplines came from Michel Foucault in his 1975 book, "Discipline and Punish". Foucault asserts that academic disciplines originate from the same social movements and mechanisms of control that established the modern prison and penal system in eighteenth-century France, and that this fact reveals essential aspects they continue to have in common: "The disciplines characterize, classify, specialize; they distribute along a scale, around a norm, hierarchize individuals in relation to one another and, if necessary, disqualify and invalidate." (Foucault, 1975/1979, p. 223)


title: Academic discipline

text: Communities of academic disciplines can be found outside academia within corporations, government agencies, and independent organizations, where they take the form of associations of professionals with common interests and specific knowledge. Such communities include corporate think tanks, NASA, and IUPAC. Communities such as these exist to benefit the organizations affiliated with them by providing specialized new ideas, research, and findings.


title: Academic discipline

text: Nations at various developmental stages will find the need for different academic disciplines during different times of growth. A newly developing nation will likely prioritize government, political matters and engineering over those of the humanities, arts and social sciences. On the other hand, a well-developed nation may be capable of investing more in the arts and social sciences. Communities of academic disciplines would contribute at varying levels of importance during different stages of development.


title: Academic discipline

text: Multidisciplinary knowledge is associated with more than one existing academic discipline or profession.


title: Academic discipline

text: A multidisciplinary community or project is made up of people from different academic disciplines and professions. These people are engaged in working together as equal stakeholders in addressing a common challenge. A multidisciplinary person is one with degrees from two or more academic disciplines. This one person can take the place of two or more people in a multidisciplinary community. Over time, multidisciplinary work does not typically lead to an increase or a decrease in the number of academic disciplines. One key question is how well the challenge can be decomposed into subparts, and then addressed via the distributed knowledge in the community. The lack of shared vocabulary between people and communication overhead can sometimes be an issue in these communities and projects. If challenges of a particular type need to be repeatedly addressed so that each one can be properly decomposed, a multidisciplinary community can be exceptionally efficient and effective.


title: Academic discipline

text: There are many examples of a particular idea appearing in different academic disciplines, all of which came about around the same time. One example of this scenario is the shift from the approach of focusing on sensory awareness of the whole, "an attention to the 'total field, a "sense of the whole pattern, of form and function as a unity", an "integral idea of structure and configuration". This has happened in art (in the form of cubism), physics, poetry, communication and educational theory. According to Marshall McLuhan, this paradigm shift was due to the passage from the era of mechanization, which brought sequentiality, to the era of the instant speed of electricity, which brought simultaneity.