title: Tyler Skaggs

text: On June 30, 2019, Skaggs texted Eric Kay, the communications director for the Angels, asking for painkillers. That night, Skaggs did not respond to his wife Carli's good-night text, which she typically sent when he was on the road. The following day, Skaggs was found unresponsive in his hotel room in Southlake, Texas. He was pronounced dead at around 2:18 , when authorities arrived at the scene. Investigators discovered a number of pills in Skaggs's hotel room, including a 30 mg oxycodone pill, additional 5 mg oxycodone pills, several anti-inflammatories, and white powder on the floor. The Angels had been in Arlington, Texas, to play a four-game series against the Rangers, and Skaggs was scheduled to start the Fourth of July game. Upon news of his death both teams agreed to postpone the start of the series, which had been scheduled for later that day. The initial statement issued by the Southlake Police Department said that neither suicide nor foul play were suspected.


title: Tyler Skaggs

text: The Tarrant County Medical Examiner began conducting an autopsy on July 2 and estimated that it would determine a cause of death by October 2, 2019. On August 30 the Medical Examiner announced that the autopsy had uncovered a mix of fentanyl, oxycodone, and alcohol in Skaggs's system, and that he had a blood alcohol level of 0.12 . The examination concluded that Skaggs had died of asphyxia after aspirating his own vomit, and his death was ruled an accident. The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) later determined that fentanyl, a synthetic opioid thirty to fifty times more potent than heroin, was the primary contributor to Skaggs's death, and that he likely would have survived if not for the substance.


title: Tyler Skaggs

text: News of Skaggs's death triggered an outpouring of grief in MLB. On July 2, Patrick Corbin of the Washington Nationals, who was drafted in the same round as Skaggs and had been traded with him to Arizona, switched his jersey number to Skaggs's No. 45 for a game against the Miami Marlins. Mike Trout and Tommy La Stella, the Angels' two All-Star representatives, also wore No. 45 to honor Skaggs at the 2019 MLB All-Star Game. On Players Weekend in 2019 all major league players wore a No. 45 patch on their jerseys. Corbin, Ryan Braun, Jesse Chavez, Jack Flaherty, Max Fried, Lucas Giolito, Scott Heineman, Mike Moustakas, and Christian Yelich also wore nicknames that honored Skaggs. All the Angels' players wore a No. 45 patch for the rest of the 2019 season.


title: Tyler Skaggs

text: On July 6, 2019, Andrew Heaney made his first start since the death of his fellow left-hander and best friend. His first pitch against George Springer of the Houston Astros was Skaggs's signature overhand slow curveball, and it went intentionally unchallenged with no swing. On July 12, at their first home game after Skaggs's death, every player on the Angels wore his No. 45 jersey. His mother, Debbie Hetman, threw the ceremonial first pitch, which Heaney caught. Angels pitchers Taylor Cole and Félix Peña combined to throw a no-hitter against the Seattle Mariners, winning 13–0. It was the first combined no-hitter in California since July 13, 1991, the day of Skaggs's birth. After the game, the players removed their memorial jerseys and laid them on the mound to honor his memory.


title: Tyler Skaggs

text: After his death, Skaggs's wife and mother started the Tyler Skaggs Foundation, meant to support childhood athletic programs. The MLB Players Trust donated $45,000 to the foundation on July 22, 2019. The inaugural Tyler Skaggs Foundation all-star game took place at Jackie Robinson Stadium on July 10, 2021.


title: Tyler Skaggs

text: Following the results of Skaggs's autopsy, the Southlake Police Department released a statement that the case surrounding his death was still open, while the Tarrant County Criminal District Attorney's Office had not opened an investigation. Skaggs's family, meanwhile, hired Texas attorney Rusty Hardin to investigate the circumstances surrounding his death. On October 13, after an investigation by the DEA, Kay told authorities he had provided oxycodone to Skaggs for years, and he gave the DEA the names of five other players within the organization that he believed were using opiates. Kay was arrested on August 7 and later indicted by a federal grand jury on October 15 on charges related to Skaggs's death. Kay's trial date was postponed multiple times, first due to Kay's attorney William Reagan Wynn contracting COVID-19 during the COVID-19 pandemic in North America, and then because of complications from the 2021 Texas power crisis. After nearly three years of delays, the trial began on February 8, 2022. During the trial, Skaggs's teammates Matt Harvey, Mike Morin, Cam Bedrosian, and C. J. Cron testified that Kay had provided them with oxycodone pills. Harvey additionally testified that he had provided Skaggs with Percocet pills on several occasions. On February 17, Kay was found guilty on two counts relating to Skaggs's death: Distribution of controlled substances resulting in death, and conspiracy to possess with intent to distribute controlled substances. The jury reached a verdict after only 90 minutes of deliberation. On October 11, Kay was sentenced to 22 years in prison.


title: Tyler Skaggs

text: After Kay's indictment legal experts like Marc Edelman, a professor at the City University of New York who specializes in sports law, questioned whether the Angels would face legal repercussions for Skaggs's death. On June 29, 2021, Skaggs's widow and parents filed a wrongful death and negligence lawsuit against Kay, the Angels, and former Angels vice president of communications Tim Mead. The lawsuit accused the team of allowing Kay, who had a history of substance abuse, "unrestricted access" to members of the Angels, who were "at risk of turning to medication to assist with pain management" because of the "rigors of a 162-game schedule".


title: Tyler Skaggs

text: The circumstances of Skaggs's death prompted MLB to question whether or not they should include random opioid screening as part of the league's drug testing program. While opioids like oxycodone and fentanyl were considered "drugs of abuse" under MLB policy, players were not tested unless there was reasonable cause, or if they were part of a drug treatment program. On December 12, 2019, MLB and the players' union agreed to start regularly testing players for both opioids and cocaine, and to assign players and team staff to mandatory educational programs on the dangers of prescription painkillers. No opioid violations were found in MLB in the first two years after testing was implemented.


title: Texas State University

text: Texas State University is a public research university in San Marcos, Texas. Since its establishment in 1899, the university has grown to the second largest university in the Greater Austin metropolitan area and the fifth largest university in the state of Texas. Texas State University reached a record enrollment of 38,808 students in the 2016 fall semester, continuing a trend of enrollment growth over several years. The university offers more than 200 degree options from its ten colleges.


title: Texas State University

text: Texas State is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity" and an emerging research university by the State of Texas. The university is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS). Faculty from the various colleges have consistently been granted Fulbright Scholarships


title: Texas State University

text: resulting in Texas State's being recognized as one of the top producing universities of Fulbright Scholars. The 36th president of the United States, Lyndon B. Johnson, graduated from the institution in 1930; Texas State University is the only college or university in Texas to have a U.S. president as an alumnus.


title: Texas State University

text: Texas State's main campus consists of 245 buildings on of hilly land along the San Marcos River. Additionally, it has a satellite campus at the Texas State University Round Rock Campus (RRC) in the greater north Austin area. The university operates the Science, Technology and Advanced Research (STAR) Park, a technology commercialization and applied research facility. The Forensic Anthropology Center at Texas State is the largest forensics research facility in the world.


title: Texas State University

text: Texas State University's intercollegiate sports teams, commonly known as the Bobcats, compete in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I and the Sun Belt Conference.


title: Texas State University

text: The Southwest Texas State Normal School was proposed in a March 3, 1899, bill by state representative Fred Cocke. Cocke represented the citizens of Hays and surrounding counties where the school was to be located. While there was opposition to the bill, with the support of State Senator J.B. Dibrell, it was finally passed and signed into law on May 10, 1899, by Governor Joseph D. Sayers. The school's purpose was to provide manual training and teach domestic sciences and agriculture. Any students earning a diploma and teaching certificate from the school would be authorized to teach in the state's public schools. In October 1899, the San Marcos City Council voted to donate of land at what was known as Chautauqua Hill for the school to be built on. It was not until 1901 that the Texas legislature accepted this donation and approved $25,000 to be used for construction of buildings on the site. The building now known as Old Main was completed and the school opened its doors to its first enrollment of 303 students in September 1903.


title: Texas State University

text: In 1912, the San Marcos School Board began a partnership with the school to allow Southwest Texas State Normal School students to instruct local school children as part of their training to become teachers. The San Marcos East End Ward School, comprising the first eight grades of the school district, was moved onto the Southwest Texas State campus in 1917. In 1935, a formal contract between Southwest Texas State Teachers College, as it was known then, and the San Marcos school district for the "Public Schools [to become] the laboratory school for said Teachers College." The school would be under the control and supervision of the city of San Marcos but Southwest Texas State was responsible for providing and maintaining buildings and equipment for the city's elementary and junior high schools.


title: Texas State University

text: The college enrolled its first African-American students in 1963, following a federal lawsuit brought by Dana Smith, who became one of the first five African Americans at the institution when a district court judge ruled that they could not be denied admission based on race.


title: Texas State University

text: On November 8, 1965, the school's most famous alumnus, United States president Lyndon B. Johnson, returned to his alma mater to sign the Higher Education Act of 1965, which was part of his Great Society. In a speech, held in the old Strahan Gymnasium on the school's campus (now the Music Building), prior to signing the bill, he recounted his own difficulties affording to go to college: having to shower and shave in the school's gymnasium, living above a faculty member's garage, and working multiple jobs.


title: Texas State University

text: On November 13, 1969, ten students were suspended from Texas State for protesting the Vietnam war. They became known as the "San Marcos 10." They appealed their expulsion through the normal school channels and then filed a lawsuit against the president of the university, the dean of students and the Texas State University system Board of Regents. They were reinstated via injunction and attended classes while their case moved through the courts. When their appeals were rejected, they submitted their case to the U.S. Supreme Court, but only Justice William Douglas voted to hear their argument so the decisions of the lower courts stood. The San Marcos 10 subsequently lost all of the credits for the semesters they completed while their lawsuit moved through the court system.


title: Texas State University

text: The campus has grown substantially from its original 11 acres in 1899. During the first 40 years of the school's history, the campus was expanded to accommodate 18 buildings around the original Main Building. These buildings included academic buildings, a library, buildings to house the San Marcos school students, dormitories, a dining hall, and men's and women's gymnasiums. In 1926, 90 acres of land adjacent to the San Marcos River was purchased by A. B. Rogers to build a hotel, glass-bottom boat rides and other water-based attractions to become the Aquarena Springs theme park. The university bought the property in 1994 intending to use the land as a research and education center. In 2002, this piece of land became known as the River System Institute and offered educational tours including a wetlands boardwalk and continued to offer glass-bottom boat rides.


title: Texas State University

text: In 1996, the school began offering courses in Round Rock, Texas, on the campus of Westwood High School. It originally offered night classes that allowed students to earn graduate degrees in business administration and education. As enrollment in these programs increased and with a gift of , the Texas State University Round Rock Campus was constructed and opened in 2005.


title: Texas State University

text: The school's name has changed several times over the course of its history. The first change occurred in 1918 when Southwest Texas State Normal School became Southwest Texas State Normal College, after the Board of Regents, two years earlier, had authorized the school to begin granting degrees as a senior college. In 1921, a statewide effort was launched to improve academic standards in Texas normal schools to meet more closely the requirements of the University of Texas. These improvements prompted a second name change in 1923, when the Texas Legislature renamed the school Southwest Texas State Teachers College. Another change occurred in 1959, with the school becoming Southwest Texas State College. Ten years later, the legislature renamed the school Southwest Texas State University.


title: Texas State University

text: In 2003, members of the school's Associated Student Government (ASG), approached state senator Jeff Wentworth asking that the school be renamed "Texas State University at San Marcos". The ASG had unanimously approved a resolution supporting the change, arguing that the current name reflected a regionalism that was not aligned with the university's effort to reach top-tier status. The ASG further said that donations from the school's alumni would pay for implementing the name change so that state tax dollars would not be required. Some students and alumni protested the change, pointing out that no vote had been taken on the matter. A bill, sponsored by Senator Wentworth, was passed and on September 1, 2003, the school became known as Texas State University–San Marcos. The city was originally included in the name to differentiate it from other schools in the Texas State University System, which were, at the time, expected to change their names to Texas State University (e.g. "Texas State University–Lamar"). Those changes did not occur, however, and after Texas State continued to expand its campus in Round Rock, the university requested that the name of the city be removed from the school's name. In 2013, under the McDaniel-Sibley ASG Administration, Associated Student Government senator Quentin De La Garza continued the efforts to have the name changed. A bill to accomplish that change was passed by the Eighty-third Texas Legislature and signed by the governor. The name was officially changed on September 1, 2013, for the sixth time in the school's history.


title: Texas State University

text: In the fall of 2019, the US Department of Education opened a formal review into Texas State University's compliance with a federal crime-reporting statute meant to provide information about campus safety. Texas State University officials acknowledged in September 2019 that it seriously under-reported the number of rapes and other crimes on campus in recent years. A former university police chief and his top deputy were also accused of hiring unqualified officers to patrol the San Marcos campus, including one who allegedly slept with a sexual assault victim while investigating her case.


title: Texas State University

text: The Texas State University main campus is located in San Marcos, Texas, midway between Austin and San Antonio along Interstate 35. It spans , including the original land donated by the city of San Marcos consisting of Chautauqua Hill on which Old Main still sits. Other parts of the Texas State property including farm and ranch land, residential, recreational areas and commercial incubators cover more than of additional land.


title: Texas State University

text: The Quad is the heart of campus because it is surrounded by a majority of the academic buildings and is near the bus loop where most of the university bus routes stop on campus. Since many students pass through the quad, it is the primary gathering place for student organizations, which often set up booths and tables promoting fundraisers and events. The west end of the Quad has a 17-foot high aluminum sculpture of two horses, called "The Fighting Stallions". This area has been designated as the university's free speech zone and was subject to one of the first court challenges to the creation of such zones after the suspension of ten students protesting the Vietnam War. The east end of the Quad rises to the top of the highest hill on campus where the university's oldest building, Old Main, sits.


title: Texas State University

text: The main campus in San Marcos served as the location of the fictional school TMU (Texas Methodist University) in the NBC TV series "Friday Night Lights".


title: Texas State University

text: Built in 1903 and originally called the Main Building, Old Main was the first building on the campus. The design was closely patterned on the Old Main Building of 1889 at Sam Houston State University, designed by Alfred Muller of Galveston. Fourteen years later, E. Northcraft, the engineer for the building at Sam Houston, oversaw construction of the Texas State University Main Building, a red-gabled Victorian Gothic structure. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983. In more than a century of use, and through many renovations, the building has served varied purposes, from being the university's administration building to an auditorium and chapel to now housing the offices for the School of Journalism and Mass Communication as well as the offices of the College of Fine Arts and Communication.


title: Texas State University

text: The university's library was named in 1991 for an alumnus, Albert B. Alkek, who became an oilman, rancher, and philanthropist. The Albert B. Alkek Library serves as the main academic library supporting the university community. It is a "select depository" for United States and Texas government documents, receiving a large number of government publications from the state and 60% of all federal publications. The library also encompasses special collections and papers, including the Wittliff collections; the largest US repository of contemporary Mexican photography; the "King of the Hill" archives; major collection of work by Cormac McCarthy, Sam Shepard, and Sandra Cisneros; and the "Lonesome Dove" miniseries collection.


title: Texas State University

text: Sewell Park, located on the Texas State University campus on the banks of the San Marcos River in San Marcos, Texas, borders City Park, the San Marcos Mill Tract and Strahan Coliseum. It was opened in 1917 by Southwest Texas State Normal School, and was called Riverside Park. The land was owned by the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries and leased to the school. It was originally used by students to learn how to swim and for general recreation. The river banks were built up from the river bottom by university workers. In 1949 the park was renamed Sewell Park in honor of S. M. Sewell, a mathematics professor who helped form the park.


title: Texas State University

text: A long time fixture of Sewell Park, local legend Dan Barry, better known as "Frisbee Dan", can be seen on just about any sunny day tossing his frisbee and keeping a watchful eye on the park.


title: Texas State University

text: The university's Round Rock Campus (RRC) is located in Round Rock, Texas, north of Austin. Originally known as the Round Rock Higher Education Center (RRHEC), the facility was opened in 1996 in temporary buildings with a small number of classes. By 2004, the fifteen temporary buildings, in a lot adjacent to Westwood High School, were full to capacity. A year earlier, the Avery family of Round Rock had donated 101 acres in northeast Round Rock to allow the former RRHEC to become its own campus. Construction of the Avery Building began in 2004, and the building opened its doors in August 2005. The 125,000-square-foot Avery Building was designed to offer instruction and student support in one building, with classrooms, labs, offices, and a library. In 2010 the Round Rock Campus opened the 77,740-square-foot, three-story Nursing Building. The St. David's School of Nursing admitted the first class of junior-level nursing majors in fall 2010. Ground Breaking for an additional health professions building occurred in May 2016. The building, known as Willow Hall, opened in 2018.


title: Texas State University

text: The Round Rock Campus offers the junior and senior level classes to complete a bachelor's degree as well as graduate degrees, post baccalaureate certification, and continuing education programs. Students can complete their first two years at the Texas State University San Marcos campus or any community college, or transfer to the RRC from another school. Students who complete requirements at the Round Rock Campus earn degrees from Texas State University.


title: Texas State University

text: As of the fall 2018 semester, Texas State University had a total enrollment of 38,694, continuing a trend of record enrollment growth over several years. Of the student body, 31,032 are undergraduate students with the remaining 4,536 students being post-baccalaureate or graduate students. The university accepted 57.6% of freshmen applicants who applied to attend the fall 2012 semester. This includes the guaranteed acceptance of any Texas high school graduate with a grade point average that ranked them in the top 10% of their high school class. Between 61% and 64% of undergraduate students earn their degree after six years. Hispanic students made up 30% of the student body in 2013, which increased to 32% in 2014, qualifying the university to be designated as a Hispanic-serving institution. Additionally, the student body consists of approximately 55% female students, 80% students who live off-campus, and only 10% students who are members of a fraternity or sorority.


title: Texas State University

text: In 2011 Texas State University was the 13th best four-year school for veterans according to "Military Times EDGE" magazine. In 2019 "Washington Monthly" ranked Texas State as 200th in the nation. Texas State University was included in The Best 386 Colleges: 2021 Edition published by The Princeton Review.


title: Texas State University

text: In the 2022 edition of the U.S. News & World Report ranking of the Best Global Universities Texas State University ranked 1647.


title: Texas State University

text: Texas State University offers degrees in 98 bachelor programs, 93 master programs and 14 doctoral programs. The university has been accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools since 1925 and had its last review in 2010.


title: Texas State University

text: In January 2012, Texas State University was designated an emerging research university by the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board. To achieve this status a university must spend at least $14 million in its research endeavors and either offer at least 10 doctoral degrees or have at least 150 enrolled doctoral students. Texas State has developed a series of 5-year plans that will make it eligible to receive funds from the National Research University Fund (NRUF).


title: Texas State University

text: One of Texas State's facilities includes its Center for Research Commercialization that was approved by the Texas State University System Regents in May 2011 with a focus on environmental sustainability and biotechnology. The facility is funded through multiple grants including $1.8 million from the U.S. Economic Development Administration and $4.2 million from the Texas Emerging Technology Fund. The facility will serve as a location for university faculty to perform advanced research and to commercialize that research into startup companies.


title: Texas State University

text: The Forensic Anthropology Center at Texas State is one of seven extant human decomposition research facilities (body farms) in the United States. It is the largest such forensics research facility in the world.


title: Texas State University

text: In August 2012, Texas State's River Systems Institute was renamed The Meadows Center for Water and the Environment. This name change was the result of donations totaling $5 million from The Meadows Foundation in Dallas, Texas. The university plans on earning a total of $10 million from The Meadows Foundation and other sources for the center to study interactions between water and the overall environment. These studies include an examination of springs, drought and their effects on public water supplies. The center was founded in 2002 with funding, in part, from The Meadows Foundation. Since that time it has focused its research on the San Marcos Springs and Spring Lake, the second largest spring in the Southwest United States.


title: Texas State University

text: resulting in Texas State's being recognized as one of the top producing universities of Fulbright Scholars.


title: Texas State University

text: Approximately 20% of Texas State students live in on-campus or in university-owned housing including about 95% of freshman students. Beginning in August 2012, there were approximately 6,353 beds in a variety of housing options including traditional dorms and apartment-style housing offered by the university.


title: Texas State University

text: Texas State University has more than 300 student organizations registered with its Student Involvement department. These organizations include Greek organizations, academic groups, honors societies, service groups, sports clubs, and common interest groups. Texas State has more than 30 fraternities and sororities, including 13 fraternities from the North American Interfraternity Conference, 9 fraternities and sororities from the historically African-American National Pan-Hellenic Council, 8 sororities from the National Panhellenic Conference, and 9 multicultural fraternities and sororities from the National Multicultural Greek Council. After the death of a Phi Kappa Psi pledge in November 2017, Texas State University halted all Greek life activities. Greek life activities resumed in March 2018, following a restructure of the university's Greek system.


title: Texas State University

text: The Bobcat Marching Band is the collegiate marching band of Texas State University. Nicknamed "The Pride of the Hill Country," the band began in 1919 as a casual association of student musicians on campus. It later evolved into a formal organization that performs at Texas State football games, NFL football games, professional soccer games, two presidential inaugurations, and a number of Hollywood movies and marching band oriented videos.


title: Texas State University

text: The school's student government is an organization of both undergraduate and graduate students who represent student's interests with the university administration. Student government has dealt with issues including concealed carry on campus and the university's anti-tobacco policy. Student Government also administers a scholarship fund that any Texas State student can apply to earn.


title: Texas State University

text: A number of honors societies exists on campus including Golden Key and the Alpha Chi National College Honor Society. Texas State was a charter member of Alpha Chi when it was created as the Scholarship Societies of the South in 1927. Texas State also has an active chapter of Alpha Phi Omega, National Service Fraternity.


title: Texas State University

text: The Texas State Strutters are a precision dance team formed in 1960, the first of its kind at a four-year institution in the United States. The group performs to a variety of music including high kick, jazz, funk, and hip hop. The Strutters have performed nationally and internationally in 26 countries spanning 4 continents. Performances include two presidential inaugural parades, two Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parades, several NBA and NFL halftime shows, and "America's Got Talent". They are the first university dance team to be invited to the People's Republic of China.


title: Texas State University

text: Bobcat Build is a yearly community service event that began in 2001 and is the largest such event run by students at the university. Based upon Texas A&M University's "The Big Event", it allows student organizations and individual Texas State students to sign up to perform service projects throughout the San Marcos community. The event has received recognition from state and national politicians including former State Representative Patrick Rose and U.S. Representative Lloyd Doggett.


title: Texas State University

text: The oldest form of student media at Texas State was a yearbook originally called the "Pedagogue" and later renamed the "Pedagog." It was first published in 1904 and served to record each year's events through photographs and articles. It was temporarily discontinued in 1975 due to a combination of the cost to publish the annual and a lack of student interest. It was published again in 1978 as part of the school's seventy-fifth anniversary. In 1984 it resumed regular publication. However, it was last published in 2000 after university committees recommended replacing the printed yearbook with a video disk containing the same contents. The annual has since been discontinued entirely. Now called the "University Star," it publishes coverage of the college's news, trends, opinions and sports. The newspaper is published on Tuesdays while classes are in session in the fall and spring semesters. The paper is published five times during the summer. The "Star" has a web site which contains videos, blogs and podcasts in addition to the articles that are published in the print version of the paper. The "Star" and its staff have received awards including merits from Hearst Journalism, the Texas Intercollegiate Press Association and the Society of Professional Journalists.


title: Texas State University

text: Located in the Trinity Building, Texas State's FM radio station, KTSW, broadcasts at 89.9 MHz and provides sports coverage of Texas State Athletics and independent music. The KTSW website provides live-streaming broadcasts, and the Texas State television channel employs KTSW broadcasts as background music. KTSW's morning show, "Orange Juice and Biscuits," gained recognition in 2007 for being a finalist in Collegiate Broadcasters Inc.'s "Best Regularly Scheduled Program" award. In October 2008, as it was among Austin360.com's top ten-rated morning radio shows.


title: Texas State University

text: Texas State currently competes at the NCAA Division I level and are members of the Sun Belt Conference. Texas State teams and athletes from multiple sports have won national and regional championships as well as medalists in the Olympic Games.


title: Texas State University

text: In 1920, Texas State adopted its first official mascot, the bobcat, at the urging of Oscar Strahan, who became the school's athletic director in 1919. Strahan suggested the bobcat because the cat is native to central Texas and is known for its ferocity. The bobcat did not get a name until 1964. At that time, Beth Greenlees won the Name the Bobcat contest with the name Boko the Bobcat. The athletic logo, or spirit mark, is referred to as the SuperCat logo. The current version of the logo was designed by a student in 2003. In August 2009, Texas State refined the logo with the addition of the Texas State lettering.


title: Texas State University

text: A thirteen-year rivalry with Nicholls State University ended with the 2011 football season. It began in 1998 when the annual football game between the two schools was at first cancelled due to severe flooding in San Marcos, where the game was to be played. The athletic directors and coaches later decided to postpone the game from October to November. To remember those affected by the floods, including some people who had died in it, a wooden oar was made with each school's colors and initials. The winning school would take possession of the oar for the next year and have the score inscribed on it. This rivalry became known as the Battle for the Paddle. The oar was last traded in 2010 when Nicholls State received it following 47–44 win over Texas State after four overtimes. Prior to the schools' meeting in 2011, Rob Bernardi, the athletic director for Nicholls State, said that they would not be bringing the oar to San Marcos and would leave it on display in the Nicholls State athletic offices. Due to Texas State changing conferences, Bernardi said it was unlikely that the schools will face each other in football again and that the rivalry was ending.


title: Texas State University

text: The rivalry with the University of Texas at San Antonio (UTSA) is dubbed the I-35 Showdown for the interstate highway that links San Marcos and San Antonio. A trophy consisting of an Interstate Highway 35 sign was originally given to the winner of the men's basketball game, but that tradition has been expanded to all sporting events between the two schools. Even though the two schools will be moving to different athletic conferences in 2013, Texas State Athletics Director Larry Ties expressed hope that the potential rivalry will still occur.


title: Texas State University

text: Texas State's only in-state Sun Belt conference rival is the University of Texas at Arlington (UT Arlington). The rivalry never ceased as both schools moved from the Southland Conference to the Western Athletic Conference then on to the Sun Belt Conference.


title: Texas State University

text: In the summer of 2007, university president Denise Trauth created the Athletic Strategic Planning Committee with the purpose of evaluating a move for the football team to go to the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS). The committee released its final report in November 2007 which included a series of tasks that would need to be completed to make the move. The university called its efforts The Drive to FBS. Following the release of the committee's report, the university's Associated Student Government passed a bill for a student referendum to be held the following spring to obtain the student body's endorsement of an increase in fees to help pay for the move to the FBS. In February 2008, almost 80% of the students who voted in the referendum, approved a raise in the athletics fee by $10 over the next five years. Another set of milestones for The Drive involved improvements to Texas State's football stadium, Bobcat Stadium. Three phases of construction were completed to double the seating capacity of the stadium to 30,000, add luxury boxes, improvements to the press box, and replace the visitors' locker room.


title: Texas State University

text: Texas State University's most notable alumnus is U.S. president Lyndon B. Johnson. Johnson attended the university, then known as the Southwest Texas State Teachers College, from 1926 until 1930 when he earned his Bachelor of Science degree. As a student, Johnson participated on the debate team and was an editor for the student newspaper, then known as the "College Star." Johnson remains the only U.S. president who graduated from a university in the state of Texas.


title: Texas State University

text: Another notable alum is Grammy Award-winning American country music singer George Strait. Strait graduated in 1979 from the university, then known as Southwest Texas State University, with a Bachelor of Science in agriculture. As a student, Strait performed his first show with the Ace in the Hole Band at Cheatham Street Warehouse in San Marcos. In 2006, Strait was given an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters by University President Denise Trauth.


title: Texas State University

text: Other notable alumni include: General Robert L. Rutherford, United States Air Force; musician Scott H. Biram; actor Powers Boothe; writer Tomás Rivera; Texas state representative Alfred P.C. Petsch; columnist "Heloise" (Ponce Cruse Evans); mathematician and former president of the American Mathematical Society R. H. Bing; St. Louis Cardinals first baseman Paul Goldschmidt; professional wrestler Lance Archer (Lance Hoyt); and military historian Alan C. Carey.


title: Everywhere (Fleetwood Mac song)

text: "Everywhere" is a song by British-American rock band Fleetwood Mac from their 14th studio album, "Tango in the Night" (1987). The song was written by Christine McVie, who also performed lead vocals, and produced by Lindsey Buckingham and Richard Dashut. In the United States, "Everywhere" was released as the fourth single from "Tango in the Night" in November 1987, while in the United Kingdom, it was issued as the album's fifth single on 21 March 1988.


title: Everywhere (Fleetwood Mac song)

text: The single peaked at number 14 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and number one on the Adult Contemporary chart, remaining there for three weeks. In the United Kingdom, "Everywhere" peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart and was certified triple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for sales and streams of over 1.8 million units. "Everywhere" also reached number one in Belgium and on the Canadian adult contemporary chart while becoming a top-10 hit in several other countries.


title: Everywhere (Fleetwood Mac song)

text: In March 2013, after being featured in an advertisement for UK mobile phone provider 3, "Everywhere" re-entered the UK Singles Chart, rising to number 15. In September 2022, two months prior to McVie's death, the song was featured in a Chevrolet commercial spot, titled "EVs for Everyone", promoting the automobile manufacturer's line of electric vehicles.


title: Everywhere (Fleetwood Mac song)

text: In the 2019 BBC Four documentary, "Fleetwood Mac's Songbird – Christine McVie", Richard Dashut, the co-producer of "Tango in the Night", briefly talked about the intro: "That's a half-speed acoustic guitar and electric combined". McVie herself also talked about the song's intro: "He [Buckingham] slowed the tape down, really slowly, and played the parts slowly, and then when it came to the right speed, it sounded bloody amazing". An early version lacked harmonies Nicks had recorded, leading to a heated argument.


title: Everywhere (Fleetwood Mac song)

text: A twelve-inch single was issued which featured an extended dance version and dub version. "Everywhere" also marked the first CD single release by the band in most territories. All of the formats included the B-side "When I See You Again", a song taken from "Tango in the Night"; the 12-inch format featured an extended mix of "Everywhere" and the mini-CD single contained the bonus tracks "Rhiannon" and "Say You Love Me" from Fleetwood Mac's single-titled tenth studio album "Fleetwood Mac" (1975).


title: Everywhere (Fleetwood Mac song)

text: "Everywhere" has been covered by artists like Paramore, Vampire Weekend, Niall Horan and Anne-Marie, and Smallpools and Emily Vaughn.


title: Everywhere (Fleetwood Mac song)

text: "Everywhere" has been widely acclaimed by music critics. Alexis Petridis at "the Guardian" dubbed it "peerless" and "bulletproof pop songwriting." Brad Nelson from Pitchfork claimed "Everywhere" to be the best song on "Tango in the Night", writing that the tune "responds with warmth, empathy, and buoyancy, describing a kind of devotion so deeply felt that it produces weightlessness in a person." Elsewhere, the publication ranked it among the 200 Best Songs of the 1980s, praising its "carefully crafted, spare, and meticulously produced" sound.


title: Everywhere (Fleetwood Mac song)

text: There are two versions of the music video for "Everywhere". One features members Christine McVie, John McVie, and Mick Fleetwood. The other video does not feature the band at all and is a visual depiction of the poem "The Highwayman" by Alfred Noyes.


title: Everywhere (Fleetwood Mac song)

text: "Everywhere" was recorded by Irish singer Niall Horan and English singer Anne-Marie and released on 19 November 2021 for that year's BBC Children in Need appeal, supported by BBC Radio 1 and BBC Radio 2.


title: Everywhere (Fleetwood Mac song)

text: The song featured English singers Ed Sheeran on guitar, Griff on the synthesisers and Yungblud on the bass. Fleetwood Mac's vocalist and keyboardist Christine McVie praised the cover saying, "I'm thrilled with this new version of Everywhere and to be part of this year's Children in Need campaign." The song peaked at number 23 on the UK Singles Chart and at number 49 on the Irish Singles Chart.


title: Argument

text: An argument is a statement or group of statements called premises intended to determine the degree of truth or acceptability of another statement called a conclusion. Arguments can be studied from three main perspectives: the logical, the dialectical and the rhetorical perspective.


title: Argument

text: In logic, an argument is usually expressed not in natural language but in a symbolic formal language, and it can be defined as any group of propositions of which one is claimed to follow from the others through deductively valid inferences that preserve truth from the premises to the conclusion. This logical perspective on argument is relevant for scientific fields such as mathematics and computer science. Logic is the study of the forms of reasoning in arguments and the development of standards and criteria to evaluate arguments. Deductive arguments can be valid, and the valid ones can be sound: in a valid argument, premisses necessitate the conclusion, even if one or more of the premises is false and the conclusion is false; in a sound argument, true premises necessitate a true conclusion. Inductive arguments, by contrast, can have different degrees of logical strength: the stronger or more cogent the argument, the greater the probability that the conclusion is true, the weaker the argument, the lesser that probability. The standards for evaluating non-deductive arguments may rest on different or additional criteria than truth—for example, the persuasiveness of so-called "indispensability claims" in transcendental arguments, the quality of hypotheses in retroduction, or even the disclosure of new possibilities for thinking and acting.


title: Argument

text: In dialectics, and also in a more colloquial sense, an argument can be conceived as a social and verbal means of trying to resolve, or at least contend with, a conflict or difference of opinion that has arisen or exists between two or more parties. For the rhetorical perspective, the argument is constitutively linked with the context, in particular with the time and place in which the argument is located. From this perspective, the argument is evaluated not just by two parties (as in a dialectical approach) but also by an audience. In both dialectic and rhetoric, arguments are used not through a formal but through natural language. Since classical antiquity, philosophers and rhetoricians have developed lists of argument types in which premises and conclusions are connected in informal and defeasible ways.


title: Argument

text: The Latin root "arguere" (to make bright, enlighten, make known, prove, etc.) is from Proto-Indo-European "argu-yo-", suffixed form of "arg-" (to shine; white).


title: Argument

text: Informal arguments as studied in "informal logic", are presented in ordinary language and are intended for everyday discourse. Formal arguments are studied in "formal logic" (historically called "symbolic logic", more commonly referred to as "mathematical logic" today) and are expressed in a formal language. Informal logic emphasizes the study of argumentation; formal logic emphasizes implication and inference. Informal arguments are sometimes implicit. The rational structure—the relationship of claims, premises, warrants, relations of implication, and conclusion—is not always spelled out and immediately visible and must be made explicit by analysis.


title: Argument

text: There are several kinds of arguments in logic, the best-known of which are "deductive" and "inductive." An argument has one or more premises but only one conclusion. Each premise and the conclusion are truth bearers or "truth-candidates", each capable of being either true or false (but not both). These truth values bear on the terminology used with arguments.


title: Argument

text: A "deductive argument" asserts that the truth of the conclusion is a logical consequence of the premises: if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. It would be self-contradictory to assert the premises and deny the conclusion, because negation of the conclusion is contradictory to the truth of the premises. Based on the premises, the conclusion follows necessarily (with certainty). Given premises that A=B and B=C, then the conclusion follows necessarily that A=C. Deductive arguments are sometimes referred to as "truth-preserving" arguments. For example, consider the argument that because bats can fly (premise=true), and all flying creatures are birds (premise=false), therefore bats are birds (conclusion=false). If we assume the premises are true, the conclusion follows necessarily, and it is a valid argument.


title: Argument

text: Deductive arguments may be either valid or invalid. If valid, it has a conclusion that is entailed by its premises; if its premises are true, the conclusion must be true. An argument is formally valid if and only if the denial of the conclusion is incompatible with accepting all the premises.


title: Argument

text: The validity of an argument depends not on the actual truth or falsity of its premises and conclusion, but on whether the argument has a valid logical form. The validity of an argument is not a guarantee of the truth of its conclusion. A valid argument may have false premises that render it inconclusive: the conclusion of a valid argument with one or more false premises may be true or false.


title: Argument

text: Logic seeks to discover the forms that make arguments valid. A form of argument is valid if and only if the conclusion is true under all interpretations of that argument in which the premises are true. Since the validity of an argument depends on its form, an argument can be shown invalid by showing that its form is invalid. This can be done by a counter example of the same form of argument with premises that are true under a given interpretation, but a conclusion that is false under that interpretation. In informal logic this is called a counter argument.


title: Argument

text: The form of an argument can be shown by the use of symbols. For each argument form, there is a corresponding statement form, called a corresponding conditional, and an argument form is valid if and only if its corresponding conditional is a logical truth. A statement form which is logically true is also said to be a valid statement form. A statement form is a logical truth if it is true under all interpretations. A statement form can be shown to be a logical truth by either (a) showing that it is a tautology or (b) by means of a proof procedure.


title: Argument

text: The corresponding conditional of a valid argument is a necessary truth (true "in all possible worlds") and so the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises, or follows of logical necessity. The conclusion of a valid argument is not necessarily true, it depends on whether the premises are true. If the conclusion, itself, is a necessary truth, it is without regard to the premises.


title: Argument

text: In the above second to last case (Some men are hawkers ...), the counter-example follows the same logical form as the previous argument, (Premise 1: "Some "X" are "Y"." Premise 2: "Some "Y" are "Z"." Conclusion: "Some "X" are "Z".") in order to demonstrate that whatever hawkers may be, they may or may not be rich, in consideration of the premises as such. (See also: Existential import).


title: Argument

text: The forms of argument that render deductions valid are well-established, however some invalid arguments can also be persuasive depending on their construction (inductive arguments, for example). (See also: Formal fallacy and Informal fallacy).


title: Argument

text: A sound argument is a valid argument whose conclusion follows from its premise(s), and the premise(s) of which is/are true.


title: Argument

text: An inductive argument asserts that the truth of the conclusion is supported by the probability of the premises. For example, given that the military budget of the United States is the largest in the world (premise=true), then it is probable that it will remain so for the next 10 years (conclusion=true). Arguments that involve predictions are inductive since the future is uncertain. An inductive argument is said to be strong or weak. If the premises of an inductive argument are assumed true, is it probable the conclusion is also true? If yes, the argument is strong. If no, it is weak. A strong argument is said to be cogent if it has all true premises. Otherwise, the argument is uncogent. The military budget argument example is a strong, cogent argument.


title: Argument

text: Non-deductive logic is reasoning using arguments in which the premises support the conclusion but do not entail it. Forms of non-deductive logic include the statistical syllogism, which argues from generalizations true for the most part, and induction, a form of reasoning that makes generalizations based on individual instances. An inductive argument is said to be "cogent" if and only if the truth of the argument's premises would render the truth of the conclusion probable (i.e., the argument is "strong"), and the argument's premises are, in fact, true. Cogency can be considered inductive logic's analogue to deductive logic's "soundness". Despite its name, mathematical induction is not a form of inductive reasoning. The lack of deductive validity is known as the problem of induction.


title: Argument

text: In modern argumentation theories, arguments are regarded as defeasible passages from premises to a conclusion. Defeasibility means that when additional information (new evidence or contrary arguments) is provided, the premises may be no longer lead to the conclusion (non-monotonic reasoning). This type of reasoning is referred to as defeasible reasoning. For instance we consider the famous Tweety example:


title: Argument

text: This argument is reasonable and the premises support the conclusion unless additional information indicating that the case is an exception comes in. If Tweety is a penguin, the inference is no longer justified by the premise. Defeasible arguments are based on generalizations that hold only in the majority of cases, but are subject to exceptions and defaults.


title: Argument

text: In order to represent and assess defeasible reasoning, it is necessary to combine the logical rules (governing the acceptance of a conclusion based on the acceptance of its premises) with rules of material inference, governing how a premise can support a given conclusion (whether it is reasonable or not to draw a specific conclusion from a specific description of a state of affairs).


title: Argument

text: Argumentation schemes have been developed to describe and assess the acceptability or the fallaciousness of defeasible arguments. Argumentation schemes are stereotypical patterns of inference, combining semantic-ontological relations with types of reasoning and logical axioms and representing the abstract structure of the most common types of natural arguments. A typical example is the argument from expert opinion, shown below, which has two premises and a conclusion.


title: Argument

text: Each scheme may be associated with a set of critical questions, namely criteria for assessing dialectically the reasonableness and acceptability of an argument. The matching critical questions are the standard ways of casting the argument into doubt.


title: Argument

text: Argument by analogy may be thought of as argument from the particular to particular. An argument by analogy may use a particular truth in a premise to argue towards a similar particular truth in the conclusion. For example, if A. Plato was mortal, and B. Socrates was like Plato in other respects, then asserting that C. Socrates was mortal is an example of argument by analogy because the reasoning employed in it proceeds from a particular truth in a premise (Plato was mortal) to a similar particular truth in the conclusion, namely that Socrates was mortal.


title: Argument

text: Other kinds of arguments may have different or additional standards of validity or justification. For example, philosopher Charles Taylor said that so-called transcendental arguments are made up of a "chain of indispensability claims" that attempt to show why something is necessarily true based on its connection to our experience, while Nikolas Kompridis has suggested that there are two types of "fallible" arguments: one based on truth claims, and the other based on the time-responsive disclosure of possibility (world disclosure). Kompridis said that the French philosopher Michel Foucault was a prominent advocate of this latter form of philosophical argument.


title: Argument

text: World-disclosing arguments are a group of philosophical arguments that according to Nikolas Kompridis employ a disclosive approach, to reveal features of a wider ontological or cultural-linguistic understanding—a "world", in a specifically ontological sense—in order to clarify or transform the background of meaning (tacit knowledge) and what Kompridis has called the "logical space" on which an argument implicitly depends.


title: Argument

text: While arguments attempt to show that something was, is, will be, or should be the case, explanations try to show "why" or "how" something is or will be. If Fred and Joe address the issue of "whether" or not Fred's cat has fleas, Joe may state: "Fred, your cat has fleas. Observe, the cat is scratching right now." Joe has made an "argument that" the cat has fleas. However, if Joe asks Fred, "Why is your cat scratching itself?" the explanation, "... because it has fleas." provides understanding.


title: Argument

text: Both the above argument and explanation require knowing the generalities that a) fleas often cause itching, and b) that one often scratches to relieve itching. The difference is in the intent: an argument attempts to settle whether or not some claim is true, and an explanation attempts to provide understanding of the event. Note, that by subsuming the specific event (of Fred's cat scratching) as an instance of the general rule that "animals scratch themselves when they have fleas", Joe will no longer wonder "why" Fred's cat is scratching itself. Arguments address problems of belief, explanations address problems of understanding. Also note that in the argument above, the statement, "Fred's cat has fleas" is up for debate (i.e. is a claim), but in the explanation, the statement, "Fred's cat has fleas" is assumed to be true (unquestioned at this time) and just needs "explaining".


title: Argument

text: Arguments and explanations largely resemble each other in rhetorical use. This is the cause of much difficulty in thinking critically about claims. There are several reasons for this difficulty.


title: Argument

text: Explanations and arguments are often studied in the field of information systems to help explain user acceptance of knowledge-based systems. Certain argument types may fit better with personality traits to enhance acceptance by individuals.


title: Argument

text: Fallacies are types of argument or expressions which are held to be of an invalid form or contain errors in reasoning.


title: Argument

text: One type of fallacy occurs when a word frequently used to indicate a conclusion is used as a transition (conjunctive adverb) between independent clauses. In English the words "therefore", "so", "because" and "hence" typically separate the premises from the conclusion of an argument. Thus: "Socrates is a man, all men are mortal therefore Socrates is mortal" is an argument because the assertion "Socrates is mortal" follows from the preceding statements. However, "I was thirsty and therefore I drank" is not an argument, despite its appearance. It is not being claimed that "I drank" is logically entailed by "I was thirsty". The "therefore" in this sentence indicates "for that reason" not "it follows that".


title: Argument

text: Often an argument is invalid or weak because there is a missing premise—the supply of which would make it valid or strong. This is referred to as an elliptical or enthymematic argument (see also ). Speakers and writers will often leave out a necessary premise in their reasoning if it is widely accepted and the writer does not wish to state the blindingly obvious. Example: "All metals expand when heated, therefore iron will expand when heated." The missing premise is: "Iron is a metal." On the other hand, a seemingly valid argument may be found to lack a premise—a "hidden assumption"—which, if highlighted, can show a fault in reasoning. Example: A witness reasoned: "Nobody came out the front door except the milkman; therefore the murderer must have left by the back door." The hidden assumptions are: (1) the milkman was not the murderer and (2) the murderer has left (3) by a door and (4) not by e.g. a window or through "an 'ole in 't roof" and (5) there are no other doors than the front or back door.


title: Argument

text: The goal of argument mining is the automatic extraction and identification of argumentative structures from natural language text with the aid of computer programs. Such argumentative structures include the premise, conclusions, the argument scheme and the relationship between the main and subsidiary argument, or the main and counter-argument within discourse.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: Bloody Sunday () was a day of violence in Dublin on 21 November 1920, during the Irish War of Independence. More than 30 people were killed or fatally wounded.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: The day began with an Irish Republican Army (IRA) operation, organised by Michael Collins, to assassinate the "Cairo Gang" – a group of undercover British intelligence agents working and living in Dublin. IRA operatives went to a number of addresses and killed or fatally wounded 15 men. Most were British Army officers, one was a Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) sergeant, and two were Auxiliaries responding to the attacks. At least two civilians were killed, but the status of some of those killed is unclear. Five others were wounded. The assassinations sparked panic among the British authorities, and many British agents fled to Dublin Castle for safety.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: Later that afternoon, British forces raided a Gaelic football match in Croke Park. British RIC members called "Black and Tans", Auxiliaries, and British soldiers, were sent to carry out a cordon and search operation. Without warning, the police opened fire on the spectators and players, killing or fatally wounding 14 civilians and wounding at least sixty others. Two of those killed were children. Some of the police claimed they were fired at, and this was accepted by the British authorities. All other witnesses said the shooting was unprovoked, and a military inquiry concluded it was indiscriminate and excessive. The massacre further turned Irish public opinion against the British authorities.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: That evening, two Irish republicans (Dick McKee and Peadar Clancy) who had helped plan the earlier assassinations, along with a civilian (Conor Clune) who happened to be caught with the others, were beaten and shot dead in Dublin Castle by their British captors, who said that they were killed during an escape attempt. Two other IRA members were later convicted and hanged in March 1921 for their part in the assassinations.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: Overall, the IRA assassination operation severely damaged British intelligence, while the later reprisals increased support for the IRA at home and abroad.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: Bloody Sunday was one of the most significant events to take place during the Irish War of Independence, which followed the declaration of an Irish Republic and founding of its parliament, Dáil Éireann. The Irish Republican Army (IRA) waged a guerrilla war against British forces: the Royal Irish Constabulary and the British Army, who were tasked with suppressing it.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: In response to increasing IRA activity, the British government began bolstering the RIC with recruits from Britain, who became known as "Black and Tans" due to their mixture of black police and khaki military uniforms. It also formed an RIC paramilitary unit, the Auxiliary Division (or "Auxiliaries"). Both groups soon became notorious for their brutal treatment of the civilian population. In Dublin, the conflict largely took the form of assassinations and reprisals on both sides.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: The events on the morning of 21 November were an effort by the IRA in Dublin, under Michael Collins and Richard Mulcahy, to destroy the British intelligence network in the city.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: Michael Collins was the IRA's Chief of Intelligence and Finance Minister of the Irish Republic. Since 1919 he had operated a clandestine "Squad" of IRA members in Dublin (a.k.a. "The Twelve Apostles"), who were tasked with assassinating prominent RIC officers and British agents, including suspected informers.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: By late 1920, British Intelligence in Dublin had established an extensive network of spies and informers around the city. This included eighteen purported British Intelligence agents known as the "Cairo Gang"; a nickname which came from their patronage of the Cairo Café on Grafton Street and from their service in British military intelligence in Egypt and Palestine during the First World War. Mulcahy, the IRA Chief of Staff, described it as, "a very dangerous and cleverly placed spy organisation".


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: In early November 1920, some prominent IRA members in Dublin were almost captured. On 10 November, Mulcahy narrowly evaded capture in a raid, but British forces seized documents which included names and addresses of 200 IRA members. Shortly after, Collins ordered the assassination of British agents in the city, judging that if they did not do this, the IRA's organisation in the capital would be in grave danger. The IRA also believed that British forces were implementing a coordinated policy of assassination of leading republicans.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: Dick McKee was put in charge of planning the operation. The addresses of the British agents were discovered from a variety of sources, including sympathetic maids and other servants, careless talk from some of the British, and an IRA informant in the RIC (Sergeant Mannix) based in Donnybrook barracks. Collins's plan had initially been to kill more than 50 suspected British intelligence officers and informers, but the list was reduced to thirty-five on the insistence of Cathal Brugha, the Minister for Defence for the Irish Republic, reportedly on the grounds that there was insufficient evidence against some of those named. The number was eventually lowered again, to 20.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: On the night of 20 November, the leaders of the assassination teams, which included the Squad and members of the IRA's Dublin Brigade, were briefed on their targets, which included twenty agents at eight different locations in Dublin. Two of those who attended the meeting—Dick McKee and Peadar Clancy—were arrested in a raid a few hours later, and Collins narrowly evaded capture in another raid.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: Early on the morning of 21 November, the IRA teams mounted the operation. Most of the assassinations occurred within a small middle-class area of south inner-city Dublin, with the exception of two shootings at the Gresham Hotel on Sackville Street (now O'Connell Street). At 28 Upper Pembroke Street, six British Army officers were shot. Three Intelligence officers were killed outright, a fourth (Lieutenant-Colonel Hugh Montgomery) died of his wounds on 10 December, while the rest survived. Another successful attack took place at 38 Upper Mount Street, where another two Intelligence officers were killed. A British Army dispatch rider stumbled upon the operation on Upper Mount Street and was held at gunpoint by the IRA. As they left the scene they exchanged fire with a British major who had spotted them from a nearby house.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: At 22 Lower Mount Street, one Intelligence officer was killed, but another escaped. A third, surnamed "Peel", managed to keep the assassins from entering his room. The building was then surrounded by members of the Auxiliary Division, who happened to be passing by, and the IRA team was forced to shoot its way out. One IRA volunteer, Frank Teeling, was shot and captured as the team fled the building. In the meantime, two of the Auxiliaries had been sent on foot to bring reinforcements from the nearby barracks. They were captured by an IRA team on Mount Street Bridge and marched to a house on Northumberland Road where they were interrogated and shot dead. They were the first Auxiliaries to be killed on active duty.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: At 117 Morehampton Road, the IRA killed a sixth Intelligence officer, but also shot his civilian landlord, presumably by mistake. While at the Gresham Hotel, they killed another two men who were apparently civilians, both of them former British officers who served in the First World War. The IRA team ordered a hotel porter to take them to the specific rooms. One of them (MacCormack) was apparently not the intended target. The status of the other (Wilde) is unclear. According to one of the IRA team, James Cahill, Wilde told the IRA he was an Intelligence officer when asked his name, apparently mistaking them for a police raiding party.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: One of the IRA volunteers who took part in these attacks, Seán Lemass, would later become a prominent Irish politician and serve as Taoiseach. On the morning of Bloody Sunday, he took part in the assassination of a British court-martial officer at 119 Lower Baggot Street. Another court-martial officer was killed at another address on the same street. At 28 Earlsfort Terrace, an RIC sergeant named Fitzgerald was killed, but apparently the target was a British lieutenant-colonel Fitzpatrick.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: There has been confusion and disagreement about the status of the IRA's victims on the morning of Bloody Sunday. At the time, the British government said that the men killed were ordinary British officers or (in some cases) innocent civilians. The IRA were convinced that most of their targets had been British Intelligence agents. In a 1972 article, historian Tom Bowden concluded that "the officers shot by the IRA were, in the main, involved in some aspect of British intelligence". Charles Townshend disagreed: in a response published in 1979, he criticized Bowden's work, while presenting evidence from the Collins Papers to show that "several of the 21st November cases were just regular officers". The most recent research, by Irish military historian Jane Leonard, concluded that, of the nine British officers who were killed, six had been undertaking intelligence work; two had been court-martial officers; another was a senior staff officer serving with Irish Command, but unconnected with military intelligence. One of the two men shot at the Gresham Hotel (Wilde) was probably on secret service, but the other was an innocent civilian, killed because the assassins went to the wrong room.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: In all, 14 men were killed outright, and another was mortally wounded, while five others were wounded but survived. Only one Squad member was captured, Frank Teeling, but he managed to escape from jail soon after. Another IRA volunteer was slightly wounded in the hand. IRA volunteer and future Irish politician, Todd Andrews, said later that "the fact is that the majority of the IRA raids were abortive. The men sought were not in their digs or in several cases, the men looking for them bungled their jobs".


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: Collins justified the killings in this way: My one intention was the destruction of the undesirables who continued to make miserable the lives of ordinary decent citizens. I have proof enough to assure myself of the atrocities which this gang of spies and informers have committed. If I had a second motive it was no more than a feeling such as I would have for a dangerous reptile. By their destruction the very air is made sweeter. For myself, my conscience is clear. There is no crime in detecting in wartime the spy and the informer. They have destroyed without trial. I have paid them back in their own coin.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: The Dublin Gaelic football team was scheduled to play the Tipperary team later the same day in Croke Park, the Gaelic Athletic Association's major football ground. Money raised from ticket sales would go to the Republican Prisoners' Dependents' Fund. Despite the general unease in Dublin as news broke of the assassinations, a war-weary populace continued with life. At least 5,000 spectators went to Croke Park for the match, which began thirty minutes late, at 3:15 p.m.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: Meanwhile, unbeknownst to the crowd, British forces were approaching and preparing to raid the match. A convoy of troops in trucks and three armoured cars drove in from the north and halted along Clonliffe Road. A convoy of RIC police drove in from the southwest, along Russell Street–Jones's Road. It comprised twelve trucks of Black and Tans in front and six trucks of Auxiliaries behind. Several plain-clothes Auxiliaries also rode in front with the Black and Tans. Their orders were to surround Croke Park, guard the exits, and search every man. The authorities later stated that their intention was to announce by megaphone that all males leaving the grounds would be searched and that anyone leaving by other means would be shot. However, for some reason, shots were fired by police as soon as they reached the southwest gate at the Royal Canal end of Croke Park, at 3:25 pm.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: Some of the police later claimed they were fired on first as they arrived outside Croke Park, allegedly by IRA sentries; but other police at the front of the convoy did not corroborate this, and there is no convincing evidence for it. Civilian witnesses all agreed that the RIC opened fire without provocation as they ran into the grounds. Two Dublin Metropolitan Police (DMP) constables on duty near the Canal gate did not report the RIC being fired on. Another DMP constable testified that an RIC group also arrived at the Main gate and began firing in the air. Correspondents for the "Manchester Guardian" and Britain's "Daily News" interviewed witnesses, and concluded that the "IRA sentries" were actually ticket-sellers: It is the custom at this football ground for tickets to be sold outside the gates by recognised ticket-sellers, who would probably present the appearance of pickets, and would naturally run inside at the approach of a dozen military lorries. No man exposes himself needlessly in Ireland when a military lorry passes by. The police in the convoy's leading trucks appear to have jumped out, run down the passage to the Canal end gate, forced their way through the turnstiles, and started firing rapidly with rifles and revolvers. Ireland's "Freeman's Journal" reported that The spectators were startled by a volley of shots fired from inside the turnstile entrances. Armed and uniformed men were seen entering the field, and immediately after the firing broke out scenes of the wildest confusion took place. The spectators made a rush for the far side of Croke Park and shots were fired over their heads and into the crowd.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: The police kept shooting for about ninety seconds. Their commander, Major Mills, later admitted that his men were "excited and out of hand". Some police fired into the fleeing crowd from the pitch, while others, outside the grounds, opened fire from the Canal Bridge at spectators who climbed over the Canal Wall trying to escape. At the other side of the Park, soldiers on Clonliffe Road were startled first by the sound of the fusillade, then by the sight of panicked people fleeing the grounds. As the spectators streamed out, an armoured car on St James Avenue fired its machine guns over the heads of the crowd, trying to halt them.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: By the time Major Mills got his men back under control, the police had fired 114 rounds of rifle ammunition, while fifty rounds were fired from the armoured car outside the Park. Seven people had been shot to death, and five more had been shot and wounded so badly that they later died; another two people had died in the crowd crush. The dead included Jane Boyle, the only woman killed, who had gone to the match with her fiancé and was due to be married five days later. Two boys aged ten and eleven were shot dead. Two football players, Michael Hogan and Jim Egan, had been shot; Egan survived but Hogan was killed, the only player fatality. There were dozens of other wounded and injured. The police raiding party suffered no casualties.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: Once the firing stopped, the security forces searched the remaining men in the crowd before letting them go. The military raiding party recovered one revolver: a local householder testified that a fleeing spectator had thrown it away in his garden. The British authorities stated that 30–40 discarded revolvers were found in the grounds. However, Major Mills stated that no weapons were found on the spectators or in the grounds.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: The actions of the police were officially unauthorised and were greeted with horror by the British authorities at Dublin Castle. In an effort to cover up the nature of the behaviour by British forces, a press release was issued which claimed:A number of men came to Dublin on Saturday under the guise of asking to attend a football match between Tipperary and Dublin. But their real intention was to take part in the series of murderous outrages which took place in Dublin that morning. Learning on Saturday that a number of these gunmen were present in Croke Park, the Crown forces went to raid the field. It was the original intention that an officer would go to the centre of the field and speaking from a megaphone, invite the assassins to come forward. But on their approach, armed pickets gave warning. Shots were fired to warn the wanted men, who caused a stampede and escaped in the confusion.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: "The Times", which during the war was a pro-Unionist publication, ridiculed Dublin Castle's version of events, as did a British Labour Party delegation visiting Ireland at the time. British Brigadier Frank Percy Crozier, overall commander of the Auxiliary Division, later resigned over what he believed was the official condoning of the unjustified actions of the Auxiliaries in Croke Park. One of his officers told him that "Black and Tans fired into the crowd without any provocation whatsoever". Major Mills stated: "I did not see any need for any firing at all".


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: Later that night, two high-ranking IRA officers, Dick McKee and Peadar Clancy, together with another man, Conor Clune, were killed while being held and interrogated in Dublin Castle. McKee and Clancy had been involved in planning the assassinations of the British agents, and had been captured in a raid hours before they took place. Clune, a nephew of Patrick Clune, Archbishop of Perth, Australia, had joined the Irish Volunteers shortly after it was founded, but it is unclear if he was ever active. He had been arrested in another raid on a hotel that IRA members had just left.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: Their captors said that, because there was no room in the cells, the prisoners were placed in a guardroom containing arms, and were killed while trying to escape. They allegedly threw grenades, which did not detonate, then fired at the guards with a rifle, but missed. They were shot by Auxiliaries. Medical examination found broken bones and abrasions consistent with prolonged assaults, and bullet wounds to the head and body. Their faces were covered in cuts and bruises, and McKee had an apparent bayonet wound in his side. Michael Lynch, a IRA Brigade Commander stated that McKee suffered severe beatings prior to being shot to death - "I saw Dick McKee's body afterwards, and it was almost unrecognizable. He had evidently been tortured before being shot...They must have beaten Dick to a pulp. When they threatened him with death, according to reports, Dick's last words were, Go on, and do your worst!"


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: However, Clune's employer, Edward MacLysaght, who viewed the corpses at King George V Hospital, stated that the claim "that their faces were so battered about as to be unrecognisable and horrible to look at is quite untrue. I remember those pale dead faces as if I had looked at them yesterday, they were not disfigured". An army doctor who examined the bodies found signs of discolouring on the skin, but stated this could have been the result of how the bodies were left lying. He found numerous bullet wounds as did a private doctor hired by Edward MacLysaght but no signs of any other injuries such as bayoneting. IRA mole David Neligan was also adamant about this fact. Head of British Intelligence Brigadier General Ormonde Winter carried out his own private investigation, interviewing the guards and inspecting the scene, pronouncing himself happy with their account, noting "One of the rebels was lying on his back near the fireplace, with a grenade in his right hand, and the other two were close by. And on a form in front of the fireplace I found a deep cut that had been made by the spade when it had been used to attack the auxiliary. I extracted the bullet from the door and at once reported to Sir John Anderson who, somewhat dubious of the accuracy of my information, accompanied me to the guardroom. He listened to the statements of the auxiliaries and I was able to show him ocular and tangible proof of them".


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: Together, the attacks on the British agents, and the British massacre of civilians, damaged British authority and increased support for the IRA. The killings of the match-goers (including a woman, several children, and a player) made international headlines, damaging British credibility and further turning the Irish public against the British authorities. Some contemporary newspapers, including the nationalist "Freeman's Journal", likened the shootings in Croke Park to the Amritsar massacre, which had taken place in India in April 1919. Later commentators also did likewise.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: When Joseph Devlin, an Irish Parliamentary Party Member of Parliament (MP), tried to bring up the Croke Park massacre at Westminster, he was shouted down and physically assaulted by his fellow MPs; the sitting had to be suspended. There was no public inquiry into the Croke Park massacre. Instead, two British military courts of inquiry into the massacre were held behind closed doors, at the Mater Hospital and at Jervis Street Hospital. More than thirty people gave evidence, most of them anonymous Black and Tans, Auxiliaries and British soldiers. One inquiry concluded that unknown civilians probably fired first, either as a warning of the raid or to create panic. But it also concluded: "the fire of the RIC was carried out without orders and exceeded the demands of the situation". Major General Boyd, the British officer commanding Dublin District, added that in his opinion, the firing on the crowd "was indiscriminate, and unjustifiable, with the exception of any shooting which took place inside the enclosure". The findings of these inquiries were suppressed by the British Government, and only came to light in 2000.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: The IRA assassinations sparked panic among the British military authorities, and numerous British agents fled to Dublin Castle for safety. In Britain and in the short term, the killings of the British Army officers received more attention. The bodies of nine of the Army officers assassinated were brought in procession through the streets of London en route to their funerals. The fate of the British agents was seen in Dublin as an IRA intelligence victory, but British Prime Minister David Lloyd George commented dismissively that his men "got what they deserved, beaten by counter-jumpers". Winston Churchill added that the agents were "careless fellows ... who ought to have taken precautions".


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: One IRA member had been captured during the assassinations that morning, and several others were arrested in the following days. Frank Teeling (who had been captured) was tried for the killing of Lieutenant Angliss along with William Conway, Edward Potter and Daniel Healy. Teeling, Conway and Potter were convicted and sentenced to death. Teeling escaped from prison and the other two were later reprieved. Thomas Whelan, James Boyce, James McNamara and Michael Tobin were arrested for the killing of Lieutenant Baggallay. Only Whelan was convicted; he was executed on 14 March 1921. Patrick Moran was sentenced to death for Gresham Hotel killings and also executed on 14 March.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: The Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) named one of the stands in Croke Park as the Hogan Stand in memory of Michael Hogan, the football player killed in the incident.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: James "Shanker" Ryan, who had informed on Clancy and McKee, was shot and killed by the IRA in February 1921.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: IRA assassinations continued in Dublin for the remainder of the war, in addition to more large scale urban guerrilla actions by the Dublin Brigade. By the spring of 1921, the British had rebuilt their intelligence organisation in Dublin, and the IRA were planning another assassination attempt on British agents in the summer of that year. However, many of these plans were called off because of the truce that ended the war in July 1921.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: The trial for the Lower Mount Street killings was held as a Field General Court-martial at City Hall in Dublin, on Tuesday 25 January 1921. The four accused men were William Conway, Daniel Healy, Edward Potter, and Frank Teeling. Daniel Healy was excused by the prosecution and given a separate trial after a petition by counsel that the evidence against the other prisoners would embarrass his client. The trial of the three other prisoners proceeded. They were charged with the murder of Lieutenant H. Angliss of the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers, otherwise known as Mr. McMahon of 22 Lower Mount Street. The whole of Ireland was enthralled by the trial, with most Irish newspapers and international newspapers reporting it.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: Mr "C" was brought forward as a witness on 28 January and was identified as the man sleeping in the same bed who escaped by jumping out the window when the attackers came into the room. Mr "C" was identified as Lieutenant John Joseph Connolly.


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: Mr "B" was another trial witness, and he was later identified as Lt Charles R. Peel. His description of the incident during the trial was reported in Hansard:


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: The "Irish Independent" (26 January 1921) reported that "Cross examined by a witness at the house, Mr. Bewley said 'he did not see Teeling in the house.' He saw him being carried out from the yard. One witness stated that he took the first witness Nellie Stapleton to Wellington Barracks on 17 December. She was put into a corridor in which there 3 or 4 windows covered with brown paper. Eight prisoners were brought out and the lady pointed out Potter. The man who shared McMahons room, Mr. 'C' also identified Potter."


title: Bloody Sunday (1920)

text: "The Irish Times" reported that on 6 March 1921, the death sentences of Conway and Potter were commuted by the Viceroy of Ireland to penal servitude. Daniel Healy was eventually acquitted.


title: Halo (optical phenomenon)

text: A halo is an optical phenomenon produced by light (typically from the Sun or Moon) interacting with ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere. Halos can have many forms, ranging from colored or white rings to arcs and spots in the sky. Many of these appear near the Sun or Moon, but others occur elsewhere or even in the opposite part of the sky. Among the best known halo types are the circular halo (properly called the 22° halo), light pillars, and sun dogs, but many others occur; some are fairly common while others are extremely rare.


title: Halo (optical phenomenon)

text: The ice crystals responsible for halos are typically suspended in cirrus or cirrostratus clouds in the upper troposphere (), but in cold weather they can also float near the ground, in which case they are referred to as diamond dust. The particular shape and orientation of the crystals are responsible for the type of halo observed. Light is reflected and refracted by the ice crystals and may split into colors because of dispersion. The crystals behave like prisms and mirrors, refracting and reflecting light between their faces, sending shafts of light in particular directions.


title: Halo (optical phenomenon)

text: Atmospheric optical phenomena like halos were used as part of weather lore, which was an empirical means of weather forecasting before meteorology was developed. They often do indicate that rain will fall within the next 24 hours, since the cirrostratus clouds that cause them can signify an approaching frontal system.


title: Halo (optical phenomenon)

text: Other common types of optical phenomena involving water droplets rather than ice crystals include the glory and rainbow.


title: Halo (optical phenomenon)

text: While Aristotle had mentioned halos and parhelia, in antiquity, the first European descriptions of complex displays were those of Christoph Scheiner in Rome (circa 1630), Johannes Hevelius in Danzig (1661), and Tobias Lowitz in St Petersburg (c. 1794).


title: Halo (optical phenomenon)

text: Chinese observers had recorded these for centuries, the first reference being a section of the "Official History of the Chin Dynasty" ("Chin Shu") in 637, on the "Ten Haloes", giving technical terms for 26 solar halo phenomena.


title: Halo (optical phenomenon)

text: While mostly known and often quoted for being the oldest color depiction of the city of Stockholm, "Vädersolstavlan" (Swedish; "The Sundog Painting", literally "The Weather Sun Painting") is arguably also one of the oldest known depictions of a halo display, including a pair of sun dogs. For two hours in the morning of 20 April 1535, the skies over the city were filled with white circles and arcs crossing the sky, while additional suns (i.e., sun dogs) appeared around the sun.


title: Halo (optical phenomenon)

text: A light pillar, or sun pillar, appears as a vertical pillar or column of light rising from the sun near sunset or sunrise, though it can appear below the sun, particularly if the observer is at a high elevation or altitude. Hexagonal plate- and column-shaped ice crystals cause the phenomenon. Plate crystals generally cause pillars only when the sun is within 6 degrees of the horizon; column crystals can cause a pillar when the sun is as high as 20 degrees above the horizon. The crystals tend to orient themselves near-horizontally as they fall or float through the air, and the width and visibility of a sun pillar depend on crystal alignment.


title: Halo (optical phenomenon)

text: Light pillars can also form around the moon, and around street lights or other bright lights. Pillars forming from ground-based light sources may appear much taller than those associated with the sun or moon. Since the observer is closer to the light source, crystal orientation matters less in the formation of these pillars.


title: Halo (optical phenomenon)

text: Among the best-known halos is the 22° halo, often just called "halo", which appears as a large ring around the Sun or Moon with a radius of about 22° (roughly the width of an outstretched hand at arm's length). The ice crystals that cause the 22° halo are oriented semi-randomly in the atmosphere, in contrast to the horizontal orientation required for some other halos such as sun dogs and light pillars. As a result of the optical properties of the ice crystals involved, no light is reflected towards the inside of the ring, leaving the sky noticeably darker than the sky around it, and giving it the impression of a "hole in the sky". The 22° halo is not to be confused with the corona, which is a different optical phenomenon caused by water droplets rather than ice crystals, and which has the appearance of a multicolored disk rather than a ring.


title: Halo (optical phenomenon)

text: Other haloes can form at 46° to the sun, or at the horizon, or around the zenith, and can appear as full haloes or incomplete arcs.


title: Halo (optical phenomenon)

text: A "Bottlinger's ring" is a rare type of halo that is elliptical instead of circular. It has a small diameter, which makes it very difficult to see in the Sun's glare and more likely to be spotted around the dimmer Subsun, often seen from mountain tops or airplanes. Bottlinger's rings are not well understood yet. It is suggested that they are formed by very flat pyramidal ice crystals with faces at uncommonly low angles, suspended horizontally in the atmosphere. These precise and physically problematic requirements would explain why the halo is very rare.


title: Halo (optical phenomenon)

text: In the Anglo-Cornish dialect of English, a halo round the sun or the moon is called a "cock's eye" and is a token of bad weather. The term is related to the Breton word "kog-heol" (sun cock) which has the same meaning. In Nepal, the halo round the sun is called "Indrasabha" with a connotation of the assembly court of Lord Indra – the Hindu god of lightning, thunder and rain.


title: Halo (optical phenomenon)

text: The natural phenomena may be reproduced artificially by several means. Firstly, by computer simulations, or secondly by experimental means. Regarding the latter, one may either take a single crystal and rotate it around the appropriate axis/axes, or take a chemical approach. A still further and more indirect experimental approach is to find analogous refraction geometries.


title: Halo (optical phenomenon)

text: This approach employs the fact that in some cases the average geometry of refraction through an ice crystal may be imitated / mimicked via the refraction through another geometrical object. In this way, the Circumzenithal arc, the Circumhorizontal arc and the suncave Parry arcs may be recreated by refraction through rotationally symmetric (i.e. non-prismatic) static bodies. A particularly simple table-top experiment reproduces artificially the colorful circumzenithal and circumhorizontal arcs using a water glass only. The refraction through the cylinder of water turns out to be (almost) identical to the rotationally averaged refraction through an upright hexagonal ice crystal / plate-oriented crystals, thereby creating vividly colored circumzenithal and the circumhorizontal arcs. In fact, the water glass experiment is often confused as representing a rainbow and has been around at least since 1920.


title: Halo (optical phenomenon)

text: Following Huygens' idea of the (false) mechanism of the 22° parhelia, one may also illuminate (from the side) a water-filled cylindrical glass with an inner central obstruction of half the glasses' diameter to achieve upon projection on a screen an appearance which closely resembles parhelia (cf. footnote [39] in Ref., or see here), i.e. an inner red edge transitioning into a white band at larger angles on both sides of the direct transmission direction. However, while the visual match is close, this particular experiment does not involve a fake caustic mechanism and is thus no real analogue.


title: Halo (optical phenomenon)

text: The earliest chemical recipes to generate artificial halos has been put forward by Brewster and studied further by A. Cornu in 1889.


title: Halo (optical phenomenon)

text: The earliest experimental studies on halo phenomena have been attributed to Auguste Bravais in 1847. Bravais used an equilateral glass prism which he spun around its vertical axis. When illuminated by parallel white light, this produced an artificial Parhelic circle and many of the embedded parhelia. Similarly, A. Wegener used hexagonal rotating crystals to produce artificial subparhelia. In a more recent version of this experiment, many more embedded parhelia have been found using commercially available hexagonal BK7 glass crystals. Simple experiments like these can be used for educational purposes and demonstration experiments. Unfortunately, using glass crystals one cannot reproduce the circumzenithal arc or the circumhorizontal arc due to total internal reflections preventing the required ray-paths when formula_1.


title: Halo (optical phenomenon)

text: Even earlier than Bravais, the Italian scientist F. Venturi experimented with pointed water-filled prisms to demonstrate the circumzenithal arc. However, this explanation was replaced later by the CZA's correct explanation by Bravais.


title: Halo (optical phenomenon)

text: In order to produce artificial halos such as the tangent arcs or the circumscribed halo one should rotate a single columnar hexagonal crystal about 2 axes. Similarly, the Lowitz arcs can be created by rotating a single plate crystal about two axes. This can be done by engineered halo machines. The first such machine was constructed in 2003; several more followed. Putting such machines inside spherical projection screens, and by the principle of the so-called sky transform, the analogy is nearly perfect. A realization using micro-versions of the aforementioned machines produces authentic distortion-free projections of such complex artificial halos. Finally, superposition of several images and projections produced by such halo machines may be combined to create a single image. The resulting superposition image is then a representation of complex natural halo displays containing many different orientation sets of ice prisms.


title: Halo (optical phenomenon)

text: The experimental reproduction of circular halos is the most difficult using a single crystal only, while it is the simplest and typically achieved one using chemical recipes. Using a single crystal, one needs to realize all possible 3D orientations of the crystal. This has recently been achieved by two approaches. The first one using pneumatics and a sophisticated rigging, and a second one using an Arduino-based random walk machine which stochastically reorients a crystal embedded in a transparent thin-walled sphere.


title: Twi

text: Twi () is a dialect of the Akan language spoken in southern and central Ghana by several million people, mainly of the Akan people, the largest of the seventeen major ethnic groups in Ghana. Twi has about 17-18 million speakers in total, including second-language speakers; about 80% of the Ghanaian population speaks Twi as a first or second language. Like other West African languages, Twi is a tonal language.


title: Twi

text: Twi is a common name for mutually intelligible former literary dialects of the Akan language, Bono, Asante, and Akuapem. Akuapem, as the first Akan dialect to be used for Bible translation, has become the prestige dialect as a result. It is also spoken by the people of southeastern Côte d'Ivoire.


title: Twi

text: The Akan peoples use a common Akan (Ghana) naming system of giving the first name to a child, based on the day of the week that the child was born. Almost all the tribes and clans in Ghana have a similar custom.


title: Florianópolis

text: Florianópolis () is the capital and second largest city of the state of Santa Catarina, in the South region of Brazil. The city encompasses Santa Catarina Island and surrounding small islands, as well as part of the mainland. It has a population of 508,826, according to the 2020 IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics) population estimate, the second-most populous city in the state (after Joinville), and the 47th in Brazil. The metropolitan area has an estimated population of 1,111,702, the 21st largest in the country. The city is known for having the country's third highest Human Development Index score among all Brazilian cities (0.847).


title: Florianópolis

text: The economy of Florianópolis is heavily based on information technology, tourism, and services. The city has 60 beaches and is a center of surfing activity. Lagoa da Conceição is the most famous area for tourism, recreation, nature, and extreme sports. "The New York Times" reported that "Florianopolis is the Party Destination of the Year in 2009." "Newsweek" placed Florianópolis in its "ten most dynamic cities of the world" list in 2006. "Veja", a Brazilian publication, named the city as "the best place to live in Brazil." As a result of this exposure, Florianópolis is growing as a second home destination for many Paulistas, Argentines, Uruguayans, U.S. citizens, and Europeans.