title: President of Bangladesh

text: Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was the apparent acting president of a state yet to be known as Bangladesh (during the Liberation war of Bangladesh, when it was still called East Pakistan, before he was captured, taken to West Pakistan, and kept in a Pakistani prison. His imprisonment therefore resulted in his absence during the entire war-time, which lasted almost a year. In his absence, Syed Nazrul Islam, vice-president of the Provisional Government of Bangladesh was appointed as acting president). Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was the founder of Bangladesh and remarked as the 'Father of the Bangladesh Nation'. He headed the Awami League, served as the president from April 1971 to 1972; was the prime minister from 1972 and the president in 1975. He is popularly referred to as Sheikh Mujib, and with the honorary title of Bangabandhu (বঙ্গবন্ধু Bôngobondhu, "Friend of Bengal"). His eldest daughter Sheikh Hasina Wajed is the present leader of the Awami League and the current prime minister of Bangladesh. He introduced the state policy of Bangladesh according to four basic principles: nationalism, secularism, democracy and socialism.


title: President of Bangladesh

text: The Awami League won a massive majority in the first parliamentary elections of Bangladesh in March 1973 much due to Mujib's high-profile and as the single large political oppressor. However, the Mujib government faced serious challenges, which included the rehabilitation of millions of people displaced in 1971, organising the supply of food, health aids and other necessities. The effects of the 1970 cyclone had not worn off, and the state's economy had immensely deteriorated by the conflict. Economically, Mujib embarked on a huge nationalisation program. The economy suffered as a result of socialist planning. By the end of the year, thousands of Bengalis arrived from Pakistan, and thousands of non-Bengalis migrated to Pakistan; and yet many thousands remained in refugee camps.


title: President of Bangladesh

text: During the aftermath of the 1974 Famine, Mujib proclaimed a State of Emergency to manage the crisis. The lawmakers of the 1st parliament amended the constitution to transition into a strong executive presidential system to better manage emergencies in the country. These changes were remarked as the "Second Revolution," by Sheikh Mujib. Sheikh Mujib assumed the presidency. All politicians were brought together for the unity of the country and a national party was created as the 'National Union Party', with a striking similarity to the Abraham Lincoln's National Union Party during the height of the American Civil War, with all different political members joining the national party for the sake of unity in order to prevent crisis stemming from disunity. It was named as the Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League (BAKSAL), in which all members of parliament, government and semi-autonomous associations and bodies were obliged to join.


title: President of Bangladesh

text: After Bangladesh achieved recognition from most countries, Sheikh Mujib helped Bangladesh enter into the United Nations and the Non-Aligned Movement. He travelled to the United States, the United Kingdom and other European nations to obtain humanitarian and developmental assistance for the nation. He signed a treaty of friendship with India, which pledged extensive economic and humanitarian assistance and began training Bangladesh's security forces and government personnel. Mujib forged a close friendship with Indira Gandhi, strongly praising India's decision to intercede, and professed admiration and friendship for India. But the Indian government did not remain in close co-operation with Bangladesh during Mujib's lifetime.


title: President of Bangladesh

text: He charged the provisional parliament to write a new constitution, and proclaimed the four fundamental principles of nationalism, secularism, democracy and socialism. Mujib nationalised hundreds of industries and companies as well as abandoned land and capital and initiated land reform aimed at helping millions of poor farmers. Major efforts were launched to rehabilitate an estimated 10 million refugees. The economy began recovering and a famine was prevented. A constitution was proclaimed in 1972 and elections were held, which resulted in Sheikh Mujib and his party gaining power with an absolute majority. He further outlined state programmes to expand primary education, sanitation, food, healthcare, water and electric supply across the country. A five-year plan released in 1973 focused state investments into agriculture, rural infrastructure and cottage industries.


title: President of Bangladesh

text: Soon after the passing of a constitutional amendment, there was a disgruntlement among military generals who lamented the old Pakistani military establishment led state and some close associates of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, who were ministers and secretaries, out of bitter bureaucratic rivalry with Bangabandhu and his loyalist ministers and secretaries joined the assassination plot. In August 1975, he was assassinated by some junior and mid-level army officers who had since their arrests and trials given testimonies against General Ziaur Rahman for guiding them and instigating them against the President and the State to cause the coup, and a new government, headed by one of the former associates who was in a bitter bureaucratic rivalry with Bangabandhu loyalists, Khandakar Moshtaque, was formed. Mushtaq's government was removed by a bloodless coup that occurred on 3 November 1975. A counter uprising occurred four days later on 7 November, resulting from a power struggle, with the deaths of several military generals, including General Khaled Mosharraf the leader of the November 3 counter coup, trying to prevent the conspirators and plotters of the Bangabandhu assassination from taking over the state successfully. With the absence of any resistance after the 7 November coup, Maj. Gen. Ziaur Rahman emerged into the political scene returning to the post of Army Chief of Staff. He pledged an army led state while the civilian government headed is by the president, Chief Justice Abu Sadat Mohammad Sayem. As the country was in dire situation with no stability and security, with Zia and the rest of the conspirators of the 7 November coup with their armed pressure on the President Sayem who then promulgated martial law, misled Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's use of the State of Emergency to turn it into a tool for a non civilian military takeover of the state and the government, and later replaced President Abu Sadat Mohammad Sayem as the Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA).


title: President of Bangladesh

text: With the Ziaur Rahman's military loyalists now running the state from behind, initially as Deputy CMLA, Ziaur Rahman sought to invigorate government policy and administration. While continuing Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's ban on political parties, he sought to bring back Ayub Khan regime's military bureaucratic system of government. A year later in November 1976, Ziaur Rahman became Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA). He assumed the presidency upon Sayem's retirement 5 months later, promising national elections in 1978. After a Yes-No nationwide vote referendum, Ziaur Rahman was elected for president in 1978. His government removed the remaining restrictions on political parties and encouraged all opposition parties to participate in the pending parliamentary elections while putting military generals into politics. He made constitutional changes without approval from the elected parliamentary representatives required by the constitution, and removed the social welfare system that guaranteed many social securities for the elderly people and poor people that was in place prior. More than 30 parties vied in the parliamentary elections of 15 February 1979, and with massive public support, Zia's Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) won 207 of the 300 elected seats.


title: President of Bangladesh

text: Zia moved to lead the nation in a new direction, significantly different from the ideology and agenda of the 1st parliament of Bangladesh. He issued a proclamation order amending the constitution, replacing secularism with increasing the faith of the people in their creator, following the same tactics that was used in Pakistan during the Ayub Khan regime to establish a military rule over civilian democratic rule in the government system. In the preamble, he inserted the salutation ""Bismillahir-Rahmaanir-Rahim"" ("In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful"). In Article 8(1) and 8(1A) the statement ""absolute trust and faith in Almighty Allah"" was added, replacing the commitment to secularism. Socialism was redefined as ""economic and social justice."" In Article 25(2), Zia introduced the principle that ""the state shall endeavour to consolidate, preserve and strengthen fraternal relations among Muslim countries based on Islamic solidarity."" Zia's edits to the constitution redefined the nature of the republic from the secularism laid out by Sheikh Mujib and his supporters. Islamic religious education was introduced as a compulsory subject in Bangladeshi schools, with provisions for non-Muslim students to learn of their own religions.


title: President of Bangladesh

text: In public speeches and policies that he formulated, Zia began expounding "Bangladeshi nationalism," as opposed to Mujib's assertion of a Liberal Nationalism that emphasised on the liberation of Bengalis from Pakistan's autocratic regime. Zia emphasised the national role of Islam (as practised by the majority of Bangladeshis). Claiming to promote an inclusive national identity, Zia reached out to non-Bengali minorities such as the Santals, Garos, Manipuris and Chakmas, as well as the Urdu-speaking peoples of Bihari origin. However, many of these groups were predominantly Hindu and Buddhist and were alienated by Zia's promotion of political Islam. In an effort to promote cultural assimilation and economic development, Zia appointed a Chittagong Hill Tracts Development Commission in 1976, but resisted holding a political dialogue with the representatives of the hill tribes on the issue of autonomy and cultural self-preservation. On 2 July 1977 Ziaur Rahman organised a tribal convention to promote a dialogue between the government and tribal groups. However, most cultural and political issues would remain unresolved and intermittent incidents of inter-community violence and militancy occurred throughout Zia's rule.


title: President of Bangladesh

text: Notable mentions of Ziaur Rahman's tenure as a president have been radical reforms both in country's infrastructure and diplomacy. President Zia successfully pointed out the grounds those could be effectively and exclusively decisive for development of Bangladesh and his reforms covered the political, economical, agricultural and military infrastructure of Bangladesh. Reorganisation of Bangladesh's international relations are especially mentionable because it had active influence over both economy and politics. He successfully bailed Bangladesh out of the Indo-Soviet bloc and grabbed the distancing strings to put bar on the gradually deterioration of Bangladeshi relations with the Western world. Zia gave attention to the other Eastern superpower China that later helped Bangladesh hugely to recover from economical setbacks and to enrich the arsenal of her armed forces.


title: President of Bangladesh

text: The most notable of Zia's reformed diplomacy was establishing a relationship with the Muslim world as well as the Middle East. The present bulk overseas recruitment of Bangladeshi migrant workers to Middle Eastern countries are direct outcome of Zia's efforts those he put to develop a long-lasting relationship with the Muslim leadership of the world. The purpose of Middle East relations has been largely economical whereas the rapid improvement of relations with China was particularly made to for rapid advancement of the country's armed forces.


title: President of Bangladesh

text: Throughout the study of Zia's international relations it could have been suggested that attention to the bigger neighbour India has been largely ignored. But Zia was found to put strong emphasis on regional co-operation particularly for South Asia. It came evident after Zia took initiative to found SAARC. Zia's dream of Bangladesh's involvement in a strong regional co-operation was met after 4 years of his assassination when SAARC got founded on 8 December 1985 with a key role of the then Bangladeshi authority.


title: President of Bangladesh

text: In 1981, Zia was assassinated by fractions of the military who were dissatisfied with his non-conventional means of running many state affairs including the military. Vice-President Justice Abdus Sattar was constitutionally sworn in as acting president. He declared a new national emergency and called for elections within 6 months. Sattar was elected president and won. Sattar was ineffective, however, and Army Chief of Staff, Lt. Gen. H.M. Ershad assumed power in a bloodless coup in March 1982.


title: President of Bangladesh

text: Like his predecessors, Ershad dissolved parliament, declared martial law, assumed the position of CMLA, suspended the constitution, and banned political activity. Ershad reaffirmed Bangladesh's moderate, non-aligned foreign policy.


title: President of Bangladesh

text: In December 1983, he assumed the presidency. Over the ensuing months, Ershad sought a formula for elections while dealing with potential threats to public order.


title: President of Bangladesh

text: On 1 January 1986, full political rights, including the right to hold large public rallies, were restored. At the same time, the Jatiyo (People's) Party (JP), designed as Ershad's political vehicle for the transition from martial law, was established. Ershad resigned as chief of army staff, retired from military service, and was elected president in October 1986. (Both the BNP and the AL refused to put up an opposing candidate.)


title: President of Bangladesh

text: In July 1987, the opposition parties united for the first time in opposition to government policies. Ershad declared a state of emergency in November, dissolved parliament in December, and scheduled new parliamentary elections for March 1988.


title: President of Bangladesh

text: All major opposition parties refused to participate. Ershad's party won 251 of the 300 seats; three other political parties which did participate, as well as a number of independent candidates, shared the remaining seats. This parliament passed a large number of legislative bills, including a controversial amendment making Islam the state religion.


title: President of Bangladesh

text: By mid-1990, opposition to Ershad's rule had escalated. November and December 1990 were marked by general strikes, increased campus protests, public rallies, and a general disintegration of law and order. Ershad resigned in December 1990.


title: President of Bangladesh

text: It was reverted to democratic parliamentary system in 1991 when Khaleda Zia became the first female prime minister of Bangladesh through parliamentary election.


title: President of Bangladesh

text: The president is the head of state, a largely ceremonial post elected by the parliament. However, the president's powers have been substantially expanded during the tenure of a caretaker government, which is responsible for the conduct of elections and transfer of power. The officers of the caretaker government must be non-partisan and are given three months to complete their task. This transitional arrangement is an innovation that was pioneered by Bangladesh in its 1991 election and then institutionalised in 1996 through its 13th constitutional amendment.


title: President of Bangladesh

text: In the caretaker government, the president has the power to control over the Ministry of Defence, the authority to declare a state of emergency, and the power to dismiss the Chief Adviser and other members of the caretaker government. Once elections have been held and a new government and Parliament are in place, the president's powers and position revert to their largely ceremonial role. The Chief Adviser and other advisers to the caretaker government must be appointed within 15 days after the current Parliament expires.


title: Airlift (film)

text: Airlift is a 2016 Indian Hindi-language drama thriller film directed by Raja Krishna Menon starring Akshay Kumar and Nimrat Kaur, that follows Ranjit Katyal (played by Kumar), a Kuwait-based businessman as he carries out the evacuation of Indians based in Kuwait during the Invasion of Kuwait by Saddam Hussein's Iraq which lead to the beginning of the Gulf War. The film was jointly produced by Abundantia Entertainment, Cape of Good Films, Emmay Entertainment, Hari Om Entertainment, T-Series and Viacom 18 Motion Pictures on a total budget of . The plot is adapted from real life story of a Kuwait-based Malayali businessman Mathunny Mathews.


title: Airlift (film)

text: Director Menon wrote the script after studying the whole incident of war and the predicament of Indians based in Kuwait. He then approached Akshay Kumar for the role of a character based on Mathunny Mathews, He agreed to act and produce under his banner of Hari Om Entertainment, Kumar reported that his 80% profit share will be included in the film's budget and he would not charge fees. Filming began in February 2015. The first schedule of the film was reportedly shot in Al-Hamra Palace Beach Resort in Ras Al Khaimah The sets were re-created to depict Kuwait during 1990. The film was shot in several locations including, Ujjain, Bhuj and Rajasthan. Kumar collaborated with the flight company Air India to promote the film who had a major contribution in the evacuation of record-breaking number of Indians during the war.


title: Airlift (film)

text: "Airlift" opened theatrically worldwide on 22 January 2016, coinciding with Republic Day weekend. The film received positive reviews from the critics, praising film's strong writing, scale, editing, cinematography and big applaud went to Akshay Kumar for his acting, calling his one of the best performances. The film was a commercial success, it emerged as a blockbuster at Indian as well as abroad box office. "Airlift" has grossed over 2.28 billion in global markets. The film is featured among the 2016 "Indian Panorama" section of the International Film Festival of India.


title: Airlift (film)

text: In 1990, Indian expatriate Ranjit Katyal (Akshay Kumar) is a successful Kuwait-based businessman who is very well-connected with officials in Kuwait City and Baghdad, and makes a happy home with his wife Amrita (Nimrat Kaur) and their daughter Simu. He calls himself a Kuwaiti and is often derisive towards Indians.


title: Airlift (film)

text: After a night of partying, Ranjit is woken up to a phone call from his friend and receives word that negotiations between Iraq and Kuwait have collapsed, and Iraqi troops have begun their invasion of Kuwait. The next morning, Ranjit discovers that Kuwait City is now occupied by the Iraqi Army. Ranjit and Nair, his driver, go out and drive to the Indian embassy in an attempt to take their family and leave Kuwait. They are stopped by Iraqi soldiers at a checkpoint and Nair is shot dead amidst the confusion. A shocked Ranjit is then taken to the Emir's palace. There he meets Iraqi Republican Guard officer Major Khalaf bin Zayd (Inaamulhaq), who reveals that he was the one who pulled up to the checkpoint earlier and prevented Ranjit from being harmed. Major Khalaf, who knows Ranjit from Ranjit's visits to Iraq, chides him but extends his personal friendship, ensuring Ranjit and his family's safety from the soldiers.


title: Airlift (film)

text: From there, Ranjit goes to the Indian embassy where he learns that the Kuwaiti government has fled into exile. Some 170,000 Indians in Kuwait are now stranded as refugees. Iraqi forces continue to push through Kuwait and Ranjit's mansion is raided by Iraqi soldiers, but his wife and child manage to escape to his office. Ranjit convinces his friends to work together, and they set up a makeshift camp for some 500 Indians with Major Khalaf's permission. Amrita urges Ranjit to use his leverage to extricate his own family, but Ranjit, who ordinarily would have just looked out for himself, appears to have a change of heart. He decides to stay and help the other Indians leave Kuwait.


title: Airlift (film)

text: Ranjit learns that the Indian embassy in Kuwait has been evacuated and phones the Indian External Affairs Ministry in New Delhi, where he reaches the Joint Secretary, Sanjiv Kohli (Kumud Mishra), and asks for arrangements to be made for the evacuation. Later on, the camp is looted by Iraqi soldiers and harassed some of the refugees. Ranjit pays a visit to Major Khalaf and talks to him about this, to which the Major simply extends his apologies, and also reveals that President Saddam has already permitted Indians to leave Kuwait, but the problem is that they have no way to do so. Ranjit travels to Baghdad to try to negotiate safe passage out of Kuwait, but to no avail. The only remaining option, Iraqi Foreign Minister Tariq Aziz, turns out to be helpful. He discloses that an Indian merchant ship is due to arrive in Iraq with various supplies, and permits the Indian refugees to leave on the ship. However, Ranjit later receives news of the UN embargo and that ships are barred from entering or leaving Iraq, effectively crushing their hopes of getting out.


title: Airlift (film)

text: Meanwhile, Kohli is somewhat of a sluggard, but when his father (Arun Bali) recounts their tale of woe during the partition of India, Kohli is inspired to actively help Ranjit. He approaches the national airline, Air India, to lead an evacuation of the 170,000 Indians in Kuwait and gets the Indian embassy in Amman, Jordan to issue permits. As the Indians leave Kuwait, Ranjit comes across yet another checkpoint where he encounters hostile Iraqi soldiers who, in absence of any passports or IDs, threaten to kill Amrita. A skirmish erupts between Ranjit and the soldiers, following which the people in Ranjit's convoy come forward and outnumber the Iraqi soldiers. Ranjit lets them live and the convoy passes. They arrive in Jordan where planes from Air India and Indian Airlines would fly the refugees back to India. The Indians salute Ranjit as they board the planes that will take them home. Ranjit however begins to feel guilty over his attitude towards Indians as he sees the Indian Tricolour. The film ends with Ranjit indicating that he always believed India never did anything for its citizens, but after being rescued by the country he and a lot of Indians had disowned, he may not ever say that in the future again.


title: Airlift (film)

text: According to the director of the film, Raja Krishna Menon, he wrote the script after studying the whole incident of war and the predicament of Indians based in Kuwait. He then approached Akshay Kumar for the role of a character based on Mathunny Mathews, the real life businessman who spearheaded the evacuation efforts named 'Ranjit Katyal', to which he agreed to act and produce under his banner of Hari Om Entertainment. Kumar felt that the film possessed significant offbeat potential, with a good amount of "patriotism" and a reason to be a proud Indian. He stated that Balraj Sahni's role in the film "Waqt" (1965) is his inspiration for the role where an earthquake shatters the peaceful life of Sahni's character.


title: Airlift (film)

text: Due to the film's theme based on the rescue operation, the film was compared with Ben Affleck-starrer "Argo" (2012) sharing the similar storyline. However, Kumar stated that the film does not have any connection with it and is completely based on a true story. He also said that comparing the film with Argo is an "insult" and it is not a matter of humour for Indians to achieve this end. Kumar reported that his 80% profit share will be included in the film's budget and he would not charge fees for the same.


title: Airlift (film)

text: Principal photography was started in February 2015. The first schedule of the film was reportedly shot in Al-Hamra Palace Beach Resort in Ras Al Khaimah and Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh in early March 2015. The sets were re-created to depict Kuwait during 1990. The second schedule of the film was shot in Bhuj, Gujarat and Rajasthan, India.


title: Airlift (film)

text: Kumar and Purab Kohli reportedly learnt Arabic language for their roles. Final portions of the film were completed with shooting of a music video for the song "Soch" in December 2015.


title: Airlift (film)

text: The soundtrack for "Airlift" was composed by Amaal Mallik except one song Dil Cheez Tujhe Dedi (music by Ankit Tiwari) (noted) and the lyrics were written by Kumaar. The first song "Soch Na Sake" was released on T-Series official YouTube channel on 17 December 2015. The full soundtrack album which includes 5 songs was released on 24 December 2015. The music rights are acquired by T-Series.


title: Airlift (film)

text: The song "Dil Cheez Tujhe Dedi" is largely inspired by Algerian singer Khaled's hit song from the 1990s "Didi".


title: Airlift (film)

text: "Airlift" was released on a total number of 1,800 to 2,000 screens in India. Overseas, including Middle East, the film released with total number of 70 screens on 21 January. The film was declared tax free by Uttar Pradesh and Bihar state governments on 28 January and 17 February 2016.


title: Airlift (film)

text: While initially slated for release, "Airlift" was eventually banned from cinemas in Kuwait for undisclosed reasons.


title: Airlift (film)

text: The film had its highest opening in Emirates with the amount of AED 900,000, breaking the records of widest released film. The film earned during its first day run on 2,500 screens in India. Airlift collected in total during the first week, reports film analyst Taran Adarsh.


title: Airlift (film)

text: "Bollywood Hungama" gave the film four and a half stars out of five, stating "On the whole, "Airlift" is a classic film based on a real-life incident that is told extremely well on screen. It is surely one of the best films to come out this year and will pick up with a strong word of mouth. Just do not miss this one!" Ananya Bhattacharya of "India Today" also rated the film four and half stars out of five, terming the film as "gritty, edge-of-the-seat and heart-stopping" and stated ""Airlift" is a tale of unmatched heroism. In all, Airlift is the story of unparalleled courage and unsung heroes. From unknown names in the Ministry of External Affairs in Delhi to people who had their Indianness rearing its head from within just when it was required, Airlift is un-miss-able. Go watch it." Srijana Mitra Das from "The Times of India" gave the film 4 stars out of 5 praising its direction and wrote "Airlift has one of Akshay Kumar's best performances – along with other sterling acts. Certain cameos are outstanding. Airlift's scale is impressive and editing (Hemanti Sarkar) deft." Writing for "NDTV", Saibal Chatterjee also gave it four stars and stated, "Airlift is a rare megastar vehicle that derives obvious benefits from the lead actor's magnetism without subjugating itself to the need to make the most of his presence in the cast. Airlift is a film that every Indian, and every Bollywood buff despairing for genuinely high-quality storytelling, must watch." Shubha Shetty Saha writing for "Mid-Day" felt that the film is "Akshay Kumar's best till date," awarded the film four stars and commented, "Menon's deft execution of the plot in hand, crisp editing (Hemanti Sarkar), dialogues which are perfectly tailored for the script, and good cinematography (Priya Seth) make this film a must watch. Don't miss it."


title: Airlift (film)

text: Anupama Chopra from "Hindustan Times" rated the film three and a half stars out of five, and described it as "Akshay Kumar's finest hour" and wrote "Big props to Akshay for putting his heart and might behind such an unconventional project, and to director Raja Krishna Menon for showcasing a story that had been lost on the sidelines. But Airlift never takes full flight because of the screenplay. Airlift is tonally inconsistent but the film is fuelled by a palpable sincerity." Ritika Handoo of "Zee News" also gave it three and half stars out of five and termed Akshay as the "hero" of this film. She stated, "Akshay as Ranjit Katyal is the anchor of this ship called 'Indians' who need to sail smoothly ashore. The film shows how exactly the Indians in Kuwait were evacuated or rather 'airlifted' safely after Saddam Hussein led the Iraq war. Akshay is the hero because he played a man, who in real life, stretch his boundaries for saving humanity. Akshay's dedication and sincerity in portraying such roles with brilliance makes 'Airlift' have a safe landing even at the box office windows. A must watch for every Indian. Remember this will make you believe in what Indians can do when 'united'." Shubhra Gupta in her review for "The Indian Express" also gave the film three and a half stars and noted " 'Airlift' plays it right, and gives us drama, even if things slow down and turn a trifle repetitious post interval. But overall, 'Airlift' is a good film, solidly plotted, well executed and well-acted. Just lose the songs, and the occasional underlined background music the next time." Rajeev Masand from "CNN-IBN" gave the film three and half stars, saying "The occasional speed bumps aside, there are many moments that soar. Raja Menon turns an important story into a compelling film. Don't miss it." Arkadev Ghoshal of "IBTimes India" gave it three and half stars and stated, "Airlift" is probably a good release for the weekend preceding Republic Day, when patriotic sentiments are high. However, one only wishes that Menon had given a little more attention to some other aspects of the film. He does show promise, so here's expecting better cinema from him." Sukanya Verma of "Rediff" also gave it three and half stars and termed the film as "taut, tense, terrific" and summarised, "Oh what a beauty Akshay's performance is. Old-school gallantry, contemporary tone, his measured delivery is the soul of and savior in Airlift. Larger-than-life might is commonplace, but larger-than-life intensity is rare. Here, it is unmistakable, unceasing." Raja Sen of Rediff.com gave a 3 out of 5 star rating explaining that "Films about genuinely unsung heroes are a fine thing, and Raja Krishna Menon's Airlift is a sincere effort to celebrate an insanely daunting task."


title: Airlift (film)

text: Surabhi Redkar from "Koimoi" gave three stars praising Akshay's performance and noted, "Airlift is definitely a one-time watch since it is a story of an unsung hero and also India's proud moment. Akshay Kumar certainly gives an impressive performance."


title: Airlift (film)

text: The movie was criticized for oversimplifying the complex operation of the airlift. The portrayal of diplomats and bureaucrats in the film was criticized by present and former officials in the Indian Ministry of External Affairs. K.P. Fabian, who was the Joint Secretary of the Gulf division at the Ministry during the Gulf War in 1990, accused the film of deliberately spreading misinformation about the role of government officials at the time.


title: Airlift (film)

text: Ministry spokesperson Vikas Swarup tweeted that the film was great entertainment but short on facts while the Foreign Secretary Nirupama Rao tweeted that the film fell completely short in its research on the role of the Ministry in the '90–'91 Gulf War.


title: Spider-Ham

text: Spider-Ham (Peter Porker) is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is an anthropomorphic pig and is a cartoon animal parody version of Spider-Man. He was created by editor Larry Hama, Tom DeFalco and Mark Armstrong.


title: Spider-Ham

text: He first appeared in the one-shot humor comic book "Marvel Tails Starring Peter Porker, the Spectacular Spider-Ham" (November 1983), which was then followed by an ongoing bi-monthly series, "Peter Porker, the Spectacular Spider-Ham", under Marvel's Star Comics imprint, with both titles edited by Hama. The character existed on Earth-8311, which was a universe populated by anthropomorphic parody versions of the Marvel superheroes and supervillains. Spider-Ham made his feature film debut in "" (2018), voiced by John Mulaney.


title: Spider-Ham

text: Spider-Ham was first featured as star of the 1983 humorous one-shot "Marvel Tails", with a backup cast of other anthropomorphic talking-animal parody versions of popular Marvel superheroes, such as Captain AmeriCat (a cat version of Captain America), Hulk-Bunny (a rabbit version of Hulk) and Goose Rider (a goose version of Ghost Rider).


title: Spider-Ham

text: Two years later, a solo series, titled "Peter Porker, the Spectacular Spider-Ham" debuted under Marvel's Star Comics imprint. The series, published bi-monthly, lasted seventeen issues before its cancellation in 1987. With the cancellation of "Peter Porker, the Spectacular Spider-Ham", the character became a backup feature in "Marvel Tales", a monthly reprint series showcasing Spider-Man's past adventures. Beginning with issue #201 (cover dated July 1987), these new Spider-Ham stories appeared in issues #201–212, 214–219, 223–230, 233, 236, 237, 239, 240, and 247 before ceasing altogether.


title: Spider-Ham

text: In issue #3 of "What The--?!" (cover dated October 1988), Porker meets with Raven the Hunter (a parody of Spider-Man's nemesis Kraven the Hunter) in a story that satirized the popular "Kraven's Last Hunt" storyline which had been featured a year earlier in Marvel's Spider-Man titles. Spider-Ham also makes appearances in issues #18, 20, 22, and 24 of "What The--?!" The 26th issue of "What The--?!" (cover dated fall 1993) features "Spider-Ham 15.88", a humorous take-off on Peter Parker's future counterpart, Miguel O'Hara a.k.a. "Spider-Man 2099". The "15.88" is not seen as a year, but rather a humorous take on the price of a ham (the cover states that it was marked down from the original price of $20.99).


title: Spider-Ham

text: Spider-Ham has also appeared on the cover of "Wha...Huh?" #1, and was referred to as a fictional character in the Earth-616 Marvel Universe, in "Generation X" #52.


title: Spider-Ham

text: "Spider-Man Family" #1 (2005 one-shot) features a sixteen-page "Spider-Girl" story, in which May Parker (Peter Parker's daughter) watches a DVD showing a small portion of a fictional Spider-Ham animated series, discovering that it was created by one of Spider-Man's enemies, Jack O'Lantern. Here, Spider-Ham appears to mostly be a parody of Batman. Also in the issue, there is a partial reprint of "Marvel Tails" #1.


title: Spider-Ham

text: Spider-Ham was selected by fans and retailers to be the focus of the final variant cover by Mike Wieringo to the "" crossover, "Amazing Spider-Man" #528.


title: Spider-Ham

text: In January 2007, J. Michael Straczynski authored the "Ultimate Civil War Spider-Ham" one-shot, featuring Spider-Ham's attempt to find his missing "thought balloons" against a Civil War parody. The story does not fit in with previously established Spider-Ham continuity.


title: Spider-Ham

text: Tom Defalco returned to Spider-Ham's world in 2009, in the pages of "Amazing Spider-Man Family" #4–5. He introduces Swiney-Girl, the daughter of Spider-Ham and counterpart of Defalco's other creation Spider-Girl. Once again, the story strays away from the established, albeit loose, continuity of the original Spider-Ham stories by altering the character's origin and supporting characters, most notably in establishing Peter Porker as a natural-born pig bitten by a radioactive spider (directly mirroring Spider-Man's origin) and altering his love interest (a counterpart of Mary Jane Watson) from a water buffalo to a crane.


title: Spider-Ham

text: He fights alongside the "X-Babies" in issue #4 (March 2010) of their four-issue miniseries from 2009–2010.


title: Spider-Ham

text: To mark the anniversary of "Peter Porker, The Spectacular Spider-Ham" #1, Marvel released the "Spider-Ham 25th Anniversary Special" in July 2010, with Tom Defalco writing both Spider-Ham and Swiney-Girl stories. These stories feature most of Spider-Ham's original cast and origin, but incorporates the Mary Crane Watsow character from "Amazing Spider-Man Family" rather than her original counterpart.


title: Spider-Ham

text: In 2022, a graphic novel was published called Spider-Ham: Hollywood May-Ham. The book features Spider-Ham and Mary Jane Water Buffalo to make a documentary about his status as a superhero with Alfred Peacock (a parody of Alfred Hitchcock). After noticing mysterious happenings on set, he realizes Peacock is actually Mysteriape and attempts to defeat him and the Swinester Six.


title: Spider-Ham

text: Peter Porker was born a spider (simply named Peter). He resided in the basement lab of May Porker, a slightly goofy animal scientist who had created "the world's first atomic powered hairdryer", hoping that "the introduction of nuclear fusion into America's beauty salons" would "revolutionize the hair care industry". After dousing her head with water and activating the dryer, May Porker accidentally irradiated herself, and in a fit of delusion, bit Peter, who then found himself transformed into an anthropomorphic swine much like May Porker herself. Running from the Porker homestead disoriented, Peter soon came to realize that he still retained a spider's abilities:


title: Spider-Ham

text: ""This is astounding! Am I a spider with the limitations of a pig? Or a pig with the proportionate strength and agility of a spider? I've become something greater than either spider or pig... I've become a Spider-Ham!"" – "Peter Porker, the Spectacular Spider-Ham" #15 (May 1987)


title: Spider-Ham

text: After this startling series of events, Peter (who adopted the surname "Porker", that of his benefactor May Porker, who after the accident mentally attuned to a state in which she believed she was Peter's loving aunt) dedicated himself and his new-found abilities to fighting injustice and the occasional animal parody of established Marvel Comics villains. May Porker's scientific genius was transferred to Peter, giving him the know-how to devise his webspinner gauntlets to replace his lost natural ability.


title: Spider-Ham

text: Porker, in his spider-themed alter-ego's first adventure, teamed up with Captain Americat, as they attempted to foil the nefarious plot of The Marauder, in a series of events that led to the creation of the Hulk-Bunny ("Marvel Tails" #1, "If He Should Punch Me").


title: Spider-Ham

text: Several months later, Spider-Ham encountered his main nemesis and one of his only recurring enemies in the form of Ducktor Doom, a duck parody of Doctor Doom ("Peter Porker, the Spectacular Spider-Ham" #1, "The Mysterious Island of Ducktor Doom"). Spider-Ham would meet again with Doom when Porker would foil the would-be world conqueror's plot to create an army of living super vegetables ("Peter Porker, the Spectacular Spider-Ham" #6, "Salad Daze").


title: Spider-Ham

text: Other notable menaces Porker would face along the way include the Bull-Frog (a parody of the Marvel villain Man-Bull), the Buzzard (an opossum take on the Spider-Man adversary the Vulture), Hogzilla (a swine counterpart to the more popular Godzilla), and the King-Pig (seemingly the swine equivalent of Marvel's mob-boss the Kingpin).


title: Spider-Ham

text: Three characters, not parallels to anybody in the Spider-Man series, also begin in #1: J. Jeremiah Jackal, Jr. (J. Jonah Jackal's nephew), Bunson Bunny and Upton Adam Stray (a cat with shades), all junior trainees at the Daily Beagle. They acquire super-powers in #15, encouraging Spider-Ham in his already made decision to abandon his super-hero career, but they fumble their first mission, forcing Peter Porker to resume his alter-ego as Spider-Ham. Further misadventures of the Beagle Brigadeers were presented within the back-up stories in "Marvel Tales".


title: Spider-Ham

text: The series also included back-up stories featuring such characters as Deerdevil (Daredevil), Goose Rider (Ghost Rider) and the Fantastic Fur (the Fantastic Four).


title: Spider-Ham

text: When Spider-Ham accidentally travels to the "Marvel Zombies" universe, he is suddenly zombified by a group of zombies, namely Captain America, Hulk, and Wolverine. It appears that he is directly shot in the head by an energy bullet by Earth 616's Ultron, effectively killing him but, in a zombie state, Spider-Ham turned into Ham-ibal Lecter (Hannibal Lecter).


title: Spider-Ham

text: During the "Spider-Verse" storyline which featured Spider-Men from various alternate realities, Spider-Ham became a member of the Spider-Army fighting against the Inheritors. He played a crucial role in the final confrontation when he switches places with Benjy Parker (the baby brother of Spider-Girl of Earth-982) – one of the three sacrifices needed for the Inheritors to destroy the Spider-Totems – allowing Ben Parker to get Benjy to safety.


title: Spider-Ham

text: During the "Secret Wars" event when all universes were destroyed and their remains formed a single planet called Battleworld, Spider-Ham found himself the only pig in the domain of the Battleworld called Arachnia and ended up as the captive of its Mayor, Norman Osborn. He was rescued by Spider-Gwen, and the two eventually discovered and teamed up with other spider-powered people (Spider-Man Noir, , Spider-UK and Anya Corazon), neither of whom remembered their previous encounter during the original "Spider-Verse".


title: Spider-Ham

text: Following the conclusion of "Secret Wars", the team of six Spiders that formed during the event feature in a new ongoing series called "Web Warriors", a name that was coined by the Peter Parker of the "Ultimate Spider-Man" TV series during the original "Spider-Verse".


title: Spider-Ham

text: Earth-8311 features talking animal parody versions of a variety of other Marvel characters including some superheroes and supervillains.


title: Spider-Ham

text: Spider-Ham appears in the "Twisted ToyFare Theatre" parody comic "Four Webbings and a Funeral" as part of "The Wizard Spider-Man Special". In the comic, Spider-Ham appears as one of the entrees being served at Spider-Man's funeral.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: Trial by ordeal was an ancient judicial practice by which the guilt or innocence of the accused was determined by subjecting them to a painful, or at least an unpleasant, usually dangerous experience.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: In medieval Europe, like trial by combat, trial by ordeal, such as cruentation, was sometimes considered a "judgement of God" (, ): a procedure based on the premise that God would help the innocent by performing a miracle on their behalf. The practice has much earlier roots, attested to as far back as the Code of Hammurabi and the Code of Ur-Nammu.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: In pre-modern society, the ordeal typically ranked along with the oath and witness accounts as the central means by which to reach a judicial verdict. Indeed, the term "ordeal", Old English "ordǣl", has the meaning of "judgment, verdict" (German "Urteil", Dutch "oordeel"), from Proto-Germanic "*uzdailiją" "that which is dealt out".


title: Trial by ordeal

text: Priestly cooperation in trials by fire and water was forbidden by Pope Innocent III at the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215 and replaced by compurgation. Trials by ordeal became rarer over the Late Middle Ages, but the practice was not discontinued until the 16th century. Certain trials by ordeal would continue to be used into the 17th century in witch-hunts.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: Ordeal by combat took place between two parties in a dispute, either two individuals, or between an individual and a government or other organization. They, or, under certain conditions, a designated "champion" acting on their behalf, would fight, and the loser of the fight or the party represented by the losing champion was deemed guilty or liable. Champions could be used by one or both parties in an individual versus individual dispute, and could represent the individual in a trial by an organization; an organization or state government by its nature had to be represented by a single combatant selected as champion, although there are numerous cases of high-ranking nobility, state officials and even monarchs volunteering to serve as champion. Combat between groups of representatives was less common but still occurred.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: A notable case was that of Gero, Count of Alsleben, whose daughter married Siegfried II, Count of Stade.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: Ordeal by fire was one form of torture. The ordeal of fire typically required that the accused walk a certain distance, usually or a certain number of paces, usually three, over red-hot plowshares or holding a red-hot iron. Innocence was sometimes established by a complete lack of injury, but it was more common for the wound to be bandaged and re-examined three days later by a priest, who would pronounce that God had intervened to heal it, or that it was merely festering—in which case the suspect would be exiled or put to death. One famous story about the ordeal of plowshares concerns the Anglo-Saxon King Edward the Confessor's mother, Emma of Normandy. According to legend, she was accused of adultery with Bishop Ælfwine of Winchester, but proved her innocence by walking barefoot unharmed over burning plowshares.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: During the First Crusade, the French mystic Peter Bartholomew allegedly went through the ordeal by fire in 1099 by his own choice to disprove a charge that his claimed discovery of the Holy Lance was fraudulent. He died as a result of his injuries.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: Trial by ordeal was adopted in the 13th century by the Byzantine successor states the Empire of Nicaea and the Despotate of Epirus; Michael Angold speculates this legal innovation was most likely through "the numerous western mercenaries in Byzantine service both before and after 1204." It was used to prove the innocence of the accused in cases of treason and use of magic to affect the health of the emperor. The most famous case where this was employed was when Michael Palaiologos was accused of treason: he avoided enduring the red-iron by saying he would only hold it if the Metropolitan Phokas of Philadelphia could take the iron from the altar with his own hands and hand it to him. However, the Byzantines viewed trial by ordeal with disgust and considered it a barbarian innovation at odds with Byzantine law and ecclesiastical canons. Angold notes, "Its abolition by Michael Palaiologos was universally acclaimed."


title: Trial by ordeal

text: In 1498, Dominican friar Girolamo Savonarola, the leader of a reform movement in Florence who claimed apocalyptic prophetic visions, attempted to prove the divine sanction of his mission by undergoing a trial by fire. The first of its kind for over 400 years, the trial was a fiasco for Savonarola, since a sudden rain doused the flames, canceling the event, and was taken by onlookers as a sign from God against him. The Holy Inquisition arrested him shortly thereafter, with Savonarola convicted of heresy and hanged at the Piazza della Signoria in Florence.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: Ordeal by fire (Persian:ور ) was also used for judiciary purposes in ancient Iran. Persons accused of cheating in contracts or lying might be asked to prove their innocence by ordeal of fire as an ultimate test. Two examples of such an ordeal include the accused having to pass through fire, or having molten metal poured on their chest. There were about 30 of these kinds of fiery tests in all. If the accused died, they were held to have been guilty; if survived, they were innocent, having been protected by Mithra and the other gods. The most simple form of such ordeals required the accused to take an oath, then drink a potion of sulfur (Avestan language "saokant", Middle Persian "sōgand", Modern Persian "sowgand"). It was believed that fire had an association with truth, and hence with asha.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: In Ancient India, the trial by fire was known as "agnipariksha", in which Agni, the Fire God, would be invoked by a priest using mantras. After the invocation, a pyre would be built and lit, and the accused would be asked to sit on it. According to Hindu mythology, the Fire God would preserve the accused if they were innocent, if not, they would be burned to ashes.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: Trial by boiling oil has been practiced in villages in certain parts of West Africa, such as Togo. There are two main alternatives of this trial. In one version, the accused parties are ordered to retrieve an item from a container of boiling oil, with those who refuse the task being found guilty. In the other version of the trial, both the accused and the accuser have to retrieve an item from boiling oil, with the person or persons whose hand remains unscathed being declared innocent.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: First mentioned in the 6th-century "Lex Salica", the ordeal of hot water required the accused to dip their hand into a kettle or pot of boiling water (sometimes oil or lead was used instead) and retrieve a stone. Assessment of the injury was similar to that for the fire ordeal. An early (non-judicial) example of the test was described by Bishop Gregory of Tours in the late 6th century. He describes how a Catholic saint, Hyacinth, bested an Arian rival by plucking a stone from a boiling cauldron. Gregory said that it took Hyacinth about an hour to complete the task (because the waters were bubbling so ferociously), but he was pleased to record that when the heretic tried, he had the skin boiled off up to his elbow.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: Legal texts from the reign of King Athelstan (Lived: – 27 October 939, Ruled: 924 – 939) provide some of the most elaborate royal regulations for the use of the ordeal in Anglo-Saxon England, though the period's fullest account of ordeal practices is found in an anonymous legal text written some time in the 10th century. According to this text, usually given the title "Ordal", the water had to be close to boiling temperature, and the depth from which the stone had to be retrieved was up to the wrist for a 'one-fold' ordeal and up to the elbow for a 'three-fold' ordeal. The distinction between the one-fold and three-fold ordeal appears to be based on the severity of the crime, with the three-fold ordeal being prescribed for more severe offences such as treachery or for notorious criminals. The ordeal would take place in a church, with several in attendance, purified and praying to God to reveal the truth. Afterwards, the hand was bound and examined after three days to see whether it was healing or festering.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: This was still an isolated practice in remote 12th-century Catholic churches. A suspect would place their hand in the boiling water. If after three days God had not healed their wounds, the suspect was guilty of the crime.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: The ordeal of cold water has a precedent in the 13th law of the Code of Ur-Nammu (the oldest known surviving code of laws) and the second law of the Code of Hammurabi. Under the Code of Ur-Nammu, a man who was accused of what some scholars have translated as "sorcery" was to undergo ordeal by water. If the man were proven innocent through this ordeal, the accuser was obligated to pay three shekels to the man who underwent judgment. The Code of Hammurabi dictated that, if a man was accused of a matter by another, the accused was to leap into a river. If the accused man survived this ordeal, the accused was to be acquitted. If the accused was found innocent by this ordeal, the accuser was to be put to death and the accused man was to take possession of the then-deceased accuser's house.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: An ordeal by cold water is mentioned in the Vishnu Smrti, which is one of the texts of the Dharmaśāstra.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: The practice was also set out in Frankish law but was abolished by Emperor Louis the Pious in 829. The practice reappeared in the Late Middle Ages: in the "Dreieicher Wildbann" of 1338, a man accused of poaching was to be submerged in a barrel three times and to be considered innocent if he sank, and guilty if he floated.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: Ordeal by water was associated with the witch-hunts of the 16th and 17th centuries, although an inverse of most trials by ordeal; if the accused sank, they were considered innocent, whereas if they floated, this indicated witchcraft. The ordeal would be conducted with a rope holding the subject so that the person being tested could be retrieved following the trial. A witch trial including this ordeal took place in Szeged, Hungary as late as 1728.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: Demonologists varied in their explanations as to why trial by water would be effective, although spiritual explanations were most common. Some argued that witches floated because they had renounced baptism when entering the Devil's service. King James VI of Scotland claimed in his "Daemonologie" that water was so pure an element that it repelled the guilty. Jacob Rickius claimed that witches were supernaturally light and recommended weighing them as an alternative to dunking them; this procedure and its status as an alternative to dunking were parodied in the 1975 British film "Monty Python and the Holy Grail".


title: Trial by ordeal

text: The ordeal of the cross was apparently introduced in the Early Middle Ages in an attempt to discourage judicial duels among Germanic peoples. As with judicial duels, and unlike most other ordeals, the accuser had to undergo the ordeal together with the accused. They stood on either side of a cross and stretched out their hands horizontally. The first one to lower their arms lost. This ordeal was prescribed by Charlemagne in 779 and again in 806. A capitulary of Louis the Pious in 819 and a decree of Lothar I, recorded in 876, abolished the ordeal so as to avoid the mockery of Christ.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: Franconian law prescribed that an accused was to be given dry bread and cheese blessed by a priest. If the accused choked on the food, they were considered guilty. This was transformed into the ordeal of the Eucharist (trial by sacrament) mentioned by Regino of Prüm ca. 900:AD; the accused was to take the oath of innocence. It was believed that if the oath had been false, the person would die within the same year.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: Numbers 5:12–27 prescribes that a woman suspected of adultery—one called a "Sotah" in later commentaries—should be made to swallow "the bitter water that causeth the curse" by the priest in order to determine her guilt. The accused would be condemned only if 'her belly shall swell and her thigh shall rot'. One writer has recently argued that the procedure has a rational basis, envisioning punishment only upon clear proof of pregnancy (a swelling belly) or venereal disease (a rotting thigh) (unless of course the woman was impregnated by her own husband; and of course even historical people were well aware that pregnancy would manifest itself in a very obvious fashion without bothering with rituals and drinking of special potions. Other scholars think an abortifacient a more likely explanation; if the holy water causes miscarriage, it is proof of guilt).


title: Trial by ordeal

text: Some cultures, such as the Efik Uburutu people of present-day Nigeria, would administer the poisonous Calabar bean ("Physostigma venenosum"; known as "esere" in Efik), which contains physostigmine, in an attempt to detect guilt. A defendant who vomited up the bean was innocent. A defendant who became ill or died was considered guilty.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes, including theft, Christianity, and especially witchcraft, for which the ordeal of "tangena" was routinely obligatory. In the 1820s, ingestion of the poisonous nut caused about 1,000 deaths annually. This average rose to around 3,000 annual deaths between 1828 and 1861.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: The "penalty of the peach" was an ancient ordeal that involved peach pits or their extracts. Peach pits contain amygdalin, which is metabolized into cyanide.[but penalty is not the same as trial]


title: Trial by ordeal

text: In early modern Europe, the Mass was unofficially used as a form of poison ordeal: a suspected party was forced to take the Eucharist on the grounds that, if they were guilty, they would be eternally damned, and hence their unwillingness to take the test would give an indication of their guilt.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: An Icelandic ordeal tradition involves the accused walking under a piece of turf. If the turf falls on the accused's head, the accused person is pronounced guilty.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: The ordeals of fire and water in England likely have their origin in Frankish tradition, as the earliest mention of the ordeal of the cauldron is in the first recension of the Salic Law in 510. Trial by cauldron was an ancient Frankish custom used against both freedmen and slaves in cases of theft, false witness and contempt of court, where the accused was made to plunge their right hand into a boiling cauldron and pull out a ring. As Frankish influence spread throughout Europe, ordeal by cauldron spread to neighboring societies.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: The earliest references of ordeal by cauldron in the British Isles occurs in Irish law in the seventh century, but it is unlikely that this tradition shares roots with the Frankish tradition that is likely the source of trial by fire and water among the Anglo-Saxons and later the Normans in England. The laws of Ine, King of the West Saxons, produced around 690, contains the earliest reference to ordeal in Anglo-Saxon law; however, this is the last and only mention of ordeal in Anglo-Saxon England until the 10th century.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: After the Conquest of 1066, the Old English customs of proof were repeated anew and in more detailed fashion by the Normans, but the only notable innovation of the ordeal by the conquerors was the introduction of the trial by battle. There were, however, minor conflicts between the customs of the Anglo-Saxons and the customs of the Normans that were typically resolved in ways that favored the Normans. In a famous story from Eadmer's "Historia novorum in Anglia", William Rufus expresses skepticism about the ordeal after 50 men accused of forest offenses were exonerated by the ordeal of hot iron. In this story, Rufus states that he will take judgment from God's hands into his own. However, this skepticism was not universally shared by the intellectuals of the day, and Eadmer depicts Rufus as irreligious for rejecting the legitimacy of the ordeal.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: The use of the ordeal in medieval England was very sensitive to status and reputation in the community. The laws of Canute distinguish between "men of good repute" who were able to clear themselves by their own oath, "untrustworthy men" who required compurgators, and untrustworthy men who cannot find compurgators who must go to the ordeal. One of the laws of Ethelred the Unready declared that untrustworthy men were to be sent to the triple ordeal, that is, an ordeal of hot iron where the iron is three times heavier than that used in the simple ordeal, unless his lord and two other knights swear that he has not been accused of a crime recently, in which case he would be sent to an ordinary ordeal of hot iron.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: Unlike other European societies, the English rarely employed the ordeal in non-criminal proceedings. The mandatory use of the ordeal in certain criminal proceedings appears to date from the Assize of Clarendon in 1166. Prior to then, compurgation was the most usual method of proof, and the ordeal was used in cases where there was some presumption of guilt against the accused or when the accused was bound to fail in compurgation. A distinction was made between those accused "fama publica" (by public outcry) and those accused on the basis of specific facts. Those accused "fama publica" were able to exculpate themselves by means of compurgation, whereas those accused on the basis of specific facts and those who were thought to have bad character were made to undergo the ordeal.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: The Assize of Clarendon declared that all those said by a jury of presentment to be "accused or notoriously suspect" of robbery, thievery, or murder or of receiving anyone who had committed such a wrong were to be put to the ordeal of water. These juries of presentment were the hundred juries and vills, and these groups, in effect, made the intermediate decision of whether an accused person would face the more final judgment of the ordeal. These bodies rendered "verdicts" of either suspected or not suspected. In cases where the defendant was accused on the basis of one or more specific facts, the defendant was sent to the ordeal upon the verdict of the hundred jury alone. In cases where the defendant was accused "fama publica", the agreement of the hundred jurors and the vills as to the defendant's suspicion was required to send him to the ordeal. However, the intermediate accusation of the juries could still be considered final in some sense as any person who was accused of murder by the juries was required to leave the realm even if he was exonerated by the ordeal.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: In 1215, clergy were forbidden to participate in ordeals by the Fourth Lateran Council. The English plea rolls contain no cases of trial by ordeal after 1219, when Henry III recognized its abolition.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: Popes were generally opposed to ordeals, although there are some apocryphal accounts describing their cooperation with the practice. At first there was no general decree against ordeals, and they were only declared unlawful in individual cases. Eventually Pope Innocent III in Fourth Council of the Lateran (1215) promulgated a canon forbidding blessing of participants before ordeals. This decision was followed by further prohibitions by synods in thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II (1194–1250) was the first king who explicitly outlawed trials by ordeal as they were considered "irrational" (Constitutions of Melfi). In England, things started to change with Henry III of England (1220).


title: Trial by ordeal

text: From the twelfth century, the ordeals started to be generally disapproved and they were discontinued during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Although papal authority had stood against ordeals generally since Innocent III, the interplay of canon and common law was such that a clear anathema on the practice given in 1215 would have unintended consequences and overstepped the bounds of ecclesiastical authority. Secular authorities might deem someone guilty if they relied on clerical authority to avoid an ordeal, and certain "occult" crimes (those to which there would not normally be witnesses) could not be effectively prosecuted in the legal system of the time by any other means than ordeal. Innocent III's prohibition of clerical participation in trial by ordeal was essentially a call to action for secular authorities to move away from it, a process which took centuries to complete.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries some kinds of ordeals were once again used in witch-hunts, although these were actually intended more as a physical test of whether the accused would float, rather than an ordeal invoking divine intervention to prove or disprove guilt, i.e., a witch floated by the nature of a witch, not because God intervened and caused her to float, demonstrating her guilt.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: According to a theory put forward by economics professor Peter Leeson, trial by ordeal may have been effective at sorting the guilty from the innocent. On the assumption that defendants were believers in divine intervention for the innocent, then only the truly innocent would choose to endure a trial; guilty defendants would confess or settle cases instead. Therefore, the theory goes, church and judicial authorities could routinely rig ordeals so that the participants—presumably innocent—could pass them. To support this theory, Leeson points to the great latitude given to the priests in administering the ordeal and interpreting the results of the ordeal. He also points to the overall high exoneration rate of accused persons undergoing the ordeal, when intuitively one would expect a very high proportion of people carrying a red hot iron to be badly burned and thus fail the ordeal.


title: Trial by ordeal

text: Peter Brown explains the persistence and eventual withering of the ordeal by stating that it helped promote consensus in a society where people lived in close quarters and there was little centralized power. In a world where "the sacred penetrated into the chinks of the profane and vice-versa" the ordeal was a "controlled miracle" that served as a point of consensus when one of the greatest dangers to the community was feud. From this analysis, Brown argues that the increasing authoritativeness of the state lessened the need and desire for the ordeal as an instrument of consensus, which ultimately led to its disappearance.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: A rechargeable battery, storage battery, or secondary cell (formally a type of energy accumulator), is a type of electrical battery which can be charged, discharged into a load, and recharged many times, as opposed to a disposable or primary battery, which is supplied fully charged and discarded after use. It is composed of one or more electrochemical cells. The term "accumulator" is used as it accumulates and stores energy through a reversible electrochemical reaction. Rechargeable batteries are produced in many different shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to megawatt systems connected to stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several different combinations of electrode materials and electrolytes are used, including lead–acid, zinc–air, nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel–metal hydride (NiMH), lithium-ion (Li-ion), lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4), and lithium-ion polymer (Li-ion polymer).


title: Rechargeable battery

text: Rechargeable batteries typically initially cost more than disposable batteries, but have a much lower total cost of ownership and environmental impact, as they can be recharged inexpensively many times before they need replacing. Some rechargeable battery types are available in the same sizes and voltages as disposable types, and can be used interchangeably with them.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: Billions of dollars in research are being invested around the world for improving batteries and industry also focuses on building better batteries.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: Devices which use rechargeable batteries include automobile starters, portable consumer devices, light vehicles (such as motorized wheelchairs, golf carts, electric bicycles, and electric forklifts), road vehicles (cars, vans, trucks, motorbikes), trains, small airplanes, tools, uninterruptible power supplies, and battery storage power stations. Emerging applications in hybrid internal combustion-battery and electric vehicles drive the technology to reduce cost, weight, and size, and increase lifetime.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: Older rechargeable batteries self-discharge relatively rapidly, and require charging before first use; some newer low self-discharge NiMH batteries hold their charge for many months, and are typically sold factory-charged to about 70% of their rated capacity.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: Battery storage power stations use rechargeable batteries for load-leveling (storing electric energy at times of low demand for use during peak periods) and for renewable energy uses (such as storing power generated from photovoltaic arrays during the day to be used at night). Load-leveling reduces the maximum power which a plant must be able to generate, reducing capital cost and the need for peaking power plants.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: According to a report from Research and Markets, the analysts forecast the global rechargeable battery market to grow at a CAGR of 8.32% during the period 2018–2022.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: Small rechargeable batteries can power portable electronic devices, power tools, appliances, and so on. Heavy-duty batteries power electric vehicles, ranging from scooters to locomotives and ships. They are used in distributed electricity generation and in stand-alone power systems.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: During charging, the positive active material is oxidized, producing electrons, and the negative material is reduced, consuming electrons. These electrons constitute the current flow in the external circuit. The electrolyte may serve as a simple buffer for internal ion flow between the electrodes, as in lithium-ion and nickel-cadmium cells, or it may be an active participant in the electrochemical reaction, as in lead–acid cells.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: The energy used to charge rechargeable batteries usually comes from a battery charger using AC mains electricity, although some are equipped to use a vehicle's 12-volt DC power outlet. The voltage of the source must be higher than that of the battery to force current to flow into it, but not too much higher or the battery may be damaged.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: Chargers take from a few minutes to several hours to charge a battery. Slow "dumb" chargers without voltage or temperature-sensing capabilities will charge at a low rate, typically taking 14 hours or more to reach a full charge. Rapid chargers can typically charge cells in two to five hours, depending on the model, with the fastest taking as little as fifteen minutes. Fast chargers must have multiple ways of detecting when a cell reaches full charge (change in terminal voltage, temperature, etc.) to stop charging before harmful overcharging or overheating occurs. The fastest chargers often incorporate cooling fans to keep the cells from overheating. Battery packs intended for rapid charging may include a temperature sensor that the charger uses to protect the pack; the sensor will have one or more additional electrical contacts.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: Different battery chemistries require different charging schemes. For example, some battery types can be safely recharged from a constant voltage source. Other types need to be charged with a regulated current source that tapers as the battery reaches fully charged voltage. Charging a battery incorrectly can damage a battery; in extreme cases, batteries can overheat, catch fire, or explosively vent their contents.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: Battery charging and discharging rates are often discussed by referencing a "C" rate of current. The C rate is that which would theoretically fully charge or discharge the battery in one hour. For example, trickle charging might be performed at C/20 (or a "20-hour" rate), while typical charging and discharging may occur at C/2 (two hours for full capacity). The available capacity of electrochemical cells varies depending on the discharge rate. Some energy is lost in the internal resistance of cell components (plates, electrolyte, interconnections), and the rate of discharge is limited by the speed at which chemicals in the cell can move about. For lead-acid cells, the relationship between time and discharge rate is described by Peukert's law; a lead-acid cell that can no longer sustain a usable terminal voltage at a high current may still have usable capacity, if discharged at a much lower rate. Data sheets for rechargeable cells often list the discharge capacity on 8-hour or 20-hour or other stated time; cells for uninterruptible power supply systems may be rated at 15-minute discharge.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: The terminal voltage of the battery is not constant during charging and discharging. Some types have relatively constant voltage during discharge over much of their capacity. Non-rechargeable alkaline and zinc–carbon cells output 1.5V when new, but this voltage drops with use. Most NiMH AA and AAA cells are rated at 1.2 V, but have a flatter discharge curve than alkalines and can usually be used in equipment designed to use alkaline batteries.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: Battery manufacturers' technical notes often refer to voltage per cell (VPC) for the individual cells that make up the battery. For example, to charge a 12 V lead-acid battery (containing 6 cells of 2 V each) at 2.3 VPC requires a voltage of 13.8 V across the battery's terminals.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: Subjecting a discharged cell to a current in the direction which tends to discharge it further to the point the positive and negative terminals switch polarity causes a condition called "". Generally, pushing current through a discharged cell in this way causes undesirable and irreversible chemical reactions to occur, resulting in permanent damage to the cell.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: In the latter case, the problem occurs due to the different cells in a battery having slightly different capacities. When one cell reaches discharge level ahead of the rest, the remaining cells will force the current through the discharged cell.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: Many battery-operated devices have a low-voltage cutoff that prevents deep discharges from occurring that might cause cell reversal. A smart battery has voltage monitoring circuitry built inside.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: Cell reversal can occur to a weakly charged cell even before it is fully discharged. If the battery drain current is high enough, the cell's internal resistance can create a resistive voltage drop that is greater than the cell's forward emf. This results in the reversal of the cell's polarity while the current is flowing. The higher the required discharge rate of a battery, the better matched the cells should be, both in the type of cell and state of charge, in order to reduce the chances of cell reversal.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: In some situations, such as when correcting NiCd batteries that have been previously overcharged, it may be desirable to fully discharge a battery. To avoid damage from the cell reversal effect, it is necessary to access each cell separately: each cell is individually discharged by connecting a load clip across the terminals of each cell, thereby avoiding cell reversal.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: If a multi-cell battery is fully discharged, it will often be damaged due to the cell reversal effect mentioned above.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: It is possible however to fully discharge a battery without causing cell reversal—either by discharging each cell separately, or by allowing each cell's internal leakage to dissipate its charge over time.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: Even if a cell is brought to a fully discharged state without reversal, however, damage may occur over time simply due to remaining in the discharged state. An example of this is the sulfation that occurs in lead-acid batteries that are left sitting on a shelf for long periods.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: For this reason it is often recommended to charge a battery that is intended to remain in storage, and to maintain its charge level by periodically recharging it.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: Since damage may also occur if the battery is overcharged, the optimal level of charge during storage is typically around 30% to 70%.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: Depth of discharge (DOD) is normally stated as a percentage of the nominal ampere-hour capacity; 0% DOD means no discharge. As the usable capacity of a battery system depends on the rate of discharge and the allowable voltage at the end of discharge, the depth of discharge must be qualified to show the way it is to be measured. Due to variations during manufacture and aging, the DOD for complete discharge can change over time or number of charge cycles. Generally a rechargeable battery system will tolerate more charge/discharge cycles if the DOD is lower on each cycle. Lithium batteries can discharge to about 80 to 90% of their nominal capacity. Lead-acid batteries can discharge to about 50–60%. While flow batteries can discharge 100%.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: If batteries are used repeatedly even without mistreatment, they lose capacity as the number of charge cycles increases, until they are eventually considered to have reached the end of their useful life. Different battery systems have differing mechanisms for wearing out. For example, in lead-acid batteries, not all the active material is restored to the plates on each charge/discharge cycle; eventually enough material is lost that the battery capacity is reduced. In lithium-ion types, especially on deep discharge, some reactive lithium metal can be formed on charging, which is no longer available to participate in the next discharge cycle. Sealed batteries may lose moisture from their liquid electrolyte, especially if overcharged or operated at high temperature. This reduces the cycling life.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: Recharging time is an important parameter to the user of a product powered by rechargeable batteries. Even if the charging power supply provides enough power to operate the device as well as recharge the battery, the device is attached to an external power supply during the charging time. For electric vehicles used industrially, charging during off-shifts may be acceptable. For highway electric vehicles, rapid charging is necessary for charging in a reasonable time.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: A rechargeable battery cannot be recharged at an arbitrarily high rate. The internal resistance of the battery will produce heat, and excessive temperature rise will damage or destroy a battery. For some types, the maximum charging rate will be limited by the speed at which active material can diffuse through a liquid electrolyte. High charging rates may produce excess gas in a battery, or may result in damaging side reactions that permanently lower the battery capacity. Very roughly, and with many exceptions and caveats, restoring a battery's full capacity in one hour or less is considered fast charging. A battery charger system will include more complex control-circuit- and charging strategies for fast charging, than for a charger designed for slower recharging.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: The active components in a secondary cell are the chemicals that make up the positive and negative active materials, and the electrolyte. The positive and negative electrodes are made up of different materials, with the positive exhibiting a reduction potential and the negative having an oxidation potential. The sum of the potentials from these half-reactions is the standard cell potential or voltage.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: In primary cells the positive and negative electrodes are known as the cathode and anode, respectively. Although this convention is sometimes carried through to rechargeable systems—especially with lithium-ion cells, because of their origins in primary lithium cells—this practice can lead to confusion. In rechargeable cells the positive electrode is the cathode on discharge and the anode on charge, and vice versa for the negative electrode.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: The lead–acid battery, invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté, is the oldest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having a very low energy-to-weight ratio and a low energy-to-volume ratio, its ability to supply high surge currents means that the cells have a relatively large power-to-weight ratio. These features, along with the low cost, makes it attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by automobile starter motors.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: The nickel–cadmium battery (NiCd) was invented by Waldemar Jungner of Sweden in 1899. It uses nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes. Cadmium is a toxic element, and was banned for most uses by the European Union in 2004. Nickel–cadmium batteries have been almost completely superseded by nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) batteries.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: The nickel–iron battery (NiFe) was also developed by Waldemar Jungner in 1899; and commercialized by Thomas Edison in 1901 in the United States for electric vehicles and railway signalling. It is composed of only non-toxic elements, unlike many kinds of batteries that contain toxic mercury, cadmium, or lead.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: The nickel–metal hydride battery (NiMH) became available in 1989. These are now a common consumer and industrial type. The battery has a hydrogen-absorbing alloy for the negative electrode instead of cadmium.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: The lithium-ion battery was introduced in the market in 1991, is the choice in most consumer electronics, having the best energy density and a very slow loss of charge when not in use. It does have drawbacks too, particularly the risk of unexpected ignition from the heat generated by the battery. Such incidents are rare and according to experts, they can be minimized "via appropriate design, installation, procedures and layers of safeguards" so the risk is acceptable.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: Lithium-ion polymer batteries (LiPo) are light in weight, offer slightly higher energy density than Li-ion at slightly higher cost, and can be made in any shape. They are available but have not displaced Li-ion in the market. A primary use is for LiPo batteries is in powering remote-controlled cars, boats and airplanes. LiPo packs are readily available on the consumer market, in various configurations, up to 44.4v, for powering certain R/C vehicles and helicopters or drones. Some test reports warn of the risk of fire when the batteries are not used in accordance with the instructions. Independent reviews of the technology discuss the risk of fire and explosion from Lithium-ion batteries under certain conditions because they use liquid electrolytes.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: The lithium–sulfur battery was developed by Sion Power in 1994. The company claims superior energy density to other lithium technologies.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: A rechargeable battery is only one of several types of rechargeable energy storage systems. Several alternatives to rechargeable batteries exist or are under development. For uses such as portable radios, rechargeable batteries may be replaced by clockwork mechanisms which are wound up by hand, driving dynamos, although this system may be used to charge a battery rather than to operate the radio directly. Flashlights may be driven by a dynamo directly. For transportation, uninterruptible power supply systems and laboratories, flywheel energy storage systems store energy in a spinning rotor for conversion to electric power when needed; such systems may be used to provide large pulses of power that would otherwise be objectionable on a common electrical grid.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: Ultracapacitors capacitors of extremely high value are also used; an electric screwdriver which charges in 90 seconds and will drive about half as many screws as a device using a rechargeable battery was introduced in 2007, and similar flashlights have been produced. In keeping with the concept of ultracapacitors, betavoltaic batteries may be utilized as a method of providing a trickle-charge to a secondary battery, greatly extending the life and energy capacity of the battery system being employed; this type of arrangement is often referred to as a "hybrid betavoltaic power source" by those in the industry.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: Ultracapacitors are being developed for transportation, using a large capacitor to store energy instead of the rechargeable battery banks used in hybrid vehicles. One drawback of capacitors compared to batteries is that the terminal voltage drops rapidly; a capacitor that has 25% of its initial energy left in it will have one-half of its initial voltage. By contrast, battery systems tend to have a terminal voltage that does not decline rapidly until nearly exhausted. This terminal voltage drop complicates the design of power electronics for use with ultracapacitors. However, there are potential benefits in cycle efficiency, lifetime, and weight compared with rechargeable systems. China started using ultracapacitors on two commercial bus routes in 2006; one of them is route 11 in Shanghai.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: Flow batteries, used for specialized applications, are recharged by replacing the electrolyte liquid. A flow battery can be considered to be a type of rechargeable fuel cell.


title: Rechargeable battery

text: Rechargeable battery research includes development of new electrochemical systems as well as improving the life span and capacity of current types.


title: Brandolini's law

text: Brandolini's law, also known as the bullshit asymmetry principle, is an internet adage that emphasizes the effort of debunking misinformation, in comparison to the relative ease of creating it in the first place. It states that "The amount of energy needed to refute bullshit is an order of magnitude bigger than that needed to produce it."


title: Brandolini's law

text: The law was publicly formulated the first time in January 2013 by Alberto Brandolini, an Italian programmer. Brandolini stated that he was inspired by reading Daniel Kahneman's "Thinking, Fast and Slow" right before watching an Italian political talk show with former Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi and journalist Marco Travaglio.


title: Brandolini's law

text: In "Economic Sophisms" (1845, 1867), Frédéric Bastiat expresses an early notion of this law:We must confess that our adversaries have a marked advantage over us in the discussion. In very few words they can announce a half-truth; and in order to demonstrate that it is "incomplete", we are obliged to have recourse to long and dry dissertations.


title: Brandolini's law

text: Other notable thinkers and philosophers have noted similar truths throughout history. In his 1786 "Letters on Infidelity", George Horne writes that:


title: Brandolini's law

text: A similar concept was formulated by economist Roy Radner in 1993. Radner considered the performance of an organization that processes information in terms of both the number of processors required to review data items, and the time delays associated with processing data items.


title: Brandolini's law

text: In 2005, Russian physicist Sergey Lopatnikov anonymously published an essay in which he introduced the following definition:


title: Brandolini's law

text: Jelani Cobb, while referring to the anti-communist US Senator Joseph McCarthy, said of the senator's rhetorical style:


title: Brandolini's law

text: The asymmetry of this inundation bears some resemblance to the Gish gallop, a term coined in 1994 to refer to creationism debates and a rhetorical technique that relies on overwhelming an opponent with specious arguments, half-truths, and misrepresentations that each require considerably more time to refute or fact-check than they did to state in the first place.


title: Brandolini's law

text: The yoga scholar-practitioners Mark Singleton and Borayin Larios write that several of their colleagues have "privately" described their "aversion to public debate" with non-scholars because of Brandolini's law.


title: Pape Matar Sarr

text: Pape Matar Sarr (born 14 September 2002) is a Senegalese professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Premier League club Tottenham Hotspur and the Senegal national team.


title: Pape Matar Sarr

text: Pape Matar Sarr made his professional debut with Génération Foot in his native country of Senegal, before signing a five-year contract with Ligue 1 side Metz on 15 September 2020.


title: Pape Matar Sarr

text: Sarr was initially sent to play for Metz's second team in Championnat National 2, but made only one appearance before he was recalled to the first team squad following the season being halted due to the COVID-19 pandemic in France. He made his debut for the Metz first team on 29 November 2020 in a Ligue 1 game against Brest. On 31 January 2021, Sarr scored his first goal in Ligue 1 in the reverse fixture, a 4–2 away victory over Brest.


title: Pape Matar Sarr

text: On 27 August 2021, Sarr signed for Premier League club Tottenham Hotspur. He was loaned back to Metz until the end of the 2021–22 season.


title: Pape Matar Sarr

text: Sarr made his debut for Senegal national team on 26 March 2021 in an AFCON 2021 qualifier against Congo. On 6 February 2022, he won the 2021 Africa Cup of Nations with Senegal.


title: Subhadra

text: Subhadra () is a Hindu goddess mentioned in ancient Hindu scriptures like the "Mahabharata" and the "Bhagavata Purana". She is described as the favourite child of Vasudeva and the younger sister of deities Krishna and Balarama. According to the Mahabharata, Arjuna—one of the Pandava brothers—married her, with whom she bore one son, Abhimanyu.


title: Subhadra

text: Subhadra is one of the three deities worshipped at the Jagannath Temple at Puri, along with Krishna (as Jagannatha) and Balarama (or Balabhadra). One of the chariots in the annual Ratha Yatra is dedicated to her.


title: Subhadra

text: The word 'Subhadra' is made up of two words 'su' and 'bhadra'. Many scholars translate this name into 'glorious', 'fortunate', 'splendid' or 'auspicious'.


title: Subhadra

text: Subhadra is often identified with the Vrishni goddess Ekanamsha, and thus it is considered as her other name.


title: Subhadra

text: When Arjuna was in the midst of self-imposed pilgrimage, for breaking terms of the agreement he had with his brothers regarding private time with their common wife Draupadi. After he reached the city of Dvaraka and met Krishna, he attended a festival held at Raivata mountain. There Arjuna saw his first cousin Subhadra and was smitten by her beauty and wished to marry her. Krishna revealed that she was Vasudeva's and Rohini's child, and his sister. Krishna stated that he couldn't predict Subhadra's decision at her swayamvara (self choice ceremony) and advised Arjuna to elope with Subhadra. After Arjuna sent a letter to Yudhishthira for permission, he drove a chariot to the hills and took the smiling Subhadra with him. After Subhadra's guards unsuccessfully attempted to stop them, the Yadavas, the Vrishnis, and the Andhakas held a meeting to discuss the matter. After Krishna comforted them, they agreed, and thus, Arjuna married Subhadra with Vedic rituals.


title: Subhadra

text: "The Bhagavata Purana" narrates about Balarama's picking of Duryodhana as Subhadra’s groom without taking her consent. Knowing that after getting the news of Subhadra's to elope, Balarama would wage a war against Arjuna, Krishna decided he will be the charioteer for Arjuna. Arjuna proceeds to take Subhadra and with Krishna, in tow, they leave. After getting the news that Subhadra has eloped with Arjuna. Finally, Balarama consents and conduct the marriage of Subhadra with Arjuna in Dvaraka.


title: Subhadra

text: However, the interpretation of the Mahabharata referred to as the 'Southern Recension' totally differs in presenting the Subhadra Harana Parva. It is a love story, not one-sided but from both sides. It is also a bit more elaborated on the event. As soon as Arjuna reaches Prabhasa, he remembers Gada’s words, describing Subhadra’s beauty and virtues. He takes the form of an ascetic, sits under a Vata Vriksha, thinking about Subhadra. He feels that with the help of Krishna, he can get Subhadra as his wife. Meanwhile in Dvaraka, Krishna smiles in his sleep and Satyabhama asks him the reason for his happiness. He tells her about the situation of Arjuna. Thereafter, Krishna gets up and reaches Prabhasa, where he meets Arjuna and takes him to the Raivataka mountain. After a few days, all the prominent Yadavas happened to go to Raivataka to celebrate a festival. Arjuna and Krishna roamed together. Subhadra also arrives there, and Arjuna gets enchanted by her beauty. Krishna teases Arjuna, reminding him of his ascetic status. Krishna then suggests Arjuna to take Subhadra with him, as it is acceptable for Kshatriyas. Balarama meets the ascetic, honours him, and invites him to live in the gardens of Subhadra. Subhadra starts tending to every need of the ascetic. Arjuna, on the other hand, is passionately in love on seeing Subhadra before his own eyes. Subhadra observes him and finds the similarity of Arjuna, her aunt’s son, about whom she has heard from Gada and Krishna. One evening, Subhadra starts enquiring the young ascetic about Indraprastha, and the third Pandava prince. Arjuna immediately reveals his identity. A great ritual for Shiva is planned at an island near Dvaraka. All the Yadavas, with Balarama at the head, leave for worship. Seeing the opportunity, Arjuna elopes with Subhadra, and marries her. Indra and Shachi descend to perform the wedding rituals.


title: Subhadra

text: When Arjuna returned from his exile to Indraprastha along with Subhadra, he was welcomed by Kunti and his brothers. When he asked about Draupadi, his brothers told him that she is in rage and doesn't want to meet anybody. To save her husband from Draupadi's rage, Subhadra went to the chamber of the fire born empress in the attire of a simple cowherd. When Draupadi asked who she was, Subhadra replied that she is her maid. Subhadra then fell down to Draupadi's feet and told her that she never wants to replace her. After such humility, Draupadi hugged Subhadra and accepted her as a younger sister.


title: Subhadra

text: Subhadra is one of the three deities worshipped at the Jagannath temple at Puri, along with Krishna (as Jagannatha) and Balarama (or Balabhadra). One of the chariots in the annual Ratha Yatra is dedicated to her. Apart from it she is also believed to be worshipped by certain communities in Odisha, West Bengal, Gujarat and Bangladesh.*


title: Subhadra

text: There is a village called Bhadrajun in the western part of Rajasthan where Subhadra is worshiped as Dhumda mata since the time of Mahabharata. It is believed that, after eloping with her lover Arjuna and a gruelling journey of three days, the couple got married here.


title: Subhadra

text: Many Hindus believe Subhadra to be the reincarnation of goddess Yogmaya who took birth to save Krishna’s life from the wicked Kamsa


title: Subhadra

text: In some texts like the Brahma Purana and the Garga Samhita, Subhadra is mentioned as Devi Shatarupa with Arjuna being Svayambhuva Manu. She is also worshiped as Mata Bhuvaneshvari in some sects. Apart from it, Subhadra is sometimes linked with Goddess Lakshmi by some Vaishnavas.


title: Subhadra

text: After Parikshit was seated on the throne, while leaving for heaven, Yudhishthira gave the responsibility of keeping both the kingdoms Hastinapura ruled by her grandson and Indraprastha being ruled by Vajranabha, great-grandson of her brother Krishna in harmony. There is no specific mention in the epic about how and when she died but it is believed that after the Pandavas along with Draupadi reached heaven, Subhadra and her daughter-in-law (Uttarā) went to the forest to dwell the rest of their lives as hermits.


title: Ambrose Burnside

text: Ambrose Everett Burnside (May 23, 1824 – September 13, 1881) was an American army officer and politician who became a senior Union general in the Civil War and three times Governor of Rhode Island, as well as being a successful inventor and industrialist.


title: Ambrose Burnside

text: He was responsible for some of the earliest victories in the Eastern theater, but was then promoted above his abilities, and is mainly remembered for two disastrous defeats, at Fredericksburg and the Battle of the Crater (Petersburg). Although an inquiry cleared him of blame in the latter case, he never regained credibility as an army commander.


title: Ambrose Burnside

text: Burnside was a modest and unassuming individual, mindful of his limitations, who had been propelled to high command against his will. He could be described as a genuinely unlucky man, both in battle and in business, where he was robbed of the rights to a successful cavalry firearm that had been his own invention. His spectacular growth of whiskers became known as "sideburns," deriving from the two parts of his surname.


title: Ambrose Burnside

text: Burnside was born in Liberty, Indiana, and was the fourth of nine children of Edghill and Pamela (or Pamilia) Brown Burnside, a family of Irish and English origins. His great-great-grandfather Robert Burnside (1725–1775) was born in Scotland and settled in the Province of South Carolina. His father was a native of South Carolina; he was a slave owner who freed his slaves when he relocated to Indiana. Ambrose attended Liberty Seminary as a young boy, but his education was interrupted when his mother died in 1841; he was apprenticed to a local tailor, eventually becoming a partner in the business.


title: Ambrose Burnside

text: As a young officer before the Civil War, Burnside was engaged to Charlotte "Lottie" Moon, who left him at the altar. When the minister asked if she took him as her husband, Moon is said to have shouted "No siree Bob!" before running out of the church. Moon is best known for her espionage for the Confederacy during the Civil War. Later, Burnside arrested Moon, her younger sister Virginia "Ginnie" Moon, and their mother. He kept them under house arrest for months but never charged them with espionage.


title: Ambrose Burnside

text: He obtained an appointment to the United States Military Academy in 1843 through his father's political connections and his own interest in military affairs. He graduated in 1847, ranking 18th in a class of 47, and was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the 2nd U.S. Artillery. He traveled to Veracruz for the Mexican–American War, but he arrived after hostilities had ceased and performed mostly garrison duty around Mexico City.


title: Ambrose Burnside

text: At the close of the war, Lt. Burnside served two years on the western frontier under Captain Braxton Bragg in the 3rd U.S. Artillery, a light artillery unit that had been converted to cavalry duty, protecting the Western mail routes through Nevada to California. In August 1849, he was wounded by an arrow in his neck during a skirmish against Apaches in Las Vegas, New Mexico. He was promoted to 1st lieutenant on December 12, 1851.