title: Standardized test

text: A longitudinal research in 2007 has demonstrated that major life accomplishments, such as publishing a novel or patenting technology, are also associated with test scores, even after taking into account educational opportunities. There is even a sizable body of evidence that these skills are related to effective leadership and creative achievements at work. Being able to read texts and make sense of them and having strong quantitative reasoning are crucial in the modern information economy.


title: Standardized test

text: However, a remarkable longitudinal study published in 2008 in the journal Psychological Science examined students who scored in the top 1% at the age of 13. Twenty years later, they were, on average, very highly accomplished, with high incomes, major awards and career accomplishments that would make any parent proud.


title: Standardized test

text: Admissions officers rely on a combination of application materials, including letters of recommendation, interviews, student essays, GPA, tests, and personal statements to evaluate the student comprehensively. However, most of these tools are not guarantee of future success. Problems with traditional interviews and letters of recommendation are so pervasive that many schools are looking for better options.


title: Standardized test

text: There is a correlation between test scores and social class, but success on standardized tests and in college is not simply dependent on class. The studies show that "the tests were valid even when controlling for socioeconomic class. Regardless of their family background, students with good tests scores and high-school grades do better in college than students with lower scores and weaker transcripts."


title: Standardized test

text: Another criticism relating to social class and standardized testing is that only wealthy people receive test preparation and coaching. However, "Researchers have conducted a mix of experimental studies and controlled field studies to test this question. They have generally concluded that the gains due to test prep are more on the order of 5 to 20 points and not the 100 to 200 points claimed by some test prep companies."


title: Standardized test

text: More importantly, many people hold the opinion that tests prevent diversity in admissions since minorities have lower scores in tests compared to other represented groups. A 2012 study looked at schools where admissions tests are optional for applicants and compared them to schools that use the tests, and the result shows that "recent research demonstrates that testing-optional schools have been enrolling increasingly diverse student bodies. But the same is true of schools that require testing."


title: Standardized test

text: Opponents claim that standardized tests are misused and uncritical judgments of intelligence and performance, but supporters argue that these aren't negatives of standardized tests, but criticisms of poorly designed testing regimes. They argue that testing should and does focus educational resources on the most important aspects of education — imparting a pre-defined set of knowledge and skills — and that other aspects are either less important, or should be added to the testing scheme.


title: Standardized test

text: Evidence shows that black and Hispanic students score lower than whites and Asians on average. Therefore, the math and reading standard tests such as SAT have faced escalating attacks from progressives. However, an exhaustive UC faculty senate report, commissioned by Ms. Napolitano and released in 2020, found the tests are not discriminatory and play an important role in protecting educational quality.


title: Standardized test

text: The report suggested that worsening grade inflation, especially at wealthy high schools, makes a standard assessment especially important.


title: Standardized test

text: Regarding UC schools' intention in dropping standard tests such as the SAT and ACT in college admissions, subjective and customized tests like essays and extra-curriculars can be easily tailored and detrimental to the students who are not familiar with the process. Admissions without testing may be even more tilted in favor of the well-connected.


title: Standardized test

text: In January 2020, the faculty senate at the University of California recommended that the UC system keep standardized tests as admissions requirements. The report says standardized math and reading tests are useful for predicting college performance. Based on data from the students in the UC system, the report concludes that "test scores are currently better predictors of first-year GPA than high school grade point average." The report continues: scores are also good at predicting total college GPA and the possibility a student will graduate. While the "predictive power of test scores has gone up," the report adds, "the predictive power of high school grades has gone down."


title: Standardized test

text: Test scores enable UC schools "to select those students from underrepresented groups who are more likely to earn higher grades and to graduate on time." "The original intent of the SAT was to identify students who came from outside relatively privileged circles who might have the potential to succeed in university," the report says. The SAT's maker, the Educational Testing Service (ETS), now claims the SAT is not an "aptitude" test but rather an assessment of "developed abilities".


title: Standardized test

text: Standardized testing and the requirement of such tests for college admissions is a controversial topic. The reason for the controversy is that these tests can create unequal opportunities for students based on their economic status, race, or even ability status. It is common for students of color, those with disabilities, and those from low-income communities to have low student performance rates. This is most likely due to "generations of exclusionary housing, education, and economic policy". These achievement gaps aren't a new concept. In 1991, the gap between the average scores of white students and those of black students was .91 standard deviations, while in 2020, the gap had decreased to .79 standard deviations.


title: Standardized test

text: Standardized testing can be costly for students, in both prep courses/tutors and in actually taking test. The ACT and SAT can cost $55-$70 and $52-$68 respectively. Many students who can afford to end up taking the tests multiple time to see the best score they can get, and will submit "super-scores" or a score consisting of their best scores from each section. Students from low-income communities cannot always afford to take the test multiple times.


title: Standardized test

text: Students in low-income communities often times do not have the same resources for test prep that their peers from more affluent backgrounds do. This discrepancy in resources available causes there to be a significant difference in the scores of students from different racial backgrounds. In an analysis conducted by the Brookings Institution found that 59% of white students and 80% of Asian test takers are deemed "college ready" by the SAT standards in comparison to the under 25% of Black students and under 33% of Hispanic/Latino students who are deemed "college ready." While the College Board reports that socioeconomic factors do not directly impact a student's performance, it can indirectly impact it through the course of access to prep courses and better schooling, experiences that can heavily impact on test scores.


title: Standardized test

text: When it comes to students with disabilities and special needs, these tests are not always an appropriate method to measure knowledge or readiness. For students with disabilities, it is not always realistic to expect them to sit at a desk for hours at a time and silently take a test. To refute that, students with disabilities can get accommodations, such as extra time to work on the tests.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 8)

text: The eighth series of "The Great British Bake Off" began on 29 August 2017, with this being the first of "The Great British Bake Off" to be broadcast on Channel 4, after the production company Love Productions moved the show. It is the first series for new hosts Noel Fielding and Sandi Toksvig, and new judge Prue Leith.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 8)

text: This series was won by Sophie Faldo, with Kate Lyon and Steven Carter-Bailey finishing as runners-up.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 8)

text: For the first challenge, the bakers were instructed to make a cake using fresh fruit, with no dried fruit permitted, in two hours. For the technical challenge, the bakers were instructed to make 12 chocolate mini rolls using Prue's recipe which contains peppermint cream, in two hours. The showstopper challenge required the bakers to make an illusion cake: a cake that appears to be some other object. They had four hours to complete the task.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 8)

text: For the Signature Challenge, the bakers were instructed to make 24 sandwich biscuits in 2 hours and 15 minutes. For the technical challenge, the bakers faced a very difficult challenge of making fortune cookies of two types of flavours – one is almond and one is orange, in 2 hours. For the final showstopper challenge, the bakers were required to make a biscuit board game that should be at least 40 cm long in diameter and has at least 8 elements in 3 ½ hours.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 8)

text: The bakers were instructed to make 12 teacakes in hours in the signature challenge. For the technical challenge, the bakers were tasked to make a cottage loaf in 2½ hours. For the showstopper challenge, the bakers were required to make a multicoloured bread sculpture with at least three colours using natural food colouring in hours.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 8)

text: For the first signature challenge, the bakers were required to produce 18 identical millionaire shortbread bars in 2 hours and 15 minutes. The technical challenge was set by Prue where the bakers were tasked to make stroopwafels in 1 hour and 45 minutes. Only one test waffle was allowed, and the challenge proved to be a very difficult one for the bakers with none of them producing an adequate caramel. For the final showstopper challenge, the bakers were required to make a caramel cake consisting of at least three layers of sponge in 3 ½ hours. They were required to incorporate spun sugar into their decorations.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 8)

text: For the signature challenge, the eight remaining bakers were required to bake a steamed school pudding with an accompaniment such as a compote or a custard in 3 hours. The technical challenge was set by Paul, which was 6 molten chocolate puddings with a peanut butter filling in 1 hour. Each baker was called one at a time so their puddings could be ready at different times for Paul and Prue to judge (starting with Julia, followed by Sophie, Liam, Steven, Yan, Kate, James and finally Stacey). For the showstopper challenge, the bakers were asked to bake an ornamental trifle terrine with three elements – a baked element, a set custard or mousse, and a jelly, in 4 ½ hours .


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 8)

text: In the signature challenge, the bakers were required to produce four decorative savoury pies using shortcrust pastry with different designs on the pies that share a common theme in 2½ hours. For the technical challenge, set by Paul, the bakers were tasked to produce 12 pastéis de nata using rough puff pastry in 2 hours. For the final showstopper challenge, the bakers were required to produce a family-sized hand-raised pie with a savoury filling using hot water crust pastry, topped with glazed fruits in 4 hours.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 8)

text: For the first ever Italian week in Bake Off, the bakers were given hours to make the required 18 Sicilian Cannolis with three different types of fillings. This week's Italian technical challenge was set by Prue, where the bakers were tasked to make the well-known, yet tricky, Pizza Margherita with a thin crispy base in hours. For the showstopper challenge, the bakers were required to make a very technically challenging and fiddly Italian bake: 24 Sfogliatelles with two types of fillings in hours.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 8)

text: The bakers were required to make four Bedfordshire Clangers within two hours in the signature challenge. Each must contain a savoury filling at one end and a sweet filling at the other, and be made from suet crust pastry. In the technical challenge, set by Paul, the bakers were given one and a half hours to make a traditional Cumberland Rum Nicky: a large tart consisting of a sweet shortcrust pastry and a rum-soaked fruity filling covered with a lattice top, and served with a smooth rum butter. For the historic showstopper the bakers had three and a half hours to make a Victorian Savoy cake, a sponge cake baked in a mold, often in elaborate architectural shapes, with a hard sugar crust or coating that helped preserve it as it served as a banquet centrepiece.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 8)

text: For the semifinal signature bakes, the bakers were asked to make 24 choux buns, in which 12 must have a crunchy craquelin on top and the other 12 must be covered with icing. The penultimate technical challenge was set by Prue, where the bakers were tasked with a very difficult job of making 9 Les Misérables slices. For the showstopper challenge before the final, the bakers were asked to make a meringue centrepiece, containing at least two different types of meringue and a dessert element, in 4 hours and 45 minutes.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 8)

text: For the signature challenge in the final, the last three bakers were tasked to make a batch of 12 small loaves. There must be three different types of loaves: four need to be intricately shaped (e.g. plaited), four need to be flavoured, and four need to be made from an alternative grain such as spelt or buckwheat, in 3 hours. Prue set the final technical challenge, asking the bakers to make 10 ginger biscuits, half oval and half square, in 2½ hours.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 8)

text: They each had to have a great snap and be intricately iced with two complicated patterns. For the ultimate showstopper challenge, the bakers were tasked to make one large entremet, having a minimum of five elements, one of which must be a sponge, and covered with a glaze or ganache, all in five hours.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 8)

text: The first special featured Selasi Gbormittah (Series 7), Val Stones (Series 7), Paul Jagger (Series 6) and Beca Lyne-Pirkis (Series 4). The competition was won by Paul Jagger.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 8)

text: The second special featured Benjamina Ebuehi (Series 7), Rav Bansal (Series 7), Sandy Docherty (Series 6) and Rob Billington (Series 2). The competition was won by Rav Bansal.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 8)

text: For the signature challenge, the bakers were given 2 hours to create a Christmas family favourite: a Yule Log. The technical challenge was set by Prue, and allowed the bakers 1 1/2 hours to make 12 mince pies with lattice tops, served with brandy butter, with very limited instructions and ingredients provided. The showstopper challenge featured the bakers creating 8 snow globe cakes using a sugar glass dome to encase an edible Christmas scene on top of an entremet.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 8)

text: The bakers were required to make 6 snowy bombe Alaska tarts in the signature challenge. The technical challenge was set by Paul, where the bakers were tasked to make a pistachio Kransekake Christmas tree consisting of twelve layers of concentric rings, topped with a star. For the final showstopper challenge, the bakers were required to make a magical ice cake with elaborate sugar work that create a scene of winter wonderland.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 8)

text: Liam Charles was chosen as a co-presenter for the revamped professional version of "Great British Bake Off", "", and in 2019 returned as co-judge for "Junior Bake Off". He has written two recipe books on baking; "Cheeky Treats: 70 Brilliant Bakes and Cakes", and " Second Helpings".


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 8)

text: Sophie Faldo runs her own business, Sophie Faldo Cakes. She has also appeared in an episode of a travelogue TV series "Travels with a Goat".


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 8)

text: On 31 October 2017, judge Prue Leith accidentally revealed Sophie Faldo as the winner of the series on Twitter twelve hours before the finale was due to air. This caused uproar among many fans of the show. She quickly deleted the tweet and apologised to the fans who saw the tweet.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 8)

text: The first episode to be broadcast on Channel 4 received an overnight viewing figure of 6.5 million, which is the channel's highest viewing figure since the opening ceremony for the 2012 Paralympics, but down from the 10 million obtained in the previous series on BBC One. The overnight viewing figure for the final was 7.7 million (8.9 million at its peak), lower than the 14 million for the equivalent episode on BBC One in 2016.


title: The Great British Bake Off (series 8)

text: Official episode viewing figures are from BARB. Figures are total counts including HD and Channel 4 +1.


title: Repo Men

text: Repo Men is a 2010 science fiction action film directed by Miguel Sapochnik, starring Jude Law, Forest Whitaker, Liev Schreiber, Alice Braga and Carice van Houten. An American-Canadian production, it is based on the novel "The Repossession Mambo" by Eric Garcia, and follows a repo man who goes on the run after he becomes the recipient of an artificial heart and finds himself suffering the same fate as his victims. The film was theatrically released on March 19, 2010.


title: Repo Men

text: In 2025, advancements in medical technology have perfected bio-mechanical organs. A corporation known as The Union sells these expensive "artiforgs" on credit, and when customers are unable or unwilling to pay for their artiforgs The Union sends "repo men" to locate and forcibly repossess the organ - invariably resulting in the death of the owner.


title: Repo Men

text: Remy (Jude Law) and his partner, Jake Freivald (Forest Whitaker), are considered the best of the Union's repo men. However, Remy's wife Carol disapproves of his work, believing that it is a bad influence for their son Peter. At a family barbecue, Remy allows Jake to discreetly perform a repossession nearby, but is caught by Carol who leaves with Peter in anger.


title: Repo Men

text: While patrolling with Jake, the duo discovers a "nest", a refuge for Union customers who have defaulted on payments for their artiforgs and are attempting to escape the country. Remy and Jake raid the nest by themselves, impressing their boss, Frank. He offers them the opportunity to become full-time raid captains. Remy declines and attempts to ask Frank to transfer to sales, but Jake cuts him off. Jake tells Remy that what they do is important, but Remy's mind is made up. Jake suggests that Remy's last job be a musician that Remy is a fan of. After helping the musician finish one last song, he uses a defibrillator in order to stop the artificial heart, but the device malfunctions, and Remy is severely injured, requiring replacement of his heart with an artiforg.


title: Repo Men

text: Carol divorces Remy for taking another job, so he moves in with Jake. As he tries to go back to work, he realizes he's developed sympathy for the customers, unable to lie when he tries sales, but also unable to kill when repossessing their artiforgs. He's soon unable to make the payments on his heart and is in debt. Jake discovers that Remy has not been repossessing and takes him to a "nest" with enough artiforgs to clear his debt; however, Remy cannot do the job. Furious, Jake demands he stay there until he gets over his inhibition. A stunned debtor wakes up and knocks Remy out.


title: Repo Men

text: Waking up, Remy encounters Beth, a singer he would see while drinking in a bar with Jake. He takes her to a motel room and discovers she has numerous artiforgs. Breaking into the office, Remy attempts to clear Beth's and his own accounts, but he is interrupted by Jake, who lets him leave. On the run, Beth and Remy leave for the abandoned outskirts of the city. Beth tells Remy of how she contracted various diseases and was involved in a car crash, and was forced to resort to buying artiforgs on the black market after running up severe debts. They begin a relationship, and Remy decides to document his life as a repo man with an old typewriter Beth found. As he works on a manuscript, he is interrupted by a repo man. Remy sets a trap and the collector drops through a hole in the floor. Beth falls through the same hole, damaging her prosthetic knee. Before the collector can shoot Beth, Remy manages to kill him.


title: Repo Men

text: Remy sneaks into his former workplace to obtain scanning jammers he had confiscated during his raid on the nest. He attempts to force Frank to clear his account, only to discover that accounts can now only be cleared at the Union's central office due to his earlier attempt. Remy and Beth attempt to flee the country at the airport, but security is alerted by bleeding from Beth's knee. A fight with airport security ensues. Jake arrives, but is on the other side of a security panel and watches their escape. They go to a black market doctor to replace Beth's knee.


title: Repo Men

text: After the procedure, they are stopped by Jake who tries to convince Remy to rejoin him as a repo man. Remy refuses, and Jake reveals he rigged the defibrillator unit that caused his heart to fail, so Remy would continue to work with him. They fight, and Jake knocks Remy unconscious. Beth awakens Remy, saying she stunned Jake as an organ repossession raid is underway. They flee to an underground residence where Remy is subdued by a freedom fighter (Yvette Nicole Brown). Later Remy decides to delete the accounts of all implant clients. Remy meets Carol and Peter on a train one last time, passing on his manuscript to Peter.


title: Repo Men

text: Remy and Beth break into Union headquarters and are forced to fight their way through the facility to the Union's database. Using Beth's prosthetic eye, they enter and seal themselves inside as Jake and Frank arrive. The server's only interface is an organ scanner, requiring Remy and Beth to cut themselves open to use the scanner internally on each of their artiforgs, clearing their accounts. Frank and Jake enter the server room using an artiforg from one of the slain repo men, finding Beth near death and Remy attempting to scan her heart. Jake is ordered to kill Remy, but he instead kills Frank and helps revive Beth. Jake tosses two grenades into the artiforg drawer of the server, with the explosion destroying the mainframe, wiping the records of everyone who has an account with the Union.


title: Repo Men

text: Later, Remy is seen on a tropical beach, enjoying his freedom with Beth and Jake. His text has been published as a book, "The Repossession Mambo". While Remy talks to Jake, he notices that Jake suddenly disappears, leaving Remy's book on his chair; then Remy sees the beach flicker with static before returning to normal. It is revealed that Remy is in a coma, having sustained severe brain damage when Jake knocked him unconscious. Jake has paid off Remy's debt for his heart and also paid to link his brain to a neural network, allowing him to live out his life peacefully in a computer generated dream world. Beth is unconscious, and Jake says he will take care of her; he then says a sorrowful goodbye to Remy. The film ends with Frank delivering a sales pitch for the neural network.


title: Repo Men

text: In 2007, screenwriters Eric Garcia and Garrett Lerner began working with Miguel Sapochnik on a screenplay based on a novel being written by Garcia. The novel, "Repossession Mambo", was published March 31, 2009.


title: Repo Men

text: In June 2007, Universal Studios cast Jude Law and Forest Whitaker. Production began in September 2007. Casting for this film was done by Mindy Marin, production design by David Sandefur, art direction by Dan Yarhi, set decoration by Clive Thomasson, and costume design by Caroline Harris. Filming took place in Toronto, and the Greater Toronto Area in Ontario.


title: Repo Men

text: Fight choreography was done by Hiro Koda and Jeff Imada. Forest Whitaker has been a longtime student of Filipino Martial Arts under Dan Inosanto and it is featured heavily in the vicious blade and blunt-weapon fight scenes in the film.


title: Repo Men

text: The score was composed by Marco Beltrami, who recorded his score with the Hollywood Studio Symphony at the Newman Scoring Stage at 20th Century Fox.


title: Repo Men

text: "Repo Men" was released theatrically in the United States and Canada on March 19, 2010, having been moved up from an original release date of April 2, 2010. The film was promoted with a seven-minute comic released on Apple.com on March 15, 2010.


title: Repo Men

text: Reviews were generally negative. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives a score of 22% based on 154 reviews, with an average rating of 4.40/10. The site's consensus is that ""Repo Men" has an intriguing premise, as well as a likable pair of leads, but they're wasted on a rote screenplay, indifferent direction, and mind-numbing gore."


title: Repo Men

text: Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 1–100 reviews from film critics, has a rating score of 32% based on 31 reviews.


title: Repo Men

text: "Repo Men" opened at #4 in its debut weekend in North America with US$6,126,170 in 2,521 theaters, averaging US$2,430 per theater. The film eventually grossed US$17,805,837 worldwide—US$13,794,835 in North America and US$4,011,002 in other territories. In July 2010, "Parade Magazine" listed the film as the #7 on its list of "Biggest Box Office Flops of 2010 (So Far)."


title: Repo Men

text: In the United States and Canada, "Repo Men" was released alongside "The Bounty Hunter" and "Diary of a Wimpy Kid".


title: Kaakha Kaakha

text: Kaakha Kaakha (), titled The Police in the UK, is a 2003 Indian Tamil-language action thriller film written and directed by Gautham Vasudev Menon. It stars Suriya and Jyothika, with Jeevan playing the antagonist. The film featured music composed by Harris Jayaraj and cinematography by R. D. Rajasekhar. The film released on 1 August 2003 to highly positive reviews and was considered a comeback film for producer Kalaipuli S. Thanu. It became Suriya's first biggest blockbuster. Owing to its commercial success, the film has been remade in several languages.


title: Kaakha Kaakha

text: Anbuselvan is an honest, daring IPS officer with the Chennai City Police as the ACP in the Crime Branch. As he has no family or relatives, he lives with no fear. Anbuselvan and his IPS friends Srikanth, Arul, and Ilamaran are recruited for part of a special unit of police officers who are battling organised crime in Chennai. Violent and laconic, Anbuselvan finds little patience for his personal life. The unit is ruthless in its confrontation with criminals, going as far as assassinating gang members. The unit is finally disbanded after 5 encounters in 3 months, by Human rights authorities, where Anbuselvan is posted to Control Room Duties. One day, a school teacher named Maya rebuffs Anbuselvan's routine questions regarding safety, not knowing that he is a police officer.


title: Kaakha Kaakha

text: Anbuselvan meets Maya again when she and her friend are questioned for driving without a license. However, Anbuselvan lets them off with a warning. When one of Maya's students has a problem with local kids, she asks Anbuselvan for help. Anbuselvan resolves this problem, a mutual respect grows between them, and they begin seeing one another. When Maya gets into a road accident, Anbuselvan helps her recover, and they fall in love. Srikanth and his wife Swathi become good friends with Maya. Sethu is a gangster, who escaped the encounter operations, meets his estranged brother Pandiya, who returns to Chennai after 14 years of crime life in Maharashtra. Pandiya has a peculiar tactic: he kills a family member of his opponent, but leaves the opponent alive to rot in failure and depression on the loss of his family member.


title: Kaakha Kaakha

text: Sethu's gang, aided by Pandiya's planning, commit major kidnappings in the city and become very powerful in 6 months. The 10-year-old son of an influential movie producer is kidnapped and killed, and later his daughter is also kidnapped for ransom. The special unit is reassembled by the commissioner with all four back in the crime branch. The unit tracks down and kills Sethu in a railyard, as others escape. Pandiya takes over the gang, promising grave revenge over his brother's death. Pandiya and his gang members target the families of the men in the special unit, but the police close in, and a badly injured Pandiya barely escapes Anbuselvan. Pandiya and his men brutally kill Ilamaran the same night, and escape. The entire department is mobilised, and all family members of the remaining three are sent into hiding. Maya and Anbuselvan get married in a hurry and leave for Pondicherry.


title: Kaakha Kaakha

text: However, Pandiya and his thugs enter the cottage the next day where the couple are honeymooning and attack Anbuselvan, leaving him for dead, and kidnapping Maya. Anbuselvan is battling for life but thinking only about rescuing Maya. Srikanth and Arul arrive at the cottage, discover Anbuselvan, and take him to the Pondicherry Government Hospital. Srikanth reveals that Swathi was kidnapped earlier at the airport and confesses that it was he who gave away Anbuselvan's location to Pandiya, for Swathi's safe return. Srikanth feels extreme remorse over what has happened. Whilst in the hospital, they receive a message from Pandiya to meet him at a particular location in Andhra Pradesh. When they go there, they find two packages, one containing Swathi's severed head and the other one containing Maya's arm flesh.


title: Kaakha Kaakha

text: Srikanth and Anbuselvan are distraught, with the former being hysterical upon seeing his wife's head, and in an agony of grief and guilt at being responsible, he shoots himself dead. Anbuselvan and Arul track down Pandiya before he can escape from Tamil Nadu and fight with the gang. Anbuselvan aims to shoot Pandiya, but Pandiya ends up shooting Maya while using her as a shield, and she dies in Anbuselvan's arms. An enraged Anbuselvan tracks down Pandiya and brutally finishes him off, avenging Maya and his friends' deaths. An epilogue shows that Anbuselvan, after the death of Maya, continues his job as an IPS officer some months later, while still reminiscing his moments with Maya.


title: Kaakha Kaakha

text: The film was initially titled as "Paathi" (Half) and then as "Kalam", before the team opted to change the title to "Kaakha Kaakha". Menon revealed that he was inspired to make the film after reading of articles on how encounter specialists shoot gangsters and how their families get threatening calls in return, and initially approached Madhavan, Ajith Kumar and Vikram for the role without success. The lead actress Jyothika asked Menon to consider Suriya for the role, and he was subsequently selected after Menon saw his portrayal in "Nandha". He did a rehearsal of the script with the actors, a costume trial with Jyothika and then enrolled Suriya in a commando training school before beginning production, which he described as a "very planned shoot". The film had an alternate ending which showed Jyothika's character surviving; it was released only on DVD.


title: Kaakha Kaakha

text: Guru Subramaniam of "Rediff.com" labelled "Kaakha Kaakha" a "career high film". Malathi Rangarajan of "The Hindu" described it as for "action lovers who believe in logical storylines and deft treatment" and praised Menon for his linear narrative screenplay. The film was a major breakthrough for both Menon and Suriya.


title: Kaakha Kaakha

text: Menon remade the film in Telugu as "Gharshana" (2004) for producer Venkata Raj and it went on to be highly successful as well as being a hit in Telugu theatres. In July 2004, he agreed terms to direct and produce another version of "Kaakha Kaakha" in Hindi with Sunny Deol in the lead role and revealed that the script was written five years ago with Deol in mind, but the film eventually failed to take off. Producer Vipul Amrutlal Shah approached him to direct the Hindi version of the film in 2010 as "Force", and Menon initially agreed before pulling out again. The film was also made in Kannada in 2011 as "Dandam Dashagunam". Menon and the original producer, Dhanu, also floated an idea of an English version with a Chechnyan backdrop, though talks with a potential collaboration with Ashok Amritraj collapsed.


title: Kaakha Kaakha

text: In addition to the following list of awards and nominations, prominent Indian film websites named "Kaakha Kaakha" one of the 10 best Tamil films of 2003, with Rediff, Sify and "Behindwoods" all doing so. The film was, before release, in "most awaited" lists from film websites.


title: Kaakha Kaakha

text: The film's music was composed by Harris Jayaraj, who reunited with Menon after the soundtrack of "Minnale". The song "Ondra Renda" is based on "Dil Ko Tumse Pyar Hua" from the 2001 Hindi film "Rehnaa Hai Terre Dil Mein" in which Harris himself was the music director.


title: The Eagle (2011 film)

text: The Eagle is a 2011 epic historical drama film set in Roman Britain directed by Kevin Macdonald, and starring Channing Tatum, Jamie Bell and Donald Sutherland. Adapted by Jeremy Brock from Rosemary Sutcliff's historical adventure novel "The Eagle of the Ninth" (1954), the film tells the story of a young Roman officer attempting to recover the lost Roman eagle standard of his father's legion in Caledonia. The story is based on the Ninth Spanish Legion's supposed disappearance in Britain. Historically, the purported disappearance of the Ninth Legion in Northern Britain is a subject of debate.


title: The Eagle (2011 film)

text: The film was a UK–US co-production. It was released in the United States on 11 February 2011 and in the United Kingdom on 25 March 2011. The film received mixed reviews from critics and grossed $38 million against its $25 million budget.


title: The Eagle (2011 film)

text: In the year 149 AD, twenty years after the Ninth Legion disappeared in the north of Britain, Marcus Flavius Aquila, a young Roman centurion, arrives in Roman Britain to serve at his first post as a garrison commander. Marcus's father, who was the Senior Centurion of the ninth, disappeared with the eagle standard of the ill-fated legion, and Marcus hopes to redeem his family's honour by bravely serving in Britain. Shortly afterwards, only Marcus's alertness and decisiveness save the garrison from being overrun by Celtic tribesmen in a local insurrection. He is decorated for his bravery but honourably discharged due to a severe leg injury.


title: The Eagle (2011 film)

text: Living at his uncle's estate near Calleva (modern Silchester) in southern Britain, Marcus has to cope with his military career having been cut short and his father's name still being held in disrepute. Hearing rumours that the eagle standard has been seen in the north of Britain, Marcus decides to recover it. Despite the warnings of his uncle and his fellow Romans, who believe that no Roman can survive north of Hadrian's Wall, he travels north into the territory of the Picts, accompanied only by his slave, Esca. The son of a deceased chieftain of the Brigantes, Esca detests Rome and what it stands for, but considers himself bound to Marcus, who saved his life during an amphitheatre show.


title: The Eagle (2011 film)

text: After several weeks of travelling through the northern wilderness, Esca and Marcus encounter Guern, a Roman-born Lucius Caius Metellus, one of the survivors of the Ninth Legion, who attributes his survival to the hospitality of the Selgovae tribe. Guern recalls that all but a small number of deserters were killed in an ambush by the northern tribes – including Esca's Brigantes – and that the eagle standard was taken away by the Seal People, the most vicious of the tribes. The two travel further north until they are found by the Seal People. Identifying himself as a chieftain's son fleeing Roman rule and claiming Marcus as his slave, Esca is welcomed by the tribe. After allowing the Seal People to mistreat Marcus, Esca eventually reveals that his actions were a ploy and helps his master to find the eagle. As they retrieve it, they are ambushed by several warriors, including the Seal prince's father, the chief of the tribe. Marcus and Esca manage to kill them. Prior to dying, the chief reveals that he killed Marcus's father, who apparently begged for his life. Furthermore, the chief is revealed to be wearing Marcus's father's ring. Marcus does not understand Celtic and asks Esca to translate, but Esca never reveals the fate of Marcus's father. With the aid of the Seal prince's young son, they escape from the village.


title: The Eagle (2011 film)

text: The two flee south in an effort to reach Hadrian's Wall, with the Seal People in pursuit. Marcus, slowed by his old battle wound, orders Esca to take the eagle back to Roman territory and even grants the reluctant slave his freedom. Freed, Esca still refuses to abandon his friend and instead heads out to look for help. He returns with the survivors of the Ninth Legion just as the Seal People catch up with them. Guern reveals to Marcus that he saw Marcus's father die. He assures Marcus that his father was not a coward and fought to the end. The legionaries, wishing to redeem themselves, accept Aquila as their commander and prepare to defend the eagle standard. As an example to those who would betray their people, the Seal prince kills his young son in front of Esca, Marcus, and the legionaries. He then orders his warriors to attack. A battle ensues, in which all the Seal warriors are killed, along with most of the Ninth Legion soldiers, including Guern. Marcus kills the Seal prince by drowning him in the river. With the enemy defeated, the bodies of both Britons and Romans are laid out by the victors. As Marcus commends their valour, he lights a funeral pyre for Guern. As Guern is cremated, Marcus, Esca and the few survivors of the Ninth return to Roman territory, where Aquila delivers the eagle to the astonished governor in Londinium. There is some talk of the Ninth Legion being reformed with Marcus as its commander. But when Marcus and Esca wonder what they will do next, Marcus leaves the decision to Esca.


title: The Eagle (2011 film)

text: An alternative ending is featured in the DVD. Marcus decides to burn the eagle standard on the altar where the final battle occurred, instead of delivering it to the Roman governor. He tells Esca that he does this because the eagle belongs to the men who fought for it. Marcus and Esca are then shown approaching Hadrian's Wall on foot and talking about their plans for the future.


title: The Eagle (2011 film)

text: Principal photography began on 24 August 2009 in Hungary, which doubles for what was later to become England. In October, production moved to Scotland, where filming took place in Wester Ross and at Loch Lomond, among other locations. The film was made for around £15 million by producer Duncan Kenworthy's Toledo Productions for co-financiers Focus Features and Film4. Kevin Macdonald directed from a script by Jeremy Brock, who adapted the 1954 historical adventure novel of the same name by Rosemary Sutcliff. The director of photography was Anthony Dod Mantle, production design was by Michael Carlin, the costume design was by Michael O'Connor, and Justine Wright edited the film—her fifth for Macdonald. At the 62nd Cannes Film Festival in May 2009, "The Eagle of the Ninth" secured distribution deals "for every global market".


title: The Eagle (2011 film)

text: Macdonald intended the film to be historically authentic, but as little is certain about the tribes that the Romans encountered—they were generally Celtic peoples, though some may have been Picts—he made concessions. For example, the tribespeople spoke Gaelic, even though the language probably did not enter widespread use in the region until the 5th century AD; Pictish is the more likely language to have been spoken at the time. "It's the best we can do," Macdonald said. "All you can do is build on a few clues and trust your own instincts. That way, no one can tell you you were wrong." Only 1% of Scots speak Gaelic, limiting the talent pool to just 60,000 people. By August 2009, several Gaelic-speaking boys had auditioned for the role of a boy of the Seal people, aged nine to twelve, but without success, so Macdonald held open auditions in Glasgow for the role. It was eventually given to nine-year-old Thomas Henry from New Barnsley, Belfast, who had been educated in Irish Gaelic.


title: The Eagle (2011 film)

text: Macdonald described his view of the Seal people:They were a more indigenous folk than the Celts, who were from farther south ... They were probably small and dark, like the Inouit [sic], living off seals and dressed in sealskins. We are going to create a culture about which no one knows much, but which we will make as convincing as possible. We are basing it on clues gained from places like Skara Brae and the Tomb of the Eagles in Orkney, so that we will have them worshipping pagan symbols, like the seal and the eagle. The reason they have seized the emblem of the Roman eagle from the legion is because to them it [was] a sacred symbol.


title: The Eagle (2011 film)

text: Achiltibuie, a village in northwest Scotland, was used as a filming location for the "Seal People". Filming started in Achiltibuie on 7 October 2009 and finished on 15 October 2009. The main location was Fox Point, Old Dornie. The Pictish village which was constructed at Fox Point was used on most days of the filming. Other sites included Achnahaird beach, where a horse chase was filmed, and Loch Lurgainn. Macdonald intended to use locals as extras. This was a success with many locals appearing as extras after going to castings in nearby Ullapool. Their roles included "Seal Warriors", "Seal Princesses" and "Elders".


title: The Eagle (2011 film)

text: In a reversal of Hollywood films about the Roman Empire, Macdonald said the Romans are played by American actors and Rome's enemies by British actors, while the British actors Paul Ritter, Mark Strong and Pip Carter used American accents to play their Roman characters. The Romans are played by Americans "to achieve a little contemporary symbolism", with Bell using a neutral English accent.


title: The Eagle (2011 film)

text: Although the film mostly stuck to the plot of Sutcliff's novel, there were a few modifications and condensations, e.g. it introduced a few violent scenes into what had been a novel written for younger children.


title: The Eagle (2011 film)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes the film holds approval rating of 40% based on 156 reviews, with an average rating of 5.35/10. The website's critics consensus reads: ""The Eagle" has a pleasantly traditional action-adventure appeal, but it's drowned out by Kevin Macdonald's stolid direction and Channing Tatum's uninspired work in the central role." Metacritic gave the film a weighted average score of 55 out of 100, based on 35 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: The Eagle (2011 film)

text: Roger Ebert gave "The Eagle" three stars out of four saying that "it evokes the energy of traditional sword-and-shield movies" and praising its realistic battle scenes and limited use of CGI.


title: The Eagle (2011 film)

text: "The Eagle" grossed $19.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $18.5 million in other territories, for a worldwide gross of $38 million, against its $25 million budget.


title: The Eagle (2011 film)

text: In the United States, "The Eagle" was released on 11 February 2011, in 2,296 theatres. It grossed $8,684,464 during its opening weekend, ranking fourth behind "Gnomeo and Juliet", "" and "Just Go With It".


title: Turn! Turn! Turn!

text: "Turn! Turn! Turn!", or "Turn! Turn! Turn! (To Everything There Is a Season)", is a song written by Pete Seeger in the late 1950s and first recorded in 1959. The lyrics – except for the title, which is repeated throughout the song, and the final two lines – consist of the first eight verses of the third chapter of the biblical Book of Ecclesiastes. The song was originally released in 1962 as "To Everything There Is a Season" on folk group the Limeliters' album "Folk Matinee", and then some months later on Seeger's own "The Bitter and the Sweet".


title: Turn! Turn! Turn!

text: The song became an international hit in late 1965 when it was adapted by the American folk rock group the Byrds. The single entered the U.S. chart at number 80 on October 23, 1965, before reaching number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart on December 4, 1965. In Canada, it reached number 3 on November 29, 1965, and also peaked at number 26 on the UK Singles Chart.


title: Turn! Turn! Turn!

text: The lyrics are taken almost verbatim from the book of Ecclesiastes, as found in the King James Version (1611) of the Bible, () though the sequence of the words was rearranged for the song. Ecclesiastes is traditionally ascribed to King Solomon who would have written it in the 10th century BC, but believed by a significant group of biblical scholars to date much later, up to the third century BC:


title: Turn! Turn! Turn!

text: The Biblical text posits there being a time and place for all things: birth and death, killing and healing, sorrow and laughter, war and peace, and so on. The lines are open to myriad interpretations, but Seeger's song presents them as a plea for world peace because of the closing line: "a time for peace, I swear it's not too late." This line and the title phrase "Turn! Turn! Turn!" are the only parts of the lyric written by Seeger himself.


title: Turn! Turn! Turn!

text: In 1999, Seeger arranged for 45% of the songwriting royalties for "Turn! Turn! Turn!" to be donated to the Israeli Committee Against House Demolitions. He kept 50% of the royalties for his own music and took a further 5% for the lyrics because, in Seeger's own words, "[in addition to the music] I did write six words and one more word repeated three times." Seeger's handwritten lyrics to the song were among documents donated to New York University by the Communist Party USA in March 2007.


title: Turn! Turn! Turn!

text: The song is notable for being one of a few instances in popular music in which a large portion of the Bible is set to music, other examples being the Melodians' (and Boney M's) "Rivers of Babylon", Sister Janet Mead's "The Lord's Prayer", U2's "40", Sinead O'Connor's "Psalm 33" and Cliff Richard's "The Millennium Prayer". Since Ecclesiastes is traditionally ascribed to King Solomon in the 10th century BC, the Byrds' 1965 recording of the song holds the distinction in the U.S. of being the number 1 hit with the oldest lyrics.


title: Turn! Turn! Turn!

text: The song was published in illustrated book form by Simon & Schuster in September 2003, with an accompanying CD which contained both Seeger's and the Byrds' recordings of the song. Wendy Anderson Halperin created a set of detailed illustrations for each set of opposites which are reminiscent of mandalas. The book also includes the Ecclesiastes text from the King James version of the Bible.


title: Turn! Turn! Turn!

text: The song was first released by the folk group the Limeliters on their 1962 album "Folk Matinee", under the title "To Everything There Is a Season". The Limeliters' version predated the release of Seeger's own version by several months. One of the Limeliters' backing musicians at this time was Jim McGuinn (aka Roger McGuinn), who would later record the song with his band the Byrds and, prior to that, arrange the song for folk singer Judy Collins on her 1963 album, "Judy Collins 3". Collins' recording of the song was retitled as "Turn! Turn! Turn! (To Everything There Is a Season)", a title that would be retained by the Byrds, though it was shortened to "Turn! Turn! Turn!" on the front cover of the album of the same name and the song became generally known by the shorter version, appearing as such on most later Byrds compilations.


title: Turn! Turn! Turn!

text: In 1963 Marlene Dietrich recorded "Für alles kommt die Zeit (Glaub', Glaub)", Max Colpet's German translation of the song. Dietrich was backed by a Burt Bacharach conducted studio orchestra, and the song was released as a single. Australian folk singer Gary Shearston also recorded a version of the song for his 1964 album "Songs of Our Time", with the title "Turn! Turn! Turn! (To Everything There Is a Season)".


title: Turn! Turn! Turn!

text: "Turn! Turn! Turn!" was adapted by the Byrds in a folk rock arrangement and released as a single by Columbia Records on October 1, 1965. The song was also included on the band's second album, "Turn! Turn! Turn!", which was released on December 6, 1965. The Byrds' single is the most successful recorded version of the song, having reached number 1 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 charts and number 26 on the UK Singles Chart. The B-side of the single was band member Gene Clark's original composition, "She Don't Care About Time".


title: Turn! Turn! Turn!

text: "Turn! Turn! Turn!" had first been arranged by the Byrds' lead guitarist Jim McGuinn in a chamber-folk style during sessions for Judy Collins' 1963 album, "Judy Collins 3". The idea of reviving the song came to McGuinn during the Byrds' July 1965 tour of the American Midwest, when his future wife, Dolores, requested the tune on the Byrds' tour bus. The rendering that McGuinn dutifully played came out sounding not like a folk song but more like a rock/folk hybrid, perfectly in keeping with the Byrds' status as pioneers of the folk rock genre. McGuinn explained, "It was a standard folk song by that time, but I played it and it came out rock 'n' roll because that's what I was programmed to do like a computer. I couldn't do it as it was traditionally. It came out with that samba beat, and we thought it would make a good single." The master recording of the song reportedly took the Byrds 78 takes, spread over five days of recording, to complete.


title: Turn! Turn! Turn!

text: Music journalist William Ruhlmann has pointed out that the song's plea for peace and tolerance struck a nerve with the American record buying public as the Vietnam War escalated. The single also solidified folk rock as a chart trend and, like the band's previous hits, continued the Byrds' successful mix of vocal harmony and jangly twelve-string Rickenbacker guitar playing. "Billboard" described the song as a "fascinating entry with words from the Book of Ecclesiastes and music adapted by Pete Seeger" that is "performed with respect and taste and a solid dance beat backing." "Cash Box" described it as a "tip-top version" of Seeger's original and said that the Byrds read "the lyrical folk item in an appropriate emotion-packed style." Pete Seeger expressed his approval of the Byrds' rendering of the song.


title: Turn! Turn! Turn!

text: During 1965 and 1966, the band performed the song on the television programs "Hollywood A Go-Go", "Shindig!", "The Ed Sullivan Show", and "Where the Action Is", as well as in the concert film, "The Big T.N.T. Show". Additionally, the song would go on to become a staple of the Byrds' live concert repertoire, until their final disbandment in 1973. The song was also performed live by a reformed line-up of the Byrds featuring Roger McGuinn, David Crosby and Chris Hillman in January 1989. In addition to its appearance on the "Turn! Turn! Turn!" album, the song also appears on several Byrds' compilations, including "The Byrds' Greatest Hits", "History of The Byrds", "", "The Byrds", "", "The Very Best of The Byrds", "The Essential Byrds" and "There Is a Season".


title: Turn! Turn! Turn!

text: The recording has been featured in numerous movies and TV shows, including 1983's "Heart Like a Wheel", 1994's "Forrest Gump", and 2002's "In America". Following Joe Cocker's cover of "With a Little Help from My Friends", the song was the first to be played in the initial episode of the television series "The Wonder Years". It was also used in a "Wonder Years" parody, during "The Simpsons" episode "Three Men and a Comic Book". In 2003, it was used in the closing sequence of the "Cold Case" episode "A Time to Hate" (Season One, episode 7) and for the closing credits of episode 3 of Ken Burns and Lynn Novick's 2017 documentary "The Vietnam War".


title: Kunti

text: Kunti (, ), named at birth as Pritha (, ), is one of the prominent characters of the Hindu epic "Mahabharata". She is best known as the mother of the Pandavas and Karna, the main protagonists of the epic. She is described to be beautiful, intelligent, and shrewd.


title: Kunti

text: Born to the Yadava chief Shurasena, Pritha was adopted by her childless uncle, Kuntibhoja, and was renamed Kunti. During her teenage years, she impressed sage Durvasa and was blessed with the knowledge of a divine "mantra". Out of curiosity, she used the mantra to invoke the sun god Surya, and was blessed with a son named Karna. As he had been born out of wedlock, Kunti had to abandon him to save herself from dishonor.


title: Kunti

text: After reaching adulthood, she chose Pandu, the king of Kuru, as her husband, but her married life was disturbed when Madri, princess of Madra, became Pandu's second wife. One day, Pandu was cursed that he would perish instantly if he tried to touch any of his wives with sexual intent. Filled with remorse, he abandoned his kingdom and chose to retire to the forest with his two wives. Kunti, upon her husband's request, used her mantra and was blessed with three children - Yudhishthira, Bhima, and Arjuna. Later, she shared her mantra with Madri, who was blessed with Nakula and Sahadeva. After Pandu died after attempting to engage in intercourse with Madri and the latter immolated herself, Kunti adopted her stepsons and took her children to Hastinapura, the capital of Kuru.


title: Kunti

text: Along with the Pandavas, Kunti survived the Lakshagriha and during their hiding, she ordered Bhima to marry Hidimbi, a "Rakshasi". Because of Kunti's misunderstanding, Draupadi, princess of Panchala, was married in a polyandrous union with the five Pandavas. After Indraprastha was established, Kunti stayed in Hastinapura and had a warm relationship with her sister-in-law, Gandhari. Before the Kurukshetra War, Kunti met Karna and asked him to join the Pandava side upon leaving his true heritage, but upon his refusal, she convinced him to spare all of her sons, but Arjuna. After Yudhishthira became the emperor of the Kurus, she retired to the forest and later died.


title: Kunti

text: In Hindu tradition, she is extolled as one of the "panchakanya" ("five maidens"), archetypes of female chastity whose names are believed to dispel sin when recited. She is praised as the embodiment of a mature, foresighted, and dutiful woman.


title: Kunti

text: Kunti was the biological daughter of Shurasena, a Yadava ruler. Her birth name was "Pritha". She is also said as the reincarnation of the goddess Siddhi. She was the sister of Vasudeva, the father of Krishna and shared a close relationship with Krishna. Her father gave Kunti to his childless cousin Kuntibhoja.


title: Kunti

text: Once Rishi Durvasa visited Kuntibhoja. Being extremely pleased by the all comforts, patience, and devotion offered by Kunti, he offered her a mantra that would invoke any god of her choice and he would bless her with children.


title: Kunti

text: Out of impetuous curiosity, Kunti invoked the god Surya. Bound by the power of the mantra, Surya blessed her with a child. To her surprise, the child was born with his sacred armour on. Out of fear of the public and with no choice, Kunti put the child in a basket and set him afloat the Ganga river. He later became famous as Karna.


title: Kunti

text: Kuntibhoja organized Kunti's swayamvara. Kunti chose King Pandu of Hastinapur, making her the Queen of Hastinapur. Soon after, during his mission to expand his empire, Pandu, on Bhishma's proposal, married Madri, a princess of Madra in order to secure the vassalage of Madra. Kunti was disturbed by her husband's actions, but eventually reconciled with him and treated Madri as sister.


title: Kunti

text: Pandu, while hunting in a forest, mistakenly shot and killed Rishi Kindama and his wife as they had taken the form of deer to mate. The dying sage then cursed him to die if he tries to embrace or touch his wives. Pandu renounced the kingdom and went into exile with Kunti and Madri.


title: Kunti

text: Pandu could not have children from his wives as he was supposed to treat them as relatives due to the curse by sage Kindama. A remorseful Pandu renounced the kingdom and went into exile with Kunti and Madri. He met some sages and asked them away for heaven and salvation. They said, without children, one can never aspire for heaven. When Pandu expressed to Kunti his despair at the prospect of dying childless, she mentioned the boon granted to her. He happily advised her to beget children by suitable, illustrious men. Thus, Kunti used the boon granted to her by Sage Durvasa (which she had used to bear Karna) to bear three sons—Yudhishthira by Dharmaraja - god of Justice; Bhima by Vayu - god of wind, and Arjuna by Indra - the king of Svarga (Heaven). She also invoked Ashvins for Madri on her behest and Madri gave birth to twin sons, Nakula and Sahadeva.


title: Kunti

text: Kunti gave special care to Madreyas (sons of Madri) especially Sahadeva the youngest one. Madri gave tribute to Kunti by saying


title: Kunti

text: One day, Pandu, forgetting his curse, attempted to embrace his wife Madri. But, as a result of Kindama's curse, he died. Madri committed suicide out of remorse that caused her husband's death. Kunti was left helpless in the forest with her children.


title: Kunti

text: After the death of Pandu and Madri, Kunti took care of all five Pandava children taking them back to Hastinapur. Dhritrashtra's sons never liked them. During their childhood, Duryodhana poisoned and tried to kill Bhima but he was saved. Kunti was hurt by this but was consoled by Vidura. Later the Kuru Princes were sent for training to Drona.


title: Kunti

text: After the princes finished their training, they returned to Hastinapura. After some time Duryodhana and his maternal uncle Shakuni tried to burn Pandavas alive along with Kunti for which they built the palace out of lac (Lakshagriha) in a village named Varanāvata. The Pandavas, though, managed to escape the house of lac with the help of Vidura through a secret tunnel.


title: Kunti

text: After surviving from the Lakshagriha Kunti and five Pandavas lived in Ekachakra village. During their stay, Kunti and the Pandavas become aware of a demon, Bakasura, who ate people. Villagers had to send one member of their family and food to Bakasura, who devour both. When Kunti heard the cries of a Brahmin - who had provided her and her son's shelter in Ekachakra, Kunti consoled him and suggested that instead of a Brahmin's family, her son Bhima would face the demon. Kunti engineered a plot where Bhima would be able to face and kill the demon. The powerful Bhima brought his might to the fore and defeated Bakasura.


title: Kunti

text: Later, Bhima slays the rakshasa Hidimba and he is beseeched by Hidimbi, Hidimba's sister, to wed her. Bhima is reluctant, but Kunti ordered Bhima to marry Hidimbi seeing merit in the woman. Hidimbi would go on to birth Ghatotkacha, who later takes part in the Kurukshetra War.


title: Kunti

text: The Pandavas attended the swayamvara of Draupadi in Panchala. Arjuna was able to win Draupadi's hand. The Pandavas returned to their hut and said that they have bought alms (signifying Kanyadan). Kunti misunderstood them and asked the Pandavas to share whatever they had brought. Kunti was shocked after realizing the implications of her words, that is, all of the Pandavas married Draupadi thinking that they are obeying their mother's orders. Therefore, she scolded her children for treating a woman like alms. However, Draupadi accepted this as her fate.


title: Kunti

text: When Kunti, along with the Pandavas and Draupadi, returned to Hastinapura, they faced many problems including Draupadi's polyandry and succession dispute between Yudhishthira and Duryodhana. On the advice of Bhishma, Pandavas were given a barren land to rule which was developed into Indraprastha. However Kunti remained in Hastinapura with her co-sister, Gandhari.


title: Kunti

text: When the Pandavas lose the kingdom in a dice game and are forced to go into exile for thirteen years, Kunti is forced by King Dhritarashtra to remain in the capital. She chose to stay in Vidura's house rather than the royal palace.


title: Kunti

text:
As war approached, Kunti met Karna and in desperation to keep her all children alive, asked Karna to leave the side of Duryodhana and join the Pandavas. Karna denied the offer, as he could not betray his friend. However, he promised Kunti that he would not kill any of his brothers except Arjuna, thus following both Mitra dharma and Putra dharma. He also promised that at the end of the war she would still have five sons, the fifth one be either Arjuna or Karna himself.

Despite supporting her children, Kunti stayed in the Kaurava camp along with her co-sister Gandhari. After the death of Karna, Kunti disclosed the secret of Karna's birth to Pandavas and others. All were shocked to learn the fact they committed fratricide. The Pandavas were furious with Kunti, especially Yudhisthira, who cursed Kunti and women of the world that they shall be unable to keep any secret anymore. If Kunti hadn't kept it a secret, there were chances that the war would've been averted and millions of lives would've been spared.


title: Kunti

text: After the Kurukshetra war, Kunti lived with her sons for many years. After she felt that her job in the world was over, she moved to a forest near the Himalayas with her brothers-in-law Vidura and Dhritarashtra, Sanjaya and Dhritarashtra's wife Gandhari. Vidura died two years after they left. Later Sanjaya left for the Himalayas and the left ones perished in a forest fire.


title: Kunti

text: In the Mahabharata, Kunti is depicted as a mild-mannered woman with high moral and social values. She constantly guides her sons on their actions and keeps the family bound as one, never to have them fight among each other. She is said to have a great amount of respect for her brother-in-law Dhritarashtra and Vidura and for Dhritarashtra's wife Gandhari. She is also said to have an affectionate relationship with her daughter-in-law Draupadi.


title: Kunti

text: Other versions of the Mahabharata depicts her to be shrewd and calculative. Early in her life, she rejects her son born out of wedlock (Karna) in societal fear, only to confess to him several years later, in solitude, that she birthed him. She tries to have him shift parties out of fear of losing her five sons. In exile with her husband Pandu, she shares her boon with his second wife Madri reluctantly and fears being overshadowed. It is said that Kunti did not share the boon for a second time with Madri, in the fear that Madri's children would outnumber her own.


title: Phosphorescence

text: Phosphorescence is a type of photoluminescence related to fluorescence. When exposed to light (radiation) of a shorter wavelength, a phosphorescent substance will glow, absorbing the light and reemitting it at a longer wavelength. Unlike fluorescence, a phosphorescent material does not immediately reemit the radiation it absorbs. Instead, a phosphorescent material absorbs some of the radiation energy and reemits it for a much longer time after the radiation source is removed.


title: Phosphorescence

text: In a general sense, there is no distinct boundary between the emission times of fluorescence and phosphorescence (i.e.: if a substance glows under a black light it is generally considered fluorescent, and if it glows in the dark it is often simply called phosphorescent). In a modern, scientific sense, the phenomena can usually be classified by the three different mechanisms that produce the light, and the typical timescales during which those mechanisms emit light. Whereas fluorescent materials stop emitting light within nanoseconds (billionths of a second) after the excitation radiation is removed, phosphorescent materials may continue to emit an afterglow ranging from a few microseconds to many hours after the excitation is removed.


title: Phosphorescence

text: There are two separate mechanisms that may produce phosphorescence, called triplet phosphorescence (or simply phosphorescence) and persistent phosphorescence (or persistent luminescence). Triplet phosphorescence occurs when an atom absorbs a high-energy photon, and the energy becomes locked in the spin multiplicity of the electrons, generally changing from a fluorescent "singlet state" to a slower emitting "triplet state". The slower timescales of the reemission are associated with "forbidden" energy state transitions in quantum mechanics. As these transitions occur relatively slowly in certain materials, absorbed radiation is reemitted at a lower intensity, ranging from a few microseconds to as much as one second after the excitation is removed.


title: Phosphorescence

text: On the other hand, persistent phosphorescence occurs when a high-energy photon is absorbed by an atom and its electron becomes trapped in a defect in the lattice of the crystalline or amorphous material. A defect such as a missing atom (vacancy defect) can trap an electron like a pitfall, storing that electron's energy until released by a random spike of thermal (vibrational) energy. Such a substance will then emit light of gradually decreasing intensity, ranging from a few seconds to up to several hours after the original excitation.


title: Phosphorescence

text: Everyday examples of phosphorescent materials are the glow-in-the-dark toys, stickers, paint and clock dials that glow after being charged with a bright light such as in any normal reading or room light. Typically, the glow slowly fades out, sometimes within a few minutes or up to a few hours in a dark room.


title: Phosphorescence

text: The term "phosphorescence" comes from the ancient Greek word "φῶς" ("phos"), meaning "light", and the Greek suffix "-φόρος" ("-phoros"), meaning "to bear", combined with the Latin suffix "-escentem", meaning "becoming of", "having a tendency towards", or "with the essence of". Thus, phosphorescence literally means "having a tendency to bear light". It was first recorded in 1766.


title: Phosphorescence

text: The term "phosphor" had been used since the Middle Ages to describe minerals that glowed in the dark. One of the most famous, but not the first, was Bolognian phosphor. Around 1604, Vincenzo Casciarolo discovered a "lapis solaris" near Bologna, Italy. Once heated in an oxygen-rich furnace, it thereafter absorbed sunlight and glowed in the dark. In 1677, Hennig Brand isolated a new element that glowed due to a chemiluminescent reaction when exposed to air, and named it "phosphorus".


title: Phosphorescence

text: In contrast, the term "luminescence" (from the Latin "lumen" for "light"), was coined by Eilhardt Wiedemann in 1888 as a term to refer to "light without heat", while "fluorescence" by Sir George Stokes in 1852, when he noticed that, when exposing a solution of quinine sulfate to light refracted through a prism, the solution glowed when exposed to the mysterious invisible-light (now known to be UV light) beyond the violet end of the spectrum. Stokes formed the term from a combination of fluorspar and opalescence (preferring to use a mineral instead of a solution), albeit it was later discovered that fluorspar glows due to phosphorescence.


title: Phosphorescence

text: There was much confusion between the meanings of these terms throughout the late nineteenth to mid-twentieth centuries. Whereas the term "fluorescence" tended to refer to luminescence that ceased immediately (by human-eye standards) when removed from excitation, "phosphorescence" referred to virtually any substance that glowed for appreciable periods in darkness, sometimes to include even chemiluminescence (which occasionally produced substantial amounts of heat). Only after the 1950s and 1960s did advances in quantum electronics, spectroscopy, and lasers provide a measure to distinguish between the various processes that emit the light, although in common speech the distinctions are still often rather vague.


title: Phosphorescence

text: In simple terms, phosphorescence is a process in which energy absorbed by a substance is released relatively slowly in the form of light. This is in some cases the mechanism used for glow-in-the-dark materials which are "charged" by exposure to light. Unlike the relatively swift reactions in fluorescence, such as those seen in laser mediums like the common ruby, phosphorescent materials "store" absorbed energy for a longer time, as the processes required to reemit energy occur less often. However, timescale is still only a general distinction, as there are slow-emitting fluorescent materials, for example uranyl salts, and, likewise, some phosphorescent materials like zinc sulfide (in violet) are very fast. Scientifically, the phenomena are classified by the different mechanisms that produce the light, as materials that phosphoresce may be suitable for some purposes such as lighting, but may be completely unsuitable for others that require fluorescence, like lasers. Further blurring the lines, a substance may emit light by one, two, or all three mechanisms depending on the material and excitation conditions.


title: Phosphorescence

text: When the stored energy becomes locked in by the spin of the atomic electrons, a triplet state can occur, slowing the emission of light, sometimes by several orders of magnitude. Because the atoms usually begin in a singlet state of spin, favoring fluorescence, these types of phosphors typically produce both types of emission during illumination, and then a dimmer afterglow of strictly phosphorescent light typically lasting less than a second after the illumination is switched off.


title: Phosphorescence

text: Conversely, when the stored energy is due to persistent phosphorescence, an entirely different process occurs without a fluorescence precursor. When electrons become trapped within a defect in the atomic or molecular lattice, light is prevented from reemitting until the electron can escape. To escape, the electron needs a boost of thermal energy to help spring it out of the trap and back into orbit around the atom. Only then can the atom emit a photon. Thus, persistent phosphorescence is highly dependent on the temperature of the material.


title: Phosphorescence

text: Most photoluminescent events, in which a chemical substrate absorbs and then re-emits a photon of light, are fast, in the order of 10 nanoseconds. Light is absorbed and emitted at these fast time scales in cases where the energy of the photons involved matches the available energy states and allowed transitions of the substrate. In the special case of phosphorescence, the electron which absorbed the photon (energy) undergoes an unusual intersystem crossing into an energy state of different (usually higher) "spin multiplicity" ("see term symbol"), usually a triplet state. As a result, the excited electron can become trapped in the triplet state with only "forbidden" transitions available to return to the lower energy singlet state. These transitions, although "forbidden", will still occur in quantum mechanics but are kinetically unfavored and thus progress at significantly slower time scales. Most phosphorescent compounds are still relatively fast emitters, with triplet decay-times in the order of milliseconds.


title: Phosphorescence

text: Common examples include the phosphor coatings used in fluorescent lamps, where phosphorescence on the order of milliseconds or longer is useful for filling in the "off-time" between AC current cycles, helping to reduce "flicker". Phosphors with faster decay times are used in applications like the pixels excited by free electrons (cathodoluminescence) in cathode-ray tube television-sets, which are slow enough to allow the formation of a picture as the electron beam scans the screen, but fast enough to prevent the frames from blurring together. Even substances commonly associated with fluorescence may in fact be prone to phosphorescence, such as the liquid dyes found in highlighter pens, which is a common problem in liquid dye lasers. The onset of phosphorescence in this case can sometimes be reduced or delayed significantly by the use of triplet-quenching agents.


title: Phosphorescence

text: where S is a singlet and T a triplet whose subscripts denote states (0 is the ground state, and 1 the excited state). Transitions can also occur to higher energy levels, but the first excited state is denoted for simplicity.


title: Phosphorescence

text: Solid materials typically come in two main types: crystalline and amorphous. In either case, a lattice or network of atoms and molecules form. In crystals, the lattice is a very neat, uniform assembly. However, nearly all crystals have defects in the stacking sequence of these molecules and atoms. A vacancy defect, where an atom is simply missing from its place, leaving an empty "hole", is one type of defect. Sometimes atoms can move from place to place within the lattice, creating Schottky defects or Frenkel defects. Other defects can occur from impurities in the lattice. For example, when a normal atom is substituted by a different atom of much larger or smaller size, a substitutional defect occurs, while an interstitial defect occurs when a much smaller atom gets trapped in the "interstices", or the spaces between atoms. In contrast, amorphous materials have no "long-range order" (beyond the space of a few atoms in any direction), thus by definition are filled with defects.


title: Phosphorescence

text: When a defect occurs, depending on the type and material, it can create a hole, or a "trap". For example, a missing oxygen atom from a zinc oxide compound creates a hole in the lattice, surrounded by unbound zinc-atoms. This creates a net force or attraction that can be measured in electron-volts. When a high-energy photon strikes one of the zinc atoms, its electron absorbs the photon and is thrown out into a higher orbit. The electron may then enter the trap and be held in place (out of its normal orbit) by the attraction. To trigger the release of the energy, a random spike in thermal energy is needed of sufficient magnitude to boost the electron out of the trap and back into its normal orbit. Once in orbit, the electron's energy can drop back to normal (ground state) resulting in the release of a photon.


title: Phosphorescence

text: The release of energy in this way is a completely random process, governed mostly by the average temperature of the material versus the "depth" of the trap, or how many electron-volts it exerts. A trap that has a depth of 2.0 electron-volts would require a great amount of thermal energy (very high temperatures) to overcome the attraction, while at a depth of 0.1 electron-volts very little heat (very cold temperatures) are needed for the trap to even hold an electron. Higher temperatures may cause the faster release of energy, resulting in a brighter yet short-lived emission, while lower temperatures may produce dimmer but longer-lasting glows. Temperatures that are too hot or cold, depending on the substance, may not allow the accumulation or release of energy at all. The ideal depth of trap for persistent phosphorescence at room temperature is typically between 0.6 and 0.7 electron-volts. If the phosphorescent quantum yield is high, that is, if the substance has a large number of traps of the correct depth, these substances will release significant amounts of light over long time scales, creating so-called "glow in the dark" materials.


title: Phosphorescence

text: Persistent phosphorescence is the mechanism of most anything commonly referred to as glow in the dark. Typical uses include toys, frisbees and balls, safety signs, paints and markings, make-ups, art and décor, and a variety of other uses.


title: Phosphorescence

text: Some examples of glow-in-the-dark materials do not glow by phosphorescence. For example, glow sticks glow due to a chemiluminescent process which is commonly mistaken for phosphorescence. In chemiluminescence, an excited state is created via a chemical reaction. The light emission tracks the kinetic progress of the underlying chemical reaction. The excited state will then transfer to a dye molecule, also known as a sensitizer or fluorophor, and subsequently fluoresce back to the ground state.


title: Phosphorescence

text: Common pigments used in phosphorescent materials include zinc sulfide and strontium aluminate. Use of zinc sulfide for safety related products dates back to the 1930s.


title: Phosphorescence

text: The development of strontium aluminate pigments in 1993 was spurred on by the need to find a substitute for glow-in-the-dark materials with high luminance and long phosphorescence, especially those that used promethium. This led to the discovery by Yasumitsu Aoki (Nemoto & Co.) of materials with luminance approximately 10 times greater than zinc sulfide and phosphorescence approximately 10 times longer. This has relegated most zinc sulfide based products to the novelty category. Strontium aluminate based pigments are now used in exit signs, pathway marking, and other safety related signage.


title: Phosphorescence

text: Since both phosphorescence (transition from T to S) and the generation of T from an excited singlet state (e.g., S) via intersystem crossing (ISC) are spin-forbidden processes, most organic materials exhibit insignificant phosphorescence as they mostly fail to populate the excited triplet state, and, even if T is formed, phosphorescence is most frequently outcompeted by non-radiative pathways. One strategy to enhance the ISC and phosphorescence is the incorporation of heavy atoms, which increase spin-orbit coupling (SOC). Additionally, the SOC (and therefore the ISC) can be promoted by coupling n-π* and π-π* transitions with different angular momenta, also known as Mostafa El-Sayed's rule. Such transitions are typically exhibited by carbonyl or triazine derivatives, and most organic room-temperature phosphorescent (ORTP) materials incorporate such moieties. In turn, to inhibit competitive non-radiative deactivation pathways, including vibrational relaxation and oxygen quenching and triplet-triplet annihilations, organic phosphors have to be embedded in rigid matrices such as polymers, and molecular solids (crystals, covalent organic frameworks, and others).


title: Phosphorescence

text: In 1974 Becky Schroeder was given a US patent for her invention of the "Glow Sheet" which used phosphorescent lines under writing paper to help people write in low-light conditions.


title: Phosphorescence

text: Glow in the dark material is added to the plastic blend used in injection molds to make some disc golf discs, which allow the game to be played at night.


title: Phosphorescence

text: Often clock faces of watches are painted with phosphorencent colours. Therefore, they can be used in absolute dark environments for several hours after having been exposed to bright light.


title: Phosphorescence

text: A shadow wall is created when a light flashes upon a person or object in front of a phosphorescent screen which temporarily captures the shadow. The screen or wall is painted with a glow-in-the-dark product that contains phosphorescent compounds. Publicly, these shadow walls can be found at certain science museums.


title: Douglas DC-7

text: The Douglas DC-7 is an American transport aircraft built by the Douglas Aircraft Company from 1953 to 1958. A derivative of the DC-6, it was the last major piston engine-powered transport made by Douglas, being developed shortly after the earliest jet airliner—the de Havilland Comet—entered service and only a few years before the jet-powered Douglas DC-8 first flew in 1958. Unlike other aircraft in Douglas's line of propeller-driven aircraft, no examples remain in service in the present day, as compared to the far more successful DC-3 and DC-6.


title: Douglas DC-7

text: In 1945 Pan American World Airways requested a DC-7, a civil version of the Douglas C-74 Globemaster military transport. Pan Am soon canceled their order. That proposed DC-7 was unrelated to the later DC-6-derived airliner.


title: Douglas DC-7

text: American Airlines revived the designation when they requested an aircraft that could fly the USA coast-to-coast non-stop in about eight hours. (Civil Air Regulations then limited domestic flight crews to 8 hours' flight time in any 24-hour period.) Douglas was reluctant to build the aircraft until American Airlines president C. R. Smith ordered 25 at a total price of $40 million, thus covering Douglas' development costs.


title: Douglas DC-7

text: The DC-7 wing was based on that of the DC-4 and DC-6, with the same span; the fuselage was longer than the DC-6B. Four eighteen-cylinder Wright R-3350 Duplex-Cyclone Turbo-Compound engines provided power. The prototype flew in May 1953 and American received their first DC-7 in November, inaugurating the first non-stop east-coast-to-west-coast service in the country (unrealistically scheduled just under the eight-hour limit for one crew) and forcing rival TWA to offer a similar service with its Super Constellations. Both aircraft frequently experienced inflight engine failures, causing many flights to be diverted. Some blamed this on the need for high-power settings to meet the notional schedules, causing overheating and failure of the engines' power recovery turbines.


title: Douglas DC-7

text: The DC-7 was followed by the DC-7B with slightly more power, and on some DC-7Bs (Pan Am and South African Airways), fuel tanks over the wing in the rear of the engine nacelles, each carrying . South African Airways used this variant to fly Johannesburg to London with one stop. Pan Am's DC-7Bs started flying transatlantic in summer 1955, scheduled 1 hr 45 min faster than the Super Stratocruiser from New York to London or Paris.


title: Douglas DC-7

text: Early DC-7s were purchased only by U.S. carriers. European carriers could not take advantage of the small range-increase of the early DC-7, so Douglas released an extended-range variant, the DC-7C (Seven Seas) in 1956. Two wingroot inserts added fuel capacity, reduced interference drag and made the cabin quieter by moving the engines farther outboard; all DC-7Cs had the nacelle fuel tanks previously seen on Pan American's and South African's DC-7Bs. The fuselage, which had been extended over the DC-6Bs with a plug behind the wing for the DC-7 and DC-7B, was lengthened again with a 40-inch plug ahead of the wing to give the DC-7C a total length of .


title: Douglas DC-7

text: Since the late 1940s Pan Am and other airlines had scheduled a few non-stop flights from New York to Europe, but westward non-stops against the prevailing wind were rarely possible with an economic payload. The L1049G and DC-7B that appeared in 1955 could occasionally make the westward trip, but in summer 1956 Pan Am's DC-7C finally started doing it fairly reliably. BOAC was forced to respond by purchasing DC-7Cs rather than wait on the delivery of the Bristol Britannia. The DC-7C found its way into several other overseas airlines' fleets, including SAS, which used them on cross-polar flights to North America and Asia. The DC-7C sold better than its rival, the Lockheed L-1649A Starliner, which entered service a year later, but sales were cut short by the arrival of Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8 jets in 1958–60.


title: Douglas DC-7

text: Starting in 1959 Douglas began converting DC-7s and DC-7Cs into DC-7F freighters to extend their useful lives. The airframes were fitted with large forward and rear freight doors and some cabin windows were removed.


title: Douglas DC-7

text: The predecessor DC-6, especially the DC-6B, established a reputation for straightforward engineering and reliability. Pratt & Whitney, manufacturer of the DC-6s Double Wasp engines, did not offer an effective larger engine apart from the Wasp Major, which had a reputation for poor reliability. Douglas turned to Wright Aeronautical for a more powerful engine. The Duplex-Cyclone had reliability issues of its own, and this affected the DC-7's service record. Carriers who had both DC-6s and DC-7s in their fleets usually replaced the newer DC-7s first once jets started to arrive. Some airlines retired their DC-7s after little more than five years of service, whereas most DC-6s lasted longer and sold more readily on the secondhand market.


title: Douglas DC-7

text: Similarly, the price of a DC-7C was $1,155,560 (£800,000) in 1956, increasing to $1,343,385 (£930,000) by 1958.


title: Douglas DC-7

text: DC-7s were used by Alitalia, American Airlines, BOAC, Braniff Airways, Caledonian Airways, Delta Air Lines, Eastern Air Lines, Flying Tigers, Japan Airlines, KLM, Mexicana de Aviacion, National Airlines, Northwest Orient, Panair do Brasil, Pan American World Airways, Riddle Airlines, Sabena, SAS, South African Airways, Swissair, Turkish Airlines, Transports Aériens Intercontinentaux, and United Airlines.


title: Douglas DC-7

text: Seventeen DC-7s remained on the U.S. registry in 2010, they were used mainly for cargo and as aerial firefighting airtankers. Due to its engine problems, the DC-7 has not had the same longevity as the DC-6, which is still used by a number of commercial operators.


title: Graph coloring

text: In graph theory, graph coloring is a special case of graph labeling; it is an assignment of labels traditionally called "colors" to elements of a graph subject to certain constraints. In its simplest form, it is a way of coloring the vertices of a graph such that no two adjacent vertices are of the same color; this is called a vertex coloring. Similarly, an edge coloring assigns a color to each edge so that no two adjacent edges are of the same color, and a face coloring of a planar graph assigns a color to each face or region so that no two faces that share a boundary have the same color.


title: Graph coloring

text: Vertex coloring is often used to introduce graph coloring problems, since other coloring problems can be transformed into a vertex coloring instance. For example, an edge coloring of a graph is just a vertex coloring of its line graph, and a face coloring of a plane graph is just a vertex coloring of its dual. However, non-vertex coloring problems are often stated and studied as-is. This is partly pedagogical, and partly because some problems are best studied in their non-vertex form, as in the case of edge coloring.


title: Graph coloring

text: The convention of using colors originates from coloring the countries of a map, where each face is literally colored. This was generalized to coloring the faces of a graph embedded in the plane. By planar duality it became coloring the vertices, and in this form it generalizes to all graphs. In mathematical and computer representations, it is typical to use the first few positive or non-negative integers as the "colors". In general, one can use any finite set as the "color set". The nature of the coloring problem depends on the number of colors but not on what they are.


title: Graph coloring

text: Graph coloring enjoys many practical applications as well as theoretical challenges. Beside the classical types of problems, different limitations can also be set on the graph, or on the way a color is assigned, or even on the color itself. It has even reached popularity with the general public in the form of the popular number puzzle Sudoku. Graph coloring is still a very active field of research.


title: Graph coloring

text: The first results about graph coloring deal almost exclusively with planar graphs in the form of the coloring of "maps".


title: Graph coloring

text: While trying to color a map of the counties of England, Francis Guthrie postulated the four color conjecture, noting that four colors were sufficient to color the map so that no regions sharing a common border received the same color. Guthrie's brother passed on the question to his mathematics teacher Augustus de Morgan at University College, who mentioned it in a letter to William Hamilton in 1852. Arthur Cayley raised the problem at a meeting of the London Mathematical Society in 1879. The same year, Alfred Kempe published a paper that claimed to establish the result, and for a decade the four color problem was considered solved. For his accomplishment Kempe was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and later President of the London Mathematical Society.


title: Graph coloring

text: In 1890, Heawood pointed out that Kempe's argument was wrong. However, in that paper he proved the five color theorem, saying that every planar map can be colored with no more than "five" colors, using ideas of Kempe. In the following century, a vast amount of work and theories were developed to reduce the number of colors to four, until the four color theorem was finally proved in 1976 by Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken. The proof went back to the ideas of Heawood and Kempe and largely disregarded the intervening developments. The proof of the four color theorem is also noteworthy for being the first major computer-aided proof.


title: Graph coloring

text: In 1912, George David Birkhoff introduced the chromatic polynomial to study the coloring problems, which was generalised to the Tutte polynomial by Tutte, important structures in algebraic graph theory. Kempe had already drawn attention to the general, non-planar case in 1879, and many results on generalisations of planar graph coloring to surfaces of higher order followed in the early 20th century.


title: Graph coloring

text: In 1960, Claude Berge formulated another conjecture about graph coloring, the "strong perfect graph conjecture", originally motivated by an information-theoretic concept called the zero-error capacity of a graph introduced by Shannon. The conjecture remained unresolved for 40 years, until it was established as the celebrated strong perfect graph theorem by Chudnovsky, Robertson, Seymour, and Thomas in 2002.


title: Graph coloring

text: Graph coloring has been studied as an algorithmic problem since the early 1970s: the chromatic number problem (see below) is one of Karp's 21 NP-complete problems from 1972, and at approximately the same time various exponential-time algorithms were developed based on backtracking and on the deletion-contraction recurrence of . One of the major applications of graph coloring, register allocation in compilers, was introduced in 1981.


title: Graph coloring

text: When used without any qualification, a coloring of a graph is almost always a "proper vertex coloring", namely a labeling of the graph's vertices with colors such that no two vertices sharing the same edge have the same color. Since a vertex with a loop (i.e. a connection directly back to itself) could never be properly colored, it is understood that graphs in this context are loopless.


title: Graph coloring

text: The terminology of using "colors" for vertex labels goes back to map coloring. Labels like "red" and "blue" are only used when the number of colors is small, and normally it is understood that the labels are drawn from the integers


title: Graph coloring

text: A coloring using at most colors is called a (proper) -coloring. The smallest number of colors needed to color a graph is called its chromatic number, and is often denoted . Sometimes is used, since is also used to denote the Euler characteristic of a graph. A graph that can be assigned a (proper) -coloring is -colorable, and it is -chromatic if its chromatic number is exactly . A subset of vertices assigned to the same color is called a "color class", every such class forms an independent set. Thus, a -coloring is the same as a partition of the vertex set into independent sets, and the terms "-partite" and "-colorable" have the same meaning.


title: Graph coloring

text: The chromatic polynomial counts the number of ways a graph can be colored using some of a given number of colors. For example, using three colors, the graph in the adjacent image can be colored in 12 ways. With only two colors, it cannot be colored at all. With four colors, it can be colored in 24 + 4⋅12 = 72 ways: using all four colors, there are 4! = 24 valid colorings ("every" assignment of four colors to "any" 4-vertex graph is a proper coloring); and for every choice of three of the four colors, there are 12 valid 3-colorings. So, for the graph in the example, a table of the number of valid colorings would start like this:


title: Graph coloring

text: The chromatic polynomial is a function that counts the number of -colorings of . As the name indicates, for a given the function is indeed a polynomial in . For the example graph, , and indeed .


title: Graph coloring

text: The chromatic polynomial includes more information about the colorability of than does the chromatic number. Indeed, is the smallest positive integer that is not a zero of the chromatic polynomial


title: Graph coloring

text: An edge coloring of a graph is a proper coloring of the "edges", meaning an assignment of colors to edges so that no vertex is incident to two edges of the same color. An edge coloring with colors is called a -edge-coloring and is equivalent to the problem of partitioning the edge set into matchings. The smallest number of colors needed for an edge coloring of a graph is the chromatic index, or edge chromatic number, . A Tait coloring is a 3-edge coloring of a cubic graph. The four color theorem is equivalent to the assertion that every planar cubic bridgeless graph admits a Tait coloring.


title: Graph coloring

text: Total coloring is a type of coloring on the vertices "and" edges of a graph. When used without any qualification, a total coloring is always assumed to be proper in the sense that no adjacent vertices, no adjacent edges, and no edge and its end-vertices are assigned the same color. The total chromatic number of a graph is the fewest colors needed in any total coloring of .


title: Graph coloring

text: An unlabeled coloring of a graph is an orbit of a coloring under the action of the automorphism group of the graph. Note that the colors remain labeled; it is the graph that is unlabeled.


title: Graph coloring

text: There is an analogue of the chromatic polynomial which counts the number of unlabeled colorings of a graph from a given finite color set.


title: Graph coloring

text: If we interpret a coloring of a graph on vertices as a vector in , the action of an automorphism is a permutation of the coefficients in the coloring vector.


title: Graph coloring

text: The only graphs that can be 1-colored are edgeless graphs. A complete graph formula_2 of "n" vertices requires formula_3 colors. In an optimal coloring there must be at least one of the graph's "m" edges between every pair of color classes, so


title: Graph coloring

text: If "G" contains a clique of size "k", then at least "k" colors are needed to color that clique; in other words, the chromatic number is at least the clique number:


title: Graph coloring

text: More generally a family formula_6 of graphs is formula_7-bounded if there is some function formula_8 such that the graphs formula_9 in formula_6 can be colored with at most formula_11 colors, for the family of the perfect graphs this function is formula_12.


title: Graph coloring

text: A greedy coloring shows that every graph can be colored with one more color than the maximum vertex degree,


title: Graph coloring

text: Complete graphs have formula_14 and formula_15, and odd cycles have formula_16 and formula_17, so for these graphs this bound is best possible. In all other cases, the bound can be slightly improved; Brooks' theorem states that


title: Graph coloring

text: Hoffman's bound: Let formula_19 be a real symmetric matrix such that formula_20 whenever formula_21 is not an edge in formula_9. Define formula_23, where formula_24 are the largest and smallest eigenvalues of formula_19. Define formula_26, with formula_19 as above. Then:


title: Graph coloring

text: Lovász number: The Lovász number of a complementary graph is also a lower bound on the chromatic number:


title: Graph coloring

text: Fractional chromatic number: The fractional chromatic number of a graph is a lower bound on the chromatic number as well:


title: Graph coloring

text: Graphs with large cliques have a high chromatic number, but the opposite is not true. The Grötzsch graph is an example of a 4-chromatic graph without a triangle, and the example can be generalized to the Mycielskians.


title: Graph coloring

text: To prove this, both, Mycielski and Zykov, each gave a construction of an inductively defined family of triangle-free graphs but with arbitrarily large chromatic number. Burling (1965) constructed axis aligned boxes in formula_39 whose intersection graph is triangle-free and requires arbitrarily many colors to be properly colored. This family of graphs is then called the Burling graphs. The same class of graphs is used for the construction of a family of triangle-free line segments in the plane, given by Pawlik et al. (2014). It shows that the chromatic number of its intersection graph is arbitrarily large as well. Hence, this implies that axis aligned boxes in formula_39 as well as line segments in formula_41 are not χ-bounded.


title: Graph coloring

text: From Brooks's theorem, graphs with high chromatic number must have high maximum degree. But colorability is not an entirely local phenomenon: A graph with high girth looks locally like a tree, because all cycles are long, but its chromatic number need not be 2:


title: Graph coloring

text: There is a strong relationship between edge colorability and the graph's maximum degree formula_44. Since all edges incident to the same vertex need their own color, we have


title: Graph coloring

text: A graph has a "k"-coloring if and only if it has an acyclic orientation for which the longest path has length at most "k"; this is the Gallai–Hasse–Roy–Vitaver theorem .