title: Holiday: A Soldier Is Never Off Duty

text: The film was originally scheduled for a release in early May 2014, which would have clashed with the release of "Action Jackson". However, Action Jackson was pushed to December 2014.


title: Holiday: A Soldier Is Never Off Duty

text: The film's soundtrack album composed by Pritam, was released on 12 May 2014. Additional songs featured in the audio CD were composed by Kaushik Dutta, were released on 2 June 2014. The lyrics were written by Irshad Kamil for the songs featured in the film. Sukumar Dutta wrote the lyrics for Kaushik Dutta's composition. Prasad Sashte composed the background score of the film. A reprise version of the song "Ashq Na Ho" was released on 17 March 2016. The Reprise version was sung by singer Asees Kaur.


title: Holiday: A Soldier Is Never Off Duty

text: The film has received positive reviews from the critics. ABP News similarly rated it 4.5/5, calling it a"fast-paced, exhilarating roller coaster ride" Taran Adarsh gave 4/5 and states that it is a slick action-thriller that keeps you engrossed, enthralled and captivated all through, thanks to its fascinating premise and a watertight, razor-sharp screenplay.


title: Holiday: A Soldier Is Never Off Duty

text: "The Times of India" gave the film 3.5 ratings describing it as This one applauds the jawans who live in the jaws of death, and is a 'wake up' call for all the 'sleepers' that abound. Bravo!"" Rachel Saltz of The New York Times stated that "The action sequences mostly have tension and punch, even if the movie is old-school long – 2 hours 41 minutes – and the plot doesn't bear too much scrutiny". The romantic angle of the film was criticised by some. "Hindustan Times" praised the performance of Akshay Kumar. Rajeev Masand of "CNN-IBN" gave 2 stars out of 5, commenting "That this film is still not as awful as most typical Akshay Kumar starrers, despite several such harebrained sequences, is to the credit of director AR Murgadoss, who doesn't let something as insignificant as common sense come in the way of telling a convenient story. In Holiday, Murgadoss remakes his own Tamil hit Thuppaki and he doesn't tinker with the blueprint at all."


title: Holiday: A Soldier Is Never Off Duty

text: Filmfare critic praised the film as a "Genuinely smart action thriller". Raja Sen of Rediff gave the film 1.5 out of 5 stars and said, "Holiday takes obscene amounts of time getting to the point."


title: Holiday: A Soldier Is Never Off Duty

text: The film has a worldwide gross collection of against a budget of 500 million. Hence, it was a box office success.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: A mushroom cloud is a distinctive mushroom-shaped flammagenitus cloud of debris, smoke and usually condensed water vapor resulting from a large explosion. The effect is most commonly associated with a nuclear explosion, but any sufficiently energetic detonation or deflagration will produce the same effect. They can be caused by powerful conventional weapons, like thermobaric weapons, including the ATBIP and GBU-43/B Massive Ordnance Air Blast. Some volcanic eruptions and impact events can produce natural mushroom clouds.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: Mushroom clouds result from the sudden formation of a large volume of lower-density gases at any altitude, causing a Rayleigh–Taylor instability. The buoyant mass of gas rises rapidly, resulting in turbulent vortices curling downward around its edges, forming a temporary vortex ring that draws up a central column, possibly with smoke, debris, condensed water vapor, or a combination of these, to form the "mushroom stem". The mass of gas plus entrained moist air eventually reaches an altitude where it is no longer of lower density than the surrounding air; at this point, it disperses, drifting back down (see fallout). The stabilization altitude depends strongly on the profiles of the temperature, dew point, and wind shear in the air at and above the starting altitude.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: Although the term appears to have been coined in the early 1950s, mushroom clouds generated by explosions were being described centuries before the atomic era.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: A contemporary aquatint by an unknown artist of the 1782 Franco-Spanish attack on Gibraltar shows one of the attacking force's floating batteries exploding with a mushroom cloud after the British defenders set it ablaze by firing heated shot.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: In 1798, Gerhard Vieth published a detailed and illustrated account of a cloud in the neighborhood of Gotha that was "not unlike a mushroom in shape". The cloud had been observed by legation counselor Lichtenberg a few years earlier on a warm summer afternoon. It was interpreted as an irregular meteorological cloud and seemed to have caused a storm with rain and thunder from a new dark cloud that developed beneath it. Lichtenberg stated to have later observed somewhat similar clouds, but none as remarkable.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: In 1930 Olaf Stapledon in his novel "Last and First Men" imagines the first demonstration of an atomic weapon "clouds of steam from the boiling sea.. a gigantic mushroom of steam and debris"


title: Mushroom cloud

text: "The Times" published a report on 1 October 1937 of a Japanese attack on Shanghai, China, that generated "a great mushroom of smoke".


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The atomic bomb cloud over Nagasaki, Japan, was described in "The Times" of London of 13 August 1945 as a "huge mushroom of smoke and dust". On 9 September 1945, "The New York Times" published an eyewitness account of the Nagasaki bombing, written by William L. Laurence, the official newspaper correspondent of the Manhattan Project, who accompanied one of the three aircraft that made the bombing run. He wrote of the bomb producing a "pillar of purple fire" out of the top of which came "a giant mushroom that increased the height of the pillar to a total of 45,000 feet".


title: Mushroom cloud

text: In 1946, the Operation Crossroads nuclear bomb tests were described as having a "cauliflower" cloud, but a reporter present also spoke of "the mushroom, now the common symbol of the atomic age". Mushrooms have traditionally been associated both with life and death, food and poison, which made them a more powerful symbolic connection than, say, the "cauliflower" cloud.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: Mushroom clouds are formed by many sorts of large explosions under Earth's gravity, but they are best known for their appearance after nuclear detonations. Without gravity, or without a thick atmosphere, the explosive's by-product gases would remain spherical. Nuclear weapons are usually detonated above the ground (not upon impact, because some of the energy would be dissipated by the ground motions), to maximize the effect of their spherically-expanding fireball and blast wave. Immediately after the detonation, the fireball begins to rise into the air, acting on the same principle as a hot-air balloon.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: One way to analyze the motion, once the hot gas has cleared the ground sufficiently, is as a 'spherical cap bubble', as this gives agreement between the rate of rise and observed diameter.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: As it rises, a Rayleigh–Taylor instability is formed, and air is drawn upwards and into the cloud (similar to the updraft of a chimney), producing strong air currents known as "afterwinds", while, inside the head of the cloud, the hot gases rotate in a toroidal shape. When the detonation altitude is low enough, these afterwinds will draw in dirt and debris from the ground below to form the stem of the mushroom cloud.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: After the mass of hot gases reaches its equilibrium level, the ascent stops, and the cloud starts flattening to the characteristic mushroom shape, usually aided by surface growth due to the decaying turbulence.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: Nuclear detonations produced high above the ground might not create mushroom clouds with a stem. The heads of the clouds themselves consist of highly radioactive particles, primarily the fission products and other weapon debris aerosols, and are usually dispersed by the wind, though weather patterns (especially rain) can produce problematic nuclear fallout.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: Detonations significantly below ground level or deep below the water (for instance, nuclear depth charges) also do not produce mushroom clouds, as the explosion causes the vaporization of a huge amount of earth and water in these instances, creating a bubble which then collapses in on itself; in the case of a less deep underground explosion, this produces a subsidence crater. Detonations underwater but near the surface produce a pillar of water, which, in collapsing, forms a cauliflower-like shape, which is easily mistaken for a mushroom cloud (such as in the well-known pictures of the "Crossroads Baker" test). Underground detonations at low depth produce a mushroom cloud and a base surge, two different distinct clouds. The amount of radiation vented into the atmosphere decreases rapidly with increasing detonation depth.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: With surface and near-surface air bursts, the amount of debris lofted into the air decreases rapidly with increasing burst altitude. At burst altitudes of approximately 7meters/kiloton, a crater is not formed, and correspondingly lower amounts of dust and debris are produced. The fallout-reducing height, above which the primary radioactive particles consist mainly of the fine fireball condensation, is approximately 55meters/kiloton. However, even at these burst altitudes, fallout may be formed by a number of mechanisms.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The distribution of radiation in the mushroom cloud varies with the yield of the explosion, type of weapon, fusion–fission ratio, burst altitude, terrain type, and weather. In general, lower-yield explosions have about 90% of their radioactivity in the mushroom head and 10% in the stem. In contrast, megaton-range explosions tend to have most of their radioactivity in the lower third of the mushroom cloud.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: At the moment of the explosion, the fireball is formed. The ascending, roughly spherical mass of hot, incandescent gases changes shape due to atmospheric friction and cools its surface by energy radiation, turning from a sphere to a violently rotating spheroidal vortex. A Rayleigh–Taylor instability is formed as the underneath cool air initially pushes the bottom fireball gases into an inverted cup shape. This causes turbulence and a vortex that sucks more air into its center, creating external afterwinds and cooling itself. The speed of its rotating slows down as it cools, and may stop entirely during later phases. The vaporized parts of the weapon and ionized air cool into visible gases, forming the early cloud; the white-hot vortex core becomes yellow, then dark red, then loses visible incandescence. With further cooling, the bulk of the cloud fills in as atmospheric moisture condenses. As the cloud ascends and cools, its buoyancy lessens, and its ascent slows.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: If the size of the fireball is comparable to the atmospheric density scale height, the whole cloud rise will be ballistic, overshooting a large volume of overdense air to greater altitudes than the final stabilization altitude. Significantly smaller fireballs produce clouds with buoyancy-governed ascent.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: After reaching the tropopause, the bottom of the region of strong static stability, the cloud tends to slow its ascent and spread out. If it contains sufficient energy, the central part of it may continue rising up into the stratosphere as an analog of a standard thunderstorm. A mass of air ascending from the troposphere to the stratosphere leads to the formation of acoustic gravity waves, virtually identical to those created by intense stratosphere-penetrating thunderstorms. Smaller-scale explosions penetrating the tropopause generate waves of higher frequency, classified as infrasound.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The explosion raises a large amount of moisture-laden air from lower altitudes. As the air rises, its temperature drops, and its water vapour first condenses as water droplets, and later freezes as ice crystals. The phase changes release latent heat, heating the cloud and driving it to yet higher altitudes.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The shape of the cloud is influenced by the local atmospheric conditions and wind patterns. The fallout distribution is predominantly a downwind plume. However, if the cloud reaches the tropopause, it may spread against the wind, because its convection speed is higher than the ambient wind speed. At the tropopause, the cloud shape is roughly circular and spread out.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The initial color of some radioactive clouds can be colored red or reddish-brown, due to presence of nitrogen dioxide and nitric acid, formed from initially ionized nitrogen, oxygen, and atmospheric moisture. In the high-temperature, high-radiation environment of the blast, ozone is also formed. It is estimated that each megaton of yield produces about 5000 tons of nitrogen oxides. Yellow and orange hues have also been described. This reddish hue is later obscured by the white colour of water/ice clouds, condensing out of the fast-flowing air as the fireball cools, and the dark colour of smoke and debris sucked into the updraft. The ozone gives the blast its characteristic corona discharge-like smell.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The droplets of condensed water gradually evaporate, leading to the cloud's apparent disappearance. The radioactive particles, however, remain suspended in the air, and the now-invisible cloud continues depositing fallout along its path.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The stem of the cloud is gray to brown in a groundburst, as large amounts of dust, dirt, soil, and debris are sucked into the mushroom cloud. Airbursts produce white, steamy stems. Groundbursts produce dark mushroom clouds, containing irradiated material from the ground in addition to the bomb and its casing, and therefore produce more radioactive fallout, with larger particles that readily deposit locally.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: A higher-yield detonation can carry the nitrogen oxides from the burst high enough in atmosphere to cause significant depletion of the ozone layer.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: A double mushroom, with two levels, can be formed under certain conditions. For example, the Buster-Jangle Sugar shot formed the first head from the blast itself, followed by another one generated by the heat from the hot, freshly formed crater.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The fallout itself may appear as dry, ash-like flakes, or as particles too small to be visible; in the latter case, the particles are often deposited by rain. Large amounts of newer, more radioactive particles deposited on skin can cause beta burns, often presenting as discolored spots and lesions on the backs of exposed animals. The fallout from the Castle Bravo test had the appearance of white dust and was nicknamed "Bikini snow"; the tiny white flakes resembled snowflakes, stuck to surfaces, and had a salty taste. 41.4% of the fallout from the Operation Wigwam test consisted of irregular opaque particles, slightly over 25% of particles with transparent and opaque areas, approximately 20% of microscopic marine organisms, and 2% of microscopic radioactive threads of unknown origin.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The cloud contains three main classes of material: the remains of the weapon and its fission products, the material acquired from the ground (only significant for burst altitudes below the fallout-reducing altitude, which depends on the weapon yield), and water vapour. The bulk of the radiation contained in the cloud consists of the nuclear fission products; neutron activation products from the weapon materials, air, and the ground debris form only a minor fraction. Neutron activation starts during the neutron burst at the instant of the blast itself, and the range of this neutron burst is limited by the absorption of the neutrons as they pass through the Earth's atmosphere.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: Most of the radiation is created by the fission products. Thermonuclear weapons produce a significant part of their yield from nuclear fusion. Fusion products are typically non-radioactive. The degree of radiation fallout production is therefore measured in kilotons of fission. The Tsar Bomba, which produced 97% of its 50-megaton yield from fusion, was a very clean weapon compared to what would typically be expected of a weapon of its yield (although it still produced 1.5 megatons of its yield from fission), as its fusion tamper was made of lead instead of uranium-238; otherwise, its yield would have been 100 megatons with 51 of those from fission. Were it to be detonated at or near the surface, its fallout would comprise fully one-quarter of all the fallout from every nuclear weapon test, combined.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: Initially, the fireball contains a highly ionized plasma consisting only of atoms of the weapon, its fission products, and atmospheric gases of adjacent air. As the plasma cools, the atoms react, forming fine droplets and then solid particles of oxides. The particles coalesce to larger ones, and deposit on surface of other particles. Larger particles usually originate from material aspired into the cloud. Particles aspired while the cloud is still hot enough to melt them mix with the fission products throughout their volume. Larger particles get molten radioactive materials deposited on their surface. Particles aspired into the cloud later, when its temperature is low enough, do not become significantly contaminated. Particles formed only from the weapon itself are fine enough to stay airborne for a long time and become widely dispersed and diluted to non-hazardous levels. Higher-altitude blasts which do not aspire ground debris, or which aspire dust only after cooling enough and where the radioactive fraction of the particles is therefore small, cause a much smaller degree of localized fallout than lower-altitude blasts with larger radioactive particles formed.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The concentration of condensation products is the same for the small particles and for the deposited surface layers of larger particles. About 100 kg of small particles are formed per kiloton of yield. The volume, and therefore activity, of the small particles is almost three orders of magnitude lower than the volume of the deposited surface layers on larger particles.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: For higher-altitude blasts, the primary particle forming processes are condensation and subsequent coagulation. For lower-altitude and ground blasts, with involvement of soil particles, the primary process is deposition on the foreign particles.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: A low-altitude detonation produces a cloud with a dust loading of 100 tons per megaton of yield. A ground detonation produces clouds with about three times as much dust. For a ground detonation, approximately 200 tons of soil per kiloton of yield is melted and comes in contact with radiation.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The fireball volume is the same for a surface or an atmospheric detonation. In the first case, the fireball is a hemisphere instead of a sphere, with a correspondingly larger radius.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The particle sizes range from submicrometer- and micrometer-sized (created by condensation of plasma in the fireball), through 10–500 micrometers (surface material agitated by the blast wave and raised by the afterwinds), to millimeter and above (crater ejecta). The size of particles together with the altitude they are carried to, determines the length of their stay in the atmosphere, as larger particles are subject to dry precipitation. Smaller particles can be also scavenged by precipitation, either from the moisture condensing in the cloud itself or from the cloud intersecting with a rain cloud. The fallout carried down by rain is known as "rain-out" if scavenged during raincloud formation, "washout" if absorbed into already formed falling raindrops.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: Particles from air bursts are smaller than 10–25 micrometers, usually in the submicrometer range. They are composed mostly of iron oxides, with smaller proportion of aluminium oxide, and uranium and plutonium oxides. Particles larger than 1–2 micrometers are very spherical, corresponding to vaporized material condensing into droplets and then solidifying. The radioactivity is evenly distributed throughout the particle volume, making total activity of the particles linearly dependent on particle volume. About 80% of activity is present in more volatile elements, which condense only after the fireball cools to considerable degree. For example, strontium-90 will have less time to condense and coalesce into larger particles, resulting in greater degree of mixing in the volume of air and smaller particles. The particles produced immediately after the burst are small, with 90% of the radioactivity present in particles smaller than 300 nanometers. These coagulate with stratospheric aerosols. Coagulation is more extensive in the troposphere, and, at ground level, most activity is present in particles between 300 nm and 1 µm. The coagulation offsets the fractionation processes at particle formation, evening out isotopic distribution.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: For ground and low-altitude bursts, the cloud contains also vaporized, melted and fused soil particles. The distribution of activity through the particles depends on their formation. Particles formed by vaporization-condensation have activity evenly distributed through volume as the air-burst particles. Larger molten particles have the fission products diffused through the outer layers, and fused and non-melted particles that were not heated sufficiently but came in contact with the vaporized material or scavenged droplets before their solidification have a relatively thin layer of high activity material deposited on their surface. The composition of such particles depends on the character of the soil, usually a glass-like material formed from silicate minerals. The particle sizes do not depend on the yield but instead on the soil character, as they are based on individual grains of the soil or their clusters. Two types of particles are present, spherical, formed by complete vaporization-condensation or at least melting of the soil, with activity distributed evenly through the volume (or with a 10–30% volume of inactive core for larger particles between 0.5–2 mm), and irregular-shaped particles formed at the edges of the fireball by fusion of soil particles, with activity deposited in a thin surface layer. The amount of large irregular particles is insignificant. Particles formed from detonations above, or in, the ocean, will contain short-lived radioactive sodium isotopes, and salts from the sea water. Molten silica is a very good solvent for metal oxides and scavenges small particles easily; explosions above silica-containing soils will produce particles with isotopes mixed through their volume. In contrast, coral debris, based on calcium carbonate, tends to adsorb radioactive particles on its surface.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The elements undergo fractionation during particle formation, due to their different volatility. Refractory elements (Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Ba, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm) form oxides with high boiling points; these precipitate the fastest and at the time of particle solidification, at temperature of 1400 °C, are considered to be fully condensed. Volatile elements (Kr, Xe, I, Br) are not condensed at that temperature. Intermediate elements have their (or their oxides) boiling points close to the solidification temperature of the particles (Rb, Cs, Mo, Ru, Rh, Tc, Sb, Te). The elements in the fireball are present as oxides, unless the temperature is above the decomposition temperature of a given oxide. Less refractory products condense on surfaces of solidified particles. Isotopes with gaseous precursors solidify on the surface of the particles as they are produced by decay.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The largest, and therefore the most radioactive particles, are deposited by fallout in the first few hours after the blast. Smaller particles are carried to higher altitudes and descend more slowly, reaching ground in a less radioactive state as the isotopes with the shortest half-lives decay the fastest. The smallest particles can reach the stratosphere and stay there for weeks, months, or even years, and cover an entire hemisphere of the planet via atmospheric currents. The higher danger, short-term, localized fallout is deposited primarily downwind from the blast site, in a cigar-shaped area, assuming a wind of constant strength and direction. Crosswinds, changes in wind direction, and precipitation are factors that can greatly alter the fallout pattern.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The condensation of water droplets in the mushroom cloud depends on the amount of condensation nuclei. Too many condensation nuclei actually inhibit condensation, as the particles compete for a relatively insufficient amount of water vapor.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: Chemical reactivity of the elements and their oxides, ion adsorption properties, and compound solubility influence particle distribution in the environment after deposition from the atmosphere. Bioaccumulation influences the propagation of fallout radioisotopes in the biosphere.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The primary fallout hazard is gamma radiation from short-lived radioisotopes, which represent the bulk of activity. Within 24 hours after the burst, the fallout gamma radiation level drops 60 times. Longer-life radioisotopes, typically caesium-137 and strontium-90, present a long-term hazard. Intense beta radiation from the fallout particles can cause beta burns to people and animals coming in contact with the fallout shortly after the blast. Ingested or inhaled particles cause an internal dose of alpha and beta radiation, which may lead to long-term effects, including cancer.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The neutron irradiation of the atmosphere itself produces a small amount of activation, mainly as long-lived carbon-14 and short-lived argon-41. The elements most important for induced radioactivity for sea water are sodium-24, chlorine, magnesium, and bromine. For ground bursts, the elements of concern are aluminium-28, silicon-31, sodium-24, manganese-56, iron-59, and cobalt-60.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The bomb casing can be a significant sources of neutron-activated radioisotopes. The neutron flux in the bombs, especially thermonuclear devices, is sufficient for high-threshold nuclear reactions. The induced isotopes include cobalt-60, 57 and 58, iron-59 and 55, manganese-54, zinc-65, yttrium-88, and possibly nickel-58 and 62, niobium-63, holmium-165, iridium-191, and short-lived manganese-56, sodium-24, silicon-31, and aluminium-28. Europium-152 and 154 can be present, as well as two nuclear isomers of rhodium-102. During the Operation Hardtack, tungsten-185, 181 and 187 and rhenium-188 were produced from elements added as tracers to the bomb casings, to allow identification of fallout produced by specific explosions. Antimony-124, cadmium-109, and cadmium-113m are also mentioned as tracers.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The most significant radiation sources are the fission products from the primary fission stage, and in the case of fission-fusion-fission weapons, from the fission of the fusion stage uranium tamper. Many more neutrons per unit of energy are released in a thermonuclear explosion in comparison with a purely fission yield influencing the fission products composition. For example, the uranium-237 isotope is a unique thermonuclear explosion marker, as it is produced by a (n,2n) reaction from uranium-238, with the minimal neutron energy needed being about 5.9 MeV. Considerable amounts of neptunium-239 and uranium-237 are indicators of a fission-fusion-fission explosion. Minor amounts of uranium-240 are also formed, and capture of large numbers of neutrons by individual nuclei leads to formation of small but detectable amounts of higher transuranium elements, e.g. einsteinium-255 and fermium-255.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: One of the important fission products is krypton-90, a radioactive noble gas. It diffuses easily in the cloud, and undergoes two decays to rubidium-90 and then strontium-90, with half-lives of 33 seconds and 3 minutes. The noble gas nonreactivity and rapid diffusion is responsible for depletion of local fallout in Sr-90, and corresponding Sr-90 enrichment of remote fallout.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The radioactivity of the particles decreases with time, with different isotopes being significant at different timespans. For soil activation products, aluminium-28 is the most important contributor during the first 15 minutes. Manganese-56 and sodium-24 follow until about 200 hours. Iron-59 follows at 300 hours, and after 100–300 days, the significant contributor becomes cobalt-60.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: Radioactive particles can be carried for considerable distances. Radiation from the Trinity test was washed out by a rainstorm in Illinois. This was deduced, and the origin traced, when Eastman Kodak found x-ray films were being fogged by cardboard packaging produced in the Midwest. Unanticipated winds carried lethal doses of Castle Bravo fallout over the Rongelap Atoll, forcing its evacuation. The crew of Daigo Fukuryu Maru, a Japanese fishing boat located outside of the predicted danger zone, was also affected. Strontium-90 found in worldwide fallout later led to the Partial Test Ban Treaty.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The intense radiation in the first seconds after the blast may cause an observable aura of fluorescence, the blue-violet-purple glow of ionized oxygen and nitrogen out to a significant distance from the fireball, surrounding the head of the forming mushroom cloud. This light is most easily visible at night or under conditions of weak daylight. The brightness of the glow decreases rapidly with elapsed time since the detonation, becoming only barely visible after a few tens of seconds.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: Nuclear mushroom clouds are often accompanied by short-lived vapour clouds, known variously as "Wilson clouds", condensation clouds, or vapor rings. The "negative phase" following the positive overpressure behind a shock front causes a sudden rarefaction of the surrounding medium. This low pressure region causes an adiabatic drop in temperature, causing moisture in the air to condense in an outward moving shell surrounding the explosion. When the pressure and temperature return to normal, the Wilson cloud dissipates. Scientists observing the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in 1946 at Bikini Atoll named that transitory cloud a "Wilson cloud" because of its visual similarity to a Wilson cloud chamber; the cloud chamber uses condensation from a rapid pressure drop to mark the tracks of electrically charged subatomic particles. Analysts of later nuclear bomb tests used the more general term "condensation cloud" in preference to "Wilson cloud".


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The same kind of condensation is sometimes seen above the wings of jet aircraft at low altitude in high-humidity conditions. The top of a wing is a curved surface. The curvature (and increased air velocity) causes a reduction in air pressure, as given by Bernoulli's Law. This reduction in air pressure causes cooling, and when the air cools past its dew point, water vapour condenses out of the air, producing droplets of water, which become visible as a white cloud. In technical terms, the "Wilson cloud" is also an example of the Prandtl–Glauert singularity in aerodynamics.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The shape of the shock wave is influenced by variation of the speed of sound with altitude, and the temperature and humidity of different atmospheric layers determines the appearance of the Wilson clouds. Condensation rings around or above the fireball are a commonly observed feature. Rings around the fireball may become stable, becoming rings around the rising stem. Higher-yield explosions cause intense updrafts, where air speeds can reach . The entrainment of higher-humidity air, combined with the associated drop in pressure and temperature, leads to the formation of "skirts" and "bells" around the stem. If the water droplets become sufficiently large, the cloud structure they form may become heavy enough to descend; in this way, a rising stem with a descending bell around it can be produced. Layering of humidity in the atmosphere, responsible for the appearance of the condensation rings as opposed to a spherical cloud, also influences the shape of the condensation artifacts along the stem of the mushroom cloud, as the updraft causes laminar flow. The same effect above the top of the cloud, where the expansion of the rising cloud pushes a layer of warm, humid, low-altitude air upwards into cold, high-altitude air, first causes the condensation of water vapour out of the air and then causes the resulting droplets to freeze, forming "ice caps" (or "icecaps"), similar in both appearance and mechanism of formation to scarf clouds.


title: Mushroom cloud

text: The resulting composite structures can become very complex. The Castle Bravo cloud had, at various phases of its development, 4 condensation rings, 3 ice caps, 2 skirts, and 3 bells.


title: Joe Allen

text: Joseph Michael Allen (born 14 March 1990) is a Welsh professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for EFL Championship club Swansea City and the Wales national team.


title: Joe Allen

text: Allen began his career at Swansea City, making his first-team debut in January 2007 at age 16. He played in 150 matches across all competitions in six years at the Liberty Stadium, also having a loan at Wrexham. During his time at Swansea, they won two promotions, going from League One to the Premier League. He also represented Great Britain at the 2012 Olympics. In the same year, he joined Liverpool for £15 million, signed by his former Swansea manager Brendan Rodgers. Allen spent four seasons at Anfield, making 132 appearances. In July 2016, he signed for Stoke City for a £13 million transfer fee. After making over 220 appearances for the Potters, he returned to Swansea in 2022.


title: Joe Allen

text: A full international for Wales since 2009, Allen has earned over 70 caps for his nation and represented Wales at UEFA Euro 2016, helping the team reach the semi-finals, and UEFA Euro 2020. Allen also helped Wales qualify for the FIFA World Cup in 2022 for the first time since 1958.


title: Joe Allen

text: Born in Carmarthen, Allen was raised in the Pembrokeshire town of Narberth, and is a former student of Narberth Primary School and Ysgol y Preseli. He is a fluent Welsh language speaker. Allen started his career playing in local team Tenby up to age ten.


title: Joe Allen

text: Allen was part of the Swansea City youth set-up from age nine. As a first-year scholar in the youth team in the 2006–07 season, he featured as an unused first-team substitute in a 3–0 away win over then Premier League side Sheffield United in the third round of the FA Cup. Two weeks later, when Allen was just 16, Swansea manager Kenny Jackett gave him his debut in the FAW Premier Cup away tie to local Welsh Premier League side Port Talbot Town. He played the first half of the match as Swansea lost 2–1 after extra time. Allen made his league debut for Swansea as a 75th-minute substitute for Andy Robinson in a 6–3 home defeat to Blackpool on 7 May, the final day of the League One season, as Swansea missed out on a play-off position under new manager and former team captain Roberto Martínez.


title: Joe Allen

text: Allen made a first start on 14 August 2007 in a 2–0 home win over Walsall in the first round of the League Cup. He was named man of the match for his performance, which included assisting in the first goal by providing a left-footed chipped cross to Paul Anderson. Two days later, Martínez awarded Allen his first professional contract, to keep him at Swansea until 2010. Allen started in the next round of the tournament at home to Reading and again received the man of the match award, despite a 1–0 loss. He made 14 appearances over the campaign, six in the "Swans"' victorious capture of the League One title.


title: Joe Allen

text: The following season, Swansea's first in the Championship, Allen struggled to get into the first team due to competition from midfielders Darren Pratley, Ferrie Bodde, Owain Tudur Jones, Jordi Gómez and Leon Britton. On 7 October 2008, Allen joined Conference Premier club Wrexham on a one-month loan and scored a goal from 25 yards on his debut for the North Wales team the same day, in a 3–1 win over York City at the Racecourse Ground. His loan was curtailed after only one more match, when he damaged ankle ligaments and was sidelined for a month. Allen returned from the injury in December, entering the Swansea squad at home to Barnsley after regular midfielder Ferrie Bodde had been ruled out for the remainder of the season due to injury. With Swansea 2–0 down and playing poorly, manager Martínez was prompted to bring Allen on from the substitutes' bench. The club went on to earn a late 2–2 draw and despite only playing 25 minutes, Allen once more received the man of the match award. On 5 April 2009, Allen came on as a 68th-minute substitute for Mark Gower, and 20 minutes later scored his first goal for Swansea in a South Wales derby 2–2 draw away at Cardiff City. At the end of the season, he signed a new three-year contract lasting until 2012.


title: Joe Allen

text: After frequently being injured in the 2009–10 season, Allen returned to regular first-team football at the start of the 2010–11 season. A string of impressive performances prompted manager Brendan Rodgers to play Allen in the South Wales derby in November 2010, with Allen receiving the man of the match award in the 1–0 win. He played 40 league matches and scored twice over the Championship campaign, and featured for the full 90 minutes as Swansea won promotion with a 4–2 victory over Reading in the play-off final at Wembley Stadium. However, he scored an own goal in that match.


title: Joe Allen

text: A few days prior to the beginning of the 2011–12 Premier League, Allen signed a new four-year contract with Swansea lasting until 2015. He played 36 out of 38 top-flight fixtures that season, scoring four goals. On 3 December 2011, he was sent off for two bookings in a 4–2 loss to Blackburn Rovers at Ewood Park.


title: Joe Allen

text: On 10 August 2012, after passing a medical at Melwood, Allen signed a long-term contract with Liverpool in a transfer deal worth £15 million, following Brendan Rodgers' move to Anfield. Allen made his Premier League debut on 18 August 2012, starting in a 3–0 loss against West Bromwich Albion at The Hawthorns. He started Liverpool's next match of the league campaign against Manchester City, where he was voted man of the match on the club's official website by fans and journalists. He went on to win the Liverpool Player of the Month award for August 2012. Allen scored his first goal for Liverpool on 27 January 2013 in a 3–2 defeat to Oldham Athletic in the fourth round of the FA Cup. He scored his first European goal on 21 February in a 3–1 win over Zenit Saint Petersburg in the UEFA Europa League. On 20 March, it was announced Allen would be ruled out for the remainder of the 2012–13 season, with him requiring surgery on his left shoulder.


title: Joe Allen

text: On 5 May 2014, Allen scored his first goal for Liverpool in the 2013–14 Premier League season with a header from a corner to give Liverpool the lead in a 3–3 draw against Crystal Palace at Selhurst Park. Allen played 26 times for Liverpool in 2013–14 as the side narrowly missed out on the Premier League title. In the 2014–15 season, Allen made 32 appearances as the side finished in sixth position. Allen was praised when he played the full 90 minutes in a 2–1 win against Manchester City, where he outplayed City star Yaya Touré. On 13 April 2015, Allen scored the second goal in a 2–0 win over Newcastle United, his first at Anfield.


title: Joe Allen

text: Before the start of the 2015–16 season, Allen suffered an injury during one of the pre-season matches and was ruled out for a month. On 13 January 2016, he scored a last-minute equalizer in a 3–3 home draw against league leaders Arsenal. Thirteen days later, he scored the winning penalty in a shootout against Stoke City to send Liverpool to the 2016 League Cup Final. Allen was an unused substitute for Liverpool as they lost the final on penalties to Manchester City. However, Allen did play in the 2016 UEFA Europa League Final against Sevilla on 18 May 2016 in Basel, where despite initially taking the lead, Liverpool were defeated 3–1. At the end of the season, Allen expressed his desire to play regular football.


title: Joe Allen

text: On 25 July 2016, Allen joined Stoke City on a five-year contract for a reported £13 million transfer fee. He made his Premier League debut for Stoke on 13 August 2016 in a 1–1 draw away at Middlesbrough. Speaking after his move to Stoke, Allen said he "had to move on" from Liverpool in order to receive regular playing time. He scored his first goal for Stoke on 24 September 2016 in a 1–1 draw against West Bromwich Albion. Allen then scored against Manchester United on 2 October as Stoke earned their first point at Old Trafford since 1980. Allen continued his goal scoring run with both goals in a 2–0 win against Sunderland earning Stoke their first victory of the 2016–17 season. In November 2016, Allen was included in the 40-man shortlist for the UEFA Team of the Year. He scored a vital winning goal against Crystal Palace on 11 February 2017. Allen made 39 appearances in 2016–17, scoring six goals, as Stoke finished in 13th position. Allen played 38 times in 2017–18, scoring four goals as Stoke suffered relegation to the Championship. Following relegation, Allen said he would be willing to stay with the club.


title: Joe Allen

text: Allen signed new four-year contract with the Potters in June 2018. Allen was the only member of the squad to play every Championship game in 2018–19, as Stoke failed to mount a promotion challenge finishing in 16th. He scored six goals during the campaign most notably winning ones against Leeds United and his former club Swansea. Stoke began the 2019–20 season in poor form with Allen being sent-off against Bristol City on 14 September 2019. Allen scored in Michael O'Neill's first match in a 4–2 win against Barnsley which lifted Stoke off the bottom of the table. Allen scored twice against Luton Town on 10 December 2019 in a 3–0 victory but came in for criticism after he celebrated by cupping his ears at the crowd. Allen was ruled out for the remainder of the season after suffering an achilles tendon rupture on 7 March 2020 playing against Hull City. In his absence Stoke managed to avoid relegation and finished in 15th position.


title: Joe Allen

text: Allen returned to match fitness in December 2020 making his return from injury on Boxing day against Coventry City. He went on to play nineteen times in the 2020–21 season, before he suffered another injury set-back in March 2021 whilst on international duty with Wales. Prior to the start of the 2021–22 season, Allen was made captain by Michael O'Neill. Stoke had a frustrating season as after being in the top six for the first half of the campaign a poor second half saw them slip down the table and finish in 14th. Allen left Stoke at the end of the season following the expiration of his contract.


title: Joe Allen

text: Soon after receiving his first professional contract for Swansea City in August 2007, Allen was called up for the Wales under-21 team in a friendly match away to Sweden. He scored the winning goal in a 4–3 victory.


title: Joe Allen

text: In May 2009, Allen made his debut for the senior Wales team as an 80th-minute substitute for Jack Collison during a friendly against Estonia. Wales, who won 1–0 in Llanelli, were fielding their youngest team ever, with an average age of 21. He made his first start for Wales in a 2–0 UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying Group G match against Switzerland at his club's Liberty Stadium in October 2011. He was awarded the prize for the Wales' Player of the Year for 2012 in October of that year.


title: Joe Allen

text: Allen captained Wales for the first time in the absence of Ashley Williams through injury on 4 June 2014 against the Netherlands. He played throughout the nation's successful qualification for UEFA Euro 2016. On 13 November 2015, in a 3–2 home loss to the Dutch, he had a penalty saved by Jasper Cillessen, but Joe Ledley scored from the rebound.


title: Joe Allen

text: At Euro 2016, Allen set-up Aaron Ramsey's goal in a 3–0 win over Russia on 20 June, which allowed Wales to top their group and advance to the knockout round of the tournament. Wales were eliminated following a 2–0 defeat to eventual champions Portugal in the semi-final on 6 July. Allen was named to the team of the tournament for his performances. In May 2021 he was selected for the Wales squad for the delayed UEFA Euro 2020 tournament. In November 2022 he was named in the Wales squad for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar.


title: Joe Allen

text: Allen was included in Team GB's 2012 Summer Olympics football squad. He was one of five Welsh players—including captain Ryan Giggs—but a mistake in the official Team GB programme for their first match described Allen as English.


title: Joe Allen

text: Allen is a hard-working, tactically disciplined and tenacious—albeit not overly physical—midfielder, who is capable of aiding his team both creatively and offensively courtesy of his ability to transition the ball from defence to attack effectively after winning back possession. A versatile and gifted player with a low centre of gravity and quick feet, he is capable of playing in several midfield roles. Due to his vision, composure in possession, efficient passing and ability to dictate the tempo of his team's play in midfield as a playmaker, Allen has been described as the "Welsh Xavi" and as the "Welsh Pirlo" by his former manager at Swansea City and Liverpool, Brendan Rodgers.


title: Joe Allen

text: Allen is married to Lacey, with whom he has a son. Inspired by her involvement in animal welfare, he adopts hens to save them when they can no longer lay eggs. Allen's brother Harry lost his hearing at age three due to meningitis, and Joe became ambassador for Action on Hearing Loss Cymru in March 2015. Harry also played football and became captain of the Welsh deaf futsal team.


title: Avgas

text: Avgas (aviation gasoline, also known as aviation spirit in the UK) is an aviation fuel used in aircraft with spark-ignited internal combustion engines. "Avgas" is distinguished from conventional gasoline (petrol) used in motor vehicles, which is termed "mogas" (motor gasoline) in an aviation context. Unlike motor gasoline, which has been formulated since the 1970s to allow the use of platinum-content catalytic converters for pollution reduction, the most commonly used grades of avgas still contain tetraethyllead (TEL), a toxic substance used to prevent engine knocking (premature detonation). There are ongoing experiments aimed at eventually reducing or eliminating the use of TEL in aviation gasoline.


title: Avgas

text: Kerosene-based jet fuel is formulated to suit the requirements of turbine engines which have no octane requirement and operate over a much wider flight envelope than piston engines. Kerosene is also used by most diesel piston engines developed for aviation use, such as those by SMA Engines, Austro Engine, and Thielert.


title: Avgas

text: The main petroleum component used in blending avgas is alkylate, which is a mixture of various isooctanes. Some refineries also use reformate. All grades of avgas that meet CAN 2–3, 25-M82 have a density of at . (6 lb/U.S. gal is commonly used in America for weight and balance computation.) Density increases to at , and decreases by about 0.1% per increase in temperature.


title: Avgas

text: Avgas has an emission coefficient (or factor) of of CO or about 3.07 units of weight produced per unit weight of fuel used. Avgas is less volatile, with a Reid vapor pressure range of 5.5 to 7 psi, than automotive gasoline, with a range of 8 to 14 psi. A minimum limit ensures adequate volatility for engine starting. The upper limits are related to atmospheric pressure at sea level, 14.7 psi, for motor vehicles and ambient pressure at 22,000 ft, 6.25 psi, for aircraft. The lower Avgas volatility reduces the chance of vapor lock in fuel lines at altitudes up to 22,000 ft.


title: Avgas

text: The particular mixtures in use today are the same as when they were first developed in the 1940s, and were used in airline and military aero engines with high levels of supercharging; notably the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine used in the Spitfire and Hurricane fighters, Mosquito fighter-bomber and Lancaster heavy bomber (the Merlin II and later versions required 100-octane fuel), as well as the liquid-cooled Allison V-1710 engine, and air-cooled radial engines from Pratt & Whitney, Wright, and other manufacturers on both sides of the Atlantic. The high octane ratings were traditionally achieved by the addition of tetraethyllead, a highly toxic substance that was phased out of automotive use in most countries in the late 20th century.


title: Avgas

text: Leaded avgas is currently available in several grades with differing maximum lead concentrations. (Unleaded avgas is also available.) Because tetraethyllead is a toxic additive, the minimum amount needed to bring the fuel to the required octane rating is used; actual concentrations are often lower than the permissible maximum. Historically, many post-WWII developed, low-powered 4- and 6-cylinder piston aircraft engines were designed to use leaded fuels; a suitable unleaded replacement fuel has not yet been developed and certified for most of these engines. Some reciprocating-engine aircraft still require leaded fuels, but some do not, and some can burn unleaded gasoline if a special oil additive is used.


title: Avgas

text: Lycoming provides a list of engines and fuels that are compatible with them. According to their August 2017 chart, a number of their engines are compatible with unleaded fuel. However, all of their engines require that an oil additive be used when unleaded fuel is used: "When using the unleaded fuels identified in Table 1, Lycoming oil additive P/N LW-16702, or an equivalent finished product such as Aeroshell 15W-50, must be used." Lycoming also notes that the octane rating of the fuel used must also meet the requirements stated in the fuel specification, otherwise engine damage may occur due to detonation.


title: Avgas

text: Meanwhile, Teledyne Continental Motors indicates (in document X30548R3 most recently revised in 2008) that leaded avgas is required in their engines: "Current aircraft engines feature valve gear components which are designed for compatibility with the leaded ASTM D910 fuels. In such fuels, the lead acts as a lubricant, coating the contact areas between the valve, guide, and seat. The use of unleaded auto fuels with engines designed for leaded fuels can result in excessive exhaust valve seat wear due to the lack of lead with cylinder performance deteriorating to unacceptable levels in under 10 hours."


title: Avgas

text: The annual US usage of avgas was in 2008, and was approximately 0.14% of the motor gasoline consumption. From 1983 through 2008, US usage of avgas declined consistently by approximately each year.


title: Avgas

text: In Europe, avgas remains the most common piston-engine fuel. However, prices are so high that there have been efforts to convert to diesel fuel, which is more readily available, less expensive, and has advantages for aviation use.


title: Avgas

text: Motor Octane Number (MON). The first number indicates the octane rating of the fuel tested to "aviation lean" standards, which is similar to the anti-knock index or "pump rating" given to automotive gasoline in the US. The second number indicates the octane rating of the fuel tested to the "aviation rich" standard, which tries to simulate a supercharged condition with a rich mixture, elevated temperatures, and a high manifold pressure. For example, 100/130 avgas has an octane rating of 100 at the lean settings usually used for cruising and 130 at the rich settings used for take-off and other full-power conditions.


title: Avgas

text: Antiknock agents such as tetraethyl lead (TEL) help to control detonation and provide lubrication. One gram of TEL contains 640.6 milligrams of lead.


title: Avgas

text: 100LL (pronounced "one hundred low lead") may contain a maximum of one-half the tetraethyllead allowed in 100/130 (green) avgas.


title: Avgas

text: Some of the lower-powered () aviation engines that were developed in the late 1990s are designed to run on unleaded fuel and on 100LL, an example being the Rotax 912.


title: Avgas

text: Automotive gasoline – known as mogas or autogas among aviators – that does not contain ethanol may be used in certified aircraft that have a Supplemental Type Certificate for automotive gasoline, as well as in experimental aircraft and ultralight aircraft. Some oxygenates other than ethanol are approved, but these STC’s prohibit ethanol-laced gasolines. Ethanol-treated gasoline is susceptible to phase-separation which is very possible due to the altitude/temperature changes light airplanes undergo in ordinary flight. This ethanol-treated fuel can flood the fuel system with water which can cause in-flight engine failure. Additionally, the phase-separated fuel can leave remaining portions that do not meet octane requirements due to the loss of the ethanol in the water-absorption process. Further, the ethanol can attack materials in aircraft construction which pre-date “gasahol” fuels. Most of these applicable aircraft have low-compression engines which were originally certified to run on 80/87 avgas and require only "regular" 87 anti-knock index automotive gasoline. Examples include the popular Cessna 172 Skyhawk or Piper Cherokee with the variant of the Lycoming O-320.


title: Avgas

text: Some aircraft engines were originally certified using a 91/96 avgas and have STCs available to run "premium" 91 anti-knock index (AKI) automotive gasoline. Examples include some Cherokees with the Lycoming O-320 or O-360, or the Cessna 152 with the O-235. The AKI rating of typical automotive fuel might not directly correspond to the 91/96 avgas used to certify engines, as motor vehicle pumps in the US use the so-called "(R + M)/2" averaged motor vehicle octane rating system as posted on gas station pumps. Sensitivity is roughly 8–10 points, meaning that a 91 AKI fuel might have a MON of as low as 86. The extensive testing process required to obtain an STC for the engine/airframe combination helps ensure that for those eligible aircraft, 91 AKI fuel provides sufficient detonation margin under normal conditions.


title: Avgas

text: Automotive gasoline is not a fully viable replacement for avgas in many aircraft, because many high-performance and/or turbocharged airplane engines require 100 octane fuel and modifications are necessary in order to use lower-octane fuel.


title: Avgas

text: Many general aviation aircraft engines were designed to run on 80/87 octane, roughly the standard (as unleaded fuel only, with the "{R+M}/2" 87 octane rating) for North American automobiles today. Direct conversions to run on automotive fuel are fairly common, by supplemental type certificate (STC). However, the alloys used in aviation engine construction are chosen for their durability and synergistic relationship with the protective features of lead, and engine wear in the valves is a potential problem on automotive gasoline conversions.


title: Avgas

text: Fortunately, significant history of engines converted to mogas has shown that very few engine problems are caused by automotive gasoline. A larger problem stems from the higher and wider range of allowable vapor pressures found in automotive gasoline; this can pose some risk to aviation users if fuel system design considerations are not taken into account. Automotive gasoline can vaporize in fuel lines, causing a vapor lock (a bubble in the line) or fuel pump cavitation, thereby starving the engine of fuel. This does not constitute an insurmountable obstacle, but merely requires examination of the fuel system, ensuring adequate shielding from high temperatures and maintaining sufficient pressure in the fuel lines. This is the main reason why both the specific engine model as well as the aircraft in which it is installed must be supplementally certified for the conversion. A good example of this is the Piper Cherokee with high-compression engines. Only later versions of the airframe with different engine cowling and exhaust arrangements are applicable for the automotive fuel STC, and even then require fuel-system modifications.


title: Avgas

text: Vapor lock typically occurs in fuel systems where a mechanically-driven fuel pump mounted on the engine draws fuel from a tank mounted lower than the pump. The reduced pressure in the line can cause the more volatile components in automotive gasoline to flash into vapor, forming bubbles in the fuel line and interrupting fuel flow. If an electric boost pump is mounted in the fuel tank to push fuel toward the engine, as is common practice in fuel-injected automobiles, the fuel pressure in the lines is maintained above ambient pressure, preventing bubble formation. Likewise, if the fuel tank is mounted above the engine and fuel flows primarily due to gravity, as in a high-wing airplane, vapor lock cannot occur, using either aviation or automotive fuels. Fuel-injected engines in automobiles also usually have a "fuel return" line to send unused fuel back to the tank, which has the benefit of equalizing the fuel's temperature throughout the system, further reducing the chance of vapor lock developing.


title: Avgas

text: In addition to vapor locking potential, automotive gasoline does not have the same quality tracking as aviation gasoline. To help solve this problem, the specification for an aviation fuel known as 82UL was developed as essentially automotive gasoline with additional quality tracking and restrictions on permissible additives. This fuel is not currently in production and no refiners have committed to producing it.


title: Avgas

text: Rotax allows up to 10% ethanol (similar to E10 fuel for cars) in the fuel for Rotax 912 engines. Light sport aircraft that are specified by the manufacturer to tolerate alcohol in the fuel system can use up to 10% ethanol.


title: Avgas

text: The 100LL phase-out has been called "one of modern GA's most pressing problems", because 70% of 100LL aviation fuel is used by the 30% of the aircraft in the general aviation fleet that cannot use any of the existing alternatives.


title: Avgas

text: In February 2008, Teledyne Continental Motors (TCM) announced that the company is very concerned about future availability of 100LL, and as a result, they would develop a line of diesel engines.


title: Avgas

text: In a February 2008 interview, TCM president Rhett Ross indicated belief that the aviation industry will be "forced out" of using 100LL in the near future, leaving automotive fuel and jet fuel as the only alternatives. In May 2010, TCM announced that they had licensed development of the SMA SR305 diesel engine.


title: Avgas

text: In November 2008, National Air Transportation Association president Jim Coyne indicated that the environmental impact of aviation is expected to be a big issue over the next few years and will result in the phasing out of 100LL because of its lead content.


title: Avgas

text: By May 2012, the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA Unleaded Avgas Transition rulemaking committee) had put together a plan in conjunction with industry to replace leaded avgas with an unleaded alternative within 11 years. Given the progress already made on 100SF and G100UL, the replacement time might be shorter than that 2023 estimate. Each candidate fuel must meet a checklist of 12 fuel specification parameters and 4 distribution and storage parameters. The FAA has requested a maximum of US$60M to fund the administration of the changeover. In July 2014, nine companies and consortiums submitted proposals to the "Piston Aviation Fuels Initiative" (PAFI) to assess fuels without tetraethyl lead. Phase one testing is performed at the William J. Hughes Technical Center for a FAA approved industry replacement by 2018.


title: Avgas

text: In July 2021 the first unleaded avgas, GAMI's G100UL, was approved by the Federal Aviation Administration through a Supplemental Type Certificate.


title: Avgas

text: The firm Airworthy AutoGas tested an ethanol-free 93 anti-knock index (AKI) premium auto gas on a Lycoming O-360-A4M in 2013. The fuel is certified under Lycoming Service Instruction 1070 and ASTM D4814.


title: Avgas

text: In March 2009, Teledyne Continental Motors (TCM) announced they had tested a 94UL fuel that might be the best replacement for 100LL. This 94UL meets the avgas specification including vapor pressure but has not been completely tested for detonation qualities in all Continental engines or under all conditions. Flight testing has been conducted in an IO-550-B powering a Beechcraft Bonanza and ground testing in Continental O-200, 240, O-470, and O-520 engines. In May 2010, TCM indicated that despite industry skepticism, they are proceeding with 94UL and that certification was expected in mid-2013.


title: Avgas

text: In June 2010, Lycoming Engines indicated their opposition to 94UL. Company general manager Michael Kraft stated that aircraft owners do not realize how much performance would be lost with 94UL and characterized the decision to pursue 94UL as a mistake that could cost the aviation industry billions in lost business. Lycoming believes the industry should be pursuing 100UL instead. The Lycoming position is supported by aircraft type clubs representing owners of aircraft that would be unable to run on lower octane fuel. In June 2010, clubs such as the American Bonanza Society, the Malibu Mirage Owners and Pilots Association, and the Cirrus Owners and Pilots Association collectively formed the "Clean 100 Octane Coalition" to represent them on this issue and push for unleaded 100 octane avgas.


title: Avgas

text: In November 2015, UL94 was added as a secondary grade of unleaded aviation gasoline to ASTM D7547, which is the specification that governs UL91 unleaded avgas. UL91 is currently being sold in Europe. UL94 meets all of the same specification property limits as 100LL with the exception of a lower Motor octane number (94.0 minimum for UL94 vs. 99.6 minimum for 100LL) and a decreased maximum lead content. UL94 is an unleaded fuel, but as with all ASTM International unleaded gasoline specifications, a "de minimis" amount of unintentionally added lead is permitted.


title: Avgas

text: Since May 2016, UL94, now a product of Swift Fuels, is available for sale at dozens of airports in the United States. Swift Fuels has an agreement for distribution in Europe.


title: Avgas

text: UL94 is not intended to be a full replacement for 100LL, but rather is designed to be a drop-in replacement for aircraft with lower-octane-rated engines, such as those that are approved for operation on Grade 80 avgas (or lower), UL91, or mogas. It is estimated that up to 65% of the fleet of current general aviation piston-engine-powered aircraft can operate on UL94 with no modifications to either the engine or airframe. Some aircraft, however, do require a FAA-approved Supplemental Type Certificate (STC) to be purchased to allow for operation on UL94.


title: Avgas

text: UL94 has a minimum Motor octane number (MON, which is the octane rating employed for grading aviation gasoline) of 94.0. 100LL has a minimum MON of 99.6.


title: Avgas

text: AKI is the octane rating used to grade all U.S. automotive gasoline (typical values at the pump can include 87, 89, 91, and 93), and also the 93UL fuel from Airworthy AutoGas.


title: Avgas

text: Concurrent with the addition of UL94 to ASTM D7547, the FAA published Special Airworthiness Information Bulletin (SAIB) HQ-16-05, which states that "UL94 meets the operating limitations or aircraft and engines approved to operate with grade UL91 avgas," meaning that "Grade UL94 avgas that meets specification D7547 is acceptable to use on those aircraft and engines that are approved to operate with ... grade UL91 avgas that meets specification D7547." In August 2016, the FAA revised SAIB HQ-16-05 to include similar wording regarding the acceptability of using UL94 in aircraft and engines that are approved to operate with avgas that has a minimum Motor octane rating of 80 or lower, including Grade 80/87.


title: Avgas

text: The publication of the SAIB, especially the August 2016 revision, eliminated the need for many of the UL94 STCs being sold by Swift Fuels, as the majority of the aircraft on the STC's Approved Model List are type-certified to use 80-octane or lower avgas.


title: Avgas

text: On April 6, 2017, Lycoming Engines published Service Instruction 1070V, which adds UL94 as an approved grade of fuel for dozens of engine models, 60% of which are carbureted engines. Engines with displacements of 235, 320, 360, and 540 cubic inches make up almost 90% of the models approved for UL94.


title: Avgas

text: Swift Fuels, LLC has attained approval to produce fuel for testing at its pilot plant in Indiana. Composed of approximately 85% mesitylene and 15% isopentane, the fuel is reportedly scheduled for extensive testing by the FAA to receive certification under the new ASTM D7719 guideline for unleaded 100LL replacement fuels. The company eventually intends to produce the fuel from renewable biomass feedstocks, and aims to produce something competitive in price with 100LL and currently available alternative fuels. Swift Fuels suggests that the fuel, formerly referred to as 100SF, will be available for "high performance piston-powered aircraft" before 2020.


title: Avgas

text: John and Mary-Louise Rusek founded Swift Enterprises in 2001 to develop renewable fuels and hydrogen fuel cells. They began testing "Swift 142" in 2006 and patented several alternatives for non-alcohol based fuels which can be derived from biomass fermentation. Over the next several years, the company sought to build a pilot plant to produce enough fuel for larger-scale testing and submitted fuel to the FAA for testing.


title: Avgas

text: In 2008, an article by technology writer and aviation enthusiast Robert X. Cringely attracted popular attention to the fuel, as also did a cross-country Swift-Fueled flight by the AOPA's Dave Hirschman. Swift Enterprises' claims that the fuel could eventually be manufactured much more cheaply than 100LL have been debated in the aviation press.


title: Avgas

text: The FAA found Swift Fuel to have a motor octane number of 104.4, 96.3% of the energy per unit of mass, and 113% of the energy per unit of volume as 100LL, and to meet most of the ASTM D910 standard for leaded aviation fuel. Following tests in two Lycoming engines, the FAA concluded it performs better than 100LL in detonation testing and will provide a fuel saving of 8% per unit of volume, though it weighs more than 100LL. GC–FID testing showed the fuel to be made primarily of two components — one about 85% by weight and the other about 14% by weight. Soon afterward, AVweb reported that Continental had begun the process of certifying several of its engines to use the new fuel.


title: Avgas

text: From 2009 through 2011, 100SF was approved as a test fuel by ASTM International, allowing the company to pursue certification testing. satisfactorily tested by the FAA, tested by Purdue University, and approved under ASTM specification D7719 for high-octane Grade UL102, allowing the company to test more economically in non-experimental aircraft.


title: Avgas

text: In 2012, Swift Fuels LLC was formed to bring in oil and gas industry experience, scale up production and bring the fuel to market. By November 2013, the company had built its pilot plant and received approval to produce fuel in it. Its most recent patent, approved in 2013, describes methods by which the fuel can be produced from fermentable biomass.


title: Avgas

text: In February 2010, General Aviation Modifications Inc. (GAMI) announced that it was in the process of developing a 100LL replacement to be called G100UL ("unleaded"). This fuel is made by blending existing refinery products and yields detonation margins comparable to 100LL. The new fuel is slightly more dense than 100LL, but has a 3.5% higher thermodynamic output. G100UL is compatible with 100LL and can be mixed with it in aircraft tanks for use. The production economics of this new fuel have not been confirmed but it is anticipated that it will cost at least as much as 100LL.


title: Avgas

text: In demonstrations held in July 2010, G100UL performed better than 100LL that just meets the minimum specification and performed as well as average production 100LL.


title: Avgas

text: GAMI's unleaded G100UL was approved by the Federal Aviation Administration by the issuance of a Supplemental Type Certificate at AirVenture in July 2021. The STC is initially only applicable to Lycoming-powered models of the Cessna 172, but it is intended that aircraft types will be quickly expanded. The company indicated that the retail cost is expected to be 0.60–0.85 US dollars per US gallon higher than 100LL.


title: Avgas

text: In 2022, Paul Bertorelli of AVweb reported that the FAA is dragging its feet on broadly certifying G100UL, delaying approval of the fuel for more engines and spending over $80 million on EAGLE to re-start a search for an unleaded fuel when G100UL has been under evaluation for over 10 years.


title: Avgas

text: In September 2022, in a surprise announcement, the FAA approved an STC for the use of the fuel for all piston-engined aircraft and engine combinations.


title: Avgas

text: In December 2013 Shell Oil announced that they had developed an unleaded 100 octane fuel and will submit it for FAA testing with certification expected within two to three years. The fuel is alkylate-based with an additive package of aromatics. No information has yet been published in its performance, producibility or price. Industry analysts have indicated that it will likely cost as much as or more than existing 100LL.


title: Avgas

text: TEL found in leaded avgas and its combustion products are potent neurotoxins that have been shown in scientific research to interfere with brain development in children. Children in residences or childcare facilities in close proximity to airports with moderate to high piston engine aircraft traffic are at especially high risk of high blood lead levels. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has noted that exposure to even very low levels of lead contamination has been conclusively linked to loss of IQ in children's brain function tests, thus providing a high degree of motivation to eliminate lead and its compounds from the environment.


title: Avgas

text: On November 16, 2007, the environmental group Friends of the Earth formally petitioned the EPA, asking them to regulate leaded avgas. The EPA responded with a notice of petition for rulemaking.


title: Avgas

text: Under a federal court order to set a new standard by October 15, 2008, the EPA cut the acceptable limits for atmospheric lead from the previous standard of 1.5 µg/m to 0.15 µg/m. This was the first change to the standard since 1978 and represents an order of magnitude reduction over previous levels. The new standard requires the 16,000 remaining USA sources of lead, which include lead smelting, airplane fuels, military installations, mining and metal smelting, iron and steel manufacturing, industrial boilers and process heaters, hazardous waste incineration, and production of batteries, to reduce their emissions by October 2011.


title: Avgas

text: The EPA's own studies have shown that to prevent a measurable decrease in IQ for children deemed most vulnerable, the standard needs to be set much lower, to 0.02 µg/m. The EPA identified avgas as one of the most "significant sources of lead".


title: Avgas

text: At an EPA public consultation held in June 2008 on the new standards, Andy Cebula, the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association's executive vice president of government affairs, stated that general aviation plays a valuable role in the USA economy and any changes in lead standards that would change the current composition of avgas would have a "direct impact on the safety of flight and the very future of light aircraft in this country".


title: Avgas

text: In December 2008, AOPA filed formal comments to the new EPA regulations. AOPA has asked the EPA to account for the cost and the safety issues involved with removing lead from avgas. They cited that the aviation sector employs more than 1.3 million people in the US and has an economic direct and indirect effect that "exceeds $150 billion annually". AOPA interprets the new regulations as not affecting general aviation as they are currently written.


title: Avgas

text: Publication in the USA Federal Register of an Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking by the USA EPA occurred in April 2010. The EPA indicated: "This action will describe the lead inventory related to use of leaded avgas, air quality and exposure information, additional information the Agency is collecting related to the impact of lead emissions from piston-engine aircraft on air quality and will request comments on this information."


title: Avgas

text: Despite assertions in the media that leaded avgas will be eliminated in the US by 2017 at the latest date, the EPA confirmed in July 2010 that there is no phase-out date and that setting one would be an FAA responsibility as the EPA has no authority over avgas. The FAA administrator stated that regulating lead in avgas is an EPA responsibility, resulting in widespread criticism of both organizations for causing confusion and delaying solutions.


title: Avgas

text: In April 2011 at Sun 'n Fun, Pete Bunce, head of the General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA), and Craig Fuller, president and CEO of the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association, indicated that they both are confident that leaded avgas will not be eliminated until a suitable replacement is in place. "There is no reason to believe 100 low-lead will become unavailable in the foreseeable future," Fuller stated.


title: Avgas

text: Final results from EPA's lead modeling study at the Santa Monica Airport shows off-airport levels below current 150 ng/m and possible future 20 ng/m levels. Fifteen of 17 airports monitored during a year-long study in the US by the EPA have lead emissions well below the current National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) for lead.


title: Avgas

text: Avgas is occasionally used in amateur auto racing cars as its octane rating is higher than automotive gasoline thus allowing the engines to run at higher compression ratios.


title: Culver's

text: Culver Franchising System, LLC (Culver's) is an American fast-casual restaurant chain. The company was founded in 1984 by George, Ruth, Craig, and Lea Culver. The first location opened in Sauk City, Wisconsin on July 18, 1984 under the name "Culver's Frozen Custard and ButterBurgers." The privately held company is headquartered in Prairie du Sac, Wisconsin. The chain operates primarily in the Midwestern United States, and has a total of 893 restaurants in 26 states.


title: Culver's

text: Culver's menu is mostly known for its butter burgers and frozen custard, but also offers cheese curds, chicken, fish, and salads.


title: Culver's

text: Sauk City restaurateurs and husband and wife team George and Ruth Culver started their fast food careers as the owners of an A&W on Phillips Boulevard (U.S. Highway 12) in 1961. In 1968, they purchased a resort-styled restaurant at Devil's Lake called The Farm Kitchen. Their son, Craig Culver, worked for a local McDonald's right out of college in 1973. After selling their restaurants and quitting their jobs, George, Ruth, Craig and his former wife Lea opened the first Culver's Frozen Custard and ButterBurgers on July 18, 1984. Craig led the company from its inception until 2015.


title: Culver's

text: In October 2017, Culver's sold a minority share to Roark Capital Group, a private equity firm based in Atlanta. The Culver family retains majority ownership.


title: Culver's

text: In 1988, the Culver family were approached about franchising a restaurant in nearby Richland Center. The family agreed, granting the franchisee a loose licensing agreement, charging no fees or royalties. Because the franchisee had invested very little of his own money, it was a simple matter for him to walk away a year later when he decided he no longer wanted to be in the restaurant business.


title: Culver's

text: As a result of this experience, the Culver family established a set of standard franchising procedures that form the basis for those currently used by Culver Franchising System, Inc. Three years later, they tried again in Baraboo and business quickly doubled. Soon after, the increased recognition that the second store earned this small-town chain prompted expansion into the Middleton, Madison and Milwaukee areas.


title: Culver's

text: In 1993, Culver's was still a small, local chain, with only 14 restaurants across southern Wisconsin. Culver's first restaurants outside Wisconsin opened in Buffalo, Minnesota, in September 1995, Roscoe, Illinois, in December 1995, and Dubuque, Iowa, in November 1997. In February 1998, the company opened the first Culver's outside the Midwest in Texas.


title: Culver's

text: The current franchising strategy is one of contiguous expansion at a pace of about 40 new stores per year. The chain expanded into Colorado Springs, Colorado, and Cheyenne, Wyoming, in 2005, followed by an opening in Bowling Green, Kentucky, in July 2006. Culver's shifted its attention to developing markets beyond the Midwest.


title: Culver's

text: The Metro-98 prototype, developed in 2006 and first constructed in Fort Dodge, Iowa, was much more compact than the traditional 120-seater commonly built through much of Culver's expansion. While the Metro-98 has less seating to offer guests, it also reduced the amount of land needed for construction by around 20%.


title: Culver's

text: In 2008, Culver's expanded to the Phoenix metropolitan area. As of July 2017, Arizona had 26 locations. A location set to open in Bullhead City may signal a future expansion into Las Vegas. At the end of 2011, 445 Culver's restaurants were open in 19 states. Culver's also opened in South Carolina in 2012; Florida, Georgia, and Tennessee in 2014; and North Carolina in 2015. On June 28, 2018, Culver's had announced that a location will be opening in Alabama. In January 2022, Culver's expanded into the state of Arkansas.


title: Culver's

text: In 2011, Culver's expanded into Utah, when Kristin and Tom Davis of Wisconsin relocated to Utah and opened a 100-seat Culver's franchise in Midvale. The couple signed a development agreement for four locations in the southern half of Salt Lake County.


title: Culver's

text: Culver's Blue Spoon Cafe opened its first store in Prairie du Sac, Wisconsin, in 2000 as a soup-sandwich-salad restaurant as Blue Spoon Creamery Cafe. The name Blue Spoon comes from the color of the spoons used at the Culver's fast food restaurants. A second store in Middleton, Wisconsin, was open for two years but closed in August 2010. The Prairie du Sac location closed in May 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Culver's

text: In 2013, according to a survey by Franchise Business Review, "Culver Franchising System was rated No. 1 in franchisee satisfaction among restaurant franchises."


title: Culver's

text: Culver's menu consists of butter burgers, chicken sandwiches, fish, salads, french fries, and cheese curds. For dessert, the restaurant offers its frozen custard, served in either a dish, cone, or blended into a concrete mixer or shake.


title: Culver's

text: On October 15, 2021, in celebration of National Cheese Curd Day, Culver's sold a limited-time product: the CurderBurger, consisting of a large cheese curd on top of a burger patty. On April 1, Culver's released an April Fools' joke showing a large fried cheese curd in a burger bun, naming it the CurderBurger. Soon after the post was made, a change.org petition was created to make the burger a reality, gathering over 600 signatures. Each location only got a limited number of cheese curd patties, and all Madison, Wisconsin, restaurants sold out before noon.


title: Culver's

text: Culver's sponsors sports teams including the St. Cloud Rox, Wisconsin Badgers, Milwaukee Admirals, Iowa Hawkeyes, Minnesota Wild, Minnesota Golden Gophers, St. Louis Billikens, Indiana Hoosiers, Madison Mallards, Louisville Bats, Chicago White Sox, Chicago Blackhawks and Chicago Cubs. Culver's also sponsors the WIAC baseball championship.


title: Culver's

text: The official Culver's mascot is an anthropomorphic custard cone named Scoopie, who is featured in various advertisements, community events, and fundraisers. Along the way, three new characters were added: Fudge the dog, Curdis the Curd, and Goldie the Curd.


title: Molly Malone

text: "Molly Malone" (also known as "Cockles and Mussels" or "In Dublin's Fair City") is a traditional song set in Dublin, Ireland, which has become its unofficial anthem.


title: Molly Malone

text: A statue representing Molly Malone was unveiled on Grafton Street by then Lord Mayor of Dublin, Ben Briscoe, during the 1988 Dublin Millennium celebrations, when 13 June was declared to be Molly Malone Day. In July 2014, the statue was relocated to Suffolk Street, in front of the Tourist Information Office, to make way for Luas track-laying work at the old location.


title: Molly Malone

text: The song tells the fictional tale of a fishwife who plied her trade on the streets of Dublin and died young, of a fever. In the late 20th century, a legend grew up that there was a historical Molly, who lived in the 17th century. She is typically represented as a hawker by day and a part-time prostitute by night. In contrast, she has also been portrayed as one of the few chaste female street hawkers of her day.


title: Molly Malone

text: There is no evidence that the song is based on a real woman in the 17th century or any other time. The name "Molly" originated as a familiar version of the names Mary and Margaret. Many such "Molly" Malones were born in Dublin over the centuries, but no evidence connects any of them to the events in the song. Nevertheless, the Dublin Millennium Commission in 1988 endorsed claims made for a Mary Malone who died on 13 June 1699, and proclaimed 13 June to be "Molly Malone Day".


title: Molly Malone

text: The song is not recorded earlier than 1876, when it was published in Boston, Massachusetts. Its placement in the section of the book titled "Songs from English and German Universities" suggests an Irish origin. It was also published by Francis Brothers and Day in London in 1884 as a work written and composed by James Yorkston, of Edinburgh, with music arranged by Edmund Forman. The London edition states that it was reprinted by permission of Kohler and Son of Edinburgh, implying that the first edition was in Scotland, but no copies of it have been found.


title: Molly Malone

text: According to Siobhán Marie Kilfeather, the song is from the music hall style of the period, and one cannot wholly dismiss the possibility that it is "based on an older folk song", but "neither melody nor words bear any relationship to the Irish tradition of street ballads". She calls the story of the historical Molly "nonsense". The song is in a familiar tragicomic mode that was then popular and was probably influenced by earlier songs with a similar theme, such as Percy Montrose's "Oh My Darling, Clementine", which was written in about 1880.


title: Molly Malone

text: A variant, "Cockles and Mussels", with some different lyrics, appeared in "Students' Songs: Comprising the Newest and Most Popular College Songs As Now Sung at Harvard, Yale, Columbia, ... Union, Etc" in 1884.


title: Molly Malone

text: A copy of "Apollo's Medley", dating from around 1790, published in Doncaster and rediscovered in 2010, contains a song referring to "Sweet Molly Malone" on page 78 that ends with the line "Och! I'll roar and I'll groan, My sweet Molly Malone, Till I'm bone of your bone, And asleep in your bed." Other than this name and the fact that she lives in Howth, near Dublin, this song bears no resemblance to "Molly Malone". The song was later reprinted in the collection "The Shamrock: A Collection of Irish Songs" (1831) and was published in "The Edinburgh Literary Journal" that year with the title "Molly Malone".


title: Molly Malone

text: Some elements of the song appear in several earlier songs. A character named Molly Malone appears in at least two other songs. The song "Widow Malone," published as early as 1809, refers to the title character alternately as "Molly Malone," "Mary Malone" and "sweet mistress Malone". Another song, "Meet Me Miss Molly Malone", was published as early as 1836 in Glasgow, and in America in 1840. The song "Pat Corney's Account of Himself", published as early as 1826, begins, "Now it's show me that city where the girls are so pretty" and ends, "Crying oysters, and cockles, and Mussels for sale." During the 19th century, the expression "Dublin's fair city" was used regularly in reference to Dublin, and the phrase "alive, alive O" is known to have been shouted by street vendors selling oysters, mussels, fish and eels.


title: Molly Malone

text: Molly Malone is commemorated in a statue commissioned by Jurys Hotel Group and designed by Jeanne Rynhart, erected to celebrate the city's first millennium in 1988. It was originally intended that Rynhart would be commissioned to create a further 12 street sculptures, including those of famous literary figures such as W. B. Yeats and Oscar Wilde, with the intention of creating a sculpture trail in the city. The unveiling of the statue was not met with universal praise however, with Adrian Munnelly, director of the Arts Council in his capacity as registrar of Aosdána, writing to Bord Fáilte (the National Tourism Development) at the time to express his members' "universal depreciation" noting the statue was "entirely deficient in artistic point and merit". Lord Mayor of Dublin Ben Briscoe defended the statue however, saying "the statue was regarded with great warmth and affection by the city of Dublin".


title: Molly Malone

text: The statue was originally placed at the bottom of Grafton Street, and as with other public art in the city, was christened colloquially as "The Tart with the Cart". The statue portrays Molly as a busty young woman in 17th-century dress, which would have consisted of a full-length chemise, overskirt and basque of wool. Her low-cut dress and large breasts were justified on the grounds that as "women breastfed publicly in Molly's time, breasts were popped out all over the place." The traditional, but revealing, costume in which she was sculpted by Rynhart may have also nodded to her supposed job as a part-time prostitute. According to "The Irish Times" "sometime before 2014", tourists began rubbing the statue's bosom area "for luck", with some visitors getting a photo of themselves doing so.


title: Molly Malone

text: In late April 2014, the statue was removed from its original location at the base of Grafton Street and kept in storage to make way for the new Luas tracks which skirted around Trinity College. During the removal of the statue, some cracks were revealed which required restoration work. This was carried out by Bushy Park Ironworks in the city. Speaking to "The Irish Times", ironworks employee Edward Bisgood noted how the company was "carrying out some patination to bring her back to her original dark brown colour, but (was) leaving the areas where she's been rubbed over the years, so she will look as people remember her, but she'll be a lot stronger". In July 2014, the statue was placed in its new location outside the Dublin Tourist Office (formerly St. Andrew's Church) on Suffolk Street, a short distance from the original site. Due to its notability and location, the statue is also a common starting and finishing point for some of Dublin city's walking tours.


title: Molly Malone

text: In the movie "A Clockwork Orange" (1971), a drunk tramp sings "Molly Malone" in a tunnel before being assaulted by the Alex and his gang, whom Alex refers to as his "droogs".


title: Molly Malone

text: The soap opera "Fair City" derives its title from the opening line of the song: "In Dublin's fair city, where the girls are so pretty..."


title: Molly Malone

text: Versions of the song, "Molly Malone", have been recorded by many artists, including The Dubliners, Heino, Danny Kaye, Pete Seeger, Sinéad O'Connor, Johnny Logan, and U2.


title: Molly Malone

text: Bing Crosby and Rosemary Clooney recorded an updated version of the song titled "The Daughter of Molly Malone" on their album "That Travelin' Two-Beat" (1965). Crosby also sang the song on the album "A Little Bit of Irish" recorded in 1966.


title: Molly Malone

text: A version of the song was released as a charity single in 1998, to mark the Dublin Millennium, and reached number 4 in the Irish singles chart.


title: Molly Malone

text: Operatic baritone Bryn Terfel has recorded a highly operatic version of the tune, sung in a somewhat upbeat fashion.


title: Molly Malone

text: Versions of the song have also been recorded in Russian (as "Душа моя, Молли" or "Molly, my soul"), French, and in Dutch (as "kokkels en mossels").


title: Cut of beef

text: During butchering, beef is first divided into primal cuts, pieces of meat initially separated from the carcass. These are basic sections from which steaks and other subdivisions are cut. Since the animal's legs and neck muscles do the most work, they are the toughest; the meat becomes more tender as distance from hoof and horn increases.


title: Cut of beef

text: Different countries and cuisines have different cuts and names, and sometimes use the same name for a different cut; e.g., the cut described as "brisket" in the US is from a significantly different part of the carcass than British "brisket". "Cut" often refers narrowly to skeletal muscle (sometimes attached to bones), but can also include other edible flesh, such as offal (organ meat) or bones without significant muscles attached.


title: Cut of beef

text: The following is a list of the American primal cuts, and cuts derived from them. Beef carcasses are split along the axis of symmetry into "halves", then across into front and back "quarters" (forequarters and hindquarters). Canada uses identical cut names (and numbering) as the U.S, with the exception of the "round" which is called the "hip".


title: Cut of beef

text: The UNECE standard formalizes internationally agreed upon specifications written in a consistent, detailed and accurate manner using anatomical names to identify cutting lines.


title: DJ Vlad

text: Vladimir Lyubovny (; born June 28, 1973), commonly known as DJ Vlad, is an American interviewer, journalist, and former disc jockey. He is the CEO of video and news website VladTV.com. His YouTube channel, djvlad, features his interviews of multiple music artists and entertainers and currently has over five million subscribers. He has also produced and directed films. He currently lives in Calabasas, California.


title: DJ Vlad

text: Lyubovny was born in Kyiv, Ukraine (then part of the Soviet Union) to a Russian Jewish family and moved to the United States at the age of five, first living in Springfield, Massachusetts before his family settled down in San Mateo, California. Lyubovny became interested in hip hop in his youth when N.W.A released their debut album.


title: DJ Vlad

text: Lyubovny was initially making hip hop beats, but later quit when he realized he would not be successful at it. He began DJing after experimenting with a friend's equipment. In a 2010 interview with "Parlé Magazine", he stated: "I kinda reached this point where I was like 'I really wanna do music. Let me try and concentrate and do music as well'." He directed on the "American Gangster" television series, as well as the documentary film "Ghostride the Whip".


title: DJ Vlad

text: Lyubovny later launched VladTV.com and initially uploaded MP3 files of DJ mixtapes. He moved to New York City and released the "Rap Phenomenon" mixtape series. He was also making hip hop DVDs, but was financially struggling as DVD sales began to decline. In 2008, Lyubovny turned his attention towards YouTube, which had recently launched its Partner Program which allows content creators to earn money. Lyubovny then decided to drop all other endeavours and focus on YouTube full-time.


title: DJ Vlad

text: In August 2008, Lyubovny was assaulted by rapper Rick Ross's entourage after he covered a story on the rapper's former career as a corrections officer. Lyubovny filed a $4 million lawsuit. On April 15, 2010, a New York Federal Jury awarded Lyubovny $300,000 in his civil suit, finding Ross liable for setting Lyubovny up for the attack at the 2008 Ozone Awards in Houston, Texas.


title: DJ Vlad

text: In April 2009, the "Star & Buc Wild" show joined the VladTV family to do a daily feature. In May 2010, Lyubovny voiced himself for a cameo in "The Boondocks" episode "Bitches to Rags".


title: DJ Vlad

text: In December 2016, Lyubovny interviewed Soulja Boy, who explained events surrounding a home invasion and shooting in 2008. The interview went viral, with many questioning the validity of Soulja Boy's claims. Numerous people parodied Soulja Boy's interview online, including rapper Joe Budden, and comedians Mike Epps and DC Young Fly, in what was ironically dubbed the "Soulja Boy Challenge".


title: Centrifugal pump

text: Centrifugal pumps are used to transport fluids by the conversion of rotational kinetic energy to the hydrodynamic energy of the fluid flow. The rotational energy typically comes from an engine or electric motor. They are a sub-class of dynamic axisymmetric work-absorbing turbomachinery. The fluid enters the pump impeller along or near to the rotating axis and is accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially outward into a diffuser or volute chamber (casing), from which it exits.


title: Centrifugal pump

text: Common uses include water, sewage, agriculture, petroleum, and petrochemical pumping. Centrifugal pumps are often chosen for their high flow rate capabilities, abrasive solution compatibility, mixing potential, as well as their relatively simple engineering. A centrifugal fan is commonly used to implement an air handling unit or vacuum cleaner. The reverse function of the centrifugal pump is a water turbine converting potential energy of water pressure into mechanical rotational energy.


title: Centrifugal pump

text: According to Reti, the first machine that could be characterized as a centrifugal pump was a mud lifting machine which appeared as early as 1475 in a treatise by the Italian Renaissance engineer Francesco di Giorgio Martini. True centrifugal pumps were not developed until the late 17th century, when Denis Papin built one using straight vanes. The curved vane was introduced by British inventor John Appold in 1851.


title: Centrifugal pump

text: Like most pumps, a centrifugal pump converts rotational energy, often from a motor, to energy in a moving fluid. A portion of the energy goes into kinetic energy of the fluid. Fluid enters axially through eye of the casing, is caught up in the impeller blades, and is whirled tangentially and radially outward until it leaves through all circumferential parts of the impeller into the diffuser part of the casing. The fluid gains both velocity and pressure while passing through the impeller. The doughnut-shaped diffuser, or scroll, section of the casing decelerates the flow and further increases the pressure.


title: Centrifugal pump

text: A consequence of Newton's second law of mechanics is the conservation of the angular momentum (or the “moment of momentum”) which is of fundamental significance to all turbomachines. Accordingly, the change of the angular momentum is equal to the sum of the external moments. Angular momentums ρ×Q×r×cu at inlet and outlet, an external torque M and friction moments due to shear stresses Mτ are acting on an impeller or a diffuser.


title: Centrifugal pump

text: Since no pressure forces are created on cylindrical surfaces in the circumferential direction, it is possible to write Eq. (1.10) as:


title: Centrifugal pump

text: In Eq. (2) the sum of 4 front element number call static pressure, the sum of last 2 element number call velocity pressure look carefully on the Fig 2.2 and the detail equation.


title: Centrifugal pump

text: H theory head pressure ; g = between 9.78 and 9.82 m/s2 depending on latitude, conventional standard value of exactly 9.80665 m/s2 barycentric gravitational acceleration


title: Centrifugal pump

text: The color triangle formed by velocity vector u,c,w called "velocity triangle". This rule was helpful to detail Eq.(1) become Eq.(2) and wide explained how the pump works.


title: Centrifugal pump

text: Fig 2.3 (a) shows triangle velocity of forward curved vanes impeller ; Fig 2.3 (b) shows triangle velocity of radial straight vanes impeller. It illustrates rather clearly energy added to the flow (shown in vector c) inversely change upon flow rate Q (shown in vector c).


title: Centrifugal pump

text: The head added by the pump (formula_8) is a sum of the static lift, the head loss due to friction and any losses due to valves or pipe bends all expressed in metres of fluid. Power is more commonly expressed as kilowatts (10 W, kW) or horsepower. The value for the pump efficiency, formula_12, may be stated for the pump itself or as a combined efficiency of the pump and motor system.


title: Centrifugal pump

text: Vertical centrifugal pumps are also referred to as cantilever pumps. They utilize a unique shaft and bearing support configuration that allows the volute to hang in the sump while the bearings are outside the sump. This style of pump uses no stuffing box to seal the shaft but instead utilizes a "throttle bushing". A common application for this style of pump is in a parts washer.