title: Thermoregulation

text: In warm environments, birds and mammals employ the following adaptations and strategies to maximize heat loss:


title: Thermoregulation

text: As in other mammals, thermoregulation is an important aspect of human homeostasis. Most body heat is generated in the deep organs, especially the liver, brain, and heart, and in contraction of skeletal muscles. Humans have been able to adapt to a great diversity of climates, including hot humid and hot arid. High temperatures pose serious stresses for the human body, placing it in great danger of injury or even death. For example, one of the most common reactions to hot temperatures is heat exhaustion, which is an illness that could happen if one is exposed to high temperatures, resulting in some symptoms such as dizziness, fainting, or a rapid heartbeat. For humans, adaptation to varying climatic conditions includes both physiological mechanisms resulting from evolution and behavioural mechanisms resulting from conscious cultural adaptations. The physiological control of the body's core temperature takes place primarily through the hypothalamus, which assumes the role as the body's "thermostat". This organ possesses control mechanisms as well as key temperature sensors, which are connected to nerve cells called thermoreceptors. Thermoreceptors come in two subcategories; ones that respond to cold temperatures and ones that respond to warm temperatures. Scattered throughout the body in both peripheral and central nervous systems, these nerve cells are sensitive to changes in temperature and are able to provide useful information to the hypothalamus through the process of negative feedback, thus maintaining a constant core temperature.


title: Thermoregulation

text: There are four avenues of heat loss: evaporation, convection, conduction, and radiation. If skin temperature is greater than that of the surrounding air temperature, the body can lose heat by convection and conduction. But, if air temperature of the surroundings is greater than that of the skin, the body "gains" heat by convection and conduction. In such conditions, the only means by which the body can rid itself of heat is by evaporation. So, when the surrounding temperature is higher than the skin temperature, anything that prevents adequate evaporation will cause the internal body temperature to rise. During intense physical activity (e.g. sports), evaporation becomes the main avenue of heat loss. Humidity affects thermoregulation by limiting sweat evaporation and thus heat loss.


title: Thermoregulation

text: Thermoregulation is also an integral part of a reptile's life, specifically lizards such as the Microlophus occipitalis and "Ctenophorus decresii" who must change microhabitats to keep a constant body temperature. By moving to cooler areas when it is too hot and to warmer areas when it is cold, they can thermoregulate their temperature to stay within their necessary bounds.


title: Thermoregulation

text: Thermogenesis occurs in the flowers of many plants in the family Araceae as well as in cycad cones. In addition, the sacred lotus ("Nelumbo nucifera") is able to thermoregulate itself, remaining on average above air temperature while flowering. Heat is produced by breaking down the starch that was stored in their roots, which requires the consumption of oxygen at a rate approaching that of a flying hummingbird.


title: Thermoregulation

text: One possible explanation for plant thermoregulation is to provide protection against cold temperature. For example, the skunk cabbage is not frost-resistant, yet it begins to grow and flower when there is still snow on the ground. Another theory is that thermogenicity helps attract pollinators, which is borne out by observations that heat production is accompanied by the arrival of beetles or flies.


title: Thermoregulation

text: Some plants are known to protect themselves against colder temperatures using antifreeze proteins. This occurs in wheat ("Triticum aestivum)," potatoes ("Solanum tuberosum") and several other angiosperm species.


title: Thermoregulation

text: Animals other than humans regulate and maintain their body temperature with physiological adjustments and behavior. Desert lizards are ectotherms and so unable to metabolically control their temperature but can do this by altering their location. They may do this, in the morning only by raising their head from its burrow and then exposing their entire body. By basking in the sun, the lizard absorbs solar heat. It may also absorb heat by conduction from heated rocks that have stored radiant solar energy. To lower their temperature, lizards exhibit varied behaviors. Sand seas, or ergs, produce up to , and the sand lizard will hold its feet up in the air to cool down, seek cooler objects with which to contact, find shade or return to their burrow. They also go to their burrows to avoid cooling when the sun goes down or the temperature falls. Aquatic animals can also regulate their temperature behaviorally by changing their position in the thermal gradient. Sprawling prone in a cool shady spot, "splooting," has been observed in squirrels on hot days.


title: Thermoregulation

text: Animals also engage in kleptothermy in which they share or even steal each other's body warmth. In endotherms such as bats and birds (such as the mousebird and emperor penguin) it allows the sharing of body heat (particularly amongst juveniles). This allows the individuals to increase their thermal inertia (as with gigantothermy) and so reduce heat loss. Some ectotherms share burrows of ectotherms. Other animals exploit termite mounds.


title: Thermoregulation

text: Some animals living in cold environments maintain their body temperature by preventing heat loss. Their fur grows more densely to increase the amount of insulation. Some animals are regionally heterothermic and are able to allow their less insulated extremities to cool to temperatures much lower than their core temperature—nearly to . This minimizes heat loss through less insulated body parts, like the legs, feet (or hooves), and nose.


title: Thermoregulation

text: Different species of Sonoran Desert Drosophila will exploit different species of cacti based on the thermotolerance differences between species and hosts. For example, Drosophila "mettleri" is found in cacti like the Saguaro and Senita; these two cacti remain cool by storing water. Over time, the genes selecting for higher heat tolerance were reduced in the population due to the cooler host climate the fly is able to exploit.


title: Thermoregulation

text: Some flies, such as "Lucilia sericata," lay their eggs en masse. The resulting group of larvae, depending on its size, is able to thermoregulate and keep itself at the optimum temperature for development.


title: Thermoregulation

text: To cope with limited food resources and low temperatures, some mammals hibernate during cold periods. To remain in "stasis" for long periods, these animals build up brown fat reserves and slow all body functions. True hibernators (e.g., groundhogs) keep their body temperatures low throughout hibernation whereas the core temperature of false hibernators (e.g., bears) varies; occasionally the animal may emerge from its den for brief periods. Some bats are true hibernators and rely upon a rapid, non-shivering thermogenesis of their brown fat deposit to bring them out of hibernation.


title: Thermoregulation

text: Estivation is similar to hibernation, however, it usually occurs in hot periods to allow animals to avoid high temperatures and desiccation. Both terrestrial and aquatic invertebrate and vertebrates enter into estivation. Examples include lady beetles ("Coccinellidae"), North American desert tortoises, crocodiles, salamanders, cane toads, and the water-holding frog.


title: Thermoregulation

text: Daily torpor occurs in small endotherms like bats and hummingbirds, which temporarily reduces their high metabolic rates to conserve energy.


title: Thermoregulation

text: Previously, average oral temperature for healthy adults had been considered , while normal ranges are . In Poland and Russia, the temperature had been measured axillarily (under the arm). was considered "ideal" temperature in these countries, while normal ranges are .


title: Thermoregulation

text: Recent studies suggest that the average temperature for healthy adults is (same result in three different studies). Variations (one standard deviation) from three other studies are:


title: Thermoregulation

text: Measured temperature varies according to thermometer placement, with rectal temperature being higher than oral temperature, while axillary temperature is lower than oral temperature. The average difference between oral and axillary temperatures of Indian children aged 6–12 was found to be only 0.1 °C (standard deviation 0.2 °C), and the mean difference in Maltese children aged 4–14 between oral and axillary temperature was 0.56 °C, while the mean difference between rectal and axillary temperature for children under 4 years old was 0.38 °C.


title: Thermoregulation

text: In humans, a diurnal variation has been observed dependent on the periods of rest and activity, lowest at 11 p.m. to 3 a.m. and peaking at 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. Monkeys also have a well-marked and regular diurnal variation of body temperature that follows periods of rest and activity, and is not dependent on the incidence of day and night; nocturnal monkeys reach their highest body temperature at night and lowest during the day. Sutherland Simpson and J.J. Galbraith observed that all nocturnal animals and birds – whose periods of rest and activity are naturally reversed through habit and not from outside interference – experience their highest temperature during the natural period of activity (night) and lowest during the period of rest (day). Those diurnal temperatures can be reversed by reversing their daily routine.


title: Thermoregulation

text: In essence, the temperature curve of diurnal birds is similar to that of humans and other homoeothermal animals, except that the maximum occurs earlier in the afternoon and the minimum earlier in the morning. Also, the curves obtained from rabbits, guinea pigs, and dogs were quite similar to those from humans. These observations indicate that body temperature is partially regulated by circadian rhythms.


title: Thermoregulation

text: During the follicular phase (which lasts from the first day of menstruation until the day of ovulation), the average basal body temperature in women ranges from . Within 24 hours of ovulation, women experience an elevation of due to the increased metabolic rate caused by sharply elevated levels of progesterone. The basal body temperature ranges between throughout the luteal phase, and drops down to pre-ovulatory levels within a few days of menstruation. Women can chart this phenomenon to determine whether and when they are ovulating, so as to aid conception or contraception.


title: Thermoregulation

text: Fever is a regulated elevation of the set point of core temperature in the hypothalamus, caused by circulating pyrogens produced by the immune system. To the subject, a rise in core temperature due to fever may result in feeling cold in an environment where people without fever do not.


title: Thermoregulation

text: Some monks are known to practice Tummo, biofeedback meditation techniques, that allow them to raise their body temperatures substantially.


title: Thermoregulation

text: The effects of such a genetic change in body temperature on longevity is difficult to study in humans.


title: Thermoregulation

text: There are limits both of heat and cold that an endothermic animal can bear and other far wider limits that an ectothermic animal may endure and yet live. The effect of too extreme a cold is to decrease metabolism, and hence to lessen the production of heat. Both catabolic and anabolic pathways share in this metabolic depression, and, though less energy is used up, still less energy is generated. The effects of this diminished metabolism become telling on the central nervous system first, especially the brain and those parts concerning consciousness; both heart rate and respiration rate decrease; judgment becomes impaired as drowsiness supervenes, becoming steadily deeper until the individual loses consciousness; without medical intervention, death by hypothermia quickly follows. Occasionally, however, convulsions may set in towards the end, and death is caused by asphyxia.


title: Thermoregulation

text: In experiments on cats performed by Sutherland Simpson and Percy T. Herring, the animals were unable to survive when rectal temperature fell below . At this low temperature, respiration became increasingly feeble; heart-impulse usually continued after respiration had ceased, the beats becoming very irregular, appearing to cease, then beginning again. Death appeared to be mainly due to asphyxia, and the only certain sign that it had taken place was the loss of knee-jerks.


title: Thermoregulation

text: However, too high a temperature speeds up the metabolism of different tissues to such a rate that their metabolic capital is soon exhausted. Blood that is too warm produces dyspnea by exhausting the metabolic capital of the respiratory centre; heart rate is increased; the beats then become arrhythmic and eventually cease. The central nervous system is also profoundly affected by hyperthermia and delirium, and convulsions may set in. Consciousness may also be lost, propelling the person into a comatose condition. These changes can sometimes also be observed in patients experiencing an acute fever. Mammalian muscle becomes rigid with heat rigor at about 50 °C, with the sudden rigidity of the whole body rendering life impossible.


title: Thermoregulation

text: H.M. Vernon performed work on the death temperature and paralysis temperature (temperature of heat rigor) of various animals. He found that species of the same class showed very similar temperature values, those from the Amphibia examined being 38.5 °C, fish 39 °C, reptiles 45 °C, and various molluscs 46 °C. Also, in the case of pelagic animals, he showed a relation between death temperature and the quantity of solid constituents of the body. In higher animals, however, his experiments tend to show that there is greater variation in both the chemical and physical characteristics of the protoplasm and, hence, greater variation in the extreme temperature compatible with life.


title: Thermoregulation

text: The maximum temperatures tolerated by certain thermophilic arthropods exceeds the lethal temperatures for most vertebrates.


title: Thermoregulation

text: The most heat-resistant insects are three genera of desert ants recorded from three different parts of the world. The ants have developed a lifestyle of scavenging for short durations during the hottest hours of the day, in excess of , for the carcasses of insects and other forms of life which have died from heat stress.


title: Thermoregulation

text: In April 2014, the South Californian mite "Paratarsotomus macropalpis" has been recorded as the world's fastest land animal relative to body length, at a speed of 322 body lengths per second. Besides the unusually great speed of the mites, the researchers were surprised to find the mites running at such speeds on concrete at temperatures up to , which is significant because this temperature is well above the lethal limit for the majority of animal species. In addition, the mites are able to stop and change direction very quickly.


title: Thermoregulation

text: Spiders like "Nephila pilipes" exhibits active thermal regulation behavior. During high temperature sunny days, it aligns its body with the direction of sunlight to reduce the body area under direct sunlight.


title: SLC Punk!

text: SLCPunk! is a 1998 American comedy-drama film written and directed by James Merendino. The film centers around Steven "Stevo" Levy, a college graduate and punk living in Salt Lake City during the mid-1980s.


title: SLC Punk!

text: Merendino created the film based on his experience growing up in Salt Lake City. Although the film is not autobiographical, Merendino has said that many characters were based on people he knew.


title: SLC Punk!

text: The film outlines the daily life of a punk named Stevo in Salt Lake City, Utah in the fall of 1985. Stevo's best friend, "Heroin" Bob, is also a punk. The nickname "Heroin" is ironic, as Bob is afraid of needles and actually believes that any drug (with the notable exception of alcohol and cigarettes) is inherently dangerous.


title: SLC Punk!

text: Stevo and Bob go from party to party while living in a dilapidated apartment. They spend much of their time fighting with members of other subcultures, particularly rednecks. Stevo has a casual relationship with a girl named Sandy, while Bob is in love with Trish, the manager of a head shop.


title: SLC Punk!

text: The two of them are shaped by their experiences with their parents. Stevo's parents, now divorced, are former hippies who are proud of their youthful endeavors; however, Stevo is revolted by what he perceives as their "selling out" by becoming affluent Reagan Republicans, which they lamely try to justify. Stevo's grades are excellent, and when his father sends an application to Harvard Law School and Stevo is accepted, he nevertheless rejects it because of his beliefs. By contrast, Bob's father is a mentally ill alcoholic who mistakes his son and his friend for Central Intelligence Agency operatives and chases them away with a shotgun when they visit him on his birthday.


title: SLC Punk!

text: Stevo begins to see the drawbacks of living the punk life. Sean, a fellow punk, was a drug dealer who once attempted to stab his mother while under the influence of an entire 100-dose sheet of acid; in the present, Stevo finds him panhandling on the street with some obvious mental issues.


title: SLC Punk!

text: While Stevo understands that his relationship with Sandy is casual, he is still enraged when he discovers her having sex with another man and savagely beats him, later loathing himself because his action contradicts his own belief in anarchism. His social circle also begins to drift away, as his friend, Mike, leaves Salt Lake City to attend the University of Notre Dame. Soon after, Stevo attends a party and falls in love with a rich girl named Brandy, who points out that his clothing and hair are fashion as opposed to true rebellion. Rather than being offended, Stevo takes the criticism thoughtfully, and they passionately kiss.


title: SLC Punk!

text: At the same party, Bob complains of a headache (induced by Spandau Ballet's "She Loved Like Diamond" playing on a stereo), and is given Percodan, which he consumes with alcohol after being told the pills are simply "vitamins" that will help his headache. The accidental drug overdose kills him in his sleep. When Stevo discovers Bob's body, he breaks down completely. At the funeral, he appears with a shaved head and changed clothing, having decided he is done with being a punk. He plans to go to Harvard, and earlier narration suggests that he eventually marries Brandy. He notes in his closing narration that his youthful self would probably kick his future self's ass, wryly describing himself as having been ultimately just another poseur.


title: SLC Punk!

text: The film features several cliques presented as tribes. The film focuses primarily on the punk tribe, but includes several others as well:


title: SLC Punk!

text: The film was shot in an aggressive, highly kinetic style, with sweeping crane shots, fast dolly moves, and jump cuts.


title: SLC Punk!

text: Most of the film was shot on location in Salt Lake City, with a scene taking place in Evanston, Wyoming. Numerous scenes took place in locally well-known areas:


title: SLC Punk!

text: Eight Bucks Experiment, the band portraying fictional English band ECP, were featured on a European release of the soundtrack. The three songs they recorded live for the punk concert scene were sent back to the band after filming. They self-released the songs on the "One Of These Days" EP through their Blue Moon Recordings label website.


title: SLC Punk!

text: The film premiered in the United States at the Sundance Film Festival on January 22, 1999. It received a wide release on April 16, 1999, grossing $36,218 on its opening weekend and amassing a total domestic gross of $299,569 by the time it left theaters.


title: SLC Punk!

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 61% on 33 reviews, with an average rating of 5.6/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "Merging anarchic spirit with straightforward melodrama, "SLC Punk" is a hit-and-miss odyssey of youthful rebellion elevated by Matthew Lillard's dramatically potent star turn." Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 50 out of 100, based on 21 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: SLC Punk!

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film three-out-of-four stars, praising Lillard's performance and writing that the film offers "a little something there for all of us". Janet Maslin, writing for "The New York Times", called the film "likable for its outlandishness, less so when it shows a self-important streak". Dennis Harvey of "Variety" called it "energetic but poorly structured", writing that the film "doesn't quite grasp how its slick, flashy package undermines any actual punk cred". Nathan Rabin of "The A.V. Club" wrote that ""S.L.C. Punk!" takes a potentially fascinating subject and reduces it to a mawkish compendium of film-festival clichés". David Luty of "Film Journal International" wrote a mostly negative review of the film, stating that it "cannot quite reach the richer depths it grasps for, because it doesn't have the material to support the large dramatic distance Stevo has to travel".


title: SLC Punk!

text: In April 2013, director James Merendino announced that a sequel to "SLC Punk!" titled "Punk's Dead" would begin filming later in the year and would be released in 2014 with most of the original cast reprising their roles. The film was successfully funded by an Indiegogo campaign launched on October 27, 2013, and completed on January 15, 2014. Merendino said of the sequel, “I made "SLC Punk!" when I was a kid, and accordingly, the story is naive, and, as just a coming of age story, not finished. The characters are facing big questions, 18 years later, as outsiders, punk rockers… What relevance do they have in a world where all statements have already been made? In the years since I made "SLC Punk!", it has found a rather large and supportive following who have been very kind to me. So in making a sequel, I feel I owe it to those people to really do it right."


title: SLC Punk!

text: In May 2014, the film was announced to be shooting in June, with its cast officially announced to include Devon Sawa, Michael Goorjian, Adam Pascal and James Duval returning as Sean, Heroin Bob, Eddie and John the Mod, respectively, with Ben Schnetzer appearing as Heroin Bob's son, Ross, Machine Gun Kelly as Crash, and Hannah Marks and Sarah Clarke portraying the female leads. Also in May, Matthew Lillard and Jason Segel, who starred in the original film announced through social media that they would not be reprising their roles.


title: It's Okay, That's Love

text: It's Okay, That's Love () is a 2014 South Korean television series starring Jo In-sung, Gong Hyo-jin, Sung Dong-il, Lee Kwang-soo, and Do Kyung-soo. It aired on SBS from July 23 to September 11, 2014, on Wednesdays and Thursdays at 21:55 (KST) for 16 episodes.


title: It's Okay, That's Love

text: Jang Jae-yeol is an author of bestselling mystery novels and a radio DJ. Playful and a bit arrogant, he also suffers from obsessive–compulsive disorder. Jang Jae-yeol was assaulted by his father when he was young and his mother accidentally killed his father, but he falsely testified that his brother killed his father. That guilt leads him to develop obsessive-compulsive disorder. Ji Hae-soo is a psychiatrist on her first year of fellowship. Driven and ambitious with her career yet compassionate towards her patients, Hae-soo has a negative attitude towards love and relationships in her personal life. Once Jae-yeol and Hae-soo meet, there is much contention between them caused by their strong personalities and refusal to give in to each other. However, their bickering slowly turns into love and they begin to learn how compatible they are. Jae-yeol and Hae-soo attempt to heal each other's deep-seated wounds, but their fledgling relationship takes a blow when they learn that Jae-yeol's mental health issues are more serious than they initially suspected.


title: It's Okay, That's Love

text: Screenwriter Noh Hee-kyung and director Kim Kyu-tae said that by realistically exploring characters from a romantic comedy standpoint, their drama also aimed to address the discrimination and social stigma attached to people with mental health issues and other minorities. This was Noh and Kim's fourth collaboration; actor Jo In-sung had previously worked with them on "That Winter, the Wind Blows" (2013), while actress Gong Hyo-jin had starred in Noh's "Wonderful Days" (2001).


title: It's Okay, That's Love

text: The first read-through was held in April 2014 at an SBS studio in Ilsan, and filming began shortly after.


title: It's Okay, That's Love

text: At 1:00 a.m. on June 19, 2014, the van Gong Hyo-jin was riding became involved in a three-vehicle rear-end collision with two trucks; she was on her way back to Seoul after filming in Yongin, Gyeonggi Province. This resulted in a left arm fracture, a knee injury, and scratches on Gong's face. After recuperating, she and co-star Jo In-sung later left for a shoot in Okinawa, Japan where their characters go on a romantic trip. Gong's fractured arm was incorporated into the story.


title: It's Okay, That's Love

text: Despite boasting modest ratings, "It's Okay, That's Love" ranked third on the year-end Content Power Index. CPI, developed by CJ E&M and AGB Nielsen Media Research, monitors non-traditional variables such as number of mobile and Internet streaming viewers and online "buzz" in social media. It also received praise for addressing the discrimination and social stigma attached to people with mental health issues and other minorities.


title: It's Okay, That's Love

text: In the table below, the blue numbers represent the lowest ratings and the red numbers represent the highest ratings.


title: It's Okay, That's Love

text: When the 30-second teaser trailer for the drama was released online on June 25, 2014, netizens pointed out that it had been plagiarized from the short film "Olive Juice" by New York-based video artist Celia Rowlson-Hall. On June 26, production company GT Entertainment admitted the charge and apologized through a press release, after which the teaser trailer was deleted from the official website.


title: Von Dutch

text: Von Dutch is an American multinational fashion brand posthumously named after Kenny Howard, a.k.a. "Von Dutch", an American artist and pinstriper of the Kustom Kulture movement. After Howard's death in 1992, his daughters allowed Ed Boswell to produce items using the Von Dutch trademark logo. The trademark rights were sold in 1996 to Mike Cassell who, with Robert Vaughn, used the logo for an apparel line named Von Dutch Originals. French designer Christian Audigier helped popularize the brand in the early 2000s. Von Dutch was repurchased in 2009 by Groupe Royer S.A., through its Luxembourg subsidiary Royer brands International S.a.r.l.


title: Von Dutch

text: The clothing brand gained popularity in the US and attracted the attention of celebrities such as Paris Hilton, Whitney Houston, Madonna, Britney Spears, Justin Timberlake, Jay-Z, Ashton Kutcher and Eric Church.


title: Von Dutch

text: Kenneth Robert Howard was an American motorcycle mechanic, artist, pin striper, metal fabricator, knifemaker and gunsmith. The inspiration to create the clothing line started with Howard's daughters Lisa and Lorna after his death. They decided to use his artistic name Von Dutch; "Dutch" was a family nickname for Howard because he was considered to be "as stubborn as a Dutchman".


title: Von Dutch

text: Howard had passion for cars and motorcycles. He also created special effects for Hollywood films, and served as a consultant for several period films. His most recognizable work was in 1955 at the 1955 Motorama; he was able to stripe a 1927 Studebaker for 10 days. Today, Howard is known as the father of modern pin-striping.


title: Von Dutch

text: He was famously indifferent about the rights to his work, dismissing copyrights and patents as an "ego trip". He sold the Von Dutch name to fellow pinstriper Steve Kafka for $5,000.


title: Von Dutch

text: Howard was a virulent racist and admirer of Hitler's Third Reich. "As reported by the Los Angeles Times in 2018, Howard was a self-admitted “admirer of the Third Reich.” “A letter he wrote about abandoning harsh medical treatment for a fatal illness is blunt: ‘I am not willing to go through it anymore only to emerge in a place full of Africans, Mexicans and Jews. … I have always been a Nazi and still believe it was the last time the world had a chance of being operated with logic. What a shame so many Americans died and suffered to make the rich richer and save England & France again, or was that still. I hope you lying wimps get swallowed up with your stupidity,’” he wrote.


title: Von Dutch

text: In the 1990s, art collector Ed Boswell began selling Von Dutch patches at Los Angeles art shows, having procured the rights to the Von Dutch name from Howard's daughters. He met former drug dealer Michael Cassel and competitive surfer Bobby Vaughn at a trade show, and they decided to go into business together, initially deciding to create an apparel line of garage-themed jeans and workwear. Cassel and Vaughn eventually bought Boswell out of the company, and brought in entrepreneur Tonny Sørensen as CEO and investor. Sørensen hired Christian Audigier in 2002 to design for the brand. Audigier came up with the trucker hat, inspired by classic Americana such as Marlon Brando's motorcycle cap in "The Wild One".


title: Von Dutch

text: The early 2000s were the prime years for the company. Celebrities were spotted wearing a variety of Von Dutch apparel such as jackets, t-shirts, and, most notably, trucker hats. Britney Spears and Justin Timberlake played a vital role in the rise of Von Dutch. Audigier met with Spears in Los Angeles in 2002 and convinced her to wear the brand. Soon afterward, Spears and Timberlake made national news with their breakup, and happened to be wearing Von Dutch trucker hats on the cover of "People". The exposure helped grow the brand, and it began selling.


title: Von Dutch

text: Other celebrities such as Paris Hilton, Lindsay Lohan, Ashton Kutcher, and Beyoncé were seen wearing the $100 trucker hat. Kutcher was constantly seen wearing Von Dutch in the early 2000s, especially on episodes of "Punk'd". Von Dutch's popularity peaked in 2003, with sales of over $33 million.


title: Von Dutch

text: Sørensen fired Vaughn and became sole owner in 2002. He also began sidelining Cassel as a designer in favor of Audigier. Vaughn and Cassel became openly hostile to Sørensen; at one point, Cassel hired drug lord Pablo Escobar's grandson to intimidate him into selling his stake in the company for $500,000, a proposal that Sørensen refused. Vaughn, meanwhile, tried to intimidate Cassel into selling his shares of the company, and accused him of calling the police when he refused.


title: Von Dutch

text: In February 2005, Vaughn was arrested on charges of first degree murder after he shot and killed childhood friend Mark Rivas, who he claimed attacked him with a broken bottle. He was acquitted in 2006.


title: Von Dutch

text: By the late 2000s, Von Dutch began to experience a rapid decline due to issues such as brand saturation and counterfeiting. In May 2004, Boswell, who resented Cassel and Vaughn for buying him out of the company just before it became successful, leaked to the press a letter written by Howard in 1992, in which the late artist made several racist and antisemitic remarks and professed admiration for Nazi Germany. Despite Boswell having nothing to do with the clothing line, this letter destroyed what little popularity the company had left; by 2004, the fashion press had derisively nicknamed the brand "Von Douche". Audigier left the company in 2007. In 2009, Sorenson sold the brand to French footwear company Groupe Royer.


title: Von Dutch

text: In 2016 Von Dutch started to make a comeback when Kylie Jenner was seen wearing the famous trucker hat, jackets and two piece sets. In 2019 Von Dutch hired Ed Goldman as its general manager, and he started to create connections with Los Angeles' hip-hop community; rappers such as Travis Scott, Saweetie, and Megan Thee Stallion were soon seen wearing the brand on Instagram, and the company partnered with Young Thug in 2021 to create a line of streetwear. Von Dutch also became popular with Internet celebrities such as Emma Chamberlain and Addison Rae.


title: Parathyroid hormone

text: Parathyroid hormone (PTH), also called parathormone or parathyrin, is a peptide hormone secreted by the parathyroid glands that regulates the serum calcium concentration through its effects on bone, kidney, and intestine.


title: Parathyroid hormone

text: PTH influences bone remodeling, which is an ongoing process in which bone tissue is alternately resorbed and rebuilt over time. PTH is secreted in response to low blood serum calcium (Ca) levels. PTH indirectly stimulates osteoclast activity within the bone matrix (osteon), in an effort to release more ionic calcium (Ca) into the blood to elevate a low serum calcium level. The bones act as a (metaphorical) "bank of calcium" from which the body can make "withdrawals" as needed to keep the amount of calcium in the blood at appropriate levels despite the ever-present challenges of metabolism, stress, and nutritional variations. PTH is "a key that unlocks the bank vault" to remove the calcium.


title: Parathyroid hormone

text: PTH is secreted primarily by the chief cells of the parathyroid glands. The gene for PTH is located on chromosome 11. It is a polypeptide containing 84 amino acids, which is a prohormone. It has a molecular mass around 9500 Da. Its action is opposed by the hormone calcitonin.


title: Parathyroid hormone

text: There are two types of PTH receptors. Parathyroid hormone 1 receptors, activated by the 34 N-terminal amino acids of PTH, are present at high levels on the cells of bone and kidney. Parathyroid hormone 2 receptors are present at high levels on the cells of central nervous system, pancreas, testes, and placenta. The half-life of PTH is about 4 minutes.


title: Parathyroid hormone

text: Disorders that yield too little or too much PTH, such as hypoparathyroidism, hyperparathyroidism, and paraneoplastic syndromes can cause bone disease, hypocalcemia, and hypercalcemia.


title: Parathyroid hormone

text: hPTH-(1-84) crystallizes as a slightly bent, long, helical dimer. The extended helical conformation of hPTH-(1-84) is the likely bioactive conformation. The N-terminal fragment 1-34 of parathyroid hormone (PTH) has been crystallized and the structure has been refined to 0.9 Å resolution.


title: Parathyroid hormone

text: In bone, PTH enhances the release of calcium from the large reservoir contained in the bones. Bone resorption is the normal destruction of bone by osteoclasts, which are indirectly stimulated by PTH. Stimulation is indirect since osteoclasts do not have a receptor for PTH; rather, PTH binds to osteoblasts, the cells responsible for creating bone. Binding stimulates osteoblasts to increase their expression of RANKL and inhibits their secretion of osteoprotegerin (OPG). Free OPG competitively binds to RANKL as a decoy receptor, preventing RANKL from interacting with RANK, a receptor for RANKL. The binding of RANKL to RANK (facilitated by the decreased amount of OPG available for binding the excess RANKL) stimulates osteoclast precursors, which are of a monocyte lineage, to fuse. The resulting multinucleated cells are osteoclasts, which ultimately mediate bone resorption. Estrogen also regulates this pathway through its effects on PTH. Estrogen suppresses T cell TNF production by regulating T cell differentiation and activity in the bone marrow, thymus, and peripheral lymphoid organs. In the bone marrow, estrogen downregulates the proliferation of hematopoietic stem cells through an IL-7 dependent mechanism.


title: Parathyroid hormone

text: In the kidney, around 250 mmol of calcium ions are filtered into the glomerular filtrate per day. Most of this (245 mmol/d) is reabsorbed from the tubular fluid, leaving about 5 mmol/d to be excreted in the urine. This reabsorption occurs throughout the tubule (most, 60-70%, of it in the proximal tubule), except in the thin segment of the loop of Henle. Circulating parathyroid hormone only influences the reabsorption that occurs in the distal tubules and the renal collecting ducts (but see Footnote). A more important effect of PTH on the kidney is, however, its inhibition of the reabsorption of phosphate (HPO) from the tubular fluid, resulting in a decrease in the plasma phosphate concentration. Phosphate ions form water-insoluble salts with calcium. Thus, a decrease in the phosphate concentration of the blood plasma (for a given total calcium concentration) increases the amount of calcium that is ionized. A third important effect of PTH on the kidney is its stimulation of the conversion of 25-hydroxy vitamin D into 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D (calcitriol), which is released into the circulation. This latter form of vitamin D is the active hormone which stimulates calcium uptake from the intestine.


title: Parathyroid hormone

text: Via the kidney, PTH enhances the absorption of calcium in the intestine by increasing the production of activated vitamin D. Vitamin D activation occurs in the kidney. PTH up-regulates 25-hydroxyvitamin D 1-alpha-hydroxylase, the enzyme responsible for 1-alpha hydroxylation of 25-hydroxy vitamin D, converting vitamin D to its active form (1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D). This activated form of vitamin D increases the absorption of calcium (as Ca ions) by the intestine via calbindin.


title: Parathyroid hormone

text: PTH was one of the first hormones to be shown to use the G-protein adenylyl cyclase second messenger system.


title: Parathyroid hormone

text: PTH reduces the reabsorption of phosphate from the proximal tubule of the kidney, which means more phosphate is excreted through the urine.


title: Parathyroid hormone

text: However, PTH enhances the uptake of phosphate from the intestine and bones into the blood. In the bone, slightly more calcium than phosphate is released from the breakdown of bone. In the intestines, absorption of both calcium and phosphate is mediated by an increase in activated vitamin D. The absorption of phosphate is not as dependent on vitamin D as is that of calcium. The end result of PTH release is a small net drop in the serum concentration of phosphate.


title: Parathyroid hormone

text: PTH upregulates the activity of 1-α-hydroxylase enzyme, which converts 25-hydroxycholecalciferol, the major circulating form of inactive vitamin D, into 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol, the active form of vitamin D, in the kidney.


title: Parathyroid hormone

text: Secretion of parathyroid hormone is determined chiefly by serum ionized calcium concentration through negative feedback. Parathyroid cells express calcium-sensing receptors on the cell surface. PTH is secreted when [Ca] is decreased (calcitonin is secreted when serum calcium levels are elevated). The G-protein-coupled calcium receptors bind extracellular calcium and may be found on the surface on a wide variety of cells distributed in the brain, heart, skin, stomach, C cells, and other tissues. In the parathyroid gland, high concentrations of extracellular calcium result in activation of the Gq G-protein coupled cascade through the action of phospholipase C. This hydrolyzes phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) to liberate intracellular messengers IP3 and diacylglycerol (DAG). Ultimately, these two messengers result in a release of calcium from intracellular stores into the cytoplasmic space. Hence a high extracellular calcium concentration leads to an increase in the cytoplasmic calcium concentration. In contrast to the mechanism that most secretory cells use, this high cytoplasmic calcium concentration inhibits the fusion of vesicles containing granules of preformed PTH with the membrane of the parathyroid cell, and thus inhibits release of PTH.


title: Parathyroid hormone

text: In the parathyroids, magnesium serves this role in stimulus-secretion coupling. A mild decrease in serum magnesium levels stimulates the reabsorptive activity PTH has on the kidneys. Severe hypomagnesemia inhibits PTH secretion and also causes resistance to PTH, leading to a form of hypoparathyroidism that is reversible.


title: Parathyroid hormone

text: Hyperparathyroidism, the presence of excessive amounts of parathyroid hormone in the blood, occurs in two very distinct sets of circumstances. Primary hyperparathyroidism is due to autonomous, abnormal hypersecretion of PTH from the parathyroid gland, while secondary hyperparathyroidism is an appropriately high PTH level seen as a physiological response to hypocalcemia. A low level of PTH in the blood is known as hypoparathyroidism and is most commonly due to damage to or removal of parathyroid glands during thyroid surgery.


title: Parathyroid hormone

text: There are a number of rare but well-described genetic conditions affecting parathyroid hormone metabolism, including pseudohypoparathyroidism, familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia, and autosomal dominant hypercalciuric hypocalcemia. Of note, PTH is unchanged in pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism. In osteoporotic women, administration of an exogenous parathyroid hormone analogue (teriparatide, by daily injection) superimposed on estrogen therapy produced increases in bone mass and reduced vertebral and nonvertebral fractures by 45 to 65%.


title: Parathyroid hormone

text: PTH can be measured in the blood in several different forms: intact PTH; N-terminal PTH; mid-molecule PTH, and C-terminal PTH, and different tests are used in different clinical situations. The level may be stated in pg/dL or pmol/L (sometimes abbreviated mmol/L); multiply by 0.1060 to convert from pg/dL to pmol/L.


title: Parathyroid hormone

text: A US source states the average PTH level to be 8–51 pg/mL. In the UK the biological reference range is considered to be 1.6-6.9 pmol/L. Normal total plasma calcium level ranges from 8.5 to 10.2 mg/dL (2.12 mmol/L to 2.55 mmol/L).


title: Parathyroid hormone

text: Model organisms have been used in the study of PTH function. A conditional knockout mouse line called "Pth" was generated at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute. Male and female animals underwent a standardized phenotypic screen to determine the effects of deletion. Additional screens performed: - In-depth immunological phenotyping


title: Problem statement

text: A problem statement is a concise description of an issue to be addressed or a condition to be improved upon. It identifies the gap between the current (problem) state and desired (goal) state of a process or product. Focusing on the facts, the problem statement should be designed to address the Five Ws. The first condition of solving a problem is understanding the problem, which can be done by way of a problem statement.


title: Problem statement

text: Problem statements are widely used by most businesses and organizations to execute process improvement projects. A simple and well-defined problem statement will be used by the project team to understand the problem and work toward developing a solution. It will also provide management with specific insights into the problem so that they can make appropriate project-approving decisions. As such, it is crucial for the problem statement to be clear and unambiguous.


title: Problem statement

text: The main purpose of the problem statement is to identify and explain the problem. This includes describing the existing environment, where the problem occurs, and what impacts it has on users, finances, and ancillary activities. Additionally, the problem statement is used to explain what the expected environment looks like. Defining the desired condition provides an overall vision for the process or product. It makes clear the purpose for initiating the improvement project and the goals that it is meant to accomplish.


title: Problem statement

text: Another important function of the problem statement is to be used as a communication device. A problem statement helps with obtaining buy-in from those involved in the project. Before the project begins, the stakeholders verify the problem and goals are accurately described in the problem statement. Once this approval is received, the project team reviews it to ensure everyone understands the issue at hand and what they are trying to accomplish. This also helps define the project scope, which keeps the project concentrated on the overall goal.


title: Problem statement

text: The problem statement is referenced throughout the project to establish focus within the project team and verify they stay on track. At the end of the project, it is revisited to confirm the implemented solution indeed solves the problem. A well-defined problem statement can also aid in performing root-cause analysis to understand why the problem occurred and ensure measures can be taken to prevent it from happening in the future.


title: Problem statement

text: It is important to note that the problem statement does "not" define the solution or methods of reaching the solution. The problem statement simply recognizes the gap between the problem and goal states. It can be said that "a problem well stated is half solved". However, there are often multiple, viable solutions to a problem. Only after the problem statement is written and agreed upon should the solution(s) be discussed and the resulting course of action determined.


title: Problem statement

text: Before the problem statement can be crafted, the problem must be defined. It is human nature to want to begin working on a solution as soon as possible and neglecting the definition of the true problem to be solved. However, a poorly defined problem increases the risk of implementing a solution that does not fully meet the expected results. A problem cannot be solved if it is not completely understood.


title: Problem statement

text: The process of defining the problem is often a group effort. It starts with meeting with the stakeholders, customers, and/or users affected by the issue (if possible) and learning about their pain points. Since people often struggle with effectively communicating their issues, particularly to someone outside of the process, it is helpful to ask a series of "why" questions until the underlying reasoning is identified. This method, known as the five whys, helps drill down to the core problem as many of the experienced frustrations could be mere symptoms of the actual problem. Asking these additional questions as well as paraphrasing what the stakeholder had said demonstrates a degree of empathy and understanding of the problem.


title: Problem statement

text: The information collected from these initial interviews is only one part of problem analysis. Many times the problem extends to multiple areas or functions to which the stakeholders, customers, and users are unaware. They may also be familiar with what is happening on the surface but not necessarily the underlying cause. Therefore, it is just as essential to gather knowledge, information, and insights from project team members and subject matter experts concerning the problem. Additional research materials, including work instructions, user manuals, product specifications, workflow charts, and previous project plans may also need to be consulted. Like most other stages in the process improvement project, defining the problem is often iterative as several rounds of discussions may be needed to get the full picture.


title: Problem statement

text: Once the problem is understood and the circumstances driving the project initiation are clear, it is time to write the problem statement.


title: Problem statement

text: The problem statement will be used to gain project support and approval from stakeholders. As such, it must be action-oriented. More importantly, the problem statement must be written clearly and accurately in order to deliver successful results. A poorly crafted or incorrect problem statement will lead to a faulty solution, as well as wasted time, money, and resources.


title: Problem statement

text: There are several basic elements that can be built into every problem statement to decrease the risk of project failure. First, the problem statement must focus on the end user. A common mistake is focusing on how a problem will be solved rather than the current gap. Second, the problem statement should not be too broad. A benefit of using the five whys approach is that it avoids over-simplicity by providing the details needed for understanding the problem and developing an appropriate solution. Finally, the problem statement should not be too narrow. Solution-bias stifles the creativity that arises while brainstorming a solution, which may result in less-than-optimal experience for the user.


title: Problem statement

text: It is useful to design and follow a specific format when writing a problem statement. While there are several options for doing this, the following is a simple and straightforward template often used in business analysis to maintain focus on defining the problem.


title: Problem statement

text: Following this format will result in a workable document that can be used by all parties to understand the problem and elicit requirements that will lead to a winning solution.


title: Problem statement

text: Problem statements can vary in length, depending on the complexity of the problem. The following is an example of a simple problem statement for the creation of a single sign-on capability:


title: Hollow Moon

text: The Hollow Moon hypothesis and the closely related Spaceship Moon hypothesis propose that Earth's Moon is either wholly hollow or otherwise contains a substantial interior space. No scientific evidence exists to support the idea; seismic observations and other data collected since spacecraft began to orbit or land on the Moon indicate that it has a thin crust, extensive mantle and small, dense core, although overall it is much less dense than Earth.


title: Hollow Moon

text: The first publication to mention a hollow Moon was H. G. Wells' 1901 novel "The First Men in the Moon". In 1970, two Soviet authors published a short piece in the popular press speculating that the Moon might be "the Creation of Alien Intelligence". Since the late 1970s, the hypothesis has been endorsed by conspiracy theorists like Jim Marrs and David Icke.


title: Hollow Moon

text: The Hollow Moon hypothesis is the suggestion that the Moon is hollow, usually as a product of an alien civilization. It is often called the Spaceship Moon hypothesis and often corresponds with beliefs in UFOs or ancient astronauts.


title: Hollow Moon

text: The suggestion of a hollow moon first appeared in science fiction, when H. G. Wells wrote about a hollow moon in his 1901 book "The First Men in the Moon". The concept of hollow planets was not new; The first discussion of a Hollow Earth was by scientist Edmond Halley in 1692. Wells borrowed from earlier fictional works that described a hollow Earth, such as the 1741 novel "Niels Klim's Underground Travels" by Ludvig Holberg.


title: Hollow Moon

text: In 1920, fringe author Marshall B. Gardner cited Wells's speculation of a Hollow Moon as support of the Hollow Earth theory.


title: Hollow Moon

text: Both Hollow Moon and Hollow Earth are now considered to be a fringe theories or conspiracy theories. The concept of the Moon as a spaceship is often mentioned as one of David Icke's beliefs.


title: Hollow Moon

text: The fact that the Moon is less dense than the Earth is advanced as support for it to be hollow. The moon's mean density is 3.3 g/cm, whereas the Earth's is 5.5 g/cm. One explanation of this discrepancy is that the moon may have been formed by a giant impact which ejected some of the early Earth's upper crust into its orbit. The Earth's upper mantle and crust are less dense than its core.


title: Hollow Moon

text: Between 1969 and 1977, seismometers installed on the Moon by the Apollo missions recorded moonquakes. The Moon was described as "ringing like a bell" during some of those quakes, specifically the shallow ones. This phrase was brought to popular attention in March 1970 in an article in "Popular Science".


title: Hollow Moon

text: On November 20, 1969, Apollo 12 deliberately crashed the Ascent Stage of its Lunar Module onto the Moon's surface; NASA reported that the Moon rang 'like a bell' for almost an hour, leading to arguments that it must be hollow like a bell. Lunar seismology experiments since then have shown that the lunar body has shallow moonquakes that act differently from quakes on Earth, due to differences in texture, type and density of the planetary strata, but there is no evidence of any large empty space inside the body.


title: Hollow Moon

text: In 1970, Michael Vasin and Alexander Shcherbakov, of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, advanced a hypothesis that the Moon is a spaceship created by unknown beings. The article was entitled "Is the Moon the Creation of Alien Intelligence?" and was published in "Sputnik", the Soviet equivalent of "Reader's Digest". The Vasin-Shcerbakov hypothesis was reported in the West that same year.


title: Hollow Moon

text: Their hypothesis relies heavily on the suggestion that large lunar craters, generally assumed to be formed from meteor impact, are generally too shallow and have flat or even convex bottoms. They hypothesized that small meteors are making a cup-shaped depression in the rocky surface of the moon while the larger meteors are drilling through a rocky layer and hitting an armoured hull underneath.


title: Hollow Moon

text: The authors reference earlier speculation by astrophysicist Iosif Shklovsky, who suggested that the Martian moon Phobos was an artificial satellite and hollow; this has since been shown not to be the case. Sceptical author Jason Colavito points out that all of their evidence is circumstantial, and that, in the 1960s, the atheistic Soviet Union promoted the ancient astronaut concept in an attempt to undermine the West's faith in religion.


title: Hollow Moon

text: In 1965, author Isaac Asimov observed: "What makes a total eclipse so remarkable is the sheer astronomical accident that the Moon fits so snugly over the Sun. The Moon is just large enough to cover the Sun completely (at times) so that a temporary night falls and the stars spring out. [...] The Sun's greater distance makes up for its greater size and the result is that the Moon and the Sun appear to be equal in size. [...] There is no astronomical reason why Moon and Sun should fit so well. It is the sheerest of coincidence, and only the Earth among all the planets is blessed in this fashion."


title: Hollow Moon

text: Since the 1970s, conspiracy theorists have cited Asimov's observations on solar eclipses as evidence of the Moon's artificiality. Mainstream astronomers reject this interpretation. They note that the angular diameters of Sun and Moon vary by several percent over time and do not actually "perfectly" match during eclipses. Nor is Earth the only planet with such a satellite: Saturn's moon Prometheus has roughly the same angular diameter as the Sun when viewed from Saturn.


title: Hollow Moon

text: Modernly, some scholars have claimed that "the conditions required for perfect solar eclipses are the same conditions generally acknowledged to be necessary for intelligent life to emerge"; If so, the Moon's size and orbit might be best explained by the weak anthropic principle.


title: Hollow Moon

text: Multiple lines of evidence demonstrate that the Moon is a solid body which formed from an impact between Earth and a planetoid.


title: Hollow Moon

text: Historically, it was theorized that the Moon originated when a rapidly-spinning Earth expelled a piece of its mass. This was proposed by George Darwin (son of the famous biologist Charles Darwin) in 1879 and retained some popularity until Apollo. The Austrian geologist Otto Ampferer in 1925 also suggested the emerging of the Moon as cause for continental drift. A second hypothesis argued the Earth and the Moon formed together as a double system from the primordial accretion disk of the Solar System. Finally, a third hypothesis suggested that the Moon may have been a planetoid captured by Earth's gravity.


title: Hollow Moon

text: The modern explanation for the origin of the Moon is usually the giant-impact hypothesis, which argues a Mars-sized body struck the Earth, making a debris ring that eventually collected into a single natural satellite, the Moon. The giant-impact hypothesis is currently the favored scientific hypothesis for the formation of the Moon. Supporting evidence includes:


title: Hollow Moon

text: Multiple lines of evidence disprove that the Moon is hollow. One involves moment of inertia parameters; the other involves seismic observations. The moment of inertia parameters indicate that the core of the moon is both dense and small, with the rest of the moon consisting of material with nearly-constant density. Seismic observations have been made, constraining the thickness of the moon's crust, mantle and core, demonstrating it could not be hollow.


title: Hollow Moon

text: Mainstream scientific opinion on the internal structure of the Moon overwhelmingly supports a solid internal structure with a thin crust, an extensive mantle and a small denser core.


title: Hollow Moon

text: The moment of inertia factor is a number, ranging from 0 to .67, that represents the distribution of mass in a spherical body. A moment of inertia factor of 0 represents a body with all its mass concentrated at its central core, while a factor of .67 represents a perfectly hollow sphere. A moment of inertia factor of 0.4 corresponds to a sphere of uniform density, while factors less than 0.4 represent bodies with cores that are more dense than their surfaces. The Earth, with its dense inner core, has a moment of inertia factor of 0.3307


title: Hollow Moon

text: In 1965, astronomer Wallace John Eckert attempted to calculate the lunar moment of inertia factor using a novel analysis of the Moon's perigee and node. His calculations suggested the Moon might be hollow, a result Eckert rejected as absurd. Subsequent analysis revealed Eckert had failed to account for nonuniformity of Earth's rotation in the orbital theory of the Moon. By 1968, other methods had allowed the Moon's moment of inertia factor to be accurately calculated at its accepted value.


title: Hollow Moon

text: From 1969 to 1973, five retroreflectors were installed on the Moon during the Apollo program (11, 14, and 15) and Lunokhod 1 and 2 missions. These reflectors made it possible to measure the distance between the surfaces of the Earth and the Moon using extremely precise laser ranging. True (physical) libration of the Moon measured via Lunar laser ranging constrains the moment of inertia factor to 0.394 ± 0.002. This is very close to the value for a solid object with radially constant density, which would be 0.4.


title: Hollow Moon

text: From 1969 through 1972, Apollo astronauts installed several seismographic measuring systems on the Moon and their data made available to scientists (such as those from the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package). The Apollo 11 instrument functioned through August of the landing year. The instruments placed by the Apollo 12, 14, 15, and 16 missions were functional until they were switched off in 1977.


title: Hollow Moon

text: The existence of moonquakes was an unexpected discovery from seismometers. Analysis of lunar seismic data has helped constrain the thickness of the crust (~45 km) and mantle, as well as the core radius (~330 km).


title: Hollow Moon

text: In 1998, the United States launched the Lunar Prospector, which hosted the Doppler Gravity Experiment (DGE) -- the first polar, low-altitude mapping of the lunar gravity field. The "Prospector" DGE obtained data constituted the "first truly operational gravity map of the Moon". The purpose of the "Lunar Prospector" DGE was to learn about the surface and internal mass distribution of the Moon. This was accomplished by measuring the Doppler shift in the S-band tracking signal as it reaches Earth, which can be converted to spacecraft accelerations. The accelerations can be processed to provide estimates of the lunar gravity field. Estimates of the surface and internal mass distribution give information on the crust, lithosphere, and internal structure of the Moon.


title: Creatine kinase

text: Creatine kinase (CK), also known as creatine phosphokinase (CPK) or phosphocreatine kinase, is an enzyme () expressed by various tissues and cell types. CK catalyses the conversion of creatine and uses adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to create phosphocreatine (PCr) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). This CK enzyme reaction is reversible and thus ATP can be generated from PCr and ADP.


title: Creatine kinase

text: In tissues and cells that consume ATP rapidly, especially skeletal muscle, but also brain, photoreceptor cells of the retina, hair cells of the inner ear, spermatozoa and smooth muscle, PCr serves as an energy reservoir for the rapid buffering and regeneration of ATP "in situ", as well as for intracellular energy transport by the PCr shuttle or circuit. Thus creatine kinase is an important enzyme in such tissues.


title: Creatine kinase

text: Clinically, creatine kinase is assayed in blood tests as a marker of damage of CK-rich tissue such as in myocardial infarction (heart attack), rhabdomyolysis (severe muscle breakdown), muscular dystrophy, autoimmune myositides, and acute kidney injury.


title: Creatine kinase

text: In the cells, the cytosolic CK enzymes consist of two subunits, which can be either "B" (brain type) or "M" (muscle type). There are, therefore, three different isoenzymes: CK-MM, CK-BB and CK-MB. The genes for these subunits are located on different chromosomes: "B" on 14q32 and "M" on 19q13. In addition to those three "cytosolic" CK isoforms, there are two mitochondrial creatine kinase isoenzymes, the "ubiquitous" form and the "sarcomeric" form. The functional entity of the mitochondrial CK isoforms is an octamer consisting of four dimers each.


title: Creatine kinase

text: While mitochondrial creatine kinase is directly involved in the formation of phosphocreatine from mitochondrial ATP, cytosolic CK regenerates ATP from ADP, using PCr. This happens at intracellular sites where ATP is used in the cell, with CK acting as an "in situ" ATP regenerator.


title: Creatine kinase

text: Isoenzyme patterns differ in tissues. Skeletal muscle expresses CK-MM (98%) and low levels of CK-MB (1%). The myocardium (heart muscle), in contrast, expresses CK-MM at 70% and CK-MB at 25–30%. CK-BB is predominantly expressed in brain and smooth muscle, including vascular and uterine tissue.


title: Creatine kinase

text: The first atomic structure of a creatine kinase proper, solved by X-ray protein crystallography, was that of the octameric, sarcomeric muscle-type mitochondrial CK (s-mtCK) in 1996., followed by the structure of ubiquitous mitochondrial CK (u-mtCK) in 2000. Both mt-CK isoforms form octameric structures (built of 4 banana-like dimers) with a four-fold symmetry and a central channel.


title: Creatine kinase

text: The atomic structure of the banana-shaped, dimeric cytosolic brain-type BB-CK was solved in 1999 at a resolution of 1,4 Å. Cytosolic BB-CK, as well as muscle-type MM-CK both form banana-shaped symmetric dimers, with one catalytic active site in each subunit.


title: Creatine kinase

text: Mitochondrial creatine kinase (CK) is present in the mitochondrial intermembrane space, where it regenerates phosphocreatine (PCr) from mitochondrially generated ATP and creatine (Cr) imported from the cytosol. Apart from the two mitochondrial CK isoenzyme forms, that is, ubiquitous mtCK (present in non-muscle tissues) and sarcomeric mtCK (present in sarcomeric muscle), there are three cytosolic CK isoforms present in the cytosol, depending on the tissue. Whereas MM-CK is expressed in sarcomeric muscle, that is, skeletal and cardiac muscle, MB-CK is expressed in cardiac muscle, and BB-CK is expressed in smooth muscle and in most non-muscle tissues.


title: Creatine kinase

text: Mitochondrial mtCK and cytosolic CK are connected in a so-called PCr/Cr-shuttle or circuit. PCr generated by mtCK in mitochondria is shuttled to cytosolic CK that is coupled to ATP-dependent processes, e.g. ATPases, such as acto-myosin ATPase and calcium ATPase involved in muscle contraction, and sodium/potassium ATPase involved in sodium retention in the kidney. The bound cytosolic CK accepts the PCr shuttled through the cell and uses ADP to regenerate ATP, which can then be used as an energy source by the ATPases (CK is associated intimately with the ATPases, forming a functionally coupled microcompartment). PCr is not only an energy buffer, but also a cellular transport form of energy between subcellular sites of energy (ATP) production (mitochondria and glycolysis) and those of energy utilization (ATPases).


title: Creatine kinase

text: Thus, CK enhances skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle contractility, and is involved in the generation of blood pressure. Further, the ADP-scavenging action of creatine kinase has been implicated in bleeding disorders: persons with highly elevated plasma CK could be prone to major bleeding.


title: Creatine kinase

text: CK is often determined routinely in a medical laboratory. It used to be determined specifically in patients with chest pain but this test has been replaced by troponin. Normal values at rest are usually between 60 and 400 IU/L, where one unit is enzyme activity, more specifically the amount of enzyme that will catalyze 1 μmol of substrate per minute under specified conditions (temperature, pH, substrate concentrations and activators.) This test is not specific for the "type" of CK that is elevated.


title: Creatine kinase

text: Creatine kinase in the blood may be high in health and disease. Exercise increases the outflow of creatine kinase to the blood stream for up to a week, and this is the most common cause of high CK in blood. Furthermore, high CK in the blood may be related to high intracellular CK such as in persons of African descent.


title: Creatine kinase

text: Finally, high CK in the blood may be an indication of damage to CK-rich tissue, such as in rhabdomyolysis, myocardial infarction, myositis and myocarditis. This means creatine kinase in blood may be elevated in a wide range of clinical conditions including the use of medication such as statins; endocrine disorders such as hypothyroidism; and skeletal muscle diseases and disorders including malignant hyperthermia, and neuroleptic malignant syndrome.


title: Creatine kinase

text: Furthermore, the isoenzyme determination has in the past been used extensively as an indication for myocardial damage in heart attacks. Troponin measurement has largely replaced this in many hospitals, although some centers still rely on CK-MB.


title: Araucaria araucana

text: Araucaria araucana (commonly called the monkey puzzle tree, monkey tail tree, piñonero, pewen or Chilean pine) is an evergreen tree growing to a trunk diameter of 1–1.5 m (3–5 ft) and a height of 30–40 m (100–130 ft). It is native to central and southern Chile and western Argentina. "Araucaria araucana" is the hardiest species in the conifer genus "Araucaria". Because of the prevalence of similar species in ancient prehistory, it is sometimes called a living fossil. It is also the national tree of Chile. Its conservation status was changed to Endangered by the IUCN in 2013 due to the dwindling population caused by logging, forest fires, and grazing.


title: Araucaria araucana

text: The leaves are thick, tough, and scale-like, triangular, long, broad at the base, and with sharp edges and tips. According to Lusk, the leaves have an average lifespan of 24 years and so cover most of the tree except for the older branches.


title: Araucaria araucana

text: It is usually dioecious, with the male and female cones on separate trees, though occasional individuals bear cones of both sexes. The male (pollen) cones are oblong and cucumber-shaped, long at first, expanding to long by broad at pollen release. It is wind pollinated. The female (seed) cones, which mature in autumn about 18 months after pollination, are globose, large, in diameter, and hold about 200 seeds. The cones disintegrate at maturity to release the long nut-like seeds.


title: Araucaria araucana

text: The tree’s native habitat is the lower slopes of the Chilean and Argentine south-central Andes, typically above . Juvenile trees exhibit a broadly pyramidal or conical habit which naturally develops into the distinctive umbrella form of mature specimens as the tree ages. It prefers well-drained, slightly acidic, volcanic soil, but will tolerate almost any soil type provided it drains well.


title: Araucaria araucana

text: "Araucaria araucana" is a masting species, and rodents are important consumers and dispersers of its seeds. The long-haired grass mouse, "Abrothrix longipilis", is the most important animal responsible for dispersing the seeds of "A.araucana". This rodent buries seeds whole in locations favorable for seed germination, unlike other animals.


title: Araucaria araucana

text: Logging, long a major threat, was finally banned in 1990. Large fires burned thousands of acres of Araucaria forest in 2001–2002, and areas of national parks have also burned, destroying trees over 1300 years old. Overgrazing and invasive trees are also threats. Extensive human harvesting of piñones (Araucaria seeds) can prevent new trees from growing. A Global Trees Campaign project that planted 2000 trees found a 90percent 10-year survival rate.


title: Araucaria araucana

text: "Araucaria araucana" is a popular garden tree, planted for the unusual effect of its thick, "reptilian" branches with very symmetrical appearance. It prefers temperate climates with abundant rainfall, tolerating temperatures down to about . It is far and away the hardiest member of its genus, and can grow well in western and central Europe (north to the Faroe Islands and Smøla in western Norway), the west coast of North America (north to Baranof Island in Alaska), and locally on the east coast, as far north as Long Island, and in New Zealand,southeastern Australia and south east Ireland. It is tolerant of coastal salt spray, but does not tolerate exposure to pollution.


title: Araucaria araucana

text: Its piñones, or seeds, are edible, similar to large pine nuts, and are harvested by indigenous peoples in Argentina and Chile. The tree has some potential to be a food crop in other areas in the future, thriving in climates with cool oceanic summers, e.g., western Scotland, where other nut crops do not grow well. A group of six female trees with one male for pollination could yield several thousand seeds per year. Since the cones drop, harvesting is easy. The tree, however, does not yield seeds until it is around 30 to 40 years old, which discourages investment in planting orchards (although yields at maturity can be immense); once established, individuals can achieve ages beyond 1,000 years. Pest losses to rodents and feral "Sus scrofa" limits the yields for human consumption and forage fattening of livestock by "A. araucana" mast. "A. araucana" has a high degree of inter-year variability in mast volume, and this variation is synchronous within a given area. This evolved to take advantage of predator satiety.


title: Araucaria araucana

text: Once valued because of its long, straight trunk, its current rarity and vulnerable status mean its wood is now rarely used; it is also sacred to some members of the Mapuche Native American tribe. Before the tree became protected by law in 1971, lumber mills in Araucanía Region specialized in Chilean pine.


title: Araucaria araucana

text: The species is protected under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) meaning international trade (including in parts and derivatives) is regulated by the CITES permitting system and commercial trade in wild sourced specimens is prohibited.


title: Araucaria araucana

text: First identified by Europeans in Chile in the 1780s, it was named "Pinus araucana" by Molina in 1782. In 1789, de Jussieu erected a new genus called "Araucaria" based on the species, and in 1797, Pavón published a new description of the species which he called "Araucaria imbricata" (an illegitimate name, as it did not use Molina's older species epithet). Finally, in 1873, after several further redescriptions, Koch published the combination "Araucaria araucana", validating Molina's species name. The name "araucana" is derived from the native Araucanians who used the nuts (seeds) of the tree in Chile. A group of Araucanians living in the Andes, the Pehuenches, owe their name to their diet based on the harvesting of the "A. araucaria" seeds. "Pehuen" means "Araucaria" and "che" means people in Mapudungun.


title: Araucaria araucana

text: The origin of the popular English language name "monkey puzzle" derives from its early cultivation in Britain in about 1850, when the species was still very rare in gardens and not widely known. Sir William Molesworth, the owner of a young specimen at Pencarrow garden near Bodmin in Cornwall, was showing it to a group of friends, when one of them – the noted barrister and Benthamist Charles Austin – remarked, "It would puzzle a monkey to climb that". As the species had no existing popular name, first "monkey puzzler", then "monkey puzzle" stuck.


title: Araucaria araucana

text: The nearest extant relative is "Araucaria angustifolia", a South American "Araucaria" from Brazil which differs in the width of the leaves. Members of other sections of the genus "Araucaria" occur in Pacific Islands and in Australia, and include "Araucaria cunninghamii", hoop pine, "Araucaria heterophylla", the Norfolk Island pine and "Araucaria bidwillii", bunya pine.


title: Araucaria araucana

text: The recently found 'Wollemi pine', "Wollemia", discovered in southeast Australia, is classed in the plant family Araucariaceae. Their common ancestry dates to a time when Australia, Antarctica, and South America were linked by land – all three continents were once part of the supercontinent known as Gondwana.


title: C+C Music Factory

text: C+C Music Factory was an American musical group formed in 1989 by David Cole and Robert Clivillés. The group is best known for their five hit singles: "Gonna Make You Sweat (Everybody Dance Now)", "Here We Go (Let's Rock & Roll)", "Things That Make You Go Hmmm...", "Just a Touch of Love", and "Keep It Comin'". The band stopped recording in 1996, following Cole's death. In 2010, C+C Music Factory reformed with Eric Kupper replacing Cole. Original member Freedom Williams acquired trademark rights to the name in 2003 and still tours under that moniker.


title: C+C Music Factory

text: C+C Music Factory have earned 35 music industry awards, including five "Billboard" Music Awards, five American Music Awards, and two MTV Video Music Awards. In December 2016, "Billboard" magazine ranked them as the 44th most successful dance artist of all time.


title: C+C Music Factory

text: David Cole and Robert Clivillés became friends when they both performed at the Better Days club (Clivillés as DJ and Cole as keyboardist) in the late 1980s. In 1987, Clivillés and Cole formed a short-lived house music group called 2 Puerto Ricans, a Blackman and a Dominican. The group also included David Morales (who, like Clivillés, was a resident DJ at Better Days) and Chep Nuñez. They released two minor hit singles, "Do It Properly" (1987) and "So Many Ways (Do It Properly Part II)" (1988). In 1989, they released their final single, "Scandalous", before disbanding.


title: C+C Music Factory

text: Following the breakup of their previous group, Clivillés and Cole continued to record music together under the name The 28th Street Crew. In mid-1989, the duo released an album titled "I Need a Rhythm". The album's title track and lead single, peaked at number three on "Billboard's" Dance chart. In September 1989, female group Seduction released their debut album "Nothing Matters Without Love", which was entirely produced by Clivillés and Cole. Under the brief management of Clivillés and Cole, the group's album became certified gold-status in the United States.


title: C+C Music Factory

text: In 1989, Clivillés and Cole formed a new group known as C+C Music Factory. The group included Clivillés and Cole, in addition to rapper Freedom Williams and Liberian model-turned-singer Zelma Davis. In December 1990, C+C Music Factory released their debut album "Gonna Make You Sweat", which peaked at number two on "Billboard's" Top 200 Albums chart. The album's lead single, "Gonna Make You Sweat (Everybody Dance Now)", which featured rap vocals by Freedom Williams and uncredited lead vocals by Martha Wash, became an international hit and peaked at number one on "Billboard"'s Hot 100. The single went on to sell over a million copies in the United States, becoming certified platinum-status. Additionally, the single became number-one in five other countries. The success of the single also bolstered its parent album's sales, helping it achieve multi-platinum status for sales exceeding five million copies in the United States.


title: C+C Music Factory

text: In 1991, the group released two top-ten singles, "Here We Go (Let's Rock & Roll)" and "Things That Make You Go Hmmm..." (inspired by a phrase uttered periodically by late-night talk show host Arsenio Hall), both of which became certified gold-status in the United States. In August 1991, the album's final single, "Just a Touch of Love", was released and earned the group their fourth number-one dance hit. The song was also featured on the soundtrack of the musical comedy film "Sister Act". In the same year, C+C Music Factory embarked on their first international tour. During certain legs of the tour, Deborah Cooper, a backing vocalist from their album, was hired as a lead vocalist for specific concert venues as Zelma Davis was awaiting green card clearance. In 1992, the group released the single "Keep It Comin' (Dance Till You Can't Dance No More)", featuring Cooper and rapper Q-Unique on vocals. The single became their fifth song to top the "Billboard" dance chart. The song was also featured on the soundtrack of the comedy horror film "Buffy the Vampire Slayer". By the end of 1992, the group had earned a total of four American Music Awards, including an award for "Favorite Pop/Rock Band/Duo/Group".


title: C+C Music Factory

text: In 1994, C+C Music Factory experienced a lineup change. Wash, who had just settled a lawsuit with the group, was asked to join as a full-time vocalist. Williams left the group to pursue a solo career and was replaced by the vocal trio Trilogy. In August 1994, the group released their second album, titled "Anything Goes!", which performed poorly on the Billboard's Top 200 Albums chart. The lead single, "Do You Wanna Get Funky", which featured vocals from Davis, Wash, and Trilogy, became a success on the Billboard charts and earned the group their sixth number-one dance hit. The album also featured two minor hits, "Take a Toke" and "I Found Love".


title: C+C Music Factory

text: On 24 January 1995, David Cole died from spinal meningitis. Despite the death of one of their core members, C+C Music Factory embarked on another international tour. In November 1995, they released their self-titled third album. The record was released by Robert Clivillés using the C+C Music Factory name, though it did not feature any musical contributions from Cole, Davis, or Wash, but retained the vocal contributions of Trilogy. The album's lead single, "I'll Always Be Around", became their seventh number-one dance hit. The second single, "Don't Stop the Remix", was the group's final release before disbanding.


title: C+C Music Factory

text: In October 1996, Clivillés released an album of new material under the name Robi-Rob's Clubworld. That same year, a compilation album titled "Robi Rob's Clubworld – House of Sound presents Clubworld Shut Up and Dance" was released exclusively in Japan. The album contains past singles and unreleased material recorded by C+C Music Factory.


title: C+C Music Factory

text: C+C Music Factory reformed in 2010 with Eric Kupper replacing Cole. They released the song "Live Your Life", which featured singer Scarlett Santana, in early 2010, on a Bill Coleman's Remixxer Compilation album. In August 2011, Santana released the single "Rain", which was produced by C+C Music Factory (composed of Clivillés and Kupper credited as "CnC Music Factory").


title: C+C Music Factory

text: As of 1995, C+C Music Factory have accumulated a total of seven number-one dance songs. "Gonna Make You Sweat (Everybody Dance Now)" was included in the top-ten VH1's "100 Greatest Dance Songs".


title: C+C Music Factory

text: In 2003, Freedom Williams acquired the federal trademark to use the name "C and C Music Factory" for live performances. Williams toured under that name until renewing his trademark to "C & C Music Factory" in 2014. As of 2014, Williams has owned the trademark rights for the name for all related efforts, not just live performances. Founding producer Clivillés has labeled this "the biggest insult in the world".


title: C+C Music Factory

text: In 1990, The Crew, a group composed of Clivillés, Cole, and Freedom Williams, released the single "Get Dumb! (Free Your Body)". The song featured an unauthorized sample of Boyd Jarvis' 1983 song "The Music Got Me". Jarvis filed a lawsuit against Cole and Clivillés as well as A&M Records. The court ruled in favor of Jarvis.


title: C+C Music Factory

text: Following the release of "Gonna Make You Sweat (Everybody Dance Now)" in November 1990, C+C Music Factory was hit with a lawsuit by Martha Wash, whose vocals were uncredited on the chorus. The song used an edited compilation of vocal parts that Wash recorded in June 1990 for an unrelated demo tape. After discovering that the group was using Zelma Davis in the music video, Wash attempted to negotiate with Clivillés and Cole for sleeve credits and royalties, which ultimately proved unsuccessful. On 11 December 1991, Wash filed a lawsuit in the Los Angeles Superior Court against Robert Clivillés and David Cole, charging the producers and their record company, Sony Music Entertainment, with fraud, deceptive packaging, and commercial appropriation. The case was eventually settled in 1994 and as a result of the settlement, Sony made an unprecedented request to MTV to add a disclaimer that credited Wash for vocals and Zelma Davis (who lip-synched Wash's vocals in the official music video) for "visualization" to the "Gonna Make You Sweat" music video.


title: Wolt

text: Wolt is a Finnish technology company known for its delivery platform for food and merchandise. On Wolt's apps (iOS and Android) or website, customers can order food and other items from the platform's restaurant and merchant partners, and either pick up their order or have it delivered by the platform's courier partners.


title: Wolt

text: Wolt was founded in 2014 by 6 founders, including Miki Kuusi, the former CEO of Slush and CEO of Wolt. It is headquartered in Helsinki, Finland.


title: Wolt

text: As of November 2022, Wolt operates in 23 countries and over 180 cities. Wolt has over 45,000 merchant partners, 90,000 courier partners and 12 million registered customers (June 2021 figures).


title: Wolt

text: Wolt has raised $856M in funding from investors. Wolt has over 4,000 employees across its offices in 23 countries.


title: Wolt

text: Wolt was ranked second in the 2020 edition of the FT:1000 Europe's Fastest Growing Companies 2020 published by the "Financial Times".


title: Wolt

text: In November 2021, it was announced that Wolt was being merged into DoorDash through an exchange of shares, giving Wolt shareholders a minority of shares in DoorDash for a deal worth US$8.1 billion. In June 2022, DoorDash completed the takeover.


title: 1986 FIFA World Cup squads

text: Note that this squad is numbered alphabetically by surname, unlike traditional numbering systems where the goalkeeper has shirt number 1 and so forth. Exceptions were Daniel Passarella, Diego Maradona and Jorge Valdano, who were given their favoured #6, #10 and #11 shirts.


title: 1986 FIFA World Cup squads

text: Note that this squad is numbered alphabetically by surname within each positional group, and the goalkeepers are assigned the traditional French goalkeepers' shirts 1, 21 and 22 alphabetically. Exceptions are Platini and Giresse who are given their favoured 10 and 12 shirts.


title: 1986 FIFA World Cup squads

text: Each national team had to submit a squad of 22 players. All the teams included 3 goalkeepers, except Bulgaria and South Korea who only called two.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: Abdominal obesity, also known as central obesity and truncal obesity, is a condition when excessive visceral fat around the stomach and abdomen has built up to the extent that it is likely to have a negative impact on health. Abdominal obesity has been strongly linked to cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer's disease, and other metabolic and vascular diseases.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: Visceral and central abdominal fat and waist circumference show a strong association with type 2 diabetes.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: Visceral fat, also known as organ fat or "intra-abdominal fat", is located inside the peritoneal cavity, packed in between internal organs and torso, as opposed to subcutaneous fat, which is found underneath the skin, and intramuscular fat, which is found interspersed in skeletal muscle. Visceral fat is composed of several adipose depots including mesenteric, epididymal white adipose tissue (EWAT), and perirenal fat. An excess of adipose visceral fat is known as central obesity, the "pot belly" or "beer belly" effect, in which the abdomen protrudes excessively. This body type is also known as "apple shaped", as opposed to "pear shaped" in which fat is deposited on the hips and buttocks.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: Researchers first started to focus on abdominal obesity in the 1980s when they realized it had an important connection to cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and dyslipidemia. Abdominal obesity was more closely related with metabolic dysfunctions connected with cardiovascular disease than was general obesity. In the late 1980s and early 1990s insightful and powerful imaging techniques were discovered that would further help advance the understanding of the health risks associated with body fat accumulation. Techniques such as computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging made it possible to categorize mass of adipose tissue located at the abdominal level into intra-abdominal fat and subcutaneous fat.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: Abdominal obesity is typically associated with a statistically higher risk of heart disease, hypertension, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes (see below). With an increase in the waist to hip ratio and overall waist circumference the risk of death increases as well. Metabolic syndrome is associated with abdominal obesity, blood lipid disorders, inflammation, insulin resistance, full-blown diabetes, and increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease. It is now generally believed that intra-abdominal fat is the depot that conveys the biggest health risk.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: Recent validation has concluded that total and regional body volume estimates correlate positively and significantly with biomarkers of cardiovascular risk and BVI calculations correlate significantly with all biomarkers of cardio-vascular risk.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: There are numerous theories as to the exact cause and mechanism in type 2 diabetes. Central obesity is known to predispose individuals for insulin resistance. Abdominal fat is especially active hormonally, secreting a group of hormones called adipokines that may possibly impair glucose tolerance. But adiponectin, an anti-inflammatory adipokine, which is found in lower concentration in obese and diabetic individuals has shown to be beneficial and protective in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).


title: Abdominal obesity

text: Insulin resistance is a major feature of diabetes mellitus type 2, and central obesity is correlated with both insulin resistance and T2DM itself. Increased adiposity (obesity) raises serum resistin levels, which in turn directly correlate to insulin resistance. Studies have also confirmed a direct correlation between resistin levels and T2DM. And it is waistline adipose tissue (central obesity) which seems to be the foremost type of fat deposits contributing to rising levels of serum resistin. Conversely, serum resistin levels have been found to "decline" with decreased adiposity following medical treatment.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: Developing asthma due to abdominal obesity is also a main concern. As a result of breathing at low lung volume, the muscles are tighter and the airway is narrower. Obesity causes decreased tidal volumes due to reduced in chest expansion that is caused both by the weight on the chest itself and the effect of abdominal obesity on flattening the diaphragms. It is commonly seen that people who are obese breathe quickly and often, while inhaling small volumes of air. People with obesity are also more likely to be hospitalized for asthma. A study has stated that 75% of patients treated for asthma in the emergency room were either overweight or obese.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: Based on studies, it is evident that obesity has a strong association with vascular and metabolic disease which could potentially be linked to Alzheimer's disease. Recent studies have also shown an association between mid-life obesity and dementia, but the relationship between later life obesity and dementia is less clear. A study by Debette et al. (2010) examining over 700 adults found evidence to suggest higher volumes of visceral fat, regardless of overall weight, were associated with smaller brain volumes and increased risk of dementia. Alzheimer's disease and abdominal obesity has a strong correlation and with metabolic factors added in, the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease was even higher. Based on logistic regression analyses, it was found that obesity was associated with an almost 10-fold increase risk of Alzheimer's disease.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: Central obesity can be a feature of lipodystrophies, a group of diseases that is either inherited, or due to secondary causes (often protease inhibitors, a group of medications against AIDS). Central obesity is a symptom of Cushing's syndrome and is also common in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Central obesity is associated with glucose intolerance and dyslipidemia. Once dyslipidemia becomes a severe problem, an individual's abdominal cavity would generate elevated free fatty acid flux to the liver. The effect of abdominal adiposity occurs not just in those who are obese, but also affects people who are non-obese and it also contributes to insulin sensitivity.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: Ghroubi et al. (2007) examined whether abdominal circumference is a more reliable indicator than BMI of the presence of knee osteoarthritis in obese patients. They found that it actually appears to be a factor linked with the presence of knee pain as well as osteoarthritis in obese study subjects. Ghroubi et al. (2007) concluded that a high abdominal circumference is associated with great functional repercussion.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: The currently prevalent belief is that the immediate cause of obesity is net energy imbalance—the organism consumes more usable calories than it expends, wastes, or discards through elimination. Some studies indicate that visceral adiposity, together with lipid dysregulation and decreased insulin sensitivity, is related to the excessive consumption of fructose. Some evidence shows that in regards to juveniles, when free fructose is present as children's fat cells mature, it makes more of these cells mature into fat cells in the abdominal region. It also caused both visceral fat and subcutaneous fat to be less sensitive to insulin. These effects were not attenuated when compared to similar glucose consumption.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: Intake of trans fat from industrial oils has been associated with increased abdominal obesity in men and increased weight and waist circumference in women. These associations were not attenuated when fat intake and calorie intake was accounted for. Greater meat (processed meat, red meat, and poultry) consumption has also been positively associated with greater weight gain, and specifically abdominal obesity, even when accounting for calories. Conversely, studies suggest that oily fish consumption is negatively associated with total body fat and abdominal fat distribution even when body mass remains constant. Similarly, increased soy protein consumption is correlated with lower amounts of abdominal fat in postmenopausal women even when calorie consumption is controlled.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: Numerous large studies have demonstrated that ultraprocessed food(UPF) has a positive dose-dependent relationship with both abdominal obesity and general obesity in both men and women. Consuming a diet rich in unprocessed food and minimally processed food is linked with lower obesity risk, lower waist circumference and less chronic disease. These findings are consistent among American, Canadian, Latin American, Australian, British, French, Spaniard, Swedish, South Korean, Chinese and Sub-Saharan African populations.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: Obesity plays an important role in the impairment of lipid and carbohydrate metabolism shown in high-carbohydrate diets. It has also been shown that quality protein intake during a 24-hour period and the number of times the essential amino acid threshold of approximately 10 g has been achieved is inversely related to the percentage of central abdominal fat. Quality protein uptake is defined as the ratio of essential amino acids to daily dietary protein.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: Visceral fat cells will release their metabolic by-products in the portal circulation, where the blood leads straight to the liver. Thus, the excess of triglycerides and fatty acids created by the visceral fat cells will go into the liver and accumulate there. In the liver, most of it will be stored as fat. This concept is known as 'lipotoxicity'.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: A study has shown that alcohol consumption is directly associated with waist circumference and with a higher risk of abdominal obesity in men, but not in women. After controlling for energy under-reporting, which have slightly attenuated these associations, it was observed that increasing alcohol consumption significantly increased the risk of exceeding recommended energy intakes in male participants – but not in the small number of female participants (2.13%) with elevated alcohol consumption, even after establishing a lower number of drinks per day to characterize women as consuming a high quantity of alcohol. Further research is needed to determine whether a significant relationship between alcohol consumption and abdominal obesity exists among women who consume higher amounts of alcohol.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: A systemic review and meta-analysis failed to find data pointing towards a dose-dependent relationship between beer intake and general obesity or abdominal obesity at low or moderate intake levels (under ~500 mL/day). However, high beer intake (above ~4 L/wk) appeared to be associated with a higher degree of abdominal obesity specifically, particularly among men.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: The prevalence of abdominal obesity is increasing in Western populations, possibly due to a combination of low physical activity and high-calorie diets, and also in developing countries, where it is associated with the urbanization of populations.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: Other environmental factors, such as maternal smoking, estrogenic compounds in the diet, and endocrine-disrupting chemicals may be important also.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: Hypercortisolism, such as in Cushing's syndrome, also leads to central obesity. Many prescription drugs, such as dexamethasone and other steroids, can also have side effects resulting in central obesity, especially in the presence of elevated insulin levels.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: In those with a body mass index (BMI) under 35, intra-abdominal body fat is related to negative health outcomes independent of total body fat. Intra-abdominal or visceral fat has a particularly strong correlation with cardiovascular disease.


title: Abdominal obesity

text: BMI and waist measurements are well recognized ways to characterize obesity. However, waist measurements are not as accurate as BMI measurements. Waist measurement ("e.g.", for BFP standard) is more prone to errors than measuring height and weight ("e.g.", for BMI standard). BMI will illustrate the best estimate of one's total body fatness, while waist measurement gives an estimate of visceral fat and risk of obesity-related disease. It is recommended to use both methods of measurements.