title: Viet Minh

text: The United States believed Ho Chi Minh would win the nation wide election proposed at the Geneva Accords. In a secret memorandum, Director of CIA Allen Dulles acknowledged that "The evidence [shows] that a majority of the people of Vietnam supported the Viet Minh rebels." Diem refused to hold the elections by citing that the South had not signed and were not bound to the Geneva Accords and that it was impossible to hold free elections in the communist North. Vietnam wide elections never happened and Việt Minh cadres who stayed behind in South Vietnam were activated and launched an insurgency against the government. North Vietnam also occupied portions of Laos to assist in supplying the insurgents known as the National Liberation Front ("Viet Cong") in South Vietnam. The war gradually escalated into the Second Indochina War, more commonly known as the "Vietnam War" in the West and the "American War" in Vietnam.


title: Viet Minh

text: The Khmer Việt Minh were the 3,000 to 5,000 Cambodian communist cadres, left-wing members of the Khmer Issarak movement regrouped in the United Issarak Front after 1950, most of whom lived in exile in North Vietnam after the 1954 Geneva Conference. Khmer Issarak and United Issarak Front were under leadership of Son Ngoc Minh, Tou Samouth, Sieu Heng, etc. It was a derogatory term used by Norodom Sihanouk, dismissing the Cambodian leftists who had been organizing pro-independence agitations in alliance with the Vietnamese. Sihanouk's public criticism and mockery of the Khmer Issarak had the damaging effect of increasing the power of the hardline, anti-Vietnamese, but also anti-monarchist, members of the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK), led by Pol Pot.


title: Viet Minh

text: The Khmer Issarak and United Issarak Front were instrumental in the foundation of the Cambodian Salvation Front (FUNSK) in 1978. The FUNSK invaded Cambodia along with the Vietnamese Army and overthrew the Democratic Kampuchea Pol Pot state. Many of the Khmer Việt Minh had married Vietnamese women during their long exile in Vietnam.


title: Viet Minh

text: Lao Issara ("Free Laos") was a political & military organization of Laotian communists, led by Phetsarath, Souphanouvong, Kaysone Phomvihane, Phoumi Vongvichit. Lao Issara received training and support from Việt Minh. Under French intervention, Lao Issara was split into non-communists and communists. Laotian non-communists under leadership of Pretsarath later established the Kingdom of Laos which was part of the French Union.


title: Viet Minh

text: However Laotian communists rejected the French offer and fought side by side with Vietnamese communists during the First Indochina War. In 1950 Lao Issara was renamed to Pathet Lao ("Laos Nation") under leadership of Souphanouvong, Kaysone Phomvihane, Phoumi Vongvichit, etc.


title: Townhouse

text: A townhouse, townhome, town house, or town home, is a type of terraced housing. A modern townhouse is often one with a small footprint on multiple floors. In a different British usage, the term originally referred to any type of city residence (normally in London) of someone whose main or largest residence was a country house.


title: Townhouse

text: Historically, a townhouse was the city residence of a noble or wealthy family, who would own one or more country houses in which they lived for much of the year. From the 18th century, landowners and their servants would move to a townhouse during the social season (when major balls took place).


title: Townhouse

text: In the United Kingdom, most townhouses are terraced. Only a small minority of them, generally the largest, were detached, but even aristocrats whose country houses had grounds of hundreds or thousands of acres often lived in terraced houses in town. For example, the Duke of Norfolk owned Arundel Castle in the country, while his London house, Norfolk House, was a terraced house in St James's Square over 100 feet (30 meters) wide.


title: Townhouse

text: In the United States and Canada, a townhouse has two connotations. The older predates the automobile and denotes a house on a small footprint in a city, but because of its multiple floors (sometimes six or more), it has a large living space, often with servants' quarters. The small footprint of the townhouse allows it to be within walking or mass-transit distance of business and industrial areas of the city, yet luxurious enough for wealthy residents of the city.


title: Townhouse

text: Townhouses are expensive where detached single-family houses are uncommon, such as in New York City, Chicago, Boston, Philadelphia, Toronto, Washington, D.C., and San Francisco.


title: Townhouse

text: "Rowhouses" are similar and consist of several adjacent, uniform units originally found in older, pre-automobile urban areas such as Baltimore, Philadelphia, Richmond, Charleston, South Carolina, Savannah and New Orleans, but now found in lower-cost housing developments in suburbs as well. A rowhouse is where there is a continuous roof and foundation, and a single wall divides adjacent townhouses, but some have a double wall with inches-wide air space in between on a common foundation. A rowhouse will generally be smaller and less luxurious than a dwelling called a townhouse.


title: Townhouse

text: The name "townhouse" or "townhome" was later used to describe non-uniform units in suburban areas that are designed to mimic detached or semi-detached homes. Today, the term "townhouse" is used to describe units mimicking a detached home that are attached in a multi-unit complex. The distinction between living units called "apartments" and those called "townhouses" is that townhouses usually consist of multiple floors and have their own outside door as opposed to having only one level and/or having access via an interior corridor hallway or via an exterior balcony-style walkway (more common in the warmer climates). Another distinction is that in most areas of the US outside of the very largest cities, "apartment" refers to rental housing, and "townhouse" typically refers to an individually owned dwelling, with no other unit beneath or above although the term townhouse-style (rental) apartment is also heard for bi-level apartments.


title: Townhouse

text: Townhouses can also be "stacked". Such homes have multiple units vertically (typically two), normally each with its own private entrance from the street or at least from the outside. They can be side by side in a row of three or more, in which case they are sometimes referred to as "rowhouses". A townhouse in a group of two could be referred to as a townhouse, but in Canada and the US, it is typically called a semi-detached home and in some areas of western Canada, a half-duplex.


title: Townhouse

text: In Canada, single-family dwellings, be they any type, such as single-family detached homes, apartments, mobile homes, or townhouses, for example, are split into two categories of ownership:


title: Townhouse

text: Condominium townhouses, just like condominium apartments, are often referred to as "condos", thus referring to the type of ownership rather than to the type of dwelling. Since apartment style condos are the most common, when someone refers to a "condo", many erroneously assume that it must be an apartment-style dwelling and that only apartment-style dwellings can be condos. All types of dwellings can be condos, and this is therefore true of townhouses. A brownstone townhouse is a particular variety found in New York.


title: Townhouse

text: In Asia, Australia, South Africa and Zimbabwe, the usage of the term follows the North American sense. Townhouses are generally found in complexes. Large complexes often have high security, resort facilities such as swimming pools, gyms, parks and playground equipment. Typically, a townhouse has a strata title; i.e., a type of title where the common property (landscaped area, public corridors, building structure, etc.) is owned by a corporation of individual owners and the houses on the property are owned by the individual owners.


title: Townhouse

text: In population-dense Asian cities dominated by high-rise residential apartment blocks, such as Hong Kong, townhouses in private housing developments remain almost exclusively populated by the very wealthy due to the rarity and relatively large sizes of the units. Prominent examples in Hong Kong include Severn 8, in which a townhouse sold for HK$285 million (US$37 million) in 2008, or HK$57,000 (US$7,400) per square foot, a record in Asia, and The Beverly Hills, which consists of multiple rows of townhouses with some units as large as . Commonly in the suburbs of major cities, an old house on a large block of land is demolished and replaced by a short row of townhouses, built 'end on' to the street for added privacy.


title: Buick Electra

text: The Buick Electra is a full-size luxury car that was manufactured and marketed by Buick from 1959 to 1990, over six generations. Introduced as the replacement for the Roadmaster lines, the Electra served as the flagship Buick sedan line through its entire production. While offered primarily as a four-door sedan, at various times, the Electra was also marketed as a two-door sedan, two-door convertible, and as a five-door station wagon.


title: Buick Electra

text: For all generations, the Electra used the GM C platform. For 1977, the Electra was downsized significantly, and again in 1985, when they adopted front-wheel drive.


title: Buick Electra

text: For 1991, Buick withdrew the Electra from its model line, seceded by the Buick Park Avenue had previously been marketed as a premium Electra sedan trim; the Electra Estate was redesigned, becoming the Roadmaster Estate for 1991.


title: Buick Electra

text: In contrast to other Buick model lines at the time of its introduction, the Buick Electra brand name traces its origin to a real-life person. The vehicle is named after Texas socialite and sculptor Electra Waggoner Biggs, the sister-in-law of GM President Harlow H. Curtice. Also the namesake of the Lockheed L-188 Electra airliner, Biggs was the owner of the Waggoner Ranch (one of the largest ranches in Texas) and created portrait sculptures of two US Presidents, among other American figures.


title: Buick Electra

text: Following World War II, the Roadmaster constituted the upper echelon of Buick's lineup. For 1958, Buick returned the Limited nameplate (dormant since 1942), slotted between the Roadmaster and the Cadillac Series 62.


title: Buick Electra

text: For 1959, the Super was renamed the Invicta, the Roadmaster was renamed the Electra and Electra 225, and the unsuccessful Limited model was discontinued. The appearance was shared with two other Buick models, the mid-level Invicta and the entry level LeSabre. The Electra 225 nameplate was a nod to the car's overall length of over 225 in (5,715 mm), earning it the street name "deuce and a quarter."


title: Buick Electra

text: The Electra 225 Riviera was the top-line model and it shared its six window hardtop roofline exclusively with Cadillac (which offered it on all of its models). Buick first applied the "Riviera" name to a premium trimmed 2-door Roadmaster hardtop in the middle of the 1949 model year, and thereafter denoted all Buick hardtops Rivieras. Also, from 1950 through 1953, Buick made a premium trimmed, stretched wheelbase sedan, exclusively in the Roadmaster and Super lines, that was called Riviera. But 1959 was the first year that not all Buick hardtops were called Rivieras. A standard 4-window four-door hardtop was also available, as was a 4-door 6-window pillared sedan, along with a stripped chassis of which 144 were built in 1959 and 1960. The two-door convertible was only available as an Electra 225, and the 2-door hardtop as an Electra.


title: Buick Electra

text: For 1959, the Electra and Electra 225 both used the General Motors C-body shared with the Oldsmobile 98 and all Cadillac, riding on a longer wheelbase than the B-body LeSabre and Invicta, both of which rode on . The standard and only available engine was the 401 cubic-inch Wildcat V8 with four-barrel carburetor, 10.25 to 1 compression ratio and mated to a two-speed Dynaflow automatic transmission, which was also standard equipment along with power steering and power brakes using Buick's unique finned aluminum brake drums. Power windows and seat and leather interiors were standard on the Electra 225 convertible and optional on all other models. Front bucket seats were optional on the convertible. Electra interiors were trimmed in nylon Mojave cloth or broadcloth combinations with "Cordaveen". Electra 225 convertibles were trimmed in leather. Standard Electra features included horizontal Red-line speedometer, two-speed electric windshield wipers, trip mileage indicator, cigar lighter, dual sunshades, Step-On parking brake, dual horns, Twin-Turbine automatic transmission, Foamtex seat cushions, electric clock, trunk light, glovebox light, power steering, power brakes, full wheelcovers and dual exhaust. In addition Electra 225s had Super Deluxe wheelcovers and an outside rearview mirror as standard equipment. Padded dashboards were also standard. The Electra, along with all other 1959 Buicks, featured all new styling not shared with other GM divisions that included slanted headlights in front along with a highly chromed square grille somewhat similar to the 1958 Buick and "Delta-Fins" back along with round taillights. The "slanted" headlights were also shared with the 1958-60 Lincoln Continental. Exterior distinction from other Buicks came from extra-wide moldings, with a massive Electra emblem on the front fender extension. The Electra 225 script was found on the front fenders ahead of the wheelhouse. The 4-door models had a lower bright rear fender molding as well.


title: Buick Electra

text: The 1960 Electra and Electra 225 received a minor facelift with a concave grille and horizontal headlights centered by Buick's then-new "Trishield" logo, which is still in use today. Reintroduced to Electras and other Buicks for 1960 were the chrome VentiPorts first introduced in 1949 and last seen in 1957. Electra and Electra 225 models featured four VentiPorts on each front fender while lesser LeSabre and Invicta models had three VentiPorts. Electras featured wider rocker panel bright moldings and the Electra script on the front fenders ahead of the wheelhouse. Electra 225s featured a badge that was circled on the deck lid. The Electra 225 name was found on the front fenders in place of the Electra name.


title: Buick Electra

text: Inside, a revised instrument panel featured "Mirromatic", where the speedometer, odometer and any warning light indicators are reflected from an adjustable tilt mirror inside the dashboard for comfortable viewing that would reduce unwanted glare and reflection. A new two-spoke steering wheel with horn bars was introduced, replacing the time honored horn ring then still common to most automobiles. Brisbane cloth interiors graced closed models while the convertible was trimmed in leather. Convertibles also had a two way power seat adjuster and power windows standard. The bucket seat option introduced on Electra 225 convertibles in 1959 was now available on Electra coupes and included a center consolette with storage compartment. Standard Electra features included windshield wipers, trip mileage indicator, cigar lighter, dual sunshades, Step-On parking brake, dual horns, a single-key locking system, Twin-Turbine automatic transmission, Foamtex seat cushions, electric clock, trunk light, license plate frames, glovebox light, power steering and power brakes. In addition Electra 225s had back-up lights, a Glare-proof rear view mirror, parking brake signal light, safety buzzer, map light and Super Deluxe wheelcovers as standard equipment.


title: Buick Electra

text: The Electra, along with the Invicta and LeSabre, was redesigned for 1961 with drastically shrunken fins, and was joined with the all-new compact sized Skylark/Special. Electras featured bright rocker panel and wheelhouse moldings. Four VentiPorts per front fender were a hallmark, with identification spelled out on the front fender plaques. Electra 225s had four "hash marks" interrupting behind the wheelhouse of the rear fender. Electra 225 nameplates were found on the front fenders. Electra interiors were trimmed in fabric. Electra 225s were trimmed in Calais cloth or leather trim, except for convertibles which were trimmed in vinyl. An optional Custom interior featured leather trim, while another featured vinyl with contrasting vertical stripes and front bucket seats with a storage consolex and power two-way seat adjustment. Standard equipment on the Electra included Turbine-Drive automatic transmission, "Mirromatic" instrument panel, directional signals, full-flow oil filter, electric windshield wipers, Deluxe steering wheel, trip mileage indicator, cigar lighter, Step-On brake, dual armrests, cloth and vinyl trim, combinations, carpeting, power steering, power brakes, two-speed windshield wiper/washer system, glovebox light, Custom-padded seat cushions and Deluxe wheelcovers. Two-tone Electras had the color accent on the rear cove. In addition Electra 225s had back-up lights, Glare-proof rearview mirror, parking lights, signal light, safety buzzer, courtesy lights, two-way power seat, Super Deluxe wheelcovers with gold accents and power windows. The Electra and Electra 225 were the same length in 1961. Buick discontinued the Electra nameplate at the end of the 1961 model year, leaving only the Electra 225 starting in 1962.


title: Buick Electra

text: The big Buick of 1962 carried four VentiPorts per front fender and featured a rakish sculptured restyle of its 1961 guise. The hardtop coupe and standard hardtop sedan featured a convertible inspired semi-formal roofline, while the Riviera hardtop sedan continued to use six-window pillarless configuration. Electra 225 rear fenders had a group of vertical hashmarks, with Electra 225 spelled out in block letters just above. A full length bright strip crowned the upper body ridge, while the tower rocker molding and wheelhouses were accented with bright trim. Wheelcovers had a gold accent ring. Interiors were of the finest cloth and, on the convertible, leather was used. Standard features included directional signals, full-flow oil filter, dual speed electric windshield washer/wipers, Deluxe steering wheel, cigar lighter, Step-on parking brake, dual armrests, Turbine-Drive transmission, padded dashboard, heater, defroster, glovebox light, back-up lights, power steering, Glare-proof rearview mirror, power brakes, power brake signal light, safety buzzer, courtesy lights, two-way power seats, power windows, Super Deluxe wheelcovers, Safety option group, custom padded cushions, Accessory Group options and custom moldings.


title: Buick Electra

text: Buick's largest, plushest and most expensive models were restyled for 1963, with distinctive rear fenders culminating in a sharp vertical edge housing narrow back-up lights. The taillights were horizontally placed in the vertical deck cove. A unique cast grille was used at the front. Bright wheelhouse and lower body moldings, with ribbed rear fender panels were used. Red-filled Electra 225 badges were found on the rear fenders, while four VentiPorts lent status to the front fenders. Interiors were cloth and vinyl combinations, while a Custom interior in vinyl and leather, with front bucket seats and a storage console, was available for the convertible and sport coupe. Standard equipment included directional signals, full-flow oil filter, dual speed electric windshield wiper/washers, Deluxe steering wheel, cigar lighter, Step-On parking brake, dual armrests, Turbine-Drive automatic transmission, padded dashboard, heater, defroster, glovebox light, back-up lights, power steering, Glare-proof rearview mirror, power brakes, parking brake signal light, safety buzzer, courtesy lights, two-way power seats, power windows, Super Deluxe wheelcovers, Safety option group, custom padded cushions, Accessory Group options and custom moldings. Buick dropped the Riviera name as a body style designation after the 1963 model year, shifting the Riviera name exclusively to Buick's new personal luxury coupe that had been introduced in 1963. Buick added a 7-way tilt steering wheel and a new cruise control as an option.


title: Buick Electra

text: The large General Motors C-body was used to create the 1964 Electra 225, Buick's richest full-size car. Vertical, narrow taillamps were found in the nearly straight-cut rear fender ends, and the so-called "Deuce-and-a Quarter" came with fender skirts. Four traditional VentiPorts were found on the front fenders, with heavy die-cast grille accenting the frontal aspect. Wide front lower body moldings were used along with a bright deck cove insert. Electra 225 lettering was found on the rear fenders and specific full wheelcovers were featured. Vinyl and brocade cloth interior trims were found in closed models, while leather upholstery was offered for seats in the convertible. Among the Electra's exclusive standard equipment were power steering; power brakes; two-speed electric wipers with windshield washer; foam padded seats; electric clock; license frame; trunk light; two-way power seat and power windows for the convertible; safety buzzer; and additional courtesy lights. The two-speed Dynaflow automatic was replaced by the 3-speed TH-400 as standard equipment.


title: Buick Electra

text: All GM passenger vehicles received a major redesign in 1965 dominated by flowing "Coke bottle" lines and fastback roof profiles on its coupe models, and the 6 window-body style was eliminated. For 1965, Buick also changed its marketing strategy and offering the Electra 225 in two trim levels, base and Custom. Along with the new body came a new chassis with a full perimeter frame including side rails that replaced the previous "X" frame used since 1961. Engine offerings were unchanged from 1964 including the standard 401 V8, and two versions of the larger 425 V8 that were rated at with a four-barrel carburetor or with two four barrels. The three-speed Super Turbine 400 automatic transmission was standard equipment. A new body style introduced for 1965 was the thin-pillar 4-door sedan, which featured frameless window glass with a thin, chrome fixed "B" pillar.


title: Buick Electra

text: The 1966 Electra 225 saw only minor styling changes including a new grille and a revised full-width taillight and trunk lid that included an "Electra 225" script rather than the "BUICK" nameplate spelled out in 1965. Engine offerings were unchanged from 1965 with the exception that the dual-quad 425 was downgraded from a factory option to dealer-installed. Inside, a revised instrument panel featured a horizontal sweep speedometer, fuel gauge and warning lights. Front seat headrests became an option.


title: Buick Electra

text: A moderate facelift highlighted the 1967 Electra 225 including a Pontiac/Oldsmobile-like divided split grille. Both base and Custom models were continued with a new "Limited" option package available Electra 225 Custom 4-door hardtop reviving a nameplate that graced Buick's ultra-luxury flagship in the late 1930s (and again in 1958), which included an ultra-luxurious interior trim. Under the hood a new 430 cubic-inch V8 rated at with four-barrel carburetor replaced the previous "Nailhead" 401 and 425 V8s. Power front disc brakes were available as a new option along with a stereo 8-track tape player.


title: Buick Electra

text: The 1968 Electra 225 received a revised grille and taillight trim along with concealed windshield wipers. Inside, there was a revised instrument panel with a square speedometer and other instruments, plus a new steering wheel. Shoulder seat-belts were standard for both the driver and front passenger. Base and Custom models were still offered, with the Limited trim option available on the Electra 225 Custom hardtop sedan.


title: Buick Electra

text: 1969 brought a major restyling to the Electra 225 and other GM B-body and C-body cars with somewhat crisper bodylines than 1965–68 models, but continued with the same chassis and inner body structure introduced with the 1965 model, however the wheelbase was increased one inch to . The 1969s were also the first to offer headrests as standard equipment due to a federal safety mandate, and the steering column with ignition switch that also locked the steering wheel with the transmission in "Park", a feature found on all 1969 GM cars one year before it became a federal safety mandate in 1970. Also new was a variable-ratio power steering system combined with revised front suspension tuning called "Accu-Drive." Other changes included ventless front windows. The same assortment of base and Custom models were offered in 1969 with the "Limited" trim package available on Custom sedans and coupes. A new option available with the Limited package was a split 60/40 bench seat with center armrest. Finned aluminum drum brakes were again offered as standard equipment, while the Bendix four-piston disk brake units were also available. 12" x 1" vented steel rotors were coupled with the cast iron caliper assemblies. A dual exhaust was available as an option. Five different rear axles were available: a 2.56 Economy as well as 2.73, 3.08, 3.23:1 gear ratios. The special PX-Code "AC Delete" 3.91 performance gear option was also available. The standing quartermile was completed in 15.5 seconds at a terminal velocity of for the dual exhaust engine with the 2.73 gear ratio in a Custom Convertible.


title: Buick Electra

text: Only a minor facelift with revised grille and taillight trim marked the 1970 Electra 225. The big news was under the hood, where a new 455 cubic-inch V8 replaced the 430 V8 used from 1967 to 1969. This was the final year for the Electra convertible, finned aluminum brake drums and high compression engines. New this year was a concealed radio antenna, which amounted to two wires embedded in the windshield. Also new for 1970 was the Estate Wagon, which shared the Electra's 455 V8 and four VentiPorts, but was a B-body car like the LeSabre and the Wildcat and consequently shared the smaller cars' wheelbase and interior. This was Buick's first full-sized station wagon since 1964. The following year the Buick Estate would move up to Electra's larger body and more voluminous interior.


title: Buick Electra

text: Like the other GM brands, Buick completely restyled its B-body and C-body cars for 1971. The full-size cars emerged larger and heavier than ever before or after. The new GM full-size bodies, at 64.3" front shoulder room and 63.4" rear shoulder room set a record for interior width that would not be matched by any car until the full-size GM rear-wheel drive models of the early to mid 1990s. The styling featured curved bodysides, long hoods and wide expanses of glass. All Electra 225s were hardtops in the 1971 to 1973 model years, eliminating the previous four-door pillared sedan variant and the convertible. In 1974 Buick adopted GM's pillared coupe body and fitted it with the "Landau" option on the Electra Limited coupe. Optional driver and passenger airbags were also available from 1974 to 1976, but they were unpopular due to their cost.


title: Buick Electra

text: In the first year for new GM C-body shared with Oldsmobile 98 and Cadillac, the 1971 Electra 225 rode on a new body chassis which retained the wheelbase with styling evolutionary from previous models. The new design included a double-shell roof for improved roll-over protection and noise reduction. Inside was a new wrap-around cockpit style instrument panel shared with B-body LeSabre and Centurion models that grouped all instruments with easy reach of the driver. Under the hood, the 455-cubic-inch V8 was retained as standard equipment, but featured a lower compression of 8.5 to 1 compared to 10.25 to 1 in 1970 as part of a GM corporate mandate requiring all engines to run on 91 Research octane regular leaded, low-lead or unleaded gasolines. Horsepower also dropped from 370 to 315 as a result. Standard equipment continued to consist of variable-ratio power steering and Turbo Hydra-matic transmission. Power front disc brakes were now standard equipment on Electras, replacing the finned aluminum drum brakes used in full-sized Buicks since the late 1950s. Also new for the 1971 Electra 225, as well as the B-body LeSabre and Centurion, and E-body Riviera, was a new power ventilation system. The system, shared with other GM B-, C- and E-body cars along with the compact Chevrolet Vega, used the heater fan to draw air into the car from the cowl intake, and force it out through vents in the trunk lid or tailgate. In theory, passengers could enjoy fresh air even when the car was moving slowly or stopped, as in heavy traffic. In practice, however, it didn't work. Within weeks of the 1971 models' debut, however, Buick—and all other GM dealers—received multiple complaints from drivers who complained the ventilation system pulled cold air into the car before the heater could warm up—and could not be shut off. The ventilation system was extensively revised for 1972.


title: Buick Electra

text: From 1971 to 1976, Buick's full-sized Estate Wagon shared the wheelbase and 455 cubic-inch V8 with the Electra 225, and shared its interior and exterior styling from 1971 to 1974 (complete with the prerequisite four VentiPorts). And although from 1975 to 1976 the number of VentiPorts were reduced by one, and the front fascia was downgraded to a LeSabre's, the Electra 225 style chrome rocker panel moldings and distinctive Electra 225 style rear quarter panels (albeit without fender skirts) remained. These were the first Buick station wagons to be built on Buick's largest chassis since the Roadmaster Estates of 1947–53. The Estate Wagons, as did other GM full-sized wagons during these years, used a unique rear suspension with multi-leaf springs instead of the coil springs used on other full-sized Buicks, and other full-sized GM cars. The Estate Wagons also featured a new 'clamshell' tailgate design where the rear power-operated glass slid up into the roof as the tailgate (manually or with power assist), slid into a recess under the cargo floor. The power tailgate, the first in station wagon history, ultimately supplanted the manual tailgate, which required marked effort to lift from storage. It was operated by switches on the instrument panel or a key switch on the rear quarter panel. The clamshell system, heavy and complex, made it easier to load and unload the extremely long wagons in tight spaces. But it remained un-adopted by any other manufacturer, and would be eliminated when GM reduced the length of their wagons by about a foot in 1977, and the overriding concern became increased fuel economy. At shipping weight, or about curb weight, the three-seat 1974 Estate Wagons are easily the heaviest Buicks ever built, even heavier than the Buick Limited limousines of 1936–42.


title: Buick Electra

text: A new egg-crate grille and taillight trim highlighted the 1972 Electra 225s. The trouble-prone ventilation system used in 1971 was replaced by a new system using vents in the doorjambs instead of the trunk-mounted vents of 1971. The 455 V8 was carried over and now rated at 250 net horsepower compared to 315 gross horsepower in 1971. The differences in advertised horsepower in the two years was due to an industry-wide switch from "gross" (dynometer-rated and not installed in vehicle) to "net" (as installed in vehicle with accessories and emission controls installed) horsepower measurements. The 1972 Buick was available as: Electra 225, Electra 225 Custom, and Electra 225 Custom Limited.


title: Buick Electra

text: A revised egg-crate grille above a new federally mandated front bumper and revised taillights were among the most noticeable changes for the 1973 Electra 225. All engines now featured EGR valves to meet increasingly stringent 1973 emission standards (the EGR valve was featured on Buick engines for California cars in 1972).


title: Buick Electra

text: New grillework and a new rear with revised taillights and a federally mandated rear bumper highlighted the 1974 Electra 225, still available in base and up level Electra Custom models. The Electra Limited, previously a luxurious trim option on the Custom models, was upgraded to full model status. Electra Limited models also got power windows, power driver's seat and a new digital clock as standard equipment, along with an optional leather upholstery trim, the first Buicks (along with that year's Riviera) to offer real leather seats since the 1963 Riviera. The 1974 Buick Electra Limited had velour seats and door panels that were the same as the 1974 Oldsmobile 98 Regency. The 455 V8 was revised to meet the 1974 federal and California emission standards with horsepower dropping from 250 in 1972–73 to 230 for 1974. A one-year only option for the '74 Electra was the high-performance Stage 1 455 with dual exhausts and a rating. 1974 was the last year for the pillarless hardtop coupe, although the 4 door hardtop would continue to be produced until 1976. Inside, the wrap-around instrument panel was substantially revised and optionally available for the first time (and seldom ordered) was a driver's side airbag system with an exclusive steering wheel design. 1974 was the final year for the Max Trac traction control option. New options for 1974 included radial tires and a "low fuel" warning light came on when the gas tank was down to only four gallons. A new distinctive "Landau" option was available on the Limited coupe that included the now-popular rear side opera windows and rear-quarter vinyl roof.


title: Buick Electra

text: 1975 brought about changes in all of General Motors C-body cars. In 1975, all Electra 225 coupes had fixed rear side windows and center posts. 1975 also brought along a newer front end and interior design. Rectangular headlights became standard on all GM C-body cars, along with many others. This supposedly would allow engineers to lower the front end to reduce wind resistance, but this wasn't very apparent with the new design. The Electra received a new metal "eggcrate" style grille, which covered most of the front end, and wrapping under the headlights. The grille included running lights on either side. There was a choice of a base model Electra 225, whose trim and appointments were upgraded to the same level as the previous year's Electra 225 Custom, an upscale Limited, and the Park Avenue. The 1975 Electra was also the longest Buick ever built at , which is over 19 feet. These cars dwarfed the newer front-wheel drive Electras and Park Avenues in sheer size and weight. Power windows and a power driver's seat became standard on all Electra models in 1975. Also new to the standard equipment list were radial-ply tires. The 1975 Electra was one of the first GM vehicles to offer an Air Cushion Restraint System or "airbag". Inside, a new flat instrument panel (shared with LeSabre, Estate Wagon and Riviera) with horizontal sweep speedometer (silver facing with black lettering) replaced the wrap-around cockpit dash of previous years and door panel trim was revised. The speedometer was scaled back from to and kilometer readings were added. The 1975 Buick Electra Limited got an all new interior. Technical changes for 1975 included the addition of a catalytic converter and electronic ignition to not only meet the stringent 1975 and later emission requirements, but also extended routine maintenance intervals, and improved fuel economy and driveability which was a must in the era immediately following the 1973–74 energy crisis, but also spelled the end of dual exhaust systems and mandated the use of unleaded gasoline as the converter could be rendered useless if contaminated with lead. Axle ratios were also numerically lowered to aid in improving gas mileage. The 455 four-barrel V8, now rated at , was retained as the standard and only available engine.


title: Buick Electra

text: 1976 brought about a few changes on the Electra. The front-end was reworked, including the grille and bumper. The new plastic grille featured 17 vertical bars and covered much of the radiator. The grille did not extend under the headlights in 1976, but instead Buick moved the running lights and turn signal lights underneath the headlights, where the 1975 grille had once been. The bumper no longer housed running lights. There were also some minor interior differences. The brake release handle was black instead of chrome, the seat material was slightly different, on the limited, notch-back diamond pattern seating. The 1975 material appeared in a "corduroy" form, but the actual material was not corduroy. The 1976 diamond pattern seating material did not have this appearance. The engine air cleaner did not have a "cold-air" ram air intake hose like the 1975 model did, and there were some carburetor changes and camshaft changes to meet EPA standards. The rear end ratio also was higher than the 1975 standard, at 2.56:1 instead of 2.73:1. The Park Avenue and leather seating in 1975 and 1976 were the same. Once again, there was the base 225, the Limited, and the luxurious Park Avenue. The Park Avenue Deluxe vanished for 1976 due to poor sales. The 1976 Electra is about the same size as the 1975 at , making them among the biggest Buicks ever.


title: Buick Electra

text: The 1975 Buick Electra 225 Limited was the longest four-door hardtop car GM ever built, as the Cadillac Sixty Special (which was a bit longer) was unavailable as a hardtop sedan since the mid-sixties. The model also ushered in a return of the six window configuration that Buick offered between 1959 and 1964.


title: Buick Electra

text: All Electras were powered by Buick's 455 cu. in. (7.5 L) engine between 1971 and 1976. The 1971 model had , but that was reduced to by the 1976 model year; increasingly stringent exhaust emission limits reduced engine output, and an industry-wide 1972 change in rating systems reduced the horsepower numbers produced by any given engine. Even at its weakest state, the Buick-built 455 engine still produced of torque at 2000 rpm. The 455 was the standard engine on the Electra, but there were some built with Buick 350s during the GM strike, when 455 production halted. The 350 engine also came with a price rebate. The 455 engine disappeared after the 1976 model year, in favor of smaller, more efficient engines.


title: Buick Electra

text: To commemorate the Bicentennial of the United States, the standard colors available on all Buicks were Judicial Black, Liberty White, Pewter Gray, Potomac Blue, Continental Blue, Concord Green, Constitution Green, Mount Vernon Cream, Buckskin Tan, Musket Brown, Boston Red and Independence Red, with specially available colors on select models Congressional Cream, Revere Red, Colonial Yellow and Firecracker Orange.


title: Buick Electra

text: Introduced for the 1975 model year, as an option package for the Electra Limited sedan, the Park Avenue, was originally an interior comfort and appearance package, which gave buyers velour, pillow-topped seating, velour headliner, thicker carpet, and an upscale door panel design. The Park Avenue's seats were designed by Flexsteel. This seating design was similar to the Cadillac Sixty Special with the Talisman (1974–1976) option and stayed with Park Avenue through the 1980 model year. The Park Avenue option also offered a full-size center console which eliminated the front, middle passenger space. The center console was eliminated in 1977. 1975 also offered a more luxurious Park Avenue Deluxe, which was sold only in 1975, and included every option available on the Electra (posi-traction, 15" rallye sport wheels, rear automatic leveling, etc.). The Park Avenue Deluxe was an expensive option not popular with buyers; only 37 were built. The Park Avenue would remain as the top-level trim package through 1988. In 1989, the Electra Park Avenue Ultra debuted as the top model. In 1991, the Electra name would be dropped completely and Park Avenue would replace it as the flagship Buick sedan.


title: Buick Electra

text: For 1977, a fifth-generation Electra was introduced as GM downsized its C-body full-size lines. Again a counterpart of the Oldsmobile 98, the Electra shed over 11 inches of length and over 800 pounds of curb weight. Coinciding with the major size reduction, Buick ended production of hardtop body styles, with both two-door and four-door Electras offered only as pillared sedans. The downsized model brought increased sales, with 161,627 Electras produced in 1977.


title: Buick Electra

text: As a consequence of the lighter body and chassis, the 455 V8 of the previous generation was retired entirely, with a 4-barrel Buick 350 V8 returning as the standard engine. The Oldsmobile 403 V8 was introduced as an optional engine.


title: Buick Electra

text: The Electra was offered in standard, Electra 225, and Electra Limited trims; the Park Avenue option was added to the two-door, though the full-length center console option was deleted from the option package. The Estate Wagon shifted to the B-body chassis of the LeSabre, though adopting the front fascia of the Electra (with premium versions sharing interior trim). For 1978, the Electra Park Avenue was added as a distinct trim level.


title: Buick Electra

text: From 1977 to 1979, the exterior of the Electra saw minor yearly revisions. For 1978, the grille was updated along with revised taillamps; for 1979, the front fascia was restyled with a flatter look, adding the Buick emblem to the taillamps.


title: Buick Electra

text: For 1980, all GM B and C-bodies underwent a mid-cycle model update, with multiple aerodynamic enhancements to the body. Distinguished by a slightly lower hoodline, the sloped headlamp housings made their return, with a vertically-slatted grille. In a notable change, the Electra 225 trim (in use since 1959) was retired. To improve fuel economy, the Electra was no longer offered with a standard V8 engine, replaced with a Buick 4.1L V6. The Buick 350 now became an option, with an Oldsmobile 307 V8 replacing the 403 V8. As an additional option, the Oldsmobile 350 diesel V8 was introduced. The new engines were paired with a 4-speed THM200-4R automatic transmission, which used a lock-up torque converter and a 0.67:1 overdrive ratio. With the new transmission, the Electra could be equipped with a numerically higher rear axle ratio for better performance, while offering improved fuel economy with the overdrive range.


title: Buick Electra

text: From 1981 onward, the Electra saw few model updates. For 1981, the VentiPorts were deleted from non-Park Avenue trims. On the latter, the Ventiports became vestigial indentations on chrome fender trim.


title: Buick Electra

text: For 1985, General Motors downsized nearly all of its full-size lines a second time. While the Chevrolet Caprice Classic (which replaced the Impala entirely) and GM full-size station wagons remained, Buick, Oldsmobile, and Pontiac shifted to the front-wheel drive C-body and H-body platforms; Cadillac adopted the C-body for much of its lineup, with the Cadillac Brougham (replacing the de Ville and Fleetwood Brougham) remaining to support livery and professional car sales.


title: Buick Electra

text: Production of the rear-wheel drive Electra ceased in April 1984. Though it would use the slightly smaller B-body chassis (from the 1977-1985 LeSabre); the 1992-1996 Buick Roadmaster served as a functional successor of the 1977-1984 Buick Electra. As of current North American production, the Roadmaster remains the final rear-wheel drive Buick sedan powered by a V8 engine.


title: Buick Electra

text: For model year 1985, GM introduced a downsized sixth-generation Electra in two- and four-door sedan body styles, using the company's C-body platform shared with the Oldsmobile 98 and the full-size, front-drive Cadillacs — together the company's first front-wheel drive, transverse-engine, full-size cars.


title: Buick Electra

text: Despite a significant reduction in length and weight, interior space saw only a very slight reductions from the previous generation, decreasing from 112 to 111 cubic feet of interior room. For 1985, the Electra was offered in three trims, the base 300/380/430 (derived from engine displacement), Park Avenue, and T-Type. For 1987, a Limited trim replaced the number nomenclature, with a Park Avenue Ultra introduced as the flagship of the model line, added in 1989.


title: Buick Electra

text: Dynaride was introduced, serving as rear load-leveling suspension; an air compressor pressurized the rear Chapman struts to maintain a level overall ride height. A dashboard badge (to the left of the steering column) was fitted on all vehicles equipped with the feature; Dynaride was not available with vehicles equipped with Gran Touring suspension.


title: Buick Electra

text: Through its six-year 1985-1990 production, the sixth-generation Electra saw little fundamental change. The two-door body style was phased out, dropping the Electra 380 after 1986 and the Electra Park Avenue two-door after 1987. For 1987, the exterior underwent a minor revision, replacing the exposed sealed-beam headlamps with flush composite headlamps. For 1989, the front seatbelts became door-mounted in U.S.-market vehicles in compliance with passive restraint standards and three-point seatbelts were added to the outboard rear seats (also in compliance with safety regulations).


title: Buick Electra

text: For the 1991 model year, the C-body sedans were redesigned, with Buick retiring the Electra name in favor of making the Buick Park Avenue a stand-alone model line.


title: Buick Electra

text: As a running change during the 1989 model year, Buick introduced the Park Avenue Ultra trim level. Slotted above the performance-oriented T-Type, the luxury-oriented Ultra served as the flagship of the entire Buick sedan line.


title: Buick Electra

text: Distinguished by its silver-color lower body (replacing the chrome trim), silver B-pillars, 15-inch alloy wheels, and trim-specific grille design, the Ultra was fitted with its own C-pillar badging (a vinyl roof with a "frenched" rear window was a no-cost option). The interior was fitted with additional leather trim (including the steering wheel, door panels, and glove compartment door), and a split front bench seat with dual 20-way adjustment; the front seats were styled by Giorgetto Giugiaro.


title: Buick Electra

text: Alongside the vinyl roof, the Ultra trim was offered with few options, including a power sunroof, cornering lamps, automatic climate control, and Twilight Sentinel. As the Ultra carried a higher base price than the standard-trim Cadillac Sedan de Ville (though with much more standard equipment), the trim line did not receive much recognition in the marketplace; only 4,815 examples were sold for 1989.


title: Buick Electra

text: When the Buick Park Avenue became a stand-alone model line for 1991, the Park Avenue Ultra returned as the flagship trim, also taking over the role of the previous T-Type.


title: Buick Electra

text: The sixth-generation Buick Electra was introduced with three engines: the 110hp 3.0L V6 (Electra 300) served as the standard engine, along with an optional 125hp (150hp for 1986 onward) 3.8L V6 (Electra 380) and a 4.3L naturally-aspirated diesel V6 (Electra 430).


title: Buick Electra

text: For 1986, the 3.0L and 4.3L engines were dropped; the 3.8L V6 becoming the sole engine; and the 300/380/430 nomenclature was retired.


title: Buick Electra

text: For 1988, Buick introduced the LN3 3800 3.8L V6, — a major engine redesign, featuring a balance shaft and producing 165 hp (123 kW) and 210 lb⋅ft (285 N⋅m).


title: Buick Electra

text: The original 3.8 L V-6 was still offered in some Electra models through the 1988 model year, denoted by VIN code 3. Electras with the 3800 V-6 were designated by VIN code C.


title: Buick Electra

text: Launched in April 1984, the 6th generation Electra was marketed briefly alongside its rear-wheel drive predecessor (which ended production the same month).


title: Buick Electra

text: While GM downsized its C-body sedans for 1985, Buick, Oldsmobile, and Pontiac full-size station wagons retained the full-size B-body platform for 1985. Buick continued the use of the Electra Estate name for its highest-trim station wagon, which also served as the flagship station wagon of General Motors (as Cadillac did not offer a station wagon at the time).


title: Buick Electra

text: For 1990, Buick renamed its full-size wagon as the Buick Estate Wagon (dropping Electra and LeSabre). For 1991, the B-body wagons were redesigned, with Buick introducing the Buick Roadmaster Estate.


title: Naqshbandi

text: The Naqshbandi () is a major Sunni order of Sufism. Its name is derived from Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari. Naqshbandi masters trace their lineage to the Islamic prophet Muhammad through Abu Bakr, the first Caliph of Sunni Islam and Ali, the fourth Caliph of Sunni Islam. It is because of this dual lineage through Ali and Abu Bakr through the 6th Imam Jafar al Sadiq that the order is also known as the "convergence of the two oceans" or "Sufi Order of Jafar al Sadiq".


title: Naqshbandi

text: The Naqshbandi order owes many insights to Yusuf Hamdani and Abdul Khaliq Gajadwani in the 12th century, the latter of whom is regarded as the organizer of the practices and is responsible for placing stress upon the purely silent "invocation". It was later associated with Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari in the 14th century, hence the name of the order. The name can be interpreted as "engraver (of the heart)", "pattern maker", "reformer of patterns", "image maker", or "related to the image maker". The way is sometimes referred to as "the sublime sufi path" and "the way of the golden chain."


title: Naqshbandi

text: Afterwards, a branch or sub-order name was added. From 'Ubeydullah Ahrar to Imam Rabbani, the way was called "Naqshbandiyya-Ahrariyya"; from Imam Rabbani to Shamsuddin Mazhar "Naqshbandiyya-Mujaddadiyya"; from Shamsuddin Mazhar to Khalid al-Baghdadi "Naqshbandiyya-Mazhariyya"; from Mawlana Khalid onwards "Naqshbandiyya-Khalidiyya"; "Naqshbandiyya-Mustafvi" (Khalidi) and so on.


title: Naqshbandi

text: The Naqshbandiyya order became an influential factor in Indo-Muslim life and for two centuries it was the principal spiritual order in the Indian subcontinent. Baqi Billah Berang (No. 24 in the Naqshbandi-Haqqani Golden Chain) is credited for bringing the order to India during the end of the 16th century. He was born in Kabul and brought up and educated in Kabul and Samarqand, where he came in contact with the Naqshbandiyya order through Khawaja Amkangi. When he came to India, he tried to spread his knowledge about the order, but died three years later. His disciple Ahmad Sirhindi (No. 25 in the Naqshbandi-Haqqani Golden Chain) took over after his death. Later he became known as Mujaddad-i-Alf-i-Thani. It was through him that the order gained popularity within a short period of time. Shah Waliullah Dehlawi was an 18th-century member of the order.


title: Naqshbandi

text: The Naqshbandiyya was introduced into Syria at the end of the 17th century by Murad Ali al-Bukhari, who was initiated in India. Later, he established himself in Damascus, but traveled throughout Arabia. His branch became known as the Muradiyya. After his death in 1720, his descendants formed the Muradi family of scholars and sheikhs who continued to head the Muradiyya. In 1820 and onward, Khalid Shahrazuri rose as the prominent Naqshbandi leader in the Ottoman world. After the death of Khalid in 1827, his order became known as the Khalidiyya, which continued to spread for at least two decades. In Syria and Lebanon, the leaders of every active Naqshbandiyya group acknowledged its spiritual lineage, which had retained the original Naqshbandiyya way. Later a strife between Khalid's khalifas led to disruption of the order, causing it to divide.


title: Naqshbandi

text: When political leader Musa Bukhar died in 1973, the pre-Mujaddidi line of the Naqshbandiyya in Greater Syria came to an end. One of the only branches to have survived till recently is the one based in the khanqah al-Uzbakiyya in Jerusalem. The number of its members had increased at the end of the 19th century. The Farmadiyya branch, which practices silent and vocal invocation, is still present in Lebanon and is named after Ali-Farmadi.


title: Naqshbandi

text: During the middle of the 19th century Egypt was inhabited and controlled by Naqshbandis. A major Naqshbandi khanqah was constructed in 1851 by Abbas I, who did this as a favor to Naqshbandi sheikh Ahmad Ashiq. Ahmad Ashiq headed the order till his death in 1883. Ahmad Ashiq's was a practicer of the Diya'iyya branch of the Khalidiyya. In 1876, sheikh Juda Ibrahim amended the original Diya’iyya, which became known as al-Judiyya, and gained a following in al-Sharqiyya province in the eastern Nile Delta.


title: Naqshbandi

text: During the last two decades of the 19th century two other versions of Naqshbandiyya spread in Egypt. One of these was introduced by a Sudanese, alSharif Isma'il al-Sinnari. Al-Sinnari had been initiated into the Khalidiyya and Mujaddidiyya by various sheikhs during his time in Mecca and Medina. Initially, he tried to obtain a following in Cairo but was not able to, therefore he resorted going to Sudan. It is from there that the order spread into Upper Egypt from 1870 onward under Musa Mu’awwad, who was al-Sinnari's successor. Muhaamad al-Laythi, son of al-Sinnari, was the successor after Mu’awwad's death.


title: Naqshbandi

text: The Judiyya and the Khalidiyya branches spread in the last decades of the 19th century and continued to grow and are still active today. Muhammad Amin al-Kurdi led a branch until his death in the early 1900s, after his death the branch was headed by his son Najm a-Din El-Kurdi until his death in 1988 then his son; PHD.Abdelrahman El-Kurdi, the deputy dean of Al-Azhar university led the branch for 2 years but he died of cancer, after his death the branch was headed by PHD.Mohamed Deyaa Aldin El-Kurdi until his death in 2001. Now that Branch is headed by counseller/Judge Mohamed "seif" El-Kurdi. The El-Kurdi family are also part of the Islamic prophet Mohammed's Bloodline.


title: Naqshbandi

text: Unfortunately, none of the early orders survived far into the 20th century. The longest living group of khanqah based Naqshbandis lived in the khanqah of sheikh Ahmad Ashiq, which closed in 1954. This is when all the khanqahs in Egypt were closed and the awqaf supporting these establishments were taken over by the Ministry of Awqaf. The buildings were either assigned a different function or demolished as part of urban renovation programs.


title: Naqshbandi

text: Ma Laichi brought the Naqshbandi () order to China, creating the Khufiyya () Hua Si Sufi ; ("Multicolored Mosque") menhuan. Ma Mingxin, also brought the Naqshbandi order, creating the Jahriyya () menhuan. These two menhuan were rivals, and fought against each other which led to the Jahriyya Rebellion, Dungan revolt, and Dungan Revolt (1895).


title: Naqshbandi

text: Some Chinese Muslim Generals of the Ma Clique belonged to Naqshbandi Sufi menhuan including Ma Zhan'ao and Ma Anliang of the Khufiyya Naqshbandi menhuan. Ma Shaowu, and Ma Yuanzhang were other prominent leaders from the Jahriyya Naqshbandi menhuan.


title: Naqshbandi

text: Known as the Eleven Naqshbandi principles, the first eight were formulated by Abdul Khaliq Gajadwani, and the last three were added by Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari.


title: Naqshbandi

text: Muraqaba is known as spiritual communion. In this practice one tries to unveil the mystery of life by losing oneself in it. One imagines his heartbeats calling out the name of the almighty. It is highly believed that it is true that our heart calls out for Allah with every beat. But it is our hearts which are draped by sins and so the heartbeat is heard as dhak dhak and not Allah Allah. Muraqaba is done by sitting in a lonely place with eyes closed and maintaining a calm position, imagining your exterior eyes closed, interior eyes opened, your heart calling out for Allah, and trying to hear the word 'Allah' in each and every heartbeat.


title: Naqshbandi

text: Tawajjuh is the basis of spirituality. It's the process of transferring spiritual light (Faiz) that shaykh transfers from his enlightened heart to his or her murid's (student) heart. This light leads the way to enlightenment and makes truth differentiate from false. No spirituality is possible without Tawajjuh. This is how Islamic spirituality differs from other spiritual practices. In Islamic spirituality, murid tends to be more and more in the company of his shaykh to receive Faiz through Tawajjuh that makes enlightenment an easier process as his heart day by day enlightens up to God's presence and his commands towards him and humanity. Process of Tawajjuh is like lighting a candle from another candle. The candle that lightened the other loses nothing, and the candle that got lighted, gains everything.


title: Michael McCary

text: Michael Sean McCary (born December 16, 1971) is an American singer, known for being a former bass singer of the R&B group Boyz II Men (in which he was sometimes known as Mike Bass).


title: Michael McCary

text: In 2003, McCary left Boyz II Men due to back spasms that were eventually diagnosed as multiple sclerosis. He was shown in the pilot for a talk show with Paula Poundstone called "A Pound of Paula", which wasn't picked up.


title: Mark Greaney (novelist)

text: Mark Greaney (born 1967) is an American novelist focusing on thriller. He is best known as Tom Clancy's collaborator on his final books during his lifetime, and for continuing the Jack Ryan character and the Tom Clancy universe following Clancy's death in 2013. He is also known for the "Gray Man" series of novels, which was produced by Netflix into a feature film.


title: Mark Greaney (novelist)

text: Born in Memphis, Tennessee, he is the son of Ed Greaney, a presence at WMC-TV Memphis for over 50 years and the namesake for the station's current newsroom. Greaney has degrees in political science and international relations, which would later play a major part in his writing career.


title: Mark Greaney (novelist)

text: Greaney previously worked as a waiter and bartender for ten years, then later in a surgical technology company, while working on two novels in his spare time. After finishing one of them, titled "Goon Squad" and was primarily about the aftermath of the Bosnian civil war, he gave the first 20 pages of his work to his favorite author Ralph Peters's agent, Scott Miller, in a book conference in September 2006. Miller liked the book but later did not go forward with it, saying that "it was unmarketable," according to Greaney. But he urged Greaney to write another one based from a character in "Goon Squad" named Court Gentry, which would later be "The Gray Man". After finishing this novel, Miller agreed to represent him, and later found a publisher, Jove Books.


title: Mark Greaney (novelist)

text: The national success of "The Gray Man" made Greaney quit his job in the medical devices company and make the transition to becoming a full-time writer. He was later given a three-book deal by his publisher in 2009. In addition, The "Gray Man"s success spawned an equally successful series, with eight more sequels as of 2021: "On Target" (2010), "Ballistic" (2011), "Dead Eye" (2013), "Back Blast" (2016), "Gunmetal Gray" (2017), "Agent in Place" (2018), "Mission Critical" (2019), "One Minute Out" (2020), and "Relentless" (2021).


title: Mark Greaney (novelist)

text: The film adaptation of "The Gray Man" was directed by Joe and Anthony Russo for Netflix, with Ryan Gosling as Gentry and Chris Evans as nemesis Lloyd.


title: Mark Greaney (novelist)

text: Greaney has been a fan of Tom Clancy for years and has read all of his books, beginning with Patriot Games. So when Clancy was looking for a new co-author, Greaney found out that his editor at Berkley Books, Tom Colgan was also Clancy's editor at G. P. Putnam's Sons. His editor later referred to his agent, who asked Greaney to be Clancy's co-author. Commenting on the experience, Greaney recalled: "I wish I could say I was excited, but the truth is, I was terrified. After I caught my breath, I offered to 'try out' because there were some other authors also in the running. I wrote twenty-five pages, handed them in and soon thereafter, I was in Baltimore meeting with Tom Clancy." They later collaborated on Clancy's last three novels before his death in October 2013: "Locked On" (2012), "Threat Vector" (2013), and "Command Authority" (2013).


title: Mark Greaney (novelist)

text: After Clancy's death, with the backing of his family and estate, Greaney continued the Jack Ryan and The Campus Universe left behind by Clancy, and has written four more novels as of 2016: "Tom Clancy: Support and Defend" (2014), "Tom Clancy: Full Force and Effect" (2014), "Tom Clancy: Commander in Chief" (2015) and "Tom Clancy: True Faith and Allegiance" (2016). Regarding the publisher's decision to feature Clancy's name at the top in massive letters and having his name in smaller letters for the covers of the post-Clancy novels, Greaney commented: "It really feels like a humongous honor to do it. I get pretty good billing. The Tom Clancy name is one thing you can put on your book that will make it stand out from across the room".


title: Mark Greaney (novelist)

text: On 19 February 2017, Greaney announced that he will exit the Jack Ryan Universe franchise. Replacing Greaney will be novelist Marc Cameron, previously known for his Jericho Quinn series of thrillers. Greaney later said of his departure from the Jack Ryan universe:


title: Mark Greaney (novelist)

text: Greaney's first standalone work, a military thriller titled "Red Metal" and co-authored with Lieutenant Colonel H. Ripley Rawlings IV, USMC, was released on 16 July 2019. The novel debuted on the New York Times Bestseller list in August 2019. This was the first time Greaney appeared in the NYT Bestseller's list twice in the same calendar year. The book is notable for its comparisons to Clancy's novel "Red Storm Rising" (1986), which is also his first standalone novel that deals with a large scale military conflict between NATO and Russia.


title: Mark Greaney (novelist)

text: In 2020, Greaney and Rawlings both announced via social media and web interviews that they had been contracted by Penguin Publishers to write the next in the "Red Metal" series. The release date was unspecified but was said to be sometime in 2021. Greaney's audiobook thriller "Armored" was released on 9 December 2021, and will be adapted by Sony Pictures and producer Michael Bay.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: Pentagón Jr. (born February 5, 1985) is a Mexican luchador enmascarado (masked professional wrestler) signed to All Elite Wrestling (AEW) under the ring name Penta El Zero Miedo ("Penta Zero Fear"), where he currently holds one-third of the AEW World Trios Championship with his Death Triangle stablemates Pac and his real-life younger brother, Rey Fénix. Penta and Fénix also team as the Lucha Brothers and are former one-time AEW World Tag Team Champions. He also appears in Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (AAA), where he is a former AAA World Tag Team Champion, also with Fénix.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: He is also known for his work with Impact Wrestling where he is a one-time Impact World Champion and one-time Impact World Tag Team Champion, and Major League Wrestling (MLW) where he is a one-time MLW World Tag Team Champion. He also wrestles for Mexico's Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) and The Crash as Penta El 0M ("0M" standing for "Cero Miedo", Spanish for "Zero Fear") and for American television show Lucha Underground (as Pentagón Dark) where he is a former two-time Lucha Underground Champion. He also competes on the U.S. independent circuit, notably for Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (PWG) and AAW. With PWG he is a former one-time PWG World Tag Team Champion.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: Pentagón Jr. initially became known for his tenure with AAA between 2010 and 2017, where he is a former Latin American Champion, Mixed Tag Team Champion, World Tag Team Championship and the 2016 Rey de Reyes. In January 2017, he left AAA and announced that he was working for The Crash and formed a group called "La Rebelión" ("The Rebellion") with other former AAA wrestlers. By mid-2018 it was announced that AAA and Pentagón Jr. had come to an agreement to work together again.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: His real name is not a matter of public record, as is often the case with masked wrestlers in Mexico, where their private lives are kept a secret from the wrestling fans.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: The future Pentagón Jr. was born on February 5, 1985, in Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico. It is unclear exactly how many brothers and sisters he has, but two younger brothers have also become professional wrestlers, best known under the ring names Rey Fénix, and Ikaro.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: As the man behind the Pentagón Jr. mask has never been unmasked in the ring not much is known about his previous history beyond what has been revealed by the man himself, which is traditional in "Lucha libre". According to Pentagón Jr. he was trained by Skayde, and made his debut in 2007, working as the masked character "Zaius". His first verified match was on April 9, 2008, where Zaius teamed up with Black Star, losing to his brothers who wrestled as the masked characters Máscara Oriental and El Niño de Fuego. He would win his first ever championship on July 26, 2009, when he defeated Mesalla to win the WCW Intercontinental Championship in a "Luchas de Apuestas" ("bet match") where Zaius put his mask on the line. Records are unclear on if or when he lost the championship.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: Still working as Zaius the future Pentagón Jr. worked a dark match try out for AAA on September 9, 2010, teaming with Pesadilla to defeat the team of Konami and Máscara Oriental. In 2011 he began working for AAA on a regular basis, using the name "Dark Dragon", while also working on the independent circuit as Zaius. As Dark Dragon he joined AAA's mid-level "rudo" group "La Milicia". At the same time as he was given the "Dark Dragon" persona his brother then known as Máscara Oriental, was given a new name and mask, becoming known as Fénix.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: On December 2, 2012, the Dark Dragon persona was abandoned and AAA reintroduced him as Pentagón Jr. at their major year-end show "Guerra de Titanes" ("War of the Titans"). He was introduced as the arch-enemy of the newly introduced Octagón Jr., just like the original Pentagón had been the storyline arch-enemy of Octagón. Octagón, Octagón Jr. and La Parka defeated Pentagón Jr., La Parka Negra and Silver Cain. Since several wrestler who held the name Pentagon had bad luck in their careers, there is the legend of the name Pentagon being cursed. Pentagón Jr.'s catchphrase, Cero Miedo (Zero Fear) was created to show no fear to the curse. By mid-2013 Octagón Jr. left AAA, leaving Pentagón Jr. without any direction or storyline. On August 18 at "Héroes Inmortales VII", Pentagón entered the 2013 "Copa Antonio Peña", but was defeated in the first round by El Hijo del Fantasma. On March 16, 2014, at AAA's "Rey de Reyes" show, Pentagón Jr. participated in an eight-man "Lucha de Apuestas" "Domo de la Muerte" ("Dome of Death" bet match), but escaped the cage before the end, keeping his mask safe. At Triplemanía XXII, held on August 17, Pentagón Jr participated in a unification match for both the AAA Fusión Championship and AAA Cruiserweight Championship in a multi-man match that was won by El Hijo del Fantasma. On November 17, Pentagón Jr. joined the "Los Perros del Mal" stable. On December 7, Pentagón Jr. and his new stablemate Joe Líder won the AAA World Tag Team Championship by defeating "Los Güeros del Cielo" (Angélico and Jack Evans) and Myzteziz and Fénix in a three-way match. They lost the title back to Angélico and Evans on October 4, 2015, at Héroes Inmortales IX.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: On March 23, 2016, Pentagón Jr. won the 2016 "Rey de Reyes" tournament by defeating La Parka and Villano IV. The "Rey de Reyes" victory was used to build him up as a challenger for the AAA Latin American Championship, which culminated with Pentagón Jr. defeating then-champion Psycho Clown on July 3. At Triplemanía XXIV, on August 28, Pentagón Jr. lost the championship to Johnny Mundo. Pentagón later lost a rematch to Mundo on January 20, 2017 at the "Guerra de Titanes". The following day, Pentagón announced that he no longer worked for AAA, citing unhappiness from feeling restricted and held back by AAA.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: In August 2014, Pentagón was announced as one of five AAA wrestlers to star in "Lucha Underground", a new American television series on El Rey. Pentagón debuted on the third episode on November 12, where he was defeated by his brother, Fénix, in a three-way, that also included Drago. Over the next weeks, the two real-life brothers developed a storyline rivalry between them. On February 4, 2015, Pentagón started a storyline about him breaking his opponent's arms; dedicating each broken arm as a sacrifice for his unknown master. On April 1, 2015, Pentagon participated in a tournament to crown the first LU Trios Champions. Pentagon, Sexy Star and Super Fly were defeated by Big Ryck, The Mack and Killshot. After the match, Pentagon attempted to break Super Fly's arm, but Star saved him. On April 8, 2015, Pentagon attacked Star and Super Fly, managing to break Super Fly's arm. On April 22, 2015, Pentagón was defeated by Sexy Star. On June 3, 2015, Pentagon defeated Sexy Star in a submission match. After the match, Pentagon attempted to sacrifice Sexy Star but was stopped by commentator Vampiro. Afterwards, Pentagón began attacking Vampiro, saying he would sacrifice him for his master. During "Ultima Lucha" on August 5, 2015, Pentagón Jr. defeated Vampiro in a violent Cero Miedo match. After the match, at Vampiro's urging, Pentagón Jr. broke Vampiro's arm. Vampiro then revealed he was Pentagón Jr.'s master.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: On the season two premiere on January 27, Pentagón attacked reigning Lucha Underground Champion, Mil Muertes following his successful defense against Ivelisse and broke Muertes' arm, turning face in the process. Pentagón unsuccessfully challenged for the Lucha Underground Championship against Matanza Cueto, the story-line monster heel brother of authority figure Dario Cueto in 2015. This match aired via tape delay on March 30, 2016. At "Ultima Lucha Dos" on January 31, 2016, Pentagón took on the name "Pentagón Dark" after receiving further "training" from Vampiro in an attempt to once again challenge Matanza Cueto for the Lucha Underground Championship. After his bid to capture the title failed, he turned on Vampiro.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: At Aztec Warfare III Pentagón was attacked by Black Lotus (who swore revenge on Pentagón for breaking her arm at Ultima Lucha Dos) along with Members of The Black Lotus Triad Hitokiri, Doku and Yurei and was eliminated by Johnny Mundo. Two weeks later he faced the Black Lotus triad members in a gauntlet match in a losing effort and got his arm broken by Black Lotus and El Dragon Azteca Jr, who also swore revenge on Pentagón for breaking his arm. On June 25 at "Ultima Lucha Tres", Pentagón Dark defeated Son of Havoc in a ladder match to win the vacant Gift of the Gods Championship, which also earned him a future shot at the Lucha Underground Championship. He cashed in his shot the following day and defeated Prince Puma in a "Loser Must Retire" match to become the new Lucha Underground Champion.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: On June 13, 2018, Lucha Underground aired the first episode of the 4th season. At the first episode, Pentagón Dark won the Aztec Warfare to retain the title. Becoming the first person to ever do so.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: On August 28, 2015, Pentagón Jr. made his debut for Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (PWG) by entering the 2015 Battle of Los Angeles tournament, defeating Drago in his first round match. He was eliminated from the tournament in his second round match two days later by eventual tournament winner Zack Sabre Jr. On September 2, 2016, Pentagón Jr. returned to PWG, entering the 2016 Battle of Los Angeles, from which he was eliminated in the first round by Marty Scurll. Two days later, Pentagón Jr. and Fénix unsuccessfully challenged The Young Bucks (Matt Jackson and Nick Jackson) for the PWG World Tag Team Championship.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: On March 18, 2017, Penta el 0M and Rey Fénix defeated The Young Bucks and the team of Matt Sydal and Ricochet in a three-way match to win the PWG World Tag Team Championship. On October 20, Penta and Fénix were booked to lose the championship to The Chosen Bros (Jeff Cobb and Matt Riddle), ending their reign at 216 days.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: With the debut of Lucha Underground on American television, Pentagón Jr. began getting work on the US independent circuit, working for various promotions when his AAA schedule would allow it. He began working for a variety of promotions in Latin America and the United States.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: On July 23, 2016, Pentagón Jr. defeated Sami Callihan to win AAW: Professional Wrestling Redefined's Heavyweight Championship. On October 8, 2016, Pentagón Jr. put the championship on the line in a "Lucha de Apuestas" tag team match where his brother Fénix put his mask on the line, while their opponent risked either their hair (Callihan) or their career (Jake Crist). The match ended when Callihan pinned Pentagón Jr. to regain the championship.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: During a January 21, 2017, show for The Crash Lucha Libre promotion, Pentagón Jr., Daga and Garza Jr. all came to the ring and later confirmed that they had left AAA. Since AAA owned the trademark to the name Pentagón Jr., he revealed that he would be known as "Penta el 0M" ("Cero Miedo", "Zero Fear"). The three hoped to able to use the "Perros del Mal" name on the independent circuit, but were unable to obtain the right and on January 24, Penta announced he was leaving "Perros del Mal". On January 27, Penta, Daga, Garza and Fénix el Rey announced the formation of a new stable in The Crash, named "La Rebelión" ("The Rebellion").


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: On September 1, 2018, Penta El Zero lost to Kenny Omega at the independent wrestling super show All In. Following the match, the lights went dark and when they came on Chris Jericho, dressed as Pentagon, attacked Omega before removing his mask to reveal himself.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: Penta 0M made his debut for the U.S. based Major League Wrestling (MLW) on January 11, 2018, where he defeated his brother Rey Fénix as part of MLW's "Zero Hour" show. This would be taped for the April 20, 2018 debut episode of "MLW Fusion" on BeIN Sports. He would later earn a match for Shane Strickland's MLW World Heavyweight Championship, but lost the match. The following month Los Lucha Bros (Pentagon and Fenix) defeated "Team TBD" (Jason Cade and Jimmy Yuta) and The Dirty Blondes (Leo Brien and Mike Patrick) to become the first holders of the MLW World Tag Team Championship in the restarted MLW. The long-running rivalry between Penta 0M and L.A. Park also became part of the storyline in MLW, leading to L.A. Park defeating Pentagon in a "Mexican Massacre" No disqualification match on September 9, 2018. The Mexican Massacre match would later be selected as the "MLW Match of the Year" for 2018. At MLW Fightland, held on November 8, 2018, Los Lucha Bros successfully defended the MLW World Tag Team Championship against L.A. Park and his son El Hijo de L.A. Park.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: Following his feud with Park, Lucha Bros begun feuding with The Hart Foundation (Teddy Hart, Davey Boy Smith Jr. and Brian Pillman Jr.) over the MLW Tag Team Championship. On the January 4, 2019 episode of "MLW Fusion" Pentagon lost to Teddy Hart The team would hold the titles until February 2, 2019, when they lost the MLW Tag Team Championship to The Hart Foundation (Teddy Hart and Davey Boy Smith Jr.). Penta and Fenix appeared at MLW's next event, Intimidation Games, which took place on March 2, 2019.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: Pentagón Jr. debuted with Impact Wrestling on an "Impact Wrestling vs Lucha Underground" co-promoted event at WrestleCon 2018, winning a three-way match against Fénix and Impact World champion Austin Aries. It was subsequently announced that Pentagón Jr. would face Fénix in a single's match at Impact's Redemption Pay-Per-View event. However, following Alberto El Patron's dismissal from the promotion, Pentagón Jr. and Fénix were announced as his replacement in the main event, this time for the Impact World Championship. Pentagón Jr. was booked to win the match, claiming the Impact World Championship. During the Impact Wrestling television taping the next day Pentagón Jr. successfully defended the championship against Eli Drake and then Jimmy Jacobs, followed by losing the championship to Austin Aries the following night to end Impact Wrestling's television tapings for the week. The match for the championship was aired on US television as part of the Under Pressure special episode on May 31.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: On June 3, Pentagón Jr. headlined an Impact Wrestling "One Night Only" special show called Zero Fear (name after Pentagón Jr. catchphrase), where he defeated Eli Drake and Moose. In the Spring and Summer of 2018, Pentagón Jr entered a feud with Sami Callihan whom he has faced numerous occasions across many promotions both on and off television. The feud was built up over several Impact broadcasts and was designed to culminate in a match at IW's Slammiversary PPV. The stipulation for the match ended up becoming a "mask Vs hair" match after Callihan attempted to remove Pentagón Jr.'s mask after attacking him with a baseball bat. At Slammiversary, Pentagón Jr defeated Callihan, and proceeded to shave Callihan's hair as per the stipulations of the match. On January 12, 2019, Pentagón and Fénix defeated the Latin American Xchange (LAX) during the TV tapings in Mexico to win the Impact World Tag Team Championship. At Rebellion. They lost the titles back to LAX in a Full Metal Mayhem match.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: On June 5, 2018, it was announced that Pentagón Jr. was returning to AAA, participating in AAA's "Poker de Ases" ("Poker Aces") match at "Triplemanía XXVI", putting his mask on the line against Psycho Clown, El Hijo del Fantasma and L.A. Park. On August 2, Pentagon teaming up L.A. Park defeating Psycho Clown and Pagano being his first victory after one year since his departure in January 2017.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: In the spring of 2018 Penta El 0M wrestled against Carístico on the Mexican independent circuit, after which he threatened Carístico that he would "visit Carístico's home", making references to the Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre promotion. On June 29, 2018, Penta El 0M made a surprise appearance during the main event of CMLL's "Super Viernes" show, attacking Carístico during the match.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: During an independent circuit show in Georgia, The Young Bucks came to the ring to offer the Lucha Brothers an All Elite Wrestling (AEW) contract in a confrontation that ended with a verbal agreement and a handshake. It was subsequently revealed that Pentagon Jr. and Rey Fénix had agreed to a non-exclusive deal with AEW, due to their legal obligations to Lucha Underground. On February 7, 2019, at the "All Elite Wrestling" Ticket Announcement held at the MGM Grand Pool Splash, in Las Vegas, Nevada. The Young Bucks were leaving the stage as The Lucha Brothers music played seeing Pentagón Jr., and Fénix making their first appearance with the company. The two teams faced off before a brawl ensued seeing Pentagón striking Matt Jackson first, while Fénix took out Nick Jackson with a super-kick. Pentagón then proceeded to package-piledrive Matt Jackson on the stage, before cutting promos and advertising themselves for the upcoming debut Pay-Per-View for the company, Double Or Nothing before exiting the stage. At Double Or Nothing, Pentagón Jr and his partner Fénix lost their AAA World Tag Team Championship to The Young Bucks. They won back the titles in a rematch organized by AAA at Verano de Escándalo. This led to a six-man tag match at AEW Fyter Fest, where the Lucha Brothers teamed with Laredo Kid in another losing effort against The Young Bucks and Kenny Omega. On the October 30, 2019 episode of AEW Dynamite, the Lucha Brothers lost to SoCal Uncensored in the finals of a tournament to decide the first ever AEW World Tag Team Champions.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: On March 4, 2020, the Lucha Brothers formed a trio along with Pac known as Death Triangle, confirming their heel turn in the process. They made their debut as a team against Joey Janela and the Private Party, defeating them. However, with Pac stuck in the U.K., due to travel restrictions, they then formed an alliance with Eddie Kingston as well as The Butcher and The Blade. On November 18, 2020, Penta and Fenix again turned face and revived their "Death Triangle" alliance with Pac after saving him during a beatdown from Kingston, Butcher and Blade. In August 2021, it was announced that the Lucha Brothers would take part in a four-team eliminator tournament for a shot at the AEW World Tag Team Championship, with the winner of the tournament facing The Young Bucks at All Out in a steel cage match. The Lucha Brothers defeated the Varsity Blonds on the August 25 edition of "Dynamite", and they defeated Jurassic Express on the August 27 edition of "Rampage" to become number one contenders. They went on to defeat the Young Bucks at the All Out pay-per-view, winning the AEW World Tag Team Championship for the first time. The match was widely praised by critics as one of the greatest steel cage matches of all time, and one of the best matches in AEW's history. On October 16, 2021, on a special Saturday edition of AEW Dynamite Penta and Fenix lost their AAA World Tag Team Championship to FTR disguised as the fictitious luchador tag team Las Super Ranas. On the January 5, 2022 episode of Dynamite, Jurassic Express defeated the Lucha Brothers to win their first AEW World Tag Team Championship.


title: Pentagón Jr.

text: On the February 23th, 2022 episode of "Dynamite", he successfully teamed with Pac to defeat the Kings of the Black Throne (Brody King & Malakai Black). Prior to the match, he was accompanied to the ring by Alex Abrahantes, carried a shovel, donned a black hood with a full black ring attire and debuted the name "Penta Oscuro" (Dark Penta), a callback to his Lucha Underground gimmick "Pentagon Dark". At Revolution's buy-in show, Oscuro and Pac would team with Erick Redbeard in a trios match against the House of Black (now completed with Buddy Matthews), which they lost. On the September 7th, 2022 episode of "Dynamite", he would win the recently vacated AEW World Trios Championship with Pac and Fénix, defeating Best Friends.


title: Chert

text: Chert () is a hard, fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline quartz, the mineral form of silicon dioxide (SiO). Chert is characteristically of biological origin, but may also occur inorganically as a chemical precipitate or a diagenetic replacement, as in petrified wood.


title: Chert

text: Chert is typically composed of the petrified remains of siliceous ooze, the biogenic sediment that covers large areas of the deep ocean floor, and which contains the silicon skeletal remains of diatoms, silicoflagellates, and radiolarians. Precambrian cherts are notable for the presence of fossil cyanobacteria. In addition to microfossils, chert occasionally contains macrofossils. However, some chert is devoid of any fossils.


title: Chert

text: Chert varies greatly in color (from white to black), but most often manifests as gray, brown, grayish brown and light green to rusty red (occasionally dark green); its color is an expression of trace elements present in the rock, and both red and green are most often related to traces of iron (in its oxidized and reduced forms, respectively).


title: Chert

text: In petrology, the term "chert" refers generally to all chemically precipitated sedimentary rocks composed primarily of microcrystalline, cryptocrystalline and microfibrous silica. Most cherts are nearly pure silica, with less than 5% other minerals (mostly calcite, dolomite, clay minerals, hematite, and organic matter.) However, cherts range from very pure cherts with over 99% silica content to impure nodular cherts with less than 65% silica content. Aluminium is the most abundant minor element, followed by iron and manganese or potassium, sodium, and calcium. Extracrystalline water (tiny inclusions of water within and around the quartz grains) make up less than 1% of most cherts.


title: Chert

text: The Folk classification divides chert into three textural categories. Granular microquartz is the component of chert consisting of roughly equidimensional quartz grains, ranging in size from a fraction of a micron to 20 microns, but most typically 8 to 10 microns. Chalcedony is a microfibrous variety of quartz, consisting of radiating bundles of very thin crystals about 100 microns long. Megaquartz is composed of equidimensional grains over 20 microns in size. Most chert is microcrystalline quartz with minor chalcedony and sometimes opal, but cherts range from nearly pure opal to nearly pure quartz chert. However, little opal is over 60 million years old. Opaline chert often contains visible fossils of diatoms, radiolarians, and glass sponge spicules.


title: Chert

text: Chert is found in settings as diverse as hot spring deposits ("siliceous sinter"), banded iron formation ("jaspilite"), or alkaline lakes. However, most chert is found either as "bedded chert" or as "nodular chert". Bedded chert is more common in Precambrian beds, but nodular chert became more common in the Phanerozoic as the total volume of chert in the rock record diminished. Bedded chert is rare after the early Mesozoic. Chert became moderately abundant during the Devonian and Carboniferous and again became moderately abundant from the Jurassic to the present.


title: Chert

text: Bedded chert, also known as ribbon chert, takes the form of thinly bedded layers (a few centimeters to a meter in thickness) of nearly pure chert separated by very thin layers of silica-rich shale. It is usually black to green in color, and the full sequence of beds may be several hundred meters thick. The shale is typically black shale, sometimes with pyrite, indicating deposition in an anoxic environment. Bedded chert is most often found in association with turbidites, deep water limestone, submarine volcanic rock, ophiolites, and mélanges on active margins of tectonic plates. Sedimentary structures are rare in bedded cherts. The typically high purity of bedded chert, like the high purity of other chemically precipitated rock, points to deposition in areas where there is little influx of detrital sediments (such as river water laden with silt and clay particles.) Such impurities as are present include authigenic pyrite and hematite, formed in the sediments after they were deposited, in addition to traces of detrital minerals.


title: Chert

text: Seawater typically contains between 0.01 and 11 parts per million (ppm) of silica, with around 1 ppm being typical. This is far below saturation, indicating that silica cannot normally be precipitated from seawater through inorganic processes. The silica is instead extracted from seawater by living organisms, such as diatoms, radiolarians, and glass sponges, which can efficiently extract silica even from very unsaturated water, and which are estimated to presently produce of opal per year in the world's oceans. Diatoms can double their numbers eight times a day under ideal conditions (though doubling once per day is more typical in normal seawater) and can extract silica from water with as little as 0.1 ppm silica. The organisms protect their skeletons from dissolution by "armoring" them with metal ions. Once the organisms die, their skeletons will quickly dissolve unless they accumulate on the ocean bottom and are buried, forming siliceous ooze that is 30% to 60% silica. Thus, bedded cherts are typically composed mostly of fossil remains of organisms that secrete silica skeletons, which are usually altered by solution and recrystallization.


title: Chert

text: The skeletons of these organisms are composed of opal-A, an amorphous form of silica, lacking long-range crystal structure. This is gradually transformed to opal-CT, a microcrystalline form of silica composed mostly of bladed crystals of cristobalite and tridymite. Much opal-CT takes the form of "lepispheres", which are clusters of bladed crystals about 10 microns in diameter. Opal-CT in turn transforms to microquartz. In deep ocean water, the transition to opal-CT occurs at a temperature of about while the transition to microquartz occurs at a temperature of about . However, the transition temperature varies considerably, and the transition is hastened by the presence of magnesium hydroxide, which provides a nucleus for the recrystallization. Megaquartz forms at elevated temperatures typical of metamorphism.


title: Chert

text: There is evidence that the variety of chert called porcelainite, which is characterized by a high content of opal-CT, recrystallizes at very shallow depths. The Caballos Novaculite of Texas also shows signs of very shallow water deposition, including shallow water sedimentary structures and evaporite pseudomorphs, which are casts of crystals of soluble minerals that could only have formed in near-surface conditions. This novaculate appears to have formed by replacement of carbonate fecal pellets by chert.


title: Chert

text: Bedded cherts can be further subdivided by the kinds of organisms that produced the silica skeletons.


title: Chert

text: "Diatomaceous chert" consists of beds and lenses of diatomite which were converted during diagenesis into dense, hard chert. Beds of marine diatomaceous chert comprising strata several hundred meters thick have been reported from sedimentary sequences such as the Miocene Monterey Formation of California and occur in rocks as old as the Cretaceous. Diatoms were the dominant siliceous organism responsible for extracting silica from seawater from the Jurassic and later.


title: Chert

text: "Radiolarite" consists mostly of remains of radiolarians. When the remains are well-cemented with silica, it is known as "radiolarian chert". Many show evidence of a deep-water origin, but some appear to have formed in water as shallow as , perhaps in shelf seas where upwelling of nutrient-rich deep ocean water support high organic productivity. Radiolarians dominated the extraction of silica from seawater prior to the Jurassic.


title: Chert

text: "Spicularite" is chert composed of spicules of glass sponges and other invertebrates. When densely cemented, it is known as "spicular chert". They are found in association with glauconite-rich sandstone, black shale, clay-rich limestone, phosphorites, and other nonvolcanic rocks typical of water a few hundred meters deep.


title: Chert

text: Some bedded cherts appear devoid of fossils even under close microscopic examination. Their origin is uncertain, but they may form from fossil remains that are completely dissolved in fluids that then migrate to precipitate their silica load in a nearby bed. Eolian quartz has also been suggested as a source of silica for chert beds. Precambrian bedded cherts are common, making up 15% of middle Precambrian sedimentary rock, and may have been deposited nonbiologically in oceans more saturated in silica than the modern ocean. The high degree of silica saturation was due either to intense volcanic activity or to the lack of modern organisms that remove silica from seawater.


title: Chert

text: Nodular chert is most common in limestone but may also be found in shales and sandstones. It is less common in dolomite. Nodular chert in carbonate rocks is found as oval to irregular nodules. These vary in size from powdery quartz particles to nodules several meters in size. The nodules are most typically along bedding planes or stylolite (dissolution) surfaces, where fossil organisms tended to accumulate and provided a source of dissolved silica, but they are sometimes found cutting across bedding surfaces, where the chert fills fossil burrows, fluid escape structures, or fractures. Nodules under a few centimeters in size tend to be egg-shaped, while larger nodules form irregular bodies with knobby surfaces. The outer few centimeters of large nodules may show desiccation cracks with secondary chert, which likely formed at the same time as the nodule. Calcareous fossils are occasionally present that have been completely silicified. Where chert occurs in chalk or marl, it is usually called flint.


title: Chert

text: Most chert nodules have textures suggesting they were formed by diagenetic replacement, where silica was deposited in place of calcium carbonate or clay minerals. This may have taken place where meteoric water (water derived from snow or rain) mixed with saltwater in the sediment beds, where carbon dioxide was trapped, producing an environment supersaturated with silica and undersaturated with calcium carbonate. Nodular chert is particularly common in continental shelf environments. In the Permian Basin (North America), chert nodules and chertified fossils are abundant in basin limestones, but there is little in the carbonate buildup zone itself. This may reflect dissolution of opal where carbonate is being actively deposited, a lack of siliceous organisms in these environments, or removal of siliceous skeletons by strong currents that redeposit the siliceous material in the deep basin.


title: Chert

text: The silica in nodular chert likely precipitates as opal-A, based on internal banding in nodules, and may recrystallize directly to microquartz without first recrystallizing to opal-CT. Some nodular chert may precipitate directly as microquartz, due to low levels of supersaturation of silica.


title: Chert

text: The banded iron formations of Precambrian age are composed of alternating layers of chert and iron oxides.


title: Chert

text: Nonmarine cherts may form in saline alkaline lakes as thin lenses or nodules showing sedimentary structures suggestive of evaporite origin. Such cherts are forming today in the alkaline lakes of the East African Rift Valley. These lakes are characterized by sodium carbonate brines with very high pH that can contain as much as 2700 ppm silica. Episodes of runoff of fresh water into the lakes lowers the pH and precipitates the unusual sodium silicate minerals magadiite or kenyaite, After burial and diagenesis, these are altered to Magadi-type chert. The Morrison Formation contains Magadi-type chert that may have formed in the alkaline Lake T'oo'dichi'.


title: Chert

text: Chert may also form from replacement of calcrete in fossil soils (paleosols) by silica dissolved from overlying volcanic ash beds.


title: Chert

text: The cryptocrystalline nature of chert, combined with its above average ability to resist weathering, recrystallization and metamorphism has made it an ideal rock for preservation of early life forms.


title: Chert

text: Chert is of only modest economic importance today as a source of silica (quartz sand being much more important.) However, chert deposits may be associated with valuable deposits of iron, uranium, manganese, phosphorite, and petroleum.


title: Chert

text: In prehistoric times, chert was often used as a raw material for the construction of stone tools. Like obsidian, as well as some rhyolites, felsites, quartzites, and other tool stones used in lithic reduction, chert fractures in a Hertzian cone when struck with sufficient force. This results in conchoidal fractures, a characteristic of all minerals with no cleavage planes. In this kind of fracture, a cone of force propagates through the material from the point of impact, eventually removing a full or partial cone; this result is familiar to anyone who has seen what happens to a plate-glass window when struck by a small object, such as an air gun projectile. The partial Hertzian cones produced during lithic reduction are called flakes, and exhibit features characteristic of this sort of breakage, including striking platforms, bulbs of force, and occasionally eraillures, which are small secondary flakes detached from the flake's bulb of force.


title: Chert

text: When a chert stone is struck against an iron-bearing surface, sparks result. This makes chert an excellent tool for starting fires, and both flint and common chert were used in various types of fire-starting tools, such as tinderboxes, throughout history. A primary historic use of common chert and flint was for flintlock firearms, in which the chert striking a metal plate produces a spark that ignites a small reservoir containing black powder, discharging the firearm.


title: Chert

text: Cherts are subject to problems when used as concrete aggregates. Deeply weathered chert develops surface pop-outs when used in concrete that undergoes freezing and thawing because of the high porosity of weathered chert. The other concern is that certain cherts undergo an alkali-silica reaction with high-alkali cements. This reaction leads to cracking and expansion of concrete and ultimately to failure of the material.


title: Chert

text: There are numerous varieties of chert, classified based on their visible, microscopic and physical characteristics. Some of the more common varieties are:


title: Lamborghini Countach LPI 800-4

text: The Lamborghini Countach LPI 800-4 is a mid-engine hybrid-electric sports car produced by the Italian automotive manufacturer Lamborghini. Unveiled on 14 August 2021, the car is named after the original Countach which was first introduced 50 years prior. Based on the hybridized powertrain of the Sián FKP 37, 112 units are planned to be produced, the number referring to the LP 112 model designation used during development of the original Countach.


title: Lamborghini Countach LPI 800-4

text: Deliveries are due to start in early 2022; all 112 models had completely been sold out less than a week after being unveiled.