title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: While writing the series, Lloyd Alexander also published short stories taking place in Prydain, occurring before the events of the novels. This included "Coll and His White Pig" (1965) and "The Truthful Harp" (1967), both being 32-page picture books illustrated by Evaline Ness.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: "The Foundling and Other Tales of Prydain" was published in 1973 as a collection of six new short stories of Prydrain, illustrated by Margot Zemach, with a reproduction of a map from "The High King" illustrated by Evaline Ness. It was dedicated to "Friends of Prydain, who promised to read more if I would write more." In the collection, Alexander remarked "popular demand makes a splendid pretext" for a return to the fictional world of Prydain but not for covering the same ground, hence his decision to make the stories prequels.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: "The Prydain Chronicles" Omnibus (1991) comprises the five novels and the material of the original edition of "The Foundling", but not the stories of the first two illustrated picture books.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: In 1999, Holt and Company published an expanded edition of "The Foundling" that included the original book's material while adding the short stories (but not the illustrations) of "Coll and his White Pig" and "The Truthful Harp", along with a new "Prydain Pronunciation Guide" with entries for 49 proper names. The Pronunciation Guide was included in later editions of the main five novels, as was Ness's map.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: In 1999, Alexander explained to Scholastic students: ""The High King" was the final logical development of the first four books in the Prydain Chronicles. It was not an easy book to write, but at least I was building on a foundation that I had already made. I never considered a different ending..." He added that after writing "The Chronicles of Prydain" for seven years, "the characters were as close to me as my own family... I wept at the end – to see Taran confronted with such a brutally difficult decision."


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Once ruled over by the evil sorceress Queen Achren, Prydain is now under the authority of the just High King, a member of the family known as the Children of Don, descendants of Lady Don and her consort, Belin. The High King and his warriors, known as the Sons of Don, are based in the stronghold called Caer Dathyl. The rest of Prydain is divided into territories and minor kingdoms (called cantrevs) ruled by many lower kings who owe their loyalty to the High King. A collection of villages called the Free Commots exist outside any cantrev's jurisdiction, answering only to the High King.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: The evil Queen Achren was overthrown by her consort and student in magic, Arawn. Taking the Iron Crown, Arawn became master of the fortress of Annuvin, the Land of the Dead. Known as the Death-Lord, Arawn's warriors include the "Cauldron-Born" (undead soldiers reanimated by the magical Black Cauldron), the fearsome war commander called the Horned King, and the bloodthirsty Huntsmen of Annuvin (who in death transfer their power to their surviving comrades). Arawn also corrupts a race of birds into the Gwythaints, monstrous airborne agents. When the first novel begins, Arawn and the Horned King are making new plans to conquer Prydain.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Underneath and within Prydain is the kingdom of the Fair Folk, a society of diminutive supernatural beings that use magic to stay hidden and mostly keep to their own affairs. Having no love for Arawn, the Fair Folk occasionally aid the humans of Prydain against him.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Significant locations in Prydain include: Caer Dallben, the simple home of series protagonist Taran, his mentor Dallben, and the retired warrior Coll; Caer Colur, which stands near the Isle of Mona and is the ancestral home of the House of Llyr; The Spiral Castle, fortress of the sorceress Achren; Annuvin, fortress of Arawn; and the Marshes of Morva, a haunted swamp inhabited by the witches Orddu, Orwen and Orgoch.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: In addition to the races of humans and Fair Folk, Prydain is home many strange creatures, such as the odd forest man called Gurgi.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Taran, a young boy in his early or mid-teens, lives with his mentor Dallben, a 379 year old enchanter, and the aged farmer and retired warrior Coll, son of Collfrewr. Named "Assistant Pig-Keeper," Taran is charged with caring for Hen Wen, a magical white pig. Quickly losing the pig and following it into a forest, Taran meets Prince Gwydion, son of the High King of Prydain, who hopes to consult the white pig's prophetic visions. After befriending a creature called Gurgi, Taran is captured by the "Cauldron-Born," the undead warriors of the Horned King. Escaping imprisonment, Taran finds the legendary sword Dyrnwyn and befriends Eilonwy, a princess from a family of enchantresses, and Fflewddur Fflam, a king by birth who chooses to be a bard. Together, the new companions (later joined by a dwarf named Doli) determine to stop the plans of the Horned king and his master Arawn, Lord of the Land of Death.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: A little over one year after the events of "The Book of Three", Prince Gwydion has called allies to a council hosted by Dallben. Men are disappearing while more undead Cauldron-Born join the forces of Arawn. Taran and companions embark on a mission to capture the Black Cauldron and stop the creation of more undead warriors. They encounter three witches in the Marshes of Morva, and battle the Huntsmen of Annuvin, fearsome warriors who can lend each other their strength and power.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Eighteen months after the end of "The Black Cauldron", Eilonwy of the House of Llyr is encouraged to go to the royal court of the Isle of Mona so she may continue her education as a proper princess. During her journey, she befriends Prince Rhun. Later on, she is kidnapped, leading Taran, Rhun and others to embark on a rescue mission. During the adventure, the companions learn more of Eilonwy's magical heritage and find the ruins of her ancestral home.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Three years after "The Castle of Llyr", Taran is in love with Eilonwy but afraid he can never marry her if he is of common birth. In the hopes that he might have some noble blood in him, he searches for the truth about his parentage. Meanwhile, a human wizard named Morda is raiding the underground realms of the Fair Folk. While journeying among the cantrevs and commots of Prydain, Taran increases his knowledge in a variety of skills, maturing greatly along the way and gaining new confidence in himself.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Days after the conclusion of "Taran Wanderer", the young man Taran returns home and learns that Eilonwy has returned from the Isle of Mona, now ruled by King Rhun. Servants of Arawn assault the warrior Gwydion and seize the magical black sword Dyrnwyn. Taran and his companions join other forces of Prydain in a great effort to defeat Arawn once and for all.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: "Coll and His White Pig" (1965). A 32-page picture book written by Alexander and illustrated by Evaline Ness. The book features Coll as a younger man, years before he meets Taran.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: "The Truthful Harp" (1967). A 32-page picture book written by Alexander and illustrated by Evaline Ness. A story of Fflewddur Fflam when he is a younger man, many years before he meets Taran.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: "The Foundling and Other Tales of Prydain" (1973). An anthology of six new short stories by Alexander, all illustrated by Margot Zemach. It was dedicated to "Friends of Prydain, who promised to read more if I would write more." All six stories explore a time "before the birth of Taran, Assistant Pig-Keeper," meaning they take place at least fifteen years before the events of the first novel. An expanded edition was published in 1999, adding the original two short stories "Coll and his White Pig" and "The Truthful Harp", but not including the illustrations Ness made for those picture books.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: "The Prydain Chronicles Omnibus" (1991) comprises the five novels and the six later short stories, but not the stories of the first two illustrated picture books. Each novel includes a Prydain map by Evaline Ness (original illustrator of the picture books and covers of the novels) and each story includes the illustrations by Margot Zemach for the original "Foundling and Other Tales".


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: In 1989, Greenwood Publishing Group published "The Prydain Companion: A Reference Guide to Lloyd Alexander's Prydain Chronicles" by children's literature scholar Michael O. Tunnell. Henry Holt, the original publisher of the Prydain books, republished "The Prydain Companion" in 2003. The book's title is a reference to the fact that the Chronicles' narration often refers to any present combination of the main characters as "the companions." "The Prydain Companion" includes a biographical sketch of Alexander and two sections by Alexander, the "Foreword" and "How to Use the Companion." Entries cover major characters, locations, and so on, with insight gained by Tunnell's interviews with Alexander as well as research into the "Mabinogion" and "The White Goddess". One marketing capsule is "An informative resource for formal studies of the Prydain Chronicles, as well as an excellent opportunity to delve into the fantastic workings of Prydain."


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Walt Disney Productions released a Prydain animated film in 1985. "The Black Cauldron" is based primarily on the first two novels while incorporating elements from the others. The movie had a production budget of $44 million, while its theatrical release grossed only $21 million in the United States. Critics gave the film mixed reviews and found the film "pretty, but confusing and overly somber" due to its dark nature and disjointed script, though Roger Ebert gave it a positive review. Production delays and its disappointing box office performance put the future of the Disney animation studio department in jeopardy. Then newly appointed studio head Jeffrey Katzenberg was dismayed by the product, and the animators felt that it lacked "the humor, pathos, and the fantasy which had been so strong in Lloyd Alexander's work. The story had been a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity and it was heartbreaking to see such wonderful material wasted."


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Of the film, Lloyd Alexander remarked: "First, I have to say, there is no resemblance between the movie and the book. Having said that, the movie in itself, purely as a movie, I found to be very enjoyable."


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: On March 17, 2016, "Variety" confirmed that Walt Disney Pictures had re-acquired the film rights to "The Chronicles of Prydain", with the intention to adapt the book series into an epic motion picture series, more attuned to Lloyd Alexander's high fantasy world. The project is currently in early development at the Walt Disney Studios with no director, producer, or screenwriter attached yet.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Early in the 2000s, Listening Library (Random House) produced an unabridged reading by James Langton of the five main volumes, with author's notes read by Lloyd Alexander himself. The audiobooks were published on compact audio cassette and compact disc, and were also released for download from 2004 to 2005. In May 2017, an audiobook adaptation of "The Foundling and Other Tales of Prydain" was released in a digital format. This edition was also read by James Langton.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Having garnered a Newbery Medal and a Newbery Honor, "The Chronicles of Prydain" series is widely recognized as a valuable contribution to children's literature. Ruth Hill Viguers wrote in the 1969 "Critical History of Children's Literature", "Like most good fantasies, the books are related to humanity; the characters have failings but also the potential for greatness."


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: In 2012, "The Book of Three" was ranked #18, and "The High King" #68, among the all-time best children's novels in a survey published by "School Library Journal", a monthly with primarily U.S. audience.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Taran, Assistant Pig-Keeper. The main protagonist of "The Prydain Chronicles", he is a young man who grows from early adolescence to adulthood over the course of the series. Initially defensive, quick-tempered, and impulsive, he matures over the series and makes it a point to improve himself and increase his knowledge. His true parentage a mystery, Taran is mentored by the ancient enchanter Dallben and the two live together in Caer Dallben at a farm owned by the warrior-turned-farmer Coll. Initially unsatisfied with his life as a farmhand, Taran longs to be a hero who finds glory in adventures. By the end of the first book, he reconsiders this opinion and realizes he is happiest living a simple life on the farm Caer Dallben and wants to remain there. Despite this, he is later called back to adventure again.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Dallben. When first introduced in "The Book of Three", he is already 379 years old. Living on Coll's farm in Caer Dallben, he acts as the protector and mentor of Taran and helps protect the prophetic pig Hen Wen. Some recognize him as the most powerful enchanter in Prydain, and while his displays of power are quite potent they are used sparingly.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Coll. A retired warrior of great skill, Coll now lives in his farm in Caer Dallben, acting as caretaker for the oracular pig Hen Wen. On meeting the enchanter Dallben, he allows the ancient man and Taran to take up residence at the farm. When Taran is in his mid-teens, Coll passes may of Hen Wen's responsibilities to him, naming the boy "Assistant Pig-Keeper."


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Hen Wen. A white oracular pig, blessed with the ability to prophesy future events and reveal hidden information. Hen Wen originally belongs to a simple farmer but the Death-Lord Arawn learns of her oracular power and captures her. She suffers for some time as a prisoner in the dark fortress Annuvin. The warrior Coll eventually journeys into Annuvin alone and rescues the pig, becoming her caretaker. When Coll retires, he keeps her on his farm. Taran and Dallben help look after her after they take residence at the farm. When Taran is a teenager, Coll jokingly bestows on him the official title of Assistant Pig-Keeper. Hen Wen is lost at the beginning of "The Book of Three", which causes a chain of events that puts Taran on the path of becoming a hero.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Princess Eilonwy. A princess of the House of Llyr, the women of whom are formidable enchantresses. She befriends Taran in the first book and over the years they develop romantic feelings for each other. Eilonwy is the daughter of Angharad, who in turn is the daughter of Regat. Against her mother's wishes, Angharad married a commoner named Geraint, Eilonwy's father. Smart and witty, she is also considered by some to be scatterbrained. She often employs unusual similes and metaphors. She prefers to go barefoot, and usually prefers sandals if she must wear shoes. She carries with her the Golden Pelydryn, a magical bauble that has been in her family for generations.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Fflewddur Fflam, son of Godo. A cantrev lord of Prydain, he is a minor king of a tiny kingdom. With few responsibilities and believing his people get along fine without him, he often leaves his kingdom, preferring to wander as a bard. Although prone to boasting, the strings of his enchanted "truthful harp" break whenever he tells a lie, sometimes forcing him to be honest.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Gurgi. A good-natured and "ever hungry" being who is both man and beast. He has long arms and is covered with fur and leaves. Often referring to himself in the third person, his manner of speech is filled with rhymed pairs of words ("crunchings and munchings", "smackings and wackings", "sneakings and peekings"), and redundant phrases ("see with lookings"). Gurgi is humble and loyal toward his human companions, at first submitting even to Taran as a "noble lord". In the course of the "Chronicles", he plays a highly important role by accidentally finding hidden items which ultimately occupy a vital role in the stories.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Doli. One of the Fair Folk, a society of magical beings who live in an extensive underground kingdom spanning the entire country of Prydain. Doli is described as a short, stocky dwarf who carries a number of weapons and is adept in hunting, fighting, and stealth. Originally, he is said to be the only one of his kin who does not have the power to turn himself invisible. After aiding Taran's companions and the House of Don in "The Book of Three", he is rewarded by Gwydion with invisibility, although each use causes an uncomfortable sensation inside his ears.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: King Eiddileg. The reclusive leader of the Fair Folk. He aids Taran and his allies in numerous battles against the forces of Annuvin.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Gwydion. Prince of Don, heir of King Math of Prydain. He is the war leader of the House of Don against the forces of Annuvin, and rides a horse named Melyngar. After meeting Taran in "The Book of Three", he befriends the young man and accompanies him on several adventures.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Math, son of Mathonwy. The High King of Prydain, Math rules above all lesser kings in the country and is the patriarch of the Royal House of Don, the descendants of the Lady Don and her consort, Belin, the Sun king. A just ruler, Math's leadership helps keep Arawn the Death-Lord partly in check. He dwells in the stronghold Caer Dathyl, the castle of the Children of Don that lies north of the Eagle Mountains.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: The Horned King. For a time, he is Arawn's champion and the war leader of the Death-Lord's forces. He is described as a huge man wearing armor, except for his arms, which are naked and stained crimson. Along with this, he wears a red cape and an antlered skull mask.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Achren. The former Queen of Prydain, her tyrannical rule was ended by her former consort and student Arawn, who took the Iron Crown from her. Living as Arawn's subject in the Spiral Castle, she despises the Death-Lord and makes her own plans to take over Prydain, while finding herself drawn to and protective of the noble warrior Gwydion.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Arawn, the Death-Lord. The main antagonist of the series, Arawn is originally a mortal man. He gains magical powers by being tutored by the evil Queen Achren during her time as ruler of Prydain. After growing powerful as her consort, Arawn overthrows Achren and takes the Iron Crown from her. After gaining possession of the Black Cauldron, he creates a powerful undead army known as the Cauldron-Born. He then attempts to conquer Prydain, often defied by the Sons of Don.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: King Smoit. The boisterous lord of Cantrev Cadiffor and one of the only Southern Cantrevs to remain loyal to the High King.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Gwystyl. One of the Fair Folk, described as resembling "a bundle of sticks with cobwebs floating at the top." Gwystyl lives in a hidden underground waypost near the border of Annuvin. He has a pet crow, named Kaw, whom he later passes to Taran.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Kaw. A crow, originally the pet of Gwystyl before being given to Taran. Kaw can talk, although only in one-word statements. He has a mischievous temperament, often playing tricks on his human friends and talking more freely than he should.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Ellidyr. Described as a prince whose father left him only "his name and his sword," he is deeply sensitive about his poverty.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Adaon. A gifted minstrel, warrior, and healer with a distinctive brooch that bestows prophetic dreams.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Orddu, Orwen and Orgoch. Three witches who live alone in the Marshes of Morva, apparently inspired by the Norns of folklore. Although their identities seem fluid and interchangeable, each persona has a distinctive appearance: Orwen wears a necklace of milky stones, Orddu's hair is adorned with many ornaments, and Orgoch's face is shadowed by a black cowl. They were the original owners of the Black Cauldron and lent it to Arawn, who used it to create the Cauldron-Born. They trade information and advice to anyone brave enough to enter their domain, though they nearly always ask for a magical price. Many years ago, they acted as guardians of Dallben when they found him as an abandoned infant near the marsh.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: The Huntsmen of Annuvin. A band of wild, merciless fighters notorious for their endurance, tenacity, and bloodthirst. They serve in Arawn's army, each branded with the mark of Annuvin on their foreheads. When one is slain, his strength is magically transferred to his nearby comrades, making each stronger as their numbers dwindle.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Prince Rhun. The only son of King Rhuddlum and Queen Teleria, who rule over the Isle of Mona. Cheerful and altruistic, he is also clumsy and accident-prone, with others believing he must mature before taking the throne. He is first introduced in "The Castle of Llyr" when the Princess Eilonwy is sent by the enchanter Dallben to live at the castle and gain a "proper" upbringing.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Chief Steward Magg. A respected man on the Isle of Mona, he becomes increasingly power-hungry and focused on his own desires.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Glew. Resentful of his diminutive stature, Glew turns to magical potions to increase his physical size, first testing it on a wild cat. Prone to self-pity and desperation, he later works to improve his personality rather than his body.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Llyan. A female cat with orange fur that becomes larger than a horse due to an experimental growth potion created by Glew. Later won over by Fflewddur's music, she serves as his steed.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Llonio, son of Llonwen. Unusually lucky, he and his family spend their days waiting for whatever comes their way.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Annlaw Clay-Shaper. An expert potter from Commot Merin who teaches pottery to Taran. Taran later considers Annlaw to be the wisest of his Commot teachers.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: Llassar, son of Drudwas. Young and enthusiastic to prove himself as a man, he is a mirror image of Taran in his own younger years. His knowledge of mountain craft proves vital.


title: The Chronicles of Prydain

text: King Pryderi, son of Pwyll. King of the Western Realms, he becomes increasingly convinced that only extreme measures will bring order to Prydain.


title: Bank of England £50 note

text: The Bank of England £50 note is a sterling banknote. It is the highest denomination of banknote currently issued for public circulation by the Bank of England. The current note, the first of this denomination to be printed in polymer, entered circulation on 23 June 2021. It bears the image of Queen Elizabeth II on the obverse and computer scientist and World War II codebreaker Alan Turing on the reverse, with his birth date reflecting the release date. Cotton £50 notes from the previous series remained in circulation alongside the new polymer notes until 30 September 2022, when the last 'paper' banknote issue finally ceased to be legal tender.


title: Bank of England £50 note

text: £50 notes were introduced by the Bank of England for the first time in 1725. The earliest notes were handwritten and were issued as needed to individuals. These notes were written on one side only and bore the name of the payee, the date, and the signature of the issuing cashier. With the exception of the Restriction Period between 1797 and 1821, when the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars caused a bullion shortage, these notes could be exchanged in full, or in part, for an equivalent amount of gold when presented at the bank. If redeemed in part, the banknote would be signed to indicate the amount that had been redeemed. From 1853 printed notes replaced handwritten notes, with the declaration "I promise to pay the bearer on demand the sum of fifty pounds" replacing the name of the payee. This declaration remains on Bank of England banknotes to this day. A printed signature of one of three cashiers appeared on the printed notes, although this was replaced by the signature of the Chief Cashier from 1870 onwards.


title: Bank of England £50 note

text: The ability to redeem banknotes for gold ceased in 1931 when Britain stopped using the gold standard. The £50 note ceased to be produced by the Bank of England in 1943 and did not reappear until it was reintroduced in 1981. These D series notes were predominantly olive green on both sides, with an image of Queen Elizabeth II on the front (as with all subsequent £50 notes) and an image of architect Christopher Wren on the back. As a security feature, this note had a metallic thread running through it, which was upgraded to a "windowed" thread from July 1988 onward. The thread is woven into the paper such that it forms a dashed line, yet appears as a single line when held up to the light. The series D note was gradually replaced by the series E, beginning in 1994. This reddish note replaced Christopher Wren with John Houblon, the first governor of the Bank of England, on the reverse. As an additional security feature, these notes had a foil patch on the front. The E revision series did not have a £50 note.


title: Bank of England £50 note

text: The 2011 £50 note features two portraits on the reverse: engineer and scientist James Watt and industrialist and entrepreneur Matthew Boulton, along with the Whitbread Engine and the Soho Manufactory. The note has a number of security features in addition to the metallic thread, including motion thread, raised print, a watermark, microlettering, a see-through registration device, and a colourful pattern that only appears under ultraviolet light. It is the first Bank of England banknote to feature two people on the reverse, and the first Bank of England note to feature the motion thread security feature. This is an image in a broken green thread that moves as the note is viewed from different angles.


title: Bank of England £50 note

text: The new Series G £50 note was brought into circulation in June 2021; it is the last of the Bank of England's notes to switch from paper to polymer. The reverse of the note features a portrait of mathematician and codebreaker Alan Turing.


title: Bank of England £50 note

text: Suggestions were sought by the Bank for eligible scientists prior to Turing's selection. Some 227,299 nominations covering 989 scientists were received, and the shortlist eventually consisted of (in individuals and pairs) Mary Anning, Paul Dirac, Rosalind Franklin, William Herschel and Caroline Herschel, Dorothy Hodgkin, Ada Lovelace and Charles Babbage, Stephen Hawking, James Clerk Maxwell, Srinivasa Ramanujan, Ernest Rutherford, Frederick Sanger, Alan MacMasters and Turing.


title: Bank of England £50 note

text: Peter Sands, an advisor to the British Government and former Chief Executive of Standard Chartered, has raised concern with the Bank of England over high denomination notes and their role in tax evasion. He claimed that scrapping the £50, and other high denomination notes such as the CHF 1000, 500€ and $100, would reduce financial crime.


title: Bell 407

text: The Bell 407 is a four-blade, single-engine, civil utility helicopter. A derivative of the Bell 206L-4 LongRanger, the 407 uses the four-blade, soft-in-plane design rotor with composite hub developed for the United States Army's OH-58D Kiowa Warrior instead of the two-blade, semi-rigid, teetering rotor of the 206L-4.


title: Bell 407

text: In 1993, Bell began the development of the New Light Aircraft as a replacement for its Model 206 series. The program resulted in the 407, a development of Bell's LongRanger. A 206L-3 LongRanger was modified to serve as the 407 demonstrator. The demonstrator used hardware for the 407 and added molded fairings to represent the 407's wider fuselage then under development.


title: Bell 407

text: The demonstrator was first flown on April 21, 1994, and the 407 program was publicly announced at the Heli-Expo in Las Vegas, Nevada, in January 1995. The first 407 prototype (C-GFOS) accomplished its maiden flight on June 29, 1995, and the second prototype (C-FORS) followed on July 13, 1995. After a short development program, the first production 407 (C-FWQY/N407BT) flew on November 10, 1995.


title: Bell 407

text: The Bell 407 features the four-blade main rotor developed for the OH-58D (Model 406). The blades and hub use composite construction without life limits, and provide better performance and a more comfortable ride. The 407's fuselage is wider, increasing internal cabin space, and includes 35% larger main cabin windows. The more powerful Rolls-Royce/Allison 250-C47 turboshaft allows an increase in Maximum Takeoff Weight and improves performance at hotter temperatures and/or higher altitudes. The 407's airframe is generally similar to the LongRanger, but includes a carbon fiber composite tailboom. The helicopter has standard seating for two crew and five cabin seats.


title: Bell 407

text: The 407 was certificated by Transport Canada on February 9, 1996, with the FAA following shortly after on February 23. Full production began in 1996 at Bell's Mirabel, Quebec, Canada plant and produced 140 airframes in 1997, to fill the initial orders.


title: Bell 407

text: In 1995, Bell tested a shrouded tail rotor on the 407, but did not proceed with it. For a time, Bell studied developing the "Model 407T" twin-engine variant, but instead chose to develop the essentially all-new twin-PW206D powered Bell 427.


title: Bell 407

text: The "ARH-70" armed reconnaissance helicopter, developed for the U.S. Army was based on the 407, but was later canceled on October 16, 2008.


title: Bell 407

text: The "Bell 417" was a growth variant of the Bell 407, in essence a civil version of the Bell ARH-70. The 417 made its first flight on June 8, 2006. The 417 was to be powered by a Honeywell HTS900 turboshaft engine, producing and includes full FADEC controls. The cabin sat five passengers in club-seating configuration, in addition to the crew of two. The civilian 417 was canceled at Heli-Expo 2007 in Orlando.


title: Bell 407

text: On March 4, 2013, Bell unveiled a new armed version of the Bell 407GX, named the "407GT". It incorporates the Garmin G1000HTM flight deck to easily provide flight information. It can include infrared cameras, various armaments, and equipment to perform different missions such as armed transport, search-and-rescue, reconnaissance, and medical evacuation. The GT version uses the universal weapons pylon (UWP), derived from the Bell OH-58 Kiowa, to carry different weapons including machine guns, rockets, and anti-armor missiles.


title: Bell 407

text: Bell made delivery of the first production 407 at Heli-Expo, in Dallas, Texas in February 1996. Launch customers for the aircraft were Petroleum Helicopters International (PHI) , Niagara Helicopters, and Greenland Air.


title: Bell 407

text: On 23 May 2007, Colin Bodill and Jennifer Murray completed a record pole-to-pole around the world flight using a standard Bell 407. The flight originated from Bell's facility at the Fort Worth Alliance Airport on December 5, 2006. The team flew about over 189 days and 300 flight hours, through 34 countries. The project, named "Polar First", was performed in partnership with the Royal Geographical Society to provide educational outreach to 28 international schools, which were visited during the trip. The project also served as a fundraiser for the SOS Children's Villages.


title: Bell 407

text: In 2009 the Iraqi Air Force ordered three Bell 407 armed scout helicopters (similar to the canceled ARH-70). A contract for 24 additional Bell 407s with an option for 26 more was awarded in April of that same year. The U.S. Army is managing modifications and installation of military equipment on the helicopters. Three training T-407s were delivered to the Iraqi Army in 2010. Armed IA-407s were delivered in eight batches of three aircraft from August 2012 to April 2013. The final Bell 407 for Iraq was delivered on 3 April 2013. There are 30 in service; 24 armed scouts, three gunships, and three trainers.


title: Bell 407

text: Iraq is using the IA-407 in operations against Islamic State militants. On October 8, 2014, militants shot down an IA-407 using a shoulder-fired ground-to-air missile, killing the pilot and co-pilot.


title: Bell 407

text: The Bell 407 is in civil service around the world with airlines, corporations, hospitals, government operators, and private individuals. It is also in service with several military operators.


title: Bell 407

text: On June 4, 2022, Bell 407 GXP, N98ZA, was substantially damaged in an accident near Fairfield, New Jersey. The commercial pilot was seriously injured. Investigation by the US National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) found that the tail rotor crosshead drive plate was not bolted to the tail rotor crosshead. The tail rotor had been installed the day before it was suspected that the bolts were not torqued.


title: Bell 407

text: On June 8, 2022 a Bell 407 had an inflight separation of its tail boom while in cruise flight near Kalea, Hawaii. The pilot and two passengers sustained serious injuries, while three other passengers had minor injuries. The helicopter was substantially damaged during the crash. The US NTSB determined that the upper-left tail boom attachment hardware was not installed, leaving only three of four attachment points connected. Wreckage markings indicated that the bolt had been present at one point but had fallen out, resulting in progressive fatigue cracking. The NTSB requested immediate action from the US FAA and Transport Canada in the form of an urgent airworthiness directive.


title: Katy Keene (TV series)

text: Katy Keene is an American musical comedy-drama television series developed by Roberto Aguirre-Sacasa and Michael Grassi. It was based on the Archie Comics character of the same name. It chronicled the origins and struggles of four aspiring artists trying to attain successful careers on Broadway, on the runway, and in the recording studio. "Katy Keene" was a spin-off of ""Riverdale"", and took place five years after the events of the former series. The series was produced by Berlanti Productions, in association with Archie Comics, CBS Television Studios, and Warner Bros. Television.


title: Katy Keene (TV series)

text: Lucy Hale starred as Katy Keene, an aspiring fashion designer trying to navigate her way in New York City. Ashleigh Murray, Camille Hyde, Jonny Beauchamp, Julia Chan, Lucien Laviscount, Zane Holtz, and Katherine LaNasa also starred, with Murray reprising her role as Josie McCoy from "Riverdale". In January 2019, the series received a pilot order from The CW, to be considered for a series order in the 2019–20 television season. The series was filmed in New York City. The show was picked up to series in May 2019. The series premiered on The CW on February 6, 2020, with the series finale airing on May 14, 2020. In July 2020, the series was canceled after one season due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Katy Keene (TV series)

text: Following the season finale, it was announced that the show would be the first CW show not to be released on either Netflix or the CW's own website and app, but instead would be part of HBO Max's debut lineup as an exclusive. It was the first CW show not to be offered to Netflix following the completion of its broadcast season. Following the announcement of the series' cancellation, the entire series was also made available on the CW website and app.


title: Katy Keene (TV series)

text: The series followed the professional and romantic lives of four Archie Comics characters, including fashion legend-to-be Katy Keene and singer-songwriter Josie McCoy, five years after the events of "Riverdale", as they chased their dreams in New York City. The series infused music into the plotlines and followed the origins, trials, and tribulations of four struggling artists who are desperate to make it in the spotlight.


title: Katy Keene (TV series)

text: In August 2018, Roberto Aguirre-Sacasa revealed that another spin-off was in the works at The CW. He said that the potential spin-off would be "very different from "Riverdale"" and that it would be produced "in [the 2018–19] development cycle." On January 23, 2019, The CW issued an official pilot order for the series that will "[follow] the lives and loves of four iconic Archie Comics characters — including fashion legend-to-be Katy Keene — as they chase their twenty-something dreams in New York City. This musical dramedy chronicles the origins and struggles of four aspiring artists trying to make it on Broadway, on the runway and in the recording studio." On May 7, 2019, The CW ordered the show to series. On January 7, 2020, The CW ordered thirteen more scripts for the series. On July 2, 2020, The CW canceled the series after one season due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Katy Keene (TV series)

text: On February 4, 2019, it was announced that Ashleigh Murray, who stars in "Riverdale", had been cast in a lead role in the spinoff, exiting "Riverdale". On February 21, 2019, Jonny Beauchamp and Julia Chan joined the cast of the series as Jorge Lopez and Pepper Smith, respectively. A few days later, on February 26, 2019, Camille Hyde and Lucien Laviscount joined the cast as brother and sister duo, Alexandra and Alexander Cabot. Finally, on March 11, 2019, Lucy Hale was cast in the series' lead and titular role.


title: Katy Keene (TV series)

text: On August 4, 2019, Michael Grassi announced that there was going to be a crossover between "Riverdale" and "Katy Keene" in the future. The crossover episode aired on February 5, 2020, as a part of "Riverdale", and introduced Katy for the first time.


title: Katy Keene (TV series)

text: "Katy Keene" crosses over with "Riverdale" in the sixth episode when Robin Givens reprises her role as Sierra McCoy from "Riverdale". Four episodes later, Casey Cott reprises his role as Kevin Keller in episode ten. In the last episode of the first season, Mark Consuelos reprises his role as Hiram Lodge.


title: Katy Keene (TV series)

text: Despite the cancellation, characters from "Katy Keene" appear in "Riverdale": Zane Holtz reprised his role as K.O. Kelly in the first episode of season five and in the tenth episode of season six, followed by Ryan Faucett as Bernardo in the seventh episode of the same season, Lucy Hale reprised her role in a voice-over cameo in the eighth episode, and Camille Hyde reprised her role as Alexandra Cabot in the . The character Chad Gekko, who appeared in two episodes of "Katy Keene", also returns as a recurring characters in season five, played by Chris Mason. Mason replaces Reid Prebenda, who portrayed the character in the spin-off.


title: Katy Keene (TV series)

text: Musical performances are featured throughout the series, a blend of cover versions and originals. Songs performed in episodes are released as digital singles after broadcast by WaterTower Music.


title: Katy Keene (TV series)

text: Following the end of the season, the label released a digital compilation for season 1 songs. The series also include a musical episode with its own soundtrack was released on WaterTower. The "Kiss of the Spider Woman" soundtrack, was released on March 20, 2020.


title: Katy Keene (TV series)

text: On May 16, 2019, The CW released the first official trailer for the series. The series' extended trailer was released in August 2019.


title: Katy Keene (TV series)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the series has an approval rating of 91% based on 23 reviews, with an average rating of 6.7/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Katy Keene" definitely has style to spare, but its greatest strength is its warm, joyous tone that sparkles in a sea of gritty YA TV." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 71 out of 100 based on 8 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: RenderWare

text: Released in 1993, RenderWare is a 3D API and graphics rendering engine used in video games, Active Worlds, and some VRML browsers. RenderWare was developed by Criterion Software Limited, then a subsidiary of Canon. It originated in the era of software rendering on CPUs prior to the appearance of GPUs, competing with other libraries such as Argonaut Games's BRender and RenderMorphics' Reality Lab (the latter was acquired by Microsoft and became Direct3D). Renderware 4 was revealed at GDC 2004.


title: RenderWare

text: RenderWare's principal commercial importance was in providing an off-the-shelf solution to the difficulties of PS2 graphics programming. As such, the engine was often described as "Sony's DirectX" during this era which was a reference to its surrounding framework and toolchain middleware. Prior to version 2, an external programming or scripting language was required to take advantage of RenderWare. RenderWare 2, on the other hand, has its own internal scripting language: RWX (RenderWare script). However, in RenderWare 3 RWX support was removed. This next iteration focused on a binary model file format. As with the previous version increment, Criterion removed support for RenderWare 3's formats in RenderWare 4.


title: RenderWare

text: RenderWare is cross-platform: it runs on Windows as well as Apple Mac OS X-based applications and many video game consoles such as GameCube, Wii, Xbox, Xbox 360, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, and PlayStation Portable. RenderWare is no longer available for purchase, although Electronic Arts still honors old contracts, meaning that external developers who licensed the technology before the Criterion acquisition may still use the software. What was RenderWare 4 has dissolved into the rest of EA internal tech. During a 2007 Gamasutra interview, Bing Gordon, EA CCO, has stated that RenderWare did not perform well enough for next-gen hardware, graphics wise, and that RenderWare did not stand up to competition, such as Unreal Engine from Epic Games. He has also stated that the RenderWare team is "mostly a dev house".


title: Udita Goswami

text: Udita Goswami (born 9 February 1984) is a former Indian actress who worked in Hindi cinema. She has been married to film director Mohit Suri since 2013.


title: Udita Goswami

text: Goswami was born in Dehradun. Her father is from Banaras and her mother is from Shillong. Goswami's grandmother is Nepalese. She completed her education in Dehradun where she studied at Cambrian Hall and D.A.V. Public school until class 9.


title: Udita Goswami

text: After a few years of dating, Goswami married Mohit Suri in 2013. They have two children, a daughter born in 2015 and a son born in 2018. She is the sister-in-law of actors Pooja Bhatt, Alia Bhatt and Emraan Hashmi.


title: Udita Goswami

text: She worked as a model for brands like Pepsi, Titan Watches and debuted in Bollywood opposite John Abraham with Paap, which was also Pooja Bhatt's directorial debut. She later starred in "Zeher" opposite "Emraan Hashmi" and "Aksar" opposite Dino Morea. She also appeared with Upen Patel in Ahmed Khan's music video for the remix of "Kya Khoob Lagti Ho".


title: Udita Goswami

text: In 2012, she played the lead role in "Diary of a Butterfly" directed by Vinodh Mukhi which released to unfavorable reviews


title: Mariah Carey singles discography

text: American singer Mariah Carey has released 86 official singles, 22 promotional singles, and has made 30 guest appearances. Her self-titled debut album in 1990 yielded four number-one singles on the "Billboard" Hot 100, the first being "Vision of Love", a song credited with revolutionizing the usage of distinguished vocal stylings, predominantly the practice of melisma, and effectively influencing virtually every female R&B performer since the 1990s. Subsequent singles "Emotions" (1991) and Carey's cover of the Jackson 5 track, "I'll Be There" (1992) continued the singer's streak of US number-one singles, with the latter becoming her fourth chart-topper in Canada and first in the Netherlands. With the release of Carey's third studio album, "Music Box" (1993), the singer's international popularity surged upon release of "Hero" and the album's third single, her cover of Harry Nilsson's "Without You", which became the singer's first number-one single in several countries across Europe.


title: Mariah Carey singles discography

text: Carey's holiday album "Merry Christmas" (1994) produced the singer's perennial yule-tide classic "All I Want for Christmas Is You". With its continual expanding legacy, the song remains her highest seller and one of the best-selling singles of all time, with global sales of over 16 million copies. As of 2013, the song is estimated to have generated over $50 million in royalties. On December 21, 2019, a full quarter-century after its original release, "All I Want for Christmas Is You" topped the Hot 100 for the first time.


title: Mariah Carey singles discography

text: In 1995, the singer released her fifth studio effort, "Daydream". Its singles "Fantasy" and "One Sweet Day" (with Boyz II Men) became Carey's ninth and tenth US number one singles, with the latter spending a record sixteen weeks atop the "Billboard" Hot 100. In following years, she released "Butterfly"s (1997) "Honey" – which became Carey's third single to debut atop the US chart, and "When You Believe" (with Whitney Houston). The singer's version of "Against All Odds (Take a Look at Me Now)" (1999) (with Westlife) became her second chart-topping single in the UK.


title: Mariah Carey singles discography

text: Following a tumultuous period in the singer's personal life, her ensuing soundtrack and album, "Glitter" (2001) and "Charmbracelet" (2002) respectively, failed to gain significant commercial traction, and led to a series of unsuccessful singles. Largely considered her come-back album, Carey's tenth studio effort "The Emancipation of Mimi" (2005) revived faith in the singer's stock with its single "We Belong Together" becoming her strongest international showing in years, topping the chart in the US for 14 weeks, and breaking several radio airplay records. In 2010, "We Belong Together" was listed by "Billboard" as the most successful song of the decade. In 2008, "Touch My Body", the lead single from her album "E=MC²", became Carey's 18th chart-topper on the Hot 100, making her the solo artist with the most number ones in the charts history.


title: Mariah Carey singles discography

text: Since "Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel" (2009), Carey has released a string of moderate to unsuccessful singles following into the release of her most recent offering, "Caution" (2018). In 2019, "All I Want For Christmas Is You" became Carey's 19th number-one song on the Hot 100, extending her record for the solo artist with the most number ones in the charts history. As of 2009, Carey has sold 17.2 million physical singles and 13.8 million digital tracks in the United States, according to Nielsen SoundScan. Throughout her career, the singer has spent a record 87 weeks at the number one position on the Hot 100, becoming the artist with the most weeks at number one in US history. Overall, she has 24 top-ten singles in the UK and 28 top-ten songs on the US chart, placing her in fifth place for the most top tens since its inception.


title: Mitchell Ryan

text: Mitchell Ryan (January 11, 1934 – March 4, 2022) was an American film, television, and stage actor, who in his six decades of television is known for playing Burke Devlin in the 1960s gothic soap opera "Dark Shadows", and later for his co-starring role as Thomas Gibson's father Edward Montgomery on "Dharma & Greg". He also played the villainous General Peter McAllister in the 1987 buddy cop action film "Lethal Weapon."


title: Mitchell Ryan

text: Ryan was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, and raised in Louisville, Kentucky. His father was a salesman and his mother was a writer. He served in the United States Navy during the Korean War.


title: Mitchell Ryan

text: A life member of the Actors Studio, Ryan's Broadway theatre credits include "Wait Until Dark", "Medea", and "The Price". His off-Broadway credits include "Antony and Cleopatra" (1963) and "The Price" (1979).


title: Mitchell Ryan

text: Ryan was an original cast member on the cult TV soap opera "Dark Shadows", playing Burke Devlin until he was fired from the show in June 1967 due to his alcoholism, and replaced by Anthony George.


title: Mitchell Ryan

text: In 1970, Ryan was in one episode of "The High Chaparral" as a character named Jelks, who was on the run from the law.


title: Mitchell Ryan

text: He appeared in an episode of "Cannon", "Fool's Gold" in 1971, and in ABC's "The Streets of San Francisco" episode "The Unicorn". He portrayed the title character, Chase Reddick, on the crime drama "Chase" (1973–74).


title: Mitchell Ryan

text: In 1975, Ryan played in "Barnaby Jones", in the episode titled "Counterfall". He portrayed the leading character, Dan Walling, on "Executive Suite" (1976–77) and played Blake Simmons in the drama "Julie Farr, M.D." (1978–79).


title: Mitchell Ryan

text: Ryan portrayed Cooper Hawkins on the Western series "The Chisholms" (1980), Sam Garrett on "King's Crossing" (1982) Brennan Flannery on "High Performance" (1983), Edward Wyler on "Hot Pursuit" (1984), and Porter Tremont on "2000 Malibu Road" (1992).


title: Mitchell Ryan

text: His other acting credits include the films "Liar Liar"; "Magnum Force" playing as Dirty Harry's ill-fated despondent best friend and fellow police officer, a motorcycle patrolman named Charlie McCoy; "Lethal Weapon" playing the key villain General Peter McAllister; "Grosse Pointe Blank"; "Electra Glide in Blue"; and "Hot Shots! Part Deux", playing senator Grey Edwards. In 1985, he portrayed Tillet Main, the patriarch of the Main family in the first "North and South" miniseries. In 1991, he played Ellis Blake in the sixth season "Matlock" episode "The Foursome".


title: Mitchell Ryan

text: Ryan appeared in NBC's "The A-Team"; he played Ike Hagan, as Grant Everett in a two-part "Silk Stalkings" episode; and as Kyle Riker, the father of Commander William Riker, in the "" episode "The Icarus Factor"; Ryan had been considered for the part of series lead Captain Jean-Luc Picard. He also portrayed the roles of the abusive boyfriend of Blanche Devereaux, Rex Huntington, in "The Golden Girls" episode "The Bloom is off the Rose", and a police officer in a 1993 episode of "NYPD Blue". The same year, Ryan was Dallas Shields in "Renegade". He appeared in the 1983 episode of "Hart to Hart" 'Highland Fling'. In 1994, he appeared again in "Hart to Hart" in one of the made-for-TV movies, "Home Is Where the Hart Is". In 1995, he appeared in the films "Judge Dredd" and "" as Dr. Terence Wynn (played by Robert Phalen in the original "Halloween" film).


title: Mitchell Ryan

text: He played the role of Greg's father, Edward Montgomery, on the comedy "Dharma & Greg" (1997–2002). The following year, Ryan voiced Highfather on "Justice League".


title: Mitchell Ryan

text: Ryan married Lynda Morse in 1972. They later divorced. The couple had one child. In 1998 Ryan married Barbara Albertine, after 11 years of being together. They have two children and five grandchildren. Ryan died of heart failure at his home in Los Angeles, California on March 4, 2022, at the age of 88.


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: The Russian famine of 1921–1922, also known as the Povolzhye famine, was a severe famine in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic which began early in the spring of 1921 and lasted through 1922. The famine resulted from the combined effects of economic disturbance because of the Russian Revolution and Russian Civil War, the government policy of war communism (especially prodrazvyorstka), exacerbated by rail systems that could not distribute food efficiently.


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: This famine killed an estimated 5 million people, primarily affecting the Volga and Ural River regions, and peasants resorted to cannibalism.


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: Hunger was so severe that it was likely seed-grain would be eaten rather than sown. At one point, relief agencies had to give food to railroad staff to get their supplies moved.


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: Before the famine began, Russia had suffered three and a half years of World War I and the Civil Wars of 1918–1920, many of the conflicts fought inside Russia. There were an estimated 7–12 million casualties during the Russian Civil War, mostly civilians.


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: Before the famine, all sides in the Russian Civil Wars of 1918–1921—the Bolsheviks, the Whites, the Anarchists, the seceding nationalities—had provisioned themselves by seizing food from those who grew it, giving it to their armies and supporters, and denying it to their enemies. The Bolshevik government had requisitioned supplies from the peasantry for little or nothing in exchange. This led peasants to drastically reduce their crop production.


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: Aid from outside Soviet Russia was initially rejected. The American Relief Administration (ARA), which Herbert Hoover formed to help the victims of starvation of World War I, offered assistance to Lenin in 1919, on condition that they have full say over the Russian railway network and hand out food impartially to all. Lenin refused this as interference in Russian internal affairs.


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: Lenin was eventually convinced—by this famine, the Kronstadt rebellion, large scale peasant uprisings such as the Tambov Rebellion, and the failure of a German general strike—to reverse his policy at home and abroad. He decreed the New Economic Policy on 15 March 1921. The famine also helped produce an opening to the West: Lenin allowed relief organizations to bring aid this time. War relief was no longer required in Western Europe, and the ARA had an organization set up in Poland, relieving the Polish famine which had begun in the winter of 1919–1920.


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: The early 1920s saw a series of famines. The first famine in the USSR happened in 1921–1923 and garnered wide international attention. The most affected area being the Southeastern areas of European Russia, including Volga region. An estimated 16 million people may have been affected and up to 5 million died.


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: In the summer of 1921, during one of the worst famines in history, Vladimir Lenin, head of the new Soviet government, along with Maxim Gorky, appealed in an open letter to "all honest European and American people", to "give bread and medicine". In an open letter to all nations, dated 13 July 1921, Gorky described the crop failure which had brought his country to the brink of starvation. Herbert Hoover, who would later become the U.S. President, responded immediately, and negotiations with Russia took place at the Latvian capital, Riga. A European effort was led by the famous Arctic explorer Fridtjof Nansen through the International Committee for Russian Relief (ICRR).


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: Hoover's ARA had already been distributing food aid throughout Europe since 1914. After the Germans invaded Belgium in 1914, Hoover set up the Belgian Relief committee to alleviate the devastation and starvation that followed. As World War I expanded, the ARA grew, when it next entered northern France, assisting France and Germany from 1914 to 1919. In 1920 and 1921 it provided one meal a day to 3.2 million children in Finland, Estonia, various Russian regions, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Ukraine, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, and Armenia. When it began its emergency feeding operation in Russia, it planned to feed about one million Russian children for a full year. Other bodies such as the American Friends Service Committee, the British Friends' War Victims Relief Committee and the International Save the Children Union, with the British Save the Children Fund as the major contributor, also later took part. As historian Douglas Smith writes, the food relief would likely help "save communist Russia from ruin".


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: The United States of America was the first country to respond, with Hoover appointing Colonel William N. Haskell to direct the American Relief Administration (ARA) in Russia. Within a month, ships loaded with food were headed for Russia. The main contributor to the international relief effort would be the American Relief Administration (ARA), founded and directed by Hoover. Although it had agreed to provide food for a million people, mostly children, within a year it was feeding more than 10 times that number daily.


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: The ARA insisted it have complete autonomy as to how the food would be distributed, stating its requirement that food would be given without regard to "race, creed or social status", a condition stated in Section 25 of the Riga agreement. U.S. spokesmen said they would also want to have storage facilities built in Russia, wrote journalist Charles Bartlett, and would expect to have full access to those to assure that food was distributed properly.


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: Hoover also demanded that Russia use some of its gold holdings to defray the cost of the relief effort. He secured $18 million from the Russian leadership, $20 million from the U.S. Congress, $8 million from the U.S. military, and additional money from U.S. charities, to arrive at a total of approximately $78 million from all those sources. After an agreement was finally signed at Riga, the U.S. set up its first kitchen in Petrograd, where 1.6 million people had already starved to death.


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: Over 10 million people were fed daily, with the bulk of food coming from the ARA. The ARA had provided more than 768 million tons of flour, grain, rice, beans, pork, milk, and sugar, with a value at the time of over $98 million. In order to transport and distribute the food after it was collected in the U.S., the ARA used 237 ships, under the direction of 200 Americans, and with the help of 125,000 Russians on location, unloading, warehousing, hauling, weighing, cooking and serving the food in more than 21,000 newly established kitchens.


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: But even after the food had reached the people in need, Col. Haskell, informed Hoover of an unexpected new danger. He explained that fuel was unavailable for heating or cooking, and millions of Russian peasants had clothing consisting mostly of rags, which would lead to certain death from cold exposure during the approaching winter.


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: The children at risk included those in orphanages and other institutions, as they usually had only one garment, often made of flour sacks, and they lacked shoes, stockings, underclothing or any clothing to keep warm. Also at risk were children living at home with their parents, who also lacked enough clothing, which made them unable to reach the American relief kitchens. Col. Haskell cabled Mr. Hoover that at least one million children were in extreme need of clothes. In response, Hoover quickly initiated a plan for collecting and sending clothing packages to Russia, which would come from donations by individuals, businesses, and banks.


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: Medical needs were also paramount. As noted by Dr. Henry Beeuwkes, the chief of the Medical Division in Russia, American relief was supplying over 16,000 hospitals which were treating more than a million persons daily. Because those institutions were scattered over areas with few railroads and often poor roads, with some hospitals over a thousand miles from the main supply base in Moscow, the task was monumental. Dr. Louis L. Shapiro, an army colonel who was one of the ARA's medical directors in Russia, recalled that south Russia had little more than "mud ruts for roads, with limitless prairies." On one trip, with few car necessities or regular gas, he drove 150 miles on tires without inner tubes, instead stuffed with straw. "After our kitchens were established and our clinics able to distribute medical supplies," said Shapiro, "children who had been eating a diet of clay and leather scrapings, responded quite rapidly."


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: According to Dr. Beeuwkes, everything was in short supply, including beds, blankets, sheets, and most medical tools and medicines. Operations were performed in unheated operating rooms without anesthetics, and often with bare hands. Wounds were dressed with newspapers or rags. Water supplies were polluted with much of the plumbing unusable.


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: To help the widespread medical emergency, the ARA distributed medical supplies which included over 2,000 different necessities, from medicines to surgical instruments. Overall, there were 125,000 medical packages, weighing 15 million pounds, sent on 69 different ships. According to Dr. Shapiro, when the ARA left Russia in 1923, after two years of relief efforts, "the Russians had been pulled out of the slough of famine and death. I can say without boasting that no relief organization ever worked so hard to complete its task."


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: In May 1922, Lev Kamenev, President of the Moscow soviet, and deputy chairman of all Russian famine relief committees, wrote a letter to Col. Haskell, thanking him and the ARA for its help, while also paying tribute to the American people.


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: By the summer of 1923, it was estimated that the U.S. relief given to Russia amounted to over twice the total of relief given it by all other foreign organizations combined. European agencies co-ordinated by the ICRR also fed two million people a day, while the International Save the Children Union fed up to 375,000. The operation was hazardous—several workers died of cholera—and was not without its critics, including the London "Daily Express", which first denied the severity of the famine, and then argued that the money would better be spent in the United Kingdom.


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: Throughout 1922 and 1923, as famine was still widespread and the ARA was still providing relief supplies, grain was exported by the Soviet government to raise funds for the revival of industry; this seriously endangered Western support for relief. The new Soviet government insisted that if the AYA suspended relief the ARA arrange a foreign loan for them of about $10,000,000 1923 dollars; the ARA was unable to do this, and continued to ship in food past the grain being sold abroad.


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: As with other large-scale famines, the range of estimates is considerable. An official Soviet publication of the early 1920s concluded that about five million deaths occurred in 1921 from famine and related disease: this number is usually quoted in textbooks. More conservative figures counted not more than a million, while another assessment, based on the ARA's medical division, spoke of two million. On the other side of the scale, some sources spoke of ten million dead. According to Bertrand M. Patenaude, "such a number hardly seems extravagant after the many tens of millions of victims of war, famine, and terror in the twentieth century".


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: The famine came at the end of six and a half years of unrest and violence (first World War I, then the two Russian revolutions of 1917, then the Russian Civil War). Many different political and military factions were involved in those events, and most of them have been accused by their enemies of having contributed to, or even bearing sole responsibility for, the famine.


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: The Bolsheviks started a campaign of seizing church property in 1922. In that year over 4.5 million golden roubles of property were seized. Out of these, one million gold roubles were spent for famine relief. In a secret March 19, 1922 letter to the Politburo, Lenin expressed an intention to seize several hundred million golden roubles for famine relief.


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: In Lenin's secret letter to the Politburo, Lenin explains that the famine provides an opportunity against the church. Richard Pipes argued that the famine was used politically as an excuse for the Bolshevik leadership to persecute the Orthodox Church, which held significant sway over much of the peasant populace.


title: Russian famine of 1921–1922

text: Russian anti-Bolshevik white émigrés in London, Paris, and elsewhere also used the famine as a media opportunity to highlight the iniquities of the Soviet regime in an effort to prevent trade with and official recognition of the Bolshevik Government.


title: Somerset House

text: Somerset House is a large Neoclassical complex situated on the south side of the Strand in central London, overlooking the River Thames, just east of Waterloo Bridge. The Georgian era quadrangle was built on the site of a Tudor palace ("Old Somerset House") originally belonging to the Duke of Somerset. The present Somerset House was designed by Sir William Chambers, begun in 1776, and was further extended with Victorian era outer wings to the east and west in 1831 and 1856 respectively. The site of Somerset House stood directly on the River Thames until the Victoria Embankment parkway was built in the late 1860s.


title: Somerset House

text: The great Georgian era structure was built to be a grand public building housing various government and public-benefit society offices. Its present tenants are a mixture of various organisations, generally centred around the arts and education.


title: Somerset House

text: In the 16th century, the Strand, the north bank of the Thames between the City of London and the Palace of Westminster, was a favoured site for the mansions of bishops and aristocrats, who could commute from their own landing stages upriver to the court or downriver to the City and beyond. In 1539, Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford (died 1552), obtained a grant of land at "Chester Place, outside Temple Bar, London" from his brother-in-law King Henry VIII. When his nephew the young King Edward VI came to the throne in 1547, Seymour became Duke of Somerset and Lord Protector. In about 1549 he pulled down an old Inn of Chancery and other houses that stood on the site, and began to build himself a palatial residence, making liberal use of other nearby buildings, including some of the chantry chapels and cloisters at St Paul's Cathedral, which were demolished partly at his behest as part of the ongoing dissolution of the monasteries. It was a two-storey house built around a quadrangle, with a gateway rising to three storeys, and was one of the earliest examples of Renaissance architecture in England. It is not known who designed the building.


title: Somerset House

text: Before it was finished, however, the Duke of Somerset was overthrown, attainted by Parliament and in 1552 was executed on Tower Hill. Somerset Place, as the building was referred to, then came into the possession of the Crown. The duke's royal nephew's half-sister, the future Queen Elizabeth I, lived there during the reign of her half-sister Queen Mary I (1553–58). The process of completion and improvement was slow and costly. As late as 1598 John Stow refers to it as "yet unfinished".


title: Somerset House

text: On 18 August O.S. (28 August N.S.) 1604, Somerset House was the probable location for the negotiations, known as the Somerset House Conference that culminated in the Treaty of London and concluded the nineteen-year Anglo-Spanish War. The Conference was the subject of an oil-on-canvas painting depicting the 11 representatives of the governments of England, Spain and the Spanish Netherlands, seated around a conference table, probably in Old Somerset House.


title: Somerset House

text: During the 17th century, the house was used as a residence by royal consorts. In the reign of King James I, the building was the London residence of his wife, Anne of Denmark, and was renamed Denmark House. She commissioned a number of expensive additions and improvements, some to designs by Inigo Jones. In 1609 Simon Basil and William Goodrowse made steps and terraces in the garden. Anne of Denmark built an orangery and employed a French gardener and hydraulic engineer Salomon de Caus. He built a fountain known as Mount Parnassus with a grotto carved with sea-shells and a black marble female figure representing the River Thames. The fountain was topped by a statue of Pegasus. A surviving cistern for the fountain in nearby Strand Lane was misidentified as a Roman bath.


title: Somerset House

text: The refurbished palace was the setting for elaborate entertainments at the wedding of Anne's lady in waiting Jean Drummond on 3 February 1614, including a masque "Hymen's Triumph" written by Samuel Daniel. After his death in April 1625, King James' body was brought from Theobalds to lie in state at Denmark House. The state rooms were hung with black cloth. At this period there was no chapel at Denmark House, and so the Great hall was adapted, and the body moved there before the funeral at Westminster Abbey.


title: Somerset House

text: Between 1630 and 1635 Inigo Jones built a chapel where Henrietta Maria of France, the wife of King Charles I, could exercise her Roman Catholic religion. This was in the care of the Capuchin Order and was on a site to the southwest of the Great Court. A small cemetery was attached and some of the tombstones are still to be seen built into one of the walls of a passage under the present quadrangle.


title: Somerset House

text: Royal occupation of Somerset House was interrupted by the Civil War, and in 1649 Parliament tried to sell it. They failed to find a buyer, although a sale of the contents realised the very considerable sum (for that time) of £118,000. Use was still found for it however. Part of it served as an army headquarters, with General Fairfax (the Parliamentarians' commander-in-chief) being given official quarters there; lodgings were also provided for certain other Parliamentarian notables. It was in Somerset House that Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell's body lay in state after his death in 1658.


title: Somerset House

text: Two years later, with the Restoration, Queen Henrietta Maria returned and in 1661 began a considerable programme of rebuilding, the main feature of which was a magnificent new river front, again to the design of the late Inigo Jones, who had died at Somerset House in 1652. However she returned to France in 1665 before it was finished. It was then used as an occasional residence by Catherine of Braganza, wife of King Charles II. During her time it received a certain notoriety as being, in the popular mind, a hot-bed of Catholic conspiracy. Titus Oates made full use of this prejudice in the fabricated details of the Popish Plot and it was alleged that Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey, whose murder was one of the great mysteries of the age, had been killed in Somerset House before his body had been smuggled out and thrown into a ditch below Primrose Hill.


title: Somerset House

text: Somerset House was refurbished by Sir Christopher Wren in 1685. After the Glorious Revolution in 1688, Somerset House entered on a long period of decline, being used (after Queen Catherine left England in 1692) for grace and favour residences. In the conditions of the time this meant almost inevitably that little money could be found for its upkeep, and a slow process of decay crept in. During the 18th century, however, the building ceased its royal associations. Though the view from its terraced riverfront garden, open to the public, was painted twice on his London visit by Canaletto (looking up- and downriver), it was used for storage, as a residence for visiting overseas dignitaries and as a barracks for troops. Suffering from neglect, Old Somerset House began to be demolished in 1775.


title: Somerset House

text: Since the middle of the 18th century there had been growing criticism that London had no great public buildings. Government departments and the learned societies were huddled away in small old buildings all over the city. Developing national pride found comparison with the capitals of continental Europe disquieting. Edmund Burke was the leading proponent of the scheme for a "national building", and in 1775 Parliament passed an act for the purpose of, "inter alia", "erecting and establishing Offices in Somerset House, and for embanking Parts of the River Thames lying within the bounds of the Manor of Savoy". The list of public offices mentioned in the act comprised "The Salt Office, The Stamp Office, The Tax Office, The Navy Office, The Navy Victualling Office, The Publick Lottery Office, The Hawkers and Pedlar Office, The Hackney Coach Office, The Surveyor General of the Crown Lands Office, The Auditors of the Imprest Office, The Pipe Office, The Office of the Duchy of Lancaster, The Office of the Duchy of Cornwall, The Office of Ordnance, The King's Bargemaster's House, The King's Bargehouses".


title: Somerset House

text: Somerset House was still technically a royal palace and therefore Crown property, with most work being done by the King's Master Mason, John Deval. By an earlier Act of Parliament, it had been placed in trust for the use of Queen Charlotte in the event that her husband King George III predeceased her. Therefore, the 1775 act annulled this arrangement and instead provided for another property, Buckingham House, to be vested in trust for the Queen on the same terms. (Provision was made for the King, who had privately purchased Buckingham House some years earlier, to be duly compensated). In due course, the King outlived the Queen and the property (later known as Buckingham Palace) reverted "to the use of His Majesty, his heirs and successors". By virtue of the same act, Ely House in Holborn (which had itself been purchased just a few years earlier as a potential site for new public offices) was sold and the proceeds applied to the Somerset House project.


title: Somerset House

text: Initially a certain William Robinson, Secretary to the Board of Works, was commissioned to design and build the new Somerset House, but he died in 1775 shortly after being appointed. So Sir William Chambers, Comptroller of the King's Works, (who had in any case been vying for the commission) was appointed in his stead, at a salary of £2,000 per year. He spent the last two decades of his life, beginning in 1775, in several phases of building at the present Somerset House. Thomas Telford, then a stonemason, but later an eminent civil engineer, was among those who worked on its construction. One of Chambers's most famous pupils, Thomas Hardwick Jnr, helped build parts of the building during his period of training and later wrote a short biography of Chambers. The design influenced other great buildings: Charles Bulfinch's Massachusetts State House, begun in 1795, has been described as a work "frankly derivative" of Somerset House.


title: Somerset House

text: Chambers' own influences stemmed from Palladianism, the principles of which were applied throughout Somerset House, inside and outside, both in its large-scale conception and in its small-scale details. The footprint of the building was that of the old palace, ranging from its gateway block in the Strand across what was originally a gently sloping site down to the river. Chambers experimented with at least four different configurations of buildings and courtyards in drawing up his designs; his final version provided a single courtyard, by , flanked by a pair of terraces, the whole presenting a unified frontage to the river, wide. Around the courtyard, each block consisted of six storeys: cellar, basement, ground, principal, attic and garret. The public offices and learned societies which were accommodated around the courtyard varied greatly in size, but each occupied all six floors of its allotted area, the upper floors often providing living space for a secretary or other official. Large vaults for storing public documents were provided, extending under the entire northern section of the courtyard.


title: Somerset House

text: The North Wing, fronting the Strand, was the first part of the complex to be built; its design was based on Inigo Jones's drawings for the riverfront of the former palace. By 1780 the North Wing was finished and occupied, and Chambers reported to Parliament that the rest of the quadrangle was complete up to a height of two storeys. Construction of the riverside wing followed; it was finished in 1786. At the time of construction, the Thames was not embanked and the river lapped the South Wing, where a great arch allowed boats and barges to penetrate to landing places within the building. Meanwhile, work continued on the East and West Wings, which began to be occupied from 1788; by 1790 the main quadrangle was complete.


title: Somerset House

text: It was originally envisaged that the main quadrangle would be flanked by two terraces of houses, one to the east and one to the west, providing accommodation for several of the Commissioners whose offices were based there. It is not certain at what pace the rest of the construction progressed, but it is clear that the outbreak of war with France in 1793 caused delays through lack of money. Chambers died in 1796, whereupon James Wyatt took over as architect. In the end, only the western terrace was built and by 1801 the building was deemed to be complete, at a cost of £462,323.


title: Somerset House

text: In 1815 Sir Robert Smirke was appointed as Attached Architect to Somerset House; in 1817 he added the Legacy Duty Office to the north-west corner of the quadrangle, its design in keeping with Chambers's adjacent façade. Even as late as 1819, decorative work to the exterior of the North Wing was still being completed.


title: Somerset House

text: In addition to applying a rich scheme of architectural decoration, Chambers enhanced the exterior of Somerset House with a multiplicity of sculptures and other visual embellishments. Giovanni Cipriani produced designs and the sculptors executing them included Joseph Wilton, Agostino Carlini, John Bacon, Joseph Nollekens, John Cheere and Giuseppe Ceracchi. Bacon oversaw production of the bronze group of statues (consisting of Neptune and George III) in the main courtyard, facing the main entrance from the Strand.


title: Somerset House

text: Inside, most of the offices were plain and business-like, but in the North Wing the formal rooms and public spaces of the learned societies were enriched with painted ceilings (by Cipriani, Benjamin West, Angelica Kauffman, J. F. Rigaud, Charles Catton and Joshua Reynolds), ornamental plasterwork (by Thomas Collins and Thomas Clerk) and casts of classical sculptures. John Papworth did the plasterwork in the great Royal Academy Room; many of the ceiling paintings were removed by the Royal Academy when they vacated their premises.


title: Somerset House

text: A key reason for rebuilding Somerset House was to provide accommodation for a diverse variety of learned societies, public offices and naval administrators.


title: Somerset House

text: The North Wing of Somerset House was initially fitted out to house the Royal Academy, the Royal Society and the Society of Antiquaries. The Royal Academy took up residence first, in 1779, followed by the other two institutions the following year. The Royal Academy occupied the western half of the wing and the Royal Society the eastern half; their main entrances faced each other across the central vestibule leading from the Strand to the courtyard, topped by busts (of Michelangelo and Isaac Newton respectively) which are still in place today. The Society of Antiquaries was also accommodated in the eastern half of the wing, though its premises were limited to a first-floor meeting room, a ground-floor library, an apartment in the attic and a kitchen in the basement.


title: Somerset House

text: The Geological Society was also accommodated in the Somerset House from 1828, as was the Royal Astronomical Society from 1834.


title: Somerset House

text: The annual Royal Academy Exhibition was held in Somerset House from 1780 onwards, until the Academy moved out in 1837 (initially to rooms in the new National Gallery, then to Burlington House, Piccadilly). Its former accommodation was given over to a newly established Government School of Design (which was much later to become the Royal College of Art); it remained in the complex from 1837 until, in 1853, the Registry of Births, Marriages and Deaths needed to expand its office space and the School relocated to Marlborough House.


title: Somerset House

text: In 1857, the Royal Society moved out of Somerset House, followed in 1874 by the Society of Antiquaries, the Geological Society and the Royal Astronomical Society; they were all provided with new purpose-built accommodation in Burlington House.


title: Somerset House

text: In 1789 the Navy Board moved into grand riverside rooms in the western half of the newly completed South Wing. It was soon followed by its subsidiary Boards, the Victualling Commissioners and the Sick and Hurt Commissioners, which (along with the autonomous Navy Pay Office) occupied the West Wing; they had all hitherto been based in the City of London. Thus the various Navy offices occupied around a third of Chambers' completed building. In addition, the terrace to the west of the quadrangle provided dwelling-houses for the Comptroller of the Navy, the Secretary to the Board and three Commissioners of the Navy, along with the Chairman, Secretary and two Commissioners of Victualling, with the Treasurer of the Navy allotted the 'mansion' at the river end of the terrace (which included a coach house and stables for ten horses in the vaults under the terrace). As well as providing office space and accommodation, Somerset House was the place where examinations for promotion to the rank of lieutenant took place, sat by several hundred midshipmen each year. The Admiralty Museum (a precursor to the National Maritime Museum) was also accommodated there, in the central room above the south portico.


title: Somerset House

text: In 1832 the Navy Board and its subsidiaries were abolished and their departments placed under the direct oversight of the Admiralty. Their administrative staff remained in Somerset House, but communications with the Admiralty (based a mile away in Whitehall) were problematic as what became known as the "civil departments" of the Admiralty guarded their independence. In 1868, the Admiralty took the decision to move all their staff from Somerset House to Whitehall; this necessitated reconfiguring what had been a set of residences there pertaining to the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty into office accommodation. Nevertheless, the move was completed by 1873, and the expanding Inland Revenue immediately took over the vacated space in Somerset House.


title: Somerset House

text: From the beginning of the new Somerset House there was a fiscal presence in the shape of the Stamp Office and the Tax Office, the former occupying the eastern part of the South Wing from 1789 and the latter occupying part of the East Wing. The Stamp Office had the task of applying an impressed duty stamp to various specific items to show that the required duty had been paid. For example, up until 1855 (when the relevant duty was abolished) every newspaper produced in the country had to be brought to Somerset House to be stamped. The Tax Office administered and collected various taxes, including income tax (first levied in 1799). Introduced as a means of raising revenue in wartime, it was collected during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars; though repealed in 1816, it was reintroduced in peacetime (in 1842) and has been collected ever since.


title: Somerset House

text: The Inland Revenue was created by a merger of the Stamp and Taxes Office and the Excise Office in 1849; in 1854 the Excise Office staff were moved from their old headquarters in the City of London into the newly built New Wing.


title: Somerset House

text: Somerset House continued in use by the Inland Revenue throughout the 20th century. In 2005, the Inland Revenue was merged with HM Customs and Excise; its successor HM Revenue & Customs continued to occupy much of the building, although its executive and senior management moved to 100 Parliament Street shortly after the merger. Various divisions and directorates of HMRC continued to occupy the East Wing until 2009, the West Wing until 2011 and the New Wing until March 2013, by which time all staff had been relocated (with most moving across the street to the southwest wing of Bush House). This brought to an end a 224-year association of the revenue services with Somerset House.


title: Somerset House

text: In 1842, the Excise Office had established a laboratory within its Broad Street headquarters for the prevention of the adulteration of tobacco products. It had started as basically a one-man operation by an employee of the Excise, George Phillips. After the Excise Office had been merged with the Office of Stamps and Taxes to form the Inland Revenue, the latter took over the laboratory; by 1858 it was reestablished in Somerset House as the Inland Revenue Laboratory (with Phillips remaining in charge). It was also known as the Somerset House Laboratory. Under the Inland Revenue, the Laboratory's work expanded to encompass the testing of many different substances, including food, beer and spirits, as well as tobacco.


title: Somerset House

text: Phillips retired as principal chemist in 1874. James Bell was then the principal chemist of Somerset House Laboratory until his retirement in 1894. He was replaced as principal chemist by Sir Thomas Edward Thorpe. At the same time, the laboratory was amalgamated with a similar facility that had been established within HM Customs and it was renamed the Government Laboratory. In 1897, Thorpe moved the Government Laboratory from Somerset House to a new building of his own design.


title: Somerset House

text: In 1837, following the establishment of civil registration in the United Kingdom, the Registrar General of Births, Marriages and Deaths set up his office in the North Wing of Somerset House, establishing a connection that lasted for over 130 years. This office held all birth, marriage and death certificates in England and Wales until 1970, when the Registry and its associated archives were moved to nearby St Catherine's House at Aldwych.


title: Somerset House

text: From 1859 until 1998, the Principal Registry of the Court of Probate (latterly the Principal Probate Registry of the Family Division) was based in Somerset House, prior to its move to First Avenue House, High Holborn.


title: Somerset House

text: In addition to the learned societies, the ground floor rooms of the North Wing housed the Hawkers and Pedlars Office (on the west side) and the Hackney Coach Office, the Lottery Office, the Privy Seal and Signet Offices (on the east side). The Hackney Coach commissioners had been established on a permanent footing in 1694, while the Board of Commissioners of Hawkers, Pedlars and Petty Chapmen dated from 1698; the latter was abolished in 1810 and its work taken over by the Hackney Coach Office until its abolition in 1831, whereupon responsibility for licensing both of hackney carriages and of travelling traders passed to the Stamp Office. The Lottery Office, established in 1779, was also abolished in 1831 and its residual business likewise passed to the Stamp Office. The Signet Office was abolished in 1851 and the Privy Seal Office in 1884.


title: Somerset House

text: One of the first occupants of the building had been the Duchy of Cornwall Office. It was accommodated in the East Wing along with the Tax Office and various Exchequer offices (including the Pipe Office, the Lord Treasurer's Remembrancer's Office and the Office of the Clerk of the Estreats). As early as 1795 the Exchequer was requesting that more space be made available; Sir John Soane was engaged to redesign their offices, and as part of the scheme the Duchy was relocated to another part of the East Wing, prompting complaints from its officers. Pipe rolls and other ancient records of the Treasury and Exchequer (which had been moved to Somerset House from the Palace of Westminster in 1793) remained stored in the basements until the establishment of the Public Record Office in 1838.


title: Somerset House

text: The office of Lord Treasurer's Remembrancer ceased to exist in 1833 and the Pipe Office was abolished in 1834; however space in Somerset House continued to be at a premium: in 1854 an Act of Parliament was passed (the Duchy of Cornwall Office Act 1854) noting that the Duchy's rooms in Somerset House were now needed "for the use of the Commissioners of Inland Revenue, whose present office is insufficient for the Business thereof, and adjoins the said Office of the Duchy of Cornwall". The Act provided for the Duchy Office to move to new, purpose-built premises in Pimlico: now known as 10 Buckingham Gate, the building still serves as head office for the Duchy.


title: Somerset House

text: From 1785 the Commissioners for Auditing Public Accounts were also housed in the East Wing, as was the Duchy of Lancaster Office (having moved there from accommodation in Gray's Inn) until it moved in 1823 to new offices across the road in Lancaster Place. The Surveyor of Crown Lands also had his office here until the early 19th century. The Salt Office initially occupied rooms in the West Wing, alongside the naval offices, but it was abolished in 1798 (administration of the salt tax having been transferred to the Board of Excise).


title: Somerset House

text: During the 19th century the North Wing contained, in addition, the offices of the Poor Law Commissioners (1834–47) and the Tithe Commissioners (1836–51), who also acted as the Copyhold Commissioners.


title: Somerset House

text: Magnificent as the new building was, it was something short of what Chambers had intended, for he had planned for an additional terrace of houses to the east, as well as to the west of the quadrangle; work had stopped short, however, cost being the inhibiting factor. Eventually King's College London was erected to the east (the government granting the land on condition that the design conformed to Chambers' original design) by subscription between 1829 and 1834; the architect was Sir Robert Smirke. At the same time, as part of Smirke's scheme, the eastern third of the river frontage was completed, following Chambers's original design.


title: Somerset House

text: Then, increasing demand for space led to another and last step. The western edge of the site was occupied by a row of houses used as dwellings for Admiralty officials who worked in the South Wing. Between 1851 and 1856, this terrace was substantially expanded and remodelled to provide the Inland Revenue with an entire new wing of additional office accommodation. As part of this development, its architect James Pennethorne created a monumental new façade alongside the approach road to Waterloo Bridge (which had not been in existence when Chambers was alive). 150 years later this part of the building is still known as the ""New" Wing".


title: Somerset House

text: In 1891 a headquarters building was constructed in the West Court (between the West Wing and the New Wing) for the Civil Service Rifles, a Rifle Volunteer Corps.


title: Somerset House

text: By the start of the First World War the Civil Service Rifles, by then renamed the 15th (Prince of Wales' Own Civil Service Rifles) Battalion, The London Regiment, had its own Morris tube firing range (where the calibre of the rifle is reduced for indoor operation by a use of a tube) fitted with vanishing and running targets at Somerset House.


title: Somerset House

text: Somerset House had its share of trials and tribulations during the London blitz in the Second World War. Apart from comparatively minor blast effects at various times, sixteen rooms and the handsome rotunda staircase (the Nelson Stair) were completely destroyed in the South Wing, and a further 27 damaged in the West Wing by a direct hit in October 1940.


title: Somerset House

text: Still more windows were shattered and balustrades toppled, but the worst was over by the end of May 1941. It was not until the 1950s that this damage to the South Wing was repaired. The work required skilled masons, whose services were hard to come by in the early post-war years. Sir Albert Richardson was appointed architect for the reconstruction. He skillfully recreated the Nelson Room and rebuilt the Nelson Stair. The work was completed in 1952 at a cost of (then) £84,000.


title: Somerset House

text: In 1984 the Somerset House Act was passed, legislating the way for Somerset House to be redeveloped as a centre for the arts. In 1997 the Somerset House Trust was established as a charity to maintain the building and develop it as a centre for arts and culture.


title: Somerset House

text: In the late 20th century the building began to be reinvigorated as a centre for the visual arts. The first institution to move in (in 1989) was the Courtauld Institute of Art, including the Courtauld Gallery, which has an important collection of old master and impressionist paintings. The Courtauld occupies the North Wing.


title: Somerset House

text: The main courtyard, which had been used as a civil-service car park, and the main terrace overlooking the Thames were refurbished and opened to the public, these alterations being overseen by the conservation architects Donald Insall & Associates. Grants from the Heritage Lottery Fund financed the conversion of the South Wing between 1999 and 2003: a visitor centre featuring audio-visual displays on the history of the building, the gilded state barge of the Lord Mayor of the City of London and a shop and café were opened, overlooking the river. The Gilbert Collection of decorative arts, and the Hermitage Rooms, which stage exhibitions of items loaned from the Hermitage Museum in St Petersburg, moved into the same area. The last Hermitage exhibition took place in 2007 and the Gilbert Collection galleries closed in 2008; the collection moved into new galleries at the Victoria and Albert Museum in June 2009. Somerset House now puts on a programme of art exhibitions, drawing on various sources.


title: Somerset House

text: In stages from 2009 to 2013, HM Revenue and Customs withdrew from the other parts of the building; since March 2013 the Somerset House Trust has had oversight of the entire complex. Its management policy has been to rent out the upper floors at a commercial rate to "creative businesses", while devoting the ground floor to "public realm" activities. The trust receives no public subsidy and relies on income from rent and private hire to fund the upkeep of the estate and relies on ticket sales, merchandising and sponsorship to fund its artistic and cultural programme.


title: Somerset House

text: In the winter the central courtyard is home to a popular open-air ice rink, as seen during the opening credits of the 2003 Christmas-themed film "Love Actually". At other times, an array of fountains display 55 vertical jets of water rising to random heights.


title: Somerset House

text: The courtyard is also used as a concert venue. In July each year the "Summer series" of music events take place, which have included performances from artists such as Lily Allen.


title: Somerset House

text: Somerset House is now residence to more than a hundred tenants, comprising a large and diverse collection of creative organisations and artists including Dance Umbrella, 7Wonder, Outset Contemporary Art Fund, Hofesh Shechter Company and the Royal Society of Literature. The largest tenant is King's College London, whose Cultural Institute, Executive Centre and Dickson Poon School of Law occupy the East Wing, which is adjacent to its historic College Building of 1831.


title: Somerset House

text: Somerset House is a popular filming location, with its exterior featuring in several big-budget Hollywood films. These include two James Bond films, "GoldenEye" (1995) and "Tomorrow Never Dies" (1997), and several scenes of the 2003 film "Shanghai Knights", starring Jackie Chan and Owen Wilson, were filmed in the courtyard of Somerset House. The courtyard was also used in the 1991 comedy "King Ralph". Elements of the 2008 film "The Duchess", starring Keira Knightley and Ralph Fiennes, were filmed in October 2007. Somerset House was also used as a filming location in several Sherlock Holmes films, including 1970's "The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes" and, more recently, "Sherlock Holmes" (2009), starring Jude Law and Robert Downey, Jr., directed by Guy Ritchie.


title: Somerset House

text: Exterior shots of Somerset House were used in the 1999 Tim Burton horror film "Sleepy Hollow", starring Johnny Depp, and the 2006 film "Flyboys". Somerset House was a filming location in the 2012 Bollywood film "Jab Tak Hai Jaan", which starred Shah Rukh Khan, Katrina Kaif and Anushka Sharma, directed by Yash Chopra. Somerset House Courtyard was also used in the 2008 movie "Last Chance Harvey", with Dustin Hoffman and Emma Thompson. Scenes were filmed in Somerset House for the "Olympus Has Fallen" sequel, "London Has Fallen" (2016). Exterior shots of Somerset House stood in for Himmler's HQ in Berlin in the 1976 film "The Eagle Has Landed". The tunnels under Somerset House have also been used in filming Harry Potter, specifically some of scenes depicting 'Diagon Alley'.


title: Somerset House

text: Somerset House was also the main location for the BBC's "New Year Live" television show, presented by Natasha Kaplinsky, which celebrated the arrival of the year 2006.