title: Climate change mitigation

text: Methane emissions from fossil fuel extraction are occasionally taxed, but methane and nitrous oxide from agriculture are typically left untaxed.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: Mitigation cost estimates depend on the baseline (in this case, a reference scenario that the alternative scenario is compared with), the way costs are modelled, and assumptions about future government policy. Cost estimates for mitigation for specific regions are dependent on the quantity of emissions "allowed" for that region in future, as well as the timing of interventions.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: Mitigation costs will vary according to how and when emissions are cut: early, well-planned action will minimise the costs. Globally, the benefits of keeping warming under 2 °C exceed the costs.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: Many economists estimate the cost of climate change mitigation at between 1% and 2% of GDP. One estimate stated that temperature increase can be limited to 1.5 °C for 1.7 trillion dollars a year.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: According to this study, a global investment of approximately $1.7 trillion per year would be needed to keep global warming below 1.5°C. Whereas this is a large sum, it is still far less than the subsidies governments currently provided to the ailing fossil fuel industry, estimated at more than $5 trillion per year by the International Monetary Fund.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: The economic repercussions of mitigation vary widely across regions and households, depending on policy design and level of international cooperation. Delayed global cooperation increases policy costs across regions, especially in those that are relatively carbon intensive at present. Pathways with uniform carbon values show higher mitigation costs in more carbon-intensive regions, in fossil-fuels exporting regions and in poorer regions. Aggregate quantifications expressed in GDP or monetary terms undervalue the economic effects on households in poorer countries; the actual effects on welfare and well-being are comparatively larger.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: Cost–benefit analysis may be unsuitable for analysing climate change mitigation as a whole but still useful for analysing the difference between a 1.5 °C target and 2 °C. One way of estimating the cost of reducing emissions is by considering the likely costs of potential technological and output changes. Policy makers can compare the marginal abatement costs of different methods to assess the cost and amount of possible abatement over time. The marginal abatement costs of the various measures will differ by country, by sector, and over time.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: Mitigation at the speed and scale required to likely limit warming to 2°C or below implies deep economic and structural changes, thereby raising multiple types of distributional concerns across regions, income classes and sectors.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: There have been different proposals on how to allocate responsibility for cutting emissions: Egalitarianism, basic needs (as defined according to a minimum level of consumption), proportionality and polluter-pays principle. A specific proposal is the "equal per capita entitlements". This approach can be divided into two categories. In the first category, emissions are allocated according to national population. In the second category, emissions are allocated in a way that attempts to account for historical (cumulative) emissions.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: By limiting climate change, some of the costs of the effects of climate change can be avoided. According to the Stern Review, inaction can be as high as the equivalent of losing at least 5% of global gross domestic product (GDP) each year, now and forever (up to 20% of the GDP or more when including a wider range of risks and impacts), whereas mitigating climate change will only cost about 2% of the GDP.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: Also, delaying to take significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions may not be a good idea, when seen from a financial perspective.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: Mitigation solutions are often evaluated in terms of costs and greenhouse gas reduction potentials, missing out on the consideration of direct effects on human well-being.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: Barriers to achieving climate change mitigation can be grouped into individual, institutional and market barriers. They differ for all the different mitigation options, regions and societies.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: Complicated issues around accounting of carbon dioxide removal can act as economic barriers, for example with regards to BECCS (Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage). The strategies that companies follow can act as a barrier but also as an "accelerator of decarbonisation".


title: Climate change mitigation

text: In order to "decarbonise societies" the state (government) needs to play a predominant role because this requires a massive coordination effort. This strong government role, however, can only work well if there is social cohesion, political stability and trust.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: For land-based mitigation options, finance is a major barrier, followed by "cultural values, governance, accountability and institutional capacity" as other barriers.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: The COVID-19 pandemic led some governments to shift their focus away from climate action, at least temporarily.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: Cities have big potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. They emitted 28 GtCO2-eq in 2020 of combined CO and CH4 emissions. This was "through the production and consumption of goods and services". Climate-smart urban planning aims to reduce sprawl to reduce the distance travelled, thus lowering emissions from transportation. It supports mixed use of space, transit, walking, cycling, sharing vehicles can reduce urban emissions. Urban forestry, lakes and other blue and green infrastructure can reduce emissions directly and indirectly by reduced energy demand for cooling. Personal cars are extremely inefficient at moving passengers, while public transport and bicycles are many times more efficient in an urban context. Switching from cars by improving walkability and cycling infrastructure is either free or beneficial to a country's economy as a whole.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: Climate change mitigation policies can have a large and complex impact, both positive and negative, on the socio-economic status of individuals and countries. Without “well-designed and inclusive policies, climate change mitigation measures can place a higher financial burden on poor households.”


title: Climate change mitigation

text: The most effective and economically efficient approach of achieving lower emissions in the energy sector is to apply a combination of market-based instruments (taxes, permits), standards, and information policies.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: Many countries are aiming for net zero emissions, and many have either carbon taxes or carbon emission trading. As of 2021, three countries are carbon negative, meaning they remove from the atmosphere more greenhouse gas emissions then they emit. These countries; Bhutan, Suriname and Panama; formed a small coalition at the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference and asked for help so that other countries will join it.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: In 2020, China committed to peak emissions by 2030 and reach net zero by 2060; following the 2021 blackouts, officials indicated the 2030 target was something "to strive to" and not necessarily to be met. In order to limit warming to 1.5 °C coal plants in China without carbon capture must be phased out by 2045. The Chinese national carbon trading scheme started in 2021.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: The climate commitments of the European Union were divided into three main categories: targets for the year 2020 (now obsolete), for 2030 and for 2050. The European Union state that their policies are in line with the goal of the Paris Agreement.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: Almost all countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: The Paris Agreement has become the main current international agreement on combating climate change. Each country must determine, plan, and regularly report on the contribution that it undertakes to mitigate global warming. Climate change mitigation measures can be written down in national environmental policy documents like the nationally determined contributions (NDC). The Paris agreement succeeds the 1997 Kyoto Protocol which expired in 2020. Countries that ratified the Kyoto protocol committed to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases, or engage in emissions trading if they maintain or increase emissions of these gases.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: In 2015, two official UNFCCC scientific expert bodies came to the conclusion that, "in some regions and vulnerable ecosystems, high risks are projected even for warming above 1.5 °C". This expert position was, together with the strong diplomatic voice of the poorest countries and the island nations in the Pacific, the driving force leading to the decision of the Paris Conference 2015, to lay down this 1.5 °C long-term target on top of the existing 2 °C goal.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: In addition to the main agreements, there are many additional pledges made by international coalitions, countries, cities, regions and businesses. According to a report published in September 2019 before the 2019 UN Climate Action Summit, full implementation of all pledges, including those in the Paris Agreement, will be sufficient to limit temperature rise to 2 degrees but not to 1.5 degrees. After the report was published, additional pledges were made in the September climate summit and in December of that year.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: In December 2020 another climate action summit was held and important commitments were made. The organizers stated that, including the commitments expected in the beginning of the following year, countries representing 70% of the global economy will be committed to reach zero emissions by 2050.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: In September 2021 the US and EU launched the Global Methane Pledge to cut methane emissions by 30% by 2030. UK, Argentina, Indonesia, Italy and Mexico joined the initiative, "while Ghana and Iraq signaled interest in joining, according to a White House summary of the meeting, which noted those countries represent six of the top 15 methane emitters globally". Israel also joined the initiative


title: Climate change mitigation

text: Although not designed for this purpose, the Montreal Protocol has benefited climate change mitigation efforts. The Montreal Protocol is an international treaty that has successfully reduced emissions of ozone-depleting substances (for example, CFCs), which are also greenhouse gases.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: Satellites are increasingly being used for locating and measuring greenhouse gas emissions and deforestation. Earlier, scientists largely relied on or calculated estimates of greenhouse gas emissions and governments' self-reported data. They can also evaluate the environmental impact of policies and events such as the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment. Various other technologies are also being used for environmental monitoring.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: Climate Action Tracker described the situation on 9 November 2021 as follows: the global temperature will rise by 2.7 °C by the end of the century with current policies and by 2.9 °C with nationally adopted policies. The temperature will rise by 2.4 °C if only the pledges for 2030 are implemented, by 2.1 °C if the long-term targets are also achieved. If all the announced targets are fully achieved the rise in global temperature will peak at 1.9 °C and go down to 1.8 °C by the year 2100. All the information about all climate pledges is sent to the Global Climate Action Portal - Nazca. The scientific community is checking their fulfillment.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: While the status of most goals set for 2020 have not been evaluated in a definitive and detailed way or reported on by the media, the world failed to meet most or all international goals set for that year.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: As the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference occurred in Glasgow, the group of researchers running the Climate Action Tracker reported that of countries responsible for 85% of greenhouse gas emissions, only four polities (responsible for 6% of global greenhouse gas emissions) – EU, UK, Chile and Costa Rica – have published a detailed official policyplan that describes the steps and ways by which 2030 mitigation targets could be realized. There are organizations that aim to transparently, neutrally and credibly monitor progress of climate change mitigation such as of pledges, goals, initiatives and other developments.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: How well each individual country is on track to achieving its Paris agreement commitments can be followed on-line. The negative impact of COVID-19 pandemic has placed a challenge to achieve the Paris Agreement, with less significant support from the respondents from less developed countries.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: Historically climate change has been approached at a multinational level where a consensus decision is reached at the United Nations (UN), under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This represents the dominant approach historically of engaging as many international governments as possible in taking action in on a worldwide public issue. There is a precedent that this model can work, as seen in the Montreal Protocol in 1987. The top-down framework of only utilizing the UNFCCC consensus approach has been proposed to be ineffective, with counter proposals of bottom up governance and decreasing the emphasis of the UNFCCC.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: The Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC (adopted in 1997) set out legally binding emission reduction commitments for the "Annex B" countries. The Protocol defined three international policy instruments ("Flexibility Mechanisms") which could be used by the Annex B countries to meet their emission reduction commitments. According to Bashmakov, use of these instruments could significantly reduce the costs for Annex B countries in meeting their emission reduction commitments.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: The European Union's mitigation target for 2020 was: Reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 20% from the level in 1990, produce 20% of energy from renewable sources, increase Energy Efficiency by 20%. The European Union claims that they have already achieved the 2020 target for emission reduction and have the legislation needed to achieve the 2030 targets. Already in 2018, its greenhouse gas emissions were 23% lower than those in 1990.


title: Climate change mitigation

text: In 2020, carbon dioxide emissions fell by 6.4% or 2.3 billion tonnes globally. In April 2020, emissions fell by up to 30%. In China, lockdowns and other measures resulted in a 26% decrease in coal consumption, and a 50% reduction in nitrogen oxide emissions. Greenhouse gas emissions rebounded later in the pandemic as many countries began lifting restrictions, with the direct impact of pandemic policies having a negligible long-term impact on climate change. However, decreased human activity during the pandemic diverted attention from ongoing activities such as accelerated deforestation of the Amazon rainforest. The hindrance of environmental policy efforts, combined with economic slowdown may have contributed to slowed investment in green energy technologies.


title: Kelly Hansen

text: Kelly Hansen (born April 18, 1961) is an American singer, best known as the lead singer of the rock band Foreigner since 2005.


title: Kelly Hansen

text: Hansen started his career as an independent studio singer. He later met guitarist Robert Sarzo and bassist Tony Cavazo (brothers of Rudy Sarzo and Carlos Cavazo, respectively, of Quiet Riot fame), with whom he formed the hard-rock band Hurricane in 1984. Hurricane would achieve some moderate commercial success throughout the mid-to-late 1980s and into the 1990s. However, Hurricane's record label went bankrupt in 1991, and the band disbanded shortly thereafter.


title: Kelly Hansen

text: Hansen continued to make music, recording as a guest and session singer for many projects, including Slash's Snakepit, Fergie Fredriksen, Don Dokken, and Bourgeois Pigs. In 1998 Hansen joined the band Unruly Child, replacing vocalist Mark Free. Unruly Child recorded a new album which was released in early 1999. 2001 saw the return of Hurricane with an altered lineup and new album, "Liquifury". In 2003, Hansen joined forces with Fabrizio V.Zee Grossi and recorded a self-titled album under the band name Perfect World.


title: Kelly Hansen

text: Hansen joined Foreigner in 2005, after Lou Gramm left in 2003 due to continuing conflicts with Mick Jones. Hansen is the third lead singer of Foreigner, with Lou Gramm and Johnny Edwards being Hansen's predecessors.


title: Liquid breathing

text: Liquid breathing is a form of respiration in which a normally air-breathing organism breathes an oxygen-rich liquid (such as a perfluorocarbon), rather than breathing air.


title: Liquid breathing

text: By selecting a liquid that is capable of holding large amounts of oxygen and CO, gas exchange can occur.


title: Liquid breathing

text: This requires certain physical properties such as respiratory gas solubility, density, viscosity, vapor pressure, and lipid solubility which some perfluorochemicals (PFCs) have. Thus, it is critical to choose the appropriate PFC for a specific biomedical application, such as liquid ventilation, drug delivery or blood substitutes. The physical properties of PFC liquids vary substantially; however, the one common property is their high solubility for respiratory gases. In fact, these liquids carry more oxygen and carbon dioxide than blood.


title: Liquid breathing

text: In theory, liquid breathing could assist in the treatment of patients with severe pulmonary or cardiac trauma, especially in pediatric cases. Liquid breathing has also been proposed for use in deep diving and space travel. Despite some recent advances in liquid ventilation, a standard mode of application has not yet been established.


title: Liquid breathing

text: Because liquid breathing is still a highly experimental technique, there are several proposed approaches.


title: Liquid breathing

text: Although total liquid ventilation (TLV) with completely liquid-filled lungs can be beneficial, the complex liquid-filled tube system required is a disadvantage compared to gas ventilation—the system must incorporate a membrane oxygenator, heater, and pumps to deliver to, and remove from the lungs tidal volume aliquots of conditioned perfluorocarbon (PFC). One research group led by Thomas H. Shaffer has maintained that with the use of microprocessors and new technology, it is possible to maintain better control of respiratory variables such as liquid functional residual capacity and tidal volume during TLV than with gas ventilation. Consequently, the total liquid ventilation necessitates a dedicated liquid ventilator similar to a medical ventilator except that it uses a breathable liquid. Many prototypes are used for animal experimentation, but experts recommend continued development of a liquid ventilator toward clinical applications.


title: Liquid breathing

text: Specific preclinical liquid ventilator (Inolivent) is currently under joint development in Canada and France. The main application of this liquid ventilator is the ultra-fast induction of therapeutic hypothermia after cardiac arrest. This has been demonstrated to be more protective than slower cooling method after experimental cardiac arrest.


title: Liquid breathing

text: In contrast, partial liquid ventilation (PLV) is a technique in which a PFC is instilled into the lung to a volume approximating functional residual capacity (approximately 40% of total lung capacity). Conventional mechanical ventilation delivers tidal volume breaths on top of it. This mode of liquid ventilation currently seems technologically more feasible than total liquid ventilation, because PLV could utilise technology currently in place in many neonatal intensive-care units (NICU) worldwide.


title: Liquid breathing

text: The influence of PLV on oxygenation, carbon dioxide removal and lung mechanics has been investigated in several animal studies using different models of lung injury. Clinical applications of PLV have been reported in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), meconium aspiration syndrome, congenital diaphragmatic hernia and respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) of neonates. In order to correctly and effectively conduct PLV, it is essential to


title: Liquid breathing

text: If PFC liquid is not maintained in the lung, PLV can not effectively protect the lung from biophysical forces associated with the gas ventilator.


title: Liquid breathing

text: Partial liquid ventilation (PLV) involves filling the lungs with a liquid. This liquid is a perfluorocarbon such as perflubron (brand name Liquivent). The liquid has some unique properties. It has a very low surface tension, similar to the surfactant substances produced in the lungs to prevent the alveoli from collapsing and sticking together during exhalation. It also has a high density, oxygen readily diffuses through it, and it may have some anti-inflammatory properties. In PLV, the lungs are filled with the liquid, the patient is then ventilated with a conventional ventilator using a protective lung ventilation strategy. The hope is that the liquid will help the transport of oxygen to parts of the lung that are flooded and filled with debris, help remove this debris and open up more alveoli improving lung function. The study of PLV involves comparison to protocolized ventilator strategy designed to minimize lung damage.


title: Liquid breathing

text: Vaporization of perfluorohexane with two anesthetic vaporizers calibrated for perfluorohexane has been shown to improve gas exchange in oleic acid-induced lung injury in sheep.


title: Liquid breathing

text: In surfactant-depleted piglets, persistent improvement of gas exchange and lung mechanics was demonstrated with Aerosol-PFC.


title: Liquid breathing

text: The aerosol device is of decisive importance for the efficacy of PFC aerosolization, as aerosolization of PF5080 (a less purified FC77) has been shown to be ineffective using a different aerosol device in surfactant-depleted rabbits. Partial liquid ventilation and Aerosol-PFC reduced pulmonary inflammatory response.


title: Liquid breathing

text: The most promising area for the use of liquid ventilation is in the field of pediatric medicine. The first medical use of liquid breathing was treatment of premature babies and adults with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in the 1990s. Liquid breathing was used in clinical trials after the development by Alliance Pharmaceuticals of the fluorochemical perfluorooctyl bromide, or perflubron for short. Current methods of positive-pressure ventilation can contribute to the development of lung disease in pre-term neonates, leading to diseases such as bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Liquid ventilation removes many of the high pressure gradients responsible for this damage. Furthermore, perfluorocarbons have been demonstrated to reduce lung inflammation, improve ventilation-perfusion mismatch and to provide a novel route for the pulmonary administration of drugs.


title: Liquid breathing

text: In order to explore drug delivery techniques that would be useful for both partial and total liquid ventilation, more recent studies have focused on PFC drug delivery using a nanocrystal suspension. The first image is a computer model of a PFC liquid (perflubron) combined with gentamicin molecules.


title: Liquid breathing

text: The second image shows experimental results comparing both plasma and tissue levels of gentamicin after an intratracheal (IT) and intravenous (IV) dose of 5 mg/kg in a newborn lamb during gas ventilation. Note that the plasma levels of the IV dose greatly exceed the levels of the IT dose over the 4 hour study period; whereas, the lung tissue levels of gentamicin when delivered by an intratracheal (IT) suspension, uniformly exceed the intravenous (IV) delivery approach after 4 hours. Thus, the IT approach allows more effective delivery of the drug to the target organ while maintaining a safer level systemically. Both images represent the in-vivo time course over 4 hours. Numerous studies have now demonstrated the effectiveness of PFC liquids as a delivery vehicle to the lungs.


title: Liquid breathing

text: Clinical trials with premature infants, children and adults were conducted. Since the safety of the procedure and the effectiveness were apparent from an early stage, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) gave the product "fast track" status (meaning an accelerated review of the product, designed to get it to the public as quickly as is safely possible) due to its life-saving potential. Clinical trials showed that using perflubron with ordinary ventilators improved outcomes as much as using high frequency oscillating ventilation (HFOV). But because perflubron was not better than HFOV, the FDA did not approve perflubron, and Alliance is no longer pursuing the partial liquid ventilation application. Whether perflubron would improve outcomes when used with HFOV or has fewer long-term consequences than HFOV remains an open question.


title: Liquid breathing

text: In 1996 Mike Darwin and Steven B. Harris proposed using cold liquid ventilation with perfluorocarbon to quickly lower the body temperature of victims of cardiac arrest and other brain trauma to allow the brain to better recover.


title: Liquid breathing

text: The technology came to be called gas/liquid ventilation (GLV), and was shown able to achieve a cooling rate of 0.5 °C per minute in large animals. It has not yet been tried in humans.


title: Liquid breathing

text: Most recently, hypothermic brain protection has been associated with rapid brain cooling. In this regard, a new therapeutic approach is the use of intranasal perfluorochemical spray for preferential brain cooling. The nasopharyngeal (NP) approach is unique for brain cooling due to anatomic proximity to the cerebral circulation and arteries. Based on preclinical studies in adult sheep, it was shown that independent of region, brain cooling was faster during NP-perfluorochemical versus conventional whole body cooling with cooling blankets. To date, there have been four human studies including a completed randomized intra-arrest study (200 patients). Results clearly demonstrated that prehospital intra-arrest transnasal cooling is safe, feasible and is associated with an improvement in cooling time.


title: Liquid breathing

text: Gas pressure increases with depth, rising 1 bar () every 10 meters to over 1,000 bar at the bottom of the Mariana Trench. Diving becomes more dangerous as depth increases, and deep diving presents many hazards. All surface-breathing animals are subject to decompression sickness, including aquatic mammals and free-diving humans (see "taravana"). Breathing at depth can cause nitrogen narcosis and oxygen toxicity. Holding the breath while ascending after breathing at depth can cause air embolisms, burst lung, and collapsed lung.


title: Liquid breathing

text: Special breathing gas mixes such as trimix or heliox reduce the risk of nitrogen narcosis but do not eliminate it. Heliox further eliminates the risk of nitrogen narcosis but introduces the risk of helium tremors below about . Atmospheric diving suits maintain body and breathing pressure at 1 bar, eliminating most of the hazards of descending, ascending, and breathing at depth. However, the rigid suits are bulky, clumsy, and very expensive.


title: Liquid breathing

text: Liquid breathing offers a third option, promising the mobility available with flexible dive suits and the reduced risks of rigid suits. With liquid in the lungs, the pressure within the diver's lungs could accommodate changes in the pressure of the surrounding water without the huge partial pressure gas exposures required when the lungs are filled with gas. Liquid breathing would not result in the saturation of body tissues with high pressure nitrogen or helium that occurs with the use of non-liquids, thus would reduce or remove the need for slow decompression.


title: Liquid breathing

text: A significant problem, however, arises from the high viscosity of the liquid and the corresponding reduction in its ability to remove CO. All uses of liquid breathing for diving must involve total liquid ventilation (see above). Total liquid ventilation, however, has difficulty moving enough liquid to carry away CO, because no matter how great the total pressure is, the amount of partial CO gas pressure available to dissolve CO into the breathing liquid can never be much more than the pressure at which CO exists in the blood (about 40 mm of mercury (Torr)).


title: Liquid breathing

text: At these pressures, most fluorocarbon liquids require about 70 mL/kg minute-ventilation volumes of liquid (about 5 L/min for a 70 kg adult) to remove enough CO for normal resting metabolism. This is a great deal of fluid to move, particularly as liquids are more viscous and denser than gases, (for example water is about 850 times the density of air). Any increase in the diver's metabolic activity also increases CO production and the breathing rate, which is already at the limits of realistic flow rates in liquid breathing. It seems unlikely that a person would move 10 liters/min of fluorocarbon liquid without assistance from a mechanical ventilator, so "free breathing" may be unlikely. However, it has been suggested that a liquid breathing system could be combined with a CO scrubber connected to the diver's blood supply; a US patent has been filed for such a method.


title: Liquid breathing

text: Liquid immersion provides a way to reduce the physical stress of G forces. Forces applied to fluids are distributed as omnidirectional pressures. Because liquids cannot be practically compressed, they do not change density under high acceleration such as performed in aerial maneuvers or space travel. A person immersed in liquid of the same density as tissue has acceleration forces distributed around the body, rather than applied at a single point such as a seat or harness straps. This principle is used in a new type of G-suit called the Libelle G-suit, which allows aircraft pilots to remain conscious and functioning at more than 10"g" acceleration by surrounding them with water in a rigid suit.


title: Liquid breathing

text: Acceleration protection by liquid immersion is limited by the differential density of body tissues and immersion fluid, limiting the utility of this method to about 15"g" to 20"g".


title: Liquid breathing

text: Extending acceleration protection beyond 20"g" requires filling the lungs with fluid of density similar to water. An astronaut totally immersed in liquid, with liquid inside all body cavities, will feel little effect from extreme G forces because the forces on a liquid are distributed equally, and in all directions simultaneously. However effects will be felt because of density differences between different body tissues, so an upper acceleration limit still exists.


title: Liquid breathing

text: Liquid breathing for acceleration protection may never be practical because of the difficulty of finding a suitable breathing medium of similar density to water that is compatible with lung tissue. Perfluorocarbon fluids are twice as dense as water, hence unsuitable for this application.


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: The insurgency in the North Caucasus () was a low-level armed conflict between Russia and militants associated with the Caucasus Emirate and, from June 2015, Islamic State (IS) groups in the North Caucasus. It followed the official end of the decade-long Second Chechen War on 16 April 2009. It attracted people from the Middle East, North Africa, Europe, and Central Asia, who then participated in the conflict, but volunteers from the North Caucasus were also fighting in Syria.


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: The insurgency became relatively dormant in its later years. During its peak, the violence was mostly concentrated in the North Caucasus republics of Chechnya, Dagestan, Ingushetia and Kabardino-Balkaria. Occasional incidents happened in surrounding regions, like North Ossetia–Alania, Karachay-Cherkessia, Stavropol Krai and Volgograd Oblast.


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: The insurgency was officially declared over on 19 December 2017 after more than 8 years, when FSB Director Alexander Bortnikov announced the final elimination of the insurgent underground in the North Caucasus.


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: In late 1999, Russia's Premier, Vladimir Putin, ordered military, police and security forces to enter the breakaway region of Chechnya. By early 2000, these forces occupied most of the region. High levels of fighting


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: continued for several more years and resulted in thousands of Russian and Chechen casualties and hundreds of thousands of displaced persons. In 2005, Chechen rebel leader, Abdul-Halim Sadulayev, decreed the formation of a Caucasus Front against Russia, among Islamic believers in the North Caucasus, in an attempt to widen Chechnya's conflict with Russia. After his death, his successor, Dokka Umarov, declared continuing jihad to establish an Islamic fundamentalist Caucasus Emirate in the North Caucasus and beyond. Russia's pacification policy in Chechnya has involved setting up a pro-Moscow regional government and transferring more local security duties to this government.


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: An important factor in Russia's apparent success in Chechnya has been reliance on pro-Moscow Chechen clans affiliated with regional President Ramzan Kadyrov. Terrorist attacks in the North Caucasus appeared to increase substantially in 2007–2010. In the summer of 2009, more than 442 persons died in North Caucasus violence in just four months as compared to only 150 deaths reported in the entire year of 2008. In the whole year 2009, according to the official figures by the Russian government, 235 Interior Ministry personnel (Defense Ministry and the FSB losses not included) were killed and 686 injured, while more than 541 alleged fighters and their supporters were killed and over 600 detained. The rate of increase of terrorist incidents lessened in 2010, as compared to 2008–2009, however the rate of civilian casualties substantially increased throughout the North Caucasus in 2010 and a rising number of terrorist incidents took place outside of Chechnya.


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: In the period from 2010 to 2014, the number of casualties in the North Caucasus insurgency declined each year, with the overall death toll falling by more than half. Reasons suggested for the decline include the deaths of high-ranking insurgency commanders, the increased targeting by security forces of the support infrastructure relied on by the insurgents, and an exodus of insurgents to other conflict zones. A special investigation by "Reuters" claimed that in the lead-up to the 2014 Sochi Olympics, Russian security services had allowed and encouraged militants to leave Russia to fight in the Syrian Civil War, in order to reduce the risk of domestic attacks.


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: The insurgency in the North Caucasus is a direct result of the two post-Soviet wars fought between Russia and Chechnya. The First Chechen War was a nationalist struggle, with both secular and Islamist overtones, for independence from Russia and took place between 1994 and 1996. After a vicious struggle between Russian federal forces and Chechen separatist guerrillas, Chechnya was granted "de facto" independence per the terms of the Khasavyurt Accord, signed on 30 August 1996. With a devastated infrastructure and various armed factions, subordinate to specific warlords, the next three years saw Chechnya devolve into a corrupted and criminal state, plagued by armed gangs, an epidemic of kidnappings-for-ransom and the rise of radical Islam in the region as a response to suppression.


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: In August 1999, an armed incursion of 1,500 Islamic radicals, led by Chechen warlord, Shamil Basayev, and Arab jihadist, Ibn al-Khattab, in support of a Dagestani separatist movement, combined with a series of apartment bombings in Russia, gave Moscow sufficient reasoning for re-invading Chechnya, thus triggering the Second Chechen War, a conflict fought with significant Islamist overtones.


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: Having learned harsh lessons from the first war, the Russian military, rather than getting entangled in messy urban engagements such as that seen in Grozny in 1994–95, relied heavily on aerial bombardment and artillery such as ballistic missiles and fuel air explosives, typically surrounding and then destroying any towns or villages that put up resistance before sending in ground forces for mop-up operations. The second Battle of Grozny in 1999–2000 saw the bulk of Chechen resistance smashed, particularly after a column of some 2,000 fighters attempted to break out of the besieged city in February 2000 and instead walked directly into a minefield that Russian forces had prepared for an ambush. What remained of the decimated rebel units then withdrew into the inaccessible Vedeno and Argun gorges in the southern mountains of the republic in order to wage a guerrilla campaign.


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: The republic remained a major center of violence for many years. According to Russian figures, between April 2009 (when the anti-terrorist operation in Chechnya was officially ended) and April 2010, 97 servicemen were killed in Chechnya; at the same time, government forces killed 189 persons claimed to be militants or their collaborators. Reported casualties declined, with 26 security forces and 24 suspected militants being killed in 2014.


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: Dagestan is the most religious, populous and complex of all the north Caucasian republics. It is double the size of Chechnya and consists of several dozen ethnic groups, most with their own language. The conflict in Dagestan, however, is not between ethnic groups but between Sufism, a syncretic form of Islam which includes local customs and recognises the state, and Salafism, a more traditional form which rejects secular rule and insists that the Salafist interpretation of Islam should govern all spheres of life.


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: Dagestan has the highest levels of violence and extremism in the North Caucasus republics. The Russian Interior Ministry stated that of the 399 terrorist crimes committed in the North Caucasus in 2013, 242 were in Dagestan.


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: Along with Dagestan, Ingushetia bore the brunt of the violence in the North Caucasus in the Insurgencies early years. The Islamist insurgency in the republic sprang from the wars in neighbouring Chechnya in the 1990s and early 2000s. In June 2004, Ingush and Chechen fighters launched a large-scale attack on Ingushetia's biggest town, Nazran, killing scores of civilians, policemen and soldiers.


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: As elsewhere in the North Caucasus, the brutality of state security forces has been a major factor, driving young men to join the Islamists. Under the presidency of the former KGB officer, Murat Zyazikov, teams of masked operatives kidnapped, tortured and killed suspected rebels and members of their families. Zyazikov's successor, Yunus-bek Yevkurov, appointed in 2008, had success in dampening the violence, although he was seriously injured in a suicide bombing by the militants during his first year in office. Human rights violations by Russian commandos decreased, but remained widespread.


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: The capture of Ali Taziev in June 2010, an ethnic Ingush and one of the top leaders of the Caucasus Emirate, dealt a blow to the jihadists in Ingushetia, with the number of attacks falling substantially over the next 5 years. In mid-2015, Ingushetia's president, Yunus-Bek Yevkurov, stated that the insurgency in the Republic had been 'defeated'.


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: The insurgency in Kabardino-Balkaria began in the early 2000s and was led by the Yarmuk Jamaat, a militant Islamist jamaat which flourished as a result of persecution of Muslims by police and security forces.


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: In October 2005, several score of the militants launched a raid on the capital of the republic, Nalchik, which left 142 people dead. The guerrillas have also carried out numerous assassinations of government officials and law enforcement officers.


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: The republic saw a flare-up of violence in late 2010 and early 2011, in the wake of the death of Anzor Astemirov, a senior figure in the Caucasus Emirate and the head of its United Vilayat of Kabarda, Balkaria and Karachay. The new leaders of Kabardino-Balkaria's guerrilla movement, Asker Dzhappuyev and Ratmir Shameyev, preferred a more aggressive approach and the militants murdered several civilians in the republic, including Russian tourists. In response, a vigilante group called the Black Hawks threatened the relatives of some of the Islamists. Dzhappuyev, Shameyev and Khamurzov were killed in a special operation by security forces in April 2011.


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: Casualties fell in the following years. There was a total of 49 people (militants, security forces and civilians) reported killed in the republic over the whole of 2014.


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: On 9 September 2010, a car-bomb attack occurred at a crowded marketplace in Vladikavkaz, the capital of North Ossetia, killing 19 adults and children, and injuring over 190. President Medvedev responded, that "we will certainly do everything to catch these monsters, who have committed a terrorist attack against ordinary people. What's more, a barbarous terrorist attack. We will do everything, so that they are found and punished in accordance with the law of our country, or in the case of resistance or other cases, so that they are eliminated."


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: Vilayat Galgaycho reportedly took responsibility, stating that the attack was aimed against "Ossetian infidels" on "occupied Ingush lands".


title: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

text: The majority of the civilians killed were Russians, but also foreigners from Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Ukraine, Belarus, Germany, Austria, United Kingdom and Armenia were killed in terrorist attacks.


title: Autonomous system (Internet)

text: An autonomous system (AS) is a collection of connected Internet Protocol (IP) routing prefixes under the control of one or more network operators on behalf of a single administrative entity or domain, that presents a common and clearly defined routing policy to the Internet. Each AS is assigned an autonomous system number (ASN), for use in Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) routing. Autonomous System Numbers are assigned to Local Internet Registries (LIRs) and end user organizations by their respective Regional Internet Registries (RIRs), which in turn receive blocks of ASNs for reassignment from the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). The IANA also maintains a registry of ASNs which are reserved for private use (and should therefore not be announced to the global Internet).


title: Autonomous system (Internet)

text: Originally, the definition required control by a single entity, typically an Internet service provider (ISP) or a very large organization with independent connections to multiple networks, that adhered to a single and clearly defined routing policy. In March 1996, the newer definition came into use because multiple organizations can run BGP using private AS numbers to an ISP that connects all those organizations to the Internet. Even though there may be multiple autonomous systems supported by the ISP, the Internet only sees the routing policy of the ISP. That ISP must have an officially registered ASN.


title: Autonomous system (Internet)

text: Until 2007, AS numbers were defined as 16-bit integers, which allowed for a maximum of 65,536 assignments. Since then, the IANA has begun to also assign 32-bit AS numbers to regional Internet registry (RIRs). These numbers are written preferably as simple integers, in a notation referred to as "asplain", ranging from 0 to 4,294,967,295 (hexadecimal 0xFFFF FFFF). Or, alternatively, in the form called "asdot+" which looks like "x.y", where "x" and "y" are 16-bit numbers. Numbers of the form "0.y" are exactly the old 16-bit AS numbers. The special 16-bit ASN 23456 ("AS_TRANS") was assigned by IANA as a placeholder for 32-bit ASN values for the case when 32-bit-ASN capable routers ("new BGP speakers") send BGP messages to routers with older BGP software ("old BGP speakers") which do not understand the new 32-bit ASNs.


title: Autonomous system (Internet)

text: The first and last ASNs of the original 16-bit integers (0 and 65,535) and the last ASN of the 32-bit numbers (4,294,967,295) are reserved and should not be used by operators; AS0 is used by all five RIRs to invalidate unallocated space. ASNs 64,496 to 64,511 of the original 16-bit range and 65,536 to 65,551 of the 32-bit range are reserved for use in documentation. ASNs 64,512 to 65,534 of the original 16-bit AS range, and 4,200,000,000 to 4,294,967,294 of the 32-bit range are reserved for Private Use.


title: Autonomous system (Internet)

text: The number of unique autonomous networks in the routing system of the Internet exceeded 5,000 in 1999, 30,000 in late 2008, 35,000 in mid-2010, 42,000 in late 2012, 54,000 in mid-2016 and 60,000 in early 2018.


title: Autonomous system (Internet)

text: AS numbers are assigned in blocks by Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) to regional Internet registries (RIRs). The appropriate RIR then assigns ASNs to entities within its designated area from the block assigned by IANA. Entities wishing to receive an ASN must complete the application process of their RIR, LIR or upstream service provider and be approved before being assigned an ASN. Current IANA ASN assignments to RIRs can be found on the IANA website. RIRs, as part of NRO, can revoke AS numbers as part of their Internet governance abilities.


title: Autonomous system (Internet)

text: Autonomous systems (AS) can be grouped into four categories, depending on their connectivity and operating policy.


title: Autonomous system (Internet)

text: Autonomous systems can be included in one or more AS-SETs, for example AS-SET of RIPE NCC "AS-12655" has AS1, AS2 and AS3 as its members, but AS1 is also included in other sets in ARIN (AS-INCAPSULA) and APNIC (AS-IMCL). Another AS-SET sources can be RADB, LEVEL3 (tier 1 network now called Lumen Technologies) and also ARIN has ARIN-NONAUTH source of AS-SETs. AS-SETs can be included in other AS-SETs and even form cycles.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: Christianity in Japan is among the nation's minority religions in terms of individuals who state an explicit affiliation or faith. Between less than 1 percent and 1.5% of the population claims Christian belief or affiliation. Although formally banned in 1612 and today critically portrayed as a foreign "religion of colonialism", Christianity has played a role in the shaping of the relationship between religion and the Japanese state for more than four centuries. Most large Christian denominations, including Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, Oriental Orthodoxy, and Orthodox Christianity, are represented in Japan today.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: Christian culture has a generally positive image in Japan. The majority of Japanese people are, traditionally, of the Shinto or Buddhist faith. The majority of Japanese couples, typically 60–70%, are wed in 'nonreligious' Christian ceremonies. This makes Christian weddings the most influential aspect of Christianity in contemporary Japan.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: The Japanese word for is a compound of kirisuto (キリスト) the Japanese adaptation of the Portuguese word for Christ, "Cristo", and the Sino-Japanese word for , as in "Bukkyō" (仏教, Japanese for Buddhism).


title: Christianity in Japan

text: The first appearance of Christianity in Japan was the arrival of the Portuguese Catholics in 1549. Navarrese missionary Francis Xavier arrived in Japan with three Japanese Catholic converts intending to start a church in Japan. The local Japanese people initially assumed that the foreigners were from India and that Christianity was a new "Indian faith". These mistaken impressions were due to already existing ties between the Portuguese and India; the Indian state of Goa was a central base for Portuguese India at the time, and a significant portion of the crew on board their ships were Indian Christians.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: Later on, the Roman Catholic missionary activities were exclusively performed by Jesuits and mendicant orders, such as the Franciscans and Dominicans. Francis Xavier (who would later be canonized a Catholic saint for his missionary work), Cosme de Torres (a Jesuit priest), and Juan Fernández were the first who arrived in Kagoshima hoping to bring Christianity to Japan. Xavier and the Jesuit order were held in good esteem, and his efforts seem to have been rewarded with a thriving community of converts.<ref name="Gonzales/Xavier">Gonzáles, Justo L. (Jan 2004) "The Story of Christianity", 3rd edition. Prince Press/Hendrickson Publishers. Volume 1, pages 405–406</ref> At baptism, these converts were given Portuguese "Christian names" and encouraged to adopt Western cultural habits. This practice contributed to suspicions that the converts were in reality foreign agents working to subvert the local social order.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: The earliest success Christianity witnessed in Japan occurred in Kyushu. Conversions of local warlords like Ōmura Sumitada, Arima Yoshisada, and Ōtomo Sōrin led to the conversion of many of their subjects. The conversion of several elites in the area was likely due to the decentralized nature of the Sengoku period where warlords vied for control among themselves. This power vacuum led some warlords to believe that being more open to external sources of power and legitimacy as a possible method to gain an advantage. As several daimyos and their subjects converted to Christianity, the destruction of Buddhist and Shinto temples and shrines would often accompany it, with the Jesuits also contributing to the destruction and persecutions. Buddhist monks and Shinto priests would face persecution by being forcefully evicted out of the religious sites, be forced to marry, pressured to convert or even killed.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: Under Oda Nobunaga, the Jesuits enjoyed the favor of his regency. The successor of Oda, Toyotomi Hideyoshi at first protected Christianity, however later changed his policy with the publishing of the Bateren Edict, banning missionary activities. After conquering Kyushu, Hideyoshi visited Hakozaki and came to believe that Jesuits were selling Japanese people as slaves overseas, Christians were destroying shrines and temples, and people were being forced to convert to Christianity, resulting in the aforementioned edict. Alessandro Valignano, on 14 December 1582 wrote a letter to Governor-General of the Philippines Francisco de Sande Picón stating that it would be impossible to conquer Japan by military power and converting Japan to Christianity was the most important task of church. Scholars also theorise that Hideyoshi believed the true mission of the Christian missionaries was to convert the Japanese population to Christianity, overthrow the government, and turn it into a colony.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: In 1637, Matsukura Katsuie misgoverned his territory and imposed a high tax onto people and oppressed Christians. This, combined with famine, led to the Shimabara Rebellion. First it was a peasant movement, but later Christians joined the rebellion, resulting in Ieyasu's ban on Christianity. This was the largest rebellion in the history of Japan and convinced the Shogunate that Christianity was a threat to them, causing them to isolate Japan from the outside world for almost 250 years.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: Under Hideyoshi and the succeeding Tokugawa shogunate, Catholic Christianity was repressed and adherents were persecuted. During Toyotomi rule especially, foreign missionaries were killed in Japan, some by (Japanese-style) crucifixion; most famously, the twenty-six martyrs of Japan were tortured and crucified on crosses outside Nagasaki to discourage Christianity in 1597. (Hideyoshi nonetheless showed favor to daimyō who had converted, such as Konishi Yukinaga.) Following a brief respite as Tokugawa Ieyasu rose to power and pursued trade with the Portuguese powers, there were further persecutions and martyrdoms in 1613, 1630, 1632 and 1634.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: The Tokugawa shoguns eradicated Christianity in Japan via murder, persecution and decrees. In 1638, an estimated 37,000 people (mostly Christians), were massacred after the Christian-led Shimabara Rebellion. In 50 years, the crackdown policies of the shoguns reduced the amount of Christians to near zero.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: By this point, after the Shimabara Rebellion, the remaining Christians had been forced to publicly renounce their faith. Many continued practicing Christianity in secret, in modern times becoming known as the . These secret believers would often conceal Christian iconography in closed shrines, lanterns or inconspicuous parts of buildings. For example, Himeji Castle has a Christian cross on one of its 17th-century roof tiles, in place of a "mon", indicating that one of its occupants was a secret Christian.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: Drawn from the oral histories of Japanese Catholic communities, Shūsaku Endō's historical novel "Silence" provides detailed fictionalised accounts of the persecution of Christian communities and the suppression of the Church.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: Captain Herbert Clifford was an officer in the Royal Navy during the Napoleonic Wars and the founder of the Loochoo Naval Mission (1843). Clifford worked with missionary the Rev. Bernard Jean Bettelheim, who was the first Christian missionary to Okinawa.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: After Japan was opened to greater foreign interaction in 1853, many Christian clergymen were sent from Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox churches, though proselytism was still banned. After the Meiji Restoration, freedom of religion was introduced in 1871, giving all Christian communities the right to legal existence and preaching.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: Japan remains one of the most secular nations in the world according to the World Values Survey. While, as of 2007, there may be up to 3 million Japanese Christians, Christianity in Japan is spread among many denominational affiliations. 70 percent of Japanese churches have an average attendance of less than 50, though membership is often almost double this figure.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: The celebration of selected Christian holidays has gained popularity in Japan since the Second World War – primarily as commercial events, but with also an emphasis on sharing time with loved ones, either significant others or close family.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: Except in Japan's minority Christian communities, Easter is not typically marked by any special form of celebration.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: Christmas in Japan is celebrated on a much larger scale as a commercial and secular festival, but again is not an official public holiday. Christmas lights, Santa Claus, parties, gift exchanges, and eating Western-inspired Christmas foods, especially Kentucky Fried Chicken and strawberry shortcake, are all familiar features of this event. Many Christians have criticized this as a commercialization of the holiday, being contrary to the teachings of Jesus Christ. In Japan rather than being a family or religious occasion, Christmas is seen as a time to spend with friends or a significant other. Christmas Eve is celebrated as a couple's holiday on which romantic gifts are exchanged.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: St. Valentine's Day in Japan is also celebrated, but the normal Western cultural traditions are often reversed – women give men a gift of chocolate, and on White Day, one month later, the favor is returned. Gifts are not exclusive to romantic relationships; women exchange gifts most frequently between one another and will occasionally give male co-workers chocolate, although this latter exchange is often referred to as an obligation gift. It is not as common for couples to go out on dates together; that element seems to be reflected in Christmas Eve instead.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: Christian weddings have become prominent as an alternative (or addition) to traditional Shinto ceremonies. This is partially due to the successful missionary efforts of Japanese Christian churches and commercial endeavors. Architecturally resembling churches, wedding chapels have sprung up across Japan to meet the needs of Japanese who do not join Christian churches but still desire the ceremony.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: Catholicism in Japan operates in communion with the worldwide Roman Catholic Church under the authority of the Pope in Rome. In 2005, there were approximately 509,000 Catholics in 16 dioceses in Japan. The patron saints of Japan are Francis Xavier and Peter Baptist.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: When Francis Xavier arrived in Japan in 1549 as the first Catholic missionary to the archipelago, Catholicism was Japan's first contact with organized Christianity. The Roman Catholic Church remained the only major source of Christianization in Japan until the fall of the shogunate in 1867 and the Meiji restoration of 1868. The Society of Jesus started the initial missions, joined later on by the less cautious Franciscan order. Twenty Catholic missionaries operated in Japan by 1570. Nagasaki became the center of Japanese Catholicism, and maintained close cultural and religious ties to its Portuguese origins. These ties were severed once Christianity was outlawed in the early-17th century; at this point, Catholicism went underground, its rites preserved by the "Kakure Kirishitan", or "hidden Christians", who continued practicing their faith in secret private devotion.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: The samurai Hasekura Tsunenaga led a diplomatic mission, accompanied by over one hundred Japanese Christians and twenty-two samurai, to see Pope Paul V. Hasekura arrived in Acapulco, Mexico (then New Spain) in 1614; and would then travel to Spain. After meeting with King Philip III, Hasekura was baptized as a Roman Catholic under the name Felipe Francisco de Fachicura. After traveling to France and Rome, Hasekura returned to Japan in 1620 and was forced to renounce his adopted religion after Christianity was banned.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: A multitude of Japanese Catholics were brutally tortured and killed for their faith, thus becoming martyrs. Many of these martyrs have been canonized, and their liturgical memorial is celebrated each year on February 6 in honor of their fidelity to "Christ and his Church" unto death.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: In 1981 Pope John Paul II paid a visit to Japan, during which he met with Japanese people, the clergy, and Catholic lay-people, held Holy Mass in the Korakuen Stadium (Tokyo), and visited the Peace Memorial Park in Hiroshima, the Hill of Martyrs in Nagasaki, town of the Immaculate founded by St. Maximilian Kolbe in Nagasaki, and other places. Pope Francis also visited Japan in 2019.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: Eastern Orthodoxy is a minor religion in Japan. The current primate of Japan is Daniel Nushiro, Metropolitan of all Japan and Archbishop of Tokyo, who was elevated to the primacy in 2000. The primate's seat is the Holy Resurrection Cathedral in Chiyoda, Tokyo. Founded in 1891, the cathedral has been known as Nikolai-do in honor of its founder Nicholas Kasatkin. The cathedral serves as the seat of the national primate of Japan and continues to be the main center of Orthodox Christian worship in Japan.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: Eastern Orthodoxy was brought to Japan in the 19th century by St. Nicholas (baptized as Ivan Dmitrievich Kasatkin), who was sent in 1861 by the Russian Orthodox Church to Hakodate, Hokkaidō as priest to a chapel of the Russian Consulate. St. Nicholas of Japan made his own translation of the New Testament and some other religious books (Lenten Triodion, Pentecostarion, Feast Services, Book of Psalms, Irmologion) into Japanese. The Patriarchate of Moscow glorified, (canonized as a saint) Nicholas in 1970; he is now recognized as St. Nicholas, Equal-to-the-Apostles. His commemoration day is February 16. Andronic Nikolsky, appointed the first Bishop of Kyoto and later martyred as the archbishop of Perm during the Russian Revolution, was also canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church as a Saint and Martyr in the year 2000.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: The Ecumenical Patriarchate is also present with the Greek Orthodox Exarchate of Japan under the Orthodox Metropolis of Korea.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: James Curtis Hepburn, M.D., LL.D. (March 13, 1815 – June 11, 1911) was the first Presbyterian missionary to Japan, arriving in 1859, the same year as the first ordained representatives of the Anglican Communion, the Rev., later Bishop, Channing Moore Williams, founder of Rikkyo University, Tokyo, and the Rev. John Liggins of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: Hepburn went to Japan initially as a medical missionary with the American Presbyterian Mission opening a clinic in Kanagawa Prefecture, near present-day Tokyo. He later founded the Hepburn School, which developed into Meiji Gakuin University, and wrote a Japanese–English dictionary. In the dictionary's third edition, published in 1886, Hepburn adopted a new system for romanization of the Japanese language ("Rōmajikai"). This system is widely known as Hepburn romanization because Hepburn's dictionary popularized it. Hepburn also contributed to the Protestant translation of the Bible into Japanese. Hepburn returned to the United States in 1892. On March 14, 1905, Hepburn's 90th birthday, he was awarded the decoration of the Order of the Rising Sun, third class. Hepburn was the second foreigner to receive this honor.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: Divie Bethune McCartee was the first ordained Presbyterian minister missionary to visit Japan, in 1861–1862. His gospel tract translated into Japanese was among the first Protestant literature in Japan. In 1865 McCartee moved back to Ningbo, China, but others have followed in his footsteps. There was a burst of growth of Christianity in the late 19th century when Japan reopened its doors to the West. Protestant church growth slowed dramatically in the early 20th century under the influence of the military government during the Shōwa period.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: The post-World War II years have seen increasing activity by evangelicals, initially with North American influence, and some growth occurred between 1945 and 1960. The Japanese Bible Society was established in 1937 with the help of National Bible Society of Scotland (NBSS, now called the Scottish Bible Society), the American Bible Society, the British and Foreign Bible Society.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: In 2020, the number of Jehovah's Witnesses was 212,683 active publishers, united in 2,964 congregations; 273,856 people attended annual celebration of Lord's Evening Meal in 2020. Before 1945 they were banned in Japan. Many Jehovah's Witnesses were jailed; one of them, Katsuo Miura, was in the Hiroshima prison during the atomic bombing of Hiroshima.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: As of year-end 2009, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) reported 29 stakes, 14 districts, 163 wards, 125 branches, 7 missions, and 3 temples in Japan. As of July 2016, there are 128,216 members. The LDS Church was established in Japan in 1901 when the first LDS Church missionaries arrived on August 12, 1901. Among them was Heber J. Grant, at the time a member of the Quorum of the Twelve, the 7th President of the Church.


title: Christianity in Japan

text: As of March 15, 2011 there were over 630 LDS missionaries serving in the church's six missions in Japan.


title: Base and superstructure

text: In Marxist theory, society consists of two parts: the base (or substructure) and superstructure. The base refers to the mode of production which includes the forces and relations of production (e.g. employer–employee work conditions, the technical division of labour, and property relations) into which people enter to produce the necessities and amenities of life. The superstructure refers to society's other relationships and ideas not directly relating to production including its culture, institutions, political power structures, roles, rituals, religion, media, and state. The relation of the two parts is not strictly unidirectional. The superstructure can affect the base. However the influence of the base is predominant.


title: Base and superstructure

text: In developing Alexis de Tocqueville's observations, Marx identified civil society as the economic base and political society as the political superstructure. Marx postulated the essentials of the base–superstructure concept in his preface to "A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy" (1859):


title: Base and superstructure

text: Marx's theory of base and superstructure can be found in the disciplines of political science, sociology, anthropology, and psychology as utilized by Marxist scholars. Across these disciplines the base-superstructure relationship, and the contents of each, may take different forms.


title: Base and superstructure

text: Early sociologist Max Weber preferred a form of structuralism over a base and superstructure model of society in which he proposes that the base and superstructure are reciprocal in causality—neither economic rationality nor normative ideas rule the domain of society. In summarizing results from his East Elbia research he notes that, contrary to the base and superstructure model "we have become used to," there exists a reciprocal relationship between the two.


title: Base and superstructure

text: The Italian political philosopher Antonio Gramsci divided Marx's superstructure into two elements: political society and civil society. Political society consists of the organized force of society (such as the police and military) while civil society refers to the consensus-creating elements that contribute to cultural hegemony (such as the media and education system.) Both constituents of this superstructure are still informed by the values of the base, serving to establish and enforce these values in society.


title: Base and superstructure

text: Walter Rodney, the Guyanese political activist and African historian, discussed the role of Marx's superstructure in the context of development cycles and colonialism. Rodney states that while most countries follow a developmental structure that evolves from feudalism to capitalism, China is an exception to this rule and skipped the capitalism step: The explanation is very complex, but in general terms the main differences between feudal Europe and feudal China lay in the superstructure – i.e. in the body of beliefs, motivations and sociopolitical institutions which derived from the material base but in turn affected it. In China, religious, educational and bureaucratic qualifications were of utmost importance, and government was in the hands of state officials rather than being run by the landlords on their own feudal estates. By extension this means that the Marxist development cycle is malleable due to cultural superstructures, and is not an inevitable path. Rather the role of the superstructure allows for adaptation of the development cycle, especially in a colonial context.


title: Base and superstructure

text: Freudo-Marxist Wilhelm Reich's discipline of analysis known as sex economy is an attempt to understand the divergence of the perceived base and superstructure that occurred during the global economic crisis from 1929 to 1933. To make sense of this phenomenon, Reich recategorized social ideology as an element in the base—not the superstructure. In this new categorization, social ideology and social psychology is a material process that self-perpetuates, the same way economic systems in the base perpetuate themselves. Reich focused on the role of sexual repression in the patriarchal family system as a way to understand how mass support for Fascism could arise in a society.


title: Base and superstructure

text: Contemporary Marxist interpretations such as those of critical theory reject this interpretation of the base–superstructure interaction and examine how each affects and conditions the other. Raymond Williams, for example, argues against loose, "popular" usage of base and superstructure as discrete entities which, he explains, is not the intention of Marx and Engels:


title: Base and superstructure

text: John Plamenatz makes two counterclaims regarding the clear-cut separation of the base and superstructure. The first is that economic structure is independent from production in many cases, with relations of production or property also having a strong effect on production.


title: Base and superstructure

text: The second claim is that relations of production can only be defined with normative terms—this implies that social life and humanity's morality cannot be truly separated as both are defined in a normative sense.


title: Base and superstructure

text: A criticism of the base and superstructure theory is that property relations (supposedly part of the base and the driving force of history) are actually defined by legal relations, an element of the superstructure. Defenders of the theory claim that Marx believed in property relations and social relations of production as two separate entities.


title: Base and superstructure

text: Colin Jenkins provides (2014) a critique on the role of the capitalist state in the era of neoliberalism, using base and superstructure theory as well as the work of Nicos Poulantzas. Regarding developments in the United States during this era (roughly 1980–2015), Jenkins highlights the nature in which political parties and the political system itself are inherently designed to protect the economic base of capitalism and, in doing so, have become "increasingly centralized, coordinated, and synchronized over the past half-century." This, according to Jenkins, has led to a "corporate-fascistic state of being" that is challenging the equilibrium of this fragile relationship. His analysis specifically addresses the role of both major parties, Democrats and Republicans, in the United States:


title: Base and superstructure

text: Neven Sesardic agrees that the economic base of society affects its superstructure, however he questions how meaningful this actually is. While the original claim of a strong form of economic determinism was radical, Sesardic argues that it was watered down to the trivial claim that the base affects the superstructure and vice versa, something no philosopher would dispute. Thus Sesardic argues that Marx's claim ultimately amounts to nothing more than a trivial observation that does not make meaningful statements or explain anything about the real world.


title: Ingrid Bisu

text: Ingrid Bisu (; born 15 September 1987) is a Romanian actress, producer, and screenwriter, known for her appearance in the dramedy "Toni Erdmann" (2016), which was nominated at The Cannes Film Festival for the Palme d'Or and also for Best Foreign Film at the Golden Globe Awards and the Academy Awards in 2017. She is also known for co-writing the horror film "Malignant" (2021).


title: Ingrid Bisu

text: Bisu was born on 15 September 1987 in Bucharest to Romanian-German parents. She grew up in the German community in Romania, attending the German kindergarten, high school, and college in Bucharest.


title: Ingrid Bisu

text: In 2003 at the age of 16, Bisu had her first photoshoot in the teenage magazine "Cool Girl" and then landed her first commercial for Orange S.A. Mobile, which was broadcast in Israel and Romania.


title: Ingrid Bisu

text: Bisu made her debut in a Romanian TV series "Casatorie de Proba" ("Marriage of Probation") Following this, she was featured in a number of Romanian magazines and television interviews. Bisu had a role in the movie "BloodRayne" where she acted alongside Ben Kingsley, and had other smaller roles in sitcoms such as "La Bloc"(In The Building) and "Arestat la domiciliu" (House Arrested) with Pro TV.


title: Ingrid Bisu

text: In 2006, Bisu played the lead role of Alice in the drama television movie "O Lume A Durerii" (A World of Pain), which showed the struggles of teenage women in Romania at the time. Her performance gained the attention of director Cristian Mungiu, winner of the Palme d’Or at the Cannes Film Festival in 2007 for his movie "4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days". He cast Bisu as Viviana for his series "Tales from the Golden Age". The series was nominated six times at the Cannes Film Festival. In 2007, Bisu enrolled in the Hyperion Academy of Dramatic Arts in Bucharest. During this time she appeared as Naomi in the drama series "17, Poveste despre destin" (2008) on Prima TV, and as Bianca in the comedy series "Nimeni nu-i perfect" (Nobody's Perfect),


title: Ingrid Bisu

text: After roles in the horror film "Slaughter" and the Christmas comedy "Ho Ho Ho", Bisu played the part of Mona/Amie 2 in the movie "What War May Bring", directed by Claude Lelouch. She then appeared in the film "Portrait of the Fighter as a Young Man", directed by Constantin Popescu, where she played the real-life figure Matilda Jubleanu.


title: Ingrid Bisu

text: In 2011, Bisu worked with Cristian Mungiu in "Outbound". The film earned 19 awards and nine nominations at international film festivals, including the Locarno International Film Festival, Viennale. The same year, she became one of the youngest television presenters, for her work as host and producer on the national morning show on Kanal D Romania. "Cafeaua de dimineata" (Morning Coffee), was a two-hour live morning news program. During every show, she would teach people how to do something themselves or show activities they could try.


title: Ingrid Bisu

text: In 2012, Bisu was featured in Romanian films such as "Sunt o babă comunistă", directed by Stere Gulea, and "Roxanne", directed by Vali Hotea. both films with multiple nominations. She played a supporting role as Minerva in the American horror movie "" in 2013 starring Jon Voight. The same year, she was featured in the science fiction film "The Zero Theorem", directed by Terry Gilliam, with Matt Damon and Christoph Waltz. In 2014, she played Brittany White, the host of a five-hour live comedy web series, being broadcast in the United States, called "The Super Yolo Sho".


title: Ingrid Bisu

text: In 2016, Bisu appeared in "Toni Erdmann" as Anca, the assistant of the lead character played by Sandra Hüller. Directed by Maren Ade, the film received over 56 nominations and 33 award wins, including Best Film and Best Screenplay, with Maren Ade named Best Director and actors Sandra Hüller and Peter Simonischek Best Actress and Best Actor at the 2016 European Film Awards. It was also nominated for the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival where it won the FIPRESCI award. It was nominated for Best Foreign Film at the 2017 Golden Globes and the 2016 Academy Awards. Bisu's performance was singled out for praise by A.O. Scott in his review for "The New York Times"


title: Ingrid Bisu

text: Bisu then co-starred in the horror film "The Nun", a spinoff of "The Conjuring 2", playing Sister Oana: she met future husband James Wan on set. The film was released in September 2018. In 2021 she co-wrote, executive produced and had a supporting role in "Malignant," her first joint creative and behind the scenes project with husband James Wan.


title: Ingrid Bisu

text: On June 22, 2019, Bisu became engaged to Australian director James Wan. They married in November 2019.


title: House at the End of the Street

text: House at the End of the Street is a 2012 American psychological thriller film directed by Mark Tonderai that stars Jennifer Lawrence. The film's plot revolves around a teenage girl, Elissa, who along with her newly divorced mother Sarah, moves to a new neighborhood only to discover that the house at the end of the street was the site of a gruesome double homicide committed by a thirteen-year-old girl named Carrie Anne who had disappeared without a trace four years prior. Elissa then starts a relationship with Carrie Anne's older brother Ryan, who lives in the same house, but nothing is as it appears to be.


title: House at the End of the Street

text: Although filming had been completed in 2010, the film was not released until 2012 by Relativity Media. Despite a negative response from critics, the film was a moderate commercial success.


title: House at the End of the Street

text: Newly divorced medical doctor Sarah Cassidy (Elisabeth Shue) and her 17-year-old daughter Elissa (Jennifer Lawrence) move to a small, upscale suburb. They are disturbed to discover the house they are moving into is on the same street as a house in which a family used to live until the parents were murdered. The story of the massacre is told to them by the neighbors. Four years prior, a girl named Carrie-Anne Jacobson killed her parents, then fled into the forest and was never seen again, leaving her brother Ryan (Max Thieriot) as the sole survivor. Ryan now lives alone and is hated by his neighbors; Bill Weaver (Gil Bellows), a local police officer, appears to be Ryan's only supporter.


title: House at the End of the Street

text: Their mother-daughter relationship becomes rocky and Elissa starts seeing Ryan against her mother's wishes, finding Ryan to be lonely but a sweet boy. Ryan confides in her that he accidentally injured Carrie-Anne by allowing her to fall from a swing when they were little; he was supposed to be watching her while their parents were getting high on drugs. The resulting brain damage from the accident made her extremely aggressive, leading to their parents' murder. Ryan is revealed to have been secretly taking care of a seemingly now-grown Carrie-Anne (Eva Link) in a hidden room. Carrie-Anne manages to escape and approaches a young couple in a car while brandishing a kitchen knife. Ryan catches up to her before she can reach the couple but accidentally kills her while trying to hide her. In grief, he goes to a diner, where he meets a kind waitress named Peggy Johns (Jordan Hayes).


title: House at the End of the Street

text: Later, some unruly high school boys pick a fight with Ryan and he flees, and Elissa drives to his house and subdues a fire the boys started. She finds tampons in the kitchen garbage and explores the house with suspicion until she finds the secret room and is attacked by Carrie-Anne, who is revealed to actually be Peggy. Ryan restrains "Carrie-Anne" while frantically screaming at Elissa to leave. Elissa finds blue contact lenses and Peggy Johns's wallet in the kitchen. Ryan has kidnapped the waitress and attempted to make her look like Carrie-Anne. Elissa tells Ryan she has to go home but Ryan hits her, knocking her unconscious.


title: House at the End of the Street

text: Elissa wakes to find herself tightly tied to a chair. Ryan reveals to her that Carrie Anne didn't kill their parents. In fact, she died during the accident on the swing set. It was Ryan who killed their parents, after suffering years of abuse because they blamed him for his younger sister's death. This leads to the final revelation: The "Carrie Annes" he has been keeping in the basement were kidnapped women who he made up to look just like his younger sister.


title: House at the End of the Street

text: He explains that he wants Elissa, but that he needs Carrie-Anne and knows that he cannot have both. Officer Weaver goes to Ryan's house to look for Elissa, but Ryan stabs him to death. Elissa frees herself and tries to escape in Ryan's car, but Ryan knocks her out with chloroform and traps her in his car trunk with Peggy's body. Sarah arrives and is also stabbed by Ryan. Elissa struggles out of the car and ultimately shoots Ryan with Weaver's gun. When she approaches him, he suddenly wakes up and grabs her wrist. When Ryan attempts to stab Elissa with the knife, Sarah strikes him in the head with the hammer.


title: House at the End of the Street

text: Elissa and Sarah move out and Ryan is placed in a psychiatric ward. A flashback had depicted Young Ryan in girl's clothing about to blow out birthday candles. His mother calls him "Carrie-Anne" and when Ryan protested that his name is Ryan, she just slapped him violently. While doing a puzzle, Ryan begins to hear the voices of his deceased parents saying that he is Carrie-Anne.


title: House at the End of the Street

text: The film was originally announced in 2003 with Jonathan Mostow directing and Richard Kelly writing. The film went through development hell for seven years until production was revived in 2010 with Mark Tonderai directing and David Loucka writing, instead.


title: House at the End of the Street

text: Principal photography and filming mostly took place in Metcalfe, Ontario and Carp, Ontario from August 2, 2010, until September 3, 2010.


title: House at the End of the Street

text: The film was originally scheduled to be released in February 2012, but was moved to a September 2012 release. The film had its theatrical premiere in the United States on September 21, 2012, and was released in Canada on the same date. The film was not released theatrically in Sweden or Spain and was released direct-to-video on January 30, 2013, in Sweden and on August 28, 2013 in Spain.


title: House at the End of the Street

text: A tie-in novelization of the movie was released on August 12, 2012, to accompany the movie by Little, Brown and Company.


title: House at the End of the Street

text: The unrated cut was also released on January 8, 2013. The extended edition increased the length of certain scenes in the final cut by a few seconds and the amount of violence, blood, and gore was increased by a small amount.


title: House at the End of the Street

text: The extended cut also included an additional twist, in which Bill Weaver was actually a close family friend of the Jacobsons and was aware of Carrie-Anne's fate, and he also knew about Ryan's abuse but did nothing to help him. On the day of Carrie-Anne's accident, he supplied John and Mary Jacobson with drugs and actually could have prevented Carrie-Anne's death if he had not sold them the drugs, as they had prevented John and Mary from heeding the cries of their only son, and he was then disowned as a close friend by John Jacobson.


title: House at the End of the Street

text: The film debuted at number one at the US box office on its opening Friday and Saturday nights. In what was one of the tightest races in years for first place at the box-office weekend, the film finished the weekend at number two with $12.3 million, just less than a million behind "End of Watch", which included takings from Thursday night through Monday morning, where that movie finished at number one, with $13.1 million. The film went on to gross over $44 million worldwide, from a budget of $6.9-10 million.


title: House at the End of the Street

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 13% based on 66 reviews with an average rating of 3.72/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Poorly conceived, clumsily executed, and almost completely bereft of scares, "House at the End of the Street" strands its talented star in a film as bland as its title." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 31 out of 100 based on 19 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Benjamin Wadsworth (actor)

text: Benjamin Wadsworth is an American actor. He is known for playing Marcus Lopez Arguello in the Syfy series "Deadly Class".


title: Benjamin Wadsworth (actor)

text: Wadsworth was born and grew up in Houston, Texas. He is of Latino, Iranian and Swedish descent. As he began acting by 2013, he was home-schooled during high school in order to enable his film and video work.


title: Benjamin Wadsworth (actor)

text: In May 2019, Wadsworth became engaged to actress, Stella Maeve. Their daughter was born in January 2020.


title: Benjamin Wadsworth (actor)

text: Wadsworth became interested in acting, and had a role as Iggy in the comedy web series, "Dad and a Lad". He also had some parts in short movies (see below) and began to build experience.


title: Benjamin Wadsworth (actor)

text: In October 2016, he was chosen to play Henry in the pilot for "Let the Right One In" series, based on the vampire novel by John Ajvide Lindqvist. However, TNT did not approve the pilot and did not proceed with the series. Later that year, Wadsworth made a special appearance in the final episode of the MTV series "Teen Wolf", titled "The Wolves of War", playing Alec.


title: Benjamin Wadsworth (actor)

text: In November 2017, Wadsworth was chosen to play the lead role of Marcus Lopez in the SyFy television series "Deadly Class". He had originally auditioned for another role, but when producers learned he was partially Latino, they invited him to read for Marcus. He was 19 when the series opened in early 2019. He was nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Performance by a Younger Actor in a Television Series for the role.


title: Return to Sender (2015 film)

text: Return to Sender is a 2015 American psychological thriller film directed by Fouad Mikati and starring Rosamund Pike, Shiloh Fernandez, and Nick Nolte.


title: Return to Sender (2015 film)

text: Miranda Wells is a nurse living in a small town. She is about to become a surgical nurse and is buying a new house. Her friend sets her up on a blind date with a man named Kevin. On the day of the date, while she's still getting ready, Miranda finds someone outside her porch, whom she assumes is Kevin, and invites him in. She offers him lemonade and goes into her bedroom to finish dressing. When she comes out of her room she sees he is blocking the door. Beginning to feel uneasy, she asks him to leave and come back later for their date. He refuses, and walks to the door and locks it. He then attacks and rapes her. Later he is seen running away from the house as someone else comes to the door and knocks. The door is slightly open and the man, Kevin, comes in calling out for Miranda. He finds her in the kitchen and calls the police. Miranda is next seen in the hospital, beaten, and having a rape kit and photos taken by the police. The police ask if she had ever seen the man before, and she says that, actually, she had. They promptly go and arrest the rapist, William Finn.


title: Return to Sender (2015 film)

text: Miranda tries to carry on with her life normally. Her real estate agent tells her that they can't sell her house now as no one wants to buy a house where someone was just raped. While icing a cake at home she notices a tremor in her right hand and realizes that she can't work in surgery because of it. She decides to write a letter to William in prison.


title: Return to Sender (2015 film)

text: Miranda's letter to William keeps being returned to sender. She continues to resend the letter and finally receives a response and goes to visit William. He apologizes repeatedly for what he did to her and she begins to visit him regularly. They become friendly and flirt with each other during her visits. While in prison, William has also been abusing his cell mate without the knowledge of the officers and is eventually released on parole.


title: Return to Sender (2015 film)

text: Meanwhile, Miranda also befriends her father's aggressive dog by feeding him treats. The dog gets sick, stops eating, and eventually dies.


title: Return to Sender (2015 film)

text: When he is released, William sends Miranda flowers and makes plans to visit her. When he arrives at her home she puts him to work fixing up the porch of her house. They continue to flirt but she never allows him into her house. When William goes to the hardware store where Mitchell works, Mitchell realizes who he is and charges over to Miranda's house to warn her he is out of prison. When he realises William has been to the house, they have an argument.


title: Return to Sender (2015 film)

text: One day after working on the porch, William says he is not feeling well and begs to be allowed in to use the bathroom. Miranda reluctantly agrees and upon entering the house he collapses. When he wakes up he finds himself strapped to a bed in the basement. She admits to poisoning him with antifreeze in his lemonade. Miranda tells him that she also poisoned her father's dog and allowed her mother to die. He then passes out again as she rolls over a surgical tray. Over the next few hours she operates and when he wakes up, leads him to believe she has amputated his left hand, taunting him with a fake one and asking what matters to him. It is later revealed that she actually castrated him. The film ends with Miranda visiting her father, stating that William will not be coming around any more.


title: Return to Sender (2015 film)

text: "Return to Sender" was released in the United Kingdom on May 22, 2015. Image Entertainment acquired the U.S. distribution rights to the film, and released the film on August 14, 2015, in a limited release.


title: Return to Sender (2015 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 14% approval rating based on reviews from 35 critics. On Metacritic it has a weighted average score of 23% based on reviews from 9 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".


title: Return to Sender (2015 film)

text: Mark Kermode of "The Observer" rated it 3 out of 5 stars and wrote, ""Gone Girl"s Rosamund Pike brings icy zeal to her role as a rape survivor who starts visiting her assailant in jail". Benjamin Lee of "The Guardian" rated it 2 out of 5 stars and wrote, "There are few surprises in this cheapo thriller about a nurse who strikes up a relationship with the man who attacked her in her home." Geoffrey Macnab of "The Independent" rated it 2 out of 5 stars and wrote, "The film has the feel of a glorified TV movie and lurches into "Misery"-style melodrama in its final reel." Mike McCahill of "The Daily Telegraph" rated it 2 out of 5 stars and called it "cinematic clickbait that hides its weakest material behind spoilers, and hopes its audience will be gullible enough to proceed".


title: Royal Spanish Football Federation

text: The Royal Spanish Football Federation (; RFEF) is the governing body of football in Spain. It is based in La Ciudad del Fútbol of Las Rozas, a municipality near Madrid. It was founded on 14 October 1909 as "Federación Española de Clubs de Football", and officially founded on 29 September 1913.


title: Royal Spanish Football Federation

text: It administers the competition committee (including the handling of the trophy) of the Campeonato Nacional de Liga: the Primera División and the Segunda División, even though they are organized by LaLiga. It organizes the Primera División RFEF, the Segunda División RFEF and the Tercera División RFEF.


title: Royal Spanish Football Federation

text: It is also responsible for appointing the management of the men's, women's, and youth national football teams. The Spain national futsal team, also belongs to the federation. , the federation has 29,205 registered clubs and 1,074,567 federated football players.


title: Royal Spanish Football Federation

text: It was founded on 14 October 1909 as the "Federación Española de Clubs de Football" (FECF) was established in Madrid on 14 October 1909, serving as the forerunner of the current "Royal Spanish Football Federation" (RFEF) founded four years later. Some of the first clubs to join this original federation were FC Barcelona, Club Español de Madrid, Sociedad Gimnástica, the Irún Sporting Club, Fortuna de Vigo and Sporting de Vigo. However, other clubs did not recognize the new organization as a single national federation, including relevant entities such as Madrid FC and Athletic Club and the current national champion, Club Ciclista de San Sebastián, and this caused the 1910 Copa del Rey to have two parallel rival cup competitions: an "official", organized by the newly created FECF, in Madrid, won by Barcelona, and an "unofficial", organized by the UECF (Unión Española de Clubes de Fútbol), in San Sebastián, won by Athletic. Both are currently recognized as official by the RFEF.


title: Royal Spanish Football Federation

text: The discussions to decide the venue of the 1913 Copa del Rey ended up causing another split, with Barcelona and España de Barcelona announcing their departure in the assembly held in May 1912, along with the Gipuzkoan clubs of Real Sociedad and Vasconia, and on 29 November 1912, these clubs founded the "Spanish Union of Football Clubs" (UECF) in San Sebastián, and again two parallel tournaments were held.


title: Royal Spanish Football Federation

text: Both the Spanish Federation of Clubs (FECF) and the Spanish Union of Clubs (UECF), tried to become the representatives of Spanish football. Both organizations had a monarch as parents, them being Queen Victoria Eugenia (leading a tournament of the Union of Clubs) and King Alfonso XIII (honorary president of the Federation). In addition, the UECF tried to get closer to FIFA by holding an international match against a French championship team, held on 25 May 1913 at the Amute in Hondarribia. José Berraondo performed the functions of the Spanish coach and refereed the match. The game ended in a 1–1 draw with Spain's goalscorer being the captain Juan Arzuaga. This meeting led the FIFA president, the Englishman Daniel Burley Woolfall, to contact Carlos Padrós, then the greatest benefactor of Spanish football and former president of Real Madrid. Padrós had already signed a petition for the unification of both organizations, but the Spanish clubs refused to do so, and thus, on 31 May 1913, FIFA rejected the entry of Spanish football, by not accepting the coexistence of two federations. When this situation reached the ears of King Alfonso XIII, he told Juan Padrós, the president of the FECF Federation, that he would never admit any other organization other than the one of which he was honorary president. Juan Padrós informed Enrique Pariñas, the president of the Union of Clubs, about the King's position that marginalized the Union of Clubs, while Carlos informed the president of FIFA. Finally, at the behest of the monarch, both federations agreed to their definitive union. A new Board of Directors was then created and Ricardo Ruiz de Ferry (sports journalist) was elected president, with General Adolfo Meléndez and Antonio Bernabéu, as vice president and secretary, respectively.


title: Royal Spanish Football Federation

text: In a historic meeting held on 30 July 1913 in San Sebastián, the new Board of Directors informed the King that the union of Spanish football had been achieved, and in turn the king granted the title of "Royal" to the Federation, which has since held the title and name of "Royal Spanish Football Federation". At this meeting the constitution of four regional federations (east, west, north and center) was also approved. The RFEF was officially established on 29 September 1913, with Francisco García Molina being elected as the first president of the new body, and in that same day, Molina was accepted as a provisional member of FIFA, formalizing the federation's full entry into FIFA at the assembly held in Oslo on 27 July 1914.


title: Royal Spanish Football Federation

text: In order to put an end to the disputes that had marked the last editions of the Copa del Rey, it was agreed, among other measures, to form a championship for each regional federation (the country was divided into ten regions), which would serve as the qualifying stages for the tournament. The 1914 Copa del Rey was the first edition of the competition to be organized by the RFEF, and Athletic Club were the winners after beating FC Espanya 2–1 in the final. After their foundation in September 1913, one of the first initiatives taken by the Royal Spanish Football Federation was to promote an inter-regional championship that would serve as the first major "showcase" of Spanish football, and consequently, as the bases for the formation of a Spanish team that could compete with other international teams; and thus, in 1915, they launched the Prince of Asturias Cup, which was sponsored by King Alfonso XIII, who donated the trophy which his son, Alfonso, Prince of Asturias, had to deliver, hence the name of the tournament.