title: Anuradha Paudwal

text: She was married to Arun Paudwal, a music composer, with whom she had a son Aditya and a daughter Kavita, a singer by profession. Anuradha survived a helicopter crash in 2002 in Madhya Pradesh. On 12 September 2020, her son Aditya died of kidney failure.


title: Anuradha Paudwal

text: She has been honoured with many awards including 4 Filmfare Awards, 1 National Film Award and Padma Shri by Government of India. Her other accolades are as follows:


title: Hair coloring

text: Hair coloring, or hair dyeing, is the practice of changing the hair color. The main reasons for this are cosmetic: to cover gray or white hair, to change to a color regarded as more fashionable or desirable, or to restore the original hair color after it has been discolored by hairdressing processes or sun bleaching.


title: Hair coloring

text: Hair coloring can be done professionally by a hairdresser or independently at home. Today, hair coloring is very popular, with 75% of women and 18% of men living in Copenhagen having reported using hair dye (according to a study by the University of Copenhagen). At-home coloring in the United States reached $1.9 billion in 2011 and was expected to rise to $2.2 billion by 2016.


title: Hair coloring

text: "Their aspect is terrifying... They are very tall in stature, with rippling muscles under clear white skin. Their hair is blond, but not naturally so: they bleach it, to this day, artificially, washing it in lime and combing it back from their foreheads. They look like wood-demons, their hair thick and shaggy like a horse's mane. Some of them are clean-shaven, but others—especially those of high rank—shave their cheeks but leave a moustache that covers the whole mouth...".


title: Hair coloring

text: The dyeing of hair is an ancient art that involves treatment of the hair with various chemical compounds. In ancient times, the dyes were obtained from plants. Some of the most well known are henna ("Lawsonia inermis"), indigo dye, "Cassia obovata", senna, turmeric and amla. Others include katam ("buxus dioica"), black walnut hulls, red ochre and leeks. In the 1661 book "Eighteen Books of the Secrets of Art & Nature", various methods of coloring hair black, gold, green, red, yellow, and white are explained. The development of synthetic dyes for hair is traced to the 1860s discovery of the reactivity of para-phenylenediamine (PPD) with air. Eugène Schueller, the founder of L'Oréal, is recognized for creating the first synthetic hair dye in 1907. In 1947 the German cosmetics firm Schwarzkopf launched the first home color product, "Poly Color". Hair dyeing is now a multibillion-dollar industry that involves the use of both plant-derived and synthetic dyes.


title: Hair coloring

text: Hair color was traditionally applied to the hair as one overall color. The modern trend is to use several colors to produce streaks or gradations, but not all work on top of a single base color. These are referred to as:


title: Hair coloring

text: There are also newer coloring techniques such as ombré, shatush, balayage, airtouch, in which hair is dark on the crown and bit by bit becomes lighter toward the ends.


title: Hair coloring

text: All coloring techniques can be used with any type of color. For lightening, the hair sometimes has to be bleached before coloring.


title: Hair coloring

text: The four most common classifications are "permanent", "demi-permanent" (sometimes called "deposit only"), "semi-permanent", and "temporary".


title: Hair coloring

text: Permanent hair color generally contains ammonia and must be mixed with a developer or oxidizing agent in order to permanently change hair color. Ammonia is used in permanent hair color to open the cuticle layer so that the developer and colorants together can penetrate into the cortex. The developer, or oxidizing agent, comes in various volumes. The higher the developer volume, the higher the "lift" will be of a person's natural hair pigment. Someone with dark hair wishing to achieve two or three shades lighter may need a higher developer whereas someone with lighter hair wishing to achieve darker hair will not need one as high. Timing may vary with permanent hair coloring but is typically 30 minutes or 45 minutes for those wishing to achieve maximum color change.


title: Hair coloring

text: (24±4 shampoos typically) Demi-permanent is hair coloring that contains an alkaline agent (e.g. ethanolamine, sodium carbonate) other than ammonia, and while always employed with a developer, the concentration of hydrogen peroxide in that developer may be lower than used with a permanent hair color. These products provide almost no lightening of hair's color during dyeing, since the alkaline agents employed in demi-permanent colors are less effective in removing the natural pigment of hair than ammonia. As the result, they cannot color hair to a lighter shade than it was before dyeing and are less damaging to hair than their permanent counterpart.


title: Hair coloring

text: Demi-permanents are much more effective at covering gray hair than semi-permanents, but less so than permanents.


title: Hair coloring

text: Demi-permanents have several advantages as compared with permanent color. Because there is essentially no lifting (i.e., removal) of natural hair color, the final color is less uniform/homogeneous than a permanent and therefore more natural looking; they are gentler on hair and therefore safer, especially for damaged hair; and they wash out over time (typically 20 to 28 shampoos), so root regrowth is less noticeable and if a change of color is desired, it is easier to achieve. Demi-permanent hair colors are not permanent but the darker shades in particular may persist longer than indicated on the packet.


title: Hair coloring

text: (6±2 shampoos typically) Semi-permanent hair coloring cannot lighten the hair either; Because it involves no developer (hydrogen peroxide) or ammonia, it is thus less damaging to hair strands than their demi-permanent counterpart.


title: Hair coloring

text: There will be subtle variations in shade across the entire head, because of hair's color and porosity along the length of a hair strand. The final color of each strand of hair will depend on its original color and porosity. This variation gives a more natural looking result than the solid all over color of a permanent. Because gray or white hairs have a different starting color than other hair, they will not appear as the same shade as the rest of the hair when treated with semi-permanent color. If there are only minimal grey/white hairs, the effect will usually be enough for them to blend in, but as the gray spreads, there will come a point where it will not be disguised as well. In this case, the move to demi-permanent as a base can be used sometimes adding highlights, to delay permanent coloring.


title: Hair coloring

text: Semi-permanent hair color uses compounds of lower molecular weight than are found in temporary hair color dyes. These dyes are only able to wedge under the cuticle layer of the hair shaft only. For this reason, the color will survive limited washing, typically 4–8 shampoos.


title: Hair coloring

text: Semi-permanents may still contain the suspected carcinogen p-phenylenediamine (PPD) or other related colorant carcinogens. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency reported chronic exposure to PPD in the diet of rats and mice depressed body weight of the animals, with no other clinical signs of toxicity observed in several studies.


title: Hair coloring

text: Temporary hair color is available in various forms including rinses, shampoos, gels, sprays, and foams. Temporary hair color is typically brighter and more vibrant than semi-permanent and permanent hair color. It is most often used to color hair for special occasions such as Christmas and Halloween costume parties.


title: Hair coloring

text: The pigments in temporary hair color are high molecular weight and cannot penetrate the cuticle layer. The color particles remain adsorbed (closely adherent) to the surface of the hair shaft and are easily removed with a single shampooing. Temporary hair color can persist on hair that is excessively dry or damaged in a way that allows for migration of the pigment to the interior of the hair shaft.


title: Hair coloring

text: Alternative hair coloring products are designed to create hair colors not typically found in nature. These are also referred to as "vivid color" in the hairstyling industry. The available colors are diverse, such as the colors green and fuchsia.


title: Hair coloring

text: Permanent alternatives in some colors are available. More recently, blacklight-reactive hair dyes have been brought to market that fluoresce under blacklights, such as those often used at nightclubs.


title: Hair coloring

text: The chemical formulae of alternative color dyes typically contain only tint and have no developer. This means that they will only create the bright color of the packet if they are applied to light blond hair. Darker hair (medium brown to black) would need to be bleached in order for these pigment applications to take to the hair desirably. Some types of fair hair may also take vivid colors more fully after bleaching. Gold, yellow and orange undertones in hair that has not been lightened enough can muddy the final hair color, especially with pink, blue and green dyes. Although some alternative colors are semi-permanent, such as blue and purple, it could take several months to fully wash the color from bleached or pre-lightened hair.


title: Hair coloring

text: Hair is given a lighter color by bleaching it. Melanin pigments, which give hair a darker color, can be broken down with oxidation. The oxidizing agent used to bleach hair is hydrogen peroxide. It is mixed with ammonia to create an alkaline solution and to speed up the reaction. When melanin is oxidized, oxygen gas is released.


title: Hair coloring

text: Products for bleaching one's hair at home usually contain a 6% solution of hydrogen peroxide, while products for use in a hair salon can contain up to 9%.


title: Hair coloring

text: Peroxide bleached hair can have undesirable brassy or yellow hue. A product known as a toner is used to slightly alter the hair color's undertones. Purple shampoo (shampoo with purple coloring agents) can also be used to counteract brassy undertones.


title: Hair coloring

text: Hair coloring involves the use of chemicals capable of removing, replacing, and/or covering up pigments naturally found inside the hair shaft. Use of these chemicals can result in a range of adverse effects, including temporary skin irritation and allergy, hair breakage, skin discoloration and unexpected hair color results. According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), in vitro and in vivo studies (in exposed human populations) have shown that some hair dyes and many chemicals used in the hair dyeing process can be considered mutagenic and carcinogenic.


title: Hair coloring

text: In certain individuals, the use of hair coloring can result in allergic reactions and/or skin irritation. Individuals allergic to gluten for example, will need to be cautious when purchasing hair color since certain hair dye includes gluten. Gluten does not need to be ingested for it to cause an allergy. Skin contact with gluten may cause a reaction; therefore, leading to an allergy. Symptoms of these reactions can include redness, sores, itching, burning sensation and discomfort. Symptoms will sometimes not be apparent immediately following the application and processing of the tint, but can also arise after hours or even a day later.


title: Hair coloring

text: To help prevent or limit allergic reactions, the majority of hair color products recommend that the client conduct a patch test before using the product. This involves mixing a small quantity of tint preparation and applying it directly to the skin for a period of 48 hours. If irritation develops, manufacturers recommend that the client not use the product.


title: Hair coloring

text: European dermatologists have, however, strongly advised against such pre-use testing, as it entails additional sensitisation (allergy) risk and the interpretation by lay people may not be sufficiently accurate.


title: Hair coloring

text: Skin and fingernails are made of a similar type of keratinized protein as hair. That means that drips, slips and extra hair tint around the hairline can result in patches of discolored skin. This is more common with darker hair colors and persons with dry absorbent skin. That is why it is recommended that latex or nitrile gloves be worn to protect the hands.


title: Hair coloring

text: This discoloration will disappear as the skin naturally renews itself and the top layer of skin is removed (typically takes a few days or at most a week). Ways of preventing skin discoloration are to wear latex or nitrile gloves to protect the hands and also by applying a thin layer of petroleum jelly or oil-based preparation around the hairline. Gentle abrasives such as moist baking soda or a small amount of toothpaste applied with a toothbrush may also help remove the uppermost layer of skin and dye (neither removes just the dye). Acetone and nail polish remover are not considered effective; laundry detergent may sometimes work as may moist cigarette ash rubbed into the stained area.


title: Hair coloring

text: In October 2017, the leading breast surgeon Professor Kefah Mokbel published a meta-analysis showing that use of hair dyes might increase the risk of developing breast cancer by 20% among users.


title: Hair coloring

text: Permanent hair coloring requires three components: (1) 1,4-diaminobenzene (historically) or 2,5-diaminotoluene (currently), (2) a coupling agent, and (3) an oxidant. The process is typically performed under basic conditions. The mechanism of oxidation dyes involves three steps:


title: Hair coloring

text: The preparation (dye precursors) is in the leuco (colorless) form. Oxidizing agents are usually hydrogen peroxide, and the alkaline environment is usually provided by ammonia. The combination of hydrogen peroxide and ammonia causes the natural hair to be lightened, providing a "blank canvas" for the dye. Ammonia opens the hair shaft pores so that the dye can actually diffuse inside the fiber. These dye intermediates and coupler compounds can undergo oxidation and coupling reaction as shown in the scheme below to form high molecular weight products, which are trapped in the hair matrix and cannot be readily removed through washing.


title: Hair coloring

text: Various combinations of primary intermediates and coupler compounds provide a spectrum of shades of hair colors. The primary intermediates are aromatic para compounds, such as 1,4-diaminobenzene or 4-aminophenol. The coupler compounds (couplers) are meta-substituted derivatives of aniline. They come in three major classes based on the color that they produce when they react with the primary intermediate.


title: Hair coloring

text: This species exists in equilibrium with the monoprotonated form (CH(NH)(NH)) (not shown). The second step involves the attack of this quinonediimine on the coupler. In organic chemistry, this reaction is called electrophilic aromatic substitution:


title: Hair coloring

text: In the third and final step, the product from the quinonediimine-coupler reaction oxidizes to the final hair dye.


title: Hair coloring

text: It was once believed that the dye forms in the above reaction bonds to hair permanently. It was later shown that the main reason that this reaction imparts a permanent color on hair is that it produces larger dye molecules, which is locked inside the hair.


title: Hair coloring

text: Henna is an orange dye commonly used as a deposit-only hair color whose active component, lawsone, binds to keratin. It is therefore considered semi-permanent to permanent, depending on a person's hair type. Most people will achieve a permanent color from henna, especially after the second dye. With repeated use the orange color builds up into red and then auburn. While "natural" henna is generally a red color, variations exist. These variations usually contain ingredients from other plants and even synthetic dyes.


title: Hair coloring

text: Indigo is natural dye from a plant ("Indigofera tinctoria", "I. suffructicosa, or "I. arrecta")" that can be added to henna or layered on top of it to create brown to black colors in the hair. Henna is orange, and indigo is blue, so as complementaries on a standard color wheel, the two colors' combined effect is to create brown tones. Like henna, indigo may fade after one application, but it becomes permanent on the hair with repeated use.


title: Hair coloring

text: Using a plant-based color such as henna can cause problems later when trying to do a perm or permanent hair color. Some store-bought henna contains metallic salts which reacts to hydrogen peroxide that is used in hair lightening. This may lead to unpredictable results, such as green or blue tones in the hair. Henna is a healthy way to color hair, as long as no metallic salts are used.


title: Hair coloring

text: In 2018, a system for making semi-permanent hair dyes from renewable waste blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum L.) fruit skins from the fruit pressing industry was developed. Anthocyanin pigments were extracted from the blackcurrant skin waste and formulated into hair dyes. The dyes showed high buildup on hair and gave an intense blue color, which was stable to multiple washes.


title: Hair coloring

text: In the late 2010s and early 2020s, researchers at Northwestern University have explored potential alternative forms of hair dye using nanotechnology. Concepts using graphene oxide and synthetic melanin nanoparticles have been tested; however, , neither has been released commercially.


title: Hair coloring

text: Hair dyes are cosmetic compounds that make contact with the skin during application. Because of this skin contact, there exists some health risk associated with use of hair dyes. Thus, hair dyes are regulated in the commercial marketplace and, as new toxicity data is generated for some hair dyes and health risks are discovered, some of these hair dyes are being legally restricted from the cosmetic marketplace.


title: Hair coloring

text: The European Union is particularly stringent with regard to health regulations. To ensure that hair dyes contain only safe substances, the European Commission adopted the Directive 2012/21/EU to restrict the use of around 45 chemicals in hair dyes. The directive on dyes is part of a general and comprehensive set of regulations, the EU Cosmetics Directive 76/768/EC.


title: Hair coloring

text: For Muslims, if a man is not of advanced age, there is no harm in his using black dye. Some of the early Muslims, including some sahabah, permitted the use of black dye. As narrated in a hadith, the best thing with which to dye gray hair is henna and katam (a plant from Yemen which colors it black tinged with red).


title: Leaving on a Jet Plane

text: "Leaving on a Jet Plane" is a song written and recorded by singer-songwriter John Denver in 1966, originally included on his debut demo recording "John Denver Sings" as "Babe I Hate To Go". He made several copies and gave them out as presents for Christmas of that year. Denver's then producer Milt Okun convinced him to change the title and was renamed "Leaving on a Jet Plane" in 1967.


title: Leaving on a Jet Plane

text: In 1969, simultaneous to the success of the Peter, Paul and Mary version, Denver recorded the song again for his debut studio album, "Rhymes & Reasons", and it was released as a single in October 1969 through RCA Records. Although it is one of John Denver's best known songs, his single failed to enter the charts.


title: Leaving on a Jet Plane

text: "Leaving on a Jet Plane" was re-recorded for the third and final time in 1973 for "John Denver's Greatest Hits", version that also appears on most of his compilation albums.


title: Leaving on a Jet Plane

text: John Denver, then a relatively unknown musician in the Los Angeles folk scene of 23 years old, had written the song during a layover at Washington Airport in 1966.


title: Leaving on a Jet Plane

text: Though not written about the Vietnam War, the Peter, Paul and Mary cover of the song was interpreted by at least one writer to be a protest song about a soldier leaving his partner, unsure if he would return.


title: Leaving on a Jet Plane

text: The most well known version was recorded by American folk group Peter, Paul and Mary, for their 1967 studio album, "Album 1700", and Warner Bros.- Seven Arts released it as a single in 1969 after being one of four songs on a promo EP in 1967. John Denver was a close friend of theirs and they shared the same producer in that time, Milt Okun.


title: Leaving on a Jet Plane

text: It was Peter, Paul and Mary's biggest (and final) hit, becoming their only No. 1 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart in the United States. The song also spent three weeks atop the easy listening chart and was used in commercials for United Airlines in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The song also topped the charts in Canada, and reached No. 2 in both the UK Singles Chart and Irish Singles Chart in February 1970. In fact, it was the only version of the song that charted.


title: Leaving on a Jet Plane

text: In the 1980s, the song prompted litigation involving the British group New Order. The band's single "Run 2" (1989) was the subject of a lawsuit brought by Denver, who argued that its wordless guitar break was based on his "Leaving on a Jet Plane". The case was settled out of court, and Denver subsequently received a co-writer credit for the song.


title: Mossimo Giannulli

text: Mossimo Giannulli (born Massimo Giannulli; June 4, 1963) is an American fashion designer who founded Mossimo, a mid-range clothing company, in 1986. In March 2019, Giannulli and his wife, actress Lori Loughlin, were charged and arrested in connection with the college admissions bribery scandal. Both agreed to plead guilty to the relevant charges and were sentenced to jail time and a fine in August 2020. Giannulli served a five-month prison sentence from November 2020 until April 2021, while his wife served a two-month prison sentence, from October 2020 to December 2020.


title: Mossimo Giannulli

text: Giannulli was born Massimo Giannulli on June 4, 1963 in Los Angeles to parents of Italian descent, Gene, an architect, and Nancy Giannulli, a homemaker. He was raised in Encino, California. In the first grade, he changed his first name to Mossimo at the suggestion of a teacher who insisted it was easier to pronounce.


title: Mossimo Giannulli

text: According to some sources, after graduating from high school, he studied business and architecture at the University of Southern California for three years before dropping out in 1987; in the wake of the college entrance scandal in which Giannulli was involved, however, CNN reported that Giannulli tricked his father into giving him money for tuition (which he used to fund his t-shirt business) and falsified report cards, with his actual education at the university consisting only of attending "USC during the spring semester in 1984, but not as a fully matriculated student. He was enrolled in the College of Continuing Education, a non-degree program open to anyone 'with no formal admission requirements'"; he lived at the Beta Theta Pi fraternity house, however, which according to a fraternity spokesman was due to the fact that "having non-matriculating students associate with the fraternity would not have been uncommon."


title: Mossimo Giannulli

text: Giannulli created Mossimo, a mid-range American clothing company in 1986 on Balboa Island in Newport Beach, California. Mossimo specializes in youth and teenage clothing such as shirts, jeans, jackets, socks, underwear, and accessories.


title: Mossimo Giannulli

text: During his first year in business he grossed $1 million. The following year he made $4 million. Mossimo expanded the line in 1991 to include sweatshirts, knits, and sweaters. By 1995, the collection included women's clothing and men's tailored suits. After eight years in business, Mossimo, Inc. had grown into a multimillion-dollar lifestyle sportswear and accessories company.


title: Mossimo Giannulli

text: Mossimo went public with an initial public offering in 1996. After shares tumbled from $50 to $4 when the founder tried and failed to make the transition from streetwear/beachwear to high fashion, he took the brand downscale, announcing on March 28, 2000, Mossimo, Inc. a major, multi-product licensing agreement with Target stores, for $27.8 million. Mossimo was acquired by Iconix Brand Group in 2006.


title: Mossimo Giannulli

text: Giannulli and his wife Lori Loughlin were arrested on March 12, 2019 in connection with their alleged involvement in a nationwide college entrance exam cheating scandal, regarding their two daughters' (including Olivia Jade) admission to University of Southern California (USC). They were charged with conspiracy to commit mail fraud and honest services fraud. They were released on $1 million bail each. They were among 50 people charged. The couple were also charged with money-laundering offenses in April 2019.


title: Mossimo Giannulli

text: The indictment against the couple alleged that they paid $500,000, disguised as a donation to the Key Worldwide Foundation, so that USC's admissions committee would think that their two daughters would be joining the school's women's rowing team if admitted. In fact, neither young woman had ever trained in the sport and had no plans to do so. Initially denying the charges, Giannulli and his wife later pled guilty as part of a plea bargain.


title: Mossimo Giannulli

text: Giannulli was sentenced to five months in prison and a $250,000 fine on August 21, 2020, while his wife was sentenced to two months in prison and a $150,000 fine. On conviction, the couple were expelled from the Bel Air Country Club. Giannulli and Loughlin both had until November 19, to report to prison. On October 30, 2020, Giannuli refused to report to prison after Loughlin did so. The same day, Loughlin had her right to have people, including Giannulli, visit her in prison suspended due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Mossimo Giannulli

text: Giannulli entered the medium-security federal penitentiary in Lompoc, California on November 19, 2020, to serve his five-month sentence and was scheduled for release on April 17, 2021. Prior to his entry, he was seen with a shaved head and tougher look. In prison, he was placed in isolation due to COVID-19 in a medium security cell, rather than a minimum security cell that he was supposed to be in. He complained about this rough treatment to his family and his son, Gianni. Gianni posted on Instagram that the "mental and physical damage being done from such isolation and treatment is wrong." On April 2, 2021, Giannulli was released to home confinement where he was slated to remain until the completion of his sentence on April 17, 2021. However, he would be released from home confinement a day early on April 16, 2021. He is currently on parole until April 2023.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: The 1925 serum run to Nome, also known as the Great Race of Mercy and The Serum Run, was a transport of diphtheria antitoxin by dog sled relay across the U.S. territory of Alaska by 20 mushers and about 150 sled dogs across in days, saving the small town of Nome and the surrounding communities from a developing epidemic of diphtheria.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: Both the mushers and their dogs were portrayed as heroes in the newly popular medium of radio and received headline coverage in newspapers across the United States. Balto, the lead sled dog on the final stretch into Nome, became the most famous canine celebrity of the era after Rin Tin Tin, and his statue is a popular tourist attraction in both New York City's Central Park and downtown Anchorage, Alaska, but it was Togo's team which covered much of the most dangerous parts of the route and ran the farthest: Togo's team covered while Balto's team ran . The publicity also helped spur an inoculation campaign in the U.S. which dramatically reduced the threat of the disease.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: Nome, Alaska, lies approximately two degrees south of the Arctic Circle, and while greatly diminished from its peak of 20,000 inhabitants during the gold rush at the turn of the 20th century, it was still the largest town in northern Alaska in 1925, with 455 Alaska Natives and 975 settlers of European descent.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: From November to July, the port on the southern shore of the Seward Peninsula of the Bering Sea was icebound and inaccessible by steamship. The only link to the rest of the world during the winter was the Iditarod Trail, which ran from the port of Seward in the south, across several mountain ranges and the vast Alaska Interior, to the town of Nome. In Alaska and other subarctic regions, the primary source of mail and needed supplies in 1925 was the dog sled; however, within a decade, bush pilots would become the dominant method of transportation during the winter months.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: In the winter of 1924–1925, Curtis Welch was the only doctor in Nome. He and four nurses, working at the small Maynard Columbus Hospital, served the town and the surrounding area. After discovering the hospital's entire batch of diphtheria antitoxin had expired, Welch placed an order for more. However, the replacement shipment did not arrive before the port was closed by ice for the winter, and more could not be shipped in to Nome until spring.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: In December 1924, several days after the last ship left the port, Welch treated a few children for what he first diagnosed as sore throats or tonsillitis, initially dismissing diphtheria as a possibility; given its contagious nature, Welch would have expected to see more symptoms in family members or others around town, instead of a few isolated cases. In the next few weeks, after the number of cases grew and four children died—whom Welch had not been able to autopsy—he became increasingly concerned about diphtheria.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: By mid-January 1925, Welch officially diagnosed the first case of diphtheria in a three-year-old boy who died only two weeks after first becoming ill. The following day, when a seven-year-old girl presented the same tell-tale symptoms of diphtheria, Welch attempted to administer some of the expired antitoxin to see if it might still have any effect, but the girl died a few hours later. Realizing that an epidemic was imminent, Welch called Nome's mayor George Maynard that same evening to arrange an emergency town council meeting. The council immediately implemented a quarantine. The following day, on January 22, 1925, Welch sent radio telegrams to all other major towns in Alaska alerting them of the public health risk. He also requested assistance from the U.S. Public Health Service in Washington, D.C.:


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: Despite the quarantine, there were over 20 confirmed cases of diphtheria and at least 50 more at risk by the end of January. Without antitoxin, it was expected that in the surrounding region's population of around 10,000 people, the mortality rate could be close to 100 percent. A previous influenza pandemic had hit the area in 1918, causing fatalities in about 50% percent of the native population of Nome and 8% of the native population of Alaska. More than 1,000 people died in northwest Alaska, and approximately 2,000 across the state. The majority were Alaska Natives who did not have any resistance to either disease.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: At the January 24 meeting of the board of health, superintendent Mark Summers of the Hammon Consolidated Gold Fields proposed a dogsled relay using two fast teams. One would start at Nenana, Alaska, the closest railhead on the Alaska Railroad, and the other at Nome, and they would meet roughly halfway in the town of Nulato. The trip from Nulato to Nome normally took 30 days Curtis Welch estimated that the serum would last only six days under the brutal conditions of the trail. Summers's employee, the Norwegian sled dog trainer and musher Leonhard Seppala, was chosen for the 630-mile (1,014km) round trip from Nome to Nulato and back. He had previously made the run in a record-breaking four days, won the All-Alaska Sweepstakes three times, and had become famous for his athletic ability and rapport with his Siberian huskies. His lead dog, the 12-year-old Togo, was equally famous for his leadership, intelligence, and ability to sense danger.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: Maynard proposed flying the antitoxin by plane. In 1925, planes were a relatively new technology, and Alaska's harsh winter weather made them unreliable. Several test flights had been conducted the previous year between Fairbanks and McGrath, Alaska, to determine how well a reliable aircraft could handle the winter conditions. The longest test flight flew a distance of only , a little under half the necessary distance between Nenana and Nome. Furthermore, the only planes operating in Alaska in 1925 were three vintage biplanes, which had been dismantled for the winter; their open cockpits and water-cooled engines would make these planes unfit for the trip, as well. Although it was potentially quicker, the proposal to deliver the antitoxin by flight was rejected by the board of health. Instead, they voted unanimously for the dogsled relay. Seppala was notified that evening and immediately began preparations for the trip.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: The U.S. Public Health Service had located 1.1 million units of serum in West Coast hospitals which could be shipped to Seattle, Washington, and then transported to Alaska. The next ship north would not arrive in Seattle until January 31, and it would take another six to seven days to arrive in Seward. On January 26, however, 300,000 forgotten units of the antitoxin were located in a hospital in Anchorage. The supply was wrapped in glass vials, then padded quilts, and finally a metallic cylinder weighing a little over . At Governor Scott Bone's order, it was immediately shipped to Nenana and arrived the next day. While not sufficient to defeat the epidemic, the 300,000 units could slow the spread of the disease until the larger shipment arrived.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: The temperatures across the Alaskan Interior were at 20-year lows due to a high pressure system from the Arctic; in Fairbanks the temperature was . Winds reaching speeds of caused snow to cover the Alaska Panhandle in snowdrifts up to tall. Travel by sea was hazardous, and across the Interior most forms of transportation shut down. Furthermore there were limited hours of daylight to fly due to the polar night.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: The mail route from Nenana to Nome spanned in total. It crossed the barren Alaska Interior, following the Tanana River for to the village Tanana at the junction with the Yukon River, and then following the Yukon for to Kaltag. The route then passed west over the Kaltag Portage to Unalakleet on the shore of Norton Sound. The route then continued for northwest around the southern shore of the Seward Peninsula with no protection from gales and blizzards, including a stretch across the shifting ice of the Bering Sea.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: Wetzler contacted Tom Parson, an agent of the Northern Commercial Company, which contracted to deliver mail between Fairbanks and Unalakleet. Telephones and telegraphs turned the drivers back to their assigned roadhouses. The mail carriers held a revered position in the territory, and were the best dog mushers in Alaska. The majority of relay drivers across the Interior were native Athabaskans, direct descendants of the original dog mushers.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: The first musher in the relay was "Wild Bill" Shannon, who was handed the package at the train station in Nenana on January 27 at 9:00 pm AKST by night. Despite a temperature of , Shannon left immediately with his team of 9 inexperienced dogs, led by Blackie. The temperature began to drop, and the team was forced onto the colder ice of the river because the trail had been destroyed by horses.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: Despite jogging alongside the sled to keep warm, Shannon developed hypothermia. He reached Minto at 3 am, with parts of his face black from frostbite. The temperature was . After warming the serum by the fire and resting for four hours, Shannon dropped three dogs and left with the remaining 8. The three dogs died shortly after Shannon returned for them, and a fourth may have died as well.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: Half-Athabaskan Edgar Kalland arrived in Minto the night before, and was sent back to Tolovana, traveling the day before the relay. Shannon and his team arrived in bad shape at 11 am, and handed over the serum. After warming the serum in the roadhouse, Kalland headed into the forest. The temperature had risen to , and according to at least one report the owner of the roadhouse at Manley Hot Springs had to pour water over Kalland's hands to get them off the sled's handlebar when he arrived at 4 pm.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: No new cases of diphtheria were diagnosed on January 28, but two new cases were diagnosed on January 29. The quarantine had been obeyed but lack of diagnostic tools and the contagiousness of the strain rendered it ineffective. More units of serum were discovered around Juneau the same day. While no count exists, the estimate based on weight is roughly 125,000 units, enough to treat 4 to 6 patients. The crisis had become headline news in newspapers, including San Francisco, Cleveland, Washington D.C., and New York, and spread to the radio sets which were just becoming common. The storm system from Alaska hit the contiguous United States, bringing record lows to New York, and freezing the Hudson River.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: A fifth death occurred on January 30. Maynard and Sutherland renewed their campaign for flying the remaining serum by plane. Different proposals included flying a large aircraft from Seattle to Nome, carrying a plane to the edge of the pack ice via Navy ship and launching it, and the original plan of flying the serum from Fairbanks. Despite receiving headline coverage across the country, the support of several cabinet departments, and from Arctic explorer Roald Amundsen, the plans were rejected by experienced pilots, the Navy, and Governor Bone. Thompson's editorials waxed virulent against those opposing using airplanes.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: In response, Bone decided to speed up the relay and authorized additional drivers for Seppala's leg of the relay, so they could travel without rest. Seppala was still scheduled to cover the most dangerous leg, the shortcut across Norton Sound, but the telephone and telegraph systems bypassed the small villages he was passing through, and there was no way to tell him to wait at Shaktoolik. The plan relied on the driver from the north catching Seppala on the trail. Summers arranged for drivers along the last leg, including Seppala's colleague Gunnar Kaasen.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: From Manley Hot Springs, the serum passed through largely Athabascan hands before George Nollner delivered it to Charlie Evans at Bishop Mountain on January 30 at 3 am. The temperature had warmed slightly, but at , was dropping again. Evans relied on his lead dogs when he passed through ice fog where the Koyukuk River, flowing into the Yukon, had broken through and surged over the ice, but forgot to protect the groins of his two short-haired mixed breed lead dogs with rabbit skins. Both dogs collapsed with frostbite, with Evans having to take their place himself pulling the sled. He arrived at 10 am; both dogs were dead. Tommy Patsy departed within half an hour.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: The serum then parted ways with the Yukon River as the river turned south and the trail crossed the Kaltag Portage west to the coast. Athabascan Jack Nicolai aka "Jackscrew" took it up the first half of the portage to Old Woman Cabin and Victor Anagick of the Inupiat village Unalakleet, having driven up to meet him there, took it down the second half, handing it to his fellow villager Myles Gonangnan on the shores of Norton Sound in Unalakleet on January 31 at 5 am. Gonangnan saw the signs of a storm brewing, and decided not to take the shortcut across the dangerous ice of the Sound. He departed at 5:30 am, and as he crossed the hills, "the eddies of drifting, swirling snow passing between the dog's legs and under the bellies made them appear to be fording a fast running river." The whiteout conditions cleared as he reached the shore, and the gale-force winds drove the wind chill to . At 3 pm he arrived at Shaktoolik. Seppala was not there, but Henry Ivanoff was waiting just in case.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: On January 30, the number of cases in Nome had reached 27 and the antitoxin was depleted. According to a reporter living in Nome, "All hope is in the dogs and their heroic drivers ... Nome appears to be a deserted city." With the report of Gonangnan's progress on January 31, Welch believed the serum would arrive there in February.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: Leonhard Seppala and his dog sled team, with his lead dog Togo, traveled from Nome from January 27 to January 31 into the oncoming storm. They took the shortcut across the Norton Sound, and headed toward Shaktoolik. The temperature in Nome was a relatively warm , but in Shaktoolik the temperature was estimated at , and the gale force winds causing a wind chill of .


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: Henry Ivanoff's team ran into a reindeer and got tangled up just outside Shaktoolik. Seppala still believed he had more than to the original relay point in Nulato to go and had raced to get off the Norton Sound before the storm hit. He was passing the team when Ivanoff shouted, "The serum! The serum! I have it here!"


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: Seppala turned around with the serum but it was dark by the time he got to Ungalik. But with the news of the worsening epidemic Ivanoff had shared, he decided not to stop and once again set out to brave the storm across the of exposed open ice of the Norton Sound. The temperature was estimated at , but the wind chill with the gale force winds was . Togo led the team in a straight line through the dark, and they arrived at the roadhouse in Isaac's Point on the other side at 8 pm. In one day, they had traveled , averaging . The team rested, and departed at 2 am into the full power of the storm.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: During the night the temperature dropped to , and the wind increased to storm force (at least 65 mph []). While they slept, it had blown out to sea all the ice Seppala had just crossed. There was still some ice close to shore for the next part of their journey along the coast, but it was rough and starting to break up, too. They stuck close to shore and Togo picked his way carefully until they were back on solid ground. Next they had to cross Little McKinley Mountain (), another of the toughest parts of the trail because of the many up-and-down ridges. The total elevation climbed in that section of over is . After descending to the next roadhouse in Golovin, Seppala passed the serum to Charlie Olsen on February 1 at 3 pm.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: On February 1, the number of cases in Nome rose to 28. The serum en route was sufficient to treat 30 people. With the powerful blizzard raging and winds of , Welch ordered a stop to the relay until the storm passed, reasoning that a delay was better than the risk of losing it all. Messages were left at Solomon and Point Safety before the lines went dead.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: Olsen was blown off the trail, and suffered severe frostbite in his hands while putting blankets on his dogs. The wind chill was . He arrived at Bluff on February 1 at 7 pm in poor shape. Gunnar Kaasen waited until 10 pm for the storm to break, but it only got worse and the drifts would soon block the trail so he departed into a headwind.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: Kaasen traveled through the night, through drifts, and river overflow over the Topkok Mountain. Balto led the team through visibility so poor that Kaasen could not always see the dogs harnessed closest to the sled. He was two miles (3 km) past Solomon before he realized it, and kept going. The winds after Solomon were so severe that his sled flipped over and he almost lost the cylinder containing the serum when it fell off and became buried in the snow. He also suffered frostbite when he had to use his bare hands to feel for the cylinder.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: Kaasen reached Point Safety ahead of schedule on February 2, at 3 am. Ed Rohn believed that Kaasen and the relay was halted at Solomon, so he was sleeping. Since the weather was improving, it would take time to prepare Rohn's team, and Balto and the other dogs were moving well, Kaasen pressed on the remaining to Nome, reaching Front Street at 5:30 am. Not a single ampule was broken, and the antitoxin was thawed and ready by noon.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: Together, the teams covered the in 127 hours, which was considered a world record, done in extreme subzero temperatures in near-blizzard conditions and hurricane-force winds. A number of dogs died during the trip.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: Margaret Curran from the Solomon roadhouse was infected, which raised fears that the disease might spread from patrons of the roadhouse to other communities. The 1.1 million units had left Seattle on January 31, and were not due by dog sled until February 8. Welch asked for half the serum to be delivered by aircraft from Fairbanks. He contacted Thompson and Sutherland, and Darling made a test flight the next morning. With his health advisor, Governor Bone concluded the cases in Nome were actually going down, and withheld permission, but preparations went ahead. The U.S. Navy moved a minesweeper north from Seattle, and the Signal Corps were ordered to light fires to guide the planes.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: By February 3, the original 300,000 units had proved to be still effective, and the epidemic was under control. A sixth death, probably unrelated to diphtheria, was widely reported as a new outbreak of the disease. The batch from Seattle arrived on board the "Admiral Watson" on February 7. Acceding to pressure, Governor Bone authorized half to be delivered by plane. On February 8 the first half of the second shipment began its trip by dog sled, while the plane failed to start when a broken radiator shutter caused the engine to overheat. The plane failed the next day as well, and the mission was scrapped. Thompson was gracious in his editorials.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: The second relay included many of the same drivers, and also faced harsh conditions. Ed Rohn delivered the serum to Nome during another blizzard after a run on February 15.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: The death toll from diphtheria in Nome is officially listed as either 5, 6, or 7, but Welch later estimated there were probably at least 100 additional cases among "the Eskimo camps outside the city. The Natives have a habit of burying their children without reporting the death." Forty-three new cases were diagnosed in 1926, but they were easily managed with the fresh supply of serum.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: All participants in the dogsleds received letters of commendation from President Calvin Coolidge, and the Senate stopped work to recognize the event. Each musher during the first relay received a gold medal from the H. K. Mulford Company. The mayor of Los Angeles presented a bone-shaped key to the city to Balto in front of City Hall; silent-film actress Mary Pickford put a wreath around the canine's neck. Poems and letters from children poured in, and spontaneous fundraising campaigns sprang up around the country.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: Gunnar Kaasen and his team became celebrities and toured the West Coast from February 1925 to February 1926, and even starred in a 30-minute film entitled "Balto's Race to Nome". A statue of Balto by sculptor Frederick Roth was unveiled in New York City's Central Park during a visit on December 15, 1925. Balto and the other dogs later became part of a sideshow and lived in horrible conditions until they were rescued by George Kimble, who organized a fundraising campaign by the children of Cleveland, Ohio. On March 19, 1927, the dogs received a hero's welcome as they arrived at their permanent home at the Cleveland Zoo. Because of his age, Balto was euthanised on March 14, 1933, at the age of 14. He was mounted and placed on display in the Cleveland Museum of Natural History.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: In October 1926, Seppala took Togo and his team on a tour from Seattle to California, and then across the Midwest to New England, and consistently drew huge crowds. They were featured at Madison Square Garden in New York City for 10 days, and Togo received a gold medal from Roald Amundsen. In New England Seppala's team of Siberians ran in many races, easily defeating the local Chinooks of Arthur Walden. Seppala entered into a partnership with Elizabeth M. Ricker in Poland Spring, Maine, where many of his dogs went to live in retirement and contribute to their breeding program of Siberian sled dogs, including Togo who sired many litters. Seppala visited Togo, and was by his side when he was euthanized on December 5, 1929 at the age of 16. After his death, Seppala had Togo preserved and mounted, and today the dog is on display in a glass case at the Iditarod museum in Wasilla, Alaska. Togo's prowess as a sled dog, also led to his strengths being preserved through breeding, with his descendants contributing to the "Seppala Siberian Sleddog", a sought after working sled dog line, as well as the mainstream show-stock Siberian Husky gene pool.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: None of the other mushers received the same degree of attention, though Wild Bill Shannon briefly toured with Blackie. The media largely ignored the Alaska Native mushers, who covered two-thirds of the distance to Nome. According to Edgar Kalland, "it was just an everyday occurrence as far as we were concerned."


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: The serum race helped spur the Kelly Act, which was signed into law on February 2. The bill allowed private aviation companies to bid on mail delivery contracts. Technology improved and within a decade, air mail routes were established in Alaska. The last mail delivery by private dog sled under contract took place in 1938, and the last U.S. Post Office dog sled route closed in 1963. Dog sledding remained popular in the rural interior but became nearly extinct when snowmobiles spread in the 1960s. Mushing was revitalized as a recreational sport in the 1970s with the immense popularity of the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: While the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race, which runs more than from Anchorage to Nome, is actually based on the All-Alaska Sweepstakes, it has many traditions that commemorate the race to deliver the serum to Nome, especially Seppala and Togo. The honorary musher for the first seven races was Leonhard Seppala. Other serum run participants, including "Wild Bill" Shannon, Edgar Kalland, Bill McCarty, Charlie Evans, Edgar Nollner, Harry Pitka, and Henry Ivanoff have also been honored. The 2005 Iditarod honored Jirdes Winther Baxter, the last known survivor of the epidemic. The position is now known as Leonhard Seppala's Honorary Musher, the Leonhard Seppala Humanitarian Award is given to the musher who provides the best dog care while still remaining competitive, and the Leonhard Seppala Heritage Grant is an Iditarod scholarship. The two races follow the same route from Ruby to Nome.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: A reenactment of the serum run was held in 1975, which took 6 days longer than the 1925 serum run, or more than twice the total time. Many of the participants were descendants of the original 20. In 1985, President Ronald Reagan sent a letter of recognition to Charlie Evans, Edgar Nollner, and Bill McCarty, the only remaining survivors. Nollner was the last to die, on January 18, 1999, of a heart attack.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: The relay has been immortalized in various media. Shortly before WWII Czech teacher and writer František Omelka was fascinated by the story which resulted in the novella Štafeta (Relay) published in Czech in 1946. As an avid Esperantist, Omelka himself translated it into Esperanto with subsequent translations into German, Dutch, Frisian, Icelandic, Chinese and Japanese being published. There is also an English edition published under the name "Relay" by now defunct publishing house Jaspis. In 1976, the story was retold in "Race against Death: A True Story of the Far North", by noted children's author Seymour Reit, which was featured in a 1978 episode of "The Book Bird", a long-running anthology of children's literature on PBS. The 1995 animated film "Balto" was loosely based on the events of the final leg of the serum run, although all of the characters besides Balto, and subplots, are fictional. A detailed recounting of the people and events involved in the serum run, including the story of the native mushers and the local nurses who attended to the sick and dying, is given in the 2003 book, "The Cruelest Miles: The Heroic Story of Dogs and Men in a Race Against an Epidemic", by Gay and Laney Salisbury. In 2013, a documentary titled "Icebound – The Greatest Dog Story Ever Told", focused on the aftermath of the events. The Great Alaskan Race, a 2019 film, produced by Rebel Road Entertainment, is based on the serum run. "Togo", produced by Walt Disney Pictures, debuted on December 20, 2019 on Disney+.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: There is much controversy surrounding Balto's role in the serum run and the statue in Central Park. A premier musher, Seppala ran east from Nome to just outside Shaktoolik, where he met the serum runner (to his surprise, since he had anticipated having to go all the way to Nulato and back alone), took the handoff, and returned another , having run over across some of the most dangerous and treacherous parts of the run in total. He then handed the serum off to Charlie Olson. Olson carried it to Bluff where he turned it over to Gunnar Kaasen. Kaasen was supposed to hand off the serum to Rohn at Port Safety, but Rohn had gone to sleep and Kaasen decided to keep going to Nome. In all, Kaasen and Balto ran a total of . Kaasen maintained that he decided to continue since there were no lights on in the cabin where Rohn was sleeping and he didn't want to waste time, but many, including Rohn based on conversations the two men had before leaving Nome, and other decorated mushers in the surrounding area, thought his decision to not wake Rohn was motivated by a desire to grab the glory for himself and Balto.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: According to Togo's musher, Leonhard Seppala, who was also Balto's owner, Balto was a scrub freight dog that he left behind when he set out on the trip. He also asserted that Kaasen's lead dog was actually a dog named Fox, but that news agents of the time thought that Balto was a more newsworthy name. No record exists of Seppala ever having used Balto as a leader in runs or races prior to 1925, and Seppala himself stated Balto "was never in a winning team." Because the pictures and video of Kaasen and Balto taken in Nome were recreated hours after their arrival once the sun had risen, speculation still exists as to whether Balto's position as lead dog was genuine, or was staged or exaggerated for media purposes.


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: The Central Park statue of Balto was modeled after Balto, but shows him wearing Togo's colors (awards). The inscription reads, "Dedicated to the indomitable spirit of the sled dogs that relayed antitoxin 600 miles over rough ice, across treacherous waters, through arctic blizzards, from Nenana to the relief of stricken Nome." In the last years of his life Seppala was heartbroken by the way the credit had gone to Balto; in his mind, Togo was the real hero of the serum race. According to the National Park Service, in 1960 Seppala said:


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: Katy Steinmetz, writing in "Time" magazine, also thought that Togo was the greatest sled dog of all time. In the serum run, she wrote, Togo was the real hero:


title: 1925 serum run to Nome

text: Mushers (in order) and the distances they covered. Most legs were planned to be about long, generally accepted as an "extreme day's mush".


title: Dayak people

text: The Dayak (; older spelling: Dajak) or Dyak or Dayuh are one of the native groups of Borneo. It is a loose term for over 200 riverine and hill-dwelling ethnic groups, located principally in the central and southern interior of Borneo, each with its own dialect, customs, laws, territory, and culture, although common distinguishing traits are readily identifiable. Dayak languages are categorised as part of the Austronesian languages. The Dayak were animist (Kaharingan and Folk Hindus) in belief; however, since the 19th century there has been mass conversion to Christianity as well as Islam due to the spreading of Abrahamic religions.


title: Dayak people

text: It is commonly assumed that the name originates from the Bruneian and Melanau word for “interior people”, without any reference to an exact ethnic group. The term was adopted by Dutch and German authors as an umbrella term for any non-Muslim natives of Borneo. Thus, the difference between Dayaks and non-Dayaks natives could be understood as a religious distinction. English writers disapproved the classification made by the Dutch and Germans, with James Brooke preferring to use the term Dayak for only two distinct groups, the Land (Bidayuh) and Sea Dayaks (Iban).


title: Dayak people

text: The Dutch practice since the 19th century has eventually gained traction in Indonesia, as a definition to all indigenous non-Muslim tribes in the island until today. In Malaysia, the term Dayak generally remains as an almost exclusively reference to the Iban (previously referred as Sea Dayaks) and Bidayuh (known as Land Dayak in the past).


title: Dayak people

text: Dayaks do not speak just one language. Their indigenous languages belong to different subgroups of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, such as Land Dayak, Malayic, Sabahan, and Barito languages. Nowadays most Dayaks are bilingual, in addition to their native language, are well-versed in Indonesian and Malay, depending on their country of origin. Many of Borneo's languages are endemic (which means they are spoken nowhere else). This cultural and linguistic diversity parallels the high biodiversity and related traditional knowledge of Borneo.


title: Dayak people

text: It is estimated that around 170 languages and dialects are spoken on the island and some by just a few hundred people, thus posing a serious risk to the future of those languages and related heritage.


title: Dayak people

text: In 1954, Tjilik Riwut classified the various Dayak groups into 18 tribes throughout the island of Borneo, with 403 sub-tribes according to their respective native languages, customs, and cultures. However, he did not specify the name of the sub-tribes in his publication:


title: Dayak people

text: Before colonialism some Dayak people practiced Hinduism, likely due to influence from the Majapahit empire, the practice and presence of Hinduism can be seen as early as 960 A.D., when Hindu ornaments dating to this time were found in the Sarawak river. Other evidence of the Hindu religion being practiced by the Dayak people were the presence of several idols, including one of Nandi, the name of their deity, Jewata, from Javanese Hinduism, the belief in the sacredness of the cow, loanwords from Hinduism such as "Padma" for a plant and "Sakara" for a constellation, and the practice of cremation of their dead. Some of the earliest kingdoms and states in Borneo established by the Dayaks were known to practice Hinduism, including Wijayapura, Kutai, and Bangkule Sultankng.


title: Dayak people

text: Archeologists and historians have been arguing about whether Dayaks established the oldest kingdom known to date in the Indonesian archipelago, Nan Sarunai Kingdom. The existence of this kingdom was based on several carved tomb stones and Dayak folk song "Usak Jawa" which is thought to refer to Majapahit conquest of Nan Sarunai in 13th to 14th centuries. It was suspected by archeologists from radiocarbon dating to exist since as early as 200BC, several centuries earlier than verified oldest kingdom in the archipelago, Kutai Kingdom. This is however disputed by historians, citing another result which yield date in 8th century and that Candi Agung, one of the archeological sites where Nan Sarunai's age were derived, was not built by Nan Sarunai according to Hikayat Banjar and was instead built by the polity established by the invader, (Negara Dipa) in 14th century. If the radiocarbon results are correct, the ownership of the older site of which Candi Agung was built over by Nan Sarunai is also debatable as they did not leave written records.


title: Dayak people

text: In Indonesia, the Dayak indigenous religion has been given the name Kaharingan, and may be said to be a form of animism. In 1945, during the Japanese occupation, the Japanese referred to Kaharingan as the religion of the Dayak people. During the New Order in the Suharto regime in 1980, the Kaharingan is registered as a form of Hinduism in Indonesia, as the Indonesian state only recognises 6 forms of religion i.e. Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism respectively. The integration of Kaharingan with Hinduism is not due to the similarities in the theological system, but due to the fact that Kaharingan is the oldest belief in Kalimantan. Unlike the development in Indonesian Kalimantan, Kaharingan is not used as a religious designation in Malaysian and Brunei, thus the traditional Dayak belief system is categorized as a form of folk animism or paganism outside of the Indonesian border.


title: Dayak people

text: The practice of Kaharingan differs from group to group, but shamans, specialists in ecstatic flight to other spheres, are central to Dayak religion and serve to bring together the various realms of Heaven (Upper-world) and earth, and even Under-world, for example healing the sick by retrieving their souls which are journeying on their way to the Upper-world land of the dead, accompanying and protecting the soul of a dead person on the way to their proper place in the Upper-world, presiding over annual renewal and agricultural regeneration festivals, etc. Death rituals are most elaborate when a noble ("kamang") dies. Due to institutionalization of Kaharingan beliefs in Indonesia, Kaharingan practices in Kalimantan has been recently codified and remolded into a more organized religion, such as with codification of "Panaturan" as scripture of Kaharingan in 1971, creation of official Kaharingan body Hindu Kaharingan Religion Council ("Majelis Agama Hindu Kaharingan") in 1980, and standarization of its house of worship buildings called "Balai Basarah" .


title: Dayak people

text: Over the last two centuries, many Dayaks have converted to Christianity, making them the majority of Christians in Borneo, abandoning certain cultural rites and traditional practices in the process. Christianity was introduced by European missionaries in Borneo by Rheinische Missionsgesellschaft (later followed up by the Basler Mission). Religious differences between Muslim and Christian natives of Borneo has led, at various times, to communal tensions. Relations, however between all religious groups are generally good.


title: Dayak people

text: Traditionally, in many parts of Borneo, embracing Muslim faith is equated with Malayisation (Indonesian/Malay: ), i.e. assimilation into the broader Malay ethnicity. There are, however, several Dayak sub-ethnicities (mainly in Central Kalimantan) which predominantly adhere to Islam, but nevertheless self-identify as Dayaks. These include e.g. the Bakumpai people, who converted to Islam in the 19th century, but still have strong linguistic and cultural ties to the Ngaju people. They have adopted a positive attitude towards the label "Dayak" and self-identify as "Muslim Dayaks".


title: Dayak people

text: Historically, most of the Dayak people are swidden cultivators who supplement their incomes by seeking forest products, both for subsistence (ferns, medicinal plants, fibers, and timber) and for sale; by fishing and hunting and by periodic wage labor. Presently, many modern-day Dayaks are also actively engaged in many contemporary economic activities, especially in the urban areas of Borneo.


title: Dayak people

text: In the Indonesian region, toplessness was the norm among the Dayak people, Javanese, and the Balinese people of Indonesia before the introduction of Islam and contact with Western cultures. In Javanese and Balinese societies, women worked or rested comfortably topless. Among the Dayak, only big breasted women or married women with sagging breasts cover their breasts because they interfered with their work. Once shirts are available, toplessness has been abandoned.


title: Dayak people

text: In the traditional Dayak society, the long house is regarded as the heart of the community, it functioned as the village, as well as the societal architectural expression. These large building, sometimes exceeds 200 meters long, may have divided into independent household apartments. The building is also equipped with communal areas for cooking, ceremonies, socializing and blacksmithing.


title: Dayak people

text: The superstructure is not solely revolves on architecture and design. It is a part of the Dayak traditional political entity and administrative system. Thus, culturally the people residing in the longhouse are governed by the customs and traditions of the longhouse.


title: Dayak people

text: Metal-working is elaborately developed in making (machetes – in Malay and Indonesian). The blade is made of softer iron, to prevent breakage, with a narrow strip of a harder iron wedged into a slot in the cutting edge for sharpness in a process called (iron-smithing).


title: Dayak people

text: In headhunting, it was necessary to be able to draw the quickly. For this purpose, the is fairly short, which also better serves the purpose of trail cutting in dense forests. It is holstered with the cutting edge facing upwards and at that side, there is an upward protrusion on the handle, so it can be drawn very quickly with the side of the hand without having to reach over and grasp the handle first. The hand can then grasp the handle while it is being drawn. The combination of these three factors (short, cutting edge up and protrusion) makes for an extremely fast drawing-action.


title: Dayak people

text: In the past, the Dayaks were feared for their ancient tradition of headhunting practices (the ritual is also known as "Ngayau" by the Dayaks).


title: Dayak people

text: Among the most prominent legacy during the colonial rule in the Dutch Borneo (present-day Kalimantan) is the "Tumbang Anoi Agreement" held in 1874 in Damang Batu, Central Kalimantan (the seat of the Kahayan Dayaks). It is a formal meeting that gathered all the Dayak tribes in Kalimantan for a peace resolution. In the meeting that is reputed taken several months, the Dayak people throughout the Kalimantan agreed to end the headhunting tradition as it believed the tradition caused conflict and tension between various Dayak groups. The meeting ended with a peace resolution by the Dayak people.


title: Dayak people

text: Subsequently, the headhunting began to surface again in the mid-1940s, when the Allied powers encouraged the practice against the Japanese occupation of Borneo. It also slightly surged in the late 1960s when the Indonesian government encouraged Dayaks to purge the Chinese from interior Kalimantan who were suspected of supporting communism in mainland China and also in the late 1990s when the Dayak started to attack Madurese emigrants in an explosion of ethnic violence.


title: Dayak people

text: The Dayak soldiers or trackers are regarded as equivalent in bravery to the Royal Scots or the Gurkha soldiers. The Sarawak Rangers was absorbed into the British Army as the Far East Land Forces which could be deployed anywhere in the world but upon the formation of Malaysia in 1963, it formed the basis of the present day Royal Ranger Regiment.


title: Dayak people

text: While in Indonesia, Tjilik Riwut was remembered as he led the first airborne operation by Indonesian National Armed Forces on 17 October 1947. The team was known as MN 1001, with 17 October celebrated annually as the anniversary date for the Indonesian Air Force Paskhas, which traces its origins to that pioneer paratroop operation in Borneo.


title: Division of the Mongol Empire

text: The division of the Mongol Empire began when Möngke Khan died in 1259 in the siege of Diaoyu Castle with no declared successor, precipitating infighting between members of the Tolui family line for the title of khagan that escalated into the Toluid Civil War. This civil war, along with the Berke–Hulagu war and the subsequent Kaidu–Kublai war, greatly weakened the authority of the great khan over the entirety of the Mongol Empire, and the empire fractured into four khanates: the Golden Horde in Eastern Europe, the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia, the Ilkhanate in Southwest Asia, and the Yuan dynasty in East Asia based in modern-day Beijing – although the Yuan emperors held the nominal title of khagan of the empire. The four divisions each pursued their own interests and objectives and fell at different times.


title: Division of the Mongol Empire

text: Möngke Khan's brother Hulagu Khan broke off his successful military advance into Syria, withdrawing the bulk of his forces to Mughan and leaving only a small contingent under his general Kitbuqa. The opposing forces in the region, the Christian Crusaders and Muslim Mamluks, both recognizing that the Mongols were the greater threat, took advantage of the weakened state of the Mongol army and engaged in an unusual passive truce with each other.


title: Division of the Mongol Empire

text: In 1260, the Mamluks advanced from Egypt, being allowed to camp and resupply near the Christian stronghold of Acre, and engaged Kitbuqa's forces just north of Galilee, at the Battle of Ain Jalut. The Mongols were defeated, and Kitbuqa was executed. This pivotal battle marked the western limit for Mongol expansion, as the Mongols were never again able to make any serious military advances farther than Syria.


title: Division of the Mongol Empire

text: In a separate part of the empire, another brother of Hulagu and Möngke, Kublai, heard of the great khan's death at the Huai River in China proper. Rather than returning to the capital, he continued his advance into Wuchang, near the Yangtze River. Their younger brother Ariq Böke took advantage of the absence of Hulagu and Kublai, and used his position at the capital to win the title of great khan (khagan) for himself, with representatives of all the family branches proclaiming him as the leader at the "kurultai" in Karakorum. When Kublai learned of this, he summoned his own "kurultai" at Kaiping, where virtually all the senior princes and great noyans resident in North China and Manchuria supported his own candidacy over that of Ariq Böke.


title: Division of the Mongol Empire

text: Battles ensued between the armies of Kublai and those of his brother Ariq Böke, which included forces still loyal to Möngke's previous administration. Kublai's army easily eliminated Ariq Böke's supporters and seized control of the civil administration in southern Mongolia. Further challenges took place from their cousins, the Chagataids. Kublai sent Abishka, a Chagataid prince loyal to him, to take charge of Chagatai's realm. However, Ariq Böke captured and then executed Abishka, having his own man Alghu crowned there instead. Kublai's new administration blockaded Ariq Böke in Mongolia to cut off food supplies, causing a famine. Karakorum fell quickly to Kublai, but Ariqboke rallied and retook the capital in 1261.


title: Division of the Mongol Empire

text: In the southwestern Ilkhanate, Hulagu was loyal to his brother Kublai, but clashes with their cousin Berke, the ruler of the Golden Horde in the northwestern part of the empire, began in 1262. The suspicious deaths of Jochid princes in Hulagu's service, unequal distribution of war booty, and Hulagu's massacres of the Muslims increased the anger of Berke, who considered supporting a rebellion of the Georgian Kingdom against Hulagu's rule in 1259–1260. Berke also forged an alliance with the Egyptian Mamluks against Hulagu and supported Kublai's rival claimant, Ariqboke.


title: Division of the Mongol Empire

text: Hulagu died on February 8, 1264. Berke sought to take advantage and invade Hulagu's realm, but he died along the way, and a few months later, Alghu Khan of the Chagatai Khanate died as well. Kublai named Hulagu's son Abaqa as a new ilkhan, and Abaqa sought foreign alliances, such as attempting to form a Franco-Mongol alliance with the Europeans against the Egyptian Mamluks. Kublai nominated Batu's grandson Möngke Temür to lead the Golden Horde. Ariqboqe surrendered to Kublai at Shangdu on August 21, 1264.


title: Division of the Mongol Empire

text: The establishment of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) by Kublai (Emperor Shizu) accelerated the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire. The Mongol Empire fractured into four khanates. Two of these, the Yuan dynasty and the Ilkhanate, were ruled by the line of Tolui. The Golden Horde was founded by the line of Jochi, while the Chagatai Khanate was founded by Chagatai. In 1304, a peace treaty among the khanates established the nominal supremacy of the Yuan dynasty over the western khanates. However, this supremacy was based on nothing like the same foundations as that of the earlier khagans. Conflicts such as border clashes among them continued. An example would be the Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war occurred in the 1310s. The four khanates continued to function as separate states and fell at different times.


title: Division of the Mongol Empire

text: The transition of the capital of the Mongol Empire to Khanbaliq (Dadu, modern-day Beijing) by Kublai in 1264 was opposed by many conservative Mongols. Thus, Ariq Böke's struggle was for keeping the center of the empire in the traditional Mongol homeland of Outer Mongolia. After Ariq Böke's death, the struggle was continued by Kaidu, a grandson of Ogedei Khan and lord Nayan.


title: Division of the Mongol Empire

text: By eliminating the Song dynasty in 1279, Kublai completed the conquest of China proper. The fleets of the Yuan dynasty attempted to invade Japan in 1274 and 1281, but both invasions failed, and a large number of their ships were destroyed in sea storms called kamikazes (divine wind) on both occasions. The ordinary people experienced hardships during the Yuan dynasty. Hence, Mongol warriors rebelled against Kublai in 1289. Kublai died in 1294 and was succeeded by Temür (Emperor Chengzong), who continued the fight against Kaidu, which lasted until Kaidu's death in 1301. Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan came to power in 1312. The civil service examination system was instituted in the Yuan dynasty in 1313.


title: Division of the Mongol Empire

text: A rebellion called the Red Turban Rebellion began in the 1350s and the Yuan dynasty was overthrown by the Ming dynasty in 1368. The last Yuan emperor, Toghon Temür (Emperor Huizong), fled north to Yingchang and died there in 1370. The Yuan remnants, which had retreated to the Mongolian Plateau, are known in historiography as the Northern Yuan dynasty and continued to resist the Ming dynasty until it was conquered by the Jurchen-led Later Jin dynasty (predecessor of the Qing dynasty) in 1635.


title: Division of the Mongol Empire

text: The Golden Horde was founded by Batu, son of Jochi, in 1243. The Golden Horde included the Volga region, mountains of Ural, the steppes of the northern Black Sea, Fore-Caucasus, Western Siberia, Aral Sea and Irtysh bassin, and held principalities of Rus in tributary relations.


title: Division of the Mongol Empire

text: The capital was initially Sarai Batu and later Sarai Berke. This extensive empire weakened under rivalry of the descendants of Batu and split into Kazakh Khanate, Khanate of Kazan, Astrakhan Khanate, Crimean Khanate, Siberia Khanate, Great Horde, Nogai Horde and White Horde during the 15th century. A unified Rus conquered Khanate of Kazan in 1552, Astrakhan Khanate in 1556, Siberia Khanate in 1582, and the Russian Empire conquered Crimean Khanate in 1783.


title: Division of the Mongol Empire

text: The Chagatai Khanate separated in 1266 and covered Central Asia, Lake Balkhash, Kashgaria, Afghanistan and Zhetysu. It was split between settled Transoxania (Ma Wara'un-Nahr) in the west and nomadic Moghulistan in the east. It is claimed that parts of them still spoke Mongolian until the late 16th century.


title: Division of the Mongol Empire

text: Moghulistan gained strength during the rule of Timur (1395–1405), a warlord from Barlas clan. Timur defeated Tokhtamysh Khan of Golden Horde in 1395 and deprived him of Fore-Caucasus. He destroyed the army of the Ottoman sultan near Ankara, the event which delayed an Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire for half a century. The Timurid Empire fragmented shortly after he died.


title: Division of the Mongol Empire

text: Timur's grandson Ulugh Beg (1409–1449) ruled Transoxania and during his rule trade and economy of Transoxania achieved significant development. Ulugh Beg built an astronomical observatory near Samarkand in 1429 and wrote his work Zij-i-Sultani, which comprises the theories of astronomy and a catalogue of over 1000 stars with their precise positions on the celestial sphere.


title: Division of the Mongol Empire

text: A long rivalry of Moghulistan with the Oirats for trade routes ended with its defeat by the Oirats in 1530. Babur, a Timurid ruler of Kabul, conquered most of India in 1526 and founded the Mughal Empire. The Mughal Empire fractured into several lesser states in the 18th and 19th century due to Maratha uprising and later the capital of the former empire was conquered by the British Empire in 1858.


title: Division of the Mongol Empire

text: The Ilkhanate, ruled by the Toluid House of Hulagu, formed in 1256 and comprised Iran, Iraq, Transcaucasus, eastern Asia Minor and western Turkestan. While the early rulers of the khanate increasingly adopted Tibetan Buddhism, the Mongol rulers converted to Islam after the enthronement of Ilkhan Ghazan (1295–1304). In 1300, Rashid-al-Din Hamadani in cooperation with Mongol historians commenced writing "Jami al-Tawarikh" (Sudur un Chigulgan, Compendium of Chronicles) under Ghazan's order. The work was completed in 1311 during the reign of Ilkhan Öljeitü (1304–1316). "Altan Debter", written by a Mongol historian Bolad Chinsan, served as a basis for writing "Jami al-Tawarikh". After the death of Abu Sa'id (1316–1335) the Ilkhanate disintegrated rapidly into several states. The most prominent one was the Jalayrid dynasty, ruled by descendants of Mukhali of Jalair.


title: Bhāskara II

text: Bhāskara II (c. 1114–1185), also known as Bhāskarāchārya ("Bhāskara, the teacher"), and as Bhāskara II to avoid confusion with Bhāskara I, was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. From verses, in his main work, Siddhānta Shiromani (सिद्धांतशिरोमणी), it can be inferred that he was born in 1114 in Vijjadavida (Vijjalavida) and living in the Sahyadri mountain ranges of Western Ghats, believed to be the town of Patan in Chalisgaon, located in present-day Khandesh region of Maharashtra by scholars. He is the only ancient mathematician who has been immortalized on a monument. In a temple in Maharashtra, an inscription supposedly created by his grandson Changadeva, lists Bhaskaracharya's ancestral lineage for several generations before him as well as two generations after him. Colebrooke who was the first European to translate (1817) Bhaskaracharya II's mathematical classics refers to the family as Maharashtrian Brahmins residing on the banks of the Godavari.


title: Bhāskara II

text: Born in a Hindu Deshastha Brahmin family of scholars, mathematicians and astronomers, Bhaskara II was the leader of a cosmic observatory at Ujjain, the main mathematical centre of ancient India. Bhāskara and his works represent a significant contribution to mathematical and astronomical knowledge in the 12th century. He has been called the greatest mathematician of medieval India. His main work "Siddhānta-Śiromaṇi," (Sanskrit for "Crown of Treatises") is divided into four parts called "Līlāvatī", "Bījagaṇita", "Grahagaṇita" and "Golādhyāya", which are also sometimes considered four independent works. These four sections deal with arithmetic, algebra, mathematics of the planets, and spheres respectively. He also wrote another treatise named Karaṇā Kautūhala.


title: Bhāskara II

text: Bhāskara gives his date of birth, and date of composition of his major work, in a verse in the Āryā metre:


title: Bhāskara II

text: This reveals that he was born in 1036 of the Shaka era (1114 CE), and that he composed the "Siddhānta Shiromani" when he was 36 years old. Siddhānta Shiromani was completed during 1150 CE. He also wrote another work called the "Karaṇa-kutūhala" when he was 69 (in 1183). His works show the influence of Brahmagupta, Śrīdhara, Mahāvīra, Padmanābha and other predecessors. Bhaskara lived in Patnadevi located near Patan (Chalisgaon) in the vicinity of Sahyadri.


title: Bhāskara II

text: Munishvara (17th century), a commentator on Siddhānta Shiromani of Bhaskara has given the information about the location of Vijjadavida in his work Marīci Tīkā as follows:


title: Bhāskara II

text: This description locates Vijjalavida in Maharashtra, near the Vidarbha region and close to the banks of Godavari river. However scholars differ about the exact location. Many scholars have placed the place near Patan in (Chalisgaon Taluka of Jalgaon district) whereas a section of scholars identified it with the modern day Beed city. Some sources identified Vijjalavida as Bijapur or Bidar in Karnataka. Identification of Vijjalavida with Basar in Telangana has also been suggested.


title: Bhāskara II

text: Bhāskara is said to have been the head of an astronomical observatory at Ujjain, the leading mathematical centre of medieval India. History records his great-great-great-grandfather holding a hereditary post as a court scholar, as did his son and other descendants. His father Maheśvara (Maheśvaropādhyāya) was a mathematician, astronomer and astrologer, who taught him mathematics, which he later passed on to his son Lokasamudra. Lokasamudra's son helped to set up a school in 1207 for the study of Bhāskara's writings. He died in 1185 CE.


title: Bhāskara II

text: The first section "Līlāvatī" (also known as "pāṭīgaṇita" or "aṅkagaṇita"), named after his daughter, consists of 277 verses. It covers calculations, progressions, measurement, permutations, and other topics.


title: Bhāskara II

text: The second section "Bījagaṇita"(Algebra) has 213 verses. It discusses zero, infinity, positive and negative numbers, and indeterminate equations including (the now called) Pell's equation, solving it using a "kuṭṭaka" method. In particular, he also solved the formula_1 case that was to elude Fermat and his European contemporaries centuries later.


title: Bhāskara II

text: In the third section "Grahagaṇita", while treating the motion of planets, he considered their instantaneous speeds. He arrived at the approximation: It consists of 451 verses


title: Bhāskara II

text: This result had also been observed earlier by Muñjalācārya (or Mañjulācārya) mānasam, in the context of a table of sines.


title: Bhāskara II

text: Bhaskara's arithmetic text "Līlāvatī" covers the topics of definitions, arithmetical terms, interest computation, arithmetical and geometrical progressions, plane geometry, solid geometry, the shadow of the gnomon, methods to solve indeterminate equations, and combinations.


title: Bhāskara II

text: "Līlāvatī" is divided into 13 chapters and covers many branches of mathematics, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and a little trigonometry and measurement. More specifically the contents include:


title: Bhāskara II

text: His work is outstanding for its systematisation, improved methods and the new topics that he introduced. Furthermore, the "Lilavati" contained excellent problems and it is thought that Bhaskara's intention may have been that a student of 'Lilavati' should concern himself with the mechanical application of the method.


title: Bhāskara II

text: His "Bījaganita" (""Algebra"") was a work in twelve chapters. It was the first text to recognize that a positive number has two square roots (a positive and negative square root). His work "Bījaganita" is effectively a treatise on algebra and contains the following topics:


title: Bhāskara II

text: Bhaskara derived a cyclic, "chakravala" method for solving indeterminate quadratic equations of the form ax + bx + c = y. Bhaskara's method for finding the solutions of the problem Nx + 1 = y (the so-called "Pell's equation") is of considerable importance.


title: Bhāskara II

text: The "Siddhānta Shiromani" (written in 1150) demonstrates Bhaskara's knowledge of trigonometry, including the sine table and relationships between different trigonometric functions. He also developed spherical trigonometry, along with other interesting trigonometrical results. In particular Bhaskara seemed more interested in trigonometry for its own sake than his predecessors who saw it only as a tool for calculation. Among the many interesting results given by Bhaskara, results found in his works include computation of sines of angles of 18 and 36 degrees, and the now well known formulae for formula_6 and formula_7.


title: Bhāskara II

text: His work, the "Siddhānta Shiromani", is an astronomical treatise and contains many theories not found in earlier works. Preliminary concepts of infinitesimal calculus and mathematical analysis, along with a number of results in trigonometry, differential calculus and integral calculus that are found in the work are of particular interest.


title: Bhāskara II

text: Evidence suggests Bhaskara was acquainted with some ideas of differential calculus. Bhaskara also goes deeper into the 'differential calculus' and suggests the differential coefficient vanishes at an extremum value of the function, indicating knowledge of the concept of 'infinitesimals'.


title: Bhāskara II

text: Madhava (1340–1425) and the Kerala School mathematicians (including Parameshvara) from the 14th century to the 16th century expanded on Bhaskara's work and further advanced the development of calculus in India.


title: Bhāskara II

text: Using an astronomical model developed by Brahmagupta in the 7th century, Bhāskara accurately defined many astronomical quantities, including, for example, the length of the sidereal year, the time that is required for the Earth to orbit the Sun, as approximately 365.2588 days which is the same as in Suryasiddhanta. The modern accepted measurement is 365.25636 days, a difference of 3.5 minutes.


title: Bhāskara II

text: His mathematical astronomy text Siddhanta Shiromani is written in two parts: the first part on mathematical astronomy and the second part on the sphere.


title: Bhāskara II

text: The earliest reference to a perpetual motion machine date back to 1150, when Bhāskara II described a wheel that he claimed would run forever.


title: Bhāskara II

text: Bhāskara II used a measuring device known as "Yaṣṭi-yantra". This device could vary from a simple stick to V-shaped staffs designed specifically for determining angles with the help of a calibrated scale.


title: Bhāskara II

text: In his book "Lilavati", he reasons: "In this quantity also which has zero as its divisor there is no change even when many quantities have entered into it or come out [of it], just as at the time of destruction and creation when throngs of creatures enter into and come out of [him, there is no change in] the infinite and unchanging [Vishnu]".


title: Bhāskara II

text: It has been stated, by several authors, that Bhaskara II proved the Pythagorean theorem by drawing a diagram and providing the single word "Behold!". Sometimes Bhaskara's name is omitted and this is referred to as the "Hindu proof", well known by schoolchildren.


title: Bhāskara II

text: However, as mathematics historian Kim Plofker points out, after presenting a worked out example, Bhaskara II states the Pythagorean theorem:


title: Bhāskara II

text: Plofker suggests that this additional statement may be the ultimate source of the widespread "Behold!" legend.


title: Bhāskara II

text: A number of institutes and colleges in India are named after him, including Bhaskaracharya Pratishthana in Pune, Bhaskaracharya College of Applied Sciences in Delhi, Bhaskaracharya Institute For Space Applications and Geo-Informatics in Gandhinagar.


title: Bhāskara II

text: On 20 November 1981 the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) launched the Bhaskara II satellite honouring the mathematician and astronomer.


title: Bhāskara II

text: Invis Multimedia released "Bhaskaracharya", an Indian documentary short on the mathematician in 2015.


title: Technical debt

text: In software development, technical debt (also known as design debt or code debt) is the implied cost of additional rework caused by choosing an easy (limited) solution now instead of using a better approach that would take longer.


title: Technical debt

text: Analogous with monetary debt, if technical debt is not repaid, it can accumulate "interest", making it harder to implement changes. Unaddressed technical debt increases software entropy and cost of further rework. Similarly to monetary debt, technical debt is not necessarily a bad thing, and sometimes (e.g. as a proof-of-concept) is required to move projects forward. On the other hand, some experts claim that the "technical debt" metaphor tends to minimize the ramifications, which results in insufficient prioritization of the necessary work to correct it.


title: Technical debt

text: As a change is started on a codebase, there is often the need to make other coordinated changes in other parts of the codebase or documentation. Changes required that are not completed are considered debt, and until paid, will incur interest on top of interest, making it cumbersome to build a project. Although the term is primarily used in software development, it can also be applied to other professions.


title: Technical debt

text: "Interest payments" are caused by both the necessary local maintenance and the absence of maintenance by other users of the project. Ongoing development in the upstream project can increase the cost of "paying off the debt" in the future. One pays off the debt by simply completing the uncompleted work.


title: Technical debt

text: The buildup of technical debt is a major cause for projects to miss deadlines. It is difficult to estimate exactly how much work is necessary to pay off the debt. For each change that is initiated, an uncertain amount of uncompleted work is committed to the project. The deadline is missed when the project realizes that there is more uncompleted work (debt) than there is time to complete it in. To have predictable release schedules, a development team should limit the amount of work in progress in order to keep the amount of uncompleted work (or debt) small at all times.


title: Technical debt

text: If enough work is completed on a project to not present a barrier to submission, then a project will be released which still carries a substantial amount of technical debt. If this software reaches production, then the risks of implementing any future refactors which might address the technical debt increase dramatically. Modifying production code carries the risk of outages, actual financial losses and possibly legal repercussions if contracts involve service-level agreements (SLA). For this reason we can view the carrying of technical debt to production almost as if it were an "increase in interest rate" and the only time this decreases is when deployments are turned down and retired.


title: Technical debt

text: While Manny Lehman's Law already indicated that evolving programs continually add to their complexity and deteriorating structure unless work is done to maintain them, Ward Cunningham first drew the comparison between technical complexity and debt in a 1992 experience report:


title: Technical debt

text: In his 2004 text, "Refactoring to Patterns", Joshua Kerievsky presents a comparable argument concerning the costs associated with architectural negligence, which he describes as "design debt".


title: Technical debt

text: Activities that might be postponed include documentation, writing tests, attending to TODO comments and tackling compiler and static code analysis warnings. Other instances of technical debt include knowledge that isn't shared around the organization and code that is too confusing to be modified easily.


title: Technical debt

text: Grady Booch compares how evolving cities is similar to evolving software-intensive systems and how lack of refactoring can lead to technical debt.


title: Technical debt

text: In open source software, postponing sending local changes to the upstream project is a form of technical debt.


title: Domino (character)

text: Domino (Neena Thurman) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is best known as a member of the mutant team X-Force. Created by writer Fabian Nicieza and artist/co-writer Rob Liefeld, Domino made her first full cover story appearance in "X-Force" #8 (March 1992) as an original member of the Wild Pack team led by the mutant Cable.


title: Domino (character)

text: In addition to her exceptional marksmanship and hand-to-hand skills, Domino possesses mutant probability-altering powers. She often uses her skills as a mercenary, but has also been the partner, confidante, and love interest of the superhero Cable, a lieutenant in his militant group X-Force, and a member of the X-Men.


title: Domino (character)

text: In other media outside comics, Domino has primarily appeared in video games, though she has made minor animated television appearances and a live-action film appearance in "Deadpool 2" (2018), portrayed by Zazie Beetz.


title: Domino (character)

text: Apart from being a mainstay character in the first series of "X-Force", Domino has had two limited self-titled series, one of which had her teaming with Puck against Lady Deathstrike and Donald Pierce. The second revealed her childhood.


title: Domino (character)

text: The first female Domino to appear in Marvel comics was not the genuine Neena Thurman. A Domino imposter, a mutant shapeshifter named Copycat, first appeared in "The New Mutants" #98 (Feb. 1991), and continued to assume Neena's role in X-Force for a time. The real Domino was first published in the main flashback story recalled by Cable in "X-Force" #8 (March 1992). Her current narrative, brief cameo, second appearance was published on the last page of "X-Force" #11 (June 1992).


title: Domino (character)

text: Domino received two self-titled limited series. The first came in 1997 and ran for 3 issues. The next ran for four issues in 2003. She has also appeared in a number of issues of "Cable & Deadpool" (Marvel, 2004/2006 series), and joined the first Wolverine-led X-Force as of "X-Force" vol. 3 #8 (Dec. 2008).


title: Domino (character)

text: Domino appeared in her own three-issue miniseries with Wolverine entitled "X-Force: Sex and Violence", written by Christopher Yost and Craig Kyle and drawn by Gabriele Dell'Otto. The story centers upon Domino and Wolverine's mission to resolve a situation from Domino's recent past. Chris Yost has said, "It's a chance for us to go in-depth into a couple of the characters. In the story, Domino has a hit put out on her and Wolverine finds out about it. Essentially, it's the two of them going out to get that hit removed." Yost adds that the characters are up against the worst killers on the planet.


title: Domino (character)

text: Domino was part of the main roster in "Cable and X-Force" (by Dennis Hopeless and Salvador Larroca), from 2012 to 2014. She guest stars in the 2014 "", beginning in issue #7.


title: Domino (character)

text: Domino starred in her own series again starting in 2018, which led into a limited series in 2019 titled "Domino: Hotshots" where she leads an all-female team. These were written by Gail Simone and drawn by David Baldeon.


title: Domino (character)

text: The woman who would become known as Domino is actually the result of a top-secret government breeding program intended to develop the perfect weapon. Domino was the only test subject to survive, but her "luck" power was deemed a failure at meeting the project's goals. Her biological mother broke her out of the project and left her with Father Rudolpho Boschelli in the Church of the Sacred Heart in Chicago.


title: Domino (character)

text: Domino eventually left the Church and became a mercenary. One of her first jobs was to stop "Operation: Jericho" which was a remote-controlled warbot project. Domino wrecked the robot, but in the process fried the mind of the soldier controlling it. She was then assigned to guard the hard working and innovative Dr. Milo Thurman, whose analytical ability made him too dangerous for the government to let roam free. Somehow, Domino and Thurman fell in love and were married. Due to Thurman's love of Dante's "Inferno", he called Domino "Beatrice". The two separated after a raid on the facility by AIM members, with Milo believing Domino had been killed during the altercation.