title: Refrigeration

text: People were not only consuming these perishables because it became easier for they themselves to store them, but because the innovations in refrigerated transportation and storage led to less spoilage and waste, thereby driving the prices of these products down. Refrigeration accounts for at least 5.1% of the increase in adult stature (in the US) through improved nutrition, and when the indirect effects associated with improvements in the quality of nutrients and the reduction in illness is additionally factored in, the overall impact becomes considerably larger. Recent studies have also shown a negative relationship between the number of refrigerators in a household and the rate of gastric cancer mortality.


title: Refrigeration

text: Probably the most widely used current applications of refrigeration are for air conditioning of private homes and public buildings, and refrigerating foodstuffs in homes, restaurants and large storage warehouses. The use of refrigerators and walk-in coolers and freezers in kitchens, factories and warehouses for storing and processing fruits and vegetables has allowed adding fresh salads to the modern diet year round, and storing fish and meats safely for long periods.


title: Refrigeration

text: In commerce and manufacturing, there are many uses for refrigeration. Refrigeration is used to liquefy gases – oxygen, nitrogen, propane, and methane, for example. In compressed air purification, it is used to condense water vapor from compressed air to reduce its moisture content. In oil refineries, chemical plants, and petrochemical plants, refrigeration is used to maintain certain processes at their needed low temperatures (for example, in alkylation of butenes and butane to produce a high-octane gasoline component). Metal workers use refrigeration to temper steel and cutlery. When transporting temperature-sensitive foodstuffs and other materials by trucks, trains, airplanes and seagoing vessels, refrigeration is a necessity.


title: Refrigeration

text: Dairy products are constantly in need of refrigeration, and it was only discovered in the past few decades that eggs needed to be refrigerated during shipment rather than waiting to be refrigerated after arrival at the grocery store. Meats, poultry and fish all must be kept in climate-controlled environments before being sold. Refrigeration also helps keep fruits and vegetables edible longer.


title: Refrigeration

text: One of the most influential uses of refrigeration was in the development of the sushi/sashimi industry in Japan. Before the discovery of refrigeration, many sushi connoisseurs were at risk of contracting diseases. The dangers of unrefrigerated sashimi were not brought to light for decades due to the lack of research and healthcare distribution across rural Japan. Around mid-century, the Zojirushi corporation, based in Kyoto, made breakthroughs in refrigerator designs, making refrigerators cheaper and more accessible for restaurant proprietors and the general public.


title: Refrigeration

text: Methods of refrigeration can be classified as "non-cyclic", "cyclic", "thermoelectric" and "magnetic".


title: Refrigeration

text: This refrigeration method cools a contained area by melting ice, or by sublimating dry ice. Perhaps the simplest example of this is a portable cooler, where items are put in it, then ice is poured over the top. Regular ice can maintain temperatures near, but not below the freezing point, unless salt is used to cool the ice down further (as in a traditional ice-cream maker). Dry ice can reliably bring the temperature well below water freezing point.


title: Refrigeration

text: This consists of a refrigeration cycle, where heat is removed from a low-temperature space or source and rejected to a high-temperature sink with the help of external work, and its inverse, the thermodynamic power cycle. In the power cycle, heat is supplied from a high-temperature source to the engine, part of the heat being used to produce work and the rest being rejected to a low-temperature sink. This satisfies the second law of thermodynamics.


title: Refrigeration

text: A "refrigeration cycle" describes the changes that take place in the refrigerant as it alternately absorbs and rejects heat as it circulates through a refrigerator. It is also applied to heating, ventilation, and air conditioning HVACR work, when describing the "process" of refrigerant flow through an HVACR unit, whether it is a packaged or split system.


title: Refrigeration

text: Heat naturally flows from hot to cold. Work is applied to cool a living space or storage volume by pumping heat from a lower temperature heat source into a higher temperature heat sink. Insulation is used to reduce the work and energy needed to achieve and maintain a lower temperature in the cooled space. The operating principle of the refrigeration cycle was described mathematically by Sadi Carnot in 1824 as a heat engine.


title: Refrigeration

text: The most common types of refrigeration systems use the reverse-Rankine vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, although absorption heat pumps are used in a minority of applications.


title: Refrigeration

text: The vapor-compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators as well as in many large commercial and industrial refrigeration systems. Figure 1 provides a schematic diagram of the components of a typical vapor-compression refrigeration system.


title: Refrigeration

text: The thermodynamics of the cycle can be analyzed on a diagram as shown in Figure 2. In this cycle, a circulating refrigerant such as a low boiling hydrocarbon or hydrofluorocarbons enters the compressor as a vapour. From point 1 to point 2, the vapor is compressed at constant entropy and exits the compressor as a vapor at a higher temperature, but still below the vapor pressure at that temperature. From point 2 to point 3 and on to point 4, the vapor travels through the condenser which cools the vapour until it starts condensing, and then condenses the vapor into a liquid by removing additional heat at constant pressure and temperature. Between points 4 and 5, the liquid refrigerant goes through the expansion valve (also called a throttle valve) where its pressure abruptly decreases, causing flash evaporation and auto-refrigeration of, typically, less than half of the liquid.


title: Refrigeration

text: That results in a mixture of liquid and vapour at a lower temperature and pressure as shown at point 5. The cold liquid-vapor mixture then travels through the evaporator coil or tubes and is completely vaporized by cooling the warm air (from the space being refrigerated) being blown by a fan across the evaporator coil or tubes. The resulting refrigerant vapour returns to the compressor inlet at point 1 to complete the thermodynamic cycle.


title: Refrigeration

text: The above discussion is based on the ideal vapour-compression refrigeration cycle, and does not take into account real-world effects like frictional pressure drop in the system, slight thermodynamic irreversibility during the compression of the refrigerant vapor, or non-ideal gas behavior, if any. Vapor compression refrigerators can be arranged in two stages in cascade refrigeration systems, with the second stage cooling the condenser of the first stage. This can be used for achieving very low temperatures.


title: Refrigeration

text: More information about the design and performance of vapor-compression refrigeration systems is available in the classic "Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook".


title: Refrigeration

text: In the early years of the twentieth century, the vapor absorption cycle using water-ammonia systems or LiBr-water was popular and widely used. After the development of the vapor compression cycle, the vapor absorption cycle lost much of its importance because of its low coefficient of performance (about one fifth of that of the vapor compression cycle). Today, the vapor absorption cycle is used mainly where fuel for heating is available but electricity is not, such as in recreational vehicles that carry LP gas. It is also used in industrial environments where plentiful waste heat overcomes its inefficiency.


title: Refrigeration

text: The absorption cycle is similar to the compression cycle, except for the method of raising the pressure of the refrigerant vapor. In the absorption system, the compressor is replaced by an absorber which dissolves the refrigerant in a suitable liquid, a liquid pump which raises the pressure and a generator which, on heat addition, drives off the refrigerant vapor from the high-pressure liquid. Some work is needed by the liquid pump but, for a given quantity of refrigerant, it is much smaller than needed by the compressor in the vapor compression cycle. In an absorption refrigerator, a suitable combination of refrigerant and absorbent is used. The most common combinations are ammonia (refrigerant) with water (absorbent), and water (refrigerant) with lithium bromide (absorbent).


title: Refrigeration

text: The main difference with absorption cycle, is that in adsorption cycle, the refrigerant (adsorbate) could be ammonia, water, methanol, etc., while the adsorbent is a solid, such as silica gel, activated carbon, or zeolite, unlike in the absorption cycle where absorbent is liquid.


title: Refrigeration

text: The reason adsorption refrigeration technology has been extensively researched in recent 30 years lies in that the operation of an adsorption refrigeration system is often noiseless, non-corrosive and environment friendly.


title: Refrigeration

text: When the working fluid is a gas that is compressed and expanded but doesn't change phase, the refrigeration cycle is called a "gas cycle". Air is most often this working fluid. As there is no condensation and evaporation intended in a gas cycle, components corresponding to the condenser and evaporator in a vapor compression cycle are the hot and cold gas-to-gas heat exchangers in gas cycles.


title: Refrigeration

text: The gas cycle is less efficient than the vapor compression cycle because the gas cycle works on the reverse Brayton cycle instead of the reverse Rankine cycle. As such, the working fluid does not receive and reject heat at constant temperature. In the gas cycle, the refrigeration effect is equal to the product of the specific heat of the gas and the rise in temperature of the gas in the low temperature side. Therefore, for the same cooling load, a gas refrigeration cycle needs a large mass flow rate and is bulky.


title: Refrigeration

text: Because of their lower efficiency and larger bulk, "air cycle" coolers are not often used nowadays in terrestrial cooling devices. However, the air cycle machine is very common on gas turbine-powered jet aircraft as cooling and ventilation units, because compressed air is readily available from the engines' compressor sections. Such units also serve the purpose of pressurizing the aircraft.


title: Refrigeration

text: Thermoelectric cooling uses the Peltier effect to create a heat flux between the junction of two types of material. This effect is commonly used in camping and portable coolers and for cooling electronic components and small instruments. Peltier coolers are often used where a traditional vapor-compression cycle refrigerator would be impractical or take up too much space, and in cooled image sensors as an easy, compact and lightweight, if inefficient, way to achieve very low temperatures, using two or more stage peltier coolers arranged in a cascade refrigeration configuration, meaning that two or more Peltier elements are stacked on top of each other, with each stage being larger than the one before it, in order to extract more heat and waste heat generated by the previous stages. Peltier cooling has a low COP (efficiency) when compared with that of the vapor-compression cycle, so it emits more waste heat (heat generated by the Peltier element or cooling mechanism) and consumes more power for a given cooling capacity.


title: Refrigeration

text: Magnetic refrigeration, or adiabatic demagnetization, is a cooling technology based on the magnetocaloric effect, an intrinsic property of magnetic solids. The refrigerant is often a paramagnetic salt, such as cerium magnesium nitrate. The active magnetic dipoles in this case are those of the electron shells of the paramagnetic atoms.


title: Refrigeration

text: A strong magnetic field is applied to the refrigerant, forcing its various magnetic dipoles to align and putting these degrees of freedom of the refrigerant into a state of lowered entropy. A heat sink then absorbs the heat released by the refrigerant due to its loss of entropy. Thermal contact with the heat sink is then broken so that the system is insulated, and the magnetic field is switched off. This increases the heat capacity of the refrigerant, thus decreasing its temperature below the temperature of the heat sink.


title: Refrigeration

text: Because few materials exhibit the needed properties at room temperature, applications have so far been limited to cryogenics and research.


title: Refrigeration

text: Other methods of refrigeration include the air cycle machine used in aircraft; the vortex tube used for spot cooling, when compressed air is available; and thermoacoustic refrigeration using sound waves in a pressurized gas to drive heat transfer and heat exchange; steam jet cooling popular in the early 1930s for air conditioning large buildings; thermoelastic cooling using a smart metal alloy stretching and relaxing. Many Stirling cycle heat engines can be run backwards to act as a refrigerator, and therefore these engines have a niche use in cryogenics. In addition, there are other types of cryocoolers such as Gifford-McMahon coolers, Joule-Thomson coolers, pulse-tube refrigerators and, for temperatures between 2 mK and 500 mK, dilution refrigerators.


title: Refrigeration

text: Another potential solid-state refrigeration technique and a relatively new area of study comes from a special property of super elastic materials. These materials undergo a temperature change when experiencing an applied mechanical stress (called the elastocaloric effect). Since super elastic materials deform reversibly at high strains, the material experiences a flattened elastic region in its stress-strain curve caused by a resulting phase transformation from an austenitic to a martensitic crystal phase.


title: Refrigeration

text: When a super elastic material experiences a stress in the austenitic phase, it undergoes an exothermic phase transformation to the martensitic phase, which causes the material to heat up. Removing the stress reverses the process, restores the material to its austenitic phase, and absorbs heat from the surroundings cooling down the material.


title: Refrigeration

text: The most appealing part of this research is how potentially energy efficient and environmentally friendly this cooling technology is. The different materials used, commonly shape-memory alloys, provide a non-toxic source of emission free refrigeration. The most commonly studied materials studied are shape-memory alloys, like nitinol and Cu-Zn-Al. Nitinol is of the more promising alloys with output heat at about 66 J/cm and a temperature change of about 16–20 K. Due to the difficulty in manufacturing some of the shape memory alloys, alternative materials like natural rubber have been studied. Even though rubber may not give off as much heat per volume (12 J/cm ) as the shape memory alloys, it still generates a comparable temperature change of about 12 K and operates at a suitable temperature range, low stresses, and low cost.


title: Refrigeration

text: The main challenge however comes from potential energy losses in the form of hysteresis, often associated with this process. Since most of these losses comes from incompatibilities between the two phases, proper alloy tuning is necessary to reduce losses and increase reversibility and efficiency. Balancing the transformation strain of the material with the energy losses enables a large elastocaloric effect to occur and potentially a new alternative for refrigeration.


title: Refrigeration

text: The Fridge Gate method is a theoretical application of using a single logic gate to drive a refrigerator in the most energy efficient way possible without violating the laws of thermodynamics. It operates on the fact that there are two energy states in which a particle can exist: the ground state and the excited state. The excited state carries a little more energy than the ground state, small enough so that the transition occurs with high probability. There are three components or particle types associated with the fridge gate. The first is on the interior of the fridge, the second on the outside and the third is connected to a power supply which heats up every so often that it can reach the E state and replenish the source. In the cooling step on the inside of the fridge, the g state particle absorbs energy from ambient particles, cooling them, and itself jumping to the e state. In the second step, on the outside of the fridge where the particles are also at an e state, the particle falls to the g state, releasing energy and heating the outside particles. In the third and final step, the power supply moves a particle at the e state, and when it falls to the g state it induces an energy-neutral swap where the interior e particle is replaced by a new g particle, restarting the cycle.


title: Refrigeration

text: When combining a passive daytime radiative cooling system with thermal insulation and evaporative cooling, one study found a 300% increase in ambient cooling power when compared to a stand-alone radiative cooling surface, which could extend the shelf life of food by 40% in humid climates and 200% in desert climates without refrigeration. The system's evaporative cooling layer would require water "re-charges" every 10 days to a month in humid areas and every 4 days in hot and dry areas.


title: Refrigeration

text: The refrigeration capacity of a refrigeration system is the product of the evaporators’ enthalpy rise and the evaporators’ mass flow rate. The measured capacity of refrigeration is often dimensioned in the unit of kW or BTU/h. Domestic and commercial refrigerators may be rated in kJ/s, or Btu/h of cooling. For commercial and industrial refrigeration systems, the kilowatt (kW) is the basic unit of refrigeration, except in North America, where both ton of refrigeration and BTU/h are used.


title: Refrigeration

text: A refrigeration system's coefficient of performance (CoP) is very important in determining a system's overall efficiency. It is defined as refrigeration capacity in kW divided by the energy input in kW. While CoP is a very simple measure of performance, it is typically not used for industrial refrigeration in North America. Owners and manufacturers of these systems typically use performance factor (PF). A system's PF is defined as a system's energy input in horsepower divided by its refrigeration capacity in TR. Both CoP and PF can be applied to either the entire system or to system components. For example, an individual compressor can be rated by comparing the energy needed to run the compressor versus the expected refrigeration capacity based on inlet volume flow rate. It is important to note that both CoP and PF for a refrigeration system are only defined at specific operating conditions, including temperatures and thermal loads. Moving away from the specified operating conditions can dramatically change a system's performance.


title: Refrigeration

text: Air conditioning systems used in residential application typically use SEER (Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio)for the energy performance rating. Air conditioning systems for commercial application often use EER (Energy Efficiency Ratio) and IEER (Integrated Energy Efficiency Ratio) for the energy efficiency performance rating.


title: Wieliczka Salt Mine

text: From Neolithic times, sodium chloride (table salt) was produced there from the upwelling brine. The Wieliczka salt mine, excavated from the 13th century, produced table salt continuously until 2007, as one of the world's oldest operating salt mines. Throughout its history, the royal salt mine was operated by the "Żupy Krakowskie" (Kraków Salt Mines) company.


title: Wieliczka Salt Mine

text: The Wieliczka Salt Mine is now an official Polish Historic Monument ("Pomnik Historii") and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Its attractions include the shafts and labyrinthine passageways, displays of historic salt-mining technology, an underground lake, four chapels and numerous statues carved by miners out of the rock salt, and more recent sculptures by contemporary artists.


title: Wieliczka Salt Mine

text: The Wieliczka Salt Mine reaches a depth of , and extends via horizontal passages and chambers for over 287 kilometres (178 miles). The rock salt is naturally of varying shades of grey, resembling unpolished granite rather than the white crystalline substance that might be expected.


title: Wieliczka Salt Mine

text: Since the 13th century, brine welling up to the surface had been collected and processed for its sodium chloride (table-salt) content. In this period, wells began to be sunk, and the first shafts to be dug to extract the rock salt. From the late 13th to the early 14th century, the Saltworks Castle was built. Wieliczka is now home to the Kraków Saltworks Museum.


title: Wieliczka Salt Mine

text: King Casimir III the Great (reigned 13331370) contributed greatly to the development of the Wieliczka Salt Mine, granting it many privileges and taking the miners under his care. In 1363 he founded a hospital near the salt mine. It is said that he turned a Poland of wood into a Poland of stone due to the great amount of wood from the neighbouring forests used as scaffolding and supports.


title: Wieliczka Salt Mine

text: Over the period of the mine's operation, many chambers were dug and various technologies were added, such as the Hungarian horse treadmill and the Saxon treadmill for hauling salt to the surface. During World War II, the mine was used by the occupying Germans as an underground facility for war-related manufacturing.


title: Wieliczka Salt Mine

text: The mine features an underground lake, exhibits on the history of salt mining, and a 3.5-kilometre (2.2-mile) visitors' route (less than 2 percent of the mine passages' total length) including statues carved from the rock salt at various times.


title: Wieliczka Salt Mine

text: In 1978 the Wieliczka Salt Mine was placed on the original UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. The mine was on the List of World Heritage in Danger from 1989 to 1998. This was due to the threat of serious damage being done to the sculptures from humidity caused by artificial ventilation introducted in the later 19th century.


title: Wieliczka Salt Mine

text: A legend about Princess Kinga, associated with the Wieliczka mine, tells of a Hungarian princess about to be married to Bolesław V the Chaste, the Prince of Kraków. As part of her dowry, she asked her father, Béla IV of Hungary, for a lump of salt, since salt was prizeworthy in Poland. Her father King Béla took her to a salt mine in Máramaros. She threw her engagement ring from Bolesław in one of the shafts before leaving for Poland. On arriving in Kraków, she asked the miners to dig a deep pit until they come upon a rock. The people found a lump of salt in there and when they split it in two, discovered the princess's ring. Kinga had thus become the patron saint of salt miners in and around the Polish capital.


title: Wieliczka Salt Mine

text: During the Nazi occupation, several thousand Jews were transported from the forced labour camps in Plaszow and Mielec to the Wieliczka mine to work in the underground armament factory set up by the Germans in March and April 1944. The forced labour camp of the mine was established in St. Kinga Park and had about 1,700 prisoners. However, manufacturing never began as the Soviet offensive was nearing. Some of the machines and equipment were disassembled, including an electrical hoisting machine from the Regis Shaft, and transported to Liebenau in the Sudetes mountains. Part of the equipment was returned after the war, in autumn 1945. The Jews were transported to factories in Litomierzyce (Czech Republic) and Linz (Austria).


title: Wieliczka Salt Mine

text: The mine is one of Poland's official national Historic Monuments ("Pomniki historii"), as designated in the first round, 16 September 1994. Its listing is maintained by the National Heritage Board of Poland.


title: Wieliczka Salt Mine

text: In 2010 it was successfully proposed that the nearby historic Bochnia Salt Mine (Poland's oldest salt mine) be added to the list of UNESCO World Heritage sites. The two sister salt mines now appear together in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites as the "Wieliczka and Bochnia Royal Salt Mines". In 2013 the UNESCO World Heritage Site was expanded by the addition of the Żupny Castle.


title: Wieliczka Salt Mine

text: The mine is currently one of Poland's official national Historic Monuments ("Pomniki historii"), whose attractions include dozens of statues and four chapels carved out of the rock salt by the miners. The older sculptures have been supplemented with new carvings made by contemporary artists. About 1.2 million people visit the Wieliczka Salt Mine annually.


title: Wieliczka Salt Mine

text: Notable visitors to this site have included Nicolaus Copernicus, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Alexander von Humboldt, Fryderyk Chopin, Dmitri Mendeleyev, Bolesław Prus, Ignacy Paderewski, Robert Baden-Powell, Jacob Bronowski (who filmed segments of "The Ascent of Man" in the mine), the von Unrug family (a prominent Polish-German royal family), Karol Wojtyła (later, Pope John Paul II), former U.S. President Bill Clinton, and many others.


title: Wieliczka Salt Mine

text: There is a chapel, and a reception room that is used for private functions, including weddings. A chamber has walls carved by miners to resemble wood, as in wooden churches built in early centuries. A wooden staircase provides access to the mine's 64-metre (210-foot) level. A 3-kilometre (1.9-mile) tour features corridors, chapels, statues, and underground lake, underground. An elevator (lift) returns visitors to the surface; the elevator holds 36 persons (nine per car) and takes about 30 seconds to make the trip.


title: Wieliczka Salt Mine

text: The earliest writings about the Wieliczka Salt Mine include a description by Adam Schröter: "Salinarum Vieliciensium incunda ac vera descriptio. Carmine elegiaco..." (1553); augmented edition, "Regni Poloniae Salinarum Vieliciensium descriptio. Carmine elegiaco..." (1564).


title: Wieliczka Salt Mine

text: The Polish journalist and novelist Bolesław Prus described his 1878 visit to the salt mine in a remarkable series of three articles, ""Kartki z podróży (Wieliczka)"" ["Travel Notes (Wieliczka)"], in "Kurier Warszawski" (The Warsaw Courier), 1878, nos. 36–38. The great Prus scholar Zygmunt Szweykowski writes: "The power of the Labyrinth scenes [in Prus' 1895 historical novel, "Pharaoh"] stems, among other things, from the fact that they echo Prus' own experiences when visiting Wieliczka." The Wieliczka Salt Mine indeed helped inspire "Pharaoh". Prus combined his powerful impressions of the salt mine with the description of the ancient Egyptian Labyrinth, in Book II of Herodotus' "Histories", to produce the remarkable scenes found in chapters 56 and 63 of his novel.


title: Wieliczka Salt Mine

text: In 1995, "Preisner's Music", a compilation of film music by Polish composer Zbigniew Preisner, was recorded by "Sinfonia Varsovia" in the Wieliczka mine's chapel. The chapel is often said to have the best acoustics in Europe.


title: Wieliczka Salt Mine

text: The mine has appeared on multiple editions of the reality show "The Amazing Race" including "Velyki Perehony", "HaMerotz LaMillion 2", "The Amazing Race Australia 1", and "The Amazing Race 27".


title: MBS TV

text: JOOY-DTV, virtual channel 4 (UHF digital channel 16), branded as (formerly until 23 July 2011), is the Kansai region key station of the Japan News Network, owned by Mainichi Broadcasting System, Inc.


title: Portrait

text: A portrait is a painting, photograph, sculpture, or other artistic representation of a person, in which the face and its expressions are predominant. The intent is to display the likeness, personality, and even the mood of the person. For this reason, in photography a portrait is generally not a snapshot, but a composed image of a person in a still position. A portrait often shows a person looking directly at the painter or photographer, in order to most successfully engage the subject with the viewer.


title: Portrait

text: Plastered human skulls were reconstructed human skulls that were made in the ancient Levant between 9000 and 6000 BC in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B period. They represent some of the oldest forms of art in the Middle East and demonstrate that the prehistoric population took great care in burying their ancestors below their homes. The skulls denote some of the earliest sculptural examples of portraiture in the history of art.


title: Portrait

text: Most early representations that are clearly intended to show an individual are of rulers, and tend to follow idealizing artistic conventions, rather than the individual features of the subject's body, though when there is no other evidence as to the ruler's appearance the degree of idealization can be hard to assess. Nonetheless, many subjects, such as Akhenaten and some other Egyptian pharaohs, can be recognised by their distinctive features. The 28 surviving rather small statues of Gudea, ruler of Lagash in Sumeria between c. 2144–2124 BC, show a consistent appearance with some individuality, although it is sometimes disputed that these count as portraits.


title: Portrait

text: Some of the earliest surviving painted portraits of people who were not rulers are the Greco-Roman funeral portraits that survived in the dry climate of Egypt's Fayum district. These are almost the only paintings from the classical world that have survived, apart from frescos, though many sculptures and portraits on coins have fared better. Although the appearance of the figures differs considerably, they are considerably idealized, and all show relatively young people, making it uncertain whether they were painted from life.


title: Portrait

text: The art of the portrait flourished in Ancient Greek and especially Roman sculpture, where sitters demanded individualized and realistic portraits, even unflattering ones. During the 4th century, the portrait began to retreat in favor of an idealized symbol of what that person looked like. (Compare the portraits of Roman Emperors Constantine I and Theodosius I at their entries.) In the Europe of the Early Middle Ages representations of individuals are mostly generalized. True portraits of the outward appearance of individuals re-emerged in the late Middle Ages, in tomb monuments, donor portraits, miniatures in illuminated manuscripts and then panel paintings.


title: Portrait

text: Moche culture of Peru was one of the few ancient civilizations which produced portraits. These works accurately represent anatomical features in great detail. The individuals portrayed would have been recognizable without the need for other symbols or a written reference to their names. The individuals portrayed were members of the ruling elite, priests, warriors and even distinguished artisans. They were represented during several stages of their lives. The faces of gods were also depicted. To date, no portraits of women have been found. There is particular emphasis on the representation of the details of headdresses, hairstyles, body adornment and face painting.


title: Portrait

text: One of the best-known portraits in the Western world is Leonardo da Vinci's painting titled "Mona Lisa", which is a painting of Lisa del Giocondo. What has been claimed as the world's oldest known portrait was found in 2006 in the Vilhonneur grotto near Angoulême and is thought to be 27,000 years old.


title: Portrait

text: When the artist creates a portrait of themself, it is called a "self-portrait". Identifiable examples become numerous in the late Middle Ages. But if the definition is extended, the first was by the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten's sculptor Bak, who carved a representation of himself and his wife Taheri c. 1365 BC. However, it seems likely that self-portraits go back to the cave paintings, the earliest representational art, and literature records several classical examples that are now lost.


title: Portrait

text: The official portrait is a photographic production of record and dissemination of important personalities, notably kings, presidents and governors. It is usually decorated with official colors and symbols such as flag, presidential stripes and coat of arms of countries, states or municipalities. There is also connotation as an image of events, products and meetings.


title: Portrait

text: Portrait photography is a popular commercial industry all over the world. Many people enjoy having professionally made "family portraits" to hang in their homes, or special portraits to commemorate certain events, such as graduations or weddings.


title: Portrait

text: Since the dawn of photography, people have made portraits. The popularity of the daguerreotype in the middle of the 19th century was due in large part to the demand for inexpensive portraiture. Studios sprang up in cities around the world, some cranking out more than 500 plates a day. The style of these early works reflected the technical challenges associated with 30-second exposure times and the painterly aesthetic of the time. Subjects were generally seated against plain backgrounds and lit with the soft light of an overhead window and whatever else could be reflected with mirrors.


title: Portrait

text: As photographic techniques developed, an intrepid group of photographers took their talents out of the studio and onto battlefields, across oceans and into remote wilderness. William Shew's "Daguerreotype Saloon", Roger Fenton's "Photographic Van" and Mathew Brady's "What-is-it?" wagon set the standards for making portraits and other photographs in the field.


title: Portrait

text: Some photographers took the technique to other countries. Augustus Washington moved to Monrovia, Liberia from Hartford, Connecticut and created daguerreotype portraits for many political leaders for the country.


title: Portrait

text: In politics, portraits of the leader are often used as a symbol of the state. In most countries, it is common protocol for a portrait of the head of state to appear in important government buildings. Excessive use of a leader's portrait, such as that done of Joseph Stalin, Adolf Hitler, or Mao Zedong, can be indicative of a personality cult.


title: Portrait

text: In literature the term "portrait" refers to a written description or analysis of a person or thing. A written portrait often gives deep insight, and offers an analysis that goes far beyond the superficial. For example, the American author Patricia Cornwell wrote a best-selling 2002 book entitled "Portrait of a Killer" about the personality, background, and possible motivations of Jack the Ripper, as well as the media coverage of his murders, and the subsequent police investigation of his crimes.


title: Portrait

text: However, in literature a portrait of a character is a subtle combination of fact and fiction, exploring the individual psychology of the character in the wider context of their environment. When the subject of the narrative is a historical figure, then the writer is free to create a compelling and dramatic portrait of the person that draws on imaginative invention for verisimilitude. An example is Hilary Mantel's "Wolf Hall" (2009) which, while acknowledging the work of the historian Mary Robertson for background information, imagines an intimate portrait of Thomas Cromwell and his intense relationship with Henry VIII at a critical time in English history. It could be argued that in literature any portrait is a discreet assembly of facts, anecdotes, and author's insights. Plutarch's "Parallel Lives", written in the 2nd century AD, offer a prime example of historical literary portraits, as a source of information about the individuals and their times.


title: Portrait

text: Painted portraits can also play a role in literature. These can be fictional portraits, such as that of Dorian Gray in the eponymous 1891 novel by Oscar Wilde. But sometimes also real portraits feature in literature. An example is the portrait of Richard III that plays a role in Josephine Tey's 1951 novel "The Daughter of Time".


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: The "Nelson" class was a class of two battleships ( and ) of the British Royal Navy, built shortly after, and under the terms of, the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. They were the only British battleships built between the (ordered in 1913) and the , ordered in 1936.


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: The ships were named after famous British admirals: George Brydges Rodney, 1st Baron Rodney, victor of the Battle of Cape St. Vincent and the Battle of the Saintes, and Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, who won the Battles of the Nile and Trafalgar.


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: To comply with the limitations of the Washington Treaty, these ships were of an unusual design with many novel features. They are often referred to as the first treaty battleships. The "Nelson"s were unique in British battleship construction, being the only ships to carry a main armament of nine guns. The most unusual feature however, and one that is immediately noticeable, is that these were all carried forward of the bridge.


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: Commissioned in 1927–29, the "Nelson"s served extensively in the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Indian oceans during World War II. was made famous by her role in the sinking of the in May 1941. At the climax of the battle "Rodney", in conjunction with "King George V", closed on "Bismarck" to bombard her at short range. "Rodney"s main guns were credited with an estimated 100 to 130 hits, contributing greatly to "Bismarck"s final destruction.


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: "Nelson" and "Rodney" participated in the bombardment of targets in northern France during and after D-Day. In particular, during the Caen campaign "Nelson" was credited with destroying a group of five Tiger tanks which ventured into a red zone [within of the coast] deemed by the German command to be in range of Allied battleships.


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: Both ships of the class survived the war, but were scrapped in 1948–1949 along with all other British battleships except the four remaining "King George V"-class battleships and .


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: The Battle of Jutland had shown the value of firepower and protection over speed and manoeuvrability.


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: The next generation of British warships incorporated this lesson. After the First World War, the Admiralty drew up plans for massive, heavily armoured battlecruisers and battleships, far larger and stronger than all previous vessels. The s would carry guns, and the proposed s would carry nine guns, and would be the most powerful vessels afloat. The Royal Navy was planning to hold its superiority in the burgeoning arms race, despite the large warships planned in Japan and the United States.


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: Development was abruptly curtailed by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, which brought the arms race to a halt. The four battlecruisers that had been ordered were cancelled. Some of the material acquired would later be used in "Nelson" and "Rodney". The Treaty limited all nations' battleships to maximum limits of 35,000 tons and 16-inch guns. The British had successfully ensured that the definition of maximum displacement – the standard displacement – excluded both fuel and boiler feed water. They had argued that having to protect the widespread British Empire meant their ships had to carry more of both and they should not be penalised compared to nations, such as Japan, France and Italy, that operated normally much closer to their home bases. As a result, water-filled internal anti-torpedo bulges could be incorporated, which did not contribute to the "dry" (standard) weights and therefore did not exceed the treaty displacement limits.


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: The limits of the treaty inevitably led to compromises in the design of two new ships, and the resulting "Nelson" class sacrificed installed power (and hence speed) in order that they be well-armed and defended. They were often referred to as the "Cherry Tree" class, because they had been "cut down by Washington". The need to limit displacement resulted in a radical new warship design, drawn from the "G3" and "N3" designs of Eustace Tennyson-d'Eyncourt, Director of Naval Construction from 1912 to 1924. To reduce the weight of armour, the main gun turrets were all mounted forward to shorten the armoured citadel. The "G3" and "N3" had two turrets forward of the bridge with the third between the bridge and the funnels/aft superstructure. However, in the "Nelson"s, this was taken further and all three were in front of the bridge; "B" mount superfiring over "A", with "X" turret on the forecastle deck behind "B", and therefore unable to fire directly forward or aft. "X" turret is sometimes referred to as "C" turret and one alternative design, designated "O3", had it superfiring over both "A" and "B" turrets. The secondary guns were placed in totally enclosed director-controlled twin turrets at the upper deck level and were grouped aft – another innovative element taken from the G3 and N3 design.


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: The machinery was of necessity limited in weight, size and installed power, and there were only two shafts with quite large screws. All previous British battleships since of 1906 had four screws as did all British battleship classes after "Nelson". In order that fuel gasses be kept clear of the superstructure, the boiler rooms were moved behind the engine rooms, exhausting into a single funnel. This orientation also reduced the overall length of the armoured citadel. As a countermeasure to the limited power, the hull was of a very efficient hydrodynamic form, to attain the best possible speed.


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: The "Nelson"s had a length between perpendiculars of and an overall length of ("Nelson") or ("Rodney"), a beam of , and a draught of at mean standard load. They displaced at standard load and at deep load. Their crew numbered 1,361 officers and ratings when serving as flagships and 1,314 as private ships. At deep load, they had a metacentric height of , which gave them a quick roll between 11.2 and 13.6 seconds. In calm weather, the "Nelson"-class ships were very manoeuvreable, but the large surface area of the superstructure gave them a large amount of weather helm and they could be a handful in confined spaces with a strong wind as was demonstrated when ran aground off Southsea beach in 1934.


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: The ships were powered by two sets of Brown-Curtis geared steam turbines, each driving one shaft, using steam from eight Admiralty 3-drum boilers fitted with superheaters that operated at a pressure of . The turbines were rated at and intended to give the ship a maximum speed of . The sister ships exceeded their designed speed during their sea trials in 1927, reaching speeds of from . They carried of fuel oil to give them a designed range of at a cruising speed of .


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: Armour weight was also reduced by using an internal, inclined armour belt sloped outward at 18 degrees from the vertical. The armour belt was thick over the main magazines and control positions to over the machinery and 6-inch gun magazines. The slope increased the relative thickness of the belt to a plunging projectile. Water-filled compartments, surrounded by air-filled ones, formed internal torpedo bulges which were fitted between the armour and the external hull of the ship, which was not armoured. The outer hull plating was meant to initiate detonation of shells which would then explode outside the armour. This innovation dispensed with external torpedo bulges which would otherwise have reduced the speed of the ships due to drag. Underwater protection for the "Nelson"s was provided by a double bottom 5 feet (1.5 m) deep and a layered defense of an empty outer watertight compartment and an inner water-filled compartment. The torpedo defense system had a total depth of 12 feet (3.7 m) and was backed by a torpedo bulkhead 1.5 inches thick. The system was similar in design and effectiveness to that of "Hood", and was rated to withstand an explosion of 750 lbs (340 kg) TNT. The armour scheme was of the "all or nothing" principle; areas were either well protected, from the front of "A" barbette rearwards to the after 6-inch turrets, or were not protected at all, disposing of the multiple intermediate thickness of armour seen in older designs. For the first time a British battleship had a single, thick armoured deck to protect against plunging shells and aircraft-launched bombs, with armour over the machinery spaces and armour on the lower deck over the stern, both on top of the 0.5 in (12.7 mm) deck plating. The main turrets had Non-cemented (NC) armour on the faces, on the sides, on the roof and on the rear with around the barbettes. The secondary turrets, however, had only NC all round over 0.5 in (12.7 mm) structural steel plates.


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: The large superstructure which was octagonal in plan, was known to its crew as the "Octopoidal" and was sometimes referred to as "Queen Anne's Mansions" due to its similarity to a 14-storey brick residential development opposite St James's Park tube station in London. The superstructure provided spacious, weatherproof working spaces for the navigating officers and any flag officers embarked. This innovative bridge design was subsequently copied by the French in the "Dunkerque"-class battleships, as was the all-forward main armament orientation, both features which were repeated in the "Richelieu"-class designs. Except for the emergency conning tower at its base, and the trunking for the main gun directors mounted on top, the superstructure was lightly armoured against splinters only, to save weight. Additional weight-saving design measures included the use of light materials such as aluminium for fittings, and fir instead of teak for deck planking, although subsequently, teak decks were fitted in the late 1920s, following concerns that the ships could not fire a full broadside without causing structural damage to the decks.


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: The "Nelson" class was a revolutionary but compromised design, and unsurprisingly there were shortcomings. The location of the superstructure towards the stern caused manoeuvrability problems in high winds, especially when steaming at low speeds, where the superstructure acted somewhat like a mizzen sail permanently set, causing the ships to "weathervane" but according to Captain Hugh Binney, who commanded "Nelson" in the late twenties, "if this is kept in mind, no real difficulties should be encountered in any circumstances". This was potentially a problem in crowded harbours, and made the ships somewhat difficult to dock and embark although this issue never led to a major incident. Binney also stated "In the early stages of the ship's first commission, there was a general misconception that the "Nelson" class were unhandy and difficult to manoeuvre. Both my predecessor and myself, however, very soon discovered that this opinion was entirely fallacious! In calm weather, the ship's manoeuvring capabilities are in no way inferior, and in many ways superior to those of "Queen Elizabeth" or "Revenge"." They could also be awkward to manoeuvre when moving astern. This was attributed to the ships having a single, central rudder which was out of the propeller race of the twin screws. At sea, however, they were reported to handle well, with a comparatively small Tactical Diameter (turning circle) particularly when turning into the wind, according to Lt. Cmdr. Galfry Gatacre RAN (later Rear Admiral), who served in 1941–1942 as the Navigator for both "Nelson" and subsequently "Rodney". He reported no difficulty in navigating either ship through the boom gates at Scapa Flow. "Nelson" and "Rodney" were the only battleships never to have bumped the boom gate vessel as they passed through Hoxa Sound.


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: Their main armament of nine guns were mounted in triple turrets, the only RN battleships designed in this manner. The guns themselves deviated from standard British designs. Where previous RN weapons fired heavy shells at a moderate velocity, the "Nelson"s weapons followed the German practice of a lighter shell at a higher velocity. This change in Director of Naval Ordnance policy was due to British testing of surrendered German equipment after World War I, although much later, subsequent testing proved contradictory. Two different rifling rates were tried, and for some time there was a mixture of barrel types in different turrets, even sometimes within the same turret. The guns suffered considerable barrel wear and had a fairly large dispersion pattern, due mainly to the different riflings that each barrel had as they were refurbished over their lifespan. To compensate for barrel wear, muzzle velocities were reduced and a heavier (longer) shell was tried to offset this; but the cost of producing new shells, modifying shell handling and storage equipment came at a time when RN funding had been heavily reduced. Nevertheless, these weapons were not generally considered by the RN to be as successful as the previous BL 15 inch Mark I; the BL 14-inch Mark VII, fitted to the subsequent "King George V"-class battleships, returned to a heavier (relatively) shell and lower velocity, but its performance was compromised by an over-complex mounting that proved to have reliability defects in combat. The need to reduce displacement led to the use of triple mount turrets, which had early problems with the ammunition handling and loading machinery. The heavier weight of the triple in comparison to a twin turret meant increased stresses on the roller bearings when training the turrets. This was solved by the incorporation of spring-loaded vertical as well as conventional horizontal roller bearings. The triple mount turret proved itself when, in October 1929, a turret crew with two years' experience loaded and fired 33 consecutive rounds without mishap. The incorporation of many safety features, achieved with lighter materials, meant that the complex and relatively fragile equipment had to be serviced regularly over the ships' lifetime. These ships were fitted with the HACS AA fire control system and the Admiralty Fire Control Table Mk I for surface fire control of the main armament.


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: Firing trials revealed that the blast of 'A' and 'B' turrets on forward bearings caused damage to many weather-deck fittings and conditions on the mess-decks became very uncomfortable. There was a longstanding rumour that the ships could not fire a full broadside without risk of structural damage.[3] This was disproved during the action against the German battleship "Bismarck", where "Rodney" fired upwards of 40 broadsides (380 shells) without major structural damage except to deck planking and upper deck fittings,[11] although damage to sickbay fittings, partition bulkheads, toilet bowls and plumbing in the forecastle was extensive. Virtually every light bulb in the forward section was shattered also.[9]


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: When 'X' turret was fired 30 degrees abaft the beam and elevation of 40 degrees, considerable damage occurred to the two vertically stacked rows of bridge windows. As a result, the guns of "X" turret were usually prohibited from firing abaft of the beam at high elevations during peacetime practice firing. Fitting tempered glass in the bridge windows was tried, but gun blast still shattered some of them and filled the bridge with flying debris. The design of the Captain's bridge was altered on "Nelson" circa 1930-33 to reduce the window area and enclose the upper portion of the previous two rows of glass. A great deal of effort was expended in correcting this problem, and fitting of protective ledges below the new smaller windows proved successful. A new enclosed Admiral's bridge with its requisite reduced windows was built on top of the Captain's bridge and the forward signalling lamps were moved up one level and towards the aft of the bridge. The Admiral's bridge on "Rodney" remained stepped back somewhat from the forward edge of the tower, but the Captain's bridge had the same reduced area of glass that "Nelson" now had, with larger ledges. Blast was also a problem elsewhere; D.K. Brown tells of a test firing that was suspended when DNC observer H.S. Pengelly, who was beneath the foredeck, reported a bright red flash after firing all guns in "A" turret. This was later discovered to be caused by concussion of the observers' eyeballs.


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: In the final phase of the action against "Bismarck", "Rodney" fired a pair of 24.5-inch torpedoes from her port-side tube and claimed one hit. According to Ludovic Kennedy, "if true, [this is] the only instance in history of one battleship torpedoing another". Earlier in this same action the starboard side tube had its sluice door jammed as the result of a near miss from one of "Bismarck"s early salvos. On 27 September 1941, "Nelson"s port torpedo station almost proved to be a liability when an Italian air-launched 18-inch torpedo holed the compartment behind the torpedo body room, allowing 3,750 tons of water to enter the ship. Following this, "Nelson"s torpedo tubes may have been removed although another source suggests the torpedo tubes were retained in both ships into 1945.


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: Because of their unusual silhouette, HMS "Nelson" and her sister "Rodney" were sarcastically nicknamed "Nelsol" and "Rodnol" by the Royal Navy ratings who never served in these ships – their manoeuvrability issues and single-funnelled silhouettes reminded Navy men of oil tankers, and a series of fleet oilers that had been built during the First World War bearing names ending in "ol".


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: Despite the derisive criticism directed at this class of battleship by some of the media and some sailors upon their debut, naval historian Antony Preston considered that "they were soundly conceived ships reflecting all the hard-won experience of World War One" and that "they proved to be very well-protected and well-designed ships".


title: Nelson-class battleship

text: By the end of the war, "Rodney" had seen hard use without any significant refit or repair and was worn out, especially her machinery. "Nelson" had been refitted in the United States at the end of 1944 and was in sufficiently good condition to serve in the postwar fleet including a short period as flagship of the Home Fleet at the end of 1945. "Rodney" was scrapped in 1948 at Inverkeithing, not long after the s and s, and "Nelson" in 1949 following its use as a target for bombing trials. "According to Winston Churchill's memoirs, a major modernisation was discussed to enable " Nelson" to serve for several years in the postwar fleet, but no other details have survived. In any case "Nelson" was too slow for the modern fleet which had no front-line role for battleships any more".


title: Felipe Ángeles International Airport

text: Felipe Ángeles International Airport (IATA: NLU, ICAO: MMSM) is the second airport serving the Mexico City metropolitan area, opened on March 21, 2022. It is located in Zumpango, State of Mexico, north-northeast of the historic center of Mexico City by car. Originally called Santa Lucía Airport, it was named after Felipe Ángeles (a general in the Mexican Revolution) in early 2021.


title: Felipe Ángeles International Airport

text: Construction started on October 17, 2019, with a symbolic ceremony and a short video presentation after all judicial suspensions against the airport were revoked. Two runways and a new terminal were planned during the first phase, which was completed on March 21, 2022, as scheduled. The airport is operated by the Secretariat of National Defense (SEDENA), which receives the airport's earnings.


title: Felipe Ángeles International Airport

text: By territorial extension it is the largest airport in the State of Mexico and the third largest airport in the country (behind Mexico City International Airport and Cancun International Airport).


title: Felipe Ángeles International Airport

text: The Santa Lucía Air Base was partially inaugurated in 1952, due to the need to relocate the Balbuena Military Air Field. The aerodrome was inaugurated on November 24, 1952, during the presidency of Miguel Alemán Valdés; however, the aircraft that still operated in Balbuena moved to Santa Lucía until 1959. It came to have a runway 3,780 meters long and 75 meters wide, which at the time was the widest paved runway in the country. Mexico and was named "General Alfredo Lezama Álvarez" in honor of who was its commander from 1961 to 1964.


title: Felipe Ángeles International Airport

text: In March 2018, as part of his campaign for the presidency, then-candidate Andrés Manuel López Obrador proposed the privatization of the Mexico City Texcoco Airport or the expansion of the Santa Lucía air base to convert it into an airport, finally leaning towards the latter.


title: Felipe Ángeles International Airport

text: In the first half of October 2018, López Obrador, already as president-elect, called for a popular consultation organized by the Arturo Rosenblueth Foundation and a group of citizens. The consultation was met with some controversy. In 2014, a law was enacted that institutes as a form of citizen participation, and the process that was carried out was a survey carried out by an individual and without official validity, where those who participated in this process could choose if they preferred to continue with the construction of the NAICM or interrupt it. The result favored the construction of Santa Lucía, 310,463 people (29% of the total) voted for the continuity of the Texcoco project and 747,000 voted in favor of Santa Lucía (69%).


title: Felipe Ángeles International Airport

text: On April 24, 2019, Mexican president Andrés Manuel López Obrador announced that construction of the new airport would commence on April 29, 2019. On 12 June, a judge ordered the suspension of construction of the airport until environmental and cultural studies have been completed. The Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources (SEMARNAT) announced its approval of construction of a terminal at the new airport site on July 17, 2019. Construction officially started on October 17, 2019. President López Obrador stated information regarding construction would be released in the coming days, saying transparency will be key in the project.


title: Felipe Ángeles International Airport

text: The airport is intended to focus on low-cost and cargo airlines to help relieve congestion at Mexico City International Airport. Mexican architect Francisco González Pulido and military general Gustavo Vallejo are in charge of airport design. The master plan is in charge of Groupe ADP and the airspace navigability studies were made by Airbus subsidiary NAVBLUE. The Valley of Mexico will be the first in the country where the performance-based navigation system (PBN) is used, which will allow the Felipe Ángeles International Airport, Mexico City International Airport and the Toluca International Airport to operate simultaneously without the operations of one impeding those of the others.


title: Felipe Ángeles International Airport

text: Remains of at least 200 mammoths were discovered during the construction of the terminal area, in the former Lake Xaltocan. Most of the newly discovered mammoths likely died after being trapped by mud in the ancient lake or hunted by other animals. Nothing was found that would require halting work on the airport project.


title: Felipe Ángeles International Airport

text: Construction occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite social distancing and other efforts to avoid infection, at least four employees were infected with the virus and there were 37 suspected cases along with three deaths as of June 9, 2020.


title: Felipe Ángeles International Airport

text: President López Obrador flew on the fifteen-minute Air Force inaugural flight from the Benito Juárez International Airport in Mexico City on February 10, 2021. He was accompanied by Luis Cresencio Sandoval González (SEDENA), Claudia Sheinbaum (head of government of Mexico City), Alfredo del Mazo (governor of the State of Mexico), Omar Fayad (governor of Hidalgo), Arturo Zaldívar (president of the Supreme Court), Dolores Padierna (vice president of the Chamber of Deputies), and José Rafael Ojeda Durán (SEMAR)


title: Felipe Ángeles International Airport

text: The airport's first terminal and two runways were officially opened on March 21, 2022. The inaugural commercial passenger flight, VivaAerobús flight 3280, departed from Guadalajara and landed at AIFA on March 21.


title: Felipe Ángeles International Airport

text: On March 19, 2020, a proposed 23-km extension of the Tren Suburbano commuter train was announced, which would branch off from the current line at Lechería station and head northeast, terminating at the airport. With delivery date in June 2023.


title: Felipe Ángeles International Airport

text: Line I of the Mexibús bus rapid transit system connects the airport at Terminal de Pasajeros station to the Mexico City metro system at Ciudad Azteca station with an extension to AIFA to be completed by the time of the airport's opening. Mexibús Line IV is to be extended to AIFA at a later date, and will connect the airport to the metro at Indios Verdes station.


title: Felipe Ángeles International Airport

text: One of the main vehicular entrances to the AIFA will be the road interconnection to the Circuito Exterior Mexiquense, with an approximate length of four and a half kilometers. A wide road with three entry lanes and three exit lanes and sculptures of mammoths in the central part due to the discoveries, will provide high efficiency for transfers in a short time. The development will combine public transport systems with private transport.


title: Felipe Ángeles International Airport

text: The Mexico-Pachuca highway will also be extended towards the AIFA, in which there will be a deviation at the height of the town of Santa Lucía to connect with the airport.


title: Felipe Ángeles International Airport

text: It is expected that this road will be used mainly by cargo vehicles since it connects directly with the customs area and the domestic and international cargo terminal. It can also be used by passengers because there are diversions to the CEM and Camino a Tonanitla to get directly to the airport and avoid going around the loading area.


title: Felipe Ángeles International Airport

text: The only cargo airline with a sustained schedule is AeroUnion, operating a route to Tijuana that began flying on September 1st, 2022.


title: Israel Defense Forces ranks

text: The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) has a unique rank structure. Because the IDF is an integrated force, ranks are the same in all services (there is no differentiation between army, navy, air force, etc.) The ranks are derived from those in the paramilitary , which operated during the Mandate period in order to protect the . This is reflected in the slightly compacted rank structure: for instance, the Chief of Staff (, initials: ) is seemingly only equivalent to a lieutenant general in other militaries.


title: Israel Defense Forces ranks

text: Officers (): Volunteers who have completed the officer's course. Officers serve for at least 36 months (3 years) for women in non-combat positions and 44 months (3 years, 8 months) for men. Positions in specialized units require their officers to serve for more than this (for example, seven years for pilots). Promotions are based on ability and time served. It takes about a year to be promoted from 2nd lieutenant to 1st lieutenant and three years to be promoted from 1st lieutenant to captain. Army officers have bronze-metal insignia (replaced with subdued black-metal insignia in 2002), air force officers have silver metal insignia, and navy officers have gold-metal insignia or gold braid bars. Officers without a university education can be promoted to a maximum of (Major), although the IDF often sponsors the studies for their majors.


title: Israel Defense Forces ranks

text: Academic officers (): Special rank given to soldiers who are delaying completing officers' training so they can complete a professional education (usually in engineering, medicine, or law). A is equivalent to a 2nd lieutenant, and a is equivalent to a 1st lieutenant, but are treated as if they were breveted to the next higher rank. Officers of these ranks are considered professional manpower and rarely take posts of command. Upon finally completing officers' training, an academic officer is immediately awarded the corresponding next "real" rank due to their experience in grade. Their insignia bars are embossed with scrolls () rather than laurel branches ().


title: Israel Defense Forces ranks

text: Non-commissioned officers (): The professional non-commissioned and warrant ranks, drawn from volunteers who signed on for military service after completing conscription. They usually are assigned to head-up the headquarters staff of a unit. is a Hebrew abbreviation for , which translates as "supernumerary deputy"; it is a Field NCO rank equivalent to a British or Commonwealth "Sergeant". translates as "chief sergeant"; it is a career NCO rank equivalent to a British or Commonwealth "Staff Sergeant" or "Sergeant Major" / "Warrant Officer". is a variant of the biblical word , which means "ruler" or "leader". is a senior staff NCO rank equivalent to the American ranks of "Chief Warrant Officer" and "Master Warrant Officer".


title: Israel Defense Forces ranks

text: Enlisted (): The conscript and field NCO ranks. All Jewish or Druze conscripts must start their compulsory service at 18 (unless they receive a deferment); Christians, Muslims, and Circassians may volunteer at 17 or older. Enlisted male conscripts serve for 32 months (2 years and 8 months) and female conscripts serve for 24 months (2 years). In the IDF enlisted ranks are earned by means of time in service (), rather than by a particular post or assignment. After 4 to 12 months the conscript is promoted to , after 18 to 20 months promoted to , and after 24 to 32 months is promoted to . (This means that female conscripts reach no higher than during their compulsory service, unless they serve in combat positions or volunteer for longer terms).


title: Israel Defense Forces ranks

text: Field NCOs ( and ) who command sub-units (fire team or squad, respectively) are called . This is an abbreviation that translates into English literally as "non-commissioned officer". It is a term of respect like the French Army's ("chief").


title: Israel Defense Forces ranks

text: Recruits (): Upon enlistment to military service in Israel, all soldiers begin a basic training course and undergo several weeks or months of 'integration' from citizens to soldiers. This course is called ("recruit training") and the soldier being trained on this course is called a (or "recruit"). This is often erroneously interpreted as a rank, similar to the US Army's private (E-1); are ranked as (private), the same rank and paygrade as newly trained conscripts.


title: Israel Defense Forces ranks

text: Both officers and enlisted personnel have an obligation to serve in the Reserves after completing their active military service. Male personnel serve until 41–51 years old while female personnel serve until 24 years old.


title: Israel Defense Forces ranks

text: The rank of , initials: () or "substitute officer", was created in the 1960s. The rank was considered below a 2nd lieutenant (initials: ). It indicated a cadet in the Israeli army who had finished the basic preparation for an officer rank (), but for some reason abandoned their studies, failed to complete the professional officer preparation (), or completed it with a minimal passing grade but was still found worthy of command. They occupied the lowest officer posts until a normal officer rank was found for the position. Those who finished the officer preparation with a minimal passing grade and were substituting in a command position were eligible for promotion to normal officer rank after a set period. It was discontinued in 1994.


title: Israel Defense Forces ranks

text: The rank of , initials: ("Senior Sergeant") was used from 1948 to 1952. It was the equivalent of a US Army First Sergeant. It was replaced by the rank of ("Unit Senior Sergeant"), similar to a British or Commonwealth Army Warrant Officer II (Company Sergeant Major).


title: Israel Defense Forces ranks

text: The rank of , initials:, or "chief private first class", was used from 1972 to 1982. There was an expansion of staff NCO ranks during this period and the higher rank was offered to conscripts who planned to enlist after completing their national service.


title: Israel Defense Forces ranks

text: The rank of , initials:, or "private first class", was disestablished in the Regular IDF in 1990. It still continued to be used in the Reserves until it was finally discontinued in 1999. Privates now retain their rank until promoted to corporal, usually after 10 months of peacetime service or 6 months for support roles or 4 months for combatants during hostilities. Corporals in combat units traditionally do not wear their rank insignia, remaining without insignia until they are promoted to the rank of sergeant.


title: Israel Defense Forces ranks

text: Aiguillettes, in Hebrew are worn on the "left" shoulder* of the uniform to indicate a soldier's specific role a unit:


title: Israel Defense Forces ranks

text: When the IDF was created in 1948, there were 7 enlisted and NCO ranks, and 8 officer ranks. The ranks were as follows:


title: Israel Defense Forces ranks

text: IDF Ranks and their insignia were initially influenced by the British / Commonwealth model. This was due to the average Israeli servicemen's experience in the Commonwealth forces during World War Two. This was later reformed when the IDF started to adopt a rank system similar to the United States armed forces in 1973 and the 1990s.


title: Israel Defense Forces ranks

text: Rank insignia were originally cut from cloth or embroidered onto cloth patches. Bronze-metal officer's rank insignia worn on a red cloth backing were introduced for the army in 1949. Enlisted stripes for all arms were originally individual white half-chevrons with space between them. In an economy move, senior NCOs were distinguished by using the same bronze insignia (an oak-leaf or oak-leaf-in-a-wreath) as senior officers pinned to their sleeve insignia. In 1951 the Navy adopted golden-yellow half-chevrons and the Air Force adopted blue half chevrons.


title: Israel Defense Forces ranks

text: A was equal to a British Army staff sergeant / colour sergeant or a US Army technical sergeant (sergeant first class) / platoon sergeant. For the other services, the bronze-metal oak-leaf on the army's rank insignia was replaced with a yellow anchor in a white hexagon for the Navy and a blue Star of David on a white circle for the Air Force. This was later replaced in 1951 with a gold-metal oak leaf for the Navy and a silver-metal oak leaf for the Air Force.


title: Israel Defense Forces ranks

text: A (1948–1951) was equivalent to a US Army First Sergeant. The rank insignia was a small bronze oak leaf in a wreath on 3 white half-chevrons for the Army; a yellow anchor in a yellow-bordered (1948) or solid-yellow (1950) hexagon on 3 white half-chevrons for the Navy; and a blue Star of David in a blue-bordered circle on 3 white half-chevrons for the Air Force. It was replaced by the reorganized rank in 1951 and the new rank by 1955.


title: Israel Defense Forces ranks

text: A (1951–1967) was equivalent to a British Army Warrant Officer II (Company Sergeant Major). The rank insignia was an Oak Leaf in a Laurel Wreath. It came in bronze-metal on a red enamel backing for the Army, gold-metal for the Navy, and silver-metal for the Air Force. It was worn on the lower right sleeve of the shirt or jacket or on a leather wrist strap when wearing short-sleeve order. It was divided into ("Specialist Chief Sergeant"; a technical NCO) and ("Unit Chief Sergeant"; a command NCO) from 1955 to 1958.


title: Israel Defense Forces ranks

text: A (1948–1951) was equivalent to a US Army Master Sergeant or Sergeant Major. The rank insignia was originally an oak leaf in a laurel wreath for the Army, a large yellow anchor in a yellow-bordered (1948) or solid-yellow (1950) hexagon for the Navy, and a large blue Star of David in a bordered circle for the Air Force. The rank was renamed (1951–Present) and was equivalent to a British Army Warrant Officer I (Regimental Sergeant Major). The new rank also received new insignia made of metal: an Oak Leaf over a vertical Sword in a Laurel Wreath. It came in bronze-metal on a red enamel backing for the Army, gold-metal for the Navy, and silver-metal for the Air Force. It was worn on the lower right sleeve of the shirt or jacket or on a leather wrist strap when wearing short-sleeve order. It was divided into ("Specialist Chief Sergeant First Class"; a technical NCO) and ("Unit Chief Sergeant First Class"; a command NCO) from 1955 to 1958.


title: Israel Defense Forces ranks

text: From 1948 to 1951, IDF Ranks for each branch of service (the Ground, Sea, and Air Forces) had unique titles and distinct insignia.


title: English articles

text: The articles in English are the definite article "the" and the indefinite articles "a" and "an". The definite article is used when the speaker believes that the listener knows the identity of the noun's referent (because it is obvious, because it is common knowledge, or because it was mentioned in the same sentence or an earlier sentence). The indefinite article is used when the speaker believes that the listener does not have to be told the identity of the referent. No article is used in some noun phrases.


title: English articles

text: English grammar requires that, in most cases, a singular, countable noun phrase start with a determiner. For example, "I have a box" is OK, but *"I have box" is not. The most common determiners are the articles "the" and "a"("n"), which specify the presence or absence of definiteness of the noun. Other possible determiners include words like "this", "my", "each" and "many". There are also cases where no determiner is required, as in the sentence "John likes fast cars", where neither "John" nor "fast cars" includes a determiner.


title: English articles

text: The definite article "the" is used when the referent of the noun phrase is assumed to be unique or known from the context. For example, In the sentence "The boy with glasses was looking at the moon", it is assumed that in the context the reference can only be to one boy and one moon. However, the definite article is "not" used:


title: English articles

text: The indefinite article "a" (before a consonant sound) or "an" (before a vowel sound) is used only with singular, countable nouns. It indicates that the referent of the noun phrase is one unspecified member of a class. For example, the sentence "An ugly man was smoking a pipe" does not specify the identity of the ugly man or pipe.


title: English articles

text: When referring to a day of the week, the indefinite article "a" or definite article "the" may be used, following the same guidelines of generality versus specificity.


title: English articles

text: No article is used with plural or uncountable nouns when the referent is indefinite (just as in the generic definite case described above). However, in such situations, the determiner "some" is often added (or "any" in negative contexts and in many questions). For example:


title: English articles

text: If it is required to be concise, e.g. in headlines, signs, labels, and notes, articles are often omitted along with certain other function words. For example, rather than "The mayor was attacked", a newspaper headline might say just "Mayor attacked".


title: English articles

text: For more information on article usage, see the sections and below. For more cases where no article is used, see Zero article in English.


title: English articles

text: In most cases, the article is the first word of its noun phrase, preceding all other adjectives and modifiers.


title: English articles

text: The only definite article in English is the word "the", denoting person(s) or thing(s) already mentioned, under discussion, implied, or otherwise presumed familiar to the listener or reader. "The" is the most commonly used word in the English language, accounting for 7% of all words used.


title: English articles

text: "The" can be used with both singular and plural nouns, with nouns of any gender, and with nouns that start with any letter. This is different from many other languages which have different articles for different genders and/or numbers.


title: English articles

text: Since "the" is one of the most frequently used words in English, at various times short abbreviations for it have been found:


title: English articles

text: Occasional proposals have been made by individuals for an abbreviation. In 1916, Legros & Grant included in their classic printers' handbook "Typographical Printing-Surfaces", a proposal for a letter similar to Ħ to represent "Th", thus abbreviating "the" to ħe. Why they did not propose reintroducing to the English language ""þ"", for which blocks were already available for use in Icelandic texts, or the "yͤ" form is unknown.


title: English articles

text: In Middle English, "the" (þe) was frequently abbreviated as a "þ" with a small "e" above it, similar to the abbreviation for "that", which was a "þ" with a small "t" above it. During the latter Middle English and Early Modern English periods, the letter thorn (þ) in its common script, or cursive, form came to resemble a "y" shape. With the arrival of movable type printing, the substitution of for became ubiquitous, leading to the common ""ye"", as in 'Ye Olde Curiositie Shoppe'. One major reason for this was that existed in the printer's types that William Caxton and his contemporaries imported from Belgium and the Netherlands, while did not. As a result, the use of a "y" with an "e" above it () as an abbreviation became common. It can still be seen in reprints of the 1611 edition of the King James Version of the Bible in places such as Romans 15:29 or in the Mayflower Compact. Historically, the article was never pronounced with a "y" sound even when it was so written.


title: English articles

text: The indefinite article of English takes the two forms: "a" and "an". Semantically, they can be regarded as meaning "one", usually without emphasis. They can be used only with singular countable nouns; for the possible use of "some" (or "any") as an equivalent with plural and uncountable nouns, see Use of "some" below.


title: English articles

text: "An" is the older form (related to "one", which it also predates, cognate to Dutch een, German "ein", Gothic 𐌰𐌹𐌽𐍃 (), Old Norse "einn", etc.). The Old English word "ān" was derived from Proto-West Germanic "*ain", which was derived from Proto-Germanic "*ainaz". All of these words descended from Proto-Indo-European "*óynos", meaning "single".


title: English articles

text: The [n] of the original Old English indefinite article "ān" got gradually assimilated before consonants in almost all dialects by the 15th century. Before vowels, the [n] survived into Modern English.


title: English articles

text: Currently, the form "an" is used before words starting with a vowel sound, regardless of whether the word begins with a vowel letter. Where the next word begins with a consonant sound, "a" is used. Examples: "a box"; "an apple"; "an SSO" (pronounced "es-es-oh"); "an MP3" (pronounced "em-pee-three"); "a HEPA filter" (here, HEPA is an acronym, a series of letters pronounced as a word rather than as individual letters); "an hour" (the "h" is silent); "a one-armed bandit" (pronounced "won..."); "an $80 fee" (read "an eighty-dollar fee"); "an herb" in American English (where the "h" is silent), but "a herb" in British English; "a unionized worker" but "an un-ionized particle". Before words beginning with , "an" was formerly widespread, e.g. "an unicorn", "an eulogy", but has largely been superseded by "a" since the 19th century.


title: English articles

text: In older loan words of Latin or Greek provenance, initial "h" used to be silent in general, thus the use of "an" before such words was common and has survived to some extent to recent times even when the "h" has been restored in pronunciation. Some speakers and writers use "an" before a word beginning with the sound in an unstressed syllable: "an historical novel", "an hotel". However, this usage is now less common.


title: English articles

text: Some dialects, particularly in England (such as Cockney), silence many or all initial "h" sounds (h-dropping), and so employ "an" in situations where it would not be used in the standard language, like "an 'elmet" (standard English: "a helmet").


title: English articles

text: There used to be a distinction analogous to that between "a" and "an" for the possessive determiners "my" and "thy", which became "mine" and "thine" before a vowel, as in "mine eyes".


title: English articles

text: Other more or less analogous cases in different languages include the Yiddish articles "a" () and "an" () (used in essentially the same manner as the English ones), the Hungarian articles "a" and "az" (used the same way, except that they are definite articles; juncture loss, as described below, has occurred in that language too), and the privative "a-" and "an-" prefixes, meaning "not" or "without", in Greek and Sanskrit.


title: English articles

text: Both "a" and "an" are usually pronounced with a schwa: , . However, when stressed (which is rare in ordinary speech), they are normally pronounced respectively as (to rhyme with "day") and or (to rhyme with "pan"). See Weak and strong forms in English.


title: English articles

text: In addition to serving as an article, "a" and "an" are also used to express a proportional relationship, such as "a dollar a day" or "$150 an ounce" or "A sweet a day helps you work, rest and play", although historically this use of "a" and "an" does not come from the same word as the articles.


title: English articles

text: In a process called juncture loss, the "n" has wandered back and forth between the indefinite article and words beginning with vowels over the history of the language, where for example what was once "a nuncle" is now "an uncle". One example is the text "smot hym on the hede with "a nege" tool" from 1448 in the "Paston Letters", meaning "smote him on the head with "an edge" tool". Other examples include "a nox" for "an ox" and "a napple" for "an apple". Sometimes the change has been permanent. For example, "a newt" was once "an ewt", "a nickname" was once "an ekename", where "eke" means "extra" (as in "eke out" meaning "add to"), and in the other direction, "a napron" (meaning a little tablecloth, related to the word "napkin") became "an apron", and "a nadder" became "an adder". The initial "n" in orange was also dropped through juncture loss, but this happened before the word was borrowed into English.


title: English articles

text: The existential determinative (or determiner) "some" is sometimes used as a functional equivalent of "a(n)" with plural and uncountable nouns (also called a partitive). For example, "Give me some apples", "Give me some water" (equivalent to the singular countable forms "an apple" and "a glass of water"). Grammatically this "some" is not required; it is also possible to use zero article: "Give me apples", "Give me water". The use of "some" in such cases implies some limited quantity. (Compare the forms "unos/unas" in Spanish, which are the plural of the indefinite article "un/una".)


title: English articles

text: Like the articles, "some" belongs to the class of "central determiners", which are mutually exclusive (so "the some boys" is ungrammatical).


title: English articles

text: The contrasting use of "any" in negative clauses proves that "some" is polarity-sensitive, and occurs in positive clauses: "I have "some" objections to make", vs. "I don't have "any" objections to make"; "I have "any" objections to make" and "I don't have "some" objections to make" are ungrammatical.


title: English articles

text: "Some" can also have a more emphatic meaning: "some but not others" or "some but not many". For example, "some people like football, while others prefer rugby", or "I've got some money, but not enough to lend you any". It can also be used as an indefinite pronoun, not qualifying a noun at all ("Give me some!") or followed by a prepositional phrase ("I want some of your vodka"); the same applies to "any".


title: English articles

text: "Some" can also be used with singular countable nouns, as in "There is some person on the porch", which implies that the identity of the person is unknown to the speaker (which is not necessarily the case when "a(n)" is used). This usage is fairly informal, although singular countable "some" can also be found in formal contexts: "We seek some value of x such that..."


title: English articles

text: When "some" is used just as an indefinite article, it is normally pronounced weakly, as . In other meanings, it is pronounced .


title: English articles

text: In sorting titles and phrases alphabetically, articles are usually excluded from consideration, since being so common makes them more of a hindrance than a help in finding the desired item. For example, "The Comedy of Errors" is alphabetized before "A Midsummer Night's Dream", because "the" and "a" are ignored and "comedy" alphabetizes before "midsummer". In an index, the former work might be written "Comedy of Errors, The", with the article moved to the end.


title: English articles

text: Speakers of West Country English may use articles in certain environments where speakers of Standard English would not. Non-standard uses occur for example with diseases ("the chicken pox", "the arthritis"), quantifying expressions ("the both", "the most"), holidays ("the Christmas"), geographical units and institutions ("the church", "the county Devon"), etc. The indefinite article, on the other hand, often occurs as "a" also before vowels.


title: The Sopranos (The Sopranos episode)

text: "The Sopranos", also known as "Pilot", is the first episode of the HBO television drama series, "The Sopranos", which premiered on January 10, 1999. It was written and directed by the series creator and executive producer David Chase.


title: The Sopranos (The Sopranos episode)

text: It is 1998. New Jersey mobster Tony Soprano, a capo in the DiMeo crime family, has been referred to a psychiatrist, Dr. Jennifer Melfi, after having a panic attack. Tony tells her he is a waste management consultant, but she knows who he is. After Melfi establishes what will and will not fall under doctor-patient confidentiality, Tony begins to partly open up.


title: The Sopranos (The Sopranos episode)

text: He has recently been dealing with tensions between his wife Carmela and teenage daughter Meadow, as well as trying to keep Christopher Moltisanti, whom he calls his nephew, in check. Tony's uncle, known as Uncle Junior, resents Tony's rise in the crime family and his own decline. Tony also has a strained relationship with his widowed mother Livia, who is resisting his advice to move into a retirement home. A confrontation with his mother triggers another panic attack, and he returns to Melfi. He tells her about a family of ducks that were living in his swimming pool, but left when the ducklings fledged. Guided by Melfi, Tony realizes he is sad to see them go because he dreads losing his own family; to his consternation, this makes him cry.


title: The Sopranos (The Sopranos episode)

text: When a Czech-American criminal organization bids against Tony for a waste management contract, Christopher acts on his own initiative and kills one of the Czechs, Emil Kolar. The Czechs withdraw their bid.


title: The Sopranos (The Sopranos episode)

text: Junior wants to kill turncoat "Little Pussy" Malanga in a restaurant he frequents, owned by Tony's childhood friend Artie Bucco. Thinking the murder would ruin the restaurant's reputation, Tony asks Junior not to do it there, but he refuses. Tony tries to get Artie to close the restaurant for three weeks by giving him cruise tickets, but his wife Charmaine refuses them. Finally, Tony has his right-hand man Silvio Dante bomb the restaurant; Artie's reputation will not be damaged, and he will be able to claim insurance compensation.


title: The Sopranos (The Sopranos episode)

text: Mahaffey, whom Tony calls a "degenerate gambler", is in debt to Tony and Hesh Rabkin, an old Jewish friend of Tony's father. Tony, driving, runs Mahaffey down, breaking his leg. He then concocts a scheme for Mahaffey's company to make insurance claims payable to non-existent clinics in order to pay off his debts, and he is forced to comply.


title: The Sopranos (The Sopranos episode)

text: At Tony's son's birthday party, Christopher, bitter about not receiving recognition for killing Kolar, tells Tony he is thinking of turning his life story into a Hollywood script, which Tony angrily forbids.


title: The Sopranos (The Sopranos episode)

text: Driving Livia to the party, an embittered Junior says, "Something may have to be done about Tony". Livia listens, silently looking the other way with a hint of a smile.


title: The Sopranos (The Sopranos episode)

text: Pre-production for the pilot commenced in the summer of 1997, a year and a half before the series debuted on TV. The episode was filmed in August 1997 and completed by October 1997. Despite being well received by Chase's closest friends and the cast and crew who watched it, Chase feared the pilot would not be picked up by HBO and, in that case, planned to ask the network for additional money to shoot another 45 minutes and turn it into a feature film. Chase was also pressured by another, completely new development deal offered to him by another network, which he kept postponing until he heard HBO's verdict on "The Sopranos". Right before Christmas of 1997, David Chase received a phone call and learned that HBO did like the pilot and ordered a full season, all of which happened about two hours before the deadline for accepting the other network's deal. Chase was relieved as if "let out of jail. It was like a reprieve from the governor." "The Sopranos" is the first of only two episodes directed by Chase. The other is the series finale, "Made in America". Although this episode is titled "The Sopranos" on the VHS, DVD, Blu-ray, and reruns on A&E, it was referred to as "Pilot" when originally aired.


title: The Sopranos (The Sopranos episode)

text: During the year-long break between the pilot and the start of the shoot of the rest of the 12 episodes of the season, James Gandolfini gained 60 pounds for the role of Tony and underwent voice coaching. Siberia Federico and Michael Santoro play Irina and Father Phil respectively. For future episodes, these roles were recast with Oksana Lada and Paul Schulze. Drea De Matteo was originally simply cast as a restaurant hostess for this one episode only. The filmmakers liked her performance, and her character was developed into the role of Adriana La Cerva in future episodes. The pork store used as a meeting place is Centanni's Meat Market, a real butcher shop in Elizabeth, New Jersey. However, because the shop had a steady business and because local business owners were annoyed with the incidental effects of having a television production being shot on a weekly basis, HBO acquired an abandoned auto parts store in Kearny, New Jersey which became Satriale's Pork Store for use in future episodes.


title: The Sopranos (The Sopranos episode)

text: David Chase won the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Drama Series for his work on this episode and a Primetime Emmy Award for Joanna Cappuccilli for Outstanding Single-Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series. It was also Emmy-nominated for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series and Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for David Chase. James Gandolfini and Nancy Marchand both submitted this episode for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series & Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, respectively. Nancy Marchand additionally submitted the next episode, 46 Long.


title: Hazel

text: The hazel ("Corylus") is a genus of deciduous trees and large shrubs native to the temperate Northern Hemisphere. The genus is usually placed in the birch family Betulaceae, though some botanists split the hazels (with the hornbeams and allied genera) into a separate family Corylaceae. The fruit of the hazel is the hazelnut.


title: Hazel

text: Hazels have simple, rounded leaves with double-serrate margins. The flowers are produced very early in spring before the leaves, and are monoecious, with single-sex catkins. The male catkins are pale yellow and long, and the female ones are very small and largely concealed in the buds, with only the bright-red, 1-to-3 mm-long styles visible. The fruits are nuts long and 1–2 cm diameter, surrounded by an involucre (husk) which partly to fully encloses the nut.


title: Hazel

text: The shape and structure of the involucre, and also the growth habit (whether a tree or a suckering shrub), are important in the identification of the different species of hazel.


title: Hazel

text: The pollen of hazel species, which are often the cause for allergies in late winter or early spring, can be identified under magnification (600×) by their characteristic granular exines bearing three conspicuous pores.


title: Hazel

text: "Corylus" has 14–18 species. The circumscription of species in eastern Asia is disputed, with "WCSP" and the "Flora of China" differing in which taxa are accepted; within this region, only those taxa accepted by both sources are listed below. The species are grouped as follows:


title: Hazel

text: Several hybrids exist, and can occur between species in different sections of the genus, e.g. "Corylus × colurnoides" ("C. avellana" × "C. colurna"). The oldest confirmed hazel species is "Corylus johnsonii" found as fossils in the Ypresian-age rocks of Ferry County, Washington.


title: Hazel

text: At least 21 species of fungus have a mutualistic relationship with hazel. "Lactarius pyrogalus" grows almost exclusively on hazel, and hazel is one of two kinds of host for the rare "Hypocreopsis rhododendri". Several rare species of Graphidion lichen depend on hazel trees. In the UK, five species of moth are specialised to feed on hazel including "Parornix devoniella". Animals which eat hazelnuts include red deer, dormouse and red squirrel.


title: Hazel

text: The nuts of all hazels are edible. The common hazel is the species most extensively grown for its nuts, followed in importance by the filbert. Nuts are also harvested from the other species, but apart from the filbert, none is of significant commercial importance.


title: Hazel

text: A number of cultivars of the common hazel and filbert are grown as ornamental plants in gardens, including forms with contorted stems ("C. avellana" 'Contorta', popularly known as "Corkscrew hazel" or "Harry Lauder's walking stick" from its gnarled appearance); with weeping branches ("C. avellana" 'Pendula'); and with purple leaves ("C. maxima" 'Purpurea').


title: Hazel

text: Hazel is a traditional material used for making wattle, withy fencing, baskets, and the frames of coracle boats. The tree can be coppiced, and regenerating shoots allow for harvests every few years.


title: Hazel

text: The Celts believed hazelnuts gave one wisdom and inspiration. There are numerous variations on an ancient tale that nine hazel trees grew around a sacred pool, dropping into the water nuts that were eaten by salmon (a fish sacred to Druids), which absorbed the wisdom. A Druid teacher, in his bid to become omniscient, caught one of these special salmon and asked a student to cook the fish, but not to eat it. While he was cooking it, a blister formed and the pupil used his thumb to burst it, which he naturally sucked to cool, thereby absorbing the fish's wisdom. This boy was called Fionn Mac Cumhail (Fin McCool) and went on to become one of the most heroic leaders in Gaelic mythology.


title: Hazel

text: "The Hazel Branch" from "Grimms' Fairy Tales" claims that hazel branches offer the greatest protection from snakes and other things that creep on the earth. In the Grimm tale "Cinderella", a hazel branch is planted by the protagonist at her mother's grave and grows into a tree that is the site where the girl's wishes are granted by birds.


title: Apple cider

text: Apple cider (also called sweet cider, soft cider, or simply cider) is the name used in the United States and Canada for an unfiltered, unsweetened, non-alcoholic beverage made from apples. Though typically referred to simply as "cider" in the United States, it is not to be confused with the alcoholic beverage known as cider in other places, which is called "hard cider" in the US. Outside of the United States and Canada, it is commonly referred to as cloudy apple juice to distinguish it from clearer, filtered apple juice and hard cider.