title: Porsche 919 Hybrid

text: Jani and Dumas took Porsche's third pole position of the season and their second in a row at the 6 Hours of Bahrain while Bernhard and Hartley were 1.046 seconds slower in third. Dumas exchanged the lead and matched Toyota's pace to secure its first double podium, with the No. 14 car second and the sister No. 20 vehicle third despite brake temperature problems. At the season-closing 6 Hours of São Paulo, Webber and Bernhard took the No. 20 vehicle's first pole position of 2014; Jani and Lieb were 0.107 seconds slower in second. Webber and later his teammate Lieb led the first quarter until a battle developed between Porsche, Toyota and Audi mid-race. Although the car deviated from the normal pit stop sequence due to a puncture, Jani advanced the No. 14 Porsche to first. He led Davidson by 14 seconds until a major collision involving Webber and Matteo Cressoni's No. 90 8 Star Motorsports Ferrari 458 Italia ended the race under safety car conditions. The No. 14 Porsche won the race while the No. 20 car was unclassified. Competing with the 919 Hybrid, Porsche scored 193 points to finish third in the World Endurance Manufacturers' Championship.


title: Porsche 919 Hybrid

text: Porsche retained all six of its drivers for 2015. For the 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps and the 24 Hours of Le Mans, a third 919 Hybrid was entered for GT racers Earl Bamber and Nick Tandy and Force India Formula One driver Nico Hülkenberg. Webber and Hartley qualified the re-numbered No. 17 car on pole position, and Jani and Dumas's No. 18 car took second at the season-opening 6 Hours of Silverstone. 1 hour and 20 minutes in, Webber's No. 17 Porsche retired from the lead with a rear drivetrain failure. Jani, Lieb and Dumas's sister No. 18 car used its better acceleration and straight-line speed to exchange the overall lead with André Lotterer, Marcel Fässler and Benoît Tréluyer's No. 7 Audi in slower traffic over the rest of the race but lost the battle and finished second.


title: Porsche 919 Hybrid

text: During qualifying for the 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps, Porsche took the first three starting positions, with Hartley and Bernhard's No. 17 car earning pole position, Hülkenberg and Tandy's No. 19 vehicle starting second and Jani and Lieb's No. 18 entry qualifying third. Hartley led until he incurred a 15-second stop-and-go penalty for driving onto an escape road at the Bus Stop chicane, entering a gap in a tyre wall where marshals were stationed. A damper problem while he was relieved by Webber lost him more time, giving Lieb the lead. Jani and later Lieb battled Tréluyer's No. 7 Audi for the victory in the final two hours, and finished in second. The sister No. 17 recovered to third and the No. 19 came through the field for sixth after contact with Kévin Estre's No. 91 Porsche 911 RSR.


title: Porsche 919 Hybrid

text: At Le Mans, Bernhard's No. 17 car broke the 2008 track record of the Circuit de la Sarthe until Jani bettered it to claim pole position in the first qualifying session. Tandy put the No. 19 Porsche in third as the team's other two cars did not improve their lap times in the following two sessions. During the race, Porsche battled with Audi, pulling away as night fell and asphalt temperatures lowered, and allowing Porsche to push harder on their tyres, matching Audi's pace though Dumas braked too late for Mulsanne Corner and hit a tyre barrier. The No. 18 car drove to the pit lane for bodywork repairs, and it recovered to finish fifth. Later, Webber was observed passing in a yellow flag zone, earning him a one-minute stop-and-go penalty and relegating the No. 17 car to second. Tandy went faster, and later Bamber took the lead midway through the 14th hour, maintaining it in Porsche's first overall Le Mans win since 1998.


title: Porsche 919 Hybrid

text: For the season's fourth round, the 6 Hours of Nürburgring, Lieb and Dumas continued Porsche's unbroken streak in qualifying with pole position; Webber and Bernhard secured second. Jani led the opening stint while a broken front diveplane slowed Bernhard. An early pit stop where Webber relieved Bernhard saw the diveplane repaired, and he inherited a large lead when the No. 18 car incurred three separate stop-and-go penalties for excess fuel flow due to a faulty engine sensor. Jani recovered to second after prevailing over Lucas di Grassi and Lotterer's Audi cars as the No. 17 car won. Although Jani lacked hybrid boost on his first lap, he and Lieb won the pole position for the 6 Hours of Circuit of the Americas while Hartley and Bernhard took second. Webber overtook Jani at the start, maintaining his lead until his co-driver Bernhard took a minute stop-and-go penalty because a mechanic touched his car under refuelling conditions. Dumas's No. 18 car appeared likely to win, but a 12-volt onboard circuit issue forced him into the garage with 35 minutes left. He returned to the track to complete the final lap in 12th while Hartley achieved the No. 17 car's second successive win.


title: Porsche 919 Hybrid

text: In qualifying for the 6 Hours of Fuji, Porsche secured the front row with Bernhard and Webber on pole position and Dumas and Lieb in second. The race began after 40 minutes behind the safety car on a wet track, in mist and fog. Webber immediately fell to fourth following a driver error. Once the track dried, Dumas took the lead, but his crew incurred a drive-through penalty for passing under full course yellow flag conditions. Porsche invoked team orders on Jani on the final lap to give Bernhard, Webber and Hartley the win. At the 6 Hours of Shanghai, Hartley and Webber took another pole position with Lieb and Dumas again in second. Hartley led the weather-affected race from the start, but Lieb hit Lotterer's No. 7 Audi and spun on a kerb. Jani took over the No. 18 entry; he recovered to pass the Audi cars for the lead, but Dumas spun with 1 hour and 20 minutes to go. The No. 18 car recovered to second while Bernhard and Webber's No. 17 car won its fourth race of 2015 and the World Manufacturers' Championship for Porsche with one race left in the season.


title: Porsche 919 Hybrid

text: Entering the season-closing 6 Hours of Bahrain, Bernhard, Hartley and Webber led the World Endurance Drivers' Championship by 12 points over Lotterer, Fässler and Tréluyer's No. 7 Audi; a fifth-place finish by them and a first-place finish by their rivals would lose them the title. They increased their advantage by one point after Hartley and Bernhard set the fastest two-lap average in qualifying. This also ensured that Porsche won every pole position of 2015. Jani and Lieb began from second. Bernhard lost five laps due to a broken throttle actuator and a front axle energy recovery system failure in the fifth hour. Webber completed the race on hybrid power in fifth to secure his, Hartley's and Bernhard's first Drivers' Championship. Dumas, Jani and Lieb beat the mechanically impaired Audi cars in a mid-race battle for the No. 18 team's only win of 2015. Competing with the 919 Hybrid for the second successive year, Porsche accumulated 344 points to win the World Manufacturers' Championship. At the inaugural post-season rookie test at the Bahrain International Circuit, GP2 Series driver Mitch Evans and two-time Indianapolis 500 winner Juan Pablo Montoya shared a 919 Hybrid.


title: Porsche 919 Hybrid

text: Porsche kept all six of its drivers for 2016. The company made a joint decision with Audi not to field a third car for the 24 Hours of Le Mans as a cost-cutting measure in anticipation of potential financial penalties from the Volkswagen emissions scandal. At the season-opening 6 Hours of Silverstone, Hartley and Webber's No. 1 entry qualified third while Jani and Dumas's sister No. 2 entry took fourth, ending Porsche's streak of pole positions that extended back to the 2014 6 Hours of Fuji. Webber passed the Audi cars of Oliver Jarvis and Lotterer in the first hour before Hartley relieved him. The No. 1 car retired from heavy contact with Michael Wainwright's No. 86 Gulf Racing Porsche 911 RSR at the exit of Farm Corner. The No. 2 car battled the No. 7 Audi for the lead until Jani made an unscheduled pit stop to replace a puncture, finishing 47 seconds behind in second. Later, Porsche inherited the victory after the Audi was disqualified for illegal skid block wear.


title: Porsche 919 Hybrid

text: Hartley and Bernhard won Porsche's first pole position of 2016 in qualifying for the 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps and were joined by Jani and Lieb on the grid's front row. In the race, the No. 1 car led until Bernhard and later Webber sustained two left-front punctures and spent 1 hour, 40 minutes replacing the front axle gearbox. It later emerged on the track to finish 27th overall and earned championship points for completing 70% of the total distance. The No. 2 car's main energy recovery system was switched off, stopping its drivers unable from using the car's full electric power capability though they came second. At Le Mans, Jani took pole position in the first ten minutes of qualifying while Bernard took second as heavy rain fell the following day. Porsche's No. 2 car battled Toyota for the win. The No. 1 car required a water pump change and recovered to finish 13th overall. Jani, Lieb and Dumas changed their fuel strategy to match Toyota with 14 laps on track and took Porsche's 18th overall Le Mans victory after the No. 5 Toyota's connector line linking the turbocharger and intercooler failed.


title: Porsche 919 Hybrid

text: Webber and Bernhard qualified ahead of Jani and Lieb at the 6 Hours of Nürburgring; they started third and fourth, respectively. Porsche prevailed against Audi by making pit stops during a series of full course yellow flags and passed Jarvis' car. Although a slow puncture put the No. 1 team off strategy, Bernhard overtook his teammate Jani to win after the latter incurred a drive-through penalty for hitting the No. 88 Abu Dhabi-Proton Racing Porsche 911 RSR. The No. 2 car finished fourth after Lotterer's No. 7 Audi passed Jani. At the inaugural 6 Hours of Mexico, Dumas and Jani put the No. 2 car in second, and Hartley and Webber's No. 1 car qualified fourth. The No. 1 car led early in the second hour and maintained it until a drive-through penalty two hours later for crossing the pit entry line after aborting a pit stop. Nonetheless, tyre changes in response to inclement weather allowed Bernhard to win. The No. 2 car was slower and finished fourth after Nicolas Lapierre's No. 36 Signatech Alpine A460 hit Lieb and removed part of the Porsche's rear-left bodywork.


title: Porsche 919 Hybrid

text: For the 6 Hours of Circuit of the Americas, Bernhard and Hartley's No. 1 car qualified in third and Dumas and Jani's No. 2 car took fifth after Dumas's fastest lap was deleted for a track limits violation. After multiple mechanical problems and driver errors from Audi and the activation of a full course yellow flag with two hours and seven minutes remaining, the No. 1 car won its third race in a row. The No. 2 team lacked its sister vehicle's speed and finished a lap adrift in fourth. At the 6 Hours of Fuji four weeks later, Bernhard and Webber qualified the No. 1 car in second while a handling imbalance left Jani and Dumas's No. 2 car in sixth. The No. 1 car lost a tactical exchange of position to Toyota's No. 6 TS050 Hybrid and fell to third with an aerodynamic and car balance inefficiency. The sister No. 2 vehicle was fifth after tyre debris in its front bodywork disrupted its aerodynamics and handling and necessitated a replacement after 110 laps.


title: Porsche 919 Hybrid

text: At the season's penultimate round, the 6 Hours of Shanghai in November, Hartley and Webber claimed pole position despite Hartley's first lap being nullified for a track limits violation while Lieb and Jani qualified sixth after Lieb's first lap was voided for excess fuel consumption. Hartley lost the lead to Buemi at the start but retook it soon after, and the No. 1 team won to claim Porsche's second consecutive World Endurance Manufacturers' Championship despite replacing the front wing following rubber debris accumulation. The No. 2 team lost to Toyota and came fourth. It entered the season-ending 6 Hours of Bahrain 17-points ahead of Toyota's No. 6 team, needing to finish at least fifth if the latter squad finished first to earn Porsche's second consecutive World Drivers' Championship. Hartley and Bernhard's No. 1 entry started second and Jani and Lieb's No. 2 car third. The No. 1 car held off the No. 5 Toyota to finish third, and the No. 2 Porsche claimed the World Drivers' Championship after finishing three laps down in sixth; Jani sustained a left-rear puncture and rear bodywork damage from contact with KCMG 's No. 78 Porsche 911 RSR 50 minutes in. Competing with the 919 Hybrid for the third successive year, Porsche accrued 324 points to win the World Manufacturers' Championship. The day after the 6 Hours of Bahrain, 2016 LMP2 champion Gustavo Menezes and driver adviser Yannick Dalmas tested a 919 Hybrid at the post-season rookie test at the Bahrain International Circuit.


title: Porsche 919 Hybrid

text: After the 2016 season, Lieb and Dumas were dropped from the team, and Webber retired from motor racing. Lieb and Dumas were replaced by Lotterer, who transferred from Audi's discontinued LMP1 project, and Tandy was promoted from Porsche's IMSA WeatherTech SportsCar Championship GT team, to share the No. 1 car with Jani. Bamber moved from Porsche's GT programme to share the No. 2 car with Bernhard and Hartley. Tandy and Jani qualified third at the season-opening 6 Hours of Silverstone while Bernhard and Hartley started fourth. A final late pit stop for fuel put Hartley in the lead, but he lost the win to a pass by Buemi's No. 8 Toyota with 12 minutes remaining; the No. 2 team were 6.173 seconds adrift in second. Tandy led during a brief rain shower in the third hour though the No. 1 car lost position during a pit stop to change from the intermediate compound tyre to slick dry tyres when the weather improved, taking third.


title: Porsche 919 Hybrid

text: Three weeks later in qualifying at the 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps, the No. 1 car of Jani and Lotterer earned Porsche's first pole position of the season, and three Toyotas separated Hartley and Bernhard's No. 2 car in fifth after Hartley made an error at the Bus Stop chicane. Hartley recovered from a slow puncture in the third hour to pass Mike Conway's No. 7 Toyota for second place two hours later, but contact with Dumas's No. 36 Singatech Alpine A470 forced the No. 2 Porsche into the pit lane to replace its front-left corner, relegating it to third. Tyre wear restricted the No. 1 car to fourth. At Le Mans, Jani and Bernhard set the team's best times in the second qualifying session to start from third and fourth, respectively. The No. 2 Porsche was delayed for 65 minutes and 19 laps because of a front MGU replacement. The No. 1 car took the lead when the No. 7 Toyota retired with a broken clutch during the night. Engine problems in the 21st hour forced Lotterer to retire the No. 1 car. Bernhard's No. 2 car recovered and overtook Ho-Pin Tung's No. 38 Jackie Chan DC Racing Oreca 07 with 1 hour and 7 minutes left to achieve Porsche's third consecutive and 19th overall Le Mans victory.


title: Porsche 919 Hybrid

text: During qualifying for the 6 Hours of Nürburgring a month later, Toyota outpaced Porsche, and Bernhard and Hartley's No. 2 car started second with Jani and Lotterer's No. 1 car third. Hartley overtook José María López's No. 7 Toyota for the lead in the second hour; the two Porsches exchanged the lead several times and controlled the pace. At the last pit stop in the final ten minutes, Porsche invoked team orders to delay Lotterer for 20 seconds, allowing the No. 2 car to win for the second successive race. Bernhard and Hartley's No. 2 car qualified ahead of Tandy and Lotterer's No. 1 car in its first pole position of 2017 at the 6 Hours of Mexico. Hartley led Tandy, who fell back when Lotterer took a drive-through penalty for pit lane over-speeding because of a faulty speed limiter. Bamber had a defective -mandated fuel flow sensor replaced at a pit stop. The No. 2 car won by 7.141 seconds over the sister No. 1 car.


title: Porsche 919 Hybrid

text: Although Tandy's first qualifying lap of the 6 Hours of Circuit of the Americas was deleted for a track limits transgression, he and Jani were 0.2 seconds faster than Bamber and Bernhard's No. 2 car for pole position. Porsche won a near race-long battle with Toyota as the No. 1 car was issued team orders to relinquish the lead to Bernhard with eight minutes remaining, and the latter took the No. 2 team's fourth consecutive win by 0.276 seconds. One month later at the 6 Hours of Fuji, Bamber and Hartley took the No. 2 car's second pole position of 2017 while Lotterer and Tandy qualified the No. 1 car in second. Lotterer damaged the No. 1 car's dive plane against the rear of Buemi's Toyota in the first hour; although it slowed the car, its crew finished the rain-shortened event in third while the No. 2 car finished fourth after failing to match Toyota's speed.


title: Porsche 919 Hybrid

text: Entering the 6 Hours of Shanghai, the No. 2 car was 39 points ahead of Toyota's No. 8 car and had to finish at least third to win Porsche's third World Endurance Drivers' Championship with one race to go. In qualifying, Tandy and Lotterer's No. 1 car took second despite Lotterer's first lap being disallowed for a track limits violation. Bamber and Hartley started fourth after Bamber spun. The No. 2 car was slower than the Toyota, but it finished second to win the World Endurance Drivers' Championship. The No. 1 car recovered from a faulty throttle sensor for third and achieved Porsche's third consecutive World Manufacturers' Championship. At the season-closing 6 Hours of Bahrain, Tandy and Jani's No. 1 car took pole position, and Bernhard and Hartley's No. 2 car was third. The following day, a trackside bollard got lodged underneath the No. 2 vehicle's front bodywork, and Bernhard lost 80 seconds in the pit lane but he recovered to second place. Jani was overtaken by Buemi in the first hour, and Tandy damaged his left-front corner in lapping Nick Foster's No. 86 Gulf Racing Porsche 911 RSR in the fourth hour, earning him a drive-through penalty, but the No. 1 car took third. Competing with the 919 Hybrid for the fourth successive season, Porsche won the World Endurance Manufacturers' Championship with 337 points.


title: Porsche 919 Hybrid

text: During the post-season rookie test session at the Bahrain International Circuit, the day after the 6 Hours of Bahrain, a 919 Hybrid was driven by the 2017 World Series Formula V8 3.5 champion Pietro Fittipaldi, who shared it with Bernhard. Afterwards, Porsche ended the 919 Hybrid programme to concentrate on the all-electric single-seater Formula E championship in the 2019–20 season but increased its commitment to its global GT programmes.


title: José Sá

text: José Pedro Malheiro de Sá (; born 17 January 1993) is a Portuguese professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Premier League club Wolverhampton Wanderers and the Portugal national team.


title: José Sá

text: He started his career with Marítimo B, making his debut with the first team in 2013, before signing for FC Porto in 2016. Sá was loaned for one year to Super League Greece side Olympiacos in 2018, in a deal which was made permanent at the end of the season. With Olympiacos, he won two Super League Greece titles and the Greek Football Cup, including a domestic double in 2020. In 2021, he signed with Wolverhampton Wanderers.


title: José Sá

text: Sá is a former Portuguese under-21 international, reaching the European Championship final in 2015. He was part of the full squad that finished third at the 2017 Confederations Cup and won the 2019 UEFA Nations League Finals on home soil, and was also chosen for the 2022 World Cup.


title: José Sá

text: Born in Braga, Sá finished his development with Madeira's Marítimo, joining the club at the age of 18. On 23 January 2013 he made his professional debut with the B team, playing the full 90 minutes in a 0–0 home draw against Oliveirense in the Segunda Liga championship.


title: José Sá

text: In the 2013 off-season, Sá was promoted to the main squad by manager Pedro Martins. He played his first game in the Primeira Liga on 18 August in a 2–1 home win over Benfica, and kept his position for the following matchday, a 3–0 loss at Porto.


title: José Sá

text: On 25 January 2016, both Sá and teammate Moussa Marega joined Porto on four-and-a-half-year contracts, with the services of the former being acquired for €1.5 million. During his early spell, he was second choice to Spain international Iker Casillas.


title: José Sá

text: Sá made his debut in the UEFA Champions League on 17 October 2017, starting in a 3–2 loss for the group stage away to RB Leipzig and committing a blunder in the eighth minute which resulted in the opposition's first goal. He became the starter from that point onwards but, following a 5–0 home defeat against Liverpool in the same competition, lost his place again.


title: José Sá

text: On 31 August 2018, deemed surplus to requirements by manager Sérgio Conceição, Sá joined Olympiacos on a season-long loan. He became first choice over Andreas Gianniotis shortly after arriving, as the team was coached by his compatriot and former Marítimo boss Martins.


title: José Sá

text: On 15 May 2019, Sá agreed to a permanent four-year deal. During the campaign, he kept a total of 18 clean sheets as the team from Piraeus won the double, though he missed the Cup final through injury.


title: José Sá

text: On 15 July 2021, Sá joined English club Wolverhampton Wanderers for a €8 million transfer fee, on a five-year deal; he was signed to replace his experienced compatriot Rui Patrício who had joined Roma, and he was handed the number 1 jersey that had not been worn at the Molineux club since Carl Ikeme retired due to his leukaemia diagnosis in 2018.


title: José Sá

text: Sá made his Premier League debut on 14 August 2021 in a 1–0 loss away to Leicester City. In September, he provided an assist for Raúl Jiménez against Southampton in their 1–0 win, making him the first Wolves goalkeeper to do so in the Premier League since Wayne Hennessey in October 2009. His string of good all-round performances, including his distribution and shot stopping helped Wolves to a run of three clean sheets, earning the club's Player of the Month, with former Manchester United player Gary Neville praising Sá as the signing of the season. On 11 November, despite losing 1–0 to Manchester City, Sá received several praises for his performance, making several vital saves, despite Wolves being reduced to 10 men just before half-time, only failing to defend a penalty. On 15 May 2022, Sá won both Wolves's Fans' Player of the 2021–22 Season, and the Players' Player of the 2021–22 Season awards.


title: José Sá

text: On 14 October 2022 it was revealed that Sá had been playing for two months with a fractured wrist sustained during a 0–0 home draw with Fulham in the second match of the season, a game in which he saved a penalty from Aleksandar Mitrović – the first penalty save he had made in a Wolves shirt since joining the club. The following day, he saved another penalty from Brennan Johnson in a 1–0 home win against Nottingham Forest, with ten minutes remaining.


title: José Sá

text: Sá represented Portugal at the 2013 FIFA U-20 World Cup. He played all the matches and minutes in Turkey, in an eventual round-of-16 exit.


title: José Sá

text: On 6 August 2013, Sá received his first call-up to the under-21 team, for a friendly game with Switzerland. He featured in the second half of the 5–2 win, on the 14th. Sá was first choice at the 2015 UEFA European Under-21 Championship, keeping clean sheets in all games but one as the national side finished in second place in the Czech Republic; in the final, he saved from Sweden's Abdul Khalili in the penalty shootout following a goalless draw at the Eden Arena.


title: José Sá

text: On 25 May 2017, Sá was called to the full side for the first time, being named by manager Fernando Santos in a provisional 24-man squad for that year's FIFA Confederations Cup. Still uncapped, he was part of the squad that won the 2019 UEFA Nations League Finals on home soil in June but did not make an appearance.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: The Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) is a battery-powered four-wheeled rover used on the Moon in the last three missions of the American Apollo program (15, 16, and 17) during 1971 and 1972. It is popularly called the Moon buggy, a play on the term "dune buggy".


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: Built by Boeing, each LRV has a mass of without payload. It could carry a maximum payload of , including two astronauts, equipment, and lunar samples, and was designed for a top speed of , although it achieved a top speed of on its last mission, Apollo 17.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: Each LRV was carried to the Moon folded up in the Lunar Module's Quadrant 1 Bay. After being unpacked, each was driven an average of 30 km, without major incident. These three LRVs remain on the Moon.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: The concept of a lunar rover predated Apollo, with a 1952–1954 series in "Collier's Weekly" magazine by Wernher von Braun and others, "Man Will Conquer Space Soon!" In this, von Braun described a six-week stay on the Moon, featuring 10-ton tractor trailers for moving supplies.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: In 1956, Mieczysław G. Bekker published two books on land locomotion. At the time, Bekker was a University of Michigan professor and a consultant to the U.S. Army Tank-Automotive Command's Land Locomotion Laboratory. The books provided much of the theoretical basis for future lunar vehicle development.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: In the February 1964 issue of "Popular Science", von Braun, then director of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), discussed the need for a lunar surface vehicle, and revealed that studies had been underway at Marshall in conjunction with Lockheed, Bendix, Boeing, General Motors, Brown Engineering, Grumman, and Bell Aerospace.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: Beginning in the early 1960s, a series of studies centering on lunar mobility were conducted under Marshall. This began with the lunar logistics system (LLS), followed by the mobility laboratory (MOLAB), then the lunar scientific survey module (LSSM), and finally the mobility test article (MTA). In early planning for the Apollo program, it had been assumed that two Saturn V launch vehicles would be used for each lunar mission: one for sending the crew aboard a Lunar Surface Module (LSM) to lunar orbit, landing, and returning, and a second for sending an LSM-Truck (LSM-T) with all of the equipment, supplies, and transport vehicle for use by the crew while on the surface. All of the first Marshall studies were based on this dual-launch assumption, allowing a large, heavy, roving vehicle.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: Grumman and Northrop, in the fall of 1962, began to design pressurized-cabin vehicles, with electric motors for each wheel. At about this same time Bendix and Boeing started their own internal studies on lunar transportation systems. Mieczysław Bekker, now with General Motors Defense Research Laboratories at Santa Barbara, California, was completing a study for NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory on a small, uncrewed lunar roving vehicle for the Surveyor program. Ferenc Pavlics, originally from Hungary, used a wire-mesh design for "resilient wheels," a design that would be followed in future small rovers.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: In early 1963, NASA selected Marshall for studies in an Apollo Logistics Support System (ALSS). Following reviews of all earlier efforts, this resulted in a 10-volume report. Included was the need for a pressurized vehicle in the weight range, accommodating two men with their expendables and instruments for traverses up to two weeks in duration. In June 1964, Marshall awarded contracts to Bendix and to Boeing, with GM's lab designated as the vehicle technology subcontractor. Bell Aerospace was already under contract for studies of Lunar Flying Vehicles.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: Even as the Bendix and Boeing studies were underway, Marshall was examining a less ambitious surface exploration activity, the LSSM. This would be composed of a fixed, habitable shelter–laboratory with a small lunar-traversing vehicle that could either carry one man or be remotely controlled. This mission would still require a dual launch with the moon vehicle carried on the "lunar truck". Marshall's Propulsion and Vehicle Engineering (P&VE) lab contracted with Hayes International to make a preliminary study of the shelter and its related vehicle. Because of the potential need for an enclosed vehicle for enlarged future lunar explorations, those design efforts continued for some time, and resulted in several full-scale test vehicles.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: With pressure from Congress to hold down Apollo costs, Saturn V production was reduced, allowing only a single launch per mission. Any roving vehicle would have to fit on the same lunar module as the astronauts. In November 1964, two-rocket models were put on indefinite hold, but Bendix and Boeing were given study contracts for small rovers. The name of the lunar excursion module was changed to simply the lunar module, indicating that the capability for powered "excursions" away from a lunar-lander base did not yet exist. There could be no mobile lab — the astronauts would work out of the LM. Marshall also continued to examine uncrewed robotic rovers that could be controlled from the Earth.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: From the beginnings at Marshall, the Brown Engineering Company of Huntsville, Alabama, had participated in all of the lunar mobility efforts. In 1965, Brown became the prime support contractor for Marshall's P&VE Laboratory. With an urgent need to determine the feasibility of a two-man self-contained lander, von Braun bypassed the usual procurement process and had P&VE's Advanced Studies Office directly task Brown to design, build, and test a prototype vehicle. While Bendix and Boeing would continue to refine concepts and designs for a lander, test model rovers were vital for Marshall human factors studies involving spacesuit-clad astronauts interfacing with power, telemetry, navigation, and life-support rover equipment.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: Brown's team made full use of the earlier small-rover studies, and commercially available components were incorporated wherever possible. The selection of wheels was of great importance, and almost nothing was known at that time about the lunar surface. The Marshall Space Sciences Laboratory (SSL) was responsible for predicting surface properties, and Brown was also prime support contractor for this lab; Brown set up a test area to examine a wide variety of wheel-surface conditions. To simulate Pavlics' "resilient wheel," a four-foot-diameter inner tube wrapped with nylon ski rope was used. On the small test rover, each wheel had a small electric motor, with overall power provided by standard truck batteries. A roll bar gave protection from overturn accidents.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: In early 1966, Brown's vehicle became available for examining human factors and other testing. Marshall built a small test track with craters and rock debris where the several different mock-ups were compared; it became obvious that a small rover would be best for the proposed missions. The test vehicle was also operated in remote mode to determine characteristics that might be dangerous to the driver, such as acceleration, bounce-height, and turn-over tendency as it traveled at higher speeds and over simulated obstacles. The test rover's performance under one-sixth gravity was obtained through flights on a KC-135A aircraft in a Reduced Gravity parabolic maneuver; among other things, the need for a very soft wheel and suspension combination was shown. Although Pavlics' wire-mesh wheels were not initially available for the reduced gravity tests, the mesh wheels were tested on various soils at the Waterways Experiment Station of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers at Vicksburg, Mississippi. Later, when wire-mesh wheels were tested on low-g flights, the need for wheel fenders to reduce dust contamination was found. The model was also extensively tested at the U.S. Army's Yuma Proving Ground in Arizona, as well as the Army's Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: During 1965 and 1967, the Summer Conference on Lunar Exploration and Science brought together leading scientists to assess NASA's planning for exploring the Moon and to make recommendations. One of their findings was that the LSSM was critical to a successful program and should be given major attention. At Marshall, von Braun established a Lunar Roving Task Team, and in May 1969, NASA approved the Manned Lunar Rover Vehicle Program as a Marshall hardware development. Saverio "Sonny" Morea was named Lunar Roving Vehicle Project Manager.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: On 11 July 1969, just before the successful Moon landing of Apollo 11, a request for proposal for the final development and building the Apollo LRV was released by Marshall. Boeing, Bendix, Grumman, and Chrysler submitted proposals. Following three months of proposal evaluation and negotiations, Boeing was selected as the Apollo LRV prime contractor on 28 October 1969. Boeing would manage the LRV project under Henry Kudish in Huntsville, Alabama. Kudish was replaced the following year in 1970 by LRV Project Manager Earl Houtz. As a major subcontractor, the General Motors' Defense Research Laboratories in Santa Barbara, California, would furnish the mobility system (wheels, motors, and suspension); this effort would be led by GM Program Manager Samuel Romano andFerenc Pavlics. Boeing in Seattle, Washington, would furnish the electronics and navigation system. Vehicle testing would take place at the Boeing facility in Kent, Washington, and the chassis manufacturing and overall assembly would be at the Boeing facility in Huntsville.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: The first cost-plus-incentive-fee contract to Boeing was for $19,000,000 and called for delivery of the first LRV by 1 April 1971. Cost overruns, however, led to a final cost of $38,000,000, which was about the same as NASA's original estimate. Four lunar rovers were built, one each for Apollo missions 15, 16, and 17; and one used for spare parts after the cancellation of further Apollo missions. Other LRV models were built: a static model to assist with human factors design; an engineering model to design and integrate the subsystems; two one-sixth gravity models for testing the deployment mechanism; a one-gravity trainer to give the astronauts instruction in the operation of the rover and allow them to practice driving it; a mass model to test the effect of the rover on the LM structure, balance, and handling; a vibration test unit to study the LRV's durability and handling of launch stresses; and a qualification test unit to study integration of all LRV subsystems. A paper by Saverio Morea gives details of the LRV system and its development.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: LRVs were used for greater surface mobility during the Apollo J-class missions, Apollo 15, Apollo 16, and Apollo 17. The rover was first used on 31 July 1971, during the Apollo 15 mission. This greatly expanded the range of the lunar explorers. Previous teams of astronauts were restricted to short walking distances around the landing site due to the bulky space suit equipment required to sustain life in the lunar environment. The range, however, was operationally restricted to remain within walking distance of the lunar module, in case the rover broke down at any point. The rovers were designed with a top speed of about , although Eugene Cernan recorded a maximum speed of , giving him the (unofficial) lunar land-speed record.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: The LRV was developed in only 17 months and performed all its functions on the Moon with no major anomalies. Scientist-astronaut Harrison Schmitt of Apollo 17 said, "The Lunar Rover proved to be the reliable, safe and flexible lunar exploration vehicle we expected it to be. Without it, the major scientific discoveries of Apollo 15, 16, and 17 would not have been possible; and our current understanding of lunar evolution would not have been possible."


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: The LRVs experienced some minor problems. The rear fender extension on the Apollo 16 LRV was lost during the mission's second extra-vehicular activity (EVA) at station 8 when John Young bumped into it while going to assist Charles Duke. The dust thrown up from the wheel covered the crew, the console, and the communications equipment. High battery temperatures and resulting high power consumption ensued. No repair attempt was mentioned.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: The fender extension on the Apollo 17 LRV broke when accidentally bumped by Eugene Cernan with a hammer handle. Cernan and Schmitt taped the extension back in place, but due to the dusty surfaces, the tape did not adhere and the extension was lost after about one hour of driving, causing the astronauts to be covered with dust. For their second EVA, a replacement "fender" was made with some EVA maps, duct tape, and a pair of clamps from inside the Lunar Module that were nominally intended for the moveable overhead light. This repair was later undone so that the clamps could be taken inside for the return launch. The maps were brought back to Earth and are now on display at the National Air and Space Museum. The abrasion from the dust is evident on some portions of the makeshift fender.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: The color TV camera mounted on the front of the LRV could be remotely operated by Mission Control in pan and tilt axes as well as zoom. This allowed far better television coverage of the EVA than the earlier missions. On each mission, at the conclusion of the astronauts' stay on the surface, the commander drove the LRV to a position away from the Lunar Module so that the camera could record the ascent stage launch. The camera operator in Mission Control experienced difficulty in timing the various delays so that the LM ascent stage was in frame through the launch. On the third and final attempt (Apollo 17), the launch and ascent were successfully tracked.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: NASA's rovers, left behind, are among the artificial objects on the Moon, as are the Soviet Union's uncrewed rovers, "Lunokhod 1" and "Lunokhod 2".


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: The Apollo Lunar Roving Vehicle is a battery electric vehicle designed to operate in the low-gravity vacuum of the Moon and to be capable of traversing the lunar surface, allowing the Apollo astronauts to extend the range of their surface extravehicular activities. Three LRVs were used on the Moon: one on Apollo 15 by astronauts David Scott and Jim Irwin, one on Apollo 16 by John Young and Charles Duke, and one on Apollo 17 by Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt. The mission commander served as the driver, occupying the left-hand seat of each LRV. Features are available in papers by Morea, Baker, and Kudish.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: The Lunar Roving Vehicles have a mass of , and were designed to hold a payload of . This resulted in weights in the approximately one-sixth g on the lunar surface of empty (curb weight) and fully loaded (gross vehicle weight). The vehicle frame is long with a wheelbase of . The height of the vehicles is . The frame is made of 2219 aluminium alloy tubing welded assemblies and consisted of a three-part chassis that was hinged in the center so it could be folded up and hung in the Lunar Module Quadrant 1 bay, which was kept open to space by omission of the outer skin panel. They have two side-by-side foldable seats made of tubular aluminium with nylon webbing and aluminum floor panels. An armrest was mounted between the seats, and each seat had adjustable footrests and a Velcro-fastened seat belt. A large mesh dish antenna was mounted on a mast on the front center of the rover. The suspension consists of a double horizontal wishbone with upper and lower torsion bars and a damper unit between the chassis and upper wishbone. Fully loaded, the LRV has a ground clearance of .


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: The wheels were designed and manufactured by General Motors Defense Research Laboratories in Santa Barbara, California. Ferenc Pavlics was given special recognition by NASA for developing the "resilient wheel". They consisted of a spun aluminum hub and a diameter, wide tire made of zinc-coated woven diameter steel strands attached to the rim. Titanium chevrons covered 50% of the contact area to provide traction. Inside the tire was a diameter titanium bump stop frame to protect the hub. Dust guards were mounted above the wheels. Each wheel had its own electric drive made by Delco, a brushed DC electric motor capable of at 10,000 rpm, attached to the wheel via an 80:1 harmonic drive, and a mechanical brake unit. In the case of drive failure, astronauts could remove pins to disengage the drive from the wheel, allowing the wheel to spin freely.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: Maneuvering capability was provided through the use of front and rear steering motors. Each series-wound DC steering motor was capable of . The front and rear wheels could pivot in opposite directions to achieve a tight turning radius of , or could be decoupled so only front or rear would be used for steering. The wheels were linked in Ackermann steering geometry, where the inside tires have a greater turn angle than the outside tires, to avoid sideslip.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: Power was provided by two 36-volt silver-zinc potassium hydroxide non-rechargeable batteries developed by Eagle-Picher with a charge capacity of 121 A·h each (a total of 242 A·h), yielding a range of . These were used to power the drive and steering motors and also a 36-volt utility outlet mounted on the front of the LRV to power the communications relay unit or the TV camera. LRV batteries and electronics were passively cooled, using change-of-phase wax thermal capacitor packages and reflective, upward-facing radiating surfaces. While driving, radiators were covered with mylar blankets to minimize dust accumulation. When stopped, the astronauts would open the blankets, and manually remove excess dust from the cooling surfaces with hand brushes.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: A T-shaped hand controller situated between the two seats controlled the four drive motors, two steering motors, and brakes. Moving the stick forward powered the LRV forward, left and right turned the vehicle left or right, and pulling backwards activated the brakes. Activating a switch on the handle before pulling back would put the LRV into reverse. Pulling the handle all the way back activated a parking brake. The control and display modules were situated in front of the handle and gave information on the speed, heading, pitch, and power and temperature levels.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: Navigation was based on continuously recording direction and distance through use of a directional gyro and odometer and feeding this data to a computer that would keep track of the overall direction and distance back to the LM. There was also a Sun-shadow device that could give a manual heading based on the direction of the Sun, using the fact that the Sun moved very slowly in the sky.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: The LRV was used during the lunar surface operations of Apollo 15, 16 and 17, the J missions of the Apollo program. On each mission, the LRV was used on three separate EVAs, for a total of nine lunar traverses, or sorties. During operation, the Commander (CDR) always drove, while the Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) was a passenger who assisted with navigation.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: An operational constraint on the use of the LRV was that the astronauts must be able to walk back to the LM if the LRV were to fail at any time during the EVA (called the "Walkback Limit"). Thus, the traverses were limited in the distance they could go at the start and at any time later in the EVA. Therefore, they went to the farthest point away from the LM and worked their way back to it so that, as the life support consumables were depleted, their remaining walk back distance was equally diminished. This constraint was relaxed during the longest traverse on Apollo 17, based on the demonstrated reliability of the LRV and spacesuits on previous missions. A paper by Burkhalter and Sharp provides details on usage.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: Astronaut deployment of the LRV from the LM's open Quadrant 1 bay was achieved with a system of pulleys and braked reels using ropes and cloth tapes. The rover was folded and stored in the bay with the underside of the chassis facing out. One astronaut would climb the egress ladder on the LM and release the rover, which would then be slowly tilted out by the second astronaut on the ground through the use of reels and tapes. As the rover was let down from the bay, most of the deployment was automatic. The rear wheels folded out and locked in place. When they touched the ground, the front of the rover could be unfolded, the wheels deployed, and the entire frame let down to the surface by pulleys.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: The rover components locked into place upon opening. Cabling, pins, and tripods would then be removed and the seats and footrests raised. After switching on all the electronics, the vehicle was ready to back away from the LM.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: Four flight-ready LRVs were manufactured, as well as several others for testing and training. Three were transported to and left on the Moon via the Apollo 15, 16, and 17 missions, with the fourth rover used for spare parts on the first three following the cancellation of Apollo 18. Since only the upper stages of the lunar excursion modules could return to lunar orbit from the surface, the vehicles, along with the lower stages were abandoned. As a result, the only lunar rovers on display are test vehicles, trainers, and mock-ups. The rover used on Apollo 15 was left at Hadley-Apennine (


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: ) and was seen by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter during passes in 2009 and 2011. In 2020 the State of Washington designated the flown rovers as historic landmarks.


title: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: Several rovers were created for testing, training, or validation purposes. The engineering mockup is on display at the Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington. The Qualification Test Unit is on display at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. The rover used for vibration testing is on display in the Davidson Saturn V Center at the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville, Alabama. Additional test units are on display at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, and the Kennedy Space Center Visitors Complex in Cape Canaveral, Florida. Replicas of rovers are on display at the National Museum of Naval Aviation in Pensacola, Florida, the Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum in McMinnville, Oregon, the Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center in Hutchinson, Kansas and the Omega Museum in Biel, Switzerland. A replica on loan from the Smithsonian Institution is on display at the attraction at Epcot at the Walt Disney World Resort near Orlando, Florida.


title: Gashadokuro

text: The Gashadokuro is a spirit that take the form of giant skeletons made of the skulls of people who died in the field, and is 10 meters tall. Only the eyes protrude, and some sources describe them as burning yellow or green. Gashadokuro wanders around at 2:00 a.m. and attacks and eats humans when it sees them. When a gashadokuro approaches, it is said to make a clattering sound with its teeth.


title: Gashadokuro

text: The following characteristics are not confirmed by Japanese data. The Gashadokuro are said to possess the powers of invisibility and indestructibility since it is composed of the bones of people who are already deceased, though Shinto charms are said to ward them off. Otherwise, a Gashadokuro will continue hunting its prey until its pent up anger is released, causing the bones to crumple and the Gashadokuro to collapse.


title: Gashadokuro

text: The Gashadokuro is a yōkai that first appeared in print in the middle of the 20th century.In 1966, it first appeared in an article by Morihiro Saito (unnamed) published in the magazine "Bessatsu Shoujyo Friend" , titled "A Special Feature on Japanese Yokai Beside You". The following year, Shigeru Mizuki appeared in the magazine "Nakayoshi Special Edition" (At this time, Kuniyoshi's painting was used as a reference), and then appeared again in Saito's article published in "Bessatsu Shonen King", and the same article was Shigeaki Yamauchi. It was also published in "World's Bizarre Thriller Complete Works 2 Monsters of the World" (Akita Shoten, 1968) . Also published in Arifumi Sato's "Nihon Yokai Encyclopedia" (1972).


title: Gashadokuro

text: Both the illustrations in Sato's writings and Mizuki's are both based on the appearance of the Gashadokuro on the giant skeleton in Utagawa Kuniyoshi's ukiyo-e print, "Takiyasha the Witch and the Skeleton Spectre". It has no direct connection to the Gashadokuro, but is said to have influenced modern depictions. Kuniyoshi's print was commissioned in the Edo period by Santō Kyōden for a yomihon, depicting a scene in which Taira no Masakado's daughter, Takiyasha-hime, summons a skeleton yōkai to attack the samurai Ooya Tarou Mitsukuni. Although originally described as many life-sized skeletons, Kuniyoshi depicted it as a single giant skeleton, as is characteristic of his work.


title: Gashadokuro

text: In the entry for Gashadokuro in Mizuki's book, a related tale from the "Nihon Ryōiki" is introduced. It tells of a man in Bingo Province (Hiroshima Prefecture) who is in a field at night and, hearing an eerie voice moaning, "My eye hurts," finds a skeleton there with a bamboo shoot growing from its eye socket. He removes the bamboo shoot and offers the skeleton dried boiled rice, upon which the skeleton tells him the story of its murder and its personal history, and rewards him for his kindness. Though this tale has been conflated with that of the Gashadokuro, the two are in fact unrelated, the Gashadokuro having originated in the later half of the 20th century.


title: Gashadokuro

text: One of the first known myths of the Gashadokuro dates back to the tenth century. During the tenth century in Japan, Taira no Masakado, a prominent samurai from the Kanto region was ambushed one day by three of his cousins due to quarrelling over marriages. Enraged by this, Masakado retaliated by burning down their residence, killing one of his uncles, Kunika. Taira no Yoshimasa, who was either Masakado’s parental uncle or cousin, wanted to avenge Kunika and challenged Taira no Masakado to a duel. Upon losing the duel, Yoshimasa, embarrassed by his defeat, called upon Taira no Yoshikane, another one of Masakado’s relatives who fought over the same woman. Yoshikane, who was the assistant governor for Kazusa Province, was easily able to gather many warriors and other officials from his province. On the day of their battle, Masakado, despite only having around 100 poorly-equipped soldiers, was able to inflict heavy casualties on Yoshikane and Yoshimasa’s forces, which was estimated to be thousands strong.


title: Gashadokuro

text: After his victory, Masakado was summoned to the imperial court in Kyoto due to complaints received about him. Fujiwara no Tadihira, Masakado’s lord, however, most likely lightened his punishment and helped him get a pardon from the court. In 937, Yoshikane, anxious to avenge his humiliating defeat, once again battled with Masakado. Masakado, injured in the fight, tried to flee with his wife, Yoshikane’s daughter, but was unsuccessful. In 939, Masakado started a minor rebellion referred to as the ‘Tengyō no Ran’ (天慶の乱) ("War in the Tengyō era" or "Tengyō Disturbance"). The armed revolt officially began when Masakado attacked one of the central government’s outposts in Hitachi Province. Later that year, he conquered Shimotsuke and Kōzuke Provinces, claiming the title of Shinnō (New Emperor). The government in Kyoto acknowledged his attacks as a revolt and put a bounty on his head. Taira no Sadamori, his cousin, and Fujiwara no Hidesato killed him in 940, decapitating him and brought his head to the capital in Kyoto for a reward. Masakado’s daughter, Takiyasha Hime, a famous and powerful sorceress, was infuriated at her father’s killers for disrespecting him. She conjured up the first Gashadokuro with the bones of those dead in the battle where Masakado died. To take revenge, Takiyasha Hime unleashed the Gashadokuro on Kyoto. It ravaged the city until Masakado’s head was moved to Shibasaki, a fishing village that eventually became Tokyo. The head became a sort of demigod there, with a grave still standing today near the Tokyo Imperial Palace.


title: Psychedelic pop

text: Psychedelic pop (or acid pop) is pop music that contains musical characteristics associated with psychedelic music. Developing in the late 1960s, elements included "trippy" features such as fuzz guitars, tape manipulation, backwards recording, sitars, and Beach Boys-style harmonies, wedded to melodic songs with tight song structures. The style lasted into the early 1970s. It has seen revivals in subsequent decades by neo-psychedelic artists.


title: Psychedelic pop

text: According to AllMusic, psychedelic pop was not too "freaky", but also not very "bubblegum" either. It appropriated the effects associated with straight psychedelic music, applying their innovations to concise pop songs. The music was occasionally confined to the studio, but there existed more organic exceptions whose psychedelia was bright and melodic. AllMusic adds: "What's [strange] is that some psychedelic pop is more interesting than average psychedelia, since it had weird, occasionally awkward blends of psychedelia and pop conventions – the Neon Philharmonic's 1969 album "The Moth Confesses" is a prime example of this."


title: Psychedelic pop

text: By the end of the 1960s, psychedelic folk and rock were in retreat. Many surviving acts moved away from psychedelia into either more back-to-basics "roots rock", traditional-based, pastoral or whimsical folk, the wider experimentation of progressive rock, or riff-laden heavy rock. Psychedelic influences lasted a little longer in pop music, stretching into the early 1970s.


title: Psychedelic pop

text: Psychedelic pop became a component of the neo-psychedelic style. There were occasional mainstream acts that dabbled in the genre, including Prince's mid-1980s work and some of Lenny Kravitz's 1990s output, but it has mainly been the domain of alternative and indie rock bands.


title: Oxbridge

text: Oxbridge is a portmanteau of Oxford and Cambridge, the two oldest, wealthiest, and most famous universities in the United Kingdom. The term is used to refer to them collectively, in contrast to other British universities, and more broadly to describe characteristics reminiscent of them, often with implications of superior social or intellectual status or elitism.


title: Oxbridge

text: Although both universities were founded more than eight centuries ago, the term "Oxbridge" is relatively recent. In William Makepeace Thackeray's novel "Pendennis", published in 1850, the main character attends the fictional Boniface College, Oxbridge. According to the "Oxford English Dictionary", this is the first recorded instance of the word. Virginia Woolf used it, citing Thackeray, in her 1929 essay "A Room of One's Own". The term was used in the "Times Educational Supplement" in 1957, and the following year in "Universities Quarterly".


title: Oxbridge

text: When expanded, the universities are almost always referred to as "Oxford and Cambridge", the order in which they were founded. A notable exception is Tokyo's "Cambridge and Oxford Society"; this probably arises from the fact that the Cambridge Club was founded there first, and also had more members than its Oxford counterpart when they amalgamated in 1905.


title: Oxbridge

text: In addition to being a collective term, "Oxbridge" is often used as shorthand for characteristics the two institutions share:


title: Oxbridge

text: The word "Oxbridge" may also be used pejoratively: as a descriptor of social class (referring to the professional classes who dominated the intake of both universities at the beginning of the twentieth century), as shorthand for an elite that "continues to dominate Britain's political and cultural establishment" and a parental attitude that "continues to see UK higher education through an Oxbridge prism", or to describe a "pressure-cooker" culture that attracts and then fails to support overachievers "who are vulnerable to a kind of self-inflicted stress that can all too often become unbearable" and high-flying state school students who find "coping with the workload very difficult in terms of balancing work and life" and "feel socially out of [their] depth".


title: Oxbridge

text: The Sutton Trust maintains that the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge recruit disproportionately from eight schools (Westminster School, Eton College, Hills Road Sixth Form College, St Paul's School, Peter Symonds College, St Paul's Girls' School, King's College School, and Magdalen College School). They examined published admissions data from 2015 to 2017 and found that eight schools accounted for 1,310 Oxbridge places during the three years, whereas 2,900 other schools accounted for 1,220.


title: Oxbridge

text: Other portmanteaus have been coined that extend the term "Oxbridge", with different degree of recognition.


title: Oxbridge

text: The term "Loxbridge" is also used referring to the golden triangle of London, Oxford, and Cambridge. It was also adopted as the name of the Ancient History conference now known as "AMPAH".


title: Oxbridge

text: Doxbridge is another example of this, referring to Durham, Oxford and Cambridge. "Doxbridge" was also used for an annual inter-collegiate sports tournament between some of the colleges of Durham, Oxford, Cambridge and York.


title: Oxbridge

text: "Woxbridge" is the name of the annual conference between the business schools of Warwick, Oxford and Cambridge.


title: Oxbridge

text: When the University of St Andrews topped the 2023 UK universities ranking in "The Guardian", the top three institutions were labelled "Stoxbridge" to reflect the new order.


title: Oxbridge

text: Thackeray's "Pendennis", which introduced the term "Oxbridge", also introduced "Camford" as another combination of the university names – "he was a Camford man and very nearly got the English Prize Poem" – but this term has never achieved the same degree of usage as "Oxbridge". Camford is, however, used as the name of a fictional university city in the Sherlock Holmes story "The Adventure of the Creeping Man" (1923).


title: Aircraft boneyard

text: An aircraft boneyard or aircraft graveyard is a storage area for aircraft that are retired from service. Most aircraft at boneyards are either kept for storage with some maintenance or have their parts removed for reuse or resale and are then scrapped. Boneyard facilities are generally located in deserts, such as those in the Southwestern United States, since the dry conditions reduce corrosion and the hard ground does not need to be paved. In some cases, aircraft that were planned to be scrapped or were stored indefinitely without plans of ever returning to service were brought back into service, as the aviation market or the demands of military aviation changed or failed to develop as anticipated.


title: Aircraft boneyard

text: The 309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group in Tucson, Arizona, the largest facility of its kind, is colloquially known as "The Boneyard".


title: Aircraft boneyard

text: Due to the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on aviation, demand for commercial aircraft storage increased dramatically in 2020. Furthermore, many aircraft that had initially been planned for short term storage were ultimately stored long term or even scrapped altogether, requiring maintenance work to prepare the planes for the different plans. As demand recovery behaved differently from expectations, temporary shortages as well as the requirement to prepare planes for long term storage after a few months of short term storage caused issues. Planes that have been stored for a few months cannot be brought back to service on short notice. The longer planes are stored, the more time it takes to get them fully airworthy and ready to fly again. Bringing a narrowbody aircraft back from long term storage takes roughly 40 worker hours while for widebody aircraft the number is roughly 100 worker hours.


title: Prophets of Christianity

text: In Christianity, the figures widely recognised as prophets are those mentioned as such in the Old Testament and the New Testament. It is believed that prophets are chosen and called by God.


title: Prophets of Christianity

text: The main list below consists of only those individuals that have been clearly defined as prophets, either by explicit statement or strong contextual implication, (e.g. the purported authors of the books listed as the major prophets and minor prophets) along with the biblical reference to their office.


title: Prophets of Christianity

text: The second list consists of those individuals who are recorded as having had a visionary or prophetic experience, but without a history of any major or consistent prophetic calling. The third list consists of unnamed prophets. The fourth list contains the names of those described in the Bible as prophets, but are presented as either misusing this gift or as fraudulent.


title: Prophets of Christianity

text: The last two lists relate to claimed post-biblical individuals followed by some Christians. The final list consists of post-biblical individuals regarded as prophets and of post-biblical individuals who are claimed to have had visionary or prophetic experience.


title: Prophets of Christianity

text: The following persons are considered by some Christians to be prophets, or to have had prophetic experiences.


title: Irfaan Ali

text: Mohamed Irfaan Ali (born 25 April 1980) is a Guyanese politician who has served as the tenth and current president of Guyana since 2020. He is the first Muslim to hold the office, along with being the second Muslim head of state in the Americas after Noor Hassanali of Trinidad and Tobago.


title: Irfaan Ali

text: Ali was a member of parliament (MP) and the minister of housing before becoming the presidential candidate of the People's Progressive Party/Civic (PPP/C) in the March 2020 general election. He was sworn in as Guyana's tenth president on 2 August 2020, after months of legal challenges regarding the integrity of the election and even a consequential recount of all ballots.


title: Irfaan Ali

text: Ali was born to an Indo-Guyanese Muslim family in Leonora, a village in the West Coast Demarara region of Guyana. The child of two educators and one of two sons, Ali also spent many of his formative years on the island of Leguan. He is a former student of the Leonora Nursery and Primary schools and Cornelia Ida Primary. Ali completed his secondary education at St. Stanislaus College in Georgetown, Guyana. He holds a doctorate in Urban and Regional Planning from the University of the West Indies.


title: Irfaan Ali

text: Ali served as project manager of the Caribbean Development Bank's Project Implementation Unit in the Ministry of Finance and senior planner in the State Planning Secretariat.


title: Irfaan Ali

text: Ali became a member of the National Assembly of Guyana in 2006. He was subsequently appointed to the portfolios of minister of housing and water and minister of tourism industry and commerce.


title: Irfaan Ali

text: During his tenure as minister, Ali performed the functions of president and prime minister on separate occasions. In 2015, the People's Progressive Party/Civic (PPP/C) went into opposition during which time he served as chair of the Public Accounts Committee and co-chair of the Economic Services Committee of the parliament of Guyana.


title: Irfaan Ali

text: Irfaan Ali was the presidential candidate of the People's Progressive Party (PPP/C) for the 2 March 2020 general and regional elections in Guyana. He was selected as the presidential candidate for the People's Progressive Party/Civic on 19 January 2019. His selection came at a time after Ali had been charged with 19 counts of conspiracy and fraud by Guyana's Special Organized Crime Unit (SOCU). Ali's lawyers questioned the legality of these charges, and claimed that they were political in nature and "trumped up". At the time when Ali was running for president, the charges had never been brought to a full court hearing.


title: Irfaan Ali

text: Immediately following his selection, Ali was accused of academic fraud, with opponents claiming that when Ali was in his early 20s, he had misrepresented one of his qualifications. Ali was also indicted on 19 charges of other fraud for allegedly defrauding the state of over $174M between the period 2011 and 2015, allegedly conspiring with persons unknown to "greatly undersell" 19 plots of state lands at Plantation Sparendaam and Goedverwagting in Demerara-Mahaica to current or former government officials. The trial on the matters was postponed several times. He was granted self bail on the charges. The lands, which were sold for $39.8M, are valued at $212.4M, according to the Special Organized Crime Unit (SOCU). On 14 August, the charges were dismissed.


title: Irfaan Ali

text: In his campaign for the presidency, Ali ran on a mainly economic platform, citing declining growth and increased joblessness under the Granger administration. Ali committed to creating 50,000 new jobs over five years. He has emphasized the need for transparency and adherence to globally-recognised standards of governance for Guyana's nascent oil sector, which is expected to transform Guyana's development. Ali is committed to establishing a sovereign wealth fund protected against political interference, and to strengthen Guyana's ability to uphold the Santiago Principles and the global requirements of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative.


title: Irfaan Ali

text: In September 2020, in a joint statement with the United States secretary of state Mike Pompeo, Ali said the two countries would begin joint maritime patrols aimed at drug interdiction near Guyana's disputed border with crisis-stricken Venezuela. The agreement came as U.S. oil major Exxon Mobil Corp, as part of a consortium with Hess Corp, ramped up crude output from Guyana's massive offshore Stabroek block, a large portion of which is in waters claimed by Venezuela. Pompeo and Ali added that "greater security, greater capacity to understand your border space, what's happening inside your Exclusive Economic Zone - those are all things that give Guyana sovereignty."


title: Red flag law

text: In the United States, a red flag law is a gun violence prevention law that permits a state court to order the temporary removal of firearms from a person who they believe may present a danger to others or themselves. A judge makes the determination to issue the order based on statements and actions made by the gun owner in question. Refusal to comply with the order is punishable as a criminal offense. After a set time, the guns are returned to the person from whom they were seized unless another court hearing extends the period of confiscation.


title: Red flag law

text: Orders issued under "red flag" laws, also called risk-based gun removal laws, are known by several names, including Extreme Risk Protection Orders (ERPOs) (in Colorado, Maryland, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont and Washington); Extreme Risk Firearm Protection Orders (ERFPO) (in New Mexico); Risk Protection Orders (in Florida); Gun Violence Restraining Orders (GVROs) (in California); Emergency Substantial Risk Orders (ESROs) (in Virginia); risk warrants (in Connecticut); and Proceedings for the Seizure and Retention of a Firearm (in Indiana). As of 2021, 19 states and the District of Columbia have enacted some form of red-flag law. The specifics of the laws, and the degree to which they are utilized, vary from state to state.


title: Red flag law

text: In 1999, Connecticut became the first state to enact a red flag law, following a rampage shooting at the Connecticut Lottery. It was followed by Indiana, which adopted its legislation—called Jake Laird's Law, after an Indianapolis police officer was fatally shot by a mentally disturbed man—in 2005. Subsequent red-flag laws were adopted by California (2014), Washington (2016), and Oregon (2017). The California State Legislature was the first to enact a red flag law allowing family members to petition state courts to remove weapons from persons deemed a threat after Elliot Rodger committed a mass shooting in Isla Vista, California; the California law also permits law enforcement officials to petition the court for an order for the removal of guns from an individual for up to twelve months.


title: Red flag law

text: Before 2018, only the above-mentioned five states had some version of red flag laws. After the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Parkland, Florida, in 2018, that number more than doubled, as more states enacted such laws: Florida, Vermont, Maryland, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Delaware, Massachusetts, Illinois, and the District of Columbia. A content analysis study published in 2022 examined newspaper articles published in 2018 in three states that passed ERPOs after the 2018 Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Parkland, Florida (Florida, Rhode Island, and Vermont) and three states that did not (Pennsylvania, Colorado, and Ohio). The study found that the passage of ERPOs was associated with media coverage that used official policy names/acronyms (as opposed to simply "red flag"); accurately portrayed gun violence as a preventable problem, and that referred to ERPO policies in other states. The survey found that "although only one in four articles cited scientific evidence related to gun violence generally, articles about passing states were significantly more likely to cite the small but growing body of research about ERPO implementation and effectiveness. These findings point to the value of relevant data, likely in combination with the lived experience and advocacy efforts of those most impacted, for building policy momentum through the media."


title: Red flag law

text: In 2019, New York enacted a red-flag law as part of a broader package of gun-control legislation that overwhelmingly passed the state legislature. In addition to allowing police and family members to petition for entry of an extreme risk protection order, the law also allows teachers and school administrations to file such petitions, making New York the first state to include such a provision. Three other states enacted red-flag laws in 2019: Colorado, Nevada and Hawaii. The Colorado, Nevada, and Hawaii laws all went into effect on January 1, 2020.


title: Red flag law

text: In 2020, New Mexico became the 18th state to adopt a red-flag law, after Governor Michelle Lujan Grisham signed legislation on February 25, 2020. New Mexico's law went into effect on July 1, 2020.


title: Red flag law

text: In Virginia, the state's General Assembly, then controlled by Republicans, voted down red-flag legislation in its January 2019 session. After the Virginia Beach shooting later that year, Governor Ralph Northam, a Democrat, called the Republican-controlled General Assembly into special session to consider gun-control legislation. The legislature did not vote on any gun legislation. After the Democrats won control of both chambers of the General Assembly in the fall 2019 elections, for the first time in more than two decades, Northam vowed to reintroduce gun control proposals, including a red flag bill. The General Assembly subsequently passed an emergency substantial risk order (ESRO) law, on a party-line vote in the Senate and a nearly party-line vote in the House of Delegates. Northam signed the legislation into law in April 2020, alongside four separate gun measures. Fairfax County, Virginia and the and Alexandria-based gun-violence prevention nonprofit group Safer Country have become leaders in awareness campaigns to inform the public and law enforcement about the use of Virginia's ESRO law.


title: Red flag law

text: Some local sheriffs in rural Colorado counties refused to use the state's risk-based gun violence prevention, with some declaring their counties "sanctuaries" from gun laws they opposed; many of the sheriffs reversed course after gun violence incidents in their communities. A 2022 analysis of court records by KHN found that, two and a half years after the passage of Colorado's risk-based gun violence prevention law, petitions for protection orders had been filed in 20 of the 37 counties with sheriffs who previously said that they would refuse to use or enforce such laws, and that such petitions were often filed "by the very sheriffs who had previously denounced the law." In El Paso County, Colorado, however, Sheriff Bill Elder followed a policy of barring the Sheriff's Office from filing petitions under Colorado's law based on Elder's belief that the laws are unconstitutional. (although Elder said that it would enforce orders granted by the courts on the petition of non-law enforcement). El Paso County was the location of a 2022 Colorado Springs shooting massacre in which a gunman killed five people and wounded many more. Despite a history of alarming behavior (such as bomb threats) that would have made him a candidate for a gun removal order under Colorado's law, the arrested man was never subject to a petition for an order and was thus legally permitted to obtain the guns used in the attack, raising new scrutiny of the sheriff's refusal to use the Colorado law.


title: Red flag law

text: Other state legislatures considered similar legislation. In the recent past, red-flag bills were being considered but did not pass in the following states:


title: Red flag law

text: On June 25, 2022, President Joe Biden signed the Bipartisan Safer Communities Act that included several changes to U.S. gun laws, one of which authorizes governments of individual states to receive grants from the federal government if they enact and enforce red flag laws.


title: Red flag law

text: A 2018 American Psychiatric Association resource document on risk-based gun removal laws notes that all such laws are "designed to address crisis situations in which there is an acute concern about an individual's access to firearms" but the specific provisions of such laws differ from state-to-state, varying on matters such as "who can initiate the gun removal process, whether a warrant is required, what factors the court must consider before ordering firearm removal, what must be proven in court, how long the firearms are restricted, and what process is used to restore the individual's firearm access."


title: Red flag law

text: For example, in Indiana and New Mexico, only law enforcement may petition for an order. This aspect of the state law came under scrutiny following a mass shooting committed by a 19-year-old man who had previously been detained in a mental health hold and had a shotgun seized from him, only to go on to purchase the weapons used in the shooting following a failure by authorities to petition for an order. In contrast, in Oregon, any person living with the person of concern may file a petition. In New York, an order may be sought by a family member, a prosecutor or police official, a teacher, or a school administrator.


title: Red flag law

text: The California Legislature passed a measure in 2016 to allow high school and college employees, co-workers and mental health professionals to file such petitions, but this legislation was vetoed by Governor Jerry Brown. Similar legislation, however, was signed into law by Governor Gavin Newsom in 2019; the legislation, which went into effect January 1, 2020, expands the list of people who may request GVROs to include "an employer of the subject of the petition"; "a coworker of the subject of the petition, if they have had 'substantial and regular interactions with the subject for at least one year' and have obtained the approval of the employer"; and "an employee or teacher of a school that the subject has attended for the last six months, if the employee or teacher has obtained the approval of administrators."


title: Red flag law

text: In California, it is a misdemeanor offense for a person to file a GVRO petition "knowing the information in the petition to be false or with the intent to harass." Making false statements on petitions is also a criminal offense in other states; for example, in Colorado, a woman who lied on a petition was found guilty of "attempting to influence a public servant" and of perjury.


title: Red flag law

text: A 2016 study published in the journal "Law and Contemporary Problems" analyzed data from the 762 gun removals under Connecticut's "risk warrant" law from October 1999 through June 2013 and determined that there was "one averted suicide for every ten to eleven gun seizure cases." The researchers concluded that "enacting and implementing laws like Connecticut’s civil risk warrant statute in other states could significantly mitigate the risk posed by that small proportion of legal gun owners who, at times, may pose a significant danger to themselves or others."


title: Red flag law

text: A 2018 study published in the journal "Psychiatric Services" utilized CDC data from all suicides in all 50 states from 1981–2015 to "examine the effects of Connecticut and Indiana's risk-based firearm seizure law on state-level firearm suicide rates." The researchers concluded that "Indiana’s firearm seizure law was associated with a 7.5% reduction in firearm suicides in the ten years following its enactment, an effect specific to suicides with firearms and larger than that seen in any comparison state by chance alone. Enactment of Connecticut's law was associated with a 1.6% reduction in firearm suicides immediately after its passage and a 13.7% reduction in firearm suicides in the post–Virginia Tech period, when enforcement of the law substantially increased." The study also found that "Whereas Indiana demonstrated an aggregate decrease in suicides, Connecticut's estimated reduction in firearm suicides was offset by increased non-firearm suicides."


title: Red flag law

text: A preliminary case series published in the "Annals of Internal Medicine" in 2019 analyzed the use of ERPOs in California, and found that the cases studied suggest that California's red-flag law, as a form of "urgent, individualized intervention ... can play a role in efforts to prevent mass shootings."


title: Red flag law

text: A 2020 review by the RAND Corporation concluded there was inconclusive evidence of the effect of red flag laws on firearm suicides.


title: Red flag law

text: In light of the fact that 62% of U.S. gun deaths from 2008 to 2017 were suicides, the potential for red flag laws to prevent suicide has been cited as a benefit that may be more valuable than their ability to prevent mass shootings.


title: Red flag law

text: States with red-flag laws differ substantially in the rate that such laws were used. Nationwide in 2020, red-flag laws were used to remove guns about 5,000 times. The states that used red-flags most often in 2020 were Florida (2,355 uses), California (984), Maryland (476), New Jersey (311), and New York (255). A 2020 analysis found that, adjusted on a per-capita basis and on a per-day-in-effect basis, Florida used its red-flag law the most (9.4 orders per year per 100,000 residents), followed by Maryland (8.2 orders per year per 100,000 residents). One factor in different use rates is whether a state has courts that allow petitioners to seek an order after business hours and on weekends.


title: Red flag law

text: In some states, petitions for removal of guns are not filed, even where the facts would support issuance of an orders. For example, in Oregon, the state legislature enacted a red-flag law, but did not allocate funds for public education efforts. Local prosecutors led trainings and outreach for law enforcement, judges, and others.


title: Red flag law

text: In California in 2016 and 2017, 189 petitions for gun violence restraining orders were granted. Of these, 12 petitions were filed by family members, while the rest were filed by law enforcement.


title: Red flag law

text: In 2020 (the first year that Colorado's red-flag law was in effect), Colorado courts issued 115 orders and denied 46 petitions. Most petitions were filed by law enforcement agencies. Colorado has two forms of court orders under the law: a temporary ERPO (TERPO), which has a duration of up to two weeks; and (if the TERPO is granted) a 364-day ERPO (which may be granted by the court after a hearing). In Colorado, petitions filed by law enforcement agencies are far likelier to be granted than petitions filed by family or household members: In the first year that Colorado's law was in effect, 82% of petitions for TERPOs and 85% of petitions for yearlong ERPOs filed by law enforcement were granted by courts; by contrast, 18% of petitions for TERPOs and 15% of petitions for yearlong ERPOs filed by family or household members were granted by courts.


title: Red flag law

text: In Connecticut, some 764 "imminent risk" gun seizures were served between October 1999 and July 2013, according to a 2014 study in the "Connecticut Law Review". Of gun seizure orders served, 91.5% were directed to men and 8.5% were directed to women, and the average age of the individuals was 47.4 years old. Police reports associated with the Connecticut gun seizures in 1999 to 2013 indicated that at the time of confiscation, about 30% of the subject gun owners "showed evidence of alcohol consumption" and about 10% "indicated using prescribed pain medications." At the time the warrants were served, the majority of gun owners (60% of men and 80% of women) were sent to a local hospital emergency department for an emergency evaluation; a minority (20%) were arrested. The study noted that "In over 70% of the cases, the outcome of the hearings was unknown. For the cases with outcomes reported, the judges ruled that the weapons needed to be held by the state 68% of the time. Weapons were returned in only twenty of the reported cases. In fifteen other cases, guns were given to a family member; in thirty cases, the guns were destroyed."


title: Red flag law

text: In Florida, red-flag orders were granted 2,227 times between March 2018 (when the law took effect) and July 2019. State judges granted petitions for temporary orders about 97% of the time and granted petitions for final orders 99% of the time. In many cases (up to 90% in Broward County) the respondent agrees to the order. The volume of petitions varies from county to county.


title: Red flag law

text: In Marion County, Indiana (which contains Indianapolis, and the most of the uses of Indiana's ERPO law), a 2015 study published in the journal "Behavioral Sciences & the Law" found that seizure petitions were filed in court 404 times between 2006 and 2013, from persons identified as being a risk of suicide (68%), violence (21%), or psychosis (16%). The study found that 28% of firearm-seizure cases involved a domestic dispute and 26% involved intoxication. The study found that "The seized firearms were retained by the court at the initial hearing in 63% of cases; this retention was closely linked to the defendant's failure to appear at the hearing. The court dismissed 29% of cases at the initial hearing, closely linked to the defendant's presence at the hearing. In subsequent hearings of cases not dismissed, the court ordered the destruction of the firearms in 72% of cases, all when the individual did not appear in court, and dismissed 24% of the cases, all when the individual was present at the hearing."


title: Red flag law

text: In Maryland, from October 1, 2018 (the date the law took effect) until late October 2020, the state courts granted 989 petitions for gun removal orders. Maryland courts grant slightly over half of the petitions filed. In the first three months of the state's law, about 60% of petitions were filed by family or household members, one petition was filed by a healthcare worker, and the rest were filed by police. In November 2018, a Maryland man was killed by Anne Arundel County police officers serving a removal order after refusing to surrender his firearms; police said that there was a struggle over the gun and a shot was fired before officers fatally shot the man.


title: Red flag law

text: In New York, a total of 589 extreme risk protection orders were issued from 2019 (when the law took effect) through May 2022, a rate of about 18 orders per month. The New York state courts do not track the number of petitions for orders that are denied. After a gun massacre at a Buffalo supermarket in May 2022, in which ten people were killed, New York Governor Kathy Hochul issued an executive order requiring state police to file a petition when they believe, based on set criteria, that an individual presents a threat to themselves or others.


title: Red flag law

text: In the first 22 months that Oregon's law was in effect (January 1, 2018 – October 31, 2019), 166 petitions were filed in Oregon for an extreme risk protection order. Of the 166 petitions, 112 were for people at risk of suicide and 39 related to domestic violence; 26 petitions involved both suicide risk and domestic violence. An Oregon Public Broadcasting review found that the petitions concerned individuals in crisis, with the majority of petitions citing "multiple factors such as threats of violence, use of physical force, owning or attempting to purchase deadly weapons, prior convictions and use of controlled substances." The Oregon courts granted 122 petitions (73% of those filed). The remaining 44 petitions (27% of those filed) did not result in the issuance of an order, either because a judge denied the petition (in 32 cases) or the request was withdrawn (in 12 cases). Counties varied widely in the level of usage of the process: most petitions were filed in Washington and Multnomah counties, respectively, while 11 counties did not issue any ERPOs and 7 counties issued a single ERPO.


title: Red flag law

text: In the first 16 months that Vermont's law was in effect, the state courts issued about 30 extreme risk orders.


title: Red flag law

text: Senator Dianne Feinstein, Democrat of California, introduced a bill, the Extreme Risk Protection Order Act (S. 506), which would allow states to use grants to develop red flag laws. The legislation is supported by 25 Democratic senators and two Democratic-aligned independent senators. The legislation did not advance. Other bills were introduced by other members.


title: Red flag law

text: S. 506 and other proposed bills would add persons subject to extreme risk protection orders to the list of "prohibited persons" in 18 U.S.C. § 922(g) (those persons who are prohibited from possessing a firearm). The legislation would thus make "it a federal crime for persons subject to the orders to possess firearms and for anyone else who has reasonable cause to know about the orders to sell or give firearms to them." In September 2019, following mass shootings in El Paso and Dayton, Ohio, the House Judiciary Committee approved amendments to the federal red flag bill to create a national red flag process.


title: Red flag law

text: In June 2022, the House passed the Federal Extreme Risk Protection Order Act of 2021 on a 224–202 vote, mostly along party lines. The bill would establish a national red-flag process for the federal district courts. In the House vote, 219 Democrats and 5 Republicans voted yes, 201 Republicans and 1 Democrat voted no, and 2 Republicans did not vote. The legislation was sponsored by Representative Lucy McBath, and passed the House in the aftermath of shooting massacres in Buffalo, New York and Uvalde, Texas.


title: Red flag law

text: The House-passed bill, as well as a package of other gun-safety bills passed by the House (including a safe storage law, an increase in the minimum age to buy semi-automatic rifles to 21, a large-capacity magazine ban, and universal background checks), were blocked in the divided Senate, which is evenly split between the parties. However, a bipartisan group of Senators negotiated a significantly narrower bill that passed the Senate on June 23, 2022 The legislation, the Bipartisan Safer Communities Act of 2021, passed the Senate on a 65–33 vote was signed into law by President Joe Biden two days later on June 25, 2022. Among other provisions, the act allocates $750 million in federal funds to states to support the creation and maintenance of crisis intervention programs for state courts, including red-flag law programs (as well as mental health court, drug court, or veterans' court programs).


title: Red flag law

text: The courts have rejected Second Amendment and Due Process challenges to red-flag laws. In "Hope v. State" (2016), the Connecticut Appellate Court concluded that the state's firearm removal law does not violate the Second Amendment because "it does not restrict the right of law-abiding, responsible citizens to use arms in defense of their homes." The court considered the Connecticut statute to be "an example of the longstanding 'presumptively lawful regulatory measures'" permissible under the U.S. Supreme Court's decision in "Heller v. District of Columbia". Similarly, in "Redington v. State" (2013), the Court of Appeals of Indiana concluded that Indiana's red-flag statute did not violate the right to keep and bear arms, was not an unconstitutional taking, and was not unconstitutionally vague. In "Davis v. Gilchrist County Sheriff's Office" (2019), the Florida First District Court of Appeal also rejected a challenge to Florida's red-flag law, holding that the law is constitutional and does not violate the right to due process. A lawsuit is pending challenging Nevada's red flag law.


title: Red flag law

text: An April 2018 poll found that 85% of registered voters support legislation that would "allow the police to take guns away from people who have been found by a judge to be a danger to themselves or others" (71% "strongly supported" while 14% "somewhat supported" such laws). State-level polling in Colorado and Michigan has shown similar levels of support. A "PBS NewsHour"/NPR/Marist Poll released in September 2019 showed that 72% of Americans supported the enactment of a federal red-flag law, while 23% were opposed.


title: Red flag law

text: Democrats and some Republicans are receptive to these laws. Such laws are supported by groups that support gun control, such as Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence and Everytown for Gun Safety. The latter group conducted a nationwide study showing that the perpetrators of mass shootings showed warning signs before the event 42% of the time.


title: Red flag law

text: Opponents of red flag laws argue that such legislation infringes on constitutional rights such as the right to bear arms and the right to be secure against unreasonable searches and seizures, and object to "ex parte" hearings. There has been debate about how soon after the ex parte hearing the adversarial hearing should be held. For example, in Virginia, state senator Glen Sturtevant argued that the legislature should consider requiring an adversarial hearing on the order within 48 hours, rather than within 14 days. Jacob Sullum, a columnist for "Reason" magazine, questioned "the very concept of 'red flags'" and whether "experts can reliably distinguish between harmless oddballs and future murderers," and, citing a 2012 Department of Defense study, stated that "even if certain "red flags" are common among mass shooters, almost none of the people who display those signs are bent on murderous violence."


title: Red flag law

text: The National Rifle Association (NRA) had previously argued that red flag laws unnecessarily hamper the right to due process of individuals who are restrained by them, and worked to defeat such legislation in Utah and Maryland. In a March 2018 policy reversal, the NRA suggested that it might support such laws, but conditioned any openness to such laws on an extensive list of conditions, including a judicial finding by "clear and convincing evidence" that the person poses a significant risk of danger. The NRA did not identify any federal or state red flag laws that it supported, and even after its March 2018 announcement continued to work to defeat or weaken red flag bills introduced in state legislatures. In summer 2018, the NRA mobilized to defeat red-flag legislation proposed in Pennsylvania because it objected to allowing initial hearings "ex parte". In Arizona in 2019, the NRA ghostwrote an opinion piece for sheriffs to submit to the local press stating their opposition to the legislation. A 2019 study by gun rights advocate John Lott found red flag laws have no significant effect on murder, suicide, the number of people killed in mass public shootings, robbery, aggravated assault, or burglary.


title: Red flag law

text: The ACLU of Rhode Island argued against such a law, stating that "People who are not alleged to have committed a crime should not be subject to severe deprivations of liberty interests...in the absence of a clear, compelling and immediate showing of need. As well-intentioned as this legislation is, its breadth and its lenient standards for both applying for and granting an ERPO are cause for great concern."


title: Red flag law

text: Some counties and cities have adopted "Second Amendment sanctuary" resolutions in opposition to red flag laws. , some 75 jurisdictions have declared themselves sanctuaries that oppose emergency protection orders and enforcement of gun background checks, at times with assistance from the NRA.


title: Red flag law

text: In the wake of the El Paso, Texas shooting and Dayton, Ohio shooting of August 4 and 5, 2019, President Donald Trump called on states to implement red flag laws to help remove guns from "those judged to pose a grave risk to public safety." However, Trump did not endorse any particular piece of legislation, and Republican Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell has said he would allow gun legislation to be brought to the Senate floor only if it gained Trump's support. Gun rights groups mounted a campaign to discourage Trump from supporting red-flag laws or other gun-control measures, saying that pushing for red flag laws could cost Trump the 2020 presidential election. In November 2019, Trump abandoned the idea of putting forth red-flag law proposals or other legislation to curtail gun violence.


title: Red flag law

text: In May 2020, Oklahoma became the first and thus far only state to enact an anti-red flag law. The law specifically "prohibits the state or any city, county or political subdivision from enacting red flag laws."


title: 2010 NFL season

text: The 2010 NFL season was the 91st regular season of the National Football League and the 45th of the Super Bowl era.


title: 2010 NFL season

text: The regular season began with the NFL Kickoff game on NBC on Thursday, September 9, at the Louisiana Superdome as the New Orleans Saints, the Super Bowl XLIV champions, defeated the Minnesota Vikings.


title: 2010 NFL season

text: Tom Brady, quarterback of the New England Patriots, was named NFL MVP for the 2010 season. In Super Bowl XLV, the league's championship game played at Cowboys Stadium in Arlington, Texas, the Green Bay Packers defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers to win their fourth Super Bowl, spoiling the Steelers' chance for a seventh title. This season also marked the first full-length season in which a team with a losing record made the playoffs, when the Seattle Seahawks won the NFC West with a 7–9 record, after defeating St. Louis in Week 17 to clinch the division title. One week later, the Seahawks dethroned the defending champion New Orleans Saints in the wild-card round, to become the first ever sub-.500 playoff team to win a postseason game.


title: 2010 NFL season

text: NFL owners voted in 2008 to opt out of their collective bargaining agreement (CBA) with the National Football League Players Association (NFLPA) as of the end of the 2010 season. (The vote was 23 in favor, 9 against; the extension measure needed 24 to pass, which would have set the CBA to expire after the 2012 season). Since a new CBA was not reached with the NFLPA, 2010 was an uncapped season, meaning that there was no salary cap or salary floor between which teams had to operate. Also, the uncapped season limited unrestricted free agency only to players with at least six years of experience, as opposed to four under a capped season. The final eight teams alive in the 2009–10 NFL playoffs (Arizona, Dallas, Minnesota and New Orleans in the NFC; and Baltimore, Indianapolis, the New York Jets and San Diego in the AFC) were restricted in the free agents they could sign.


title: 2010 NFL season

text: The league's 75th annual selection meeting, more commonly known as the NFL Draft, took place at Radio City Music Hall in New York City from April 22–24, the first time that the draft was held over three days instead of the usual two. In the draft with the first overall pick, the St. Louis Rams chose quarterback Sam Bradford from the University of Oklahoma.


title: 2010 NFL season

text: Mike Pereira resigned as the league's Vice President of Officiating. He had led the NFL's officiating since 2001. Carl Johnson was named as Pereira's successor.


title: 2010 NFL season

text: The NFL relaxed all rules regarding crowd noise, citing the need to increase the in-stadium experience to lure more fans to attend games. In addition, the league cited the advances in the coach-to-quarterback radio communications, and more visiting teams using silent snap counts as an alternative to overcome crowd noise.


title: 2010 NFL season

text: The NFL's rules to "legislate the fans", and help visiting offensive players hear the snap count, have been controversial from the start. In one notorious example, then-Cincinnati Bengals head coach Sam Wyche and then-quarterback Boomer Esiason "protested" the crowd noise rules during a 1989 nationally televised preseason game against the New Orleans Saints by constantly complaining to the referee about the loud crowd noise inside the Superdome.