title: Jaws (franchise)

text: The success of "Jaws" led to three sequels, and the four films together have earned nearly $800 million worldwide in box office gross. The franchise has also seen the release of various soundtrack albums, additional novelizations based on the sequels, trading cards, inspired theme park rides at Universal Studios Florida and Universal Studios Japan, multiple video games, and a musical that premiered in 2004. Although the first film was popular with critics when it was originally released, critical and commercial reception went downhill with each sequel. This reception has spread to the merchandise, with video games seen as poor imitations of the original concept. Nevertheless, the original 1975 film has generally been regarded as one of the greatest films ever, and frequently appears in the top 100 of various American Film Institute rankings.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: However, Benchley later regretted he ever wrote the original book considering it encouraged a widespread public fear of sharks, which led to massive culls resulting in the various shark species around the world becoming endangered. As such, he spent most of his life promoting the cause of ocean conservation.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: Peter Benchley had been thinking for years "about a story about a shark that attacks people and what would happen if it came in and wouldn't go away." Doubleday editor Tom Congdon was interested in Benchley's idea of a novel about a great white shark terrorizing a beach resort. After various revisions and rewrites, Benchley delivered his final draft in January 1973. The title was not decided until shortly before the book went to print. Benchley says that he had spent months thinking of titles, many of which he calls "pretentious" such as "The Stillness in the Water" and "Leviathan Rising". Benchley regarded other ideas, such as "The Jaws of Death" and "The Jaws of Leviathan", as "melodramatic, weird, or pretentious." According to Benchley, the novel still did not have a title until twenty minutes before production of the book.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: The Book of the Month Club made the novel an "A book," qualifying it for its main selection, then the "Reader's Digest" also selected it. The publication date was moved back to allow a carefully orchestrated release. It was released first in hardcover in February 1974, then in the book clubs, followed by a national campaign for the paperback release. Bantam bought the paperback rights for $575,000.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: Richard D. Zanuck and David Brown, film producers at Universal Pictures, heard about the book at identical times at different locations. Brown heard about it in the fiction department of "Cosmopolitan", a lifestyle magazine then edited by his wife, Helen Gurley Brown. A small card gave a detailed description of the plot concluding with the comment "might make a good movie." The producers each read it overnight and agreed that it was "the most exciting thing that they had ever read" and that, although they were unsure how they would accomplish it, they had to produce the film. Brown says that had they read the book twice they would have never have made the film because of the difficulties in executing some of the sequences. However, he says that "we just loved the book. We thought it would make a very good movie."


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: The original "Jaws", directed by Steven Spielberg, is based on Peter Benchley's novel of the same name. It tells the story of Police Chief Martin Brody (portrayed by Roy Scheider) of Amity Island (a fictional summer resort town), in his quest to protect beachgoers from a great white shark by closing the beach. This is overruled by the town council, headed by the mayor Larry Vaughan (Murray Hamilton) that wants the beach to remain open in order to sustain the local tourist economy. After several attacks, the police chief enlists the help of marine biologist Matt Hooper (Richard Dreyfuss) and a professional shark hunter Quint (Robert Shaw). The three voyage out onto the ocean in Quint's boat – the "Orca". The shark kills Quint, but Brody manages to destroy it by shooting at the highly pressurized air tank that he has wedged in its mouth. In the end, Brody and Hooper are seen swimming away from the sinking "Orca", having both of them managed to survive the shark attack on the boat uninjured.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: The first sequel, "Jaws 2", depicts the same town four years after the events of the original film when another great white shark arrives on the shores of the fictional seaside resort of Amity Island. Directed by Jeannot Szwarc and starring Roy Scheider again as Police Chief Martin Brody, who, after a series of deaths and disappearances, suspects that the culprit is another shark. However, he has trouble convincing the town's selectmen. Once fired, he has to act alone to save a group of teenagers, including his two sons, who encounter the shark whilst out sailing. Brody then manages to kill the shark at Cable Junction upon pulling up one of the underwater cables.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: The plot of "Jaws 3-D" moves away from Amity Island to SeaWorld in Florida, a water themed-park with underwater tunnels and lagoons. As the park prepares to open, it is infiltrated by a baby great white shark which attacks and kills water-skiers and park employees. Once the baby shark is captured, it becomes apparent that a much larger shark, the mother, is present. The characters of Martin's sons from the first two films are developed further in this film: Michael Brody (Dennis Quaid) is the chief engineer of the park and his younger brother, Sean (John Putch), arrives at the resort to visit him. The events of the earlier films are implied through Sean's dislike of the water because of "something that happened when he was a kid." The events and character development from "Jaws 3-D" are independent from the rest of the series.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: The fourth film, "", sees the storyline returning to Amity Island, but ignores all plot elements introduced in "Jaws 3-D". No mention is made to Michael's girlfriend from the previous film, Kathryn Morgan (Bess Armstrong), or his career change from an engineer at SeaWorld to a marine biologist. In fact, one of the Universal Studios press releases for "Jaws: The Revenge" omits "Jaws 3-D" entirely by referring to "Jaws: The Revenge" as the ""third" film of the remarkable "Jaws" trilogy." By the start of the film, Martin Brody had died of a heart attack, although his wife, Ellen Brody (Lorraine Gary), claims that he died through fear of the shark. Her youngest son, Sean (Mitchell Anderson), now working as a police deputy in Amity, is dispatched to clear a log from a buoy. As he does so, he is attacked and killed by a shark. Ellen becomes convinced that a shark is deliberately victimizing her family for the deaths of the first two sharks. Michael (Lance Guest) convinces her to spend some time with his family in The Bahamas. However, as his job involves a lot of time on and in the sea, Ellen fears that he will be the shark's next victim. When her granddaughter, Thea (Judith Barsi), narrowly avoids being attacked by a shark, Ellen takes a boat in order to kill her family's alleged stalker. Hoagie (Michael Caine), Michael, and his friend Jake (Mario Van Peebles) find Ellen and then proceed to electrocute the shark, driving it out of the water and impaling it on the prow of Ellen's boat.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: In July 2018, Steven Spielberg expressed interest in a "Jaws" prequel film focusing on the 1945 sinking of the USS "Indianapolis", featuring a younger version of Robert Shaw's Quint in a supporting capacity. In May 2020, Shaw's grandson Ferdia Shaw expressed interest in potentially portraying the young Quint in the future, should the film ever be produced.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: Zanuck and Brown had originally planned to hire John Sturges to direct the film, before considering Dick Richards. However, they grew irritated by Richards' vision of continually calling the shark "the whale"; Richards was subsequently dropped from the project. Zanuck and Brown then signed Spielberg in June 1973 to direct before the release of his first theatrical film, "The Sugarland Express". Spielberg wanted to take the novel's basic concept, removing Benchley's many subplots. Zanuck, Brown and Spielberg removed the novel's adulterous affair between Ellen Brody and Matt Hooper because it would compromise the camaraderie between the men when they went out on the "Orca".


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: Peter Benchley wrote three drafts of the screenplay before deciding to bow out of the project. Tony and Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright Howard Sackler happened to be in Los Angeles when the filmmakers began looking for another writer and offered to do an uncredited rewrite, and since the producers and Spielberg were unhappy with Benchley's drafts, they quickly accepted his offer. Spielberg sent the script to Carl Gottlieb, asking for advice. Gottlieb rewrote most scenes during principal photography, and John Milius contributed dialogue polishes. Spielberg has claimed that he prepared his own draft. The authorship of Quint's monologue about the fate of the cruiser has caused substantial controversy as to who deserves the most credit for the speech. Spielberg described it as a collaboration among John Milius, Howard Sackler, and actor Robert Shaw. Gottlieb gives primary credit to Shaw, downplaying Milius' contribution.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: Three mechanical sharks were made for the production: a full version for underwater shots, one that moved from the camera left to right (with its hidden side completely exposing the internal machinery), and an opposite model with its right flank uncovered. Their construction was supervised by production designer Joe Alves and special effects artist Robert A. Mattey. After the sharks were completed, they were shipped to the shooting location, but had not been tested in water and when placed in the ocean the full model sank to the ocean floor, forcing a team of divers to retrieve it. Location shooting occurred on the island of Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, chosen because the ocean had a sandy bottom while out at sea. This helped the mechanical sharks to operate smoothly and still provide a realistic location. The film nonetheless had a notoriously troubled shoot and went considerably over budget. David Brown said that the budget "was $4 million and the picture wound up costing $9 million". Shooting at sea led to many delays: unwanted sailboats drifted into frame, cameras were soaked, and the "Orca" once began to sink with the actors on board. The mechanical shark frequently malfunctioned, due to the hydraulic innards being corroded by salt water. The three mechanical sharks were collectively nicknamed "Bruce" by the production team after Spielberg's lawyer. To some degree, the delays in the production proved serendipitous. The script was refined during production, and the unreliable mechanical sharks forced Spielberg to shoot most of the scenes with the shark only hinted at. For example, for much of the shark hunt, its location is represented by the floating yellow barrels. Spielberg also included multiple shots of just the dorsal fin due to its ease of filming. This forced restraint is widely thought to have increased the suspense of these scenes, giving it a Hitchcockian tone.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: The studio ordered a sequel early into the success of "Jaws". The success of "The Godfather Part II" and other sequels meant that the producers were under pressure to deliver a bigger and better shark. They realized that someone else would produce the film if they didn't, and they preferred to be in charge of the project themselves. Spielberg declined to be involved in the sequel.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: Like the first film, the production of "Jaws 2" was troubled. The original director, John D. Hancock, proved to be unsuitable for an action film and was replaced by Jeannot Szwarc. Scheider, who only reprised his role to end a contractual issue with Universal, was also unhappy during production and had several heated exchanges with Szwarc. Martha's Vineyard was again used as the location for the town scenes. Although some residents guarded their privacy, many islanders welcomed the money that the company was bringing. The majority of filming was at Navarre Beach, Florida, because of the warm weather and the water's depth being appropriate for the shark platform. Like the first film, shooting on water proved challenging. After spending hours anchoring the sailboats, the wind would change as they were ready to shoot, blowing the sails in the wrong direction. The corrosive effect of the saltwater damaged some equipment, including the metal parts in the sharks. As with the first film, footage of real sharks filmed by Australian divers Ron and Valerie Taylor was used for movement shots that could not be convincingly achieved using the mechanical sharks.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: The producers of the first two films originally pitched the second "Jaws" sequel as a spoof named "Jaws 3, People 0". "National Lampoon" writers John Hughes and Todd Carroll were commissioned to write a script. The project was abandoned due to conflicts with Universal Studios.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: Alan Landsburg and Rupert Hitzig produced the third film. The second sequel capitalized upon the revived interest of 3-D film in the 1980s, amongst other horror films such as "Friday the 13th Part III" and "Amityville 3-D" that also made dual use of the number three. As it was Joe Alves' first film as director, having been the production designer for the first two films, he thought that 3-D would "give him an edge". Cinema audiences could wear disposable cardboard polarized glasses to create the illusion that elements penetrate the screen. Richard Matheson worked on the story and script, although many of his contributions were unused: the writer is unhappy with the finished film. Carl Gottlieb, who had also revised the screenplays for the first two "Jaws" films, was credited for the script alongside Matheson.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: Joseph Sargent produced and directed the fourth film in the series. "Jaws: The Revenge" was filmed on location in New England and in the Caribbean, and completed on the Universal lot. Like the first two films of the series, Martha's Vineyard was the location of the fictional Amity Island for the opening scenes of the film. Principal photography moved to Nassau in The Bahamas, but the location did not offer the "perfect world" that the 38-day shoot required. The cast and crew encountered many problems with varying weather conditions.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: "Jaws" was the first film to use "wide release" as a distribution pattern. As such, it is an important film in the history of film distribution and marketing. Prior to the release of "Jaws", films typically opened slowly, usually in a few theaters in major cities, which allowed for a series of "premieres." As the success of a film increased, and word of mouth grew, distributors would forward the prints to additional cities across the country. The film became the first to use extensive television advertising. Universal executive Sidney Sheinberg's rationale was that nationwide marketing costs would be amortized at a more favorable rate per print than if a slow, scaled release were carried out. Scheinberg's gamble paid off, with "Jaws" becoming a box office smash hit and the father of the summer blockbuster.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: When "Jaws" was released on June 20, 1975, it opened at 464 theaters. The release was subsequently expanded on July 25 to a total of 675 theaters, the largest simultaneous distribution of a film in motion picture history at the time. During the first weekend of wide release, "Jaws" grossed more than $7 million, and was the top grosser for the following five weeks. During its run in theaters, the film became the first to reach more than $100 million in U.S. box office receipts. "Jaws" eventually grossed more than $470 million worldwide ($ billion in 2010 dollars) and was the highest grossing box office film until "Star Wars" debuted two years later.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: "Jaws 2" was the most expensive film that Universal had produced up until that point, costing the studio almost $30 million. According to David Brown, the film made 40% gross of the original. This was attractive to the studio because it reduced market risk. The film became the highest-grossing sequel in history, succeeded by the release of "Rocky II" in 1979. It opened in 640 theaters, making $9,866,023 in its opening weekend. The final domestic gross for "Jaws 2" was $102,922,376, making it the sixth highest domestic grossing film of 1978. "Jaws 2" grossed $208 million worldwide.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: "Jaws 3-D" grossed $13,422,500 on its opening weekend, playing at 1,311 theaters at its widest release. It had achieved a total lifetime worldwide gross of $87,987,055. Despite being #1 at the box office, this illustrates the series' diminishing returns, since "Jaws 3-D" has earned nearly $100,000,000 less than the total lifetime gross of its predecessor and $300,000,000 less than the original film.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: The third sequel would attract an even lower income, with around two thirds of "Jaws 3-D"'s total lifetime gross. "Jaws: The Revenge" received largely negative reviews from critics, and earned the lowest amount of money from the series. It is considered one of the worst movies ever made. Even though the film was still considered a commercial failure, it was able to cover costs (an estimated US$23 million) with a worldwide box office take of $51,881,013. The film, though, continued the series' diminishing returns. It only grossed $7,154,890 in its opening weekend, when it opened at 1,606 screens. This was around $5 million less than its predecessor. It had also achieved the lowest total lifetime gross of the series.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: "Jaws", when compared to other top-grossing American horror franchises—"Alien vs. Predator", "Candyman", "Child's Play", "The Conjuring", "The Exorcist", "The Evil Dead", "Final Destination", "Friday the 13th", "Godzilla", "Halloween", "Hannibal Lecter", "Hellraiser", "I Know What You Did Last Summer", "A Nightmare on Elm Street", "The Omen", "Paranormal Activity", "Psycho", "The Purge", "Saw", "Scream", and "The Texas Chainsaw Massacre"—is one of the highest grossing horror film franchises in North America.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: "Jaws" is regarded as a watershed film in motion picture history, the father of the summer blockbuster movie and one of the first "high concept" films. Due to the film's success in advance screenings, studio executives decided to distribute it in a much wider release than ever before. "The Omen" followed suit in the summer of 1976 and then "Star Wars" one year later in 1977, cementing the notion for movie studios to distribute their big-release action and adventure pictures (commonly referred to as "tentpole pictures") during the summer. "Jaws" is widely regarded as one of the greatest films of all time. "Jaws" was number 48 on American Film Institute's "100 Years... 100 Movies", a list of the greatest American films of all time, dropping down to number 56 on the 10 Year Anniversary list. It was ranked second on a similar list for thrillers, "100 Years... 100 Thrills".


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: The sequels are not held in such high regard. Many reviewers criticized "Jaws 2" director Jeannot Szwarc for showing more of the shark than the first film had, reducing the Hitchcockian notion "that the greatest suspense derives from the unseen and the unknown, and that the imagination is capable of conceiving far worse than the materialization of a mere mechanical monster." The performances of Scheider, Gary, and Hamilton in "Jaws 2" were praised. However, the teenagers, who are "irritating and incessantly screaming... don't make for very sympathetic victims."


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: Reception for "Jaws 3-D" was generally poor. "Variety" calls it "tepid" and suggests that Alves "fails to linger long enough on the Great White." On Rotten Tomatoes it has an approval rating of 12% based on reviews from 34 critics. The 3-D was criticized as being a gimmick to attract audiences to the aging series and for being ineffective. Derek Winnert says that "with Richard Matheson's name on the script you'd expect a better yarn" although he continues to say that the film "is entirely watchable with a big pack of popcorn."


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: "Jaws: The Revenge" attracted the poorest critical reception of the series and was nominated for Worst Picture in the 1987 Golden Raspberry Awards. It was rated by "Entertainment Weekly" as one of "The 25 Worst Sequels Ever Made." Roger Ebert said that it "is not simply a bad movie, but also a stupid and incompetent one." He lists several elements that he finds unbelievable including that Ellen is "haunted by flashbacks to events where she was not present." Ebert also laments that Michael Caine could not attend the ceremony to collect his Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor earned for "Hannah and Her Sisters" because of his shooting commitments on this film.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: In an era in which documentaries were attempting responsible, accurate reporting about the natural world, ecocriticism says that Hollywood continued to produce films that exploited the fear of animals. Scholar Greg Garrard cites David Ingram's suggestion that the "Jaws" series "represents a backlash against conservationist ideas in which an 'evil, threatening nature is eventually mastered through male heroism, technology and the blood sacrifice of the wild animal.'" Greg Garrard observes in "Jaws: The Revenge" that "the marine biologist Mike Brody's environmentalist concerns are effectively ridiculed as his colleague is eaten by the enraged fish; he joins the hunt for it and the shark in turn hunts him down."


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: John Williams composed and conducted the score for the first two films. The main "shark" theme, a simple alternating pattern of two notes, E and F, became a classic piece of suspense music, synonymous with approaching danger. Williams described the theme as having the "effect of grinding away at you, just as a shark would do, instinctual, relentless, unstoppable." When the piece was first played for Spielberg, he was said to have laughed at Williams, thinking that it was a joke. Spielberg later said that without Williams' score the film would have been only half as successful, and Williams acknowledges that the score jumpstarted his career. Williams won an Academy Award for Original Music Score for his work on the first film.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: The shark theme is used in all three sequels, a continuity that Williams compares to "the great tradition" for repeating musical themes in Hollywood serials such as Roy Rogers and The Lone Ranger. Alan Parker composed and conducted the score for "Jaws 3-D", while the final film was scored by Michael Small. The latter was particularly praised for his work, which many critics considered superior to the film.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: Many films based on man-eating animals & monsters (usually aquatic) were released throughout the 1970s and the 1980s such as:


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: "Grizzly", "", "", "Day of the Animals", "Claws", "Orca" (also known as "Orca: The Killer Whale"), "Eaten Alive", "The Pack", "Snowbeast", "", "Barracuda", "Nightwing", "Up from the Depths", "Humanoids from the Deep" (also known as "Monster"), "Alligator", "Blood Beach", "Creature", the Italian-American "Tentacles", the Mexican "Tintorera" (also known as "Tintorera: Killer Shark"), the French-Italian "Killer Fish", the Italian "Monster Shark" (also known as "Devil Fish"), "Snakes on a Plane", and the Japanese "Jaws in Japan" (also known as "Psycho Shark"). The better of these are often considered to be "Piranha", as a rip-off, Deep Blood and "Great White" (also known as "The Last Shark"), as an unofficial sequel. In 1995, there was also another sequel/rip-off film "Cruel Jaws" a.k.a. "The Beast", which was marketed in some countries as "Jaws 5: Cruel Jaws" became infamous for illegally incorporated stock footage from the first three official "Jaws" films into its runtime.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: In 2021, a brand new spin-off was released by Unknown World Pictures Tv and directed by portuguese director Rui Constantino by the name of " Tubarão O Regresso aka Jaws Returns" its a tribute movie to the Jaws Franchise and his receiving positive feedback from the fans.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: "The Shark Is Still Working", is a feature-length documentary film on the impact and legacy of the 1975 Steven Spielberg blockbuster film "Jaws". It features interviews with a range of cast and crew from the film. It was narrated by the late Roy Scheider and dedicated to the late Peter Benchley.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: The documentary was produced by "Jaws" fans over a seven-year period, building on Laurent Bouzereau's 1995 documentary, "The Making of Jaws", that has been included on some laserdisc and DVD releases. Throughout other documentaries over the years, such as Bouzereau's and the BBC's 1997 documentary "In the Teeth of Jaws", actor Richard Dreyfuss has recounted tales about the troubled production of "Jaws" and the quote “The shark is NOT working” which Dreyfuss would hear constantly from members of the crew. Eventually, upon successful attempts to fix the malfunctioning sea monster, Dreyfuss would regularly hear the quote “The shark is working."


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: "The Shark Is Still Working" won Best Documentary Feature at the 2010 DocMiami Film Festival. The documentary was released on home video as a special feature on the 2012 Blu-ray edition of "Jaws".


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: Some of the interviews were filmed in 4:3 Academy ratio, typical of TV documentaries of the time. As the production went on, became the TV shape standard and so the documentary crops the top and bottom of the image to reshape it to 16:9. There is no anamorphic enhancement of the documentary on the "Jaws" Blu-ray.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: Universal "devised and co-ordinated a highly innovative plan" for the first film's distribution and exhibition. The studio and publisher Bantam designed a logo which would appear on both the paperback and on all film advertising. "Both publisher and distributor recognized the mutual benefits that a joint promotion strategy would bring." Producers Zanuck and Brown toured six cities to promote the paperback and the film. Once the film was released, more merchandising was created, including shark-illustrated swimming towels and T-shirts, plastic shark fins for swimmers to wear, and shark-shaped inflatables for them to float on. The Ideal Toy Company produced a game where the player had to use a hook to fish out items from the shark's mouth before the jaws closed. Carl Gottlieb’s 1975 book, "The Jaws Log", account of the film's production was also released.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: "Jaws 2" inspired much more merchandising and sponsors than the first film. Products included sets of trading cards from Topps and Baker's bread, paper cups from Coca-Cola, beach towels, a souvenir program, shark tooth necklaces, coloring and activity books, and a model kit of Brody's truck. A novelization by Hank Searls, based on an earlier draft of the screenplay by Howard Sackler and Dorothy Tristan, was released, as well as Ray Loynd's "The Jaws 2 Log", an account of the film's production. Searls also wrote the novelization of "Jaws: The Revenge" based on an earlier draft of the screenplay by Michael De Guzman.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: There have been a number of video game releases based upon the franchise. The first, titled "Jaws", was released for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) in 1987. There was a separate computer adaptation of the original "Jaws" movie called "Jaws: The Computer Game", released in 1989 by Screen 7 for the Commodore Amiga and other computers; another unrelated "Jaws" for the Commodore 64 and other computers was released by Box Office Software the same year. A Jaws level was featured in the 2001 game "Universal Studios Theme Parks Adventure" by Kemco for the Nintendo Gamecube. "Jaws Unleashed", developed by Appaloosa Interactive, was released in 2006 for the PlayStation 2, Xbox and PC platforms. An officially licensed iPhone game based on the original film was released by Bytemark Games and Universal Partnerships & Licensing in 2010, while in 2011 Universal licensed a follow-up game (in the form of an App) called "Jaws Revenge". This game was made by Fuse Powered Inc. A game titled "Jaws: Ultimate Predator" was released on the Wii and Nintendo 3DS in 2011. A virtual pinball game from Zen Studios for Pinball FX 3 was released as well. A mobile game titled "Jaws.io" was released on February 14, 2019 for iPhone and Android devices and was published by Universal Studios Interactive Entertainment LLC.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: A themed attraction based on the series was opened at Universal Studios Florida in 1990, with a sister attraction opening with Universal Studios Japan in 2001. A similar themed experience featuring the shark from the film was made a permanent part of Universal Studios Hollywood's Studio Tour in 1976. The Florida attraction closed permanently in 2012 while the Japan attraction is still operational.


title: Jaws (franchise)

text: "Jaws 19" is a joke movie that is shown being advertised in the 1989 film "Back to the Future Part II". Set in 2015, a movie theatre in Hill Valley features a huge holographic poster of "Jaws 19", by "Max Spielberg" (the name of Steven Spielberg's real-life son) that "swallows" Marty McFly. In 2015, Universal made a poster and trailer for the fictional movie that came with the "Back to the Future" 30th Anniversary Box-Set.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: Causantín mac Áeda (Modern Gaelic: , anglicised Constantine II; born no later than 879; died 952) was an early King of Scotland, known then by the Gaelic name "Alba". The Kingdom of Alba, a name which first appears in Constantine's lifetime, was situated in modern-day Scotland.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: The core of the kingdom was formed by the lands around the River Tay. Its southern limit was the River Forth, northwards it extended towards the Moray Firth and perhaps to Caithness, while its western limits are uncertain. Constantine's grandfather Kenneth I of Scotland (Cináed mac Ailpín, died 858) was the first of the family recorded as a king, but as king of the Picts. This change of title, from king of the Picts to king of Alba, is part of a broader transformation of Pictland and the origins of the Kingdom of Alba are traced to Constantine's lifetime.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: His reign, like those of his predecessors, was dominated by the actions of Viking rulers in the British Isles, particularly the Uí Ímair ("the grandsons of Ímar", or Ivar the Boneless). During Constantine's reign the rulers of the southern kingdoms of Wessex and Mercia, later the Kingdom of England, extended their authority northwards into the disputed kingdoms of Northumbria. At first, the southern rulers allied with him against the Vikings, but in 934 Æthelstan, unprovoked, invaded Scotland both by sea and land with a huge retinue that included four Welsh Kings. He ravaged southern Alba but there is no record of any battles. He had withdrawn by September. Three years later in 937, probably in retaliation for the invasion of Alba, King Constantine allied with Olaf Guthfrithson, King of Dublin, and Owain ap Dyfnwal, King of Strathclyde, but they were defeated at the battle of Brunanburh. In 943 Constantine abdicated the throne and retired to the Céli Dé (Culdee) monastery of St Andrews where he died in 952. He was succeeded by his predecessor's son Malcolm I (Máel Coluim mac Domnaill).


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: Constantine's reign of 43 years, exceeded in Scotland only by that of King William the Lion before the Union of the Crowns in 1603, is believed to have played a defining part in the gaelicisation of Pictland, in which his patronage of the Irish Céli Dé monastic reformers was a significant factor. During his reign, the words "Scots" and "Scotland" () are first used to mean part of what is now Scotland. The earliest evidence for the ecclesiastical and administrative institutions which would last until the Davidian Revolution also appears at this time.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: Compared to neighbouring Ireland and Anglo-Saxon England, few records of 9th- and 10th-century events in Scotland survive. The main local source from the period is the "Chronicle of the Kings of Alba", a list of kings from Kenneth MacAlpin (died 858) to Kenneth II (Cináed mac Maíl Coluim, died 995). The list survives in the Poppleton Manuscript, a 13th-century compilation. Originally simply a list of kings with reign lengths, the other details contained in the Poppleton Manuscript version were added in the 10th and 12th centuries. In addition to this, later king lists survive. The earliest genealogical records of the descendants of Kenneth MacAlpin may date from the end of the 10th century, but their value lies more in their context, and the information they provide about the interests of those for whom they were compiled, than in the unreliable claims they contain.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: For narrative history the principal sources are the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" and the Irish annals. The evidence from charters created in the Kingdom of England provides occasional insight into events in Scotland. While Scandinavian sagas describe events in 10th-century Britain, their value as sources of historical narrative, rather than documents of social history, is disputed. Mainland European sources rarely concern themselves with affairs in any part of the British Isles, and even less commonly with events in Scotland, but the life of Saint Cathróe of Metz, a work of hagiography written in Germany at the end of the 10th century, provides plausible details of the saint's early life in north Britain.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: While the sources for north-eastern Britain, the lands of the kingdom of Northumbria and the former Pictland, are limited and late, those for the areas on the Irish Sea and Atlantic coasts—the modern regions of north-west England and all of northern and western Scotland—are non-existent, and archaeology and toponymy are of primary importance.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: The dominant kingdom in eastern Scotland before the Viking Age was the northern Pictish kingdom of Fortriu on the shores of the Moray Firth. By the 9th century, the Gaels of Dál Riata (Dalriada) were subject to the kings of Fortriu of the family of Constantín mac Fergusa (Constantine son of Fergus). Constantín's family dominated Fortriu after 789 and perhaps, if Constantín was a kinsman of Óengus I of the Picts (Óengus son of Fergus), from around 730. The dominance of Fortriu came to an end in 839 with a defeat by Viking armies reported by the "Annals of Ulster" in which King Uen of Fortriu and his brother Bran, Constantín's nephews, together with the king of Dál Riata, Áed mac Boanta, "and others almost innumerable" were killed. These deaths led to a period of instability lasting a decade as several families attempted to establish their dominance in Pictland. By around 848 Kenneth MacAlpin had emerged as the winner.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: Later national myth made Kenneth MacAlpin the creator of the kingdom of Scotland, the founding of which was dated from 843, the year in which he was said to have destroyed the Picts and inaugurated a new era. The historical record for 9th-century Scotland is meagre, but the Irish annals and the 10th-century "Chronicle of the Kings of Alba" agree that Kenneth was a Pictish king, and call him "king of the Picts" at his death. The same style is used of Kenneth's brother Donald I (Domnall mac Ailpín) and sons Constantine I (Constantín mac Cináeda) and Áed (Áed mac Cináeda).


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: The kingdom ruled by Kenneth's descendants—older works used the name House of Alpin to describe them but descent from Kenneth was the defining factor, Irish sources referring to "Clann Cináeda meic Ailpín" ("the Clan of Kenneth MacAlpin")—lay to the south of the previously dominant kingdom of Fortriu, centred in the lands around the River Tay. The extent of Kenneth's nameless kingdom is uncertain, but it certainly extended from the Firth of Forth in the south to the Mounth in the north. Whether it extended beyond the mountainous spine of north Britain—Druim Alban—is unclear. The core of the kingdom was similar to the old counties of Mearns, Forfar, Perth, Fife, and Kinross. Among the chief ecclesiastical centres named in the records are Dunkeld, probably seat of the bishop of the kingdom, and "Cell Rígmonaid" (modern St Andrews).


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: Kenneth's son Constantine died in 876, probably killed fighting against a Viking army that had come north from Northumbria in 874. According to the king lists, he was counted as the 70th and last king of the Picts in later times.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: In 899 Alfred the Great, king of Wessex, died leaving his son Edward the Elder as ruler of England south of the River Thames and his daughter Æthelflæd and son-in-law Æthelred ruling the western, English part of Mercia. The situation in the Danish kingdoms of eastern England is less clear. King Eohric was probably ruling in East Anglia, but no dates can reliably be assigned to the successors of Guthfrith of York in Northumbria. It is known that Guthfrith was succeeded by Sigurd and Cnut, although whether these men ruled jointly or one after the other is uncertain. Northumbria may have been divided by this time between the Viking kings in York and the local rulers, perhaps represented by Eadulf, based at Bamburgh who controlled the lands from the River Tyne or River Tees to the Forth in the north.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: In Ireland, Flann Sinna, married to Constantine's aunt Máel Muire, was dominant. The years around 900 represented a period of weakness among the Vikings and Norse-Gaels of Dublin. They are reported to have been divided between two rival leaders. In 894 one group left Dublin, perhaps settling on the Irish Sea coast of Britain between the River Mersey and the Firth of Clyde. The remaining Dubliners were expelled in 902 by Flann Sinna's son-in-law Cerball mac Muirecáin, and soon afterwards appeared in western and northern Britain.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: To the southwest of Constantine's lands lay the kingdom of Strathclyde. This extended north into the Lennox, east to the River Forth, and south into the Southern Uplands. In 900 it was probably ruled by King Dyfnwal.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: The situation of the Gaelic kingdoms of Dál Riata in western Scotland is uncertain. No kings are known by name after Áed mac Boanta. The Frankish "Annales Bertiniani" may record the conquest of the Inner Hebrides, the seaward part of Dál Riata, by Northmen in 849. In addition to these, the arrival of new groups of Vikings from northern and western Europe was still commonplace. Whether there were Viking or Norse-Gael kingdoms in the Western Isles or the Northern Isles at this time is debated.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: Áed, Constantine's father, succeeded Constantine's uncle and namesake Constantine I in 876 but was killed in 878. Áed's short reign is glossed as being of no importance by most king lists. Although the date of his birth is nowhere recorded, Constantine II cannot have been born any later than the year after his father's death, "i.e.", 879. His name may suggest that he was born a few years earlier, during the reign of his uncle Constantine I.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: After Áed's death, there is a two-decade gap until the death of Donald II (Domnall mac Constantín) in 900 during which nothing is reported in the Irish annals. The entry for the reign between Áed and Donald II is corrupt in the "Chronicle of the Kings of Alba", and in this case, the "Chronicle" is at variance with every other king list. According to the "Chronicle", Áed was followed by Eochaid, a grandson of Kenneth MacAlpin, who is somehow connected with Giric, but all other lists say that Giric ruled after Áed and make great claims for him. Giric is not known to have been a kinsman of Kenneth's, although it has been suggested that he was related to him by marriage. The major changes in Pictland which began at about this time have been associated by Alex Woolf and Archie Duncan with Giric's reign.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: Woolf suggests that Constantine and his younger brother Donald may have passed Giric's reign in exile in Ireland where their aunt Máel Muire was wife of two successive High Kings of Ireland, Áed Findliath and Flann Sinna. Giric died in 889. If he had been in exile, Constantine may have returned to Pictland where his cousin Donald II became king. Donald's reputation is suggested by the epithet "dasachtach", a word used of violent madmen and mad bulls, attached to him in the 11th-century writings of Flann Mainistrech, echoed by his description in the "Prophecy of Berchan" as "the rough one who will think relics and psalms of little worth". Wars with the Viking kings in Britain and Ireland continued during Donald's reign and he was probably killed fighting yet more Vikings at Dunnottar in the Mearns in 900. Constantine succeeded him as king.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: The earliest event recorded in the "Chronicle of the Kings of Alba" in Constantine's reign is an attack by Vikings and the plundering of Dunkeld "and all Albania" in his third year. This is the first use of the word Albania, the Latin form of the Old Irish "Alba", in the "Chronicle" which until then describes the lands ruled by the descendants of Cináed as Pictavia.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: These Norsemen could have been some of those who were driven out of Dublin in 902, or were the same group who had defeated Domnall in 900. The "Chronicle" states that the Northmen were killed in "Srath Erenn", which is confirmed by the "Annals of Ulster" which records the death of Ímar grandson of Ímar and many others at the hands of the men of Fortriu in 904. This Ímar was the first of the Uí Ímair, the grandsons of Ímar, to be reported; three more grandsons of Ímar appear later in Constantín's reign. The "Fragmentary Annals of Ireland" contain an account of the battle, and this attributes the defeat of the Norsemen to the intercession of Saint Columba following fasting and prayer. An entry in the "Chronicon Scotorum" under the year 904 may possibly contain a corrupted reference to this battle.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: The next event reported by the "Chronicle of the Kings of Alba" is dated to 906. This records that:King Constantine and Bishop Cellach met at the "Hill of Belief" near the royal city of Scone and pledged themselves that the laws and disciplines of the faith, and the laws of churches and gospels, should be kept "pariter cum Scottis". The meaning of this entry, and its significance, have been the subject of debate.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: The phrase "pariter cum Scottis" in the Latin text of the "Chronicle" has been translated in several ways. William Forbes Skene and Alan Orr Anderson proposed that it should be read as "in conformity with the customs of the Gaels", relating it to the claims in the king lists that Giric liberated the church from secular oppression and adopted Irish customs. It has been read as "together with the Gaels", suggesting either public participation or the presence of Gaels from the western coasts as well as the people of the east coast. Finally, it is suggested that it was the ceremony that followed "the custom of the Gaels" and not the agreements.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: The idea that this gathering agreed to uphold Irish laws governing the church has suggested that it was an important step in the gaelicisation of the lands east of Druim Alban. Others have proposed that the ceremony in some way endorsed Constantine's kingship, prefiguring later royal inaugurations at Scone. Alternatively, if Bishop Cellach was appointed by Giric, it may be that the gathering was intended to heal a rift between king and church.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: Following the events at Scone, there is little of substance reported for a decade. A story in the "Fragmentary Annals of Ireland", perhaps referring to events sometime after 911, claims that Queen Æthelflæd, who ruled in Mercia, allied with the Irish and northern rulers against the Norsemen on the Irish sea coasts of Northumbria. The "Annals of Ulster" record the defeat of an Irish fleet from the kingdom of Ulaid by Vikings "on the coast of England" at about this time.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: In this period the "Chronicle of the Kings of Alba" reports the death of Cormac mac Cuilennáin, king of Munster, in the eighth year of Constantine's reign. This is followed by an undated entry which was formerly read as "In his time Domnall [i.e. Dyfnwal], king of the [Strathclyde] Britons died, and Domnall son of Áed was elected". This was thought to record the election of a brother of Constantine named Domnall to the kingship of the Britons of Strathclyde and was seen as early evidence of the domination of Strathclyde by the kings of Alba. The entry in question is now read as "...Dyfnwal... and Domnall son Áed king of Ailech died", this Domnall being a son of Áed Findliath who died on 915. Finally, the deaths of Flann Sinna and Niall Glúndub are recorded.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: There are more reports of Viking fleets in the Irish Sea from 914 onwards. By 916 fleets under Sihtric Cáech and Ragnall, said to be grandsons of Ímar (that is, they belonged to the same Uí Ímair kindred as the Ímar who was killed in 904), were very active in Ireland. Sihtric inflicted a heavy defeat on the armies of Leinster and retook Dublin in 917. The following year Ragnall appears to have returned across the Irish sea intent on establishing himself as king at York. The only precisely dated event in the summer of 918 is the death of Queen Æthelflæd on 918 at Tamworth, Staffordshire. Æthelflæd had been negotiating with the Northumbrians to obtain their submission, but her death put an end to this and her successor, her brother Edward the Elder, was occupied with securing control of Mercia.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: The northern part of Northumbria, and perhaps the whole kingdom, had probably been ruled by Ealdred son of Eadulf since 913. Faced with Ragnall's invasion, Ealdred came north seeking assistance from Constantine. The two advanced south to face Ragnall, and this led to a battle somewhere on the banks of the River Tyne, probably at Corbridge where Dere Street crosses the river. The Battle of Corbridge appears to have been indecisive; the "Chronicle of the Kings of Alba" is alone in giving Constantine the victory.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: The report of the battle in the "Annals of Ulster" says that none of the kings or mormaers among the men of Alba were killed. This is the first surviving use of the word mormaer; other than the knowledge that Constantine's kingdom had its own bishop or bishops and royal villas, this is the only hint to the institutions of the kingdom.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: After Corbridge, Ragnall enjoyed only a short respite. In the south, Alfred's son Edward had rapidly secured control of Mercia and had a burh constructed at Bakewell in the Peak District from which his armies could easily strike north. An army from Dublin led by Ragnall's kinsman Sihtric struck at north-western Mercia in 919, but in 920 or 921 Edward met with Ragnall and other kings. The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" states that these kings "chose Edward as father and lord". Among the other kings present were Constantine, Ealdred son of Eadwulf, and the king of Strathclyde, Owain ap Dyfnwal. Here, again, a new term appears in the record, the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" for the first time using the word "scottas", from which Scots derives, to describe the inhabitants of Constantine's kingdom in its report of these events.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: Edward died in 924. His realms appear to have been divided with the West Saxons recognising Ælfweard while the Mercians chose Æthelstan who had been raised at Æthelflæd's court. Ælfweard died within weeks of his father and Æthelstan was inaugurated as king of all of Edward's lands in 925.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: By 926 Sihtric had evidently acknowledged Æthelstan as overlord, adopting Christianity and marrying a sister of Æthelstan at Tamworth. Within the year he appears to have forsaken his new faith and repudiated his wife, but before Æthelstan could respond, Sihtric died suddenly in 927. His kinsman, perhaps brother, Gofraid, who had remained as his deputy in Dublin, came from Ireland to take power in York, but failed. Æthelstan moved quickly, seizing much of Northumbria. In less than a decade, the kingdom of the English had become by far the greatest power in Britain and Ireland, perhaps stretching as far north as the Firth of Forth.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: John of Worcester's chronicle suggests that Æthelstan faced opposition from Constantine, Owain, and the Welsh kings. William of Malmesbury writes that Gofraid, together with Sihtric's young son Olaf Cuaran fled north and received refuge from Constantine, which led to war with Æthelstan. A meeting at Eamont Bridge on 927 was sealed by an agreement that Constantine, Owain, Hywel Dda, and Ealdred would "renounce all idolatry": that is, they would not ally with the Viking kings. William states that Æthelstan stood godfather to a son of Constantine, probably Indulf (Ildulb mac Constantín), during the conference.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: Æthelstan followed up his advances in the north by securing the recognition of the Welsh kings. For the next seven years, the record of events in the north is blank. Æthelstan's court was attended by the Welsh kings, but not by Constantine or Owain. This absence of record means that Æthelstan's reasons for marching north against Constantine in 934 are unclear.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: Æthelstan's invasion is reported in brief by the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", and later chroniclers such as John of Worcester, William of Malmesbury, Henry of Huntingdon, and Symeon of Durham add detail to that bald account. Æthelstan's army began gathering at Winchester by 934, and travelled north to Nottingham by . He was accompanied by many leaders, including the Welsh kings Hywel Dda, Idwal Foel, and Morgan ab Owain. From Mercia the army continued to Chester-le-Street, before resuming the march accompanied by a fleet of ships. Owain was defeated and Symeon states that the army went as far north as Dunnottar and Fortriu, while the fleet is said to have raided Caithness, by which a much larger area, including Sutherland, is probably intended. It is unlikely that Constantine's personal authority extended so far north, so the attacks were probably directed at his allies, comprising simple looting expeditions.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: The "Annals of Clonmacnoise" state that "the Scottish men compelled [Æthelstan] to return without any great victory", while Henry of Huntingdon claims that the English faced no opposition. A negotiated settlement might have ended matters: according to John of Worcester, a son of Constantine was given as a hostage to Æthelstan and Constantine himself accompanied the English king on his return south. He witnessed a charter with Æthelstan at Buckingham on 934 in which he is described as "subregulus", "i.e.", a king acknowledging Æthelstan's overlordship, the only place there is any record of such a description. However, there is no record of Constantine having ever submitted to Æthelstan's overlordship or that he considered himself such. The following year, Constantine was again in England at Æthelstan's court, this time at Cirencester where he appears as a witness, as the first of several kings, followed by Owain and Hywel Dda, who subscribed to the diploma. At Christmas of 935, Owain was once more at Æthelstan's court along with the Welsh kings, but Constantine was not. His return to England less than two years later would be in very different circumstances.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: Following his departure from Æthelstan's court after 935, there is no further report of Constantine until 937. In that year, together with Owain and Olaf Guthfrithson of Dublin, Constantine invaded England. The resulting battle of Brunanburh—"Dún Brunde"—is reported in the "Annals of Ulster" as follows:a great battle, lamentable and terrible was cruelly fought... in which fell uncounted thousands of the Northmen.  ...And on the other side, a multitude of Saxons fell; but Æthelstan, the king of the Saxons, obtained a great victory. The battle was remembered in England a generation later as "the Great Battle". When reporting the battle, the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" abandons its usual terse style in favour of a heroic poem vaunting the great victory. In this, the "hoary" Constantine, by now around 60 years of age, is said to have lost a son in the battle, a claim which the "Chronicle of the Kings of Alba" confirms. The "Annals of Clonmacnoise" give his name as Cellach. For all its fame, the site of the battle is uncertain and several sites have been advanced, with Bromborough on the Wirral the most favoured location.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: Brunanburh, for all that it had been a famous and bloody battle, settled nothing. On 939 Æthelstan, the "pillar of the dignity of the western world" in the words of the "Annals of Ulster", died at Malmesbury. He was succeeded by his brother Edmund, then aged 18. Æthelstan's realm, seemingly made safe by the victory of Brunanburh, collapsed in little more than a year from his death when Amlaíb returned from Ireland and seized Northumbria and the Mercian Danelaw. Edmund spent the remainder of Constantín's reign rebuilding his kingdom.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: For Constantine's last years as king, there is only the meagre record of the "Chronicle of the Kings of Alba". The death of Æthelstan is reported, as are two others. The first of these, in 938, is that of Dubacan, mormaer of Angus or son of the mormaer. Unlike the report of 918, on this occasion, the title mormaer is attached to a geographical area, but it is unknown whether the Angus of 938 was in any way similar to the later mormaerdom or earldom. The second death, entered with that of Æthelstan, is that of Eochaid mac Ailpín, who might, from his name, have been a kinsman of Constantín.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: By the early 940s Constantine was an old man in his late sixties or seventies. The kingdom of Alba was too new to be said to have a customary rule of succession, but Pictish and Irish precedents favoured an adult successor descended from Kenneth MacAlpin. Constantine's surviving son Indulf, probably baptised in 927, would have been too young to be a serious candidate for the kingship in the early 940s, and the obvious heir was Constantine's nephew, Malcolm I. As Malcolm was born no later than 901, by the 940s he was no longer a young man, and may have been impatient. Willingly or not—the 11th-century "Prophecy of Berchán", a verse history in the form of a supposed prophecy, states that it was not a voluntary decision—Constantine abdicated in 943 and entered a monastery, leaving the kingdom to Malcolm.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: Although his retirement might have been involuntary, the "Life" of Cathróe of Metz and the "Prophecy of Berchán" portray Constantine as a devout king. The monastery to which Constantine retired, and where he is said to have been abbot, was probably that of St Andrews. This had been refounded in his reign and given to the reforming Céli Dé (Culdee) movement. The Céli Dé were subsequently to be entrusted with many monasteries throughout the kingdom of Alba until replaced in the 12th century by new orders imported from France.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: Seven years later the "Chronicle of the Kings of Alba" says:[Malcolm I] plundered the English as far as the river Tees, and he seized a multitude of people and many herds of cattle: and the Scots called this the raid of Albidosorum, that is, Nainndisi. But others say that Constantine made this raid, asking of the king, Malcolm, that the kingship should be given to him for a week's time so that he could visit the English. In fact, it was Malcolm who made the raid, but Constantine incited him, as I have said. Woolf suggests that the association of Constantine with the raid is a late addition, one derived from a now-lost saga or poem.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: Constantine's death in 952 is recorded by the Irish annals, who enter it among ecclesiastics. His son Indulf would become king on Malcolm's death. The last of Constantine's certain descendants to be king in Alba was a great-grandson, Constantine III (Constantín mac Cuiléin). Another son had died at Brunanburh, and, according to John of Worcester, Amlaíb mac Gofraid was married to a daughter of Constantine. It is possible that Constantine had other children, but like the name of his wife, or wives, this has not been recorded.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: The form of kingdom which appeared in Constantine's reign continued in much the same way until the Davidian Revolution in the 12th century. As with his ecclesiastical reforms, his political legacy was the creation of a new form of Scottish kingship that lasted for two centuries after his death.


title: Constantine II of Scotland

text: The name of Constantine's wife is not known, however, they are known to have had at least 3 children:


title: 2022 AFC U-23 Asian Cup

text: The 2022 AFC U-23 Asian Cup was the 5th edition of the AFC U-23 Asian Cup (prior to 2021 known as the AFC U-23 Championship), a biennial international age-restricted football championship organised by the Asian Football Confederation (AFC) for the men's under-23 national teams of Asia. The players had to be born on or after 1 January 1999.


title: 2022 AFC U-23 Asian Cup

text: The tournament was originally going to be held in Uzbekistan from 6–24 January 2022, but was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and rescheduled to 1–19 June 2022. A total of 16 teams competed in the tournament.


title: 2022 AFC U-23 Asian Cup

text: South Korea were the defending champions, but were eliminated by Japan in the quarter-finals, failing to finish among the top 4 for the first time. Saudi Arabia became the fifth different country to win the tournament, beating hosts Uzbekistan in the final.


title: 2022 AFC U-23 Asian Cup

text: Originally, it was determined that China would host the tournament, as a preparatory competition ahead of the 2023 AFC Asian Cup. However, they withdrew from hosting the tournament in October 2020 due to scheduling conflicts, stadium completion timelines ahead of other international events and challenges created by the COVID-19 pandemic. On 18 March 2021, the AFC announced that Uzbekistan will host the tournament.


title: 2022 AFC U-23 Asian Cup

text: The following referees and assistant referees were appointed for the tournament. Video assistant referees will be used in this tournament.


title: 2022 AFC U-23 Asian Cup

text: The 16 teams were drawn into four groups of four teams, with seeding based on their performance at the 2020 AFC U-23 Championship. The draw took place at the Milliy Stadium at 12:00 PM, February 17.


title: 2022 AFC U-23 Asian Cup

text: Players born on or after 1 January 1999 are eligible to compete in the tournament. Each team have to register a squad of minimum 18 players and maximum 23 players, a minimum three of whom must be selected as goalkeepers (Regulations Article 26.3).


title: 2022 AFC U-23 Asian Cup

text: Teams are ranked according to points (3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw, 0 points for a loss), and if tied on points, the following tiebreaking criteria are applied, in the order given, to determine the rankings (Regulations Article 9.3):


title: 2022 AFC U-23 Asian Cup

text: In the knockout stage, extra time and penalty shoot-out were used to decide the winner if necessary (Regulations Articles 10.1 and 10.3).


title: WrestleMania X

text: WrestleMania X was the 10th annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 20, 1994, at Madison Square Garden in New York, New York. The central focus of the pay-per-view was the WWF Championship, which was defended in two matches. Due to both Lex Luger and Bret Hart being named the co-winners of the 1994 Royal Rumble match, both challenged champion Yokozuna. Luger was first but was disqualified for pushing the referee. Hart then faced Yokozuna later in the evening and won the championship by pinning Yokozuna. This led to a lengthy worked feud between Bret and his brother Owen, who had defeated Bret in the opening match of the pay-per-view.


title: WrestleMania X

text: Several other major feuds were also highlighted at this event. Razor Ramon defeated Shawn Michaels in a Ladder match to resolve an angle in which the two had argued over the rightful holder of the WWF Intercontinental Championship. Bam Bam Bigelow gained revenge against Doink the Clown, with whom he had been feuding, by teaming with Luna Vachon to defeat Doink and his partner Dink. Randy Savage also settled his feud with Crush by defeating him in a Falls Count Anywhere match.


title: WrestleMania X

text: WrestleMania X was the first edition of the event not to include Hulk Hogan, who had been seen as the public face of the WWF; following Hogan's 1993 departure, that role had shifted to Bret Hart. The card also marked Randy Savage's last televised match for the company.


title: WrestleMania X

text: WrestleMania is considered the World Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, which were dubbed the "Big Four", and one of the "Big Five", along with King of the Ring that was established in 1993. WrestleMania X was scheduled to be held on March 20, 1994, at Madison Square Garden in New York, New York, the same venue of the first WrestleMania.


title: WrestleMania X

text: The storyline surrounding the WWF Championship began at the 1994 Royal Rumble when the final two wrestlers, Lex Luger and Bret Hart, simultaneously eliminated each other. After a disagreement between two referees, Jack Tunney, the WWF President, declared Luger and Hart co-winners. Tunney announced that both wrestlers would get a WWF Championship match at WrestleMania, the prize given to the winner of the Royal Rumble match, and both wrestlers would have to wrestle two matches for the pay-per-view.


title: WrestleMania X

text: Tunney announced that a coin toss would be used to decide who faced Yokozuna for the belt first. If Luger won, he would face Yokozuna first. Hart would then wrestle his brother Owen Hart before facing the winner of the Luger-Yokozuna match. If Hart won the coin toss, he would get the first title shot, and Luger would wrestle Crush earlier on the card. On the January 31, 1994 episode of "Monday Night Raw", Luger won the coin toss and the right to face Yokozuna first.


title: WrestleMania X

text: Bret Hart was booked to face his brother Owen, with whom he was in the middle of a feud. The storyline between the Hart brothers began at Survivor Series 1993, where they were competing on the same side of an elimination match. As Owen was fighting in the ring, Bret, who had sustained a kayfabe injury, was staggering along the ring apron. Owen ran into Bret, causing Owen to lose his focus and get eliminated from the match. After the match, Owen returned to the ring and had a confrontation with Bret. In the following weeks, Owen demanded a match with Bret, but Bret refused to accept the challenge. Eventually, the storyline had the brothers reunite to face The Quebecers at Royal Rumble 1994. During the match, Bret sustained another kayfabe injury, causing the referee to end the match. In a planned turn, Owen got upset by the loss and attacked Bret to restart the feud.


title: WrestleMania X

text: Luger's feud with Yokozuna began on July 4, 1993, at the Yokozuna Bodyslam Challenge. In June, Mr. Fuji, Yokozuna's manager, challenged all American athletes to attempt to bodyslam Yokozuna on the deck of the . After several athletes failed, the storyline saw Luger arrive by helicopter and successfully bodyslam Yokozuna. This began a strong push for Luger, who was then scheduled to challenge Yokozuna for the WWF Championship at SummerSlam 1993. Luger won the match by countout but did not win the title. The WWF claimed that the match stipulations did not allow Luger a rematch. The storyline saw Luger campaigning for entry into the 1994 Royal Rumble, as he wanted the title shot that would be given to the winner. Luger was eventually entered into the match, although The Great Kabuki and Genichiro Tenryu were also entered, on Mr. Fuji's behalf, to attempt to prevent Luger from winning. Kabuki and Tenryu were unsuccessful, however, as Luger won the match and gained a match for the WWF Championship.


title: WrestleMania X

text: The storyline leading to the match between "Macho Man" Randy Savage and Crush focused on the supposedly strained friendship between the two wrestlers. On the July 12, 1993, episode of "Monday Night Raw", Crush challenged Yokozuna for the WWF Championship. At the end of the match, Yokozuna performed the Banzai Drop to win the match. After the match, he performed three more Banzai Drops while various wrestlers ran to the ring to stop the attack. Savage eventually came to the ring to help Crush. Following the match, Crush was not seen on televised matches for several months, although he continued to appear at house shows. On October 18, Crush appeared on "Monday Night Raw" accompanied by Yokozuna and Yokozuna's manager, Mr. Fuji. Crush criticized Savage for not intervening sooner during the July 12 match. In a worked promo, Crush announced that he had turned against Savage and the United States in order to align himself with Yokozuna and Fuji. He then attacked Savage by dropping him on the ringside guard rail. Yokozuna performed the Banzai Drop on Savage before a group of referees came to the ring to break up the fight. During the November 8, 1993 episode of "Monday Night Raw", Savage left his position as commentator to attack Crush. The following week, Jack Tunney announced that Savage was suspended from commentating as a result of the previous week's attack. The feud intensified at Survivor Series 1993 when Savage and Crush caused each other to be eliminated from their respective matches.


title: WrestleMania X

text: Bam Bam Bigelow and Doink the Clown was engaged in a feud that began in the fall of 1993. Doink annoyed Bigelow with a series of pranks, such as throwing water and confetti on him and tripping him with a broom. Bigelow retaliated against Doink and Doink's midget sidekick Dink. A match was booked for Survivor Series 1993, but Bigelow was unable to get revenge because Doink did not compete. Instead, the WWF prolonged the feud by having Bigelow's team face The Bushwhackers and Men on a Mission dressed as Doinks. The feud eventually culminated in a match scheduled for WrestleMania X. In the match, Bigelow and his storyline girlfriend Luna Vachon competed against Doink and Dink in a Mixed tag team match.


title: WrestleMania X

text: The feud between Razor Ramon and Shawn Michaels also dated back to the fall of 1993. Jack Tunney announced that he was stripping Michaels of the WWF Intercontinental Championship for not defending the title often enough. There have been reports that the real reason for vacating the title was because Michaels refused to drop the belt. Ramon won the title after competing in a battle royal and defeating Rick Martel, the other finalist in the match. In the angle, Michaels refused to acknowledge the title change, however, as he insisted that he was the true Intercontinental Champion. To gain revenge against Ramon for taking the belt, Michaels attacked Ramon and helped Irwin R. Schyster to steal Ramon's gold chains.


title: WrestleMania X

text: In a dark match before the pay-per-view aired, The Heavenly Bodies faced The Bushwhackers. Near the end of the match, The Bushwhackers gained control when they performed the Battering Ram on Jimmy Del Ray. Tom Prichard, Del Ray's partner, attacked Bushwhacker Butch before he was able to pin Del Ray. This allowed Del Ray to recover and pin Butch to win the match. As the broadcast began, Vince McMahon and Jerry Lawler were introduced as commentators for the event and Little Richard sang "America the Beautiful".


title: WrestleMania X

text: The first televised match was between Bret and Owen Hart. The beginning of the match went back and forth with neither wrestler gaining a strong advantage. The tension between the two was demonstrated by Owen's bragging and Bret's refusal to let Owen leave the ring. Owen eventually gained momentum by using a camel clutch on Bret and performing suplexes and a Tombstone piledriver. When Owen stood outside the ring to recuperate, Bret jumped over the top rope to attack him. Bret landed awkwardly, however, and suffered a kayfabe injury to his knee. Owen used a figure four leglock to capitalize on Bret's sore leg. Bret was able to recover, and he kicked Owen in the back of the head and used a Bulldog and sleeper hold to weaken Owen. Owen regained the advantage, however, and applied the Sharpshooter on Bret. Bret was able to escape and perform a Sharpshooter on Owen. Bret then attempted to end the match with a victory roll, but Owen blocked it and pinned Bret to win the match.


title: WrestleMania X

text: Sy Sperling, the president of hair restoration company Hair Club for Men, appeared in the ring before the next match. He announced that he was at WrestleMania to introduce one of his latest clients, ring announcer Howard Finkel. Finkel came to the ring wearing a toupée, showing off his new hair while the crowd applauded. The match then began, as Bam Bam Bigelow and Luna Vachon came to the ring to face Doink the Clown and Dink. Bigelow attacked Doink at the beginning of the match with a dropkick and a powerslam. When Dink entered the match, the rules stated that Bigelow had to tag Vachon into the match. Dink ran around the ring avoiding Vachon, but she eventually caught him. She kicked him and powerslammed him, but she then missed a moonsault attempt. Doink and Bigelow re-entered the match, and Doink performed a DDT on Bigelow. Bigelow reversed the momentum to win the match after a diving headbutt on Doink. Bigelow pinned Doink to win the match, and he and Vachon then attacked Dink.


title: WrestleMania X

text: The next match was a Falls Count Anywhere match between Randy Savage and Crush. The rules stated that any time a wrestler was pinned, he then had to make it back inside the ring within sixty seconds or he would lose the match. Savage tried to attack Crush before the bell rang, but Crush reversed the attack. He used a tilt-a-whirl backbreaker to injure Savage and then dropped Savage across the guard rail to get the first pinfall. While Savage was returning to the ring, Mr. Fuji hit him with the Japanese flag to stall him. Savage made it back to the ring with two seconds remaining, so the match continued. Inside the ring, Crush tried to throw salt in Savage's eyes, but Savage countered by throwing the salt in Crush's eyes. Savage then performed a diving elbow drop and rolled Crush outside of the ring for the pinfall. Fuji helped revive Crush, which allowed Crush to return to the ring before the count had expired. Savage and Crush then brawled down the aisle and into a room backstage. Savage scored a pinfall and tied Crush's legs to a pulley. Crush was left hanging upside down and could not return to the ring, so Savage was declared the winner.


title: WrestleMania X

text: Alundra Blayze defended her WWF Women's Championship against Leilani Kai in the next match. Blayze began the match by using a leg sweep and two sunset flips. Kai came back with a powerslam and a suplex. Blayze got the win, however, by pinning Kai after performing a German suplex.


title: WrestleMania X

text: In the next match, Men on a Mission challenged The Quebecers for the WWF Tag Team Championship. Although The Quebecers attacked Men on a Mission before the bell, Mabel quickly recovered and clotheslined both Quebecers. The Quebecers used several double-team moves against their opponents, but Mabel reversed the momentum after Pierre missed a senton bomb. Mabel eventually missed an Avalanche, allowing The Quebecers to suplex him. The Quebecers performed an assisted senton on Mabel but did not get a pinfall. Men on a Mission regained the advantage, prompting The Quebecers' manager, Johnny Polo, to pull his wrestlers out of the ring. Men on a Mission won the match by countout, but they did not win the belts.


title: WrestleMania X

text: The first WWF Championship match came next, as Lex Luger challenged Yokozuna. Mr. Perfect was revealed to be the guest referee for the match, while Donnie Wahlberg was the guest ring announcer and Rhonda Shear was the guest timekeeper. After a verbal confrontation between Luger and Yokozuna, Luger gained the early advantage by knocking Yokozuna out of the ring. After getting back into the ring, Yokozuna removed the turnbuckle padding from a corner of the ring. Yokozuna used a nerve hold and a belly to belly suplex to wear down Luger. As he tried to throw Luger's head into the exposed turnbuckle, however, Luger blocked him and hit Yokozuna's head into the turnbuckle. Luger then performed clotheslines and a powerslam on Yokozuna before knocking Yokozuna kayfabe unconscious with a running forearm smash. Yokozuna's managers, Mr. Fuji and Jim Cornette jumped onto the ring apron to distract Luger, and Luger pulled them into the ring and attacked them. Luger covered Yokozuna, but Mr. Perfect was tending to the fallen managers and did not make the count. When Luger pushed him, Mr. Perfect disqualified Luger and left the ring, thereby turning heel.


title: WrestleMania X

text: Adam Bomb and his manager Harvey Wippleman entered the ring for the next match, and Wippleman criticized Finkel's new hair and tore the pocket off Finkel's suit. Earthquake came to the ring and attacked Bomb from behind. He powerslammed Bomb and performed the Earthquake splash to get the pinfall victory in thirty-five seconds.<ref name="Earthquake/Bomb"></ref>


title: WrestleMania X

text: For the Ladder match, the Intercontinental belts belonging to Razor Ramon and Shawn Michaels were both hanging above the ring, and the first wrestler to use the ladder to reach both belts would be declared the winner. Ramon began the match by chokeslamming Michaels. Michaels recovered, however, and performed a neckbreaker on Ramon. Michaels then threw Ramon out to the ringside, where Michaels' bodyguard Diesel clotheslined Ramon. Referee Earl Hebner responded by ordering Diesel to return to the dressing rooms. Ramon pulled up the padding from the concrete floor, but he was later thrown onto it after Michaels reversed Ramon's attempt to perform the Razor's Edge. While Ramon was lying on the floor, Michaels brought the ladder to the ring and used it to hit Ramon in the stomach, chest, and back. Michaels tried to retrieve the belts, but Ramon stopped him from climbing the ladder. Michaels then set the ladder up in the corner of the ring and performed a splash onto Ramon. Ramon recovered and Irish whipped Michaels into the ladder. He then hit Michaels with the ladder several times before both men tried to climb up to get the belts. Ramon suplexed Michaels off the ladder and tried to reach the belts. Michaels dropkicked the ladder, which caused Ramon to fall off. Michaels performed a superkick and a piledriver on Ramon and then propped the ladder up in the corner of the ring. Michaels climbed the turnbuckles, jumped onto the ladder, and used his weight to push it down across Ramon's chest. Michaels tried to retrieve the belts again, but Ramon pushed him off. Michaels fell into the ropes and got tangled up, allowing Ramon to get the belts and win the undisputed Intercontinental Championship.


title: WrestleMania X

text: A ten-man tag team match was supposed to take place next, but it was canceled due to time constraints. The kayfabe reason given was that the heel team (Irwin R. Schyster, The Headshrinkers, Rick Martel and Jeff Jarrett) could not agree on who would be the team's captain for the match. Their opponents were scheduled to be the face team of the 1–2–3 Kid, Sparky Plugg, Tatanka and The Smoking Gunns. Bob Holly ("Sparky Plugg"), stated in his 2013 autobiography "The Hardcore Truth" that the timekeeper backstage repeatedly told the referee over his earpiece to end the ladder match, but Michaels and Ramon ignored him and kept wrestling until officials were forced to cancel the tag team match.


title: WrestleMania X

text: The final match of the night and main event was the WWF Championship match between Yokozuna and Bret Hart. The guest referee for the match was "Rowdy" Roddy Piper, while the guest ring announcer was Burt Reynolds and the guest timekeeper was Jennie Garth. Yokozuna attacked Hart before the bell, and Hart attempted a couple of comebacks in vain. Eventually, Yokozuna made a mistake and allowed Hart to knock him to the mat. Cornette tried to distract Piper, but Piper punched him and knocked him off the ring apron. Yokozuna performed a leg drop on Hart but then missed an Avalanche attempt. Bret maintained the advantage for a little while, but Yokozuna came back with a belly to belly suplex. When Yokozuna attempted the Banzai drop, however, he lost his balance and fell to the mat. Hart quickly pinned Yokozuna to win the title. This match also marked the first time in WWF (Now WWE) history that two wrestlers faced each other in a WWF World Title match at two consecutive WrestleManias.


title: WrestleMania X

text: Afterwards, Bret Hart celebrated in the ring with several of the face wrestlers including Lex Luger, "Rowdy" Roddy Piper, Razor Ramon, Tatanka, The 1–2–3 Kid, Sparky Plugg and "Macho Man" Randy Savage. Others who joined in the celebration included Burt Reynolds, Rhonda Shear, Donnie Wahlberg, and WWF commentators Gorilla Monsoon and Vince McMahon. Owen Hart stood in the aisle, glaring at Bret, then quickly left, the brothers would continue their feud for the remainder of 1994, with the WWF Championship often on the line.


title: WrestleMania X

text: The event was attended by 18,065 people, who paid a total of $960,000 in admission fees. The buy-rate for this pay-per-view was 1.68, down from the 2.0 buy-rate that the previous WrestleMania had achieved.


title: WrestleMania X

text: The event received positive reviews from various websites and wrestling publications. In 2010, Rob McNew of 411mania gave the event an overall score of 9.0 out of 10.0 and noted that WrestleMania X "may lack a lot of historical significance due to being during a relative downtime for the business, but this show kicked all kinds of ass." He further noted that "Bret-Owen and Razor-Shawn were both coin flip choices for not only match of the year, but match of the decade as well." He concluded the review citing how WrestleMania X was "easily one of the top five Wrestlemania’s ever."


title: WrestleMania X

text: Much of the praise towards the event was aimed at the ladder match between Shawn Michaels and Razor Ramon. McNew of 411mania cited the match as "downright groundbreaking for the time" and an "amazing match that put the ladder match on the map." It received a five-star rating from Dave Meltzer and was voted Match of the Year (1994) by readers of his "Wrestling Observer Newsletter" publication. "Pro Wrestling Illustrated" readers also named that match PWI Match of the Year (1994). It was placed #3 on IGN's Top 20 Matches in Wrestlemania History and described as "one of the most ground-breaking matches in wrestling history".


title: WrestleMania X

text: The opening match between Owen Hart and Bret Hart has also garnered acclaim. McNew described it as the "best opening match in professional wrestling history". It was also #4 on the list of IGN's Top 20 Matches in Wrestlemania History; writer Jon Robinson described it as "the best opening match in pay-per-view history." Multi-time world champion Chris Jericho stated: "For me, the best match on [WrestleMania X] was always Bret vs. Owen, and it kicked off the show and it was hard to follow...the story was "amazing", it was kind of Owen's coronation – it was a great moment". Mike "The General" Lambertson, a former professional wrestler from Deep South Wrestling and contributor to voicesofwrestling.com called the match “The greatest sports entertainment event in Madison Square Garden’s history” on episode 138 of the "Talk is Jericho" podcast.


title: WrestleMania X

text: Men on a Mission continued to challenge The Quebecers for the tag team belts. Men on a Mission won the title on March 29, 1994. This is said to have been an unplanned title change, as Mabel accidentally fell on Pierre to get the pinfall. This title reign lasted only two days, however, as The Quebecers won the titles back in a rematch.


title: WrestleMania X

text: Lex Luger and Mr. Perfect were scheduled to face each other in a series of matches on the WrestleMania Revenge Tour. Mr. Perfect was replaced by Crush, however, and Mr. Perfect did not appear again in the WWF until Survivor Series 1995.


title: WrestleMania X

text: Adam Bomb and Earthquake had a rematch on the April 4, 1994 episode of "Monday Night Raw", which Earthquake won. The feud did not progress any further, as Earthquake left the WWF for World Championship Wrestling (WCW) in May 1994. Wippleman and Finkel wrestled a series of Tuxedo matches in 1994 that culminated in a match on the January 9, 1995 episode of "Monday Night Raw". Finkel defeated Wippleman in a final Tuxedo match to end the feud.


title: WrestleMania X

text: A few weeks after the match between Shawn Michaels and Razor Ramon, Diesel begin to challenge Ramon for the Intercontinental championship. Michaels helped Diesel defeat Ramon for the title on April 13, 1994. This win began a push for Diesel that saw him win the WWF's Triple Crown Championship in one calendar year.


title: WrestleMania X

text: The ten-man tag team match took place on the April 4, 1994 edition of "Monday Night Raw". The heel team won, as Irwin R. Schyster pinned the 1–2–3 Kid to win the match.


title: WrestleMania X

text: Bret and Owen Hart continued their feud throughout 1994. At King of the Ring, their real-life brother-in-law and Bret's former tag team partner Jim Neidhart became involved in the angle by helping Owen win the tournament. During the coronation ceremony, Owen announced that he wanted to be referred to as the "King of Harts". At SummerSlam, Bret successfully defended his title against Owen in a Steel cage match but was attacked after the match by Owen and Neidhart, prompting another brother-in-law, Davey Boy Smith, to get involved on Bret's side. At Survivor Series, the storyline saw Owen partially responsible for costing Bret the WWF Championship. Bret faced Bob Backlund in a match with the stipulation that the winner would be declared when a competitor's cornerman threw a towel into the ring to signify a submission. After Owen caused Smith to knock himself unconscious, Owen pretended to feel sympathy for Bret. While Backlund had Bret in a crossface Chickenwing, the angle had Owen convince his mother Helen to throw in Bret's towel, enabling Backlund to win the match and the title. After the match, Owen celebrated with Backlund and showed that he was faking the concern for his brother.


title: Introduction to quantum mechanics

text: Quantum mechanics is the study of matter and its interactions with energy on the scale of atomic and subatomic particles. By contrast, classical physics explains matter and energy only on a scale familiar to human experience, including the behavior of astronomical bodies such as the moon. Classical physics is still used in much of modern science and technology. However, towards the end of the 19th century, scientists discovered phenomena in both the large (macro) and the small (micro) worlds that classical physics could not explain. The desire to resolve inconsistencies between observed phenomena and classical theory led to two major revolutions in physics that created a shift in the original scientific paradigm: the "theory of relativity" and the development of "quantum mechanics". This article describes how physicists discovered the limitations of classical physics and developed the main concepts of the quantum theory that replaced it in the early decades of the 20th century. It describes these concepts in roughly the order in which they were first discovered. For a more complete history of the subject, see "History of quantum mechanics".


title: Introduction to quantum mechanics

text: Light behaves in some aspects like particles and in other aspects like waves. Matter—the "stuff" of the universe consisting of particles such as electrons and atoms—exhibits wavelike behavior too. Some light sources, such as neon lights, give off only certain specific frequencies of light, a small set of distinct pure colors determined by neon's atomic structure. Quantum mechanics shows that light, along with all other forms of electromagnetic radiation, comes in discrete units, called photons, and predicts its spectral energies (corresponding to pure colors), and the intensities of its light beams. A single photon is a "quantum", or smallest observable particle, of the electromagnetic field. A partial photon is never experimentally observed. More broadly, quantum mechanics shows that many properties of objects, such as position, speed, and angular momentum, that appeared continuous in the zoomed-out view of classical mechanics, turn out to be (in the very tiny, zoomed-in scale of quantum mechanics) "quantized". Such properties of elementary particles are required to take on one of a set of small, discrete allowable values, and since the gap between these values is also small, the discontinuities are only apparent at very tiny (atomic) scales.


title: Introduction to quantum mechanics

text: Many aspects of quantum mechanics are counterintuitive and can seem paradoxical because they describe behavior quite different from that seen at larger scales. In the words of quantum physicist Richard Feynman, quantum mechanics deals with "nature as She is—absurd". One principal "paradox" is the apparent inconsistency between Newton's laws and quantum mechanics which can be explained using Ehrenfest's theorem, which shows that the average values obtained from quantum mechanics (e.g. position and momentum) obey classical laws. However, Ehrenfest's theorem is far from capable of explaining all the counterintuitive phenomena (quantum weirdness) that have been observed, but rather is a mathematical expression of the correspondence principle.


title: Introduction to quantum mechanics

text: For example, the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics means that the more closely one pins down one measurement (such as the position of a particle), the less accurate another complementary measurement pertaining to the same particle (such as its speed) must become.


title: Introduction to quantum mechanics

text: Another example is entanglement, in which a measurement of any two-valued state of a particle (such as light polarized up or down) made on either of two "entangled" particles that are very far apart causes a subsequent measurement on the other particle to always be the other of the two values (such as polarized in the opposite direction).


title: Introduction to quantum mechanics

text: A final example is superfluidity, in which a container of liquid helium, cooled down to near absolute zero in temperature spontaneously flows (slowly) up and over the opening of its container, against the force of gravity.


title: Introduction to quantum mechanics

text: Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation emitted from the surface of an object due to the object's internal energy. If an object is heated sufficiently, it starts to emit light at the red end of the spectrum, as it becomes red hot.


title: Introduction to quantum mechanics

text: Heating it further causes the color to change from red to yellow, white, and blue, as it emits light at increasingly shorter wavelengths (higher frequencies). A perfect emitter is also a perfect absorber: when it is cold, such an object looks perfectly black, because it absorbs all the light that falls on it and emits none. Consequently, an ideal thermal emitter is known as a black body, and the radiation it emits is called black-body radiation.


title: Introduction to quantum mechanics

text: By the late 19th century, thermal radiation had been fairly well characterized experimentally. However, classical physics led to the [[Rayleigh–Jeans law]], which, as shown in the figure, agrees with experimental results well at low frequencies, but strongly disagrees at high frequencies. Physicists searched for a single theory that explained all the experimental results.


title: Introduction to quantum mechanics

text: The first model that was able to explain the full spectrum of thermal radiation was put forward by [[Max Planck]] in 1900. He proposed a mathematical model in which the thermal radiation was in equilibrium with a set of [[harmonic oscillator]]s. To reproduce the experimental results, he had to assume that each oscillator emitted an integer number of units of energy at its single characteristic frequency, rather than being able to emit any arbitrary amount of energy. In other words, the energy emitted by an oscillator was "quantized". The [[quantum]] of energy for each oscillator, according to Planck, was proportional to the frequency of the oscillator; the constant of proportionality is now known as the [[Planck constant]]. The Planck constant, usually written as , has the value of . So, the energy of an oscillator of frequency is given by


title: Introduction to quantum mechanics

text: To change the color of such a radiating body, it is necessary to change its temperature. [[Planck's law]] explains why: increasing the temperature of a body allows it to emit more energy overall, and means that a larger proportion of the energy is towards the violet end of the spectrum.


title: Introduction to quantum mechanics

text: Planck's law was the first quantum theory in physics, and Planck won the Nobel Prize in 1918 "in recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta". At the time, however, Planck's view was that quantization was purely a heuristic mathematical construct, rather than (as is now believed) a fundamental change in our understanding of the world.


title: Introduction to quantum mechanics

text: In 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] took an extra step. He suggested that quantization was not just a mathematical construct, but that the energy in a beam of light actually occurs in individual packets, which are now called [[photon]]s. [[Photon energy|The energy of a single photon]] of light of frequency formula_2 is given by the frequency multiplied by Planck's constant formula_3 (an extremely tiny positive number):


title: Introduction to quantum mechanics

text: For centuries, scientists had debated between two possible theories of light: was it a [[wave]] or did it instead comprise a [[Corpuscular theory of light|stream of tiny particles]]? By the 19th century, the debate was generally considered to have been settled in favor of the wave theory, as it was able to explain observed effects such as [[refraction]], [[diffraction]], [[interference (wave propagation)|interference]], and [[polarization (waves)|polarization]]. [[James Clerk Maxwell]] had shown that electricity, magnetism, and light are all manifestations of the same phenomenon: the [[electromagnetic field]]. [[Maxwell's equations]], which are the complete set of laws of [[classical electromagnetism]], describe light as waves: a combination of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. Because of the preponderance of evidence in favor of the wave theory, Einstein's ideas were met initially with great skepticism. Eventually, however, the photon model became favored. One of the most significant pieces of evidence in its favor was its ability to explain several puzzling properties of the [[photoelectric effect]], described in the following section. Nonetheless, the wave analogy remained indispensable for helping to understand other characteristics of light: [[diffraction]], [[refraction]], and [[interference (wave propagation)|interference]].


title: Introduction to quantum mechanics

text: In 1887, [[Heinrich Hertz]] observed that when light with sufficient frequency hits a metallic surface, the surface emits electrons. In 1902, [[Philipp Lenard]] discovered that the maximum possible energy of an ejected electron is related to the [[frequency]] of the light, not to its [[intensity (physics)|intensity]]: if the frequency is too low, no electrons are ejected regardless of the intensity. Strong beams of light toward the red end of the spectrum might produce no electrical potential at all, while weak beams of light toward the violet end of the spectrum would produce higher and higher voltages. The lowest frequency of light that can cause electrons to be emitted, called the threshold frequency, is different for different metals. This observation is at odds with classical electromagnetism, which predicts that the electron's energy should be proportional to the intensity of the incident radiation. So when physicists first discovered devices exhibiting the photoelectric effect, they initially expected that a higher intensity of light would produce a higher voltage from the photoelectric device.


title: Introduction to quantum mechanics

text: Einstein explained the effect by postulating that a beam of light is a stream of particles ("[[photon]]s") and that, if the beam is of frequency , then each photon has an energy equal to . An electron is likely to be struck only by a single photon, which imparts at most an energy to the electron. Therefore, the intensity of the beam has no effect and only its frequency determines the maximum energy that can be imparted to the electron.


title: Introduction to quantum mechanics

text: To explain the threshold effect, Einstein argued that it takes a certain amount of energy, called the "[[work function]]" and denoted by , to remove an electron from the metal. This amount of energy is different for each metal. If the energy of the photon is less than the work function, then it does not carry sufficient energy to remove the electron from the metal. The threshold frequency, , is the frequency of a photon whose energy is equal to the work function:


title: Introduction to quantum mechanics

text: If is greater than , the energy is enough to remove an electron. The ejected electron has a [[kinetic energy]], , which is, at most, equal to the photon's energy minus the energy needed to dislodge the electron from the metal:


title: Introduction to quantum mechanics

text: Einstein's description of light as being composed of particles extended Planck's notion of quantized energy, which is that a single photon of a given frequency, , delivers an invariant amount of energy, . In other words, individual photons can deliver more or less energy, but only depending on their frequencies. In nature, single photons are rarely encountered. The Sun and emission sources available in the 19th century emit vast numbers of photons every second, and so the importance of the energy carried by each photon was not obvious. Einstein's idea that the energy contained in individual units of light depends on their frequency made it possible to explain experimental results that had seemed counterintuitive. However, although the photon is a particle, it was still being described as having the wave-like property of frequency. Effectively, the account of light as a particle is insufficient, and its wave-like nature is still required.


title: Introduction to quantum mechanics

text: The relationship between the frequency of electromagnetic radiation and the energy of each photon is why [[ultraviolet]] light can cause [[sunburn]], but visible or [[infrared]] light cannot. A photon of ultraviolet light delivers a high amount of [[energy]]—enough to contribute to cellular damage such as occurs in a sunburn. A photon of infrared light delivers less energy—only enough to warm one's skin. So, an infrared lamp can warm a large surface, perhaps large enough to keep people comfortable in a cold room, but it cannot give anyone a sunburn.


title: Introduction to quantum mechanics

text: All photons of the same frequency have identical energy, and all photons of different frequencies have proportionally (order 1, ) different energies. However, although the energy imparted by photons is invariant at any given frequency, the initial energy state of the electrons in a photoelectric device before absorption of light is not necessarily uniform. Anomalous results may occur in the case of individual electrons. For instance, an electron that was already excited above the equilibrium level of the photoelectric device might be ejected when it absorbed uncharacteristically low-frequency illumination. Statistically, however, the characteristic behavior of a photoelectric device reflects the behavior of the vast majority of its electrons, which are at their equilibrium level. This point helps clarify the distinction between the study of small individual particles in quantum dynamics and the study of massive individual particles in classical physics.