title: Kadarius Toney

text: During his freshman, sophomore and junior seasons, Toney was a reserve player for the Gators at wide receiver, running back, wildcat quarterback and special teams. As a senior in 2020, however, Toney's production increased dramatically. He led the Gators' potent offense with 70 receptions for 984 yards (14.1 average) while scoring 10 touchdowns. In 11 starts he also contributed as a runner (19 carries, 161 yards, 8.5 yards per carry, one touchdown) and returner (seven kick returns, 155 yards, 22.1 average, 11 punt returns, 139 yards, 12.6 average, one touchdown). The Associated Press voted him second-team All-America as an all-purpose player while the SEC league coaches voted him first-team all-conference. Toney was also a finalist for the 2020 Paul Hornung Award, given to the most versatile player in college football.


title: Kadarius Toney

text: Toney was selected by the New York Giants in the first round with the 20th overall pick in the 2021 NFL Draft. He signed a four-year contract worth $13.7 million, on June 4, 2021. Toney was placed on the team's COVID-19 reserve list at the start of training camp. Toney started off slow, having only four receptions through the first three games. In Week 4 against the New Orleans Saints, Toney recorded six catches for 78 yards in the 27–21 overtime win. In Week 5 against the Dallas Cowboys, Toney had the best performance of his young career, recording 10 catches for 189 yards, breaking Odell Beckham Jr.'s Giants receiving record for a rookie, but was ejected for throwing a punch at Cowboys safety Damontae Kazee during the 44-20 loss. Toney missed four weeks of the season due to an oblique injury. On December 13, 2021, Toney was again placed on reserve/COVID-19 list. Despite appearing in only ten games, Toney finished the season with the second-most receiving yards on the Giants.


title: Kadarius Toney

text: Toney injured his hamstring in week 2 of the 2022 season. The injury would cause him to miss five games for the Giants. Before being traded, he only recorded two receptions for zero yards (one reception was for 2 yards, the other was for –2) and no touchdowns.


title: Kadarius Toney

text: Toney was traded to the Kansas City Chiefs on October 27, 2022 in exchange for a third and a sixth round pick in the 2023 NFL Draft In week 10 against the Jacksonville Jaguars, Toney scored his first NFL touchdown.


title: Tia Dalma

text: Tia Dalma is a fictional character from Disney's "Pirates of the Caribbean" franchise, making her debut in "." She is a voodoo and hoodoo practitioner who once was in love with the pirate Davy Jones, and ultimately cursed him after his betrayal toward her and abandonment of his duties. In the third film, Tia is revealed to be the mortal guise of Calypso, the goddess of the sea.


title: Tia Dalma

text: Tia Dalma is a prominent character in Disney media, appearing prominently in printed media and crossover video games. The character continues to hold a likable reception, with Naomie Harris receiving positive reviews from critics for her performance as Tia Dalma.


title: Tia Dalma

text: Tia Dalma is a voodoo priestess with black teeth and blue lips, and she has her hair in dreadlocks; she speaks in Jamaican Patois. Harris's mother, a Jamaican immigrant, was her accent coach for the films. In personality terms, she is described as flirtatious, "coquettish, sensual, pleasure-loving, and extravagant", alluding to the belief that Calypso was a seductress.


title: Tia Dalma

text: Tia Dalma is depicted barefoot in the movie-based comics in "Magazine". "The Kingdom Keepers" book series also described her as perpetually barefoot, which was a plot point in "The Insider".


title: Tia Dalma

text: When the events of "Dead Man's Chest" begin, Jack Sparrow returns to see Tia Dalma after many years, in need of her assistance. Pursued across the Caribbean by Davy Jones's Kraken, he plans to find the Dead Man's Chest. This chest contains Jones's heart, and offers the only means to kill him. A series of trades takes place, leaving Jack with the location of the "Flying Dutchman" and a jar of dirt to protect him from Jones, while Tia Dalma gains possession of the undead monkey belonging to the late Captain Barbossa.


title: Tia Dalma

text: Jack's crew returns to Tia Dalma's shack after Jack is dragged to Davy Jones's Locker by the Kraken. Tia has apparently foreseen this eventuality, and informs the mourning crew that there is a chance to save Jack. She reveals that she has resurrected Barbossa, who will help lead the rescue mission.


title: Tia Dalma

text: Tia Dalma makes a major and pivotal appearance in the film. She joins Barbossa, Will, Elizabeth, and the rest of the "Black Pearl"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s crew as they travel to Singapore. There, they infiltrate Sao Feng's headquarters to acquire the navigational chart needed to sail to World's End and Davy Jones' Locker, barely escaping the clutches of the East India Trading Company. On the journey, she explains to Pintel and Ragetti that Jack Sparrow cannot be resurrected the same way Barbossa was because Sparrow was "taken" by the Kraken while Barbossa died from normal, earthly causes. When rescuing Jack from the Locker, Tia Dalma flirts with him and references a presumed past romantic relationship. As the group searches for an escape route back to the mortal world, they encounter numerous souls adrift in the water. Tia Dalma tells the group the story of Davy Jones and Calypso, but does not reveal her identity. While caressing her locket, she reminisces that Jones was once human.


title: Tia Dalma

text: Later, it is revealed that Tia Dalma is Calypso, bound into human form. Her true motives for resurrecting Barbossa and Jack are unveiled when it is learned that both are Pirate Lords of the Brethren Court. Each has their respective "Pieces of Eight", the talismans necessary to free Calypso. She resurrected Barbossa to obtain his piece, and rescued Jack because his Piece went with him to Davy Jones' Locker. Upon arrival at Shipwreck Cove, she reminds Barbossa of her powers by gripping his hand and temporarily rendering it skeletal (a subtle reference to ""). She warns him that it was only by her power that he is alive again and that he must fulfill their agreement to release her. If he failed, she would kill him. Tia Dalma and her estranged lover, Davy Jones, briefly reunite while she is locked in the brig of the ship. Calypso says she still feels deeply for Jones. She responds to his anger by saying that Jones never would have loved her if not for her uncontrollable and unpredictable nature. Calypso also chastises him for abandoning his duty to ferry souls to the other world. It was because he neglected his charges that Jones became a monster. Calypso is also furious that the Pirate Lords trapped her in her human form. Thus, her true motives are revealed: she plans to use her powers against the current court in revenge for the original act of turning her into a human. She will also fully give her love to Jones, and it appears they reconcile. When she touches Jones, he momentarily transforms back into the man he once was. Jones's parting words betray that his heart will always belong to her.


title: Tia Dalma

text: As the battle between the East India Trading Company and the pirates looms, Barbossa and Ragetti release Calypso from her human form. Before Calypso is fully freed, Will tells her that it was Davy Jones who betrayed her by revealing to the first Brethren Court how to bind her into her human form. Bound by ropes, she grows to nearly sixty feet high, towering over the crew. Barbossa asks that she fulfill their agreement and use her powers to aid the pirates. Calypso breaks free, transforming herself into thousands of small crabs that engulf the ship and flee into the sea. Her fury then creates a violent maelstrom that becomes the battlefield between the "Black Pearl" and the "Flying Dutchman". Instead of aiding a particular side, her wrath is directed both at the pirate lords for imprisoning her and at Davy Jones for his betrayal. But as Will Turner lies run through by Davy Jones's sword, he stabs Jones's heart with Jack Sparrow's help, and Jones, now fatally wounded, falls from the "Dutchman"'s deck into the maelstrom, crying out one final word: "Calypso!"


title: Tia Dalma

text: Tia has made numerous appearances in Disney-related video games, prominently as a crossover character. In her video game appearances, she is primarily voiced by Julianna Buescher. Tia appears in the and in the Lego-themed video game "". In 2013, the character also appeared in "Disney Infinity" as a non-playable character who assists the "Pirates of the Caribbean" characters. She later made playable appearances in "Disney Crossy Road" and "Disney Heroes: Battle Mode" respectively, and appeared in "Disney Magic Kingdoms" and "Disney Emoji Blitz". In 2018, a character skin for Tia Dalma was released for a "Pirates of the Caribbean"-themed world for "Minecraft". In 2021, Tia Dalma made an appearance in "Sea of Thieves: A Pirate's Life" alongside several other "Pirates of the Caribbean" characters.


title: Tia Dalma

text: Tia makes an appearance in the "Kingdom Hearts" series voiced by Leslie Miller, debuting in "Kingdom Hearts III" and reprising her role from "At World's End". In the game, Tia attempts to trick Sora, believing the Keyblade will be able to release her from her mortal body.


title: Tia Dalma

text: Tia Dalma appears in "Pirati dei Caraibi Magazine", and in several book and graphic novel adaptations of the "Pirates of the Caribbean" film series.


title: Tia Dalma

text: In "Kingdom Keepers", Tia Dalma appears with a major role near the fifth book of the series, "Shell Game", as a member of the Overtakers. Having set up residence in Castaway Cay, she meets with Jafar, who had been sent by the Overtakers to bring her aboard the "Dream". Serving as the guardian of the Overtakers' DHI server, she fights with Finn and Willa, only to be given a death threat unless she released Finn's mother from Overtaker control. In the sixth book, "Dark Passage", she works with the witches Maleficent and the Evil Queen to bring Chernabog out of his stupor and back to full power; she burns a key flower and tricks Finn into fatally stabbing his best friend, allowing Chernabog to lick the blood and fully awaken. She is knocked out, and taken hostage by the Keepers. In the final book "The Insider", Tia Dalma escapes custody and searches through the maze, freeing Chernabog and the Evil Queen, while collecting some of Maleficent's bones; she was horrified that a powerful practitioner of the black arts had been killed. She manipulates a supply driver for Disneyland to get herself and her allies to their new hideouts. She originally leads the attack against the Keepers in Toontown, but forfeits leadership to the Queen. Tia Dalma instead focused on the spell needed to resurrect Maleficent.


title: Tia Dalma

text: Tia Dalma has appeared as part of several "Pirates of the Caribbean"-themed merchandise, including toy dolls, Lego minifigures, attire, and action figures. She also appears as a "Disney Crossy Road" figure.


title: Tia Dalma

text: Tia Dalma has received a positive reception since her first appearance in "Dead Man's Chest", with most of the praise targeted towards Naomie Harris' performance. Cathal Gunning for "Screen Rant" cited her as one of the more "important" and "fascinating characters", but criticized her underdeveloped arc, writing: "The "Pirates of the Caribbean" franchise featured an intriguing character in Naomi Harris’ Tia Dalma, but who was the sorceress, what were her powers, and how powerful was she? Despite her disappearing at the end of the first trilogy, she was easily one of the most formidable characters in the entire franchise."


title: Tia Dalma

text: Naomie Harris, who was interviewed in 2007 by Roger Moore for the "Orlando Sentinel", commented on her own portrayal, describing Tia as a "larger-than-life character, and you aren't bound by the constraints of reality with her."


title: Tia Dalma

text: Tia Dalma has been compared to Mami Wata from Jamaican folklore, a mysterious and seductive spirit linked to the sea. As a highly sexualized exotic female character, she was said to represent the romanticized colonial era perception of the Caribbean, and her relationships with the pirates to mirror the power dynamics of colonial conquest. However, as noted by critics, Tia Dalma actually has the upper hand in these power dynamics due to her "dominion over masculine energies", and the pirates' attempts to gain control over her by entrapping her in a human body are eventually futile. Heike Steinhoff compares her to the goddess Calypso, though her power is circumscribed by her being kept inside her hut, and she notes that her character borrows from "'racial' and ethnic stereotypes which connect African and South-American descent to elements of nature and supernatural powers". Critics also compared her character to Yoda from Star Wars due to the fact that both characters are swamp-dwelling eccentric sages with peculiar speech patterns.


title: High school diploma

text: A high school diploma or high school degree is a North American academic school leaving qualification awarded upon high school graduation. The high school diploma is typically obtained after a course of study lasting four years, from grade 9 to grade 12. The diploma is awarded by the school in accordance with the requirements of the local state or provincial government. Requirements for earning the diploma vary by jurisdiction, and there may be different requirements for different streams or levels of high school graduation. Typically they include a combination of selected coursework meeting specified criteria for a particular stream and acceptable passing grades earned on the state exit examination.


title: High school diploma

text: Each province issues their own high school diploma. As in the US, there is no federal control of education in Canada; each province is responsible for its own education system.


title: High school diploma

text: In Alberta, the diploma is known as an Alberta High School Diploma. The Alberta High School Diploma is issued in either English or French. Under current regulations from the Government of Alberta, students must earn a minimum of 100 Credits to obtain an Alberta High School Diploma.


title: High school diploma

text: The 100 credits required have to include 40 credits from Grade 10, 35 from Grade 11 and 30 from Grade 12.


title: High school diploma

text: Individual components of the 100 Credit requirement are English Language Arts - 30 Level, Social Studies 30 Level, Mathematics 20 Level, Science 20 Level, Physical Education 10, Career and Life Management and 10 Credits in any combination from: Career and Technology Studies, Fine Arts, Second Language Courses, Physical Education 20 and/or 30 as well as 10 Credits in any 30-level course (in addition to a 30-level English Language Arts and 30-level Social Studies as above). These 30-Level courses may include 30-level locally developed courses, advanced level (3000 series) in Career and Technology Studies, 30-level Work Experience courses, 30-level Registered Apprenticeship Program courses, 30-level Green Certificate Specialization courses, Special Projects 30.


title: High school diploma

text: Alberta is one of three provinces or territories that requires grade 12 examinations as part of the high school diploma requirement: See Standardized_testing_in_Alberta,_Northwest_Territories,_and_Nunavut


title: High school diploma

text: In British Columbia, the diploma is known as the British Columbia Certificate of Graduation. The province of BC has two distinct graduation programs: the BC Certificate of Graduation (Dogwood Diploma) and the BC Adult Graduation Diploma (Adult Dogwood). Students also have the opportunity to meet their educational goals (other than graduation) through the BC School Completion Certificate (Evergreen Certificate).


title: High school diploma

text: The current Dogwood requirements have been in place since July 1, 2004. Under current regulations, students must earn a minimum of 80 credits to graduate, which must include 48 credits for required courses, a minimum of 28 elective credits, and 4 credits for "graduation transitions", a standards-based assessment evaluated by schools under BC Ministry of Education guidelines. Required courses include, among other things, language arts, social studies, mathematics, and science courses in grades 10, 11, and 12. Part of the evaluation of students includes standardized provincial examinations in a number of the required courses in grades 10 and 12. As part of the 80 credits for the Dogwood, 16 credits must be at the Grade 12 level, and must include English 12 or Communications 12.


title: High school diploma

text: In Ontario, the high school diploma is known as the Ontario Secondary School Diploma (OSSD) . The diploma is awarded to all students who complete the standard Ontario educational curriculum. The requirements for the diploma include compulsory credits in English or French, Mathematics, Science, Canadian History, Canadian Geography, Arts, Health and Physical Education, and a second language; compulsory half credits in Career Studies and Civics; one credit each from three elective groups; 12 optional credits, 4 of which may be obtained through dual-credit classes; 40 hours of community service; and the Ontario Secondary School Literacy Test. Those who leave school after completing 14 credits but prior to obtaining the diploma can obtain the Ontario Secondary School Certificate.


title: High school diploma

text: Quebec issued the D.E.S. (), formerly Quebec Certificate of Education (and sometimes were known Quebec HS Secondary Certificate and Québécois baccalaureat) before it changed into HS Diploma/ at the end of secondary V (grade 11), for graduation from secondary school (high school), a five-year school spanning secondary I (grade 7) to secondary V (grade 11).


title: High school diploma

text: To earn a high school diploma, Saskatchewan students are required to earn a total of 24 credits from grades 10 to 12. For a regular English program diploma, they must earn 5 credits in English Language Arts, 3 credits in Social Studies, 2 credits in mathematics, 2 credits in science, 1 credit in Physical Education/Health Education, 2 credits in Arts Education/Practical and Applied Arts, and 9 elective credits.


title: High school diploma

text: In the United States, a high school diploma is usually conferred upon the satisfactory completion of schooling encompassing Kindergarten through the 12th grade and is issued by the student's high school.


title: High school diploma

text: In Alabama, all students are required to earn 24 credits. The required credit distribution is: English (4 credits), Math (4 credits), Science (4 credits), History (4 credits), PE/JROTC (1 credit), Health (0.5 credits), Career Prep (1 credit), CTE/arts education/Foreign language (3 credits), and Electives (2.5 credits).


title: High school diploma

text: In California, students are required to successfully meet the following minimum requirements to earn a high school diploma:


title: High school diploma

text: 3 years of History/Social Studies including one year of U.S. history and geography; one year of world history, culture, and geography; one semester of American government and civics, and one semester of economics,


title: High school diploma

text: Beginning in 2005–06, all students must pass the California High School Exit Examination prior to graduation, which is normally first administered in the 10th grade. Since the 2015–16 school year, passing the California High School Exit Examination is no longer a condition of graduation from high school.


title: High school diploma

text: In Illinois, students are required to take English, mathematics, science, social science, world language, fine arts, physical education, and elective classes meeting selected criteria as part of the program of study for the High School Diploma. Electives may include advanced courses, career and technical education (CTE), Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps (JROTC), dual-enrollment, or additional classes in the required subjects that meet school board requirements. Driver's Education is required for all students. An additional requirement was a passing grade on the Prairie State Achievement Examination which was typically taken in Grade 11, prior to being discontinued in 2014.


title: High school diploma

text: Accommodations are made for select students with unique needs. English Language Learner (ELL) students may substitute English as a Second Language for English to meet the graduation requirements. Students receiving special education services may complete modified requirements according to an Individualized Education Plan (IEP).


title: High school diploma

text: In North Carolina high school students are required to obtain 24 high school credits, comprised: 4 English credits (English 1, English 2, English 3, and English 4), 4 Math credits (Math 1, Math 2, Math 3, and an elective math course), 3 Science credits (Physics, Biology, and Chemistry), 4 Social Studies credits ( Political Science, Economics, History, Geography), and 1 Health or Physical education credit.


title: High school diploma

text: Foreign language credits are not generally required for graduation, but a minimum of two credits are required for admission to a UNC system university.


title: High school diploma

text: The state offers "foundations", for academically lacking students, standard classes, honors and seminar classes for academically advanced students, and Advanced Placement classes, which allow motivated and academically gifted students to obtain college credit while in high school.


title: High school diploma

text: The state has 133 Early college high schools which enable students to graduate high school with an associate degree in a career of their choosing offered by the college which is offering said college courses, or to transfer as juniors to a NC university or possibly earn transferable credit to an out of state or private university.


title: High school diploma

text: In New York State, the high school diploma awarded is known as the Regents Diploma, which is earned upon successful completion of the Regents Exams in the required subjects. Two levels are offered: the standard Regents Diploma and the Regents Diploma with Advanced Designation. Both diplomas require 44 credits, including 8 credits in English, 8 credits in Social Studies, 6 credits in Math, 6 credits in Science, 1 credit in Health, 2 credits in Art or Music, and 4 credits in Physical Education; the Regents Diploma requires 2 credits of Secondary Language and 6 credits in Sequence Courses or Electives, while the Regents Diploma with Advanced Designation requires 6 credits of Secondary Language and 3 credits in Sequence Courses or Electives.


title: High school diploma

text: In order to obtain a Regents Diploma, students are required to achieve passing grades on Regents Exams in Comprehensive English, any one Mathematics course, Global History, US History, any one Science, and Language Other Than English (LOTE). The subjects for which passing grades on the Regents Exams are required for the Regents Diploma with Advanced Designation are Comprehensive English, all three Mathematics, Global History, US History, one physical Science, one life Science, and Language Other Than English (LOTE). A passing score is 65 in each subject; the "With Honors" designation is added if the average score in all required exams is 90 or greater. A "Technical Endorsement" is given to students enrolled in a Career and Technical Education (CTE) program who additionally complete an approved technical assessment, a work-based learning experience, and a work-skills employability profile.


title: High school diploma

text: Students are also able to receive a Mastery in Mathematics and Mastery in Science designation on their diploma alongside others.


title: High school diploma

text: The highest level of a New York State Regents diploma is with Honors, Advanced Designation, Mastery of Science, Mastery of Mathematics, with a Technical Endorsement.


title: High school diploma

text: In Texas, there are three programs offered for graduation: the Minimum High School Program (MHSP), the Recommended High School Program (RHSP), and the Advanced (Distinguished) High School Program (AHSP/DHSP). The Recommended and Distinguished programs are the streams typically chosen by most students, and are expected of students who are college-bound. Also required for graduation is successful completion with passing grades on the Exit Level examination of the State of Texas Assessments of Academic Readiness (STAAR), which is typically taken in Grade 11. Multiple re-sits for the exam are available, in case of failure on a previous attempt.


title: High school diploma

text: Students in the Recommended and Distinguished programs must take four years of English, mathematics, science, and social studies classes as part of their program of study. Students in the Distinguished program must also take a minimum amount of advanced-level coursework, which could include Advanced Placement or International Baccalaureate classes or university classes taken as dual-enrollment. Students in the Minimum program have less stringent requirements to complete their diploma than students in the other diploma programs.


title: High school diploma

text: By Texas state law, completion of the Recommended or Distinguished programs or a program with an equivalent curriculum and level of rigor, along with suitable scores on the SAT or the ACT, is required for a student to be eligible to be considered for admission to a four-year public institution of higher education in Texas.


title: High school diploma

text: The General Education Development (GED) credential is offered as an alternative qualification for those who did not successfully earn a high school diploma. Examination involves taking and passing tests in four subjects: Language Arts, Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies. A Certificate of High School Equivalency is generally offered to those who successfully complete the GED. While the GED itself may not necessarily enable the same higher education and employment opportunities as the high school diploma, the GED can enhance employability prospects for former high school dropouts or completed with the high school Certificate of attendance or completion, and progression is available to tertiary study at select higher education institutions.


title: High school diploma

text: IB World Schools may offer the IB Diploma in lieu of or alongside a traditional high school diploma. The IB Diploma is an academically rigorous program of study. The program of study for the IB Diploma includes subjects chosen from six subject groups: Studies in Language and Literature, Language Acquisition, Individuals and Societies, Sciences, Mathematics, and the Arts. Three subjects are taken at Higher Level, and three are taken at Standard Level. Also included is the Diploma Programme Core, which is composed of Extended Essay; Theory of Knowledge; and Creativity, Action, and Service (CAS) components. The IB Diploma is an internationally recognized academic school-leaving qualification that provides entry to, and in some cases, advanced standing in, university. International Baccalaureate (IB) exams are typically considered equivalent to Advanced Placement (AP) exams and are at an academic level above the high school diploma, and thus university credit may be awarded for successful completion of IB subjects by American and Canadian universities as well as Universities around the World.


title: High school diploma

text: International schools following the British Curriculum of education may offer the International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE) qualification, which is considered to be at the same level, in lieu of or alongside a traditional high school diploma. The IGCSE is the international counterpart to the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) qualification, taken by secondary school students at Key Stage 4 in the United Kingdom. Edexcel and Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) are examination boards which offer the IGCSE qualification worldwide.


title: High school diploma

text: Students generally take five to ten subjects, according to their desired program of study and the offerings available at their school; an IGCSE with eight subjects at grades A*-C is considered equivalent to the full high school diploma. Unlike the high school diploma, which is typically studied for in grades 9-12 (years 10-13 in the UK) and awarded in grade 12 (year 13), the IGCSE is typically awarded at grade 10 (year 11 in the UK), after which the A Levels are studied for and awarded.


title: High school diploma

text: Following successful completion of the GCSE or IGCSE, international schools following the British Curriculum may offer the Cambridge Advanced International Certificate of Education (AICE) Diploma, developed by the Cambridge International Examinations board. As part of the Cambridge AICE Diploma program, students take a combination of Cambridge International AS Level and A Level subjects, administered by Cambridge International Examinations with at least one subject taken in each of three subject areas: Mathematics and Science, Languages, and Arts and Humanities; subjects from a fourth subject group, Global Perspecties, may also be chosen. Six credits must be earned to achieve the Diploma; an AS Level counts as a full (single) credit, and an A Level counts as a double credit. The Cambridge AICE Diploma would typically be completed by the final year of high school. AS and A Levels are at a higher academic level than the high school diploma, and thus university credit may be awarded for A Levels completed as part of the Cambridge AICE Diploma by American and Canadian Universities.


title: High school diploma

text: The Access to Higher Education Diploma is considered equivalent to 3 A Levels, and is made up of 60 credits. 45 of the credits can be obtained at Pass, Merit or Distinction, and the remaining 15 can only be achieved up to a Pass. The Access to Higher Education Diploma is widely used to gain entry into universities, especially by mature students, or any student which lacks qualifications due to an unconventional educational background. Many regard Access to Higher Education Diplomas to be more academically challenging than A Levels.


title: High school diploma

text: As an alternative to the Cambridge AICE Diploma, international schools following the British Curriculum may offer the Edexcel International Diploma (ID), in lieu of or alongside the traditional high school diploma, following successful completion of the GCSE or IGCSE. The International Diploma requires successful completion of three Edexcel A Levels or three BTEC Level 3 Extended Diplomas, along with a Level 3 Extended Project (EPQ), a BTEC Level 3 WorkSkills Plus Certificate, and an Edexcel AS Level in General Studies. This qualification thus allows for a blended mix of academic studies and vocational training, to prepare students for higher education as well as the workplace. The Edexcel International Diploma would typically be completed by the final year of high school. AS and A Levels are at a higher academic level than the high school diploma, and thus university credit may be awarded for A Levels completed as part of the International Diploma by American and Canadian universities .


title: High school diploma

text: International schools following the French Curriculum of education may offer the Baccalauréat (Le Bac) in lieu of or alongside a traditional high school diploma. The Baccalauréat is the traditional school-leaving qualification of French schools. The Baccalauréat is offered in several streams; subjects chosen for the Baccalauréat depend on the stream chosen by the student.


title: High school diploma

text: Accredited French international schools in the United States may also offer the Baccalauréat Franco Américain (French American Baccalauréat), as an alternative to the traditional Baccalauréat, in lieu of or alongside a traditional high school diploma. The French American Baccalauréat is offered as a joint initiative of the College Board and the French Ministry of Education. The curriculum includes Advanced Placement (AP) subjects and French classes; in lieu of three French classes, students take three corresponding AP classes in the première (year 11) and terminale (year 12) years of high school. AP exams are taken in May of year 11 or year 12, and French Baccalauréat exams are taken according to the normal academic calendar. Students may elect to take the Baccalauréat Franco Américain in the Literature (L), Economics (ES), and Science (S) courses of study.


title: High school diploma

text: In England and Wales, the high school diploma is considered to be at the level of the General Certificate of Education (GCE), which is awarded at Year 13.


title: High school diploma

text: As the more academically rigorous A Levels awarded at Year 13 are expected for university admission, Students who wish to study in the United Kingdom may additionally participate in the Advanced Placement (AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB) programs, which are considered to be at the level of the A Level qualifications and earn points on the UCAS Tariff, or may opt to take A Level examinations in British international schools or as private candidates. College Entrance Examination Board (CEEB) tests, such as the SAT, SAT Subject Tests, or the ACT, may also be considered.


title: High school diploma

text: The Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS) recommends that in addition to a high school diploma, grades of 3 or above in at least two, or ideally three, Advanced Placement exams may be considered as meeting general entry requirements for admission. The IB Diploma may also be accepted. For the College Entrance Examination Board tests, a minimum score of 600 or higher in all sections of the SAT or a minimum score of 26 or higher in all sections of the ACT along with a minimum score of 600 in relevant SAT Subject Tests may be considered as meeting general entry requirements for admission.


title: High school diploma

text: Within the United States and Canada, there is generally universal recognition among employers, colleges, and universities of all officially awarded high school diplomas earned in any jurisdiction.


title: Ip Man 2

text: Ip Man 2 (Chinese: 葉問2:宗師傳奇, also known as Ip Man 2: Legend of the Grandmaster) is a 2010 Hong Kong biographical martial arts film loosely based on the life of Ip Man, a grandmaster of the martial art Wing Chun. A sequel to the 2008 film "Ip Man", "Ip Man 2" was directed by Wilson Yip and stars Donnie Yen, who reprises the leading role. Continuing after the events of the earlier film, the sequel centres on Ip's early life in British Hong Kong. He attempts to propagate his discipline of Wing Chun, but faces rivalry from other practitioners, including the local master of Hung Ga martial arts, Hung Chun-nam (Sammo Hung), and later the British boxing champion Taylor "The Twister" Miller (Darren Shahlavi).


title: Ip Man 2

text: Producer Raymond Wong first announced a sequel before "Ip Man" theatrical release in December 2008. For "Ip Man 2", the filmmakers intended to focus on the relationship between Ip and his most famed disciple, Bruce Lee. However, they were unable to finalize film rights with Lee's descendants and decided to briefly portray Lee as a child. Principal photography for "Ip Man 2" began in August 2009 and concluded in November; filming took place inside a studio located in Shanghai. For the sequel, Yip aimed to create a more dramatic martial arts film in terms of story and characterization; Wong's son, screenwriter Edmond Wong, wanted the film to explore the treatment of Hong Kongers during the colonial era and Western perceptions of Chinese martial arts.


title: Ip Man 2

text: "Ip Man 2" is the second film in the "Ip Man" film series. It premiered in Beijing on 21 April 2010, and was released in Hong Kong on 29 April 2010. The film met with positive reviews, with particular praise for the film's storytelling and Sammo Hung's martial arts choreography. The film grossed over HK$13 million on its opening weekend, immediately surpassing "Ip Man" opening weekend gross. During its theatrical run, "Ip Man 2" brought in over HK$43 million domestically, and its domestic theatrical gross made it the highest grossing Hong Kong film released during the first half of 2010. In total, "Ip Man 2" grossed an estimated US$49 million worldwide. This amount does not include successful DVD sales all over United States, Asia and Europe.


title: Ip Man 2

text: Wing Chun master Ip Man and his family move to Hong Kong in 1949 after their escape from Japanese-occupied Foshan. In 1950, Ip attempts to open a school to propagate his art, as well as make a living during the difficult times, but struggles to attract students due to his lack of reputation in the city. One day, a young man named Wong Shun Leung appears and promptly challenges Ip to a fight, but is easily defeated. Wong storms off and brings a gang of his friends to take revenge, but Ip easily beats them as well. Stunned and impressed by Ip's skills, Wong and his friends become Ip's first students, bringing more disciples to help the school thrive.


title: Ip Man 2

text: Wong is later confronted by some thuggish Hung Ga students while posting promotional posters for Ip's school. One of them, Kei, challenges Wong to a fight and loses, but his vengeful friends take Wong hostage and demand a ransom from Ip. Ip goes to the local wet market as directed, but the meeting ends in a confrontation with a growing mob of Hung Ga students. Fighting their way outside and hopelessly outnumbered, Ip and Wong are rescued by Jin Shanzhao, a martial artist, former bandit, and ex-rival of Ip, who comes to their aid with his own gang.


title: Ip Man 2

text: The students' master and head of the coalition of Hong Kong's martial arts clubs, Hung Chun-nam, arrives to break up the fight. Ip introduces himself, and Hung informs him that before setting up a school, he needs to partake in a special ceremony to test his worth. Ip, Wong, and Jin are subsequently arrested by Fatso, a deputy chief of the HKPD, for disturbing the peace but are later released on bail. Hung and Fatso secretly meet with Superintendent Wallace, the HKPD's corrupt British commandant, to deliver protection money collected from both the local shops and martial art schools.


title: Ip Man 2

text: Ip attends the ceremony and easily defeats his first two challengers, before battling the last challenger, being Hung himself, to a draw. Ip is allowed to keep running his school in exchange for paying protection fees, but he declines to do so. In response, Hung has his students deliberately loiter in front of the Wing Chun school and harass prospective students, resulting in a street brawl between them and Ip's disciples. Ip is thus forced by his landlady to leave the property he leased for his school; the disciples resort to training in the local park.


title: Ip Man 2

text: Ip confronts Hung, who blames him for the recent events since he refused to pay, while Ip criticizes Hung's management of his students and subservience to the foreigners. Hung insists that he is doing what he must and decides to finish off his earlier duel with Ip. Hung's son suddenly appears during this encounter, and Ip stops Hung from accidentally kicking the boy, while also suggesting that he prioritize spending time with his family over settling their dispute. Ip's wise counsel earns him Hung's respect. Ip leaves, and the next day, Hung gives him and his students free tickets to a martial arts exhibition arranged by Wallace and Fatso.


title: Ip Man 2

text: At the exhibition, the various martial arts schools seek to promote themselves and by extension, Chinese culture. However, Wallace's guest, boxer Taylor "The Twister" Miller, openly insults and assaults the students, causing a brawl that the masters try to quell. Hung demands that Twister apologize; in response, Twister challenges Hung to a fight, saying that he will apologize for his behavior if Hung wins. At first, Hung's wide range of skills and techniques allow him to hold his own. However, most of his counterattacks have little effect on the younger and more fit Twister, and he is slowly worn down by the boxer's powerful punches. Ip tries to persuade Hung to concede, but the old man refuses, and even stops Ip from throwing in the towel himself. In the final round, Hung suffers from an asthma attack, allowing Twister to gain the upper hand, and Hung is eventually beaten to death against the ropes.


title: Ip Man 2

text: News of Hung's death spreads throughout the city, enraging the Chinese populace. Wallace's superior scolds him for the turn of events and Wallace then arrests and tortures Ip's friend, newspaper editor Leung Kan, for publishing the news; Fatso intervenes and releases him with no charges. A press conference is held the following day, where Wallace lies about Hung's death being accidental and Twister announces that, in order to clear his name, he will accept a challenge from any Chinese martial artist. However, he continues to disrespect the Chinese and boasts that none of them have the courage to face him. Ip arrives and challenges Twister to a fight, while Fatso secretly meets with Kan and offers him compromising information on Wallace. As his pregnant wife goes into labor, Ip prepares for his match with Twister.


title: Ip Man 2

text: The match starts badly for Ip due to his unfamiliarity with Western boxing, allowing Twister to knock him down several times, but he gradually manages to use his Wing Chun techniques and superior speed to even the odds. During the match, Wallace and his allies attempt to rig the match in Twister's favor, refusing to penalize him for an illegal hit and issuing a ruling that Ip cannot use kicking attacks or he will be disqualified. After seeing visions of Hung and remembering his advice to focus on weakening Twister rather than trade blows with him, Ip switches up his strategy, crippling Twister's arms and eventually managing to beat him into unconsciousness with a series of strikes to the head and ears. While the Chinese celebrate, Wallace's superior arrives and arrests him for corruption and abuse of power.


title: Ip Man 2

text: Ip addresses the audience, stating his wish for everyone to respect each other despite the differences between their race, culture, or status. Both the Western and Chinese audiences give him a standing ovation, while Twister's manager angrily disproves, stands up & he walks away in disgust. Ip goes home, reunites with his family, and meets his newborn son, Ip Ching. Sometime later, Wong introduces his master to a boy named Bruce Lee, who wishes to learn Wing Chun in order to beat up people he doesn't like. An amused Ip smiles and simply tells him to come back when he has grown up.


title: Ip Man 2

text: "Ip Man 2" is the second feature film overall to be based on the life of Ip Man, following the previous film "Ip Man". The sequel is the fifth film collaboration between director Wilson Yip and actor Donnie Yen. "Ip Man 2" was produced by Raymond Wong and distributed by his company Mandarin Films upon its theatrical release in Hong Kong. It was the last film Wong produced under his Mandarin Films production banner. Wong's son, Edmond Wong, returned to write the screenplay. Along with appearing in a supporting role, Sammo Hung reprised his role as the film's martial arts choreographer. Kenji Kawai reprised his role as the film's music composer.


title: Ip Man 2

text: Prior to "Ip Man" theatrical release in December 2008, producer Raymond Wong announced plans to develop a sequel to the film. The sequel was intended to focus on the relationship between Ip Man and his most famed disciple Bruce Lee. In March 2009, Wong announced that the Lee character might not appear in the sequel, as producers had not fully finalized negotiations with Lee's descendants on the film rights. In July 2009, it was announced that "Ip Man 2" would focus on a young Bruce Lee, prior to Lee becoming Ip Man's most famed disciple. The sequel continues Ip Man's story, focusing on his move to Hong Kong as he attempts to propagate Wing Chun in the region.


title: Ip Man 2

text: Several cast members from "Ip Man" reprise their respective roles in the sequel. Donnie Yen reprises his role as Ip; Lynn Hung reprises her role as Cheung Wing-sing, Ip's wife, who is now pregnant with their second child. To prepare for her role in the film, Hung asked producers for a 10-pound prosthetic belly to portray the feeling of being pregnant. Hung stated that the difficulty of her role lay in playing someone who goes from "a naive and simple-minded young woman to a strong, understanding and supportive adult." Fan Siu-Wong reprises his role as Jin Shanzhao, Ip's aggressive rival in the first film. In the sequel, Jin attempts to retire from the martial arts world by becoming an ordinary citizen; he later befriends Ip. In a cameo appearance, Simon Yam reprises his role as Ip's friend Chow Ching-chuen, who is now a mentally disabled beggar. Li Chak reprises his role as Ip Chun, Ip and Wing-sing's son.


title: Ip Man 2

text: Sammo Hung was announced as part of the cast in April 2009. Apart from serving as the film's martial arts choreographer, Hung appears as Hung Chun-nam, a master of the southern Chinese martial art of Hung Ga. In August 2009, it was announced that Huang Xiaoming would be playing Wong Leung, a supporting character based on Wong Shun Leung, one of Ip Man's disciples and the person responsible for mentoring Bruce Lee. Former child star Ashton Chen was also announced to be playing a disciple. Veteran actor Kent Cheng also has a supporting role in the film. To Yu-hang, who had a supporting role in the first film, appears in the sequel as a different character named Cheng Wai-kei. Cheng is a gang leader practicing Hung Ga, who decides to exact revenge on Wong after Wong defeats Cheng in a fight. Wilson Yip commented on the casting of the veteran actors as being "a form of tribute to old school kungfu movies."


title: Ip Man 2

text: Yen and Yip reportedly conducted a worldwide casting call for a suitable candidate to play Lee, who is Ip Man's most celebrated disciple. The film briefly portrays Lee at the age of 10. Yip and Yen debated over whether to look for an actor with a solid martial arts foundation or looks. Among the 1300 Mainland Chinese candidates auditioning for the role, Yip narrowed the casting call to two possible candidates: 10-year-old Jiang Dai Yan from Henan and 12-year-old Pan Run Kang from Heilongjiang. On 10 August 2009, it was announced that Jiang Dai Yan would be playing the role of a 10-year-old Bruce Lee. While the Bruce Lee character makes a brief appearance in the film, director Wilson Yip has expressed interest in making a third film that will focus on the relationship between Ip and Lee. Yen, however, has stated his lack of interest in making a third film, feeling that "Ip Man 2" will "become a classic."


title: Ip Man 2

text: In November 2008, Yip revealed that there would be another actor appearing in the film, a martial artist who has been a fan of Donnie Yen. Yip commented, "I can only say that he fights even more vehemently than Sammo Hung." However, in February 2010, it was revealed that British actor and stunt performer Darren Shahlavi would have a supporting role as a boxing opponent fighting against Ip Man. Yip later stated that Shahlavi's character "has his own drama. He is also a personage, not just some random foreign guy that appears from nowhere for the sake of getting beaten up, like you see in other films." Other cast members include Ngo Ka-nin and Kelvin Cheng.


title: Ip Man 2

text: The filmmakers stated that while "Ip Man" was about survival, "Ip Man 2" is about living. The sequel is set in Hong Kong in 1949, when the city was under British colonial rule. Screenwriter Edmond Wong stated that the film also explorers "how Hong Kong people were treated under British colonial rule, and Western attitudes concerning Chinese kung fu".


title: Ip Man 2

text: Wilson Yip stated that "Ip Man 2" is a much better film than its predecessor in terms of characterization and storyline. The film focuses on disputes between the disciples of Hung Ga and Wing Chun martial arts, as well as the conflict and rivalry of the two practitioners. Wing Chun, as taught by Ip Man, is being viewed as a martial art meant only for girls; Hung Ga, as taught by Hung Chun-nam, is being seen as a macho form of boxing. Of the two characters, Yip commented, "Sammo Hung's character is not exactly villainous, but he's very overbearing, just like his torrential Hung Ga. In contrast, Ip Man is very unassuming, much like his fist." Yip also stated that the film has some moments of "family drama", such as the ongoing conflict between Ip and his wife Wing-Sing.


title: Ip Man 2

text: Prior to filming, a production ceremony for "Ip Man 2" was held in Foshan, receiving plenty of media coverage. Principal photography began on 11 August 2009; filming took place in a sound stage at Songjiang Studios in Shanghai. On 28 October 2009, reporters were invited to the set to view the anticipated duel between Donnie Yen and Sammo Hung as it was being filmed. Filming ended on 8 November 2009.


title: Ip Man 2

text: The film's martial arts sequences were choreographed by Sammo Hung, who also worked on the choreography for the first film. Prior to principal photography, Hung had undergone a major cardiac surgery. When he returned to the set, his dramatic scenes in the film were filmed first, with his fight sequences being filmed last. Hung performed his own stunts in the film, which led to him receiving several injuries during filming. While filming a scene, Hung was struck in the face by co-star Darren Shahlavi. He insisted on completing the shoot before going to the hospital. Not wanting his injuries to hinder the production progress, Hung spent five hours trying to complete the scene before going to the hospital for four stitches. After the completion of filming, Hung expressed that he was dissatisfied with the fight sequences involving his character, presumably due to his heart condition. He also stated that he plans to challenge Yen in a future film: "Although I'm the martial arts choreographer, our moves were all rather regulated, being confined by the script. So, I made a pact with Donnie Yen to have a rematch next year if the opportunity arises."


title: Ip Man 2

text: Huang Xiaoming prepared for his role by learning Wing Chun martial arts. He turned his hotel room into a gym, practicing with weights and a wooden dummy. Huang received multiple bruises on his arms, due to his frequent practices on the dummy. Huang would also spend time practicing with the film's stunt team, under Jun Gao. Wilson Yip praised his performance in the film, stating that Huang "may not be a martial artist, but he specially ordered a wooden dummy, and trained daily at home. In the end, he is doing the action scenes better than Hiroyuki Ikeuchi in the first film."


title: Ip Man 2

text: The Chinese title of the film () literally means "Ip Man 2: Legend of a Grandmaster". The title is a play on the first film's working title which was "Grandmaster Ip Man", a title that was changed when Wong Kar-wai clashed with producers while trying to make his own Ip Man biopic. Wilson Yip explained that the title of the film was coincidental rather than intentional: "The sequel is about Ip Man being elevated from a master, a hero to a grandmaster, so we have 'grandmaster' in the title." Wong Kar-wai's film, titled "The Grandmaster", was released in January 2013.


title: Ip Man 2

text: "Ip Man 2" was released in select Asian countries and in Australia on 29 April 2010. Prior to its release, Mandarin Films publicly launched the film's official website in Beijing on 6 April 2010. The film held a premiere press conference in Beijing on 21 April 2010, only seven days after the 2010 Yushu earthquake. Guests were asked to wear dark-colored clothing in show of mourning; there was a moment of silence for the victims of the disaster. The film's cast, Donnie Yen, Sammo Hung, Huang Xiaoming, Lynn Hung, and Kent Cheng attended the premiere, and donated a total of ¥500,000 (US$73,200) to relief efforts helping in the disaster recovery. The film held private screenings in Chengdu on 21 April 2010, and in China on 27 April 2010, receiving positive reactions from audiences. Mandarin Films has sold North American distribution rights for the film to distributor Well Go USA. "Ip Man 2" was released in the United States by Variance Films on 28 January 2011.


title: Ip Man 2

text: In Hong Kong, "Ip Man 2" faced competition with the international release of "Iron Man 2", which premiered in Hong Kong one day later than "Ip Man 2". During its opening weekend, "Ip Man 2" grossed HK$13 million (US$1,736,011), surpassing "Ip Man" opening weekend gross of HK$4.5 million (US$579,715). The sequel claimed first place at the box office, grossing HK$1 million more than "Iron Man 2". The film's revenues decreased by 28.1% in its second weekend, earning HK$9,719,603.56 (US$1,248,996) to remain in first place. The film dropped 45.7% in its third week, bringing in HK$5,293,401 (US$678,613) while still remaining in first place. "Ip Man 2" continued to stay at number one at the box office, dropping an additional 39.4% in its fourth week and grossing HK$3,199,567 (US$411,115). During its fifth week, the film moved to fifth place at 79.3%, grossing HK$664,535 (US$85,325). "Ip Man 2" grossed HK$43,268,228.72 (US$5,558,704) domestically. The sequel's domestic gross in Hong Kong puts it ahead of "Ip Man" total box office gross of HK$25,581,958.69 (US$3,300,847).


title: Ip Man 2

text: "Ip Man 2" also broke box office records in Singapore. The film was the highest-grossing Hong Kong film to be released in the country, beating a five-year record held by "Kung Fu Hustle". On its opening weekend "Ip Man 2" came in second place behind "Iron Man 2", grossing SG$1.74 million (US$1,264,919). The film's opening weekend gross surpassed "Ip Man" 2008 weekend gross of SG$827,000 (US$463,946).


title: Ip Man 2

text: Analysts believed that "Ip Man 2" box office success was related to the favorable reputation and popularity of its first installment. Huang Qunfei, a general manager of the Chinese theater chain New Film Association Company, made notice of Chinese viewers preferring films made domestically over ones made in Hollywood: "Chinese viewers are less obsessed with Hollywood blockbusters than before. Finally, it is the film's quality that matters. With a good story, local films are likely to win more favor among audiences." Liu Wei of "China Daily" noted that the film's finale was similar to its competition against "Iron Man 2" at the box office: "The hero of "Ip Man 2"...faces up to a Western boxer and knocks him out. Off screen, it is a similar story."


title: Ip Man 2

text: Analysts also predicted that Mandarin Films' hopes of having the sequel gross over ¥300 million in China was unlikely, due to competition with other films such as "Iron Man 2". Another factor was that the illegal recording, downloading and file sharing of the film would cause a potential loss in revenue. A pirated version was released online, one week after the film's release in China, and attracted more than 10 million online users. Raymond Wong publicly expressed that he would be pursuing legal action against the originator of the illegal downloads.


title: Ip Man 2

text: In the first half of the year 2010 (from 1 January to 30 June 2010), "Ip Man 2" was the highest grossing Hong Kong film to be released in the country. However, when compared to films produced outside of Asia, the highest-grossing foreign film was "Alice in Wonderland" with HK$44 million.


title: Ip Man 2

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 97% of critics have given "Ip Man 2" a positive review based on 29 reviews, with an average rating of 6.92/10. At Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 67 out of 100 based on 13 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Ip Man 2

text: Singaporean film critic Genevieve Loh of "Channel NewsAsia" wrote, ""Ip Man 2" delivers. Perhaps not as action-packed with dignified choreography as showcased by its excellent predecessor, this installment is nonetheless still exciting, if a tad one-dimensional." James Marsh of "Twitch Film" praised the film, writing, ""Ip Man 2" looks fantastic and does a grand job of evoking the period authentically, lending the film a much-appreciated sense of dramatic gravitas." Joy Fang, a critic for online news portal "AsiaOne" wrote, "While not as big a movie as the first one, which focuses on heartbreaking and intense issues arising from the Japanese occupation in China, this film evokes Chinese pride with its strong cultural roots." Ho Yi, of the "Taipei Times" wrote, "Despite its plot holes, the "Ip Man" series has potential and recalls the 1990s' "Once Upon a Time in China" franchise starring Jet Li." Amir Hafizi of "The Malay Mail" praised Sammo Hung's martial arts choreography: "With fluid movements intricate interplay between contrasting martial styles and gorgeous sequences, kung fu fans will definitely get their eye-balls' worth here as this time around, the introduction of Western boxing into the mix makes for some interesting choreography." Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" awarded "Ip Man 2" three stars out of four, writing, "In its direct and sincere approach, it's a rebuke to the frenzied editing that reduces so many recent action movies into incomprehensible confusion."


title: Ip Man 2

text: Darcy Paquet of "Screen Daily" had mixed opinions of the film. He wrote that the film's performances and fight sequences "should ensure decent theatrical runs." Paquet concluded his review by writing, "Ultimately, the film's energy and humour overcome cartoonishly bad performances from the British actors and an utter lack of surprises in the final two reels." Amanda Foo of "The UrbanWire" awarded the film two stars out of five, writing in her review, "It's no surprise that Donnie Yen isn't willing to sign up for any more "Ip Man" movies, with the shameless repetition that is happening in these films, even the most ardent fan would be tired." Matt Prigge of "Metro New York" stated in 2016, "There are gobs of films about Ip Man [...] Of these, the three films starring Donnie Yen are the trashiest; the second one is basically a remake of "Rocky IV"."


title: Ip Man 2

text: In Hong Kong, "Ip Man 2" was released on DVD, and Blu-ray Disc formats on 25 June 2010. Releases include a single-disc edition and a two-disc special edition on DVD Features for the special edition DVD, as well as the Blu-ray disc, include deleted scenes, several theatrical trailers, cast and crew interviews, a making-of featurette, coverage of the film's gala premiere, and a shooting diary.


title: Ip Man 2

text: Coinciding with the sequel's home video release, both "Ip Man" and "Ip Man 2" were released as a double feature on DVD and Blu-ray Disc. Releases include two-disc special editions of both feature films with a total of four discs on DVD, as well as a standard DVD edition featuring both films with a total of two discs.


title: Ip Man 2

text: In the United Kingdom, "Ip Man 2" was 2011's sixth best-selling foreign-language film on physical home video formats, and the best-selling Chinese film (above the original "Ip Man" at number seven).


title: Ip Man 2

text: The third installment began filming in 2015. Edmond Wong, Raymond Wong and Wilson Yip returns as screenwriter, producer and director again, respectively. Donnie Yen reprises his role as "Ip Man". In March 2015, "The Hollywood Reporter" announced that principal photography began; they also revealed that Mike Tyson has been cast in a role and Bruce Lee is portrayed by Danny Chan, reprising the role from "The Legend of Bruce Lee".


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Rendering or image synthesis is the process of generating a photorealistic or non-photorealistic image from a 2D or 3D model by means of a computer program. The resulting image is referred to as the render. Multiple models can be defined in a "scene file" containing objects in a strictly defined language or data structure. The scene file contains geometry, viewpoint, texture, lighting, and shading information describing the virtual scene. The data contained in the scene file is then passed to a rendering program to be processed and output to a digital image or raster graphics image file. The term "rendering" is analogous to the concept of an artist's impression of a scene. The term "rendering" is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in a video editing program to produce the final video output.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Rendering is one of the major sub-topics of 3D computer graphics, and in practice it is always connected to the others. It is the last major step in the graphics pipeline, giving models and animation their final appearance. With the increasing sophistication of computer graphics since the 1970s, it has become a more distinct subject.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Rendering has uses in architecture, video games, simulators, movie and TV visual effects, and design visualization, each employing a different balance of features and techniques. A wide variety of renderers are available for use. Some are integrated into larger modeling and animation packages, some are stand-alone, and some are free open-source projects. On the inside, a renderer is a carefully engineered program based on multiple disciplines, including light physics, visual perception, mathematics, and software development.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Though the technical details of rendering methods vary, the general challenges to overcome in producing a 2D image on a screen from a 3D representation stored in a scene file are handled by the graphics pipeline in a rendering device such as a GPU. A GPU is a purpose-built device that assists a CPU in performing complex rendering calculations. If a scene is to look relatively realistic and predictable under virtual lighting, the rendering software must solve the rendering equation. The rendering equation doesn't account for all lighting phenomena, but instead acts as a general lighting model for computer-generated imagery.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: In the case of 3D graphics, scenes can be pre-rendered or generated in realtime. Pre-rendering is a slow, computationally intensive process that is typically used for movie creation, where scenes can be generated ahead of time, while real-time rendering is often done for 3D video games and other applications that must dynamically create scenes. 3D hardware accelerators can improve realtime rendering performance.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: When the pre-image (a wireframe sketch usually) is complete, rendering is used, which adds in bitmap textures or procedural textures, lights, bump mapping and relative position to other objects. The result is a completed image the consumer or intended viewer sees.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: For movie animations, several images (frames) must be rendered, and stitched together in a program capable of making an animation of this sort. Most 3D image editing programs can do this.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: A rendered image can be understood in terms of a number of visible features. Rendering research and development has been largely motivated by finding ways to simulate these efficiently. Some relate directly to particular algorithms and techniques, while others are produced together.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Many rendering have been researched, and software used for rendering may employ a number of different techniques to obtain a final image.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Tracing every particle of light in a scene is nearly always completely impractical and would take a stupendous amount of time. Even tracing a portion large enough to produce an image takes an inordinate amount of time if the sampling is not intelligently restricted.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: The fourth type of light transport technique, radiosity is not usually implemented as a rendering technique but instead calculates the passage of light as it leaves the light source and illuminates surfaces. These surfaces are usually rendered to the display using one of the other three techniques.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Most advanced software combines two or more of the techniques to obtain good-enough results at reasonable cost.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Another distinction is between image order algorithms, which iterate over pixels of the image plane, and object order algorithms, which iterate over objects in the scene. Generally object order is more efficient, as there are usually fewer objects in a scene than pixels.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: A high-level representation of an image necessarily contains elements in a different domain from pixels. These elements are referred to as primitives. In a schematic drawing, for instance, line segments and curves might be primitives. In a graphical user interface, windows and buttons might be the primitives. In rendering of 3D models, triangles and polygons in space might be primitives.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: If a pixel-by-pixel (image order) approach to rendering is impractical or too slow for some task, then a primitive-by-primitive (object order) approach to rendering may prove useful. Here, one loop through each of the primitives, determines which pixels in the image it affects, and modifies those pixels accordingly. This is called rasterization, and is the rendering method used by all current graphics cards.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Rasterization is frequently faster than pixel-by-pixel rendering. First, large areas of the image may be empty of primitives; rasterization will ignore these areas, but pixel-by-pixel rendering must pass through them. Second, rasterization can improve cache coherency and reduce redundant work by taking advantage of the fact that the pixels occupied by a single primitive tend to be contiguous in the image. For these reasons, rasterization is usually the approach of choice when interactive rendering is required; however, the pixel-by-pixel approach can often produce higher-quality images and is more versatile because it does not depend on as many assumptions about the image as rasterization.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: The older form of rasterization is characterized by rendering an entire face (primitive) as a single color. Alternatively, rasterization can be done in a more complicated manner by first rendering the vertices of a face and then rendering the pixels of that face as a blending of the vertex colors. This version of rasterization has overtaken the old method as it allows the graphics to flow without complicated textures (a rasterized image when used face by face tends to have a very block-like effect if not covered in complex textures; the faces are not smooth because there is no gradual color change from one primitive to the next). This newer method of rasterization utilizes the graphics card's more taxing shading functions and still achieves better performance because the simpler textures stored in memory use less space. Sometimes designers will use one rasterization method on some faces and the other method on others based on the angle at which that face meets other joined faces, thus increasing speed and not hurting the overall effect.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: In ray casting the geometry which has been modeled is parsed pixel by pixel, line by line, from the point of view outward, as if casting rays out from the point of view. Where an object is intersected, the color value at the point may be evaluated using several methods. In the simplest, the color value of the object at the point of intersection becomes the value of that pixel. The color may be determined from a texture-map. A more sophisticated method is to modify the color value by an illumination factor, but without calculating the relationship to a simulated light source. To reduce artifacts, a number of rays in slightly different directions may be averaged.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Ray casting involves calculating the "view direction" (from camera position), and incrementally following along that "ray cast" through "solid 3d objects" in the scene, while accumulating the resulting value from each point in 3D space. This is related and similar to "ray tracing" except that the raycast is usually not "bounced" off surfaces (where the "ray tracing" indicates that it is tracing out the lights path including bounces). "Ray casting" implies that the light ray is following a straight path (which may include traveling through semi-transparent objects). The ray cast is a vector that can originate from the camera or from the scene endpoint ("back to front", or "front to back"). Sometimes the final light value is derived from a "transfer function" and sometimes it's used directly.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Rough simulations of optical properties may be additionally employed: a simple calculation of the ray from the object to the point of view is made. Another calculation is made of the angle of incidence of light rays from the light source(s), and from these as well as the specified intensities of the light sources, the value of the pixel is calculated. Another simulation uses illumination plotted from a radiosity algorithm, or a combination of these two.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Ray tracing aims to simulate the natural flow of light, interpreted as particles. Often, ray tracing methods are utilized to approximate the solution to the rendering equation by applying Monte Carlo methods to it. Some of the most used methods are path tracing, bidirectional path tracing, or Metropolis light transport, but also semi realistic methods are in use, like Whitted Style Ray Tracing, or hybrids. While most implementations let light propagate on straight lines, applications exist to simulate relativistic spacetime effects.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: In a final, production quality rendering of a ray traced work, multiple rays are generally shot for each pixel, and traced not just to the first object of intersection, but rather, through a number of sequential 'bounces', using the known laws of optics such as "angle of incidence equals angle of reflection" and more advanced laws that deal with refraction and surface roughness.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Once the ray either encounters a light source, or more probably once a set limiting number of bounces has been evaluated, then the surface illumination at that final point is evaluated using techniques described above, and the changes along the way through the various bounces evaluated to estimate a value observed at the point of view. This is all repeated for each sample, for each pixel.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: In distribution ray tracing, at each point of intersection, multiple rays may be spawned. In path tracing, however, only a single ray or none is fired at each intersection, utilizing the statistical nature of Monte Carlo experiments.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: As a brute-force method, ray tracing has been too slow to consider for real-time, and until recently too slow even to consider for short films of any degree of quality, although it has been used for special effects sequences, and in advertising, where a short portion of high quality (perhaps even photorealistic) footage is required.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: However, efforts at optimizing to reduce the number of calculations needed in portions of a work where detail is not high or does not depend on ray tracing features have led to a realistic possibility of wider use of ray tracing. There is now some hardware accelerated ray tracing equipment, at least in prototype phase, and some game demos which show use of real-time software or hardware ray tracing.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Neural rendering is a rendering method using artificial neural networks. Neural rendering includes image-based rendering methods that are used to reconstruct 3D models from 2-dimensional images.One of these methods are photogrammetry, which is a method in which a collection of images from multiple angles of an object are turned into a 3D model. There have also been recent developments in generating and rendering 3D models from text and coarse paintings by notably NVIDIA, Google and various other companies.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Radiosity is a method which attempts to simulate the way in which directly illuminated surfaces act as indirect light sources that illuminate other surfaces. This produces more realistic shading and seems to better capture the 'ambience' of an indoor scene. A classic example is a way that shadows 'hug' the corners of rooms.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: The optical basis of the simulation is that some diffused light from a given point on a given surface is reflected in a large spectrum of directions and illuminates the area around it.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: The simulation technique may vary in complexity. Many renderings have a very rough estimate of radiosity, simply illuminating an entire scene very slightly with a factor known as ambiance. However, when advanced radiosity estimation is coupled with a high quality ray tracing algorithm, images may exhibit convincing realism, particularly for indoor scenes.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: In advanced radiosity simulation, recursive, finite-element algorithms 'bounce' light back and forth between surfaces in the model, until some recursion limit is reached. The colouring of one surface in this way influences the colouring of a neighbouring surface, and vice versa. The resulting values of illumination throughout the model (sometimes including for empty spaces) are stored and used as additional inputs when performing calculations in a ray-casting or ray-tracing model.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Due to the iterative/recursive nature of the technique, complex objects are particularly slow to emulate. Prior to the standardization of rapid radiosity calculation, some digital artists used a technique referred to loosely as false radiosity by darkening areas of texture maps corresponding to corners, joints and recesses, and applying them via self-illumination or diffuse mapping for scanline rendering. Even now, advanced radiosity calculations may be reserved for calculating the ambiance of the room, from the light reflecting off walls, floor and ceiling, without examining the contribution that complex objects make to the radiosity or complex objects may be replaced in the radiosity calculation with simpler objects of similar size and texture.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Radiosity calculations are viewpoint independent which increases the computations involved, but makes them useful for all viewpoints. If there is little rearrangement of radiosity objects in the scene, the same radiosity data may be reused for a number of frames, making radiosity an effective way to improve on the flatness of ray casting, without seriously impacting the overall rendering time-per-frame.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Because of this, radiosity is a prime component of leading real-time rendering methods, and has been used from beginning-to-end to create a large number of well-known recent feature-length animated 3D-cartoon films.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: One problem that any rendering system must deal with, no matter which approach it takes, is the sampling problem. Essentially, the rendering process tries to depict a continuous function from image space to colors by using a finite number of pixels. As a consequence of the Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem (or Kotelnikov theorem), any spatial waveform that can be displayed must consist of at least two pixels, which is proportional to image resolution. In simpler terms, this expresses the idea that an image cannot display details, peaks or troughs in color or intensity, that are smaller than one pixel.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: If a naive rendering algorithm is used without any filtering, high frequencies in the image function will cause ugly aliasing to be present in the final image. Aliasing typically manifests itself as jaggies, or jagged edges on objects where the pixel grid is visible. In order to remove aliasing, all rendering algorithms (if they are to produce good-looking images) must use some kind of low-pass filter on the image function to remove high frequencies, a process called antialiasing.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Due to the large number of calculations, a work in progress is usually only rendered in detail appropriate to the portion of the work being developed at a given time, so in the initial stages of modeling, wireframe and ray casting may be used, even where the target output is ray tracing with radiosity. It is also common to render only parts of the scene at high detail, and to remove objects that are not important to what is currently being developed.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: For real-time, it is appropriate to simplify one or more common approximations, and tune to the exact parameters of the scenery in question, which is also tuned to the agreed parameters to get the most 'bang for the buck'.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: The implementation of a realistic renderer always has some basic element of physical simulation or emulation some computation which resembles or abstracts a real physical process.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: The term ""physically based"" indicates the use of physical models and approximations that are more general and widely accepted outside rendering. A particular set of related techniques have gradually become established in the rendering community.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: The basic concepts are moderately straightforward, but intractable to calculate; and a single elegant algorithm or approach has been elusive for more general purpose renderers. In order to meet demands of robustness, accuracy and practicality, an implementation will be a complex combination of different techniques.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Rendering research is concerned with both the adaptation of scientific models and their efficient application.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: This is the key academic/theoretical concept in rendering. It serves as the most abstract formal expression of the non-perceptual aspect of rendering. All more complete algorithms can be seen as solutions to particular formulations of this equation.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Meaning: at a particular position and direction, the outgoing light (L) is the sum of the emitted light (L) and the reflected light. The reflected light being the sum of the incoming light (L) from all directions, multiplied by the surface reflection and incoming angle. By connecting outward light to inward light, via an interaction point, this equation stands for the whole 'light transport' all the movement of light in a scene.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: The bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) expresses a simple model of light interaction with a surface as follows:


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Light interaction is often approximated by the even simpler models: diffuse reflection and specular reflection, although both can ALSO be BRDFs.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Rendering is practically exclusively concerned with the particle aspect of light physics known as geometrical optics. Treating light, at its basic level, as particles bouncing around is a simplification, but appropriate: the wave aspects of light are negligible in most scenes, and are significantly more difficult to simulate. Notable wave aspect phenomena include diffraction (as seen in the colours of CDs and DVDs) and polarisation (as seen in LCDs). Both types of effect, if needed, are made by appearance-oriented adjustment of the reflection model.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Though it receives less attention, an understanding of human visual perception is valuable to rendering. This is mainly because image displays and human perception have restricted ranges. A renderer can simulate a wide range of light brightness and color, but current displays movie screen, computer monitor, etc. cannot handle so much, and something must be discarded or compressed. Human perception also has limits, and so does not need to be given large-range images to create realism. This can help solve the problem of fitting images into displays, and, furthermore, suggest what short-cuts could be used in the rendering simulation, since certain subtleties won't be noticeable. This related subject is tone mapping.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Mathematics used in rendering includes: linear algebra, calculus, numerical mathematics, signal processing, and Monte Carlo methods.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Rendering for movies often takes place on a network of tightly connected computers known as a render farm.


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: The current state of the art in 3-D image description for movie creation is the Mental Ray scene description language designed at Mental Images and RenderMan Shading Language designed at Pixar (compare with simpler 3D fileformats such as VRML or APIs such as OpenGL and DirectX tailored for 3D hardware accelerators).


title: Rendering (computer graphics)

text: Other renderers (including proprietary ones) can and are sometimes used, but most other renderers tend to miss one or more of the often needed features like good texture filtering, texture caching, programmable shaders, highend geometry types like hair, subdivision or nurbs surfaces with tesselation on demand, geometry caching, raytracing with geometry caching, high quality shadow mapping, speed or patent-free implementations. Other highly sought features these days may include interactive photorealistic rendering (IPR) and hardware rendering/shading.


title: André Breton

text: André Robert Breton (; 19 February 1896 – 28 September 1966) was a French writer and poet, the co-founder, leader, and principal theorist of surrealism. His writings include the first "Surrealist Manifesto" ("Manifeste du surréalisme") of 1924, in which he defined surrealism as "pure psychic automatism".


title: André Breton

text: Along with his role as leader of the surrealist movement he is the author of celebrated books such as "Nadja" and "L'Amour fou". Those activities, combined with his critical and theoretical work on writing and the plastic arts, made André Breton a major figure in twentieth-century French art and literature.


title: André Breton

text: André Breton was the only son born to a family of modest means in Tinchebray (Orne) in Normandy, France. His father, Louis-Justin Breton, was a policeman and atheistic, and his mother, Marguerite-Marie-Eugénie Le Gouguès, was a former seamstress. Breton attended medical school, where he developed a particular interest in mental illness. His education was interrupted when he was conscripted for World War I.


title: André Breton

text: During World War I, he worked in a neurological ward in Nantes, where he met the Alfred Jarry devotee Jacques Vaché, whose anti-social attitude and disdain for established artistic tradition influenced Breton considerably. Vaché committed suicide when aged 24, and his war-time letters to Breton and others were published in a volume entitled "Lettres de guerre" (1919), for which Breton wrote four introductory essays.


title: André Breton

text: Breton married his first wife, Simone Kahn, on 15 September 1921. The couple relocated to rue Fontaine 42 in Paris on 1 January 1922. The apartment on rue Fontaine (in the Pigalle district) became home to Breton's collection of more than 5,300 items: modern paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, books, art catalogs, journals, manuscripts, and works of popular and Oceanic art. Like his father, he was an atheist.


title: André Breton

text: Breton launched the review "Littérature" in 1919, with Louis Aragon and Philippe Soupault. He also associated with Dadaist Tristan Tzara. In 1924, he was instrumental in the founding of the Bureau of Surrealist Research.


title: André Breton

text: In "Les Champs Magnétiques" ("The Magnetic Fields"), a collaboration with Soupault, he implemented the principle of automatic writing. He published the "Surrealist Manifesto" in 1924, and was editor of the magazine "La Révolution surréaliste" from that year on. A group of writers became associated with him: Soupault, Louis Aragon, Paul Éluard, René Crevel, Michel Leiris, Benjamin Péret, Antonin Artaud, and Robert Desnos.


title: André Breton

text: Eager to combine the themes of personal transformation found in the works of Arthur Rimbaud with the politics of Karl Marx, Breton joined the French Communist Party in 1927, from which he was expelled in 1933. "Nadja", a novel about his encounter with an imaginative woman who later became mentally ill, was published in 1928. Breton celebrated the concept of Mad Love, and many women joined the surrealist group over the years. Toyen was a good friend. During this time, he survived mostly by the sale of paintings from his art gallery.


title: André Breton

text: In December 1929, a new book by Breton appeared, the "Second manifeste du surréalisme" ("Second manifesto of surrealism"), which contained a phrase often quoted and reproached to Breton, in particular by Albert Camus: "The simplest surrealist act consists, with revolvers in hand, of descending into the street and shooting at random, as much as possible, into the crowd. » Marguerite Bonnet notes that a very similar phrase already appeared in an article published in 1925 in number 2 of "La Révolution surréaliste" and that it had not, in its time, caught the attention.


title: André Breton

text: In reaction to the "Second manifesto", writers and artists published in 1930 a collective collection of pamphlets against Breton, entitled (in allusion to an earlier title by Breton) "Un Cadavre". The authors were members of the surrealist movement who were insulted by Breton or had otherwise disbelieved in his leadership. The pamphlet criticized Breton's oversight and influence over the movement. It marked a divide amidst the early surrealists. Georges Limbour and Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes commented on the sentence where shooting at random in the crowd is described as the simplest surrealist act. Limbour saw in it an example of buffoonery and shamelessness and Ribemont-Dessaignes called Breton a hypocrite, a cop and a priest.


title: André Breton

text: After the publication of this pamphlet against Breton, the "Manifesto" had a second edition, where Breton added in a note: "this act which I say is the simplest, it is clear that my intention is not to recommend it among all because it is simple and to quarrel with me on this subject amounts to bourgeoisly asking any non-conformist why he does not commit suicide, to any revolutionary why he is not going to live in the USSR”.


title: André Breton

text: In 1935, there was a conflict between Breton and the Soviet writer and journalist Ilya Ehrenburg during the first International Congress of Writers for the Defense of Culture, which opened in Paris in June. Breton had been insulted by Ehrenburg—along with all fellow surrealists—in a pamphlet which said, among other things, that surrealists were "pederasts". Breton slapped Ehrenburg several times on the street, which resulted in surrealists being expelled from the Congress. René Crevel, who according to Salvador Dalí was "the only serious communist among surrealists", was isolated from Breton and other surrealists, who were unhappy with Crevel because of his bisexuality and annoyed with communists in general.


title: André Breton

text: In 1938, Breton accepted a cultural commission from the French government to travel to Mexico. After a conference at the National Autonomous University of Mexico about surrealism, Breton stated after getting lost in Mexico City (as no one was waiting for him at the airport) "I don't know why I came here. Mexico is the most surrealist country in the world".


title: André Breton

text: However, visiting Mexico provided the opportunity to meet Leon Trotsky. Breton and other surrealists traveled via a long boat ride from Patzcuaro to the town of Erongarícuaro. Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo were among the visitors to the hidden community of intellectuals and artists. Together, Breton and Trotsky wrote the "Manifesto for an Independent Revolutionary Art" (published under the names of Breton and Diego Rivera) calling for "complete freedom of art", which was becoming increasingly difficult with the world situation of the time.


title: André Breton

text: Breton was again in the medical corps of the French Army at the start of World War II. The Vichy government banned his writings as "the very negation of the national revolution" and Breton escaped, with the help of the American Varian Fry and Hiram "Harry" Bingham IV, to the United States and the Caribbean during 1941. He emigrated to New York City and lived there for a few years. In 1942, Breton organized a groundbreaking surrealist exhibition at Yale University.


title: André Breton

text: In 1942, Breton collaborated with artist Wifredo Lam on the publication of Breton's poem "Fata Morgana", which was illustrated by Lam.


title: André Breton

text: Breton got to know Martinican writer Aimé Césaire, and later composed the introduction to the 1947 edition of Césaire's "Cahier d'un retour au pays natal". During his exile in New York City he met Elisa Bindhoff, the Chilean woman who would become his third wife.


title: André Breton

text: In 1944, he and Elisa traveled to the Gaspé Peninsula in Québec, where he wrote "Arcane 17", a book which expresses his fears of World War II, describes the marvels of the Percé Rock and the extreme northeastern part of North America, and celebrates his new romance with Elisa.


title: André Breton

text: During his visit to Haiti in 1945–46, he sought to connect surrealist politics and automatist practices with the legacies of the Haitian Revolution and the ritual practices of Vodou possession. Recent developments in Haitian painting were central to his efforts, as can be seen from a comment that Breton left in the visitors' book at the Centre d'Art in Port-au-Prince: "Haitian painting will drink the blood of the phoenix. And, with the epaulets of [Jean-Jacques] Dessalines, it will ventilate the world." Breton was specifically referring to the work of painter and Vodou priest Hector Hyppolite, whom he identified as the first artist to directly depict Vodou scenes and the lwa (Vodou deities), as opposed to hiding them in chromolithographs of Catholic saints or invoking them through impermanent vevé (abstracted forms drawn with powder during rituals). Breton's writings on Hyppolite were undeniably central to the artist's international status from the late 1940s on, but the surrealist readily admitted that his understanding of Hyppolite's art was inhibited by their lack of a common language. Returning to France with multiple paintings by Hyppolite, Breton integrated this artwork into the increased surrealist focus on the occult, myth, and magic.


title: André Breton

text: Breton's sojourn in Haiti coincided with the overthrow of the country's president, Élie Lescot, by a radical protest movement. Breton's visit was warmly received by "La Ruche", a youth journal of revolutionary art and politics, which in January 1946 published a talk given by Breton alongside a commentary which Breton described as having "an insurrectional tone". The issue concerned was suppressed by the government, sparking a student strike, and two days later, a general strike: Lescot was toppled a few days later. Among the figures associated with both "La Ruche" and the instigation of the revolt were the painter and photographer Gérald Bloncourt and the writers René Depestre and Jacques Stephen Alexis. In subsequent interviews Breton downplayed his personal role in the unrest, stressing that "the misery, and thus, the patience of the Haitian people, were at the breaking point" at the time and stating that "it would be absurd to say that I alone incited the fall of the government". Michael Löwy has argued that the lectures that Breton gave during his time in Haiti resonated with the youth associated with "La Ruche" and the student movement, resulting in them "plac(ing) them as a banner on their journal" and "t(aking) hold of them as they would a weapon". Löwy has identified three themes in Breton's talks which he believes would have struck a particular chord with the audience, namely surrealism's faith in youth, Haiti's revolutionary heritage, and a quote from Jacques Roumain extolling the revolutionary potential of the Haitian masses.


title: André Breton

text: Breton returned to Paris in 1946, where he opposed French colonialism (for example as a signatory of the "Manifesto of the 121" against the Algerian War) and continued, until his death, to foster a second group of surrealists in the form of expositions or reviews ("La Brèche", 1961–65). In 1959, he organized an exhibit in Paris.


title: André Breton

text: By the end of World War II, André Breton decided to embrace anarchism explicitly. In 1952, Breton wrote "It was in the black mirror of anarchism that surrealism first recognised itself." Breton consistently supported the francophone Anarchist Federation and he continued to offer his solidarity after the Platformists around founder and Secretary General Georges Fontenis transformed the FA into the Fédération communiste libertaire.


title: André Breton

text: Like a small number of intellectuals during the time of the Algerian War, he continued to support the FCL when it was forced to go underground, even providing shelter to Fontenis, who was in hiding. He refused to take sides in the politically divided French anarchist movement, even though both he and Péret expressed solidarity to the new Anarchist Federation rebuilt by a group of synthesist anarchists. He also worked with the FA in the Anti-Fascist Committees in the 1960s.


title: André Breton

text: André Breton died at the age of 70 in 1966, and was buried in the Cimetière des Batignolles in Paris.


title: André Breton

text: Breton was an avid collector of art, ethnographic material, and unusual trinkets. He was particularly interested in materials from the northwest coast of North America. During a financial crisis he experienced in 1931, most of his collection (along with that of his friend Paul Éluard) was auctioned. He subsequently rebuilt the collection in his studio and home at 42 rue Fontaine. The collection grew to over 5,300 items: modern paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, books, art catalogs, journals, manuscripts, and works of popular and Oceanic art.


title: André Breton

text: French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss endorsed Breton's skill in authentication based on their time together in 1940s New York.


title: André Breton

text: After Breton's death on 28 September 1966, his third wife, Elisa, and his daughter, Aube, allowed students and researchers access to his archive and collection. After thirty-six years, when attempts to establish a surrealist foundation to protect the collection were opposed, the collection was auctioned by Calmels Cohen at Drouot-Richelieu. A wall of the apartment is preserved at the Centre Georges Pompidou.


title: André Breton

text: Nine previously unpublished manuscripts, including the "Manifeste du surréalisme", were auctioned by Sotheby's in May 2008.


title: Alexander H. Stephens

text: Alexander Hamilton Stephens (February 11, 1812 – March 4, 1883) was an American politician who served as the vice president of the Confederate States from 1861 to 1865, and later as the 50th governor of Georgia from 1882 until his death in 1883. A member of the Democratic Party, he represented the state of Georgia in the United States House of Representatives before and after the Civil War prior to becoming governor.


title: Alexander H. Stephens

text: Stephens attended Franklin College and established a legal practice in his home town of Crawfordville, Georgia. After serving in both houses of the Georgia General Assembly, he won election to Congress, taking his seat in 1843. He became a leading Southern Whig and strongly opposed the Mexican–American War. After the war, Stephens was a prominent supporter of the Compromise of 1850 and helped draft the Georgia Platform, which opposed secession. A proponent of the expansion of slavery into the territories, Stephens also helped pass the Kansas–Nebraska Act. As the Whig Party collapsed in the 1850s, Stephens eventually joined the Democratic Party and worked with President James Buchanan to admit Kansas as a state under the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution (which was overwhelmingly rejected by voters in a referendum in that state).


title: Alexander H. Stephens

text: Stephens declined to seek re-election in 1858, but continued to publicly advocate against secession. After Georgia and other Southern states seceded and formed the Confederate States of America, Stephens was elected as the Confederate Vice President. Stephens's Cornerstone Speech of March 1861 defended slavery. In the course of the war, he became increasingly critical of President Jefferson Davis's policies, especially Confederate conscription and the suspension of habeas corpus. In February 1865, he was one of the commissioners who met with Abraham Lincoln at the abortive Hampton Roads Conference to discuss peace terms.