title: Jake Kasdan

text: In October 2021, it was announced that Disney+ had given a series order to a television adaptation of graphic novel, "American Born Chinese". It will be produced by 20th Century Television with Kelvin Yu and Charles Yu as writers and executive producers, Marvin Mar and Kasdan as executive producers, and Destin Daniel Cretton as director and executive producer. Most recently, he served as executive producer of the workplace comedy pilot "XYZ" at ABC.


title: Jake Kasdan

text: Kasdan is married to singer-songwriter Inara George of The Bird and the Bee. They have three children: Otis, and twins Beau and Lorelei.


title: Ryu Hwa-young

text: Ryu Hwa-young (born April 22, 1993), better known by the mononym Hwayoung, is a South Korean actress and singer. She is a former member of South Korean girl group T-ara.


title: Ryu Hwa-young

text: Ryu Hwa-young was born on April 22, 1993 in Gwangju, South Korea. Her older twin sister, Ryu Hyo-young, is also a rapper and former member of the group Coed School and its sub-group F-ve Dolls.


title: Ryu Hwa-young

text: Ryu Hyo-young and Ryu Hwa-young made a guest appearance on SBS's variety show Star King in May 2010. They were both subsequently scouted and recruited by Core Contents Media.


title: Ryu Hwa-young

text: Core Contents Media originally slated to add Ryu Hyo-young into T-ara as the seventh member, but she recommended her twin sister, Ryu Hwa-young. In July 2010, it was announced that Ryu Hwa-young would be added into T-ara as lead rapper while her sister would be debuting in the newly formed Coed School. She began promotions as part of T-ara in November 2010 by appearing on the third season of "Hello Baby" and promoting their first mini album "Temptastic". T-ara held their first performance with Ryu on December 3, through KBS's "Music Bank". During her time in the group, she participated in the collaboration between Davichi and T-ara for "We Were In Love" () in December 2011. She also participated in the writing of the rap lyrics of "Love is All the Same" () by fellow labelmate Yangpa.


title: Ryu Hwa-young

text: On July 30, 2012, it was revealed Ryu would no longer be a member of T-ara. Despite rumours of a possible return to T-ara, Ryu announced that she would be returning to the music industry with a new image. On September 10, Ryu later participated in the hip-hop and rap event "Open Freestyle Day 2012", announcing that she was looking forward to studying music and eventually returning to the industry.


title: Ryu Hwa-young

text: On December 15, it was announced that Ryu signed an exclusive contract with Wellmade Yedang and was preparing to debut as an actress. On December 31, Ryu made an appearance at the "2014 Miller Countdown Party" as a DJ, alongside DJ Koo, Park Myung-soo and TATA, becoming the youngest female DJ to ever participate in the event.


title: Ryu Hwa-young

text: Ryu debuted as an actress in the two-episode drama special "Mother's Choice". She successfully made a transition into acting after receiving praise for her roles in tvN's romantic comedy "Ex-Girlfriends' Club" and JTBC's coming-of-age drama "Hello, My Twenties!". In 2017, she was a part of the ensemble cast for weekend drama "My Father is Strange". She was then cast in her first leading role in KBS's crime drama "Mad Dog".


title: Ryu Hwa-young

text: On June 24, 2020, it was announced that Ryu signed a new contract with Polaris Entertainment.Later on September 13, 2021, Ryu terminated her contract with Polaris Entertainment.


title: Ryu Hwa-young

text: On July 28, 2012, several members of T-ara posted tweets that were purportedly seen to be derisive references to Ryu. An official announcement regarding these tweets and a "major announcement about T-ara" was made July 30, which revealed Ryu would no longer be a member of the group. Following the announcement of her abrupt contract termination with Core Contents Media, rumors of her experiencing severe bullying by other members of T-ara surfaced throughout the web and the media, which sparked intensive public interest and controversy. Some members of the public strongly believed that Ryu was mistreated by the other members of T-ara and her agency, and an outcry by T-ara's fan community led to the scheduling of a shut down, as well as the suspension of the members' activities, resulting in a huge blow to the group's popularity.


title: Ryu Hwa-young

text: In 2017, a former T-ara staff member claimed that Ryu and her sister Ryu Hyo-young were the actual bullies in the scandal that plagued T-ara in 2012. Soon afterwards, more staffers came forwards with accounts that Ryu had been disrespectful to the other members as well as stylists, and claimed she had faked how severe an injury was in order to get more sympathy. Ryu initially denied the rumors, but later admitted parts were true. Following intense backlash, including a flood of negative messages on her social media and a reduction of her role in "Hello, My Twenties! 2" to a cameo, Ryu deleted her Instagram account.


title: Kellie Shanygne Williams

text: Kellie Shanygne Williams-Jackson (née Williams; born March 22, 1976) is an American actress. She is best known for her role as Laura Lee Winslow, the middle-born child of Carl and Harriette Winslow on the ABC/CBS television series "Family Matters" which ran from 1989–1998.


title: Kellie Shanygne Williams

text: Jackson was born in Washington D.C. as Kellie Shanygne Williams. After "Family Matters", she began acting in the ABC television show "What About Joan". In 1996, she had a recurring role as Charisse J. Mitchell on the hit "UPN" sitcom, "Moesha", and later Michelle, Nikki's rival, in "The Parkers". In 2006, Williams reunited with her former "Family Matters" co-star Darius McCrary on the UPN sitcom "Eve" for two episodes "Separate, But Unequal" and the final cliffhanger episode "Daughter Don't Preach" as Lynn. She was also on the Style Network program "Clean House" for six episodes in 2009, as a substitute host for Niecy Nash.


title: Kellie Shanygne Williams

text: In 2007 Jackson created the Kellie Williams Program with co-creator Jeff Rawluk in the Washington, D.C., area. The program will provide Washington, D.C., students between the ages of 14 and 20 an opportunity to produce a television show to air on Comcast Cable Local On-Demand. She stated, "I wanted to create a program similar to the one I grew up with (Howard University Children's Theatre). I wanted to bring it to the masses, not to just people who were familiar with the arts but to people who had never experienced any art."


title: Kellie Shanygne Williams

text: Williams wed Hannibal Jackson on September 5, 2009 at Ebenezer African Methodist Episcopal Church in Fort Washington, Maryland. The two met in 2007, through a mutual friend. They have two children together, daughter Hannah Belle Jackson (b. 2010) and son John Ervin Jackson (b. 2012).


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: Timothy J. Keller (born September 23, 1950) is an American pastor, theologian, and Christian apologist. He is the chairman and co-founder of Redeemer City to City, which trains pastors for service around the world. He is also the founding pastor of Redeemer Presbyterian Church in New York City, New York and the author of "The New York Times" bestselling books "The Prodigal God: Recovering the Heart of the Christian Faith" (2008), "Prayer: Experiencing Awe and Intimacy with God" (2014), and "The Reason for God: Belief in an Age of Skepticism" (2008). The prequel for the latter is "Making Sense of GOD: An Invitation to the Skeptical" (2016).


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: Keller was born in Allentown, Pennsylvania, to Louise A. Keller (Clemente) and William B. Keller, a television advertising manager. Keller is a graduate of Bucknell University (BA, 1972), Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary (M.Div., 1975) and Westminster Theological Seminary, where he received his D.Min. in 1981, under the supervision of Harvie M. Conn. He became a Christian while at Bucknell University, due to the ministry of InterVarsity Christian Fellowship, with which he later served as a staff member. He was ordained by the Presbyterian Church in America (PCA) and served as a pastor at West Hopewell Presbyterian Church in Hopewell, Virginia for nine years, while serving as director of church planting for the PCA. He also served on the faculty of Westminster Theological Seminary, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where he and his wife Kathy Keller were involved in urban ministry.


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: Keller was recruited by his denomination to start Redeemer Presbyterian Church in Manhattan in 1989 despite his relative lack of experience after two others had turned down the position. By 2017 when Dr Keller stepped out of the pulpit ministry over 5,000 people a week attended.


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: In 2008, Keller published his first book since his 1989 report to his denomination on diaconal ministries, "Ministries of Mercy". The book, "The Reason for God", was based on common objections to the Christian faith heard during his ministry in New York City. The book reached seventh on the New York Times Nonfiction bestseller list.


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: Redeemer Presbyterian Church grew from 50 people to a total attendance of over 5,000 people each Sunday as of 2008, leading some to call him "the most successful Christian evangelist in the city". In 2004, "Christianity Today" praised Redeemer as "one of Manhattan's most vital congregations".


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: The church's emphasis on young urban professionals, whom Keller believes exhibit disproportionate influence over the culture and its ideas, has given the church an unusual makeup for a US megachurch. The majority of the congregation is made up of single adults; it is also over forty percent Asian-American, and has many congregants working in the arts and financial services. In his preaching, "he hardly shrinks from difficult Christian truths, [but] he sounds different from many of the shrill evangelical voices in the public sphere." Keller often critiques both political parties and avoids taking public stances on political issues, resulting in a politically centrist church.


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: Redeemer Presbyterian Church has also founded Hope for New York, a non-profit organization that sends volunteers and grants to over 40 faith-based ministries serving social needs in New York City, the Center for Faith and Work to train professionals in Christian theology, and Redeemer City to City to train and fund pastors in New York and other cities.


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: Keller is a co-founder of The Gospel Coalition, a group of Reformed leaders from around the United States. His mentoring of younger church leaders, such as Scott Sauls in Nashville and Steve Chong in Sydney, has increased his influence globally.


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: On July 1, 2017, Keller stepped down from his role as senior pastor of Redeemer Presbyterian Church. The move was part of a larger vision to shift his efforts from preaching to training the next generation of church leaders and starting new churches in global cities through Redeemer City to City.


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: Keller shuns the label "evangelical" because of its political and fundamentalist connotation, preferring to call himself orthodox because "he believes in the importance of personal conversion or being 'born again,' and the full authority of the Bible." He identifies with Calvinist theology, although he has been critiqued by some in that tradition for his modern interpretation of its doctrines. He has been described as a "doctrine-friendly emerging pastor" and a "neo-Calvinist."


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: The centerpiece and underpinning of Keller's ministry has been his teaching of the doctrine of the gospel, emphasizing the doctrines of total depravity, unmerited grace and substitutionary atonement. This teaching is summarized in his oft-used explanation, "The gospel is this: We are more sinful and flawed in ourselves than we ever dared believe, yet at the very same time we are more loved and accepted in Jesus Christ than we ever dared hope.” This understanding of the gospel is contrasted to what Keller calls “traditional religion” (which he defines as a set of rules, rituals or actions that enable an individual to earn salvation or favor with God) as well as “irreligion” (which he defines as the belief that there is no God or no need for his favor). This has been referred to as a “gospel third way,” or “gospel-centered” approach. Typical of this teaching is his interpretation of the Parable of the Prodigal Son (see "The Prodigal God"), based on a teaching of one of Keller's mentors, Edmund Clowney.


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: Keller's preaching and writing in his apologetics is characterized by a respectful orientation towards an educated and skeptical audience outside the faith. His most explicit work on the subject is "The Reason for God" which he attributes to thousands of conversations with skeptical New Yorkers over the course of his ministry ("Reason", xix). Elsewhere he has written about the loss of a Christian culture in the West, including in the academic and cultural establishments, and the need for Christians to contextualize to the current secular and anti-religious cultural climate.


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: On creationism, Keller states that his view is not strictly literal and that evolution is "neither ruled in nor ruled out" in his church. Keller has written on the topic for the Biologos Foundation.


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: Keller's major influences in apologetics include C.S. Lewis, Cornelius Van Til, John Stott, Alvin Plantinga and Miroslav Volf.


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: Another central theme in Keller's teaching is idolatry, as based on teachings of Martin Luther and John Calvin, and on the Ten Commandments and other parts of the Bible. Keller states that contemporary idol worship continues today in the form of an addiction or devotion to money, career, sex, power and anything people seek to give significance and satisfaction in life other than God (detailed in his book "Counterfeit Gods").


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: Keller disavows the "Social Gospel" that has characterized Mainline Protestant churches, which advocates liberal political causes and de-emphasizes the doctrines of sin and substitutionary sacrifice. However he has also criticized the evangelical alliance with Republicans and argued that Christianity is a much broader global movement that agrees with some liberal and some conservative issues (and critiques them both). He has argued for giving to charitable causes and caring for the needs of the poor based on biblical texts such as the Torah and the Parable of the Good Samaritan.


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: Attributed partly to his congregation of upwardly mobile Manhattanites, Keller has been a leader in applying Christian theology to secular vocations such as business, art and entrepreneurship. The Center for Faith and Work at Redeemer has sponsored business competitions and theological education for working professionals. His views on Christianity and culture are outlined in his books "Every Good Endeavor" and "Center Church".


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: Keller is an avid fan of the work of C.S. Lewis and J.R.R. Tolkien, both well-known Christian authors, and also supports the "Harry Potter" novels which have been considered pagan by certain conservative Christians.


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: Keller has a complementarian view of gender that believes that the Bible teaches defined roles for both genders, but the specific duties accompanying each gender's role is undefined. He believes that "Marriage provides the personal growth that comes through cross-gender relationships." He elaborates on the biblical view of sex and marriage in his book "The Meaning of Marriage" and believes homosexual sexual behavior is inconsistent with scripture. Keller is a signatory of the and is opposed to abortion, but is not opposed to contraception.


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: While at Westminster Theological Seminary, Keller was mentored by Harvie Conn, an early advocate of ministry in urban centers, and was recruited to start Redeemer Presbyterian Church due to a shortage of biblically orthodox churches in center-city Manhattan.


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: He has since become a worldwide spokesman for the need to create new kinds of churches in urban centers to address rapid urbanization. He delivered a plenary address on the subject at the Lausanne Conference of 2010.


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: Through Redeemer City to City, Keller mentors and chairs a network of center-city churches that represents similar ministry values worldwide. He writes extensively on the importance of cities and gives a biblical theological framework for ministry in cities in his book on ministry, "Center Church".


title: Tim Keller (pastor)

text: Keller currently resides on Roosevelt Island in New York City with his wife, Kathy. The Kellers have three sons, David, Michael, and Jonathan.


title: Quebec French profanity

text: Quebec French profanities, known as (singular: ; , "to consecrate"), are words and expressions related to Catholicism and its liturgy that are used as strong profanities in Quebec French (the main variety of Canadian French) and in Acadian French (spoken in Maritime Provinces, east of Quebec, and a small portion of Aroostook County, Maine, in the United States). are considered stronger in Canada than the foul expressions common to other varieties of French, which centre on sex and excrement (such as , "shit").


title: Quebec French profanity

text: The originated in the early 19th century, when the social control exerted by the Catholic clergy was increasingly a source of frustration. One of the oldest is , which can be thought of as the Franco-Canadian equivalent of the English "goddamn it". It is known to have been in use as early as the 1830s. The word in its current meaning is believed to come from the expression ("Don't say that, it is sacred/holy"). Eventually, started to refer to the words Quebecers were not supposed to say. This is likely related to the commandment "Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain" (Exodus 20:7). The influence and social importance of Catholicism at that time allowed to become powerful forms of profanity.


title: Quebec French profanity

text: As a result of the Quiet Revolution in the 1960s, the influence of the Roman Catholic Church in Quebec has declined but the swears still remain in use today.


title: Quebec French profanity

text: These are commonly given in a phonetic spelling to indicate the differences in pronunciation from the original word, several of which (notably, the deletion of final consonants and change of to before ) are typical of informal Quebec French. The nouns here can also be modified for use as verbs (see "Non-profane uses", below). Additionally, some forms, notably and , can become semi-adjectival when followed by , as in (Scram, you fucking cat!); is often added at the end for extra emphasis.


title: Quebec French profanity

text: Often, several of these words are strung together when used adjectivally, as in (see "Intricate forms", below). Many combinations are possible, one of the more fascinating aspects of Quebec profanity. Since swear words are voluntarily blasphemous, the spellings are usually different from the words from which they originate. For example, can be written , , , , and so on. There is no general agreement on how to write these words, and the Office québécois de la langue française does not regulate them.


title: Quebec French profanity

text: Most have modified, milder euphemistic forms (see minced oath). Such forms are not usually considered nearly as rude as the original. They are the equivalent of English words such as "gosh", "heck", or "darn". Many of the euphemistic forms are only similar-sounding to religious terms, so are considered not to denigrate the Church directly.


title: Quebec French profanity

text: Sometimes older people unable to bring themselves to swear with church words or their derivatives would make up ostensibly innocuous phrases, such as (literally, "five or six boxes of green tomatoes", being slang for , "green"). This phrase when pronounced quickly by a native speaker sounds like ("holy ciborium of the tabernacle"). Another example of a benign word that is church sounding is , which was simply an anglicism for "coal-tar", but pronounced just so, sounds like a merged and ("harm").


title: Quebec French profanity

text: In Canadian French, swear words can be combined into more powerful combinations to express extreme anger or disgust. These intricate uses of French profanities can be difficult to master. The combinations are endless; some people in both Quebec and francophone communities in other provinces community consider mixing and matching swear words to be a sort of skilled art.


title: Quebec French profanity

text: A very strong way to express anger or frustration is to use the words , , and . Depending on the context and the tone of the phrases, it might make everybody quiet, but some people use these words to add rhythm or emphasis to sentences.


title: Quebec French profanity

text: Usually, more than one of these words is used in Franco-Canadian profanity. The words are simply connected with ("of"), without any restrictions. Long strings of invective can be connected in this way, and the resulting expression does not have to have any concrete meaning—for example, (literally, "My host of (the) holy sacrament of (the) chalice of Christ"). Non-religious terms may also be strung together in this way, as in (literally, "My Christ of (a) car is broken, chalice of (the) tabernacle"). In areas where English is also commonly spoken, English expletives are often inserted. ("Fuck [the] host") is common in Quebec.


title: Quebec French profanity

text: The adjective (with meanings varying from "crazy, disturbed" to "broken down") is much milder than "fucked" is in English. It is routinely used in, for instance, TV sitcom dialogue. The same goes for "shit" (which in Quebec French is used only as an interjection expressing dismay, never as the noun for excrement). When used as a verb, (literally, "Go shit"), means not to excrete but rather to "fuck off". When used in the past-tense , it is used exactly as : ("My shoes are fucked", literally: "My shoes are shitted").


title: Quebec French profanity

text: Even English-language dialogue containing these words can appear on Quebec French-language television without bleeping. For example, in 2003, when punks rioted in Montreal because a concert by the band The Exploited had been cancelled, TV news reporters solemnly read out a few lyrics and song titles from their album "Fuck the System". The same is not true of Quebec's English-language television stations, which follow the same guidelines as other stations in Canada. In November 2017 the CRTC ruled that "fuck" is not a swear word in French.


title: Quebec French profanity

text: A slang term with the preposition means "a lot of": (or , etc.) means "a lot of food", similar to English constructs such as "fuck-ton" or "shitload".


title: Quebec French profanity

text: In the movie "Bon Cop, Bad Cop", Quebec actor and stand-up comic Patrick Huard's character teaches Colm Feore's how to swear properly.


title: Quebec French profanity

text: These expressions are found less commonly in literature, but rappers and other singers often use and as a rhyme. More traditional singers also use these words, such as Quebec singer Plume Latraverse.


title: Quebec French profanity

text: One fine example of the use of as different word classes is a dialogue by called . The phrase ("Jules, who was irritated, violently ejected Jacques, who was angry.") becomes ("That fucker, who was pissed off, kicked out that dickhead, who was fucking furious.") with each content word (noun, verb, adjective or adverb) replaced with a profane synonym. This usage of is similar to the form of Russian swearing known as .


title: Quebec French profanity

text: The use of liturgical profanity is not unique to Canadian French or Quebec. In Italian, although to a lesser extent, some analogous words are in use: in particular, (host) and (more so in the past) are relatively common expressions in the northeast, which are lighter (and a little less common) than the typical blasphemies in use in Italy, such as (pig god) and (see Italian profanity). Modifying the terms into euphemistic equivalents is used in Italy; for example, is commonly modified to (a type of restaurant). The word has produced the verb , which colloquially means "to use blasphemy".


title: Quebec French profanity

text: Other dialects in the world feature this kind of profanity, such as the expressions and in Austro-Bavarian and in Czech. is an expletive expression in some Spanish dialects. In Catalan, is used and is frequently abbreviated to . Spanish also uses ("I shit on ...") followed by "God", "the blessed chalice", "the Virgin" and other terms, religious or not. It can be shortened to just or ("Blessed chalice!"). In Romanian, the profanity ("Your mother's host!") is sometimes used with "Easter", "Christ", "Cross", "Commemoration" (), "sacred oil lamp" (), "God", "Church", etc.


title: Quebec French profanity

text: Sheila Fischman's translation of "La Guerre, yes Sir!" (published under that title in French and English and meaning roughly "War, you bet!"), by Roch Carrier, leaves many in the original Quebec French, since they have no real equivalent in English. She gives a brief explanation and history of these terms in her introduction, including a few not listed here. At a crucial point in the story, a boy swears in the presence of his father. For the first time, instead of beating or punishing his son, the father swears back. This represents the boy's passage into manhood.


title: Quebec French profanity

text: Irish Catholics of old employed a similar practice, whereby "ejaculations" were used to express frustration without cursing or profaning (taking the Lord's name in vain). This typically involved the recitation of a rhyming couplet, where a shocked person might say, "Jesus who, for love of me / Died on the Cross at Calvary" instead of "Jesus!" This is often abbreviated simply to "Jesus-hoo-fer-luv-a-me", an expression still heard among elderly Irish people. "Jesus, Mary and Joseph!" is used in Quebec French:


title: Quebec French profanity

text: Hungarians, primarily Catholics, follow the same suit: instead of (God) or as a curse, (the God of it!), they often use another word which also begins with : (the school of it!) or (the stable of it!).


title: SMILF

text: SMILF is an American sitcom starring, created, written, and directed by Frankie Shaw. It was based on her short film of the same title. The series premiered on Showtime on November 5, 2017. The series' name, SMILF, is a play on the term "MILF", with the "S" standing for "single", or "Southie" (a nickname for South Boston), or both. On November 29, 2017, Showtime renewed the series for a second season.


title: SMILF

text: Rosie O'Donnell co-stars as Tutu, the mother of Shaw's character Bridgette. Roseanne Barr was originally supposed to take on the role of Tutu, but due to a knee injury and subsequent surgery, she could not do so. Connie Britton has a recurring role as Ally, Bridgette's boss. Miguel Gomez and Samara Weaving are also in the cast, as well as Raven Goodwin, who first appeared in a recurring role but was promoted to a starring role in the second season.


title: SMILF

text: On December 17, 2018, "The Hollywood Reporter" published an exclusive report that cast and crew members were alleging misconduct on the set, including “inappropriately handled sex scenes“, and that co-star Weaving had left the production over breach of contract in the filming of a sex scene. On March 8, 2019, a few days after the fourth episode of season two was broadcast, the series was canceled by ABC Signature, who also suspended a future production deal with Shaw. Showtime played out the full run of season two, with the final episode airing on March 31, 2019.


title: SMILF

text: On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has an approval rating of 82% based on 38 reviews, with an average rating of 6.42/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "A questionable name and superficially familiar tropes mask "SMILF"s raw, tender core and surprisingly fresh perspective." Metacritic, assigned a weighted average score of 64 out of 100 based on 20 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". The show was included in a list on Refinery 29 of 'The 17 Best TV Shows For Women Of 2017', which said, "If there’s one new fall 2017 show you’re going to watch, let it be Showtime’s "SMILF" [...] Sadly, television rarely allows women to be so layered."


title: SMILF

text: The second season has a 100% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 7 reviews, with an average rating of 7.33/10. On Metacritic, it has a score of 73 out of 100, based on 5 critics.


title: Rugby School

text: Rugby School is a public school (English independent boarding school for pupils aged 13–18) in Rugby, Warwickshire, England.


title: Rugby School

text: Founded in 1567 as a free grammar school for local boys, it is one of the oldest independent schools in Britain. Up to 1667, the school remained in comparative obscurity. Its re-establishment by Thomas Arnold during his time as Headmaster, from 1828 to 1841, was seen as the forerunner of the Victorian public school. It was one of nine prestigious schools investigated by the Clarendon Commission of 1864 and later regulated as one of the seven schools included in the Public Schools Act 1868.


title: Rugby School

text: The school's alumni – or "Old Rugbeians" – include a UK prime minister, several bishops, prominent poets, scientists, writers and soldiers.


title: Rugby School

text: Rugby School was founded in 1567 as a provision in the will of Lawrence Sheriff, who had made his fortune supplying groceries to Queen Elizabeth I of England. Since Lawrence Sheriff lived in Rugby and the neighbouring Brownsover, the school was intended to be a free grammar school for the boys of those towns. Up to 1667, the school remained in comparative obscurity. Its history during that trying period is characterised mainly by a series of lawsuits between the Howkins family (descendants of the founder's sister), who tried to defeat the intentions of the testator, and the masters and trustees, who tried to carry them out. A final decision was handed down in 1667, confirming the findings of a commission in favour of the trust, and henceforth the school maintained a steady growth. "Floreat Rugbeia" is the traditional school song.


title: Rugby School

text: In 1845, a committee of Rugby schoolboys, William Delafield Arnold, W. W. Shirley and Frederick Hutchins, wrote the "Laws of Football as Played At Rugby School", the first published set of laws for any code of football.


title: Rugby School

text: It was no longer desirable to have only local boys attending and the nature of the school shifted, and so a new school – Lawrence Sheriff Grammar School – was founded in 1878 to continue Lawrence Sheriff's original intentions; that school receives a substantial proportion of the endowment income from Lawrence Sheriff's estate every year.


title: Rugby School

text: Rugby was one of the nine prestigious schools investigated by the Clarendon Commission of 1861–64 (the schools under scrutiny being Eton, Charterhouse, Harrow, Shrewsbury, Westminster, and Winchester, and two day schools: St Paul's and Merchant Taylors). Rugby went on to be included in the Public Schools Act 1868, which ultimately related only to the seven boarding schools.


title: Rugby School

text: The core of the school (which contains School House, featured in "Tom Brown's Schooldays") was completed in 1815 and is built around the Old Quad (quadrangle), with its Georgian architecture. Especially notable rooms are the Upper Bench (an intimate space with a book-lined gallery), the Old Hall of School House, and the Old Big School (which makes up one side of the quadrangle and was once the location for teaching all junior pupils). Thomas Hughes (like his fictional hero, Tom Brown) once carved his name on the hands of the school clock, situated on a tower above the Old Quad. The polychromatic school chapel, new quadrangle, Temple Reading Room, Macready Theatre and Gymnasium were designed by well-known Victorian Gothic revival architect William Butterfield in 1875, and the smaller Memorial Chapel was dedicated in 1922.


title: Rugby School

text: The Temple Speech Room, named after former headmaster and Archbishop of Canterbury Frederick Temple (1858–69) is now used for whole-School assemblies, speech days, concerts, musicals – and BBC "Mastermind". Oak-panelled walls boast the portraits of illustrious alumni, including Neville Chamberlain holding his piece of paper. Between the World Wars, the Memorial Chapel, the Music Schools and a new Sanatorium appeared.


title: Rugby School

text: In 1975 two girls were admitted to the sixth form, and the first girls’ house opened three years later, followed by three more. In 1992, the first 13-year-old girls arrived, and in 1995 Rugby had its first-ever Head Girl, Louise Woolcock, who appeared on the front page of "The Times". In September 2003 the last girls’ house was added. Today, total enrolment of day pupils, from forms 4 to 12, numbers around 800.


title: Rugby School

text: The legend of William Webb Ellis and the origin of the game is commemorated by a plaque. The story is that Webb Ellis was the first to pick up a football and run with it, and thus invent a new sport. However, the sole source of the story is Matthew Bloxam, a former pupil but not a contemporary of Webb Ellis. In October 1876, four years after the death of Webb Ellis, in a letter to the school newspaper "The Meteor" he quotes an unknown friend relating the story to him. He elaborated on the story four years later in another letter to "The Meteor", but shed no further light on its source. Richard Lindon, a boot and shoemaker who had premises across the street from the School's main entrance in Lawrence Sheriff Street, is credited with the invention of the "oval" rugby ball, the rubber inflatable bladder and the brass hand pump.


title: Rugby School

text: There were no standard rules for football in Webb Ellis's time at Rugby (1816–1825) and most varieties involved carrying the ball. The games played at Rugby were organised by the pupils and not the masters, the rules being a matter of custom and not written down. They were frequently changed and modified with each new intake of students.


title: Rugby School

text: Rugby Fives is a handball game, similar to squash, played in an enclosed court. It has similarities with Winchester Fives (a form of Wessex Fives) and Eton Fives.


title: Rugby School

text: It is most commonly believed to be derived from Wessex Fives, a game played by Thomas Arnold, Headmaster of Rugby, who had played Wessex Fives when a boy at Lord Weymouth's Grammar, now Warminster School. The open court of Wessex Fives, built in 1787, is still in existence at Warminster School although it has fallen out of regular use.


title: Rugby School

text: Rugby Fives is played between two players (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles), the aim being to hit the ball above a 'bar' across the front wall in such a way that the opposition cannot return it before a second bounce. The ball is slightly larger than a golf ball, leather-coated and hard. Players wear leather padded gloves on both hands, with which they hit the ball.


title: Rugby School

text: Rugby Fives continues to have a good following with tournaments being run nationwide, presided over by the Rugby Fives Association.


title: Rugby School

text: The school has produced a number of cricketers who have gone onto play Test and first-class cricket. The school has played host to two major matches, the first of which was a Twenty20 match between Warwickshire and Glamorgan in the 2013 Friends Life t20. The second match was a List-A one-day match between Warwickshire and Sussex in the 2015 Royal London One-Day Cup, though it was due to host a match in the 2014 competition, however this was abandoned. In the 2015 match, William Porterfield scored a century, with a score of exactly 100.


title: Rugby School

text: Rugby School has both day and boarding-pupils, the latter in the majority. Originally it was for boys only, but girls have been admitted to the sixth form since 1975. It went fully co-educational in 1992. The school community is divided into houses.


title: Rugby School

text: Pupils beginning Rugby in the F Block (first year) study various subjects. In a pupil's second year (E block), they do nine subjects which are for their GCSEs, this is the same for the D Block (GCSE year). The school then provides standard A-levels in 29 subjects. Students at this stage have the choice of taking three or four subjects and are also offered the opportunity to take an extended project. Oxbridge acceptance percentage in 2007 was 10.4%


title: Rugby School

text: The Governing Body provides financial benefits with school fees to families unable to afford them. Parents of pupils who are given a Scholarship are capable of obtaining a 10% fee deduction, although more than one scholarship can be awarded to one student.


title: Rugby School

text: There have been a number of notable including the purported father of the sport of Rugby William Webb Ellis, the inventor of Australian rules football Tom Wills, the war poets Rupert Brooke and John Gillespie Magee, Jr., Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, author and mathematician Lewis Carroll, poet and cultural critic Matthew Arnold, the author and social critic Salman Rushdie (who said of his time there: "Almost the only thing I am proud of about going to Rugby school was that Lewis Carroll went there too.") and the Irish writer and republican Francis Stuart. The Indian concert pianist, music composer and singer Adnan Sami also studied at Rugby School. Matthew Arnold's father Thomas Arnold, was a headmaster of the school. Philip Henry Bahr (later Sir Philip Henry Manson-Bahr), a zoologist and medical doctor, World War I veteran, was President of both Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene and Medical Society of London, and vice-president of the British Ornithologists' Union. Richard Barrett Talbot Kelly joined the army in 1915, straight after leaving the school, earned a Military Cross during the First World War, and later returned to the school as Director of Art.


title: Rugby School

text: The Rugbeian Society is for former pupils at the School. An Old Rugbeian is sometimes referred to as an OR.


title: Rugby School

text: The purposes of the society are to encourage and help Rugbeians in interacting with each other and to strengthen the ties between ORs and the school.


title: Rugby School

text: In 2010 the Rugbeians reached the semi-finals of the Public Schools' Old Boys' Sevens tournament, hosted by the Old Silhillians to celebrate the 450th anniversary of fellow Warwickshire public school, Solihull School.


title: Rugby School

text: The buildings of Rugby School date from the 18th and 19th century with some early 20th Century additions. The oldest buildings are the Old Quad Buildings and the School House the oldest parts of which date from 1748, but were mostly built between 1809 and 1813 by Henry Hakewill, these are Grade II* listed. Most of the current landmark buildings date from the Victorian era and were designed by William Butterfield: The most notable of these is the chapel, dating from 1872, which is Grade I listed. Butterfield's New Quad buildings are Grade II* listed and date from 1867 to 1885. The Grade II* War Memorial chapel, designed by Sir Charles Nicholson, dates to 1922. Nicholson was educated at the school from the late-1870s.


title: Rugby School

text: Rugby's most famous headmaster was Thomas Arnold, appointed in 1828; he executed many reforms to the school curriculum and administration. Arnold's and the school's reputations were immortalised through Thomas Hughes' book "Tom Brown's School Days."


title: Rugby School

text: David Newsome writes about the new educational methods employed by Arnold in his book, 'Godliness and Good Learning' (Cassell 1961). He calls the morality practised at Arnold's school muscular Christianity. Arnold had three principles: religious and moral principle, gentlemanly conduct and academic performance. George Mosse, former professor of history at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, lectured on Arnold's time at Rugby. According to Mosse, Thomas Arnold created an institution which fused religious and moral principles, gentlemanly conduct, and learning based on self-discipline. These morals were socially enforced through the "Gospel of work." The object of education was to produce "the Christian gentleman," a man with good outward appearance, playful but earnest, industrious, manly, honest, virginal pure, innocent, and responsible.


title: Rugby School

text: In 1888 the appointment of Marie Bethell Beauclerc by Percival was the first appointment of a female teacher in an English boys' public school and the first time shorthand had been taught in any such school. The shorthand course was popular with one hundred boys in the classes.


title: Rugby School

text: In September 2005, the school was one of fifty independent schools operating independent school fee-fixing, in breach of the Competition Act, 1998. All of the schools involved were ordered to abandon this practice, pay a nominal penalty of £10,000 each and to make ex-gratia payments totalling three million pounds into a trust designed to benefit pupils who attended the schools during the period in respect of which fee information had been shared.


title: Rugby School

text: However, the head of the Independent Schools Council declared that independent schools had always been exempt from anti-cartel rules applied to business, were following a long-established procedure in sharing the information with each other and that they were unaware of the change to the law (on which they had not been consulted). She wrote to John Vickers, the OFT director-general, stating "They are not a group of businessmen meeting behind closed doors to fix the price of their products to the disadvantage of the consumer. They are schools that have quite openly continued to follow a long-established practice because they were unaware that the law had changed."


title: Brian Piccolo

text: Louis Brian Piccolo (October 31, 1943 – June 16, 1970) was an American professional football player, a halfback for the Chicago Bears of the National Football League (NFL) for four years. He died at age 26 from embryonal cell carcinoma, an aggressive form of germ cell testicular cancer, first diagnosed after it had spread to his chest cavity.


title: Brian Piccolo

text: Piccolo was the subject of the 1971 TV movie "Brian's Song", with a remake TV movie of the same name filmed in 2001. He was portrayed in the original film by James Caan and by Sean Maher in the 2001 remake.


title: Brian Piccolo

text: Piccolo was born in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, the youngest of three sons of Joseph and Irene Piccolo. The family moved south to Fort Lauderdale, Florida, when Piccolo was three, due to his parents' concerns for his brother Don's health. Piccolo and his brothers were athletes, and he was a star running back on his high school football team although he considered baseball his primary sport. He graduated from the former Central Catholic High School (now St. Thomas Aquinas High School) in Fort Lauderdale in 1961.


title: Brian Piccolo

text: Piccolo played college football at Wake Forest in Winston-Salem, North Carolina; his only other scholarship offer was from Wichita State. He led the nation in rushing and scoring during his senior season in 1964, and was named the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) Player of the Year, yet went unselected in both the AFL and NFL drafts.


title: Brian Piccolo

text: In the balloting for the Heisman Trophy won by John Huarte of Notre Dame, Piccolo was tenth, just ahead of Joe Namath of Alabama and future teammate Gale Sayers of Kansas.


title: Brian Piccolo

text: A season earlier in 1963, Darryl Hill of the University of Maryland was the first and only African-American football player in the ACC. According to Lee Corso, a Maryland assistant coach at that time, Wake Forest had "the worst atmosphere" of any campus the Maryland football team visited. Piccolo went over to the Maryland bench, walked Hill over to the area in front of the student section and put his arm around him, silencing the crowd.


title: Brian Piccolo

text: Following his spectacular senior season, Piccolo married his high school sweetheart, Joy Murrath, on December 26, 1964. They had three daughters: Lori, Traci, and Kristi.


title: Brian Piccolo

text: Because he was not selected in the 1965 NFL draft or AFL draft, Piccolo tried out for the Chicago Bears as a free agent. He made the team for the 1965 season, but only on the taxi squad (known today as the practice squad), meaning he could practice but not suit up for games. In 1966, he made the main roster but his playing time was primarily on special teams. In 1967 he got more playing time backing up superstar starting tailback Gale Sayers, which increased after Sayers' knee injury in November 1968. Piccolo's biggest statistical year was 1968, during which he posted career bests with 450 yards on 123 carries (a 3.7 average), two touchdowns, and 28 receptions for 291 yards (a 10.4 average).


title: Brian Piccolo

text: In 1969, Piccolo was moved up to starting fullback, with Sayers returning as halfback, placing the two in the same backfield on offense.


title: Brian Piccolo

text: Players at that time were still segregated by race for hotel-room assignments. At the suggestion of the Bears' captain, the policy was changed and each player was reassigned by position, so that wide receivers would room together, quarterbacks would room together, etc. Running back was the only position of the 1969 Bears with one black and one white player, Sayers and Piccolo, respectively.


title: Brian Piccolo

text: The Bears were in the midst of a 1–13 season in 1969, the worst record in their history. Piccolo had earned a place in the starting lineup as an undersized fullback. Their only win came in the eighth game on November 9, a 38–7 home win over struggling Pittsburgh. Piccolo opened the scoring at Wrigley Field with a touchdown reception in the first quarter. The next week in Atlanta, he scored a fourth-quarter touchdown on a one-yard run, and then voluntarily removed himself from the game, something he had never done, raising great concern among his teammates and coaches. Breathing while playing had become extremely difficult for him, so when the team returned to Chicago, he was promptly sent for a medical examination and diagnosed with embryonal cell carcinoma.


title: Brian Piccolo

text: Soon after initial surgery at Sloan-Kettering in Manhattan, New York to remove the tumor, he underwent a second procedure in April 1970 to remove his left lung and pectoral muscle. Bothered by chest pain afterward, he was re-admitted to the hospital in early June and doctors determined the cancer had spread to other organs, particularly his liver. He died in the early morning of June 16 at the age of 26. The month before Piccolo's death, Gale Sayers accepted the George S. Halas Award for Most Courageous Player and told the crowd they had selected the wrong person for the award. He said, "I love Brian Piccolo, and I'd like all of you to love him, too. Tonight, when you hit your knees to pray, please ask God to love him, too."


title: Brian Piccolo

text: Sayers and Dick Butkus were among the six Bears teammates who served as pallbearers at Piccolo's funeral at Christ the King Catholic Church in Chicago on June 19. He was buried at Saint Mary Catholic Cemetery in Evergreen Park, Illinois.


title: Brian Piccolo

text: The film "Brian's Song", loosely based on Gale Sayers' autobiography, tells the story of the friendship between Brian Piccolo and Gale Sayers and their time together while playing football for the Chicago Bears, up until Piccolo's death. It first aired in 1971 on ABC on Tuesday, November 30, less than 18 months after his death, and starred James Caan as Piccolo and Billy Dee Williams as Sayers. It was such a success on television that it was later shown in theaters. A remake aired in 2001 on ABC's "The Wonderful World of Disney" and starred Mekhi Phifer and Sean Maher.


title: Brian Piccolo

text: Piccolo's biography, "Brian Piccolo: A Short Season", was written by Jeannie Morris (a journalist whose husband was former Bears teammate Johnny Morris) and featured passages written by Piccolo himself for a planned autobiography.


title: Israeli Premier League

text: The Israeli Premier League (, Ligat Ha`Al, ), is a professional association football league which operates as the highest division of the Israeli Football League – the state's league of Israel. The league is contested by 14 clubs, and operates on a system of promotion and relegation with its second division Liga Leumit. Seasons run from August to May, with teams playing between 33 and 36 matches each, totalling 240 matches in every season.


title: Israeli Premier League

text: The competition formed in 1999 following the decision of the Israel Football Association to form a new league. It is also ranked 21st in the UEFA coefficients of leagues based on performances in European competitions over the last five years.


title: Israeli Premier League

text: Since 1932, a total of 15 clubs have been crowned champions of the Israeli Football League. Of the thirty clubs to have competed since the inception of the Israeli Premier League in 1999, six have won the title: Beitar Jerusalem (twice), Hapoel Be'er Sheva (three times), Hapoel Tel Aviv (twice), Maccabi Haifa (seven times), Maccabi Tel Aviv (six times), and Ironi Kiryat Shmona (once). The current champions are Maccabi Haifa, who won the 2021–22 season.


title: Israeli Premier League

text: The Israeli Premier League was founded in 1999 to replace its predecessor Liga Leumit (which became the second division) when the Israel Football Association decided to reshuffle all the leagues in hopes of improving competition. In its first season there were 14 clubs; the top thirteen clubs from the 1998–99 season and the top place club from the Liga Artzit (then, the third division). That season three clubs were relegated and one from Liga Leumit was promoted.


title: Israeli Premier League

text: There are 14 clubs in the league. At the end of each season, the two lowest-placed teams are relegated to Liga Leumit while two highest-placed teams of Liga Leumit are promoted in their place. For the 2012–13 season the league was decreased from 16 to 14 clubs as a result of reforms passed by the IFA on 27 June 2011.


title: Israeli Premier League

text: Following this, the top six teams play in a championship playoff, where they meet each other twice. Upon its conclusion, the first place team wins the Israeli championship and qualifies to participate in the first qualifying round of the 2021–22 UEFA Champions League. The runners-up and the third-placed teams qualify for the second qualifying round of the 2021–22 UEFA Europa Conference League.


title: Israeli Premier League

text: In addition, the Israeli State Cup winners qualify for the second qualifying round of the 2021–22 UEFA Europa Conference League.


title: Israeli Premier League

text: If the State Cup winners are also one of the teams to finish in the league's top three places then the fourth-placed team will also play in Europa League. In case the State Cup winners also win the Israeli Premier League then the fourth-placed league team will play in second qualifying round of the 2021–22 UEFA Europa Conference League.


title: Israeli Premier League

text: A total of 30 clubs have played in the Israeli Premier League from its inception in 1999 and the start of the 2022–23 season. For a list of winners and runners-up of the Israeli Premier League since its inception, and top scorers for each season, see List of Israeli football champions.


title: Israeli Premier League

text: Three clubs have been members of the Israeli Premier League for every season since its inception. This group is composed of Beitar Jerusalem, Maccabi Haifa, and Maccabi Tel Aviv.


title: Israeli Premier League

text: In recent years, the league has been sponsored. The sponsor has been able to determine the league's sponsorship name. The list below details who the sponsors have been and what they called the competition:


title: Israeli Premier League

text: Teams are limited to six foreign players per team. Special circumstances such as Druze players from the Golan (no citizenship) or cases such as that of Toto Tamuz, do not count against the foreign player limit.


title: Israeli Premier League

text: In addition, players who play in the league for 6 consecutive years do not count against the foreign player limit. Also, Jewish players and players who are married to Israelis are exempt from these restrictions, as they are entitled to Israeli citizenship.


title: Israeli Premier League

text: Israeli Premier League games are broadcast live on Sport 1, Sport 1 HD, and Sport 2 channels, with the big match of the week which is reserved to be shown by Sport 5 and Channel 1 HD network television. There is also a league review show on Saturday nights at Sport 5 channel.


title: Israeli Premier League

text: Abroad, rights to broadcasting in Hebrew are owned by The Israeli Network which broadcasts the matches in the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Panama, Costa Rica and in Europe.


title: Israeli Premier League

text: In the United Kingdom, William Hill broadcasts matches live with English commentary on their online television service, William Hill TV.


title: Israeli Premier League

text: The rights of broadcasting on the radio belongs to Radio Tel Aviv since 2011, which broadcast alongside Radio Haifa, Radio Darom, Radio Galei Zahal and Radio Darom 101.5 in a show called "Saturday of Football" which also broadcasts live on ONE TV channel.


title: Israeli Premier League

text: The big match of the week is shown on the Channel 1 website. Since 2010, games summaries are shown online by Ynet, ONE and Sport 5.


title: Israeli Premier League

text: When the Israeli Premier League became the top division of Israeli football in 1999–2000, Liga Leumit became the second division. Since then, only six clubs have won the title; Hapoel Tel Aviv, Ironi Kiryat Shmona, Maccabi Haifa, Maccabi Tel Aviv, Beitar Jerusalem and Hapoel Be'er Sheva. Hapoel Tel Aviv, Maccabi Haifa, Maccabi Tel Aviv and Beitar Jerusalem are sometimes referred to as the "Big Four" of Israeli football.


title: Israeli Premier League

text: Having won seven titles in the league's 21 seasons, the most successful club during this period is Maccabi Haifa; during the same period Maccabi Tel Aviv have added six to their total while Beitar Jerusalem and Hapoel Tel Aviv have won two championships each. Although Hapoel Tel Aviv have only finished top of the league twice since 1999—in 1999–2000 and ten years later in 2009–10—they have won the double on both occasions.


title: Israeli Premier League

text: This achievement was matched by Beitar Jerusalem in 2007–08. Ironi Kiryat Shmona won their first championship during the 2011–12 season, thereby becoming the first northern title-winners. Maccabi Tel Aviv then won three titles in a row, including a Treble in 2014–15.


title: Israeli Premier League

text: Since the 2015–16 season, the Big Four's Dominance has been challenged by Hapoel Be'er Sheva, winning 3 successive championships, they also finished runners up in the 2021-22 season.


title: Israeli Premier League

text: Notably, three of the big four teams all finished near or at the bottom of the table at some point. (Hapoel Tel Aviv has been the only one to be relegated so far)


title: Israeli Premier League

text: The All-time Israeli Premier League table is a cumulative record of all match results, points and goals of every team that has played in the Israeli Premier League since its inception in 1999. The table that follows is accurate as of the end of the 2021–22 season. Teams in green are part of the 2022–23 Israeli Premier League. Numbers in bold are the record (highest) numbers in each column.


title: Children's rights

text: Children's rights are a subset of human rights with particular attention to the rights of special protection and care afforded to minors. The 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) defines a child as "any human being below the age of eighteen years, unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier." Children's rights includes their right to association with both parents, human identity as well as the basic needs for physical protection, food, universal state-paid education, health care, and criminal laws appropriate for the age and development of the child, equal protection of the child's civil rights, and freedom from discrimination on the basis of the child's race, gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, national origin, religion, disability, color, ethnicity, or other characteristics. Interpretations of children's rights range from allowing children the capacity for autonomous action to the enforcement of children being physically, mentally and emotionally free from abuse, though what constitutes "abuse" is a matter of debate. Other definitions include the rights to care and nurturing. There are no definitions of other terms used to describe young people such as "adolescents", "teenagers", or "youth" in international law, but the children's rights movement is considered distinct from the youth rights movement. The field of children's rights spans the fields of law, politics, religion, and morality.


title: Children's rights

text: As minors by law, children do not have autonomy or the right to make decisions on their own for themselves in any known jurisdiction of the world. Instead their adult caregivers, including parents, social workers, teachers, youth workers, and others, are vested with that authority, depending on the circumstances. Some believe that this state of affairs gives children insufficient control over their own lives and causes them to be vulnerable. Louis Althusser has gone so far as to describe this legal machinery, as it applies to children, as "repressive state apparatuses".


title: Children's rights

text: Structures such as government policy have been held by some commentators to mask the ways adults abuse and exploit children, resulting in child poverty, lack of educational opportunities, and child labour. On this view, children are to be regarded as a minority group towards whom society needs to reconsider the way it behaves.


title: Children's rights

text: Researchers have identified children as needing to be recognized as participants in society whose rights and responsibilities need to be recognized at all ages.


title: Children's rights

text: Sir William Blackstone (1765-9) recognized three parental duties to the child: maintenance, protection, and education. In modern language, the child has a right to receive these from the parent.


title: Children's rights

text: The League of Nations adopted the "Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child" (1924), which enunciated the child's right to receive the requirements for normal development, the right of the hungry child to be fed, the right of the sick child to receive health care, the right of the backward child to be reclaimed, the right of orphans to shelter, and the right to protection from exploitation.


title: Children's rights

text: The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) in Article 25(2) recognized the need of motherhood and childhood to "special protection and assistance" and the right of all children to "social protection".


title: Children's rights

text: The United Nations General Assembly adopted the "United Nations Declaration of the Rights of the Child" (1959), which enunciated ten principles for the protection of children's rights, including the universality of rights, the right to special protection, and the right to protection from discrimination, among other rights.


title: Children's rights

text: Consensus on defining children's rights has become clearer in the last fifty years. A 1973 publication by Hillary Clinton (then an attorney) stated that children's rights were a "slogan in need of a definition". According to some researchers, the notion of children’s rights is still not well defined, with at least one proposing that there is no singularly accepted definition or theory of the rights held by children.


title: Children's rights

text: Children’s rights law is defined as the point where the law intersects with a child's life. That includes juvenile delinquency, due process for children involved in the criminal justice system, appropriate representation, and effective rehabilitative services; care and protection for children in state care; ensuring education for all children regardless of their race, gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, national origin, religion, disability, color, ethnicity, or other characteristics, and; health care and advocacy.


title: Children's rights

text: Children have two types of human rights under international human rights law. They have the same fundamental general human rights as adults, although some human rights, such as the "right to marry", are dormant until they are of age, Secondly, they have special human rights that are necessary to protect them during their minority. General rights operative in childhood include the "right to security of the person", "to freedom from inhuman, cruel, or degrading treatment", and the "right to special protection during childhood". Particular human rights of children include, among other rights, the "right to life", the "right to a name", the "right to express his views in matters concerning the child", the "right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion", the "right to health care", the "right to protection from economic and sexual exploitation", and the "right to education".


title: Children's rights

text: Children's rights are defined in numerous ways, including a wide spectrum of civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. Rights tend to be of two general types: those advocating for children as autonomous persons under the law and those placing a claim on society for protection from harms perpetrated on children because of their dependency. These have been labeled as the "right of empowerment" and as the "right to protection".


title: Children's rights

text: United Nations educational guides for children classify the rights outlined in the Convention on the Rights of the Child as the "3 Ps": Provision, Protection, and Participation. They may be elaborated as follows:


title: Children's rights

text: In a similar fashion, the Child Rights International Network (CRIN) categorizes rights into two groups:


title: Children's rights

text: Amnesty International openly advocates four particular children's rights, including the end to juvenile incarceration without parole, an end to the recruitment of military use of children, ending the death penalty for people under 21, and raising awareness of human rights in the classroom. Human Rights Watch, an international advocacy organization, includes child labour, juvenile justice, orphans and abandoned children, refugees, street children and corporal punishment.


title: Children's rights

text: Scholarly study generally focuses children's rights by identifying individual rights. The following rights "allow children to grow up healthy and free":


title: Children's rights

text: A report by the Committee on Social Affairs, Health, and Sustainable Development of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe identified several areas the Committee was concerned about, including procedures such as "female genital mutilation, the circumcision of young boys for religious reasons, early childhood medical interventions in the case of intersex children and the submission to or coercion of children into piercings, tattoos or plastic surgery". The Assembly adopted a non-binding resolution in 2013 that calls on its 47 member-states to take numerous actions to promote the physical integrity of children.


title: Children's rights

text: Article 19 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child enjoins parties to "take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation". The Committee on the Rights of the Child interprets article 19 as prohibiting corporal punishment, commenting on the "obligation of all States Party to move quickly to prohibit and eliminate all corporal punishment." The United Nations Human Rights Committee has also interpreted Article 7 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights prohibiting "cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment" to extend to children, including corporal punishment of children.


title: Children's rights

text: Newell (1993) argued that "...pressure for protection of children's physical integrity should be an integral part of pressure for all children's rights."


title: Children's rights

text: The Committee on Bioethics of the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) (1997), citing the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), asserts that "every child should have the opportunity to grow and develop free from preventable illness or injury."


title: Children's rights

text: Other issues affecting children's rights include the military use of children, sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography.


title: Children's rights

text: In the majority of jurisdictions, for instance, children are not allowed to vote, to marry, to buy alcohol, to have sex, or to engage in paid employment. Within the youth rights movement, it is believed that the key difference between "children's" rights and "youth" rights is that children's rights supporters generally advocate the establishment and enforcement of protection for children and youths, while youth rights (a far smaller movement) generally advocates the expansion of freedom for children and/or youths and of rights such as suffrage.


title: Children's rights

text: Parents affect the lives of children in a unique way, and as such their role in children's rights has to be distinguished in a particular way. Particular issues in the child-parent relationship include child neglect, child abuse, freedom of choice, corporal punishment and child custody. There have been theories offered that provide parents with rights-based practices that resolve the tension between "commonsense parenting" and children's rights. The issue is particularly relevant in legal proceedings that affect the potential emancipation of minors, and in cases where children sue their parents.


title: Children's rights

text: A child's rights to a relationship with both their parents is increasingly recognized as an important factor for determining the best interests of the child in divorce and child custody proceedings. Some governments have enacted laws creating a rebuttable presumption that shared parenting is in the best interests of children.


title: Children's rights

text: Parents do not have absolute power over their children. Parents are subject to criminal laws against abandonment, abuse, and neglect of children. International human rights law provides that manifestation of one's religion may be limited in the interests of public safety, for the protection of public order, health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.


title: Children's rights

text: Courts have placed other limits on parental powers and acts. The Supreme Court of the United States, in the case of "Prince v. Massachusetts", ruled that a parent's religion does not permit a child to be placed at risk. The Lords of Appeal in Ordinary ruled, in the case of "Gillick v West Norfolk and Wisbech Area Health Authority and another", that parental rights diminish with the increasing age and competency of the child, but do not vanish completely until the child reaches majority. Parental rights are derived from the parent's duties to the child. In the absence of duty, no parental right exists.


title: Children's rights

text: The Supreme Court of Canada ruled, in the case of "E (Mrs) v Eve", that parents may not grant surrogate consent for non-therapeutic sterilization. The Supreme Court of Canada has ruled, in the case of "B. (R.) v. Children's Aid Society of Metropolitan Toronto":


title: Children's rights

text: While children undeniably benefit from the Charter, most notably in its protection of their rights to life and to the security of their person, they are unable to assert these rights, and our society accordingly presumes that parents will exercise their freedom of choice in a manner that does not offend the rights of their children.


title: Children's rights

text: Adler (2013) argues that parents are not empowered to grant surrogate consent for non-therapeutic circumcision of children.


title: Children's rights

text: The 1796 publication of Thomas Spence's "Rights of Infants" is among the earliest English-language assertions of the rights of children. Throughout the 20th century, children's rights activists organized for homeless children's rights and public education. The 1927 publication of "The Child's Right to Respect" by Janusz Korczak strengthened the literature surrounding the field, and today dozens of international organizations are working around the world to promote children's rights. In the UK the formation of a community of educationalists, teachers, youth justice workers, politicians and cultural contributors called the New Ideals in Education Conferences (1914–37) stood for the value of 'liberating the child' and helped to define the 'good' primary school in England until the 80s. Their conferences inspired the UNESCO organisation, the New Education Fellowship.


title: Children's rights

text: A.S. Neill's 1915 book "A Dominie's Log" (1915), a diary of a headteacher changing his school to one based on the liberation and happiness of the child, can be seen as a cultural product that celebrates the heroes of this movement.


title: Children's rights

text: The opposition to children's rights long predates any current trend in society, with recorded statements against the rights of children dating to the 13th century and earlier. Opponents to children's rights believe that young people need to be protected from the adultcentric world, including the decisions and responsibilities of that world. In a dominantly adult society, childhood is idealized as a time of innocence, a time free of responsibility and conflict, and a time dominated by play. The majority of opposition stems from concerns related to national sovereignty, states' rights, the parent-child relationship. Financial constraints and the "undercurrent of traditional values in opposition to children's rights" are cited, as well. The concept of children's rights has received little attention in the United States.


title: Children's rights

text: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is seen as a basis for all international legal standards for children's rights today. There are several conventions and laws that address children's rights around the world. A number of current and historical documents affect those rights, including the Declaration of the Rights of the Child, drafted by Eglantyne Jebb in 1923, endorsed by the League of Nations in 1924 and reaffirmed in 1934. A slightly expanded version was adopted by the United Nations in 1946, followed by a much expanded version adopted by the General Assembly in 1959. It later served as the basis for the Convention on the Rights of the Child.


title: Children's rights

text: The United Nations adopted the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) in 1966. The ICCPR is a multilateral international covenant that has been ratified or acceded to by nearly all nations on Earth. Nations which have become state-parties to the Covenant are required to honor and enforce the rights enunciated by the Covenant. The treaty came into effect on 23 March 1976. The rights codified by the ICCPR are universal, so they apply to everyone without exception and this includes children. Although children have all rights, some rights such as the right to marry and the right to vote come into effect only after the child reaches maturity.


title: Children's rights

text: Article 24 codifies the right of the child to special protection due to his minority, the right to a name, and the right to a nationality.


title: Children's rights

text: The United Nations' 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child, or CRC, is the first legally binding international instrument to incorporate the full range of human rights—civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights. Its implementation is monitored by the Committee on the Rights of the Child. National governments that ratify it commit themselves to protecting and ensuring children's rights, and agree to hold themselves accountable for this commitment before the international community. The CRC is the most widely ratified human rights treaty with 196 ratifications; the United States is the only country not to have ratified it.


title: Children's rights

text: The CRC is based on four core principles: the principle of non-discrimination; the best interests of the child; the right to life, survival and development; and considering the views of the child in decisions that affect them, according to their age and maturity. The CRC, along with international criminal accountability mechanisms such as the International Criminal Court, the Yugoslavia and Rwanda Tribunals, and the Special Court for Sierra Leone, is said to have significantly increased the profile of children's rights worldwide.


title: Children's rights

text: The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action urges, at Section II para 47, all nations to undertake measures to the maximum extent of their available resources, with the support of international cooperation, to achieve the goals in the World Summit Plan of Action. And calls on States to integrate the Convention on the Rights of the Child into their national action plans. By means of these national action plans and through international efforts, particular priority should be placed on reducing infant and maternal mortality rates, reducing malnutrition and illiteracy rates and providing access to safe drinking water and basic education. Whenever so called for, national plans of action should be devised to combat devastating emergencies resulting from natural disasters and armed conflicts and the equally grave problem of children in extreme poverty. Further, para 48 urges all states, with the support of international cooperation, to address the acute problem of children under especially difficult circumstances. Exploitation and abuse of children should be actively combated, including by addressing their root causes. Effective measures are required against female infanticide, harmful child labour, sale of children and organs, child prostitution, child pornography, and other forms of sexual abuse. This influenced the adoptions of Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict and Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography.


title: Children's rights

text: A variety of enforcement organizations and mechanisms exist to ensure children's rights. They include the Child Rights Caucus for the United Nations General Assembly Special Session on Children. It was set up to promote full implementation and compliance with the Convention on the Rights of the Child, and to ensure that child rights were given priority during the UN General Assembly Special Session on Children and its Preparatory process. The United Nations Human Rights Council was created "with the hope that it could be more objective, credible and efficient in denouncing human rights violations worldwide than the highly politicized Commission on Human Rights." The NGO Group for the Convention on the Rights of the Child is a coalition of international non-governmental organizations originally formed in 1983 to facilitate the implementation of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child.


title: Children's rights

text: Many countries around the world have children's rights ombudspeople or children's commissioners whose official, governmental duty is to represent the interests of the public by investigating and addressing complaints reported by individual citizens regarding children's rights. Children's ombudspeople can also work for a corporation, a newspaper, an NGO, or even for the general public.


title: Children's rights

text: The United States has signed but not ratified the CRC. As a result, children's rights have not been systematically implemented in the U.S.


title: Children's rights

text: Children are generally afforded the basic rights embodied by the Constitution, as enshrined by the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. The Equal Protection Clause of that amendment is to apply to children, born within a marriage or not, but excludes children not yet born. This was reinforced by the landmark US Supreme Court decision of "In re Gault" (1967). In this trial 15-year-old Gerald Gault of Arizona was taken into custody by local police after being accused of making an obscene telephone call. He was detained and committed to the Arizona State Industrial School until he reached the age of 21 for making an obscene phone call to an adult neighbor. In an 8–1 decision, the Court ruled that in hearings which could result in commitment to an institution, people under the age of 18 have the right to notice and counsel, to question witnesses, and to protection against self-incrimination. The Court found that the procedures used in Gault's hearing met none of these requirements.


title: Children's rights

text: The Supreme Court of the United States ruled in the case of "Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District" (1969) that students in school have Constitutional rights.


title: Children's rights

text: The Supreme Court of the United States has ruled in the case of "Roper v. Simmons" that persons may not be executed for crimes committed when below the age of eighteen. It ruled that such executions are cruel and unusual punishment, so they are a violation of the Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution.


title: Children's rights

text: There are other concerns in the United States regarding children's rights. The American Academy of Adoption Attorneys is concerned with children's rights to a safe, supportive and stable family structure. Their position on children's rights in adoption cases states that, "children have a constitutionally based liberty interest in the protection of their established families, rights which are at least equal to, and we believe outweigh, the rights of others who would claim a 'possessory' interest in these children." Other issues raised in American children's rights advocacy include children's rights to inheritance in same-sex marriages and particular rights for youth.


title: Children's rights

text: A report filed by the President of the INGO Conference of the Council of Europe, Annelise Oeschger finds that children and their parents are subject to United Nations, European Union and UNICEF human rights violations. Of particular concern is the German (and Austrian) agency, Jugendamt (German: Youth office) that often unfairly allows for unchecked government control of the parent-child relationship, which have resulted in harm including torture, degrading, cruel treatment and has led to children's death. The problem is complicated by the nearly "unlimited power" of the Jugendamt officers, with no processes to review or resolve inappropriate or harmful treatment. By German law, Jugendamt (JA) officers are protected against prosecution. JA officers span of control is seen in cases that go to family court where experts testimony may be overturned by lesser educated or experienced JA officers; In more than 90% of the cases the JA officer's recommendation is accepted by family court. Officers have also disregarded family court decisions, such as when to return children to their parents, without repercussions. Germany has not recognized related child-welfare decisions made by the European Parliamentary Court that have sought to protect or resolve children and parental rights violations.


title: James Scully (actor)

text: James Nicholas Scully (born April 19, 1992) is an American actor, best known for portraying JD in the Paramount Network series "Heathers" (2018) and Forty Quinn in the Netflix thriller series "You".


title: James Scully (actor)

text: Scully was born and raised in San Antonio, Texas. He attended Driscoll Middle School and LEE High School's North East School of the Arts (Class of 2010), both of which are in North East Independent School District. In his youth, he spent a brief period in England when his father was stationed there as a part of the United States Air Force.


title: James Scully (actor)

text: He later attended Otterbein University, where he earned a Bachelor of Fine Arts in musical theater. Scully was also a cycling instructor for three and a half years at SWERVE Fitness.


title: James Scully (actor)

text: In 2016, Scully made his acting debut in the web series drama series, "Sublets". Following on from his first role, Scully later made appearances in television series, such as "Quantico" and "9-1-1".


title: James Scully (actor)

text: He has also done commercial work for Outback Steakhouse and a public service announcement about Vicodin abuse with "Riverdale" actress, Camila Mendes.


title: James Scully (actor)

text: In 2018, Scully starred in the main role of JD on the Paramount Network series "Heathers". In January 2019, it was announced that Scully had been cast as Forty Quinn on the second season of the Netflix thriller series "You".


title: Wrench

text: A wrench or spanner is a tool used to provide grip and mechanical advantage in applying torque to turn objects—usually rotary fasteners, such as nuts and bolts—or keep them from turning.


title: Wrench

text: In the UK, Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand "spanner" is the standard term. The most common shapes are called "open-ended spanner" and "ring spanner". The term "wrench" is generally used for tools that turn non-fastening devices (e.g. tap wrench and pipe wrench), or may be used for a monkey wrench—an adjustable pipe wrench.


title: Wrench

text: In North American English, "wrench" is the standard term. The most common shapes are called "open-end wrench" and "box-end wrench". In American English, "spanner" refers to a specialized wrench with a series of pins or tabs around the circumference. (These pins or tabs fit into the holes or notches cut into the object to be turned.) In American commerce, such a wrench may be called a "spanner wrench" to distinguish it from the British sense of "spanner".


title: Wrench

text: Higher quality wrenches are typically made from chromium-vanadium alloy tool steels and are often drop-forged. They are frequently chrome-plated to resist corrosion and for ease of cleaning.


title: Wrench

text: Hinged tools, such as pliers or tongs, are not generally considered wrenches in English, but exceptions are the plumber wrench (pipe wrench in British English) and Mole wrench (sometimes Mole grips in British English).


title: Wrench

text: The word can also be used in slang to describe an unexpected obstacle, for example, "He threw a spanner in the works" (in U.S. English, "monkey wrench").


title: Wrench

text: 'Wrench' is derived from Middle English "wrench", from Old English "wrenċ", from Proto-Germanic "*wrankiz" ("a turning, twisting"). First used in 1790.


title: Wrench

text: 'Spanner' came into use in the 1630s, referring to the tool for winding the spring of a wheel-lock firearm. From German "Spanner" (n.), from "spannen" (v.) ("to join, fasten, extend, connect"), from Proto-Germanic "*spannan", from PIE root "*(s)pen-" ("to draw, stretch, spin").


title: Wrench

text: Wrenches and applications using wrenches or devices that needed wrenches, such as pipe clamps and suits of armor, have been noted by historians as far back as the 15th century. Adjustable coach wrenches for the odd-sized nuts of wagon wheels were manufactured in England and exported to North America in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The mid 19th century began to see patented wrenches that used a screw for narrowing and widening the jaws, including patented monkey wrenches.


title: Wrench

text: Most box end wrenches are sold as 12-point because 12-point wrenches fit over both 12-point and 6-point bolts. 12-point wrenches also offer a higher number of engagement points over 6-point. However, 12-point wrenches have been known to round off 6-point bolts as they provide less contact space.


title: Wrench

text: These types of keys are not emically classified as wrenches by English speakers, but they are etically similar in function to wrenches.


title: Wrench

text: Size is usually designated by dimensions such as across-flats distance (inscribed-hexagon size). In the 19th and early 20th centuries, it had been common to define the nominal size of the wrench according to the nominal size of the "screw thread" that it was meant to be used with. Modern practice uses a size designation based on across-flats distance, whether measured in metric or in inch units.


title: Guru Somasundaram

text: Guru Somasundaram is an Indian actor who is Mainly working in Tamil and Malayalam movies. He made his debut in "Aaranya Kaandam" (2011) winning critical acclaim for his role, before also appearing in the Tamil action film "Pandiya Naadu" (2013), "Jigarthanda" (2014) and "Joker" (2016). He rose to fame for playing the role of Shibu, a super villain in the 2021 Netflix Malayalam film, "Minnal Murali".


title: Guru Somasundaram

text: Guru Somasundaram was born on 3 September 1975. He has joined in the prominent Tamil theatre group in Koothu-P-Pattarai, where he enacted plays from 2002 till 2011. In 2003, director Thiagarajan Kumararaja met him, while he was playing the role of chandrahari in Koothupattarai's play, Thiagarajan has offered him an opportunity to the feature in the future film.


title: Guru Somasundaram

text: In 2008, the director called up Somasundaram and offered him a role in his neo-noir film "Aaranya Kaandam", for the character of the drunkard Kaalaiyan. Accepting the offer, Somasundaram lost seven kilograms and underwent rehearsals to change his hairstyle, moustache, walking styles, body language and mannerisms. Upon release in 2011, the film went on to gain two National Film Awards, while Somasundaram's performance was well received by critics. Rediff.com's critic praised the ensemble cast but added "the honours undoubtedly go to Guru Somasundaram. His gleeful cackles at the rooster fight, pathetic rumblings to his son and wide-eyed act in the Lodge are wonderful to behold." Similarly Behindwoods.com noted that the actor had delivered a "superior" performance. After seeing his performance, director Mani Ratnam signed him on to play a small role in "Kadal" (2013).


title: Guru Somasundaram

text: After leaving Koothu-P-Pattarai, he toured as a freelance theatre actor, before venturing into Malayalam cinema by portraying a photographer in "5 Sundarikal" (2013), after being impressed by Shyju Khaled's narration. Later that year, he was seen in a character role in Suseenthiran's critically acclaimed "Pandiya Naadu", portraying the slain brother of Vishal's character. In between feature films, he appeared in the short silent film "The Lost Paradise", portraying a prisoner heading home after fifteen years. He also won acclaim for his performance as an acting coach in Karthik Subbaraj's gangster film "Jigarthanda" (2014), where he was seen giving acting training to the character portrayed by Bobby Simha. Somasundaram had previously trained Simha as an actor in real life during the pair's theatre performances. He is also known for his role as a district collector in the 2019 Tamil film "Petta" which starred Rajinikanth in the lead role.


Guru Somasundaram


title: The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc

text: The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc () is a 1999 English-language French epic historical drama film directed by Luc Besson and starring Milla Jovovich, John Malkovich, Faye Dunaway and Dustin Hoffman. The screenplay was written by Besson and Andrew Birkin, and the original score was composed by Éric Serra.


title: The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc

text: "The Messenger" portrays the story of St. Joan of Arc, the French war heroine and religious martyr of the Hundred Years War. It begins with young Joan as she witnesses the atrocities of the English against her family, and she has visions that inspire her to lead the French in battle against the occupying English. Her success in routing the English allows Charles VII to take the throne. Eventually Joan is captured by the English, tried and executed for heresy.


title: The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc

text: Besson's previous film, "The Fifth Element", which also starred Jovovich, was a critical and financial success, and had a positive influence on both of their careers. "The Messenger" was intended to follow up that success and cement Besson's and Jovovich's status in film. However, it received mixed reviews and underperformed at the box office, earning just under $67 million on a $60 million budget.


title: The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc

text: As a child, Joan has a violent and supernatural vision. She returns home to find her village burning. Her sister Catherine tries to protect her by hiding her from the attacking English forces, part of a longstanding rivalry with France. Joan, while hiding, witnesses the brutal murder and rape of her sister. Afterward, Joan is taken in by distant relatives.


title: The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc

text: Several years later at Chinon, the Dauphin and soon to be King of France, Charles VII (John Malkovich), receives a message from the now-teenager Joan (Milla Jovovich), asking him to provide an army to lead into battle against the occupying English. After meeting him and his mother-in-law Yolande of Aragon (Faye Dunaway) she describes her visions. Desperate, he believes her prophecy.


title: The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc

text: Clad in armor, Joan leads the French army to the besieged city of Orléans. She gives the English a chance to surrender, which they refuse. The armies' commanders, skeptical of Joan's leadership, initiate the next morning's battle to take over the stockade at St. Loup without her. By the time she arrives on the battlefield, the French soldiers are retreating. Joan ends the retreat and leads another charge, successfully capturing the fort. They proceed to the enemy stronghold called the "Tourelles." Joan gives the English another chance to surrender, but they refuse. Joan leads the French soldiers to attack the Tourelles, though the English defenders inflict heavy casualties, also severely wounding Joan. Nevertheless, Joan leads a second attack the following day. As the English army regroups, the French army moves to face them across an open field. Joan rides alone toward the English and offers them a final chance to surrender and return to England. The English accept her offer and retreat.


title: The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc

text: Joan returns to Rheims to witness the coronation of Charles VII of France. Her military campaigns then continue to the walls of Paris, though she does not receive her requested reinforcements, and the siege is a failure. Joan tells King Charles VII to give her another army, but he refuses, saying he now prefers diplomacy over warfare. Believing she threatens his position and will require the expenditure of treasure, Charles conspires to get rid of Joan by allowing her to be captured by enemy forces. She is taken prisoner by the pro-English Burgundians at Compiègne, who sell her to the English. Led in chains, her trial begins.


title: The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc

text: Charged with the crime of heresy, based on her claim of visions and signs from God, she is tried in an ecclesiastical court proceeding, which is forced by the English occupation government. The English wish to quickly condemn and execute Joan since English soldiers are afraid to fight while she remains alive, based on their belief that she could supernaturally affect battles even while in prison. Bishop Cauchon expresses his fear of wrongfully executing someone who might have received visions from God. About to be burned for heresy, Joan is distraught that she will be executed without making a final confession. The Bishop tells her she must recant her visions before he can hear her confession. Joan signs the recantation. The relieved Bishop shows the paper to the English, saying that Joan can no longer be burned as a heretic. Whilst in her cell, Joan is confronted by an unnamed cloaked man (Dustin Hoffman), who is implied to be Joan's conscience. The man makes Joan question whether she was actually receiving messages from God.


title: The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc

text: The frustrated English devise another way to have Joan executed by the church. English soldiers go into Joan's cell room, rip her clothes, and give her men's clothing to wear. They then state she conjured a spell to make the new clothing appear, suggesting that she is a witch who must be burned. Although suspecting the English are lying, the Bishop abandons Joan to her fate, and she is burned alive in the marketplace of Rouen, though a postscript adds that she was canonized as a saint in the 20th century.


title: The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc

text: Luc Besson stated that he was not interested in narrating the history of Joan of Arc; rather, he wanted to pull a message out of history that is relevant for today. Besson states that in order to achieve this he stepped away from the factual narrative of the 15th century, instead trying to get behind the "exterior envelope" and into both the emotional effect and affect of Joan. In the book "The Films of Luc Besson", Susan Hayward interprets this as meaning Besson sought to follow Joan emotionally, revealing her doubts and demonstrating that one cannot return intact from the experience of war.


title: The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc

text: As the medievalist Gwendolyn Morgan observes, Joan's sanity is a continuing theme throughout the film, beginning with the priest questioning her as a child and ending with her conversations with 'The Conscience' in the film's final scenes. Scholars view The Conscience as providing a postmodern explanation of Joan's visions. At the time that Joan lived, her voices and visions would not have been doubted. John Aberth, writing in the book "A Knight at the Movies" stated the filmmakers invented The Conscience to satisfy a modern audience that is aware of mental illness. The film was also said to have "feminist undercurrents"; after Joan witnesses the rape of her sister, her crusade is said to become "a fight against male domination and the abuse of women." Writing in "Exemplaria", Nickolas Haydock also considered the witnessing of her sister's murder and rape to be an alternate psychological motivation for Joan to want to fight the English, rather than just her visions.


title: The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc

text: Haydock also considered a theme in the film to be the inability of the church to fulfill individual spiritual needs. This is said to be shown through many of Joan's encounters with the church; as a girl she is scolded for going to confession too often, denied communion and forced to sneak into the church to take it herself, and during her trial, where she is denied confession until The Conscience confesses her instead.


title: The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc

text: Writing in "Studies in Medievalism XIII", Christa Canitz considered anti-intellectualism to be present in "The Messenger"; Joan admits to not knowing how to read or write and has not received any formal education, military or otherwise, yet triumphs over those who have. Haydock commented that Joan possesses a quick wit which she uses against the unrelenting accusatory questions provided by her "intellectual superiors" during the trial. Joan also manages to triumph in battle where those with more experience and knowledge could not, made especially apparent by her use of a siege weapon backward to force open a gate.


title: The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc

text: Luc Besson was originally hired as executive producer for a film that was to be directed by Kathryn Bigelow. Bigelow had been developing ideas for a Joan of Arc film for about a decade. Her film was to be entitled "Company of Angels", with Jay Cocks hired to write the script. The film was to be made with Besson's assistance and financial backing. In July 1996 contracts between Bigelow and Besson were exchanged, which gave Besson the right to be consulted on casting in addition to his personal fee. According to Bigelow, eight weeks prior to filming, Besson realised that his then wife, Milla Jovovich, was not going to be cast as Joan. He subsequently withdrew his support from the film, and with it the support of his financial backers. Bigelow threatened legal action for breach of contract and "stealing her research"; the matter was settled out of court. After Besson left, he commenced production of his own Joan of Arc project, "The Messenger", with Jovovich given the lead role; the production of "Company of Angels" disbanded shortly thereafter. "The Messenger" was intended to follow up the success Besson and Jovovich achieved with their previous collaboration, "The Fifth Element".


title: The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc

text: Filming took place in the Czech Republic. A stuntman died in an accident during the first weeks of filming. Besson was said to have become completely uncommunicative after the incident, only appearing on set to shout orders at people.