title: Portuguese Macau

text: The most famous Dutch invasion took place on June 22, 1622, when 800 soldiers landed on Cacilhas beach. They advanced cautiously towards the center of the city, suffering heavy bombardment from cannons at the Fortaleza do Monte. After two days of fighting, on the 24th of June, a Jesuit priest fired a cannon shot and accurately hit a wagon loaded with gunpowder belonging to the Dutch, disconcerting the invading forces. It is also on this day that Macau's small military garrison (consisting of approximately 200 soldiers and a few fortresses, namely Fortaleza do Monte and Fortaleza da Guia) defeated the invading forces. The Dutch, defeated, threw themselves overboard in an attempt to reach the boats. Many drowned and one of the boats, overcrowded, sank. Portuguese records say that a few dozen Portuguese died and that around 350 Dutch died in combat or drowned. For Macau, unprepared, the victory was considered a miracle. After the victory, Macao residents celebrated the 24th of June, Victory Day, as City Day. It is also on this day that Saint John the Baptist, the patron saint of the city, is celebrated. Legend has it that by his cloak, the enemy's shots were deflected, saving the city from the Dutch invaders. This day was a public holiday and celebrated every year with great parties and joy until 1999, the date when Macau's sovereignty was transferred to China. After the transfer, this day was no longer a public holiday and was virtually forgotten.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: After this attempted Dutch invasion, the Portuguese authorities, from 1623 onwards, sent a Governor to Macau. Before his arrival, this small town was administered and governed by the Loyal Senate. Macau's small military garrison was also reinforced. These measures revealed a greater concern and participation of the Portuguese authorities in the administration and protection of this distant and small Portuguese establishment. But, even so, the local power, residing in the Leal Senado, continued to maintain a great autonomy in relation to the central metropolitan power of Lisbon, represented in Macau by the Governor, and continued to play a fundamental role in the administration of the city. That's why the Loyal Senate and the Governor often came into conflict over disagreements.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: Although Portugal was ruled by a Spanish monarch between 1580 and 1640, Macau continued to loyally hoist the Portuguese flag. Therefore, after the restoration of Portugal's independence and sovereignty in 1640, King John IV of Portugal rewarded this trust and loyalty in 1654, by granting Macau the title "No other is more loyal". Therefore the full name and title of Macau under Portuguese administration would read: "City of the Holy Name of God of Macau – No Other is More Loyal"


title: Portuguese Macau

text: From the mid-17th century onwards, Macao's prosperity began to decline, caused by various factors and events. But, even so, this commercial establishment rarely asked for subsidies from its metropolis (Portugal), and even sometimes gave financial aid to other Portuguese territories in the East. When Macau had financial problems, which it did with some frequency, the city would ask for loans from other neighboring countries or from wealthy merchants in the Far East.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: The Portuguese commercial system centered in Lisbon began to suffer a growing decline in the 17th century, due to the competition between it and the other systems developed by other European powers, namely England and the Netherlands. These European powers, with large and powerful fleets of merchant and warships, attacked the great but weakened Portuguese Empire, occupying and/or looting its colonies and trading bases and intercepting many of its trade routes. In the end, these emerging powers created, at the expense of the Portuguese Empire, their own empires and secured many markets and trade routes that were once dominated exclusively by the Portuguese.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: The profitable trade with Japan began to undergo gradual changes as early as the end of the 16th century. In 1587, Japanese authorities began to implement measures to expel Catholic missionaries, who had become increasingly powerful and influential in the Kyushu region. This led to their loss of control over Nagasaki. This event, combined with the prohibition of Christianity by the Japanese authorities in 1614, contributed to the fact that Portuguese trade in Japan was conducted with increasing difficulties. In 1636, the Portuguese were transferred from Nagasaki to the secondary trading port of Dejima.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: In 1638–1639, the shogun Tokugawa Iemitsu implemented Japan's exclusionary policies, intended to protect it from possible European occupation, and ruthlessly ordered the persecution of all missionaries and priests, and of hundreds of thousands of Japanese Christians. As a result, Portuguese trade with Japan came to an abrupt end, seriously affecting Macau, which quickly went into economic decline. The Dutch also contributed to the end of this lucrative trade, making the Japanese authorities increasingly suspicious of the commercial activity of the Portuguese and especially of the religious activity of Catholic missionaries, accused of being the vanguard of a powerful European and Catholic invading force. With the Portuguese expelled, a small number of Dutch, who gained the trust of the Japanese authorities, were able to visit the port of Dejima, although with many restrictions, becoming the only Europeans who were allowed to trade with Japan.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: In 1640, in an attempt to reestablish the profitable and important trade, the Portuguese residents of Macau decided to send an embassy to Japan but not only did they not getting what they wanted, the members of the embassy were all executed, by order of the powerful Tokugawa shogun.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: In 1641, another event affected Macau's declining economy: the Portuguese lost Malacca to the Dutch, who had already captured several Portuguese possessions, areas of influence and trade routes. The loss of this important city and commercial base caused disturbances and deviations from the usual route between Macau and Goa and a decrease in the supply of tradable products with China.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: In 1640, when the Crowns of Portugal and Spain were once again separated, trade with Manila and with the Spaniards based there ended, causing more economic and financial problems for Macau. It was only with the end of the Portuguese-Spanish rivalry that trade was reactivated.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: The loss of several commercial markets, although very harmful to Macau, was not fatal for the merchants and inhabitants of the city. The transition from the Chinese Ming dynasty to the Manchu Qing dynasty, which lasted several years, caused strong instability in the Chinese Empire and made the internal markets of China and all of Southeast Asia uncertain, fatally affecting the commercial activity of the residents of Macau. In addition to living in uncertainty and fear of being destroyed or occupied by the forces of the new imperial dynasty, the city was also flooded in the 1640s with refugees fleeing the Qings, depleting Macao's resources and giving rise to famine in the 1640s, also due to the dwindling and unstable food supply from Chinese merchants.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: It was only with the re-establishment of imperial peace in southeastern China that Macau's trade prospered again. The Portuguese, not wanting Macau's status to be changed by the new imperial Qing dynasty and not wanting their privileged position to end, sent several embassies to Beijing, establishing friendly diplomatic relations with China's new sovereigns.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: In 1685, despite successive Portuguese embassies to Beijing, the Portuguese monopoly on trade with China came to an end because the Chinese Emperor authorized trade with all foreign countries in Canton, at least once a year during the annual fair. This ended the privileged position of the Portuguese in trade with the Chinese Empire, as the only and exclusive intermediaries in the China-Europe trade.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: From that date onwards, Macau ceased to be the exclusive entrepôt for Chinese trade, thus altering Macau's economic role in trade with China. However, European merchants of other nationalities, who were also able to participate in direct trade with China along with the Portuguese, also started to temporarily visit and use Macau as a trading post and intermediary in this lucrative trade. This is because, at that time, foreigners could not reside and move freely in Guangzhou, and they had to reside in Macau for most of the year.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: With the sudden increase in foreign competition in trade with China and the decline of the Portuguese trading system, merchants based in Macau, in order to continue with their commercial activities and with their profits, had to cooperate more frequently with the merchants of the new and emerging European powers, because it was these powers that held control of world trade centered on Europe. This cooperation at times generated a certain dependence on the part of Macanese merchants on these new western powers.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: With the loss of trade with Japan, Manila and other locations that were once Portuguese possessions and with the rise of Dutch and later English merchants in the eastern seas, Portuguese traders based in Macau made several adjustments to their trade routes.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: Knowing the process of decline of the Portuguese world trading system and the lack of resources on the part of Portugal to sustain an intense long-distance trade (that is, commercial voyages from the East to Europe), Macanese merchants bet heavily on intra-Asian trade, while long-distance trade was mostly dominated by the new European powers, such as the Netherlands and England.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: These Macau-based traders invested, in addition to Goa and China, in several Asian regional markets, such as Macassar, Solor, Flores, Timor, Vietnam, Kingdom of Siam, Bengal, Calcutta, Banjarmasin and Batavia.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: Over time, the diverse and almost constant adaptations to the changing political and economic realities of the different Asian regional markets bore fruit. In the 18th century, intra-Asian trade became sufficient to create a new and true proto-capitalist class of entrepreneurs, both Portuguese and Chinese, based in Macau. This emerging class specifically included Chinese buyers and the main shipowners and trade captains who accepted the high risk of sailing in the eastern seas and who knew how to adapt to the new realities of the region.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: But even so, this intra-Asian trade never managed to restore the prosperity experienced in Macau that was provided by trade with Japan. Often, mainly due to the policies of the Chinese authorities that were unfavorable to the interests of the Portuguese in Macau, such as the opening of certain Chinese ports to international trade, this intra-Asian trade was unable to fully contribute to the subsistence of the territory. Macanese authorities, often had to ask for large loans from other neighboring countries or from wealthy merchants in the Far East.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: In addition to Chinese taxes, the rent, the Portas do Cerco, the special status of the Chinese of being judged, in the last instance, by the mandarins, according to the law of the Chinese Empire, and the increasing Chinese supervision over Macau, the Chinese authorities also imposed a ban, except in exceptional cases, on the construction of dwellings by the Portuguese beyond the walls of the City of Macau. Since they could not expand the city to the north of the Macau Peninsula, and the city could not have a very significant population increase. They, going further, also imposed that the construction of new houses and fortifications within the City had to be previously authorized by the mandarins in charge of guarding the city.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: The Chinese authorities even ordered, in 1648, the establish ment of a military post with 500 soldiers in the village of Qianshan (which the Portuguese called "Casa Branca"), very close to Portas do Cerco, to guard the "City of the Holy Name of God of Macau". This village was also the home of one of the mandarins in charge of supervising Macau.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: On several occasions, the impositions and decisions by the Chinese authorities to sanction Macau caused a large exodus of the Chinese community from Macau. For this reason, during the first centuries of Macau's existence, the number of the Chinese population was uncertain and fluctuated considerably. These impositions and requirements, sometimes very abusive, sometimes brought real financial crises to the Macao authorities.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: The restrictions and impositions by the Chinese authorities began to intensify more and more when the Qing became the rulers of China, as they were always suspicious of foreign actions and influence.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: Three years after the opening of the port of Guangzhou to all foreign merchants, in 1688, the Chinese authorities established a Chinese customs house, the "Ho-pu", supervised by a mandarin to better oversee the collection of taxes on certain goods transported by merchant ships anchored in the port of Macau and above all to control the access of foreign ships long-distance to Canton. The Ho-pu became the symbol of Chinese authority, power and influence in Macau.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: In 1736, the Chinese authorities, increasingly abusing their power and the Macanese, imposed a local mandarin in Macau with the name "tchó-t'óng" (or Tso-tang ), under the pretext of helping the mandarins in charge of supervising Macau and of better dealing with the affairs of the Chinese inhabitants of the city. This mandarin, residing in the north of the Macau Peninsula, only began to exercise full authority from 1797 onwards.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: The power of the mandarins over Macau would be drastically reduced only in the 19th century, during the mandate of Macau Governor João Ferreira do Amaral.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: Europeans such as the British, Dutch, French, Spanish, Danish and Swedes, who had been involved in trade with China for some time, began to form small but wealthy communities in Macau, due to the lifting of restrictions on trade and residence to foreigners by the Macau authorities in the year 1760. After the exemptions, Macau emerged as the mandatory residence or intermediate stop for all foreigners participating in trade with China through Canton. This caused many European commercial companies to establish themselves in Macau, increasing the city's revenue. In conclusion, Macau thus became Europe's outpost in China. The city prospered with this status and this is also reflected in its urban landscape: new and sometimes exquisite buildings, built according to European-inspired architectural styles, began to appear in Macau, namely in Praia Grande. These buildings included the residences of wealthy merchants and European aristocracy.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: In fact, at this time, the Macao authorities, which formerly depended mainly on taxes paid by Portuguese traders, now also depended on taxes paid by these wealthy European merchants. To further increase these revenues, the Macau authorities, in 1784, also created their own customs machine, charging customs duties on imported goods and on the anchoring of ships. But most of the revenue from this new customs system was sent to Portugal's state coffers.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: The "Leal Senado", symbol of authority and local power, enjoyed great autonomy from the governments of Lisbon and Goa and was Macau's most important governing body for more than two centuries, from its foundation until 1783. The Senate has already suffered a significant decrease due to the increasing and abusive restrictions and impositions of the Chinese authorities, it was the internal reform carried out during the reign of Queen Maria I of Portugal that restricted the powers and especially the autonomy of the Senate.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: In 1783, through royal measures, the Queen granted the Governor of Macau fundamental powers and the right of veto over the decisions of the Senate. The governor had the obligation and responsibility to veto all decisions that were contrary to regulations, laws or orders from Lisbon or Goa. The measures dictated that the governor, with his powers already expanded and fortified, had to intervene in all matters related to the administration and government of Macau. Prior to the enactment of these measures, the governor was only the commander of the Portuguese military forces in Macau and did not participate much, with a few exceptions, in the administration of the city.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: If, by chance, these two governing bodies could not reach agreement on a matter, and if the case was urgent, the Bishop of Macau and (Portuguese) citizens with the right to vote were to meet and resolve by a majority of votes. In conclusion, from 1783 onwards, the power between the governor and the Loyal Senate reached an equilibrium.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: During the Peninsular War (1807–1814), in September 1808 Macau was occupied by troops from the expeditionary force under the command of Rear Admiral William O'Brien Drury, commander-in-chief of the British Naval Forces in the seas of Asia, under the pretext of protection against the French threat. This contingent was re-embarked at the end of the same year, due to the concentration of around 80,000 men of the Chinese army in front of the city gates.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: In 1809, the famous naval battle of the Tigers Mouth (or Bocca Tigris) took place between a Portuguese flotilla of six ships and a Chinese pirate fleet with more than 300 ships. The Portuguese flotilla, outnumbered but with superior firepower provided by the artillery, emerged victorious and managed to maintain Portuguese rule in Macau, which at that time was seriously threatened by these pirates, who frequently attacked local merchant ships.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: The prosperity and importance of the port of Macau was drastically reduced after the First Opium War in 1841, when Hong Kong became the most important western port in China. The vast majority of the members of the non-Portuguese European communities and even a group of Macanese and Portuguese, as well as the vast majority of European trading companies, seeing a good part of the trade carried out in Macau being transferred to Hong Kong, quickly abandoned the city and took up residence in the new and prosperous British colony, located 60 km from Macau.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: Although Macau continued to house a class of merchants and buyers (mostly Chinese) and although commerce never ceased to exist in the City, Macau was no longer the outpost of Europe in China, and was relegated to a secondary economic and commercial level.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: In the 19th century, Portugal, seeing the already evident weakness of the Chinese Empire and growing British influence threatening the balance of the region, finally began to worry about strengthening Portuguese sovereignty in Macau and the definition of the political-administrative structures of the city to prevent Macau from falling into the hands of other European powers. This desire of Portugal was fulfilled on the 20th of September 1844, with the promulgation of a royal decree signed by Queen Maria II of Portugal. This document reaffirmed that the governor was the main political-administrative body of the city and not the "Leal Senado", officially putting an end to local authority and hopes that the Senate would regain the status and prestige it had lost in 1834, and Macau finally joined the administrative organization of the Portuguese overseas territory, becoming an overseas province jointly with Timor and Solor, headquartered in Macau and with the name of "Province of Macau, Timor and Solor". Prior to this entry, Macau had been part of the Portuguese State of India.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: After the Royal Decree of 1844, Portugal declared the City a free port in 1845, through a royal decree that would later be implemented by Governor João Ferreira do Amaral, appointed in 1846 with a mandate to assert Portuguese sovereignty. He began his term in office in 1846, ordering an end to the payment of annual rent and Chinese taxes and, seeing the impossibility of collecting taxes and customs duties (the colony's biggest revenue) because Macau was already a free port, he ordered the introduction of new taxes on the inhabitants of the City, including the Chinese, and on Chinese light boats, the . This led to a Chinese revolt which was put down by the Portuguese military.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: The Governor even ordered the construction of a road to connect the walled city of Macau in the south of the peninsula, to the "Portas do Cerco", a border post located in the extreme north that separates the Macau Peninsula from continental China.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: Amaral also ordered the expulsion of the mandarins (Chinese officials) from Macau and, because Macau was a free port (that is, a port without customs), he finally could order the abolition, in 1849, of the famous Ho-pu (Chinese customs), thus culminating the process of strengthening Portuguese sovereignty. From that date onwards, the Macau Government also began to exercise ultimate jurisdiction over all Chinese residents of Macau City and to levy taxes on them, ending their special status. In the implementation of the royal decree of 1845, the Portuguese customs also ceased to exist.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: The Senate opposed his actions, stating that establishing full control by force was an "unfair and disloyal gesture". Amaral dissolved the Senate and called them unpatriotic. He told Chinese officials that they would be received as representatives of a foreign power.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: After the events of 1783, 1834, 1844, the definitive shake-up of the mandarins' power over Macau and the abolition of Chinese customs in 1849, the Governor of Macau, free from local and Chinese authorities, became Macau's highest authority.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: Amaral's policies evoked much resentment, and he was assassinated by Chinese men on 22 August 1849. This led the Portuguese to capture the Passaleão fort beyond the Barrier Gate three days later.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: On 22 August, 1849, Governor João Ferreira do Amaral was assassinated near Portas do Cerco and the Chinese assassins cut off his head and right arm. This assassination, ordered, according to rumors, by the Viceroy of Canton, was followed by a military confrontation between the Portuguese and the Chinese imperial troops. The latter, shortly after the assassination, sought to gather in and around the Chinese fort of Pak-Shan-Lan or Baishaling (in Portuguese: Passaleão), which was located near the Portas do Cerco. According to the spies of the guards of the fortresses of Macau, there were about 500 soldiers in that fort and in the neighboring elevations more than 1500 men, with artillery.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: On 25 August, 1849, a young Macanese second lieutenant, Vicente Nicolau de Mesquita, proposed to the Government Council (which replaced the Governor) to attack the Passaleão fort, whose garrison began bombarding with its 20 cannon the Portas do Cerco, at that time garrisoned by only 120 Portuguese soldiers and three pieces of artillery. The situation was unbearable and many residents of Macau predicted the end of Portuguese rule in Macau.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: Mesquita, together with 32 soldiers supported by two pieces of field artillery and two cannons from a gunboat and a lorcha, began the attack on the fort, first bombarding it with an artillery piece that only fired once (since it broke down, after the first shot). The shot caused a panic among the Chinese troops. The panic of the Chinese soldiers was also related to an African "landim" soldier, who was the first to jump over the walls of the fort. Due to the confusion, Chinese troops from Passaleão and its vicinity withdrew. When the Portuguese returned victorious, they took with them, in an act of revenge, the head and hand of a mandarin who had offered resistance.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: After the confrontation of Passaleão, the Tso-tang was transferred to Chinsan or Xiangshan (modern Zhongshan), a Chinese town neighboring Macau, with its power shaken. After several protests, insistence and delays, Amaral's head and right arm were delivered on January 16, 1850 and his remains transferred to Lisbon.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: Both Mesquita and Ferreira do Amaral are remembered as heroes in Macau and Portugal. Later, Mesquita was promoted to Colonel. In 1871, the Government of Macau inaugurated the Arco das Portas do Cerco, with the aim of honoring the deeds of Governor Ferreira do Amaral and Colonel Mesquita.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: During the second half of the 19th century, the main European powers humiliated the already weak Imperial Chinese Government of the Qing Dynasty, forcing it to sign the so-called Unequal Treaties. In these, the Chinese Government was obligated to open its commercial ports, to accept the European occupation of certain Chinese lands and to accept the division of China into European "areas of influence".


title: Portuguese Macau

text: Perhaps taking advantage of the situation, on August 13, 1862, Governor managed to get the Chinese government to sign a treaty in Tianjin (or Tientsin). This treaty, consisting of 54 articles, recognized that Macau was a Portuguese colony. But it was never ratified as the Governor and Minister Plenipotentiary at that time, José Rodrigues Coelho do Amaral, returned to Macao without ratifying it, protesting against the objections of the Chinese delegates regarding the interpretation of the ninth article. They defended that Macau could not be considered a Chinese territory, raising a bitter argument with Coelho do Amaral in May 1864, when he arrived in Tianjin to ratify the treaty.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: It was only in 1887 that Portugal, which had wanted for many years to establish a treaty on Macau with China, managed to sign, with the diplomatic support of Great Britain, the "Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Friendship and Commerce", which recognized and legitimized the perpetual occupation of Macau and its dependencies by the Portuguese. This treaty, also called the "Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking", was signed by Sun Xuwen, the representative of China, and by Portuguese plenipotentiary minister Tomás de Sousa Rosa, who was assisted by Pedro Nolasco da Silva. The delimitation of borders was for later, through a future special convention.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: The 1822 constitution included Macau as an integral part of its territory. A Portuguese royal decree on 20 November 1845 declared Macau a free port. In 1847, Governor Isidoro Francisco Guimarães, knowing that Macau did not have the capacity to compete with the nascent British colony of Hong Kong, decided to legalize gambling, including casinos and other types of games of chance. With this legalization of gambling, which already existed clandestinely in the city, the government wanted to transform the colony into a holiday, leisure and entertainment center for the inhabitants and wealthy merchants of the region. This sector, mainly due to the great taste of the Chinese for gambling, contributed a lot to the revival of the economy and the development of Macau. Currently, it remains the most important economic activity in the region.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: In addition to gambling, Macau also managed to recover part of its former prosperity, serving as a warehouse for the coolies trade and for the lucrative tea trade. It was also at this time, in the second half of the 19th century, that Macau experienced an initial industrialization, due to the development of communication and transport infrastructures and the establishment of several factories and production units, namely the tea factories, matches factories, fireworks, tobacco and cement. But Macao's industry only began to experience great development and expansion from the 1870s onwards.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: The coolie trade, which began in Macau in the late 1840s, consisted of supplying contract Chinese workers to countries that at that time needed labor, such as Cuba and Peru. They lived and worked in precarious conditions, resembling slaves. This trade, while providing new prosperity to the port of Macau, brought serious social problems to the City, such as corruption, moral depression and the need to deal with a large number of coolies repatriated or waiting to be transported to the their new place of work. Incidentally, although individual merchants in Macau also profited from this commercial activity, the greatest beneficiaries of this trade were foreign companies and their agents, whose capital dominated the trade. That's why the coolie trade came to an end in the late 1870s.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: With the end of the tea and coolie trade, Macau went into decline again and the Macau Government, also due to its political and administrative responsibilities over Timor and Solor since 1844, had to look for new ways to obtain revenue. Timor was definitively separated from Macau's administrative structure in 1896, the Macau government also had to financially support the colony of Timor. The monopoly concession by the government to private companies entrusted by it then became one of the privileged ways of obtaining state revenue. This measure


title: Portuguese Macau

text: ensured the continuity of the stable and regular supply of revenues to the Government, since companies that held monopolies generally suffered little or no competition and were obliged, in addition to taxes, to pay a fixed annual amount to the Government, regardless of their revenues. In the 19th century, the most notable and important monopolies were the opium sector.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: Mainly after the end of the tea and coolies trade, still in the 19th century, Macau's economy came to be supported largely by the gambling sector, fishing and the various monopolies granted by the government (namely that of opium). But trade did not cease to exist in Macau or cease to be important for the colony. The city has always been home to a class of buyers and traders, mostly Chinese, who maintained commercial relations with various locations in China and Southeast Asia, and who made a profit from their intermediary activity of importing products and then re-exporting them. Some of these activities, such as the import, sale and re-export of oil and gold, were even monopolized by the government, whose monopoly rights were later granted to a private company.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: In the first half of the 19th century, the Portuguese, who were previously only allowed to inhabit the south of the Macau Peninsula, also began to exercise jurisdiction over the north of the peninsula (at that time occupied by the Chinese). They even wanted to occupy land located beyond the Portas do Cerco, but they were unable to do so.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: In 1847, Governor Ferreira do Amaral ordered the construction of a fortress on the island of Taipa, designed to protect the Chinese inhabitants and traders from pirates and also to assert the Portuguese presence on the island. In 1851, the Portuguese took control of all of Taipa. The occupation of the island of Coloane began in 1864. When the Portuguese arrived on the islands of Taipa and Coloane, Chinese pirates had great influence on them and terrorized their inhabitants. The Portuguese had to fight them, with one of the most famous clashes taking place in Coloane in 1910, where the Portuguese were victorious.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: In 1890, the Portuguese officially occupied Ilha Verde, which was located 1 kilometer west of the Macau Peninsula. Due to landfills, this island was completely absorbed by the Peninsula in 1923.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: In the 19th century, the Portuguese also began to expand their influence to the islands of Lapa, Dom João and Montanha (adjacent to Macau), offering protection and services (eg education) to the few Chinese residents there in exchange for taxes. At the time, these three islands were already inhabited by Portuguese missionaries, with the island of Lapa already inhabited at the end of the 17th century. They were officially occupied by the Portuguese in 1938, under the pretext of protecting the Portuguese and missionaries residing there. But in the oWorld War II, the Portuguese were expelled in 1941 by the Imperial Japanese Army (no armed struggle or deaths were recorded) which constantly launched threats to the government of Macau. After the expulsion of the Portuguese, the Japanese began to occupy these islands. At the end of the Great War, with the defeat of Japan, the Portuguese were unable to reoccupy the islands of Lapa, D. João and Montanha, which were returned to China.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: At the beginning of the 20th century, after the various annexations, the Colony of Macau (excluding Lapa, D. João, Montanha and certain nearby islands over which the Portuguese claimed sovereignty) had approximately an area of 11.6 Km2, distributed as follows: Peninsula Macau, including Ilha Verde (3.4 Km2); Taipa (2.3 Km2); and Coloane (5.9 Km2).


title: Portuguese Macau

text: Macau, not very satisfied with the annexations carried out, carried out a series of landfill works that continue today. In the 1990s, a series of landfill works were carried out on the narrow and small Taipa-Coloane isthmus, giving rise to the Landfill Zone of COTAI.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: These works more than doublec the area of Macao, and currently the area of the Special Administrative Region of Macao (SAR) is 28.6 Km2, distributed as follows: Peninsula of Macao (9.3 Km2), Taipa (6.5 Km2), Coloane (7.6 Km2) and COTAI Landfill Zone (5.2 Km2).


title: Portuguese Macau

text: On 26 March 1887, the Lisbon Protocol was signed, in which China recognised the "perpetual occupation and government of Macao" by Portugal who in turn, agreed never to surrender Macau to a third party without Chinese agreement. This was reaffirmed in the Treaty of Peking on 1 December. A growing nationalist movement in China voiced disapproval of the treaty and questioned its validity. Although the Nationalist (Kuomintang) government in China vowed to abrogate the "unequal treaties", Macau's status remained unchanged.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: The 1928 Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Friendship and Trade reaffirmed Portuguese administration over Macau.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: Macau's population doubled during World War II (1939–1945) due to the influx of people fleeing the Japanese occupation of Southeast Asia. The main origin of the refugees was from neighboring cities such as Canton and Hong Kong. Japan respected the neutrality of Portugal.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: Even though the Japanese had no intention of occupying Macau, they soon established a powerful consulate in the city. In addition to its diplomatic functions, it also served as a center for espionage and the detention of anti-Japanese Chinese figures, many of whom had fled China for Macao. The Japanese, occupying all neighboring lands of Macau (including Hong Kong), were able to supervise the political and administrative activity of Macau, through their consul, Fukui Yasumitsu, who was elevated to the status of special adviser to the Governor of Macau. Still, there was strong tension between the Macau Government and the Japanese Army. The Portuguese feared the invasion of Macau by Japanese troops because the military


title: Portuguese Macau

text: garrison did not have the capacity to defend the Portuguese colony. The action of Governor Gabriel Maurício Teixeira and Pedro José Lobo, at the time head or director of the Central Office of Economic Services, was crucial for Macau to remain relatively intact during the War.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: Despite Macau's neutrality, the seaplane port existing at the time was bombed, an.alleged accident, and the islands of Lapa, Dom João and Montanha were occupied by the Japanese Army. The consequences of the Second World War in Macau were limited to overpopulation and the lack of imported goods, of which food was the most urgent, and caused thousands of deaths. After World War II, Macau's population began to decline due to the return of many Chinese refugees to their homeland.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: However, in 1946, Gabriel Maurício Teixeira was removed from Macau and, later, dismissed as Governor of Macau, due to strong pressure exerted by the Chinese authorities, who accused him of having collaborated with the Japanese during the Second World War.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: In 1945, after the end of extraterritorial rights in China, the Nationalists called for the liquidation of foreign control over Hong Kong and Macau, but they were too preoccupied in the civil war with the Communists to fulfil their goals.The 12-3 incident occurred in 1966, when demonstrations against Portuguese rule were held.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: After the 1974 revolution in Portugal, a decolonisation policy paved the way for Macau's retrocession to the People's Republic of China (PRC). Portugal offered to withdraw from Macau in late 1974, but China declined in favour of a later time because it sought to preserve international and local confidence in Hong Kong, which was still under British rule. In January 1975, Portugal recognised the mainland's PRC instead of rump ROC in Taiwan as the sole government of China. On 17 February 1976, the Portuguese parliament passed the Organic Statute of Macau, which called it a "territory under Portuguese administration". This term was also put in Portugal's 1976 constitution, replacing Macau's designation as an overseas province. Unlike previous constitutions, Macau was not included as an integral part of Portuguese territory. The 1987 Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration called Macau a "Chinese territory under Portuguese administration".


title: Portuguese Macau

text: The granting of full sovereignty to the People's Republic of China was transferred in a ceremony on 20 December 1999.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: The transfer of Macau's sovereignty between Portugal and China took place in the early hours of the morning of December 20, 1999, as foreseen in the Joint Declaration, after many years of negotiations and preparations.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: It was two years after Hong Kong's transfer of sovereignty; Macau had a smoother process than Hong Kong's, with no notable political clashes between the two governments during diplomatic negotiations, nor social unrest, unlike in Hong Kong, whose population has a more demanding and participatory tradition.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: Since 1657, the office of Captain-Major was awarded by the King of Portugal or on his behalf by the Viceroy of India to any "fidalgo" (nobleman) or gentleman who excelled in services to the Crown. The Captain-Major was head of the fleets and emporia from Malacca to Japan, and the official representative of Portugal to Japan and China. Since he was often away from Macau for long periods, an embryonic municipal government formed in 1560 to resolve matters. Three representatives chosen by vote held the title of "eleitos" (elected) and could perform administrative and judicial duties.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: By 1583, the Senate Council was formed, later called the Loyal Senate ("Leal Senado"). It consisted of three aldermen, two judges, and one city procurator. Portuguese citizens in Macau elected six electors who would then select the senators. The most serious issues were dealt with by convening the General Council of Ecclesiastic Authorities and leading citizens to decide what measures should be taken. After several Dutch invasions, the Senate created the post of War Governor in 1615 to establish a permanent presence of a military commander. In 1623, the Viceroy created the office of Governor and Captain-General of Macau, replacing the Captain-Major's authority over the territory.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: Macau was originally administered as part of Xiangshan County, Guangdong. Chinese and Portuguese officials discussed affairs in "casa da câmara", or the city hall, where the Leal Senado Building was later built. In 1731, the Chinese set up an assistant magistrate ("xian cheng") in Qian Shan Zhai to manage affairs in Macau. In 1743, he was later based in Mong Ha village (Wang Xia), now part of Our Lady of Fátima, Macau. In 1744, the Chinese formed the Macau Coast Military and Civilian Government headed by a subprefect ("tongzhi") based in Qian Shan Zhai.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: Sovereignty over Macau has been a complex issue. Professor of Sociology Zhidong Hao of the University of Macau said that some consider sovereignty to be "absolute" and cannot be shared, while others say it is "relative" and can be joint or shared. He stated:


title: Portuguese Macau

text: The complexity of the sovereignty question in Macau suggests that the Chinese and Portuguese shared Macau's sovereignty before 1999. [...] In the colonial period of Macau, China had the lesser control in Macau, therefore the lesser sovereignty, and Portugal had more of it. On the other hand, if the Portuguese had sovereignty over Macau, even after the 1887 treaty, it was never absolute either. So sovereignty in fact had been shared between China and Portugal in one way or another, with one party having more at one time than the other.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: Macau's political status was still disputed after the 1887 treaty, due to the treaty's ambiguous wording. The interpretation depends on the perspective of the writer, with the Portuguese and Chinese taking different sides. Scholar Paulo Cardinal, who has been a legal advisor to the Legislative Assembly of Macau, wrote:


title: Portuguese Macau

text: On an international law level of analysis, Macau has been characterized by western scholars as a territory on a lease; a union community with Portugal enshrined in and by the Chief of State; a condominium; a territory under an internationalized regime; a territory under a special situation; an autonomous territory without integration connected to a special international situation; and a dependent community subjected to a dual distribution of sovereignty powers (in other words, China held the sovereignty right but Portugal was responsible for its exercise). Without a doubt, it was an atypical situation. Since the Joint Declaration, Macau was, until 19 December 1999, an internationalized territory by international law standards, despite the absence of such a label in the treaty itself.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: In 1728, St. Joseph's Seminary and Church was founded and provided an academic curriculum equivalent to a Western university.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: In 1893, Liceu de Macau was opened, the only public Portuguese language school. Official teaching in Portuguese underwent reforms after the Portuguese revolution of 1911, and education in Macau experienced a great development. The education promoted by the Church, despite continuing with government support, evolved into private education and the private teaching in Chinese was moved from private home classes to state schools.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: According to the 1921 Yearbook, public education in Macau covered 125 secondary and primary schools, of which 2 official schools (Macao Liceu and Commercial School), 7 schools subsidized by the Government, 10 municipal schools and 4 Church schools, with a total number of 5477 students.


title: Portuguese Macau

text: In 1928, the Yuet Wah College was moved from Canton to Macau. During the Japanese invasion of China in 1937, other private educational institutions closed their doors in mainland China and also moved to Macau.


title: Bantamweight

text: Bantamweight is a weight class in combat sports. For boxing, the range is above and up to . In kickboxing, a bantamweight fighter generally weighs between . In MMA, bantamweight is .


title: Bantamweight

text: The name for the class is derived from bantam chickens. Brazilian jiu-jitsu has an equivalent Rooster weight.


title: Bantamweight

text: Bantamweight is a class in boxing for boxers who weigh above 115 pounds (52.2 kg) and up to 118 pounds (53.5 kg).


title: Bantamweight

text: The first title fight with gloves was between Chappie Moran and Ray Lewis in 1889. At that time, the limit for this weight class was 110 pounds. In 1910, however, the British settled on a limit of 118.


title: Bantamweight

text: Below is a list of longest reigning bantamweight champions in boxing measured by the individual's longest reign. Career total time as champion (for multiple time champions) does not apply.


title: Bantamweight

text: Only one boxer has ever held the Olympic and World Amateur bantamweight titles simultaneously, Guillermo Rigondeaux of Cuba, who managed the feat twice in 2001 and 2005.


title: Bantamweight

text: In kickboxing, a bantamweight fighter generally weighs between 53 kg (116 lb) and 55 kg (120 lb). However, some governing bodies have slightly different classes. For example, the International Kickboxing Federation (IKF) Bantamweight division (professional and amateur) is 117.1 lbs.–122 lbs. or 53.22 kg–55.45 kg.


title: Bantamweight

text: In International Lethwei Federation Japan, the bantamweight division is up to . In International Lethwei Federation Japan, Yuta Hamamoto is the Bantamweight Champion.


title: Bantamweight

text: The World Lethwei Championship recognizes the bantamweight division with an upper limit of . In World Lethwei Championship, Souris Manfredi is the Bantamweight Champion.


title: Bantamweight

text: In Muay Thai, bantamweight is 115–118 pounds (52.2-53.5 kg). A notable Muai Thai bantamweight fighter is Randy Thong Phoun Phim.


title: Outer product

text: In linear algebra, the outer product of two coordinate vectors is a matrix. If the two vectors have dimensions "n" and "m", then their outer product is an "n" × "m" matrix. More generally, given two tensors (multidimensional arrays of numbers), their outer product is a tensor. The outer product of tensors is also referred to as their tensor product, and can be used to define the tensor algebra.


title: Outer product

text: their outer product, denoted formula_4 is defined as the formula_5 matrix formula_6 obtained by multiplying each element of formula_7 by each element of formula_8:


title: Outer product

text: Denoting the dot product by formula_11 if given an formula_2 vector formula_13 then formula_14 If given a formula_15 vector formula_16 then formula_17


title: Outer product

text: The outer product formula_21 is equivalent to a matrix multiplication formula_22 provided that formula_7 is represented as a formula_1 column vector and formula_8 as a formula_2 column vector (which makes formula_27 a row vector). For instance, if formula_28 and formula_29 then


title: Outer product

text: For complex vectors, it is often useful to take the conjugate transpose of formula_31 denoted formula_32 or formula_33:


title: Outer product

text: If formula_35 then one can take the matrix product the other way, yielding a scalar (or formula_36 matrix):


title: Outer product

text: which is the standard inner product for Euclidean vector spaces, better known as the dot product. The dot product is the trace of the outer product. Unlike the dot product, the outer product is not commutative.


title: Outer product

text: Multiplication of a vector formula_38 by the matrix formula_21 can be written in terms of the inner product, using the relation formula_40.


title: Outer product

text: Given two tensors formula_41 with dimensions formula_42 and formula_43, their outer product formula_21 is a tensor with dimensions formula_45 and entries


title: Outer product

text: For example, if formula_6 is of order 3 with dimensions formula_48 and formula_49 is of order 2 with dimensions formula_50 then their outer product formula_51 is of order 5 with dimensions formula_52 If formula_6 has a component and formula_49 has a component , then the component of formula_51 formed by the outer product is .


title: Outer product

text: The outer product and Kronecker product are closely related; in fact the same symbol is commonly used to denote both operations.


title: Outer product

text: In the case of column vectors, the Kronecker product can be viewed as a form of vectorization (or flattening) of the outer product. In particular, for two column vectors formula_7 and formula_8, we can write:


title: Outer product

text: where the order of vectors needs not be flipped. The middle expression uses matrix multiplication, where the vectors are considered as column/row matrices.


title: Outer product

text: Given a pair of matrices formula_6 of size formula_64 and formula_49 of size formula_66, consider the matrix product formula_67 defined as usual as a matrix of size formula_68.


title: Outer product

text: Now let formula_69 be the formula_70-th column vector of formula_71 and let formula_72 be the formula_70-th row vector of formula_74. Then formula_51 can be expressed as a sum of column-by-row outer products:


title: Outer product

text: Note the duality of this expression with the more common one as a matrix built with row-by-column inner product entries (or dot product): formula_77


title: Outer product

text: This relation is relevant in the application of the Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) (and Spectral Decomposition as a special case). In particular, the decomposition can be interpreted as the sum of outer products of each left (formula_78) and right (formula_79) singular vectors, scaled by the corresponding nonzero singular value formula_80:


title: Outer product

text: This result implies that formula_6 can be expressed as a sum of rank-1 matrices with spectral norm formula_80 in decreasing order. This explains the fact why, in general, the last terms contribute less, which motivates the use of the Truncated SVD as an approximation. The first term is the least squares fit of a matrix to an outer product of vectors.


title: Outer product

text: If u and v are both nonzero, then the outer product matrix uv always has matrix rank 1. Indeed, the columns of the outer product are all proportional to the first column. Thus they are all linearly dependent on that one column, hence the matrix is of rank one.


title: Outer product

text: Let and be two vector spaces. The outer product of formula_86 and formula_87 is the element formula_88.


title: Outer product

text: If is an inner product space, then it is possible to define the outer product as a linear map . In which case, the linear map formula_89 is an element of the dual space of . The outer product is then given by


title: Outer product

text: In some programming languages, given a two-argument function codice_1 (or a binary operator), the outer product of codice_1 and two one-dimensional arrays codice_3 and codice_4 is a two-dimensional array codice_5 such that codice_6. This is syntactically represented in various ways: in APL, as the infix binary operator ∘.f; in J, as the postfix adverb f/; in R, as the function outer(A, B, f) or the special %o%; in Mathematica, as Outer[f, A, B]. In MATLAB, the function kron(A, B) is used for this product. These often generalize to multi-dimensional arguments, and more than two arguments.


title: Outer product

text: In the Python library NumPy, the outer product can be computed with function codice_7. In contrast, codice_8 results in a flat array. The outer product of multidimensional arrays can be computed using codice_9.


title: Outer product

text: As the outer product is closely related to the Kronecker product, some of the applications of the Kronecker product use outer products. These applications are found in quantum theory, signal processing, and image compression.


title: Outer product

text: Suppose so that and are in . Then the outer product of these complex 2-vectors is an element of , the 2 × 2 complex matrices:


title: Outer product

text: In the theory of spinors in three dimensions, these matrices are associated with isotropic vectors due to this null property. Élie Cartan described this construction in 1937, but it was introduced by Wolfgang Pauli in 1927 so that M(2, C) has come to be called Pauli algebra.


title: Outer product

text: The block form of outer products is useful in classification. Concept analysis is a study that depends on certain outer products:


title: Outer product

text: When a vector has only zeros and ones as entries, it is called a "logical vector", a special case of a logical matrix. The logical operation and takes the place of multiplication. The outer product of two logical vectors and is given by the logical matrix formula_92. This type of matrix is used in the study of binary relations, and is called a rectangular relation or a cross-vector.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: Executive Order 6102 is an executive order signed on April 5, 1933, by US President Franklin D. Roosevelt "forbidding the hoarding of gold coin, gold bullion, and gold certificates within the continental United States." The executive order was made under the authority of the Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917, as amended by the Emergency Banking Act in March 1933.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: The limitation on gold ownership in the United States was repealed after President Gerald Ford signed a bill legalizing private ownership of gold coins, bars, and certificates by an Act of Congress, codified in , which went into effect December 31, 1974.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: The stated reason for the order was that hard times had caused "hoarding" of gold, stalling economic growth and worsening the depression as the US was then using the gold standard for its currency.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: On April 6, 1933, "The New York Times" wrote, under the headline "Hoarding of Gold", "The Executive Order issued by the President yesterday amplifies and particularizes his earlier warnings against hoarding. On March 6, taking advantage of a wartime statute that had not been repealed, he issued Presidential Proclamation that forbade the hoarding 'of gold or silver coin or bullion or currency', under penalty of $10,000 fine or ten years' imprisonment or both."


title: Executive Order 6102

text: The main rationale behind the order was actually to remove the constraint on the Federal Reserve preventing it from increasing the money supply during the depression. The Federal Reserve Act (1913) required 40% gold backing of Federal Reserve Notes that were issued. By the late 1920s, the Federal Reserve had almost reached the limit of allowable credit, in the form of Federal Reserve demand notes, which could be backed by the gold in its possession (see Great Depression).


title: Executive Order 6102

text: Executive Order 6102 required all persons to deliver on or before May 1, 1933, all but a small amount of gold coin, gold bullion, and gold certificates owned by them to the Federal Reserve in exchange for $20.67 () per troy ounce. Under the Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917, as amended by the recently passed Emergency Banking Act of March 9, 1933, a violation of the order was punishable by fine up to $10,000 (), up to ten years in prison, or both.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: The order specifically exempted "customary use in industry, profession or art," a provision that covered artists, jewelers, dentists, sign-makers, etc. The order also permitted any person to own up to $100 in gold coins, a face value equivalent to of gold valued at approximately $10,000 in 2020. The same paragraph also exempted "gold coins having recognized special value to collectors of rare and unusual coins", which protected recognized gold coin collections from legal seizure and likely melting.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: The price of gold from the Treasury for international transactions was then raised by the Gold Reserve Act to $35 an ounce (). The resulting profit that the government realized funded the Exchange Stabilization Fund, established by the 1934 Gold Reserve Act.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: The regulations prescribed in the executive order were modified by Executive Order on April 20, 1933, both of which were ultimately revoked and superseded by Executive Orders and 6261 on August 28 and 29, 1933, respectively.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: Executive Order 6102 also led to the extreme rarity of the 1933 Double Eagle gold coin. The order caused all gold coin production to cease and all 1933 minted coins to be destroyed. About 20 illegal coins were stolen, leading to an outstanding US Secret Service warrant for arrest and confiscation of the coin. A legalized surviving coin sold for over $7.5 million in 2002, making it one of the most valuable coins in the world.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: Numerous individuals and companies were prosecuted related to Roosevelt's Executive Order 6102. The prosecutions took place under the subsequent Executive Orders 6111, 6260, 6261 and the Gold Reserve Act of 1934.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: There was a need to strengthen Executive Order 6102, as the one prosecution under the order was ruled invalid by Federal Judge John M. Woolsey, on the grounds that the order was signed by the President, instead of the Secretary of the Treasury as required.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: The circumstances of the case were that a New York attorney named Frederick Barber Campbell had one deposit at Chase National Bank of over of gold. When Campbell attempted to withdraw the gold, Chase refused, and Campbell sued Chase. A federal prosecutor then indicted Campbell on the following day (September 27, 1933) for failing to surrender his gold. Ultimately, the prosecution of Campbell failed, but the authority of the federal government to seize gold was upheld, and Campbell's gold was confiscated.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: The case was cause for the Roosevelt administration to issue a new order under the signature of the Secretary of the Treasury, Henry Morgenthau, Jr., Executive Orders , , related to the seizure of gold and the prosecution of gold hoarders. A few months later, Congress passed the Gold Reserve Act of 1934, which ratified Roosevelt's orders. A new set of Treasury regulations was issued providing civil penalties of confiscation of all gold and imposition of fines equal to double the value of the gold seized.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: Gus Farber, a diamond and jewelry merchant from San Francisco, was prosecuted for the sale of thirteen $20 gold coins without a license. Secret Service agents discovered the sale with the help of the buyer. Farber, his father, and 12 others were arrested in four American cities after a sting operation conducted by the Secret Service. The arrests took place simultaneously in New York and three California cities: San Francisco, San Jose, and Oakland. Morris Anolik was arrested in New York with $5,000 in U.S. and foreign gold coins; Dan Levin and Edward Friedman of San Jose were arrested with $15,000 in gold; Sam Nankin was arrested in Oakland; in San Francisco, nine men were arrested on charges of hoarding gold. In all, $24,000 in gold was seized by Secret Service Agents during the operation.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: David Baraban and his son Jacob owned a refining company. The Barabans' license to deal in unmelted scrap gold was revoked and so the Barabans operated their refining business under a license issued to a Minnie Sarch. The Barabans admitted that Minnie Sarch had nothing to do with the business and that she had obtained the license so that the Barabans could continue to deal in gold. The Barabans had a cigar box full of gold-filled scrap jewelry visible in one of the showcases. Government agents raided the Barabans' business and found another hidden box of US and foreign gold coins. The coins were seized and Baraban was charged with conspiracy to defraud the United States.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: Louis Ruffino was one individual indicted on three counts purporting to violations of the Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917, which restricted trade with countries hostile to the United States. Eventually, Ruffino appealed the conviction to the Circuit Court of Appeals 9th District in 1940; however, the judgment of the lower courts was upheld based on the President's executive orders and the Gold Reserve Act of 1934. Ruffino, a resident of Sutter Creek in California-gold country, was convicted of possessing 78 ounces of gold and was sentenced to 6 months in jail, paid a $500 fine, and had his gold seized.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: Foreigners also had gold confiscated and were forced to accept paper money for their gold. The Uebersee Finanz-Korporation, a Swiss banking company, had $1,250,000 in gold coins for business use. The Uebersee Finanz-Korporation entrusted the gold to an American firm for safekeeping, and the Swiss were shocked to find that their gold was confiscated. The Swiss made appeals, but they were denied; they were entitled to paper money but not their gold. The Swiss company would have lost 40% of their gold's value if they had tried to buy the same amount of gold with the paper money that they received in exchange for their confiscated gold.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: Another type of "de facto" gold seizure occurred as a result of the various executive orders involving bonds, gold certificates and private contracts. Private contracts or bonds that were written in terms of gold were to be paid in paper currency instead of gold although all of the contracts and the bonds proclaimed that they were payable in gold, and at least one, the fourth Liberty Bond, was a federal instrument. The plaintiffs in all cases received paper money, instead of gold, despite the contracts' terms. The contracts and the bonds were written precisely to avoid currency debasement by requiring payment in gold coin. The paper money which was redeemable in gold was instead irredeemable based on "Nortz v. United States", . The consolidated Gold Clause Cases were the following:


title: Executive Order 6102

text: The Supreme Court upheld all seizures as constitutional, with Justices James Clark McReynolds, Willis Van Devanter, George Sutherland, and Pierce Butler dissenting. The four justices were labelled the "Four Horsemen" by the compliant press, as their conservative views were in opposition to Roosevelt's New Deal supported by the press.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: The Gold Reserve Act of 1934 made gold clauses unenforceable and authorized the President to establish the gold value of the dollar by proclamation. Immediately following its passage, Roosevelt changed the statutory price of gold from $20.67 to $35 per ounce, thereby devaluing the US dollar, which was based on gold. That price remained in effect until August 15, 1971, when President Richard Nixon announced that the US would no longer convert dollars to gold at a fixed value, thus abandoning the gold standard for foreign exchange (see Nixon Shock).


title: Executive Order 6102

text: The private ownership of gold certificates was legalized in 1964, and they can be openly owned by collectors but are not redeemable in gold. Following lobbying by Jim Blanchard, the limitation on gold ownership in the US was repealed after President Gerald Ford signed a bill to "permit United States citizens to purchase, hold, sell, or otherwise deal with gold in the United States or abroad" with an act of Congress codified in , which went into effect December 31, 1974. However, P. L. 93-373 did not repeal the Gold Repeal Joint Resolution, which banned any contracts that specified payment in a fixed amount of money as gold or a fixed amount of gold. That is, contracts remained unenforceable if they used gold monetarily, rather than as a commodity of trade. However, an Act enacted on Oct. 28, 1977, Pub. L. No. 95-147, § 4(c), 91 Stat. 1227, 1229 (originally codified at 31 U.S.C. § 463 note, recodified as amended at 31 U.S.C. § 5118(d)(2)) amended the 1933 Joint Resolution to make it clear that parties could again include so-called gold clauses in contracts made after 1977.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: According to a hoax, Roosevelt ordered all safe deposit boxes in the country seized and searched for gold by an official of the Internal Revenue Service. A typical example of the text of the alleged order reads:


title: Executive Order 6102

text: The first known reference to the hoax was in the book "After the Crash: Life In the New Great Depression". The fake text refers only to gold, not to silver, which was added by 1998 to Internet references. It claims to be an executive order, but its text was written it to apply to specific individuals ("Your possession"), and so if the text originated from the government, it would have been sent to individuals, not published as an executive order. The first paragraph starts with the actual text of Executive Order 6102, then edits it slightly (changing "said national emergency" to "a national emergency" and "still continues to exist" to "still exists") and then adds invented text. The minor edits and the way that the real text and fake text are combined mid-sentence make it almost certainly an intentionally designed hoax, rather than an accident.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: Most of the text does not appear in the actual executive order. In fact, safe deposit boxes held by individuals were not forcibly searched or seized under the order, and the few prosecutions that occurred in the 1930s for gold "hoarding" were executed under different statutes. One of the few such cases occurred in 1936, when a safe deposit box containing over of gold belonging to Zelik Josefowitz, who was not a US citizen, was seized with a search warrant as part of a prosecution for tax evasion.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: The US Treasury also came into possession of a large number of safe deposit boxes due to bank failures. During the 1930s, over 3000 banks failed, and the contents of their safe deposit boxes were remanded to the custody of the Treasury. If no one claimed the box, it remained in the possession of the Treasury. In October 1981, there were 1605 cardboard cartons in the basement of the Treasury, each carton containing the contents of one unclaimed safe deposit box.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: In Poland, a similar regulation was issued on November 7, 1919, which forced citizens to sell their gold and silver to the state. A month later, it was extended until January 31, 1920.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: In Australia, Part IV of the Banking Act 1959 allows the Commonwealth government to seize private citizens' gold in return for paper money where the Governor-General is satisfied that it is expedient so to do, for the protection of the currency or of the public credit of the Commonwealth. On January 30, 1976, the operation of that part of the Act was suspended.


title: Executive Order 6102

text: United Kingdom introduced the gold trade ban law at 1966 (Exchange Control Act 1947). It became illegal for UK residents to continue to hold more than four gold coins dated after 1817, or to buy any gold coins unless they obtain collector licence from Bank of England. The reasoning was to prevent people from hoarding the gold, while the cost of living and inflation increase. This act was repealed in 1971.


title: Coxswain

text: The coxswain ( , or ) is the person in charge of a boat, particularly its navigation and steering. The etymology of the word gives a literal meaning of "boat servant" since it comes from "cock", referring to the cockboat, a type of ship's boat, and "swain", an Old English term derived from the Old Norse "sveinn" meaning boy or servant. In 1724, a "cockswain" was defined as "An officer of a ship who takes care of the cockboat, barge or shallop, with all its furniture, and is in readiness with his crew to man the boat on all occasions." When the term "cockboat" became obsolete, the title of coxswain as the person in charge of a ship's boat remained.


title: Coxswain

text: In rowing, the coxswain sits in either the bow or the stern of the boat (depending on the type of boat) while verbally and physically controlling the boat's steering, speed, timing and fluidity. The primary duty of a coxswain is to ensure the safety of those in the boat. In a race setting, the coxswain is tasked with motivating the crew as well as steering as straight a course as possible to minimize the distance to the finish line. Coxswains are also responsible for knowing proper rowing technique and running drills to improve technique.


title: Coxswain

text: A coxswain is the coach in the boat, in addition to following the orders of the team coach, the coxswain is connected to the way the boat feels, what's working, what needs to be changed, and how. A successful coxswain must keep track of the drill, time, pace, words of the coach, feel of the boat, direction of the boat, and safety. During a race, a coxswain is responsible for steering, calling the moves, and responding to the way the other boats are moving. Success depends on the physical and mental strength of the rowers, ability to respond to the environment, and the way in which the coxswain motivates the rowers, not only as individuals but as members of the crew.


title: Coxswain

text: In the Royal Navy in the days of sail, the coxswain was a petty officer or chief petty officer who commanded the barge of a captain or admiral. Later the coxswain was the senior deck petty officer or chief petty officer aboard a smaller vessel such as a corvette or submarine, who was responsible for the steering and also assumed the duties which would be performed by the chief boatswain's mate and master-at-arms aboard larger vessels.


title: Coxswain

text: In World War I, the term was also used to refer to a chief petty officer who was in charge of steering airships operated by the Royal Naval Air Service.


title: Coxswain

text: In the Royal Canadian Navy, the appointment of coxswain (or "capitaine d'armes" in French) is given to the senior non-commissioned officer aboard a ship, the equivalent to a command master chief petty officer in the US Navy. For larger vessels such as a destroyer, frigate or the ships (AOPVs), a coxswain holds the rank of chief petty officer 1st class (CPO1). For submarines, a coxswain holds the rank of chief petty officer 2nd class (CPO2). For , a coxswain usually holds the rank of petty officer 1st class (PO1) or CPO2.


title: Coxswain

text: The term was also sometimes used aboard merchant ships for the senior petty officer in charge of the helm. The fictional Israel Hands, for example, was the coxswain of "Hispaniola" in "Treasure Island".


title: Coxswain

text: In Royal Navy Sections of the Combined Cadet Force, the rank of Cadet Coxswain is the highest that a cadet can achieve, except in the rare occurrence that they are promoted to the rank of Cadet Under Officer. The Rank of Coxswain equates to the rank of Cadet Warrant Officer in the Royal Air Force Sections, and the rank of Cadet Regimental Sergeant Major in the Army Sections.


title: Coxswain

text: In the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets, the position of Coxswain is often appointed to the cadet with the rank of Cadet Chief Petty Officer First Class (C/CPO1). This would be the equivalent of the position of Regimental Sergeant Major in the Royal Canadian Army Cadets held by a Cadet Chief Warrant Officer (C/CWO).


title: Coxswain

text: In the United States Coast Guard and United States Coast Guard Auxiliary, the coxswain is the person in charge of a small boat. The coxswain has the authority to direct all boat and crew activities during the mission and modify planned missions to provide for the safety of the boat and the crew.


title: Coxswain

text: Before a person can be assigned to be a coxswain, they have to go through a qualification procedure, be certified and maintain the certification to be a coxswain. Upon certification, they are awarded the Coxswain Badge. This qualification procedure requires a significant amount of practice in boat handling as well as previous experience as a boat crew member.


title: Coxswain

text: The Coast Guard does not have a dedicated coxswain rating. Any Coast Guardsman, regardless of their rating or specialty, may be additionally designated as a coxswain upon proper qualification. An advancement to boatswain's mate second class requires that the individual qualify as and maintain certification as a coxswain. A commanding officer or officer in charge of a land based unit with boats has to be certified and stay certified as a coxswain on all boats in the unit or be relieved of command.


title: Coxswain

text: A coxswain is assigned to a boat by the command authority and can only be relieved by the commanding officer/officer in charge, executive officer/executive petty officer, or senior officer present. The coxswain's authority is independent of rank and/or seniority in relation to any other person on board the boat. Unlike the commanding officer of a cutter or ship, a coxswain does not automatically have command authority.


title: Banana Republic

text: Banana Republic is an upscale clothing and accessories retailer owned by the The GAP. It was founded in 1978 by Mel and Patricia Ziegler, who originally called the company "Banana Republic Travel & Safari Clothing Company". In 1983, Gap purchased the company, changed the name to "Banana Republic," and rebranded the stores to achieve a more upscale image. Nicole Wiesmann, the current VP of design, has re-envisioned the brand with ad editorial campaigns that evoke much higher-end luxury brands like Loro Piana with garments that have been compared favorably with Ralph Lauren, The Row, and Burberry.


title: Banana Republic

text: The original Banana Republic was founded by Mel and Patricia Ziegler in 1978. The couple worked for the "San Francisco Chronicle"; Mel was a reporter and Patricia an illustrator. They lived in an apartment on Russian Hill. In 1978, they quit their jobs, moved to Tamalpais Valley. They wanted to start a business for income. But first, Mel received a magazine assignment to explore Australia for a few weeks with other journalists. The couple was known for acquiring interesting clothing items that their travel-related jobs brought them in contact with. They eventually opened a store in the Mill Valley area of Northern California. They were known for a hand-drawn catalogue of items with traveler/explorer stories printed alongside, and their safari-themed retail locations. The Zieglers recount their adventures in the first ten years in their memoir, "Wild Company", published in 2012 by Simon and Schuster.


title: Banana Republic

text: Gap Inc. acquired Banana Republic in 1983 and by 1988 the founders, Mel and Patricia Ziegler, lost creative control, eventually rebranding it as masstige, an accessible mass luxury clothing retailer. The literate articles, hand-drawn catalog, and eccentric tourist-oriented items were phased out and were replaced with more luxurious, but not unique, items for which the brand would be eventually known for, currently replacing higher quality materials for mass quality lower cost fabric standards.


title: Banana Republic

text: Banana Republic opened its first store outside North America in 2005 in Tokyo's Ginza shopping district. Banana Republic's presence in South Korea debuted in August 2007 with a store in the Apkujeong district of Seoul.


title: Banana Republic

text: In 2007, the first Banana Republic stores opened at The Avenues shopping mall in Kuwait City, Kuwait; Senayan City in Jakarta, Indonesia; and Pavilion Kuala Lumpur in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.


title: Banana Republic

text: Banana Republic opened its first store in Turkey in March 2008 in the Kanyon Shopping Mall in Istanbul. By May 2008, İstinye Park Shopping Mall and Nişantaşı stores were also opened in Istanbul. More stores are planned to be opened in Ankara and İzmir by the end of 2008 to bring the total number of stores in Turkey to six.


title: Banana Republic

text: Banana Republic opened in Saudi Arabia in late 2008, with a store in Mall of Arabia in Jeddah and a second in Riyadh Gallery Mall in Riyadh in March 2009.


title: Banana Republic

text: In March 2008, Banana Republic opened its store on Regent Street in London, England. On May 9, 2008, Banana Republic opened its store on Greenbelt 5 in Makati, Philippines.


title: Banana Republic

text: In October 2016, Banana Republic announced that it would close all its UK stores by the end of the year, due to falling sales. As of 2017, Banana Republic had over 700 locations, but as a result of European stores closures, none left in Europe.


title: Banana Republic

text: In August 2020, Banana Republic alongside Gap announced that they will close over 225 store locations as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. The original plan was to close only 90 stores, however, they expanded the number as a consequence of the financial effects caused by the pandemic. The company has not stated the exact locations that will be closed, but most will be stores within malls.


title: Banana Republic

text: In 2011, Banana Republic had 682 company-owned or franchised stores in operation across 32 countries, shipped to 21 countries through company owned websites, and had the ability to ship to more than 50 countries through a 3rd party. By late 2022, the total number of US stores fell to just 379, including three outlets in Puerto Rico, while the number of outlets in Canada climbed to 62. The company closed all eight of its UK and Ireland stores in 2016, and shut down all of the brand's European websites in May 2022.


title: Robert Beltran

text: Robert Adame Beltran (born November 19, 1953) is an American actor, known for his role as Commander Chakotay on the 1990s television series "". He is also known for stage acting in California, and for playing Raoul Mendoza in the 1982 black comedy film "Eating Raoul".


title: Robert Beltran

text: Beltran was born in Bakersfield, California, the son of Aurelia and Luis Beltran Perez, who were immigrants from Mexico. Beltran attended East Bakersfield High School and Bakersfield College. He has two sisters and seven brothers, including Latin Jazz musician Louie Cruz Beltran.


title: Robert Beltran

text: Beltran graduated from California State University, Fresno with a degree in Theater Arts and moved to Los Angeles to begin his acting career. He had his first film role in "Zoot Suit" in 1981, but his breakthrough came in 1982 when he played the title character in the independently produced dark comedy "Eating Raoul". Beltran had a supporting role as Chuck Norris' partner Trooper Kayo Ramos in the 1983 film "Lone Wolf McQuade". He then starred in the 1984 TV movie "The Mystic Warrior" as Native American brave Ahbleza, and as Hector in 1984's "Night of the Comet".


title: Robert Beltran

text: He played Commander Chakotay, the Native American first officer of the starship "Voyager", in the science fiction television series "" from 1995 to 2001. During this time, he won the Nosotros Golden Eagle Award for Outstanding Actor in a Television Series in 1997. He was also nominated in 1996 for the NCLR Bravo Award for Outstanding Television Series Actor in a Crossover Role, and the ALMA Award for Outstanding Individual Performance in a Television Series in a Crossover Role in 1998 and 1999.


title: Robert Beltran

text: Beltran founded and co-directed the East LA Classic Theater Group. He is also a member of the Classical Theater Lab, an ensemble of professional actors who co-produced his production of "Hamlet" in 1997, which he directed and starred in.


title: Robert Beltran

text: Beltran has collaborated with amateur actors in performing plays and scenes of plays of William Shakespeare. He produced and starred in a Los Angeles production of "The Big Knife" by Clifford Odets, a play which explores the Hollywood environment under the big studio system of the 1940s.


title: Robert Beltran

text: In May 2009, Beltran played the dual roles of Don Fermin and Older Eusebio in the American Conservatory Theaters staging of José Rivera's "Boleros for the Disenchanted". He had the recurring role of Jerry Flute in Seasons 3 and 4 of HBO's "Big Love".


title: Robert Beltran

text: "Latino Poetry" Excerpts from a live performance by Beltran (recorded at the Museum of Latin American Art in Long Beach, California, April 2002)


title: Hyper-V

text: Microsoft Hyper-V, codenamed Viridian, and briefly known before its release as Windows Server Virtualization, is a native hypervisor; it can create virtual machines on x86-64 systems running Windows. Starting with Windows 8, Hyper-V superseded Windows Virtual PC as the hardware virtualization component of the client editions of Windows NT. A server computer running Hyper-V can be configured to expose individual virtual machines to one or more networks.


title: Hyper-V

text: Hyper-V was first released with Windows Server 2008, and has been available without additional charge since Windows Server 2012 and Windows 8. A standalone Windows Hyper-V Server is free, but has a command-line interface only. The last version of free Hyper-V Server is Hyper-V Server 2019, which is based on Windows Server 2019.


title: Hyper-V

text: A beta version of Hyper-V was shipped with certain x86-64 editions of Windows Server 2008. The finalized version was released on June 26, 2008 and was delivered through Windows Update. Hyper-V has since been released with every version of Windows Server.


title: Hyper-V

text: Hyper-V Server 2008 was released on October 1, 2008. It consists of Windows Server 2008 Server Core and Hyper-V role; other Windows Server 2008 roles are disabled, and there are limited Windows services. Hyper-V Server 2008 is limited to a command-line interface used to configure the host OS, physical hardware, and software. A menu driven CLI interface and some freely downloadable script files simplify configuration. In addition, Hyper-V Server supports remote access via Remote Desktop Connection. However, administration and configuration of the host OS and the guest virtual machines is generally done over the network, using either Microsoft Management Consoles on another Windows computer or System Center Virtual Machine Manager. This allows much easier "point and click" configuration, and monitoring of the Hyper-V Server.


title: Hyper-V

text: Hyper-V Server 2008 R2 (an edition of Windows Server 2008 R2) was made available in September 2009 and includes Windows PowerShell v2 for greater CLI control. Remote access to Hyper-V Server requires CLI configuration of network interfaces and Windows Firewall. Also using a Windows Vista PC to administer Hyper-V Server 2008 R2 is not fully supported.


title: Hyper-V

text: Hyper-V implements isolation of virtual machines in terms of a "partition". A partition is a logical unit of isolation, supported by the hypervisor, in which each guest operating system executes. There must be at least one "parent partition" in a hypervisor instance, running a supported version of Windows Server (2008 and later). The virtualization software runs in the parent partition and has direct access to the hardware devices. The parent partition creates "child partitions" which host the guest OSs. A parent partition creates child partitions using the "hypercall" API, which is the application programming interface exposed by Hyper-V.


title: Hyper-V

text: A child partition does not have access to the physical processor, nor does it handle its real interrupts. Instead, it has a virtual view of the processor and runs in "Guest Virtual Address", which, depending on the configuration of the hypervisor, might not necessarily be the entire virtual address space. Depending on VM configuration, Hyper-V may expose only a subset of the processors to each partition. The hypervisor handles the interrupts to the processor, and redirects them to the respective partition using a logical "Synthetic Interrupt Controller" (SynIC). Hyper-V can hardware accelerate the address translation of Guest Virtual Address-spaces by using second level address translation provided by the CPU, referred to as EPT on Intel and RVI (formerly NPT) on AMD.


title: Hyper-V

text: Child partitions do not have direct access to hardware resources, but instead have a virtual view of the resources, in terms of "virtual devices". Any request to the virtual devices is redirected via the "VMBus" to the devices in the parent partition, which will manage the requests. The VMBus is a logical channel which enables inter-partition communication. The response is also redirected via the VMBus. If the devices in the parent partition are also virtual devices, it will be redirected further until it reaches the parent partition, where it will gain access to the physical devices. Parent partitions run a "Virtualization Service Provider" (VSP), which connects to the VMBus and handles device access requests from child partitions. Child partition virtual devices internally run a "Virtualization Service Client" (VSC), which redirect the request to VSPs in the parent partition via the VMBus. This entire process is transparent to the guest OS.


title: Hyper-V

text: Virtual devices can also take advantage of a Windows Server Virtualization feature, named "Enlightened I/O", for storage, networking and graphics subsystems, among others. Enlightened I/O is a specialized virtualization-aware implementation of high level communication protocols, like SCSI, that allows bypassing any device emulation layer and takes advantage of VMBus directly. This makes the communication more efficient, but requires the guest OS to support Enlightened I/O.


title: Hyper-V

text: Currently only the following operating systems support Enlightened I/O, allowing them therefore to run faster as guest operating systems under Hyper-V than other operating systems that need to use slower emulated hardware:


title: Hyper-V

text: The Hyper-V role is only available in the x86-64 variants of Standard, Enterprise and Datacenter editions of Windows Server 2008 and later, as well as the Pro, Enterprise and Education editions of Windows 8 and later. On Windows Server, it can be installed regardless of whether the installation is a full or core installation. In addition, Hyper-V can be made available as part of the Hyper-V Server operating system, which is a freeware edition of Windows Server. Either way, the host computer needs the following.


title: Hyper-V

text: Third-party support for FreeBSD 8.2 and later guests is provided by a partnership between NetApp and Citrix. This includes both emulated and paravirtualized modes of operation, as well as several HyperV integration services.


title: Hyper-V

text: Desktop virtualization (VDI) products from third-party companies (such as Quest Software vWorkspace, Citrix XenDesktop, Systancia AppliDis Fusion and Ericom PowerTerm WebConnect) provide the ability to host and centrally manage desktop virtual machines in the data center while giving end users a full PC desktop experience.


title: Hyper-V

text: Guest operating systems with "Enlightened I/O" and a hypervisor-aware kernel such as Windows Server 2008 and later server versions, Windows Vista SP1 and later clients and offerings from Citrix XenServer and Novell will be able to use the host resources better since VSC drivers in these guests communicate with the VSPs directly over VMBus. Non-"enlightened" operating systems will run with emulated I/O; however, "integration components" (which include the VSC drivers) are available for Windows Server 2003 SP2, Windows Vista SP1 and Linux to achieve better performance.


title: Hyper-V

text: On July 20, 2009, Microsoft submitted Hyper-V drivers for inclusion in the Linux kernel under the terms of the GPL. Microsoft was required to submit the code when it was discovered that they had incorporated a Hyper-V network driver with GPL-licensed components statically linked to closed-source binaries. Kernels beginning with 2.6.32 may include inbuilt Hyper-V paravirtualization support which improves the performance of virtual Linux guest systems in a Windows host environment. Hyper-V provides basic virtualization support for Linux guests out of the box. Paravirtualization support requires installing the Linux Integration Components or Satori InputVSC drivers. Xen-enabled Linux guest distributions may also be paravirtualized in Hyper-V. Microsoft officially supported only SUSE Linux Enterprise Server 10 SP1/SP2 (x86 and x64) in this manner, though any Xen-enabled Linux should be able to run. In February 2008, Red Hat and Microsoft signed a virtualization pact for hypervisor interoperability with their respective server operating systems, to enable Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5 to be officially supported on Hyper-V.


title: Hyper-V

text: Hyper-V, like Microsoft Virtual Server and Windows Virtual PC, saves each guest OS to a single virtual hard disk file. It supports the older .vhd format, as well as the newer .vhdx. Older .vhd files from Virtual Server 2005, Virtual PC 2004 and Virtual PC 2007 can be copied and used in Hyper-V, but any old virtual machine integration software (equivalents of Hyper-V Integration Services) must be removed from the virtual machine. After the migrated guest OS is configured and started using Hyper-V, the guest OS will detect changes to the (virtual) hardware. Installing "Hyper-V Integration Services" installs five services to improve performance, at the same time adding the new guest video and network card drivers.


title: Hyper-V

text: Hyper-V does not virtualize audio hardware. Before Windows 8.1 and Windows Server 2012 R2, it was possible to work around this issue by connecting to the virtual machine with Remote Desktop Connection over a network connection and use its audio redirection feature. Windows 8.1 and Windows Server 2012 R2 add the enhanced session mode which provides redirection without a network connection.


title: Hyper-V

text: Optical drives virtualized in the guest VM are read-only. Officially Hyper-V does not support the host/root operating system's optical drives to pass-through in guest VMs. As a result, burning to discs, audio CDs, video CD/DVD-Video playback are not supported; however, a workaround exists using the iSCSI protocol. Setting up an iSCSI target on the host machine with the optical drive can then be talked to by the standard Microsoft iSCSI initiator. Microsoft produces their own iSCSI Target software or alternative third party products can be used.


title: Hyper-V

text: Hyper-V uses the VT-x on Intel or AMD-V on AMD x86 virtualization. Since Hyper-V is a native hypervisor, as long as it is installed, third-party software cannot use VT-x or AMD-V. For instance, the Intel HAXM Android device emulator (used by Android Studio or Microsoft Visual Studio) cannot run while Hyper-V is installed.


title: Hyper-V

text: x64 SKUs of Windows 8, 8.1, 10 Pro, Enterprise, Education, come with a special version Hyper-V called Client Hyper-V.


title: Eugene Stoner

text: Eugene Morrison Stoner (November 22, 1922 – April 24, 1997) was an American firearms designer who is most associated with the development of the ArmaLite AR-15 rifle that was redesigned and modified by Colt's Patent Firearm Company (now known as Colt's Manufacturing Company, LLC) for the United States military as the M16 rifle.


title: Eugene Stoner

text: Stoner was born in Gosport, Indiana, on November 22, 1922, the only child of Lloyd Lester Stoner and Billie Morrison. They moved to Long Beach, California where he graduated from a Long Beach Polytechnical High School. In 1939, after the Depression, there was not enough money for him to attend college so he went to work as a machinist for Vega Aircraft Company, the forerunner of what became Lockheed Airplane Company now Lockheed Martin Corporation.


title: Eugene Stoner

text: During World War II, he enlisted for Aviation Ordnance in the U.S. Marine Corps and served in the South Pacific and northern China. In the Corps, he had his first experience of working with heavy-caliber automatic weapons as an armourer. The work experience and combat training served him throughout his weapons designing career.


title: Eugene Stoner

text: In late 1945 Stoner began working in the machine shop for Whittaker, an aircraft equipment company, and ultimately became a Design Engineer.


title: Eugene Stoner

text: In 1954 he came to work as chief engineer for ArmaLite, a division of Fairchild Engine & Airplane Corporation. While at ArmaLite, he designed a series of prototype small arms, including the AR-3, AR-9, AR-11, and AR-12, none of which saw significant production. Their only real success during this period was the AR-5 survival rifle, which was adopted by the United States Air Force.


title: Eugene Stoner

text: The Stoner bolt and carrier piston system is a widely known gas system designed by Eugene Stoner. The gas operated bolt and carrier system was filed in 1956 and subsequently patented by ArmaLite for use in the AR-10. The original AR-10 action (later developed into the ArmaLite AR-15, M16 rifle and M4 carbine). It is commonly called a direct impingement system, but it does not utilize a conventional direct impingement system. In , the designer states: ″This invention is a true expanding gas system instead of the conventional impinging gas system.″ Gas is routed from a port in the barrel through a gas tube, directly to a chamber inside the bolt carrier. The bolt within the bolt carrier is fitted with piston rings to contain the gas. In effect, the bolt and carrier act as a gas piston and cylinder. The subtleties involved in ArmaLite's patent on the gas system significantly diverge from classical direct impingement; upon firing, the pressurized propellant gasses exit the barrel via the gas port and travel the length of the gas tube, but instead of simply applying the inertia necessary to cycle the weapon directly to the bolt carrier, the gas is funneled inside the bolt carrier wherein the increase in pressure results in the bolt itself acting as a piston, forcing the bolt carrier away from the barrel face.


title: Eugene Stoner

text: The Stoner system provides a very symmetric design that allows straight line movement of the operating components. This allows recoil forces to drive straight to the rear. Instead of connecting or other mechanical parts driving the system, high pressure gas performs this function, reducing the weight of moving parts and the rifle as a whole. The straight-line recoil design, where the recoil spring is located in the stock directly behind the action, and serves the dual function of operating spring and recoil buffer.


title: Eugene Stoner

text: In 1955, Stoner completed initial design work on the revolutionary ArmaLite AR-10, a lightweight (7.25 lbs.) select-fire infantry rifle in 7.62×51mm NATO caliber. Besides featuring the Stoner bolt and carrier piston system, the AR-10 stock was in line with the bore to reduce muzzle rise, especially during automatic fire. Because recoil does not significantly shift the point of aim, faster follow-up shots are possible, and user fatigue is reduced. The AR-10 was submitted for rifle evaluation trials to the US Army's Aberdeen Proving Ground late in 1956. In comparison with competing rifle designs previously submitted for evaluation, the AR-10 was smaller, easier to fire in automatic, and much lighter. However it arrived very late in the testing cycle, and the army rejected the AR-10 in favor of the more conventional T44, which became the M14. The AR-10's design was later licensed to the Dutch firm of Artillerie Inrichtingen, which produced the AR-10 until 1960 for sale to various military forces.


title: Eugene Stoner

text: At the request of the U.S. military, Stoner's chief assistant, Robert Fremont along with Jim Sullivan designed the Armalite AR-15 from the basic AR-10 model, scaling it down to fire the small-caliber .223 Remington cartridge. The AR-15 was later adopted by United States military forces as the M16 rifle.


title: Eugene Stoner

text: After ArmaLite sold the rights to the AR-15 to the Colt Firearms Company, Stoner turned his attention to the AR-16 design. This was another advanced 7.62 mm rifle but used a more conventional piston and a number of stamped parts to reduce cost. This weapon saw only prototype development but adaptation to .223 resulted in the somewhat successful and often imitated Armalite AR-18.


title: Eugene Stoner

text: Stoner left ArmaLite in 1961 to serve as a consultant for Colt. He eventually accepted a position with Cadillac Gage where he designed the Stoner 63 Weapons System.


title: Eugene Stoner

text: The Stoner Weapons System used a piston-operated gas impingement system patented as and granted in September 1960. Once again, Robert Fremont and Jim Sullivan took a Stoner rifle and redesigned it for the .223 Remington cartridge, to create the Stoner 63 Weapons System.


title: Eugene Stoner

text: Stoner then worked with TRW by designing the TRW 6425 25 mm "Bushmaster" auto cannon, which was later manufactured by Oerlikon-Bührle as the Oerlikon KBA 25mm.


title: Eugene Stoner

text: He co-founded ARES Incorporated of Port Clinton, Ohio, in 1972, but left the company in 1989, after designing the Ares Light Machine Gun, sometimes known as the Stoner 86. It was an evolved version of the Stoner 63. At Ares, he also designed the Future Assault Rifle Concept (FARC).


title: Eugene Stoner

text: In 1990, he joined Knight's Armament Company (KAC) to create the Stoner Rifle-25 (SR-25), which currently sees military service as the United States Navy Mark 11 Mod 0 Sniper Weapon System. While at KAC, he also worked on yet another version of the Stoner Weapons System, called the Stoner 96. Among his last designs were the SR-50 rifle and the Colt 2000.