title: Chris Claremont

text: Claremont introduced new supporting characters to the "X-Men" series including Moira MacTaggert in issue #96 and Lilandra Neramani in #97. Jean Grey a.k.a. Marvel Girl, one of Marvel's first female heroes, underwent a dramatic transformation into the omnipotent Phoenix in issue #101. Issue #107 (Oct. 1977) saw the introduction of the Starjammers as well as the departure of artist Dave Cockrum. Claremont began his collaboration with artist John Byrne in the following issue.


title: Chris Claremont

text: During his 17 years as "X-Men" writer, Claremont wrote or co-wrote many classic X-Men stories, such as "The Dark Phoenix Saga" and "Days of Future Past". Comics writers and historians Roy Thomas and Peter Sanderson observed that "'The Dark Phoenix Saga' is to Claremont and Byrne what the 'Galactus Trilogy' is to Stan Lee and Jack Kirby. It is a landmark in Marvel history, showcasing its creators' work at the height of their abilities." Comics historian Les Daniels noted that "The controversial story created a sensation and "The X-Men" became the comic book to watch." In 2010, Comics Bulletin ranked Claremont and Byrne's run on "The X-Men" second on its list of the "Top 10 1970s Marvels". Claremont and artist Frank Miller crafted a "Wolverine" limited series in 1982. With artist Walt Simonson, Claremont produced "The Uncanny X-Men and The New Teen Titans" in 1982, an intercompany crossover between the top-selling Marvel and DC titles. The New Mutants were introduced by Claremont and Bob McLeod in "Marvel Graphic Novel" #4 (Dec. 1982) and received their own ongoing series soon after. The second X-Men film was loosely based on his 1982 "X-Men" graphic novel "."


title: Chris Claremont

text: Besides his work on "X-Men" and its spinoffs, Claremont wrote "Marvel Team-Up", "Spider-Woman" and "Ms. Marvel" during this time. He and artist John Bolton created the Marada the She-Wolf character in 1981. Claremont's stories for "Marvel Team-Up" included the cast of NBC's "Saturday Night Live" appearing in issue #74 (Oct. 1978) and the introduction of Karma, a character that later joined the New Mutants, in #100 (Dec. 1980). Claremont helped launch the "Marvel Fanfare" title in March 1982.


title: Chris Claremont

text: Claremont co-created numerous other important female X-Men characters, including Rogue, Betsy Braddock, Mariko Yashida, Kitty Pryde/Shadowcat, Phoenix, Mystique, Lady Mastermind, Emma Frost, Siryn, Rachel Summers, Madelyne Pryor, and Jubilee. He co-created such notable male characters as Sabretooth, Pyro, Avalanche, Strong Guy, Captain Britain, Forge, Mister Sinister, and Gambit.


title: Chris Claremont

text: Claremont launched various "X-Men" spin-offs, beginning with "The New Mutants" in 1982. The spinoffs "Excalibur" and "Wolverine", initially written by Claremont, followed in 1987 and 1988, respectively. "X-Men" crossover stories written by Claremont during the latter half of his tenure on the series include "Mutant Massacre", "Fall of the Mutants", and "X-Tinction Agenda". In 1991, Marvel launched a second "X-Men" title simply called "" with Claremont and penciler Jim Lee as co-writers. "X-Men" #1 is still the best-selling comic book of all-time, with sales of over 8.1 million copies (and nearly $7 million), according to "Guinness World Records", which presented honors to Claremont at the 2010 San Diego Comic-Con. The sales figures were generated in part by publishing the issue with four different variant covers which showed different characters from the book (and later a fifth gatefold cover that combined all four), large numbers of which were purchased by retailers, who anticipated fans and speculators who would buy multiple copies in order to acquire a complete collection of the covers. Claremont left the series after the first three-issue story arc, due to clashes with editor Bob Harras.


title: Chris Claremont

text: The 1990s saw Claremont diversify his comics work, as he wrote for other publishers, and wrote his own creator-owned properties. In December 1991, he sent artist Whilce Portacio a proposal to illustrate Claremont's project, "The Huntsman", as a creator-owned project, and when the then-new comics publisher Image Comics was announced in 1992, Claremont was named as one of its founders. However, the project was cancelled when Portacio decided instead to do "Wetworks". Claremont attempted to find other artist for the series, but all those in whom he was interested were either drawing "X-Men" or had their own projects with Image, and thus he did not become one of Image's founders. In 1992 he wrote the graphic novel "Star Trek: Debt of Honor", which was illustrated by Adam Hughes.


title: Chris Claremont

text: In 1993, he began writing the 12-issue miniseries "" for Dark Horse Comics, which was completed in 1995. That year saw a decline in his comics output, however, as he turned his focus to writing novels, citing frustration with how the comics industry had become dominated by artists and editors. In 1994, he wrote issues #10–13 of Jim Lee and Brandon Choi's series, "WildC.A.T.s" at Image Comics, in which he finally introduced his creator-owned character, Huntsman.


title: Chris Claremont

text: In 1995, Claremont began writing his creator-owned series, "Sovereign Seven", which was published by DC Comics, running for 36 issues until 1998. Stan Lee interviewed Claremont for episode 7 of the 1991–92 documentary series "The Comic Book Greats."


title: Chris Claremont

text: In 1998, Claremont returned to Marvel as editorial director and the regular writer of "Fantastic Four", where he created Valeria Richards. The book was pencilled by artist Salvador Larrocca and inked by Art Thibert for the entirety of his duration on the series. Claremont's run on "Fantastic Four" would last for 29 issues and 2 annuals, making it his longest tenure on a title outside of the X-Men. Despite outselling books such as "Amazing Spider-Man" and "Batman", Claremont was fired by editor Bobbie Chase in early 2000, a decision that he was angered by. Claremont also wrote "The Fantastic 4th Voyage of Sinbad" in 2001, a one shot starring the Fantastic Four on an adventure with Sinbad the Sailor. The comic was pencilled Pascual Ferry.


title: Chris Claremont

text: In 2000, as part of the company's "Revolution" event, he wrote "Uncanny X-Men" and "X-Men" until he moved to "X-Treme X-Men", again working with penciller Salvador Larroca. He returned to "Uncanny X-Men" again for a two-year run starting in 2004, while teaming up with his former "Excalibur" collaborator and artist, Alan Davis.


title: Chris Claremont

text: In 2004, Claremont was co-writer on "JLA" issues #94–99, the "Tenth Circle" story arc for DC Comics, which reunited him with his former "Uncanny X-Men" artist John Byrne, with Jerry Ordway as inker.


title: Chris Claremont

text: In 2007, Claremont returned to "New Excalibur", writing a story arc in which the character Nocturne has a stroke. He has completed his first arc on "Exiles," adding Betsy Braddock to the team.


title: Chris Claremont

text: In 2008 Claremont wrote the miniseries "GeNEXT", followed by its 2009 sequel, "GeNext: United". He was the writer of an "X-Men Forever" series which was set in an alternate universe, and focuses on the present day lives of the X-Men in a reality where Magneto never returned following the destruction of Asteroid M in "X-Men" #3 (December 1991). In 2010, Claremont collaborated with Italian comics artist Milo Manara on "X-Women".


title: Chris Claremont

text: As of 2014 Claremont was under an exclusive contract for Marvel. In April of that year, Marvel launched a "Nightcrawler" series with Claremont as writer, which he finished in March 2015. He re-united with his former "New Mutants"-artist artist Bill Sienkiewicz for the oneshot "New Mutants: War Children" in 2019.


title: Chris Claremont

text: According to writer/editor Paul Levitz, Claremont's complex story structures "played a pivotal role in assembling the audience that enabled American comics to move to more mature and sophisticated storytelling, and the graphic novel." Claremont's editor on the series, Louise Simonson, attributes the X-Men's success to his approach to the characters: "Chris took them very seriously. They were real people to him."


title: Chris Claremont

text: As the writer of "X-Men", Claremont became known for certain characteristic phrases, such as Wolverine's saying, "I'm the best there is at what I do. And what I do...isn't very nice", which became closely associated with the character.


title: Chris Claremont

text: A 2009 "Slate" article called Claremont the "soapiest writer in comic books... The classic Claremont pose is either a character, head hung in shame with two enormous rivers of tears running down the cheeks as he or she delivers a self-loathing monologue, or a character with head thrown back and mouth open in a shout of rage, shaking tiny fists at heaven and vowing that the whole world will soon learn about his or her feelings." However, the article goes to state that "the genius of Chris Claremont was that he made mutants a generic stand-in for all minorities". "I'm an immigrant," said Claremont in 2014, describing his affinity with outsiders. After arriving in the United States from England, he was beaten up "because I looked like a geek." His emphasis on the theme of prejudice resonated with readers as the "X-Men" series rose in popularity.


title: Chris Claremont

text: In 1987 Claremont began writing genre novels. His first was a science-fiction trilogy about female USAF pilot/astronaut Nicole Shea, consisting of "First Flight" (1987), "Grounded!" (1991), and "Sundowner" (1994). Claremont co-wrote the "Chronicles of the Shadow War" trilogy, "Shadow Moon" (1995), "Shadow Dawn" (1996), and "Shadow Star" (1999), with George Lucas, which continued the story of Elora Danan from the movie" Willow". Claremont was a contributor to the "Wild Cards" anthology series.


title: Chris Claremont

text: Claremont made a cameo appearance in the opening scene of the 2006 film "", for which he is credited as "Lawnmower man". He made a cameo appearance as a Congressional committee member alongside fellow comic book writer Len Wein in an early scene in the 2014 film "".


title: Chris Claremont

text: In December 2010 Claremont appeared at a book signing at Borders Books at Penn Plaza in Manhattan as part of a series of events nationwide to commemorate World AIDS Day, with 25% of the proceeds of books sold at the event donated to Lifebeat, a nonprofit organization that educates young people on HIV/AIDS prevention.


title: Chris Claremont

text: In July 2011 Claremont signed a deed of gift to Columbia University's Rare Book & Manuscript Library, donating his archives of all his major writing projects over the previous 40 years to the Library's nascent comics archives collection, forming the foundation of a research collection focusing on New York City-based cartoonists and comics writers. Following the examination and processing of the materials, which include notebooks, correspondence, early story drafts, plays, novels, comic books and materials from Claremont's early training in the theater and his career as an actor, Claremont's archive will be housed at the Rare Book & Manuscript Library in Butler Library, separate from the graphic novels collection, and will be open to anyone who demonstrates a need for its use, with a Finding Aid being made available online. Claremont's longtime editor Louise Simonson said, "his papers will provide many clues, not only to the evolving way comic books are created and presented, but also how they are perceived, licensed, bought and sold in America and around the world."


title: Chris Claremont

text: A symposium called Comic New York was held March 24–25, 2012 at Columbia University's Low Memorial Library to mark the occasion, which was organized by Graphic Novels Librarian Karen Green, Professor Jeremy Dauber, and editor Danny Fingeroth. A discussion between Claremont and Simonson held in recognition of Claremont's gift was the keynote event of the symposium, which focused on the intertwined histories of American comics and New York City, which has served both as a breeding ground for creators and the home of the Big Two publishers, Marvel and DC. Signings and panel discussions with other creators, scholars and academics of the comics medium were held during the two-day event. Among the other creators in attendance were Paul Levitz, Al Jaffee, Peter Kuper, Denis Kitchen, Molly Crabapple, John Romita, John Romita Jr., Irwin Hasen, Miss Lasko-Gross and Dean Haspiel.


title: Chris Claremont

text: In the mid-1970s, Claremont was married to Bonnie Wilford. Following the dissolution of that marriage, he married Beth Fleisher, with whom Claremont co-authored "Dragon Moon". Fleisher is the cousin (through marriage) of editor Dan Raspler, who was the editor on "JLA" during the six-issue "Tenth Circle" story arc Claremont and John Byrne wrote in 2004. Claremont and Fleisher have twin sons.


title: Prophets of Rage

text: Prophets of Rage was an American rap rock supergroup. Formed in 2016, the group consisted of three members of Rage Against the Machine and Audioslave (bassist and backing vocalist Tim Commerford, guitarist Tom Morello, and drummer Brad Wilk), two members of Public Enemy (DJ Lord and rapper Chuck D), and rapper B-Real of Cypress Hill. The band disbanded in 2019, following the reuniting of Rage Against the Machine. During its three-year existence, Prophets of Rage released one EP and one full-length studio album.


title: Prophets of Rage

text: Morello declared to "Rolling Stone": "We're an elite task force of revolutionary musicians determined to confront this mountain of election year bullshit, and confront it head-on with Marshall stacks blazing."


title: Prophets of Rage

text: The band's name derives from the title of the Public Enemy song "Prophets of Rage" from its 1988 album "It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back". To coincide with the band's protest performance at the Republican National Convention, it released its debut single, titled "Prophets of Rage". The band played its first live show on January 20, 2016.


title: Prophets of Rage

text: From May 2016 through October 2016, the band embarked on a North American tour, dubbed the "Make America Rage Again Tour". The set list combined the catalogues of each of the band members' current and former groups, as well as new material written by the band.


title: Prophets of Rage

text: An EP "The Party's Over" was released on August 19, 2016. Alongside the songs "Prophets of Rage" and "The Party's Over", the EP contains live cover versions of the songs "Killing in the Name" (Rage Against the Machine), "Shut 'Em Down" (Public Enemy) and "No Sleep 'til Cleveland", a rework of "No Sleep 'til Brooklyn" by the Beastie Boys. The EP was produced by Brendan O'Brien.


title: Prophets of Rage

text: On June 1, 2017, the band released a single with accompanying music video for the track "Unfuck the World" from their album "Prophets of Rage". The band released the singles "Living on the 110" on July 11 and "Radical Eyes" on July 22. The self-titled album, featuring all original material, was released on September 15 by Fantasy Records.


title: Prophets of Rage

text: The band was announced as the opening act on Avenged Sevenfold's 2018 "End of the World" summer tour in the US. Due to M. Shadows becoming ill with a viral infection that rendered him voiceless, the "End of the World" tour was ultimately cancelled before it could begin. On July 6, 2018, the band released the single "Heart Afire", their first new music since the debut album. The band followed up that offering with "Made With Hate", released as a single on June 24, 2019.


title: Prophets of Rage

text: With the 2020 reunion of Rage Against the Machine confirmed on November 1, 2019, B-Real and Chuck D announced that Prophets of Rage were no more, stating that they were merely "keeping the seat warm" for Zack de la Rocha.


title: Onimusha

text: A high-definition remaster of the first game, "", was released in January 2019 for the Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Xbox One and Windows.


title: Onimusha

text: The series originated in 1997, with Yoshiki Okamoto's idea to create "Sengoku Biohazard", a ninja version of Capcom's own 1996 "Resident Evil" (known as "Biohazard" in Japan), set in the Sengoku period and featuring a "ninja house" filled with booby traps, similar to the mansion from "Resident Evil", where battles would be fought using swords and shuriken: "The house will contain hidden doors behind walls, ceilings that fall down to you, scrolls and ninja magic, and many other ninja techniques". The project was originally intended for the Nintendo 64's 64DD.


title: Onimusha

text: "Onimusha: Warlords" was originally being developed for the original PlayStation, but the project was eventually moved to the PlayStation 2. The half-finished original PlayStation version of "Onimusha" was scrapped and never released.


title: Onimusha

text: The central character of the series, Samanosuke Akechi, is modeled after Takeshi Kaneshiro, who also voiced the character. People were used as models for other characters in the series, including Yūsaku Matsuda in "" and Jean Reno in "". Character movements throughout the series were created using motion capture.


title: Onimusha

text: The series was initially planned to be only a trilogy, but a fourth installment, "" was released in 2006. In 2012, Capcom announced a browser-based game, "Onimusha Soul", which was also scheduled to be released for the PlayStation 3 in Japan in 2014.


title: Onimusha

text: Although the protagonist changes in every "Onimusha" title, he is always a skilled swordsman who embarks on a set mission which involves slaying demons and fearsome enemies during the waning years of the Sengoku period of feudal Japan. In each game, the protagonist has the ability to absorb Genma souls from defeated enemies, which help to restore health, infuse power in weapons and armor, and provide power for the elemental attacks of special weapons.


title: Onimusha

text: The player controls their character using the D-pad (although later games such as "Onimusha 3: Demon Siege" and "Onimusha: Dawn of Dreams" introduced analog stick control) and travels in a fairly linear method, able to rotate slowly with the input of an opposing direction. Characters tend to move slowly and can only slightly increase their speed with the dash maneuver by tapping twice in any direction. Actions common to many action-oriented games, such as jumping, grabbing, and climbing over obstacles, cannot be performed in "Onimusha" games.


title: Onimusha

text: "Onimusha" is very action-oriented with an emphasis on combat, and employing some horror elements. The player has an arsenal of weaponry, ranging from katana to elemental-based broadswords. The player possesses a limited supply of spiritual energy which can be used for magical attacks. These magical attacks, which vary depending upon which weapon is equipped and other offensive attributes, can be improved throughout the game by accumulation of souls from defeated enemies.


title: Onimusha

text: Based primarily throughout the Japanese Sengoku period, "Onimusha: Warlords" starts with the feudal lord Nobunaga Oda being killed during a battle. One of the prominent fighters, Hidemitsu Samanosuke Akechi, receives a letter from his cousin Princess Yuki who is concerned about servants from her castle disappearing. Samanosuke joins with the kunoichi Kaede to rescue Yuki and discover demonic creatures known as Genma are the culprits. In order to defeat the Genma, the Oni clan grant Samanosuke powers from their kind. Across his fights Samanosuke discovers the Genma have resurrected Nobunaga into serving their needs while intending to sacrifice Yuki and an orphan named Yumemaru to grant him more powers. Samanosuke manages to save Yuki and Yumemaru and kills the Genma Lord, the God of Light Fortinbras. Samanosuke's group then takes different paths.


title: Onimusha

text: The sequel, "Onimusha 2: Samurai's Destiny", has Nobunaga using the Genma in his forces to unify Japan, wiping out Yagyu village whose clan are Genma exterminators. The clan's only survivor, Jubei Yagyu, goes on a quest to avenge his clan while learning he inherited Oni powers from his mother as he uses them alongside the Oni's five orbs to battle Nobunaga's soldiers. Across his journey, Jubei meets several allies who also seek Nobunaga's life. Jubei manages to infiltrate Gifu castle and confronts Nobunaga alone. Although Jubei kills Nobunaga, the warlord's soul escapes and later reconstitutes himself. The spin-off "Onimusha: Blade Warriors" has the cast from "Warlords" and "Samurai's Destiny" in a new battle against Nobunaga's forces.


title: Onimusha

text: The third game, "Onimusha 3: Demon Siege", has Samanosuke's clan attacking the Oda forces again. Before confronting Nobunaga, Samanosuke is transported to Modern Paris as a result of an experiment made by the Genma scientist Guildernstern to enable his kin to conquer more lands. In the meantime, service agent Jacques Blanc is a victim of Guildernstern while transported to Japan's Sengoku period. There, Jacques is granted oni powers by an oni who tells him to join forces with this timeline's Samanosuke and defeat Nobunaga if he wishes to return home. While Jacques aids Samanosuke in the past, in the future Samanosuke is helped by Jacques' family to investigate the Genma. In the end the two oni warriors are successful in stopping the invasion and return to their respective times. Samanosuke manages to slay Nobunaga and seal his soul within the Oni Gauntlet to avoid another resurrection.


title: Onimusha

text: The fourth game, "Onimusha: Dawn of Dreams", had Nobunaga's servant Hideyoshi Toyotomi unified Japan with the Genma whom he supported in their actions. His illegitimate son, Hideyasu "Soki" Yuki, goes on a quest to defeat Hideyoshi and stop the Genma. He is aided by several other warriors including an elder Samanosuke who recognizes him as the Black Oni, the God of Darkness. After mastering his oni powers, Soki joins with his friends to defeat Hideyoshi's army. In the aftermath it is revealed that Hideyoshi was a puppet of the Genma Triumvirate who wish to resurrect Fortinbras at his full power as the Genmas' God of Light. Although the Genma Triumvirate and Hideyoshi are defeated, Fortinbras resurrects with Soki using the Oni Gauntlet to destroy the Genma and restore the country's peace at the cost of his life. Soon after, Samanosuke embarks on a quest to seal away the Oni Gauntlet to prevent Nobunaga from being released.


title: Onimusha

text: The "Onimusha" series has received overall positive reviews with most of the main games on the PlayStation 2, receiving average scores of more than 80%. As a comparison, most spin-offs from the series have not been as successful. The titles have influenced other games from the company including "Devil May Cry", "Shadow of Rome" and "Resident Evil 4". The samurai game "" was cited by Inafune as an ""Onimusha" clone" although its designer Yoshiki Okamoto denied such statement.


title: Onimusha

text: The series has often been compared with the "Resident Evil" series and has been praised for its focus in action. However, the first two games were criticized for forcing the player to use the Directional Pad rather than the left analogue to make the playable character to move. This issue was solved with the third release which generated a good response. Another subject of criticism is the length of each game with opinions sometimes differing due to the replay value they offer. Yoshinori Ono acknowledged the third game's short length and thus made "Dawn of Dreams" become the series' longest title.


title: Onimusha

text: The original game was a major hit on the PS2, becoming the console's first game to sell over a million copies. While "Onimusha 2" was also a best selling titles Capcom noticed how it did poorly in European regions. The third and fourth titles received less favorable sales with Keiji Inafune addressing people's concerns about how the former game did not feel like a samurai story while various gaming journalists noted the latter was overshadowed by next generation consoles.


title: Onimusha

text: In May 2003, Paramount Pictures, Davis Films and Gaga Productions announced its joint venture to adapt the "Onimusha" game series into a $50 million live-action feature film. According to Paramount and Davis Films' Samuel Hadida: "It's samurai fighting against demons – it's very close to this simple pitch. There's also a love story woven in. It's a big adventure movie with lots of special effects". He also proposed the possibility of a film franchise.


title: Onimusha

text: In December 2006, director Christophe Gans said that he had "Onimusha" lined up to film. The film, budgeted at over $70 million, was to begin production in China in February 2008 for a December 2009 release. It was reported that Takeshi Kaneshiro would be in the movie, reprising his role as Samanosuke. Hadida had to delay the filming of "Onimusha", which has resulted in the film's Japanese cast working on other film projects during the delay, and being unavailable to start filming "Onimusha". These factors meant that Gans would direct an adaptation of Leo Perutz's novel "The Swedish Cavalier" first. Satomi Ishihara and Tsuyoshi Ihara remained attached to the project. There has been no further news regarding this film since 2007.


title: Onimusha

text: During Netflix's "Tudum" virtual event in late September 2022, it was announced that an anime series adaptation was in the works. It will be produced by Sublimation and directed by Shin'ya Sugai, with Takashi Miike as chief director. The main character, Musashi Miyamoto, will be modeled after Toshiro Mifune.


title: 2027 Rugby World Cup

text: The 2027 Rugby World Cup is scheduled to be the eleventh edition of the Rugby World Cup, the quadrennial world championship for men's rugby union teams. It is scheduled to take place in Australia in 2027.


title: 2027 Rugby World Cup

text: A total of 12 teams will gain automatic qualification for the tournament by finishing in the top three of their pool at the 2023 Rugby World Cup


title: 2027 Rugby World Cup

text: World Rugby is hoping to award the bids for both the 2027 and 2031 men's World Cups (along with the bids for the 2025 and 2029 women's World Cups) by May 2022. The process of talking to prospective nations began in February 2021 with the formal candidate process commencing three months later. Finalists will be evaluated in February 2022.


title: 2027 Rugby World Cup

text: As of June 2019, Argentina, Australia and Russia had declared their interest in hosting the 2027 Rugby World Cup, but Argentina withdrew their bid in April 2020, leaving two bidders. There was speculation that the United States and South Africa would be interested in hosting the event, but the South African Rugby Union has stated that it would not be bidding for the 2027 World Cup.


title: 2027 Rugby World Cup

text: World Rugby chairman Bill Beaumont suggested in late 2018 that the host of the Rugby World Cup following the 2023 event in France could be an emerging nation. World Rugby CEO Brett Gosper also suggested in 2019 that World Rugby may bid the 2027 and 2031 World Cups together (as they did with England 2015 and Japan 2019), so that they could make “a bolder decision and a traditional decision.” The hosts for the 2027 and 2031 tournaments will be revealed in May 2022.


title: 2027 Rugby World Cup

text: The fact that three consecutive World Cups (England 2015, Japan 2019, and France 2023) will have occurred in the northern hemisphere made the southern hemisphere countries considered the favourites.


title: 2027 Rugby World Cup

text: Rugby Australia announced on 13 December 2017 that Australia would bid for the 2027 Rugby World Cup. Australia has previously hosted the 1987 Rugby World Cup together with New Zealand, as well as the 2003 Rugby World Cup on its own.


title: 2027 Rugby World Cup

text: Argentina had announced on 5 October 2016 that it would bid for the 2027 Rugby World Cup, but withdrew its bid in April 2020. Argentina has never hosted the tournament before, and World Rugby chairman Bill Beaumont had pledged that he would back the right of countries such as Argentina to bid for the event. Argentina is the only country to reach the World Cup semi-finals that has not hosted any World Cup matches. In April 2020, Argentina withdrew its bid to strengthen the Australian bid, making Australia favourites for the 2027 Rugby World Cup host.


title: 2027 Rugby World Cup

text: Stanislav Druzhinin of the Russian Rugby Union said at a meeting on 31 May 2019 that Russia would apply to host the 2027 Rugby World Cup. Russia would use the 2018 FIFA World Cup stadiums and legacy for the 2027 Rugby World Cup. President Vladimir Putin backed Russia's bid to host the 2027 Rugby World Cup.


title: 2027 Rugby World Cup

text: Rugby Union of Russia could not proceed with its bid to host after CAS imposed a two-year ban on 17 December 2020 on Russia hosting any major sports tournament.


title: Jet lag

text: Jet lag is a physiological condition that results from alterations to the body's circadian rhythms caused by rapid long-distance trans-meridian (east–west or west–east) travel. For example, someone flying from New York to London, i.e. from west to east, feels as if the time were five hours "earlier" than local time, and someone travelling from London to New York, i.e. from east to west, feels as if the time were five hours "later" than local time. The phase shift when traveling from east to west is referred to as phase-delay of the circadian circle, whereas going west to east is phase-advance of the circadian circle. Most travelers find that it is harder to timezone adjust when traveling to the east. Jet lag was previously classified as one of the circadian rhythm sleep disorders.


title: Jet lag

text: The condition of jet lag may last several days before the traveller is fully adjusted to the new time zone; a recovery period of one day per time zone crossed is a suggested guideline. Jet lag is especially an issue for airline pilots, aircraft crew, and frequent travellers. Airlines have regulations aimed at combating pilot fatigue caused by jet lag.


title: Jet lag

text: The term "jet lag" is used because before the arrival of passenger jet aircraft, it was uncommon to travel far and fast enough to cause desynchronosis. Travel by propeller-driven aircraft, by ship, or by train was slower and of more limited distance than jet flights, and thus did not contribute widely to the issue.


title: Jet lag

text: The symptoms of jet lag can be quite varied, depending on the amount of time zone alteration, time of day, and individual differences. Sleep disturbance occurs, with poor sleep upon arrival and/or sleep disruptions such as trouble falling asleep (when flying east), early awakening (when flying west), and trouble remaining asleep. Cognitive effects include poorer performance on mental tasks and concentration; dizziness, nausea, insomnia, confusion, anxiety, increased fatigue, headaches, and irritability; and problems with digestion, including indigestion, changes in the frequency of defecation and consistency of faeces, and reduced interest in and enjoyment of food. The symptoms are caused by a circadian rhythm that is out of sync with the daynight cycle of the destination, as well as the possibility of internal desynchronisation. Jet lag has been measured with simple analogue scales, but a study has shown that these are relatively blunt for assessing all the problems associated with jet lag. The Liverpool Jet Lag Questionnaire was developed to measure all the symptoms of jet lag at several times of day, and this dedicated measurement tool has been used to assess jet lag in athletes.


title: Jet lag

text: Jet lag may require a change of three time zones or more to occur, though some individuals can be affected by as little as a single time zone or the single-hour shift to or from daylight saving time. Symptoms and consequences of jet lag can be a significant concern for athletes travelling east or west to competitions, as performance is often dependent on a combination of physical and mental characteristics that are affected by jet lag. This is often a common concern at international sporting events like the Olympics and FIFA World Cup. However many athletes arrive at least 2–4 weeks ahead of these events, to help adjust from any jet lag issues.


title: Jet lag

text: Travel fatigue is general fatigue, disorientation, and headache caused by a disruption in routine, time spent in a cramped space with little chance to move around, a low-oxygen environment, and dehydration caused by dry air and limited food and drink. It does not necessarily involve the shift in circadian rhythms that cause jet lag. Travel fatigue can occur without crossing time zones, and it often disappears after one day accompanied by a night of good quality sleep.


title: Jet lag

text: Jet lag is a chronobiological problem, similar to issues often induced by shift work and the circadian rhythm sleep disorders. When travelling across a number of time zones, the body clock (circadian rhythm) will be out of synchronisation with the destination time, as it experiences daylight and darkness contrary to the rhythms to which it has grown accustomed. The body's natural pattern is upset, as the rhythms that dictate times for eating, sleeping, hormone regulation, body temperature variations, and other functions no longer correspond to the environment, nor to each other in some cases. To the degree that the body cannot immediately realign these rhythms, it is jet lagged.


title: Jet lag

text: The speed at which the body adjusts to the new schedule depends on the individual as well as the direction of travel; some people may require several days to adjust to a new time zone, while others experience little disruption.


title: Jet lag

text: Crossing the International Date Line does not in itself contribute to jet lag, as the guide for calculating jet lag is the number of time zones crossed, with a maximum possible time difference of plus or minus 12 hours. If the absolute time difference between two locations is greater than 12 hours, one must subtract 24 from or add 24 to that number. For example, the time zone UTC+14 will be at the same time of day as UTC−10, though the former is one day "ahead" of the latter.


title: Jet lag

text: Jet lag is linked only to the trans-meridian (west–east or east–west) distance travelled. A ten-hour flight between Europe and southern Africa does not cause jet lag, as the direction of travel is primarily north–south. A four-hour flight between Miami, Florida and Phoenix, Arizona in the United States may result in jet lag, as the direction of travel is primarily east–west.


title: Jet lag

text: There are two separate processes related to biological timing: circadian oscillators and homeostasis. The circadian system is located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus of the brain. The other process is homeostatic sleep propensity, which is a function of the amount of time elapsed since the last adequate sleep episode.


title: Jet lag

text: The human body has a master clock in the SCN and also peripheral oscillators in tissues. The SCN's role is to send signals to peripheral oscillators, which synchronise them for physiological functions. The SCN responds to light information sent from the retina. It is hypothesised that peripheral oscillators respond to internal signals such as hormones, food intake, and "nervous stimuli".


title: Jet lag

text: The implication of independent internal clocks may explain some of the symptoms of jet lag. People who travel across several time zones can, within a few days, adapt their sleep–wake cycles with light from the environment. However, their skeletal muscles, liver, lungs, and other organs will adapt at different rates. This internal biological de-synchronisation is exacerbated as the body is not in sync with the environment – a "double desynchronisation", which has implications for health and mood.


title: Jet lag

text: Delayed sleep phase disorder is a medical disorder characterized by delayed sleeping time and a proportionately delayed waking time due to a phase delay in the endogenous biological master clock. Specific genotypes underlie this disorder. If allowed to sleep as dictated by their endogenous clock these individuals do not have any ill effects as a result of their phase shifted sleeping time.


title: Jet lag

text: Light is the strongest stimulus for realigning a person's sleep–wake light-dark cycles, and the key to quick adaptation is therefore timed light exposure based on the traveler's sleep pattern, chronotype, itinerary.


title: Jet lag

text: North–south flights that do not cross time zones do not cause jet lag. However, crossing of the Arctic Ocean or even the North Pole (often the shortest route between northeast Europe and Alaska or the Canadian West Coast and East Asia) does cause a significant time change. Jet travel from Alaska to northeast Europe causes a pattern of jet lag very similar to an eastward flight at lower latitudes. Seasonal differences in sunlight if one crosses the equator may make a slightly disrupted sleeping pattern at the destination.


title: Jet lag

text: In general, adjustment to the new time zone is faster for east–west travel than for west–east. A westward adjustment takes, in days, approximately half the number of time zones crossed; for eastward travel, adjusting to the new time zone takes, in days, approximately two-thirds the number of time zones crossed. Studies have shown that performance in both individual and team sports is measurably better in athletes who have flown westward to the venue than in the opposite direction.


title: Jet lag

text: Traveling east causes more problems than travelling west because the body clock has to be advanced, which is more difficult for the majority of humans than delaying it. Most people have an endogenous circadian rhythm that is longer than 24 hours, so lengthening a day is less troublesome than shortening it. Equally important, the necessary exposure to light to realign the body clock does not tie in with the day/night cycle at the destination.


title: Jet lag

text: Travelling east by six to nine time zones causes the biggest problems, as it is desirable to avoid light in the mornings.


title: Jet lag

text: Traveling west causes fewer problems than travelling east, and it is usually sufficient to seek exposure to light during the day and avoid it at night.


title: Jet lag

text: Timed light exposure can be effective to help people match their circadian rhythms with the expected cycle at their destination; it requires strict adherence to timing. Light therapy is a popular method used by professional athletes to reduce jet lag. Timed correctly, the light may contribute to an advance or delay of the circadian phase to that which will be needed at the destination.


title: Jet lag

text: In addition to timed light exposure, the right type and dose of melatonin, at the right time, can help the traveler shift faster and sleep better as they are transitioning between time zones There remain issues regarding the appropriate timing of melatonin use in addition to the legality of the substance in certain countries. How effective it may actually be is also questionable. For athletes, anti-doping agencies may prohibit or limit its use.


title: Jet lag

text: Melatonin can be considered to be a darkness signal, with effects on circadian timing that are the opposite of the effects of exposure to light. Melatonin receptors are situated on the suprachiasmatic nucleus, which is the anatomical site of the circadian clock. The results of a few field studies of melatonin administration, monitoring circadian phase, have provided evidence for a correlation between the reduction of jet lag symptoms and the accelerated realignment of the circadian clock.


title: Jet lag

text: In the case of short duration trips, an easy way to minimize jet lag is to maintain the sleep-wake schedule from home after arriving at the destination, but this strategy is often unpractical in regard to desired social activities or work obligations. Shifting your sleep schedule before departure by 1–2 hours to match the destination time zone may also shorten the duration of jet lag. Symptoms can be reduced even more through a combination of artificial exposure to light and rescheduling, as it has been shown to augment phase-shifting.


title: Jet lag

text: In a study, zolpidem improved sleep quality and reduced awakenings for people traveling across five to nine time zones. Potential adverse effects of hypnotic agents, like amnesia and confusion, should be taken into account. Several cases using triazolam to promote sleep during a flight reported dramatic global amnesia.


title: Jet lag

text: Jet lag may affect the mental health of vulnerable individuals. When travelling across time zones, there is a "phase-shift of body temperature, rapid-eye-movement sleep, melatonin production, and other circadian rhythms". A 2002 study found that relapse of major affective and psychotic disorders occurred more frequently when seven or more time zones had been crossed in the past week than when three or fewer had been crossed. Although significant disruptions of circadian rhythms had been documented as affecting individuals with bipolar disorder, an Australian team studied suicide statistics from 1971 to 2001 to determine whether the one-hour shifts involved in daylight saving time had an effect. They found increased incidence of male suicide after the commencement of daylight saving time but not after returning to standard time.


title: Dead Man's Shoes (2004 film)

text: Dead Man's Shoes is a 2004 British psychological thriller film directed by Shane Meadows and starring Paddy Considine, both of whom cowrote the film with Paul Fraser. The film also stars Toby Kebbell, Gary Stretch and Stuart Wolfenden. It was released in the United Kingdom on 1 October 2004 and in the United States on 12 May 2006. Filming took place in the summer of 2003 over the course of three weeks.


title: Dead Man's Shoes (2004 film)

text: The story details the return of Richard to his home town of Matlock, Derbyshire, in the Peak District, England, after serving as a paratrooper in the British Army. Richard and his younger, mentally impaired brother, Anthony, camp at an abandoned farm near the town. Flashbacks reveal Anthony's abuse by a group of drug dealers in the town; Richard vows to take revenge.


title: Dead Man's Shoes (2004 film)

text: Richard has a face-to-face confrontation with Herbie, one of the abusers, who does not recognise him at first. Later, Herbie and friends Soz and Tuff are in a flat taking drugs. He tells them about the confrontation, and states he thinks the man might be Anthony's brother, who has been away serving in the army. When Herbie leaves he sees a man in a military gas mask banging on the front door of the block. Soz and Tuff run outside but the man is nowhere to be seen. When they go back into their flat, they discover Richard has ransacked it, stolen the drugs, and spray-painted the words "Cheyne Stoking", a pun on the scientific name for the pattern of breathing a human being goes into when they are dying.


title: Dead Man's Shoes (2004 film)

text: The next day the thugs visit Sonny, the de facto leader of the gang, to explain where the drugs went. When they meet, Sonny has had his face painted but doesn't realise. The other gang members arrive during this time and they have had their hair and clothes painted as well. They all suspect one another of playing games until Herbie states that the man he saw in the pool hall is Richard, Anthony's brother. All of the gang become silent as they realise that Richard is back in town.


title: Dead Man's Shoes (2004 film)

text: The men encounter Richard while driving in their Citroën 2CV. He makes it clear that he is not scared of any of them and invites them to come and find him at the old farm where he is staying. The gang leaves, with Sonny visibly concerned at Richard's apparent lack of fear. That evening, while the gang are hiding out and playing cards, Sonny decides that they should shoot Richard. When one of the members leaves, Richard (having sneaked into the house) brutally kills him with an axe, using the dead man's blood to smear the words "One Down" on the wall.


title: Dead Man's Shoes (2004 film)

text: The next morning, they take their car and go to the farm where Richard is staying with Anthony. Sending in Big Al (one of their members) to draw Richard out, Sonny prepares to shoot him with a rifle and their only round. However, he misses and kills Al. With no rounds remaining in the rifle, they retreat and return to town as Richard smiles.


title: Dead Man's Shoes (2004 film)

text: The surviving members stop at a local petrol station where the car breaks down and Tuff runs off, scared of Richard's revenge. Later at Sonny's house, they arm themselves and search the place, expecting Richard to be there. They do not find him, although he is hiding in the kitchen pantry. While they are upstairs, Richard laces their kettle with a cocktail of the drugs he took from the gang earlier in the film. The three men become completely intoxicated a few hours later, and Richard reappears to kill them one by one. He toys with them, dancing and joking. He shoots Sonny in the head, and kills Soz with an upward palm strike. He then sits Herbie down and brings out a suitcase, which has Tuff's corpse inside. Richard then tells him he is a good man and will let him live if he tells him where the final gang member is since he left the gang years before. He tells him without hesitation, and Richard hugs him. But he finds Herbie's knife and asks him if it was to be used on him. Herbie lies at first before telling the truth, but Richard stabs him regardless. Richard leaves right after.


title: Dead Man's Shoes (2004 film)

text: The next day, Richard arrives in a nearby town where the final gang member, Mark, lives with his wife and two boys. He talks with the children's mother and asks her to let her husband know that he is Richard, Anthony's brother. When Mark returns home, she explains the conversation to her husband. Terrified, he tells her how the gang abused Anthony. The abuse culminated with them pretending to hang him at a local ruined castle whilst he was high on acid. This final episode of abuse culminates with Anthony actually hanging himself after his 'friends' run off. It then becomes clear that Richard has been alone the whole time and talking to a vision of his dead brother.


title: Dead Man's Shoes (2004 film)

text: The next morning, Richard sneaks into Mark's house and takes him hostage using a knife. He makes him drive to the same ruined castle where Anthony hanged himself and demands he tell him his part in what happened. Mark explains how his fault was in not stopping the abuse. Richard confesses to his crimes against the other men and reveals that he thought of Anthony as an embarrassment to him because of his mental disabilities. He tells Mark how he now feels like a monster and that he simply wants to lie down with his brother. Richard gives the knife to Mark and demands that he kill him lest he continue his monstrous ways. Mark refuses, but Richard clasps his hands and pulls them towards him. Mark eventually stabs and kills Richard before stumbling away.


title: Dead Man's Shoes (2004 film)

text: After completing "Once Upon a Time in the Midlands", Shane Meadows had gone on a hiatus. Paddy Considine had made the short film "My Wrongs", which was the first project of Warp Films. Considine introduced Meadows to Warp's Mark Herbert and showed him some of their earlier short films. Based on those, Herbert agreed to fund the making of a movie.


title: Dead Man's Shoes (2004 film)

text: Meadows was keen to get back to his short film roots and cowrote the script with Considine and long-time collaborator Paul Fraser. Originally intended to be a black comedy about a heroic social worker based on a real-life event that Considine had come across, the story took a darker turn when Meadows remembered a friend with disabilities who had died when he was young. Taking inspiration from these real-life situations they had experienced and people they had encountered and the feel of exploitation films, Meadows and Considine turned in a story outline originally titled "The Skull". There was no definitive script, with most of the scenes and lines existing as a rough draft. As a result, most of the dialogue and set pieces were improvised on set.


title: Dead Man's Shoes (2004 film)

text: Toby Kebbell was cast at short notice after the actor who had originally been intended to play the character of Anthony dropped out due to concerns about playing the learning difficulties realistically. The character was rewritten from an older brother to a younger brother accordingly. Similarly, former boxer Gary Stretch was hired at the eleventh hour after expressing interest in making films in Britain. "Dead Man's Shoes" was the screen debut for both actors. It was also the first film that Jo Hartley featured in. Emily Aston had appeared on television but "Dead Man's Shoes" was also her first feature film role.


title: Dead Man's Shoes (2004 film)

text: Because of the nature of low budget film making, numerous other changes from the script were made virtually on the fly. Neil Bell's character was scripted to be killed off first, but because of how well he worked on set, it was decided that another character would die and the scene was rewritten overnight. A violent confrontation between Richard and the gang was also changed to the scene in which Richard threatens Sonny.


title: Dead Man's Shoes (2004 film)

text: Filming took place in and around the town of Matlock, Derbyshire in May 2003, with re-shoots and pick up shots taken in October the same year. The farm where Richard and Anthony stay is located in Bonsall. Darley Dale, Tansley and Riber feature heavily. The ending was shot at Riber Castle. The film took three weeks to shoot. Because of the low budget, the entire film crew and actors were transported in a single minibus.


title: Dead Man's Shoes (2004 film)

text: The Citroën 2CV used in the film was inspired by an acquaintance of Shane Meadows who had a similar car. The 2CV still exists and was recently seen at a Citroën themed car show, albeit having been repainted. The 2CV also featured in the black comedy series "Shameless".


title: Dead Man's Shoes (2004 film)

text: The film features music from, among others, Aphex Twin. Gavin Clark and Nick Hemming, both regular collaborators with Shane Meadows, contributed to the soundtrack. Several additional songs written by other artists on Warp Records appear on the film's soundtrack.


title: Dead Man's Shoes (2004 film)

text: Tracks that appeared in the film but not on the soundtrack album include "Monkey Hair Hide" by The Leisure Society, "A King at Night" by Bonnie "Prince" Billy, "De Profundis" by Arvo Pärt, "Let My Prayer Arise" by Dmitry Bortniansky, sung by the Estonian Philharmonic Chamber Choir, "Chinese Water Python" by Robyn Hitchcock, "Sunny Days" by Position Normal and "The Only One" Featuring. Jemini by Danger Mouse.


title: Dead Man's Shoes (2004 film)

text: A limited-edition graphic novel adapted and illustrated by Anjan Sarkar and based on the script was published to tie in with the release of the film. The book was Warp's first publishing effort. Sarkar had worked on the storyboards for the movie, as well as those for "My Wrongs" and used his work as the basis for the adaptation, which expanded certain scenes and ideas than those seen in the movie. The book was reissued for Warp Films' tenth anniversary.


title: Dead Man's Shoes (2004 film)

text: Writing in "The Observer", Philip French called the film "A very skilful, superbly edited piece of moviemaking". "The Daily Telegraph" wrote that the film was "not for the faint hearted". Upon release in the United States, "The New York Times" stated that the film '"had style and the story is told with authority“ but otherwise felt it was run of the mill. When released in Australia in October 2006, it was described as "very moralistic" and "thrilling." The film was ranked number 180 in "Empire" magazine's "201 Greatest Movies of All Time" feature in the March 2006 issue. It also made other appearances in the magazine's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time, where it was ranked at number 462, and in October 2011, where it came 27th in the "100 Best British Films Ever." In celebration of their 200th issue in October 2012, "Total Film" named it the twelfth best film of the magazine's lifetime. It was ranked number 92 in "Time Out"s list of the 100 best British films.


title: Dead Man's Shoes (2004 film)

text: Paddy Considine won Best British Actor at the 2005 Empire Awards, beating, among others, Simon Pegg for "Shaun of the Dead" and Daniel Craig for "Layer Cake". "Dead Man's Shoes" was nominated for eight British Independent Film Awards. Toby Kebbell was nominated for Best Newcomer while Gary Stretch was nominated for a Best Supporting Actor award at the same ceremony.


title: Dead Man's Shoes (2004 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 58% based on 48 reviews with an average rating of 6.1/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Though enhanced by cramped, gritty camerawork, this unsettling look at violence and revenge lacks the provocative edge needed to give it a substantial kick." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 52 out of 100 based on 14 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Dead Man's Shoes (2004 film)

text: On 17 November 2012, as part of Warp Films 10-year anniversary celebrations (WarpFilms10), "Dead Man's Shoes" was re-scored live at the Magna Science and Adventure Centre in Rotherham by musicians Gavin Clark, Joel Cadbury, Jah Wobble and more. Its popularity led to a follow-up event in London as part of the Warp Films season at BFI Southbank on 29 March 2013 at the Southbank Centre's BFI Sonic Cinema. Featuring Gavin Clark (Clayhill, UNKLE), Joel Cadbury (UNKLE, South), Ali Friend (Clayhill), Ted Barnes (Clayhill), Jeff Wootton, Daisy Palmer (Goldfrapp) and Helen Boulding. All performances feature a special introduction from Paddy Considine.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: The Iceman Cometh is a play written by American playwright Eugene O'Neill in 1939. First published in 1946, the play premiered on Broadway at the Martin Beck Theatre on October 9, 1946, directed by Eddie Dowling, where it ran for 136 performances before closing on March 15, 1947. It has subsequently been adapted for the screen multiple times.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: The work tells the story of a number of alcoholic dead-enders who live together in a flop house above a saloon and what happens to them when the most outwardly "successful" of them embraces sobriety and reveals that he has been on the run after murdering his "beloved" wife.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: "The Iceman Cometh" is set in New York in 1912 in Harry Hope's downmarket Greenwich Village saloon and rooming house. The patrons, twelve men and three prostitutes, are dead-end alcoholics who spend every possible moment seeking oblivion in one another's company and trying to con or wheedle free drinks from Harry and the bartenders. They drift purposelessly from day to day, coming fully alive only during the semi-annual visits of salesman Theodore "Hickey" Hickman. When Hickey finishes a tour of his business territory, which is apparently a wide expanse of the East Coast, he typically turns up at the saloon and starts the party. As the play opens, the regulars are expecting Hickey to arrive in time for Harry's birthday party. The first act introduces the various characters as they bicker among themselves, showing how drunk and delusional they are, all the while awaiting Hickey.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: Joe Mott insists that he will soon re-open his casino. The English Cecil "The Captain" Lewis and South African Piet "The General" Wetjoen, who fought each other during the Boer War, are now good friends, and both insist that they'll soon return to their nations of origin. Harry Hope has not left the bar since his wife Bess's death 20 years ago. He promises that he'll walk around the block on his birthday, which is the next day. Pat McGloin says he hopes to be reinstated into the police force, but is waiting for the right moment. Ed Mosher prides himself on his ability to give incorrect change, but he kept too much of his illegitimate profits to himself and was fired; he says he will get his job back someday. Hugo Kalmar is drunk and passed out for most of the play; when he is conscious, he pesters the other patrons to buy him a drink. Chuck Morello says that he will marry Cora tomorrow. Larry Slade is a former syndicalist-anarchist who looks pityingly on the rest. Don Parritt is a former anarchist who shows up later in the play to talk about his mother (Larry's ex-girlfriend) to Larry; specifically her arrest due to her involvement in the anarchist movement.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: When Hickey finally arrives, his behavior throws the characters into turmoil. With as much charisma as ever, he insists that he sees life clearly now as never before because he no longer drinks. Hickey wants the characters to cast away their delusions and accept that their heavy drinking and inaction mean that their hopes will never be fulfilled. He takes on this task with a near-maniacal fervor. How he goes about his mission, how the other characters respond, and their efforts to find out what has wrought this change in him, take over four hours to resolve. During and after Harry's birthday party, most seem to have been somewhat affected by Hickey's ramblings. Larry pretends to be unaffected, but when Don reveals he was the informant responsible for the arrest of his own mother (Larry's former girlfriend), Larry rages at him; Willie decides McGloin's appeal will be his first case, and Rocky admits he is a pimp.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: Most of the men Hickey talked with do go out into the world—dressed up, hopeful of turning their lives around—but they fail to make any progress. Eventually, they return and are jolted by a sudden revelation. Hickey, who had earlier told the other characters first that his wife had died and then that she was murdered, admits that he is the one who killed her. The police arrive, apparently called by Hickey himself, to arrest Hickey. Hickey justifies the murder in a dramatic monologue, saying that he did it out of love for her. He relates that his father was a preacher in the backwoods of Indiana. Evidently he was both charismatic and persuasive, and it was his inheriting these traits which led Hickey to become a salesman. An angry kid trapped in a small town, Hickey had no use for anyone but his sweetheart, Evelyn. Evelyn's family forbade her to associate with Hickey, but she ignored them. After Hickey left to become a salesman, he promised he would marry Evelyn as soon as he was able. He became a successful salesman, then sent for her and the two were very happy until Hickey became increasingly guilty following his wife's constant forgiveness of his infidelities and drinking. He then recounts how he murdered her to free her from the pain of his persistent philandering and drinking because she loved him too much to live apart from him. But, in retelling the murder, he laughs and tells Evelyn, "Well, you know what you can do with that pipe dream now, don't you?" In realizing he said this, Hickey breaks down completely. He realizes that he went truly insane and that people need their empty dreams to keep existing. The others agree and decide to testify to his insanity during Hickey's trial despite Hickey's begging them to let him get the death sentence. He no longer wishes to live now that he has no illusions about life.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: They return to their empty promises and pipe dreams except for Parritt, who runs to his room and jumps off the fire escape, unable to live with the knowledge of what he has done to his mother after discarding the last of his lies about his action and motivation for it. He first claims that he did it due to patriotism and then for money, but finally admits he did it because he hated his mother, who was so obsessed with her own freedom of action that she became self-centered and alternately ignored or dominated him. Despite witnessing the young man's fatal leap, and acknowledging the futility of his own situation ("by God, there's no hope! I'll never be a success...Life is too much for me!"), Larry fears death as much as life and is consequently left in limbo.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: "The Iceman Cometh" is often compared to Maxim Gorky's "The Lower Depths", which may have been O'Neill's inspiration for his play.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: James Barton, in his performance as Hickey, was reportedly not up to the massive emotional and physical demands of such a titanic part, and sometimes forgot his lines or wore out his voice.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: Marlon Brando was offered the part of Don Parritt in the original Broadway production, but turned it down. Brando was able to read only a few pages of the script the producers gave him before falling asleep, and he later argued at length with the producers, describing the play "ineptly written and poorly constructed" in the hopes they would explain what the play was about and not discover that he hadn't read it.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: 1947: The original production was staged at the Martin Beck Theatre and opened on October 9, 1946, and closed on March 15, 1947, after 136 performances. It was directed by Eddie Dowling with production and lighting design by Robert Edmond Jones. The cast starred James Barton (Theodore "Hickey" Hickman), Jeanne Cagney (Margie), Leo Chalzel (Hugo Kalmar), Russell Collins (James "Jimmy Tomorrow" Cameron), Paul Crabtree (Don Parritt), Dudley Digges (Harry Hope), Ruth Gilbert (Pearl), Charles Hart (Lieb), Nicholas Joy (Cecil "The Captain" Lewis), Marcella Markham (Cora), Joe Marr (Chuck Morello), John Marriott (Joe Mott), E. G. Marshall (Willie Oban), Al McGranary (Pat McGloin), Tom Pedi (Rocky Pioggi), Carl Benton Reid (Larry Slade), Morton L. Stevens (Ed Mosher), Frank Tweddell (Piet "The General" Wetjoen), and Michael Wyler (Moran). The play received mixed reviews.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: 1956: An Off-Broadway production staged after O'Neill's death featured Jason Robards as Hickey and was directed by José Quintero. This production was an unqualified success and established the play as a great modern tragedy.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: 1973: A Broadway revival staged at the Circle in the Square Theatre ran from December 13, 1973, to February 16, 1974, with James Earl Jones as Hickey.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: 1985: A Broadway revival staged at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre featured Jason Robards as Hickey with a cast that included Barnard Hughes as Harry Hope, Donald Moffat as Larry Slade, and again directed by José Quintero. It ran from September 29, 1985, to December 1, 1985.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: 1990: Chicago's Goodman Theatre mounted a production directed by Robert Falls, starring Brian Dennehy as Hickey, Jerome Kilty as Hope and James Cromwell as Slade.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: 1998: A London production featuring Kevin Spacey had a successful and critically acclaimed run through 1998 and 1999 at the Almeida Theatre and the Old Vic in London.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: 1999: A Broadway revival from the 1998 London production staged at the Brooks Atkinson Theatre with Kevin Spacey as Hickey. It ran from April 8, 1999, to July 17, 1999.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: 2012: A revival at Chicago's Goodman Theatre featured Nathan Lane in the lead role of Hickey, Brian Dennehy this time as Larry Slade, and was directed by Robert Falls. It started its run at the Goodman Theatre in April 2012, slated for a six-week engagement. It was a huge success for the Goodman Theater, whose management stated it was the most successful production in its history. This production omitted the character of Pat McGloin.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: 2015: The Goodman Theatre production directed by Falls, starring Lane and Dennehy and the rest of the original cast with the creative team from Chicago was produced at the Harvey Theater of the Brooklyn Academy of Music with a six-week engagement starting on February 5, 2015, that featured Nathan Lane and John Douglas Thompson. For his performance, Thompson won an Obie Award.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: 2018: Denzel Washington starred as Hickey and Tammy Blanchard as Cora, in a Broadway revival directed by George C. Wolfe. The production ran for 14 weeks at the Bernard B. Jacobs Theatre, beginning in previews on March 23, 2018, and opening officially on April 26. The cast featured Frank Wood as Cecil Lewis, Bill Irwin as Ed Mosher, Reg Rogers as James Cameron, Colm Meaney as Harry Hope, and David Morse as Larry Slade. The sets were by Santo Loquasto, costumes by Ann Roth, and lighting design by Jules Fisher and Peggy Eisenhauer.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: 1960: TV Production for Play of the Week on the National Telefilm Associates (NTA) syndication network, directed by Sidney Lumet. This production featured Jason Robards as Hickey, Tom Pedi from the original 1947 stage production as Rocky Pioggi, Sorrell Booke as Hugo Kalmar, and Robert Redford as Don Parritt. It is presented as two separate episodes of the series due to the length of the work, with a total run time of 210 minutes. It is notable in view of TV standards of the time that while much dialog was omitted for time, that which was retained was not changed to soften its language. For example, at the end of Hickey's breakdown, Robards says the words "that damned bitch" exactly as O'Neill had written.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: 1973: A film adaptation as part of the American Film Theatre directed by John Frankenheimer. This production featured many well known actors including Lee Marvin as Hickey, Fredric March as Harry Hope, Robert Ryan as Larry Slade, Tom Pedi as Rocky Pioggi, Bradford Dillman as Willie Oban, Sorrell Booke as Hugo Kalmar, Martyn Green as Cecil Lewis, Moses Gunn as Joe Mott, George Voskovec as The General (Piet Wetjoen) and Jeff Bridges as Don Parritt. This film was the final film appearance of Fredric March, Robert Ryan and Martyn Green. The film run time is 239 minutes. Dialog was consistently trimmed for time as might be done for a stage production. The character of Ed Mosher was excised entirely. There are some variations in words or word order in ordinary speech that differ from the published text. The most important speeches are present and usually performed in full from the published text. Some segments of dialog are presented in an order that differs from the published text.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: The 2013 short video game The Entertainment features numerous references to The Iceman Cometh, including characters named after Evelyn Hickman, Larry Slade, Harry Hope, and Pearl. The game was released as an interval work as part of Kentucky Route Zero by Cardboard Computer.


title: The Iceman Cometh

text: 2020: "The Iceman Cometh" was broadcast as a two-part Zoom Premiere on YouTube Live as a benefit for the Actors Fund. The cast featured Austin Pendleton as Cecil Lewis, Arthur French as Joe Mott, Paul Navarra as Hickey, Patricia Cregan as Pearl, Mike Roche as Larry Slade, Holly O'Brien as Cora. Marygrace Navarra was the stage manager. The event was produced by Caroline Grace Productions, in association with the 2020 Theatre Company. The event was a benefit for the Actors Fund during the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020.


title: M25 motorway

text: The M25 or London Orbital Motorway is a major road encircling most of Greater London. The motorway is one of the most important roads in the UK and one of the busiest. Margaret Thatcher opened the final section in 1986, making the M25 the longest ring road in Europe upon opening. The Dartford Crossing completes the orbital route but is not classed as motorway; it is classed as a trunk road and designated as the A282. In some cases, including notable legal contexts such as the Communications Act 2003, the M25 is used as a "de facto" alternative boundary for Greater London.


title: M25 motorway

text: In the 1944 "Greater London Plan", Patrick Abercrombie proposed an orbital motorway around London. This evolved into the London Ringways project in the early 1960s, and by 1966, planning had started on two projects, Ringway 3 to the north and Ringway 4 to the south. By the time the first sections opened in 1975, it was decided the ringways would be combined into a single orbital motorway. The M25 was one of the first motorway projects to consider environmental concerns and almost 40 public inquiries took place. The road was built as planned despite some protests that included the section over the North Downs and around Epping Forest which required an extension of the Bell Common Tunnel.


title: M25 motorway

text: Although the M25 was popular during construction, it quickly became apparent that there was insufficient traffic capacity. Because of the public inquiries, several junctions merely served local roads where office and retail developments were built, attracting even more traffic onto the M25 than it was designed for. The congestion has led to traffic management schemes that include variable speed limit and smart motorway. Since opening, the M25 has been progressively widened, particularly near Heathrow Airport.


title: M25 motorway

text: The M25 almost completely encircles Greater London and passes briefly through it to the east and west. Junctions 1A–5 are in Kent, 6–13 are in Surrey, 14 and a small part of 15 are in Hillingdon, Greater London, 15–16 are in Buckinghamshire, 17–25 are in Hertfordshire, and 26–31 are in Essex. Policing of the road is carried out by an integrated group made up of the Metropolitan, Thames Valley, Essex, Kent, Hertfordshire and Surrey forces. Primary destinations signed ahead on the motorway include the Dartford Crossing, Sevenoaks, Gatwick Airport, Heathrow Airport, Watford, Stansted Airport and Brentwood.


title: M25 motorway

text: To the east of London the two ends of the M25 are joined to complete a loop by the non-motorway A282 Dartford Crossing of the River Thames between Thurrock and Dartford. The crossing consists of twin two-lane tunnels and the four-lane QE2 (Queen Elizabeth II) bridge. with a main span of . Passage across the bridge or through the tunnels is subject to a charge between 6 am and 10 pm, its level depending on the kind of vehicle. The road is not under motorway regulations so that other traffic can cross the Thames east of the Woolwich Ferry; the only crossing further to the east is a passenger ferry between Gravesend, Kent, and Tilbury, Essex.


title: M25 motorway

text: At Junction 5, the clockwise carriageway of the M25 is routed off the main north–south dual carriageway onto the main east–west dual carriageway with the main north–south carriageway becoming the A21. In the opposite direction, to the east of the point where the M25 diverges from the main east–west carriageway, that carriageway becomes the M26 motorway. From here to Junction 8, the M25 follows the edge of the North Downs close to several historic buildings such as Chevening, Titsey Place, Hever Castle and Chartwell. The interchange with the M23 motorway near Reigate is a four-level stack; one of only a few examples in Britain. Past this, the M25 runs close to the Surrey Hills AONB.


title: M25 motorway

text: To the west, the M25 passes close to the edge of Heathrow, and within sight of Windsor Castle. North of this, it crosses the Chiltern Main Line under the Chalfont Viaduct, a 19th-century railway bridge. Red kites can often be seen overhead to the north of this, up to Junction 21. The northern section of the M25 passes close to All Saints Pastoral Centre near London Colney, Waltham Abbey and Copped Hall. This section also features two cut-and-cover tunnels, including the Bell Common Tunnel. The north-eastern section of the motorway passes close to North Ockendon, the only settlement of Greater London situated outside the M25. It then runs close to the Rainham Marshes Nature Reserve before reaching the northern end of the Dartford Crossing.


title: M25 motorway

text: In 2004, following an opinion poll, the London Assembly proposed aligning the Greater London boundary with the M25. "Inside the M25" and "outside/beyond the M25" are colloquial, looser alternatives to "Greater London" sometimes used in haulage. The Communications Act 2003 explicitly uses the M25 as the boundary in requiring a proportion of television programmes to be made outside the London area; it states a requirement of "a suitable proportion of the programmes made in the United Kingdom" to be made "in the United Kingdom outside the M25 area", defined in Section 362 as "the area the outer boundary of which is represented by the London Orbital Motorway (M25)".


title: M25 motorway

text: Sections of the M25 form part of two long-distance E-roads, designated by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. The E15, which runs from Inverness to Algeciras, follows the M25 and A282 clockwise from the A1(M) at junction 23 to the M20 at junction 3; while the E30 Cork to Omsk route runs from the M4 at junction 15, clockwise to the A12 at junction 28. The United Kingdom is formally part of the E-roads network but, unlike in other countries, these routes are not marked on any road signs.


title: M25 motorway

text: The M25 was originally built mostly as a dual three-lane motorway. Much of this has since been widened to dual four lanes for almost half, to a dual five-lanes section between Junctions 12 and 14 and a dual six-lane section between Junctions 14 and 15. Further widening is in progress of minor sections with plans for smart motorways in many others.


title: M25 motorway

text: Two motorway service areas are on the M25, and two others are directly accessible from it. Those on the M25 are Clacket Lane between Junctions 5 and 6 (in the south-east) and Cobham between Junctions 9 and 10 (in the south-west). Those directly accessible from it are South Mimms off Junction 23 (to the north of London) and Thurrock off Junction 31 (to the east of London).


title: M25 motorway

text: As is common with other motorways, the M25 is equipped with emergency ("SOS") telephones. These connect to two National Highways operated control centres at Godstone (for Junctions 1 to 15 inclusive) and South Mimms (for 16–31). The Dartford Crossing has a dedicated control centre. There is an extensive network of closed circuit television (CCTV) on the motorway so incidents can be easily identified and located. A number of 4×4 vehicles patrol the motorway, attempting to keep traffic moving where possible, and assisting the local police. They can act as a rolling roadblock when there are obstacles on the road.


title: M25 motorway

text: When completed, the M25 only had street lighting for of its length. Originally, low pressure sodium (SOX) lighting was the most prominent technology used, but this has been gradually replaced with high-pressure sodium (SON) lighting. the motorway has more than 10,000 streetlights. The M25 has a number of pollution control valves along its length, which can shut off drainage in the event of a chemical or fuel spill.


title: M25 motorway

text: The idea of a general bypass around London was first proposed early in the 20th century. An outer orbital route around the capital had been suggested in 1913, and was re-examined as a motorway route in Sir Charles Bressey's and Sir Edwin Lutyens' "The Highway Development Survey, 1937". Sir Patrick Abercrombie's "County of London Plan, 1943" and "Greater London Plan, 1944" proposed a series of five roads encircling the capital. The northern sections of the M25 follow a similar route to the Outer London Defence Ring, a concentric series of anti-tank defences and pillboxes designed to slow down a potential German invasion of the capital during World War II. This was marked as the D Ring on Abercombie's plans. Following the war, 11 separate county councils told the Ministry of Transport that an orbital route was "first priority" for London.


title: M25 motorway

text: Plans stalled because the route was planned to pass through several urban areas, which attracted criticism. The original D Ring through northwest London was intended to be a simple upgrade of streets. In 1951, Middlesex County Council planned a route for the orbital road through the county, passing through Eastcote and west of Bushey, connecting with the proposed M1 motorway, but it was rejected by the Ministry two years later. An alternative route via Harrow and Ealing was proposed, but this was abandoned after the council revealed the extent of property demolition required.


title: M25 motorway

text: In 1964, the London County Council announced the London Ringways plan, to consist of four concentric motorway rings around London. The following year, the transport minister Barbara Castle announced that the D Ring would be essential to build. The component parts of what became the M25 came from Ringway 3 / M16 motorway in the north and Ringway 4 in the south.


title: M25 motorway

text: The Ringways plan was controversial owing to the destruction required for the inner two ring roads, (Ringway 1 and Ringway 2). Parts of Ringway 1 were constructed (including the West Cross Route), despite stiff opposition, before the overall plan was postponed in February 1972. In April 1973, the Greater London Council elections resulted in a Labour Party victory; the party then formally announced the cancellation of the Ringways running inside Greater London. This did not affect the routes that would become the M25, because they were planned as central government projects from the outset.


title: M25 motorway

text: There was no individual public inquiry into the M25 as a whole. Each section was presented to planning authorities in its own right and was individually justified, with 39 separate public inquiries relating to sections of the route. The need for the ministry to negotiate with local councils meant that more junctions with local traffic were built than originally proposed. A report in 1981 showed that the M25 had the potential to attract office and retail development along its route, negating the proposed traffic improvements and making Central London a less desirable place to work. None of the motorway was prevented from being built by objections at the public inquiries. However, as a consequence of the backlash against the Ringways, and criticism at the public inquiries, the motorway was built with environmental concerns in mind. New features included additional earth mounds, cuttings and fences that reduced noise, and over two million trees and shrubs to hide the view of the road.


title: M25 motorway

text: Construction of parts of the two outer ring roads, Ringways 3 and 4, began in 1973. The first section, between South Mimms and Potters Bar in Hertfordshire (Junctions 23 to 24) opened in September 1975. It was provisionally known as the M16 and was given the temporary general-purpose road designation A1178. A section of the North Orbital Road between Rickmansworth and Hunton Bridge was proposed in 1966, with detailed planning in 1971. The road was constructed to motorway standards and opened in October 1976 as a section of the A405. It eventually became part of the M25's route. The section to the south, from Heathrow Airport to Rickmansworth had five separate routes proposed when a public inquiry was launched in 1974. The Department of Transport sent out 15,000 questionnaires about the preferred route, with 5,000 replies. A route was fixed in 1978, with objections delaying the start of construction in 1982.


title: M25 motorway

text: The southern section of what became the M25 through Surrey and Kent was first conceived to be an east–west road south of London to relieve the A25, and running parallel to it, with its eastern end following the route of what is now the M26. It was originally proposed as an all-purpose route, but was upgraded to motorway standard in 1966. It was the first section of the route announced as M25 from the beginning. The first section from Godstone to Reigate (Junctions 6 to 8) was first planned in 1966 and opened in February 1976. A section of Ringway 3 south of the river between Dartford and Swanley (Junctions 1 to 3) was constructed between May 1974 and April 1977.


title: M25 motorway

text: In 1975, following extensive opposition to some parts of Ringway 3 through Middlesex and South London, the transport minister John Gilbert announced that the north section of Ringway 3 already planned would be combined with the southern section of Ringway 4, forming a single orbital motorway to be known as the M25, and the M16 designation was dropped. This scheme required two additional sections to join what were two different schemes, from Swanley to Sevenoaks in the south-east and Hunton Bridge to Potters Bar in the north-west. The section of Ringway 3 west of South Mimms anti-clockwise around London to Swanley in Kent was cancelled.


title: M25 motorway

text: The section from Potters Bar to the Dartford Tunnel was constructed in stages from June 1979 onwards, with the final section between Waltham Cross (Junction 25) to Theydon Garnon (Junction 27) opening in January 1984. This section, running through Epping Forest, attracted opposition and protests. In 1973, local residents had parked combine harvesters in Parliament Square in protest against the road, draped with large banners reading "Not Epping Likely". As a consequence of this, the Bell Common Tunnel that runs in this area is twice as long as originally proposed.


title: M25 motorway

text: The most controversial section of the M25 was that between Swanley and Sevenoaks (Junctions 3 to 5) in Kent across the Darenth Valley, Badgers Mount and the North Downs. An 1800-member group named Defend Darenth Valley and the North Downs Action Group (DANDAG) argued that the link was unnecessary, it would damage an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and it would be primarily used by local traffic as a bypass for the old A21 road between Farnborough and Sevenoaks. After a length inquiry process, chaired by George Dobry QC, the transport minister Kenneth Clarke announced the motorway would be built as proposed.


title: M25 motorway

text: The section from the M40 motorway to the 1970s North Orbital Road construction (Junctions 16 to 17) opened in January 1985. The route under the Chalfont Viaduct meant the motorway was restricted to a width of three lanes in each direction.


title: M25 motorway

text: The Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, officially opened the M25 on 29 October 1986, with a ceremony in the section between Junctions 22 to 23 (London Colney and South Mimms). To avoid the threat of road protesters, the ceremony was held a quarter of a mile from the nearest bridge. The total estimated cost of the motorway was around £1 billion. It required of concrete, of asphalt and involved the removal of of spoil. Upon completion, it was the longest orbital motorway in the world at . At the opening ceremony, Thatcher announced that 98 miles had been constructed while the Conservative Party were in office, calling it "a splendid achievement for Britain". A 58-page brochure was published, commemorating the completion of the motorway.


title: M25 motorway

text: The M25 was initially popular with the public. In the 1987 general election, the Conservatives won in every constituency that the motorway passed through, in particular gaining Thurrock from Labour. Coach tours were organised for a trip around the new road. However, it quickly became apparent that the M25 suffered from chronic congestion. A report in "The Economist" said it "had taken 70 years to plan [the motorway], 12 to build it and just one to find it was inadequate". Thatcher rebuked the negative response, calling it "carping and criticism".


title: M25 motorway

text: Traffic levels quickly exceeded the maximum design capacity. Two months before it opened, the government admitted that the three-lane section between Junctions 11 and 13 was inadequate and that it would have to be widened to four. In 1990, the Secretary of State for Transport announced plans to widen the whole of the M25 to four lanes. By 1993 the motorway, designed for a maximum of 88,000 vehicles per day, was carrying 200,000. At that time, the M25 carried 15% of UK motorway traffic and there were plans to add six lanes to the section from Junctions 12 to 15, as well as widening the rest of the motorway to four lanes.


title: M25 motorway

text: In parts, particularly the western third, that plan went ahead. Again, however, plans to widen further sections to eight lanes (four each way) were scaled back in 2009 in response to rising costs. The plans were reinstated in the agreed Highways Agency 2013–14 business plan.


title: M25 motorway

text: In June 1992, the Department for Transport (DfT) announced a proposal to widen the section close to Heathrow Airport to fourteen lanes by way of three additional link roads. That attracted fierce opposition from anti-motorway protesters who were critical of the Newbury Bypass and other schemes, but also from local authorities. Surrey County Council led a formal objection to the widening scheme, and it was cancelled shortly afterwards. In 1994, the Standing Advisory Committee on Trunk Road Appraisal published a report saying that "the M25 experience most probably does ... serve as an example of a case where roads generate traffic" and that further improvements to the motorway were counter-productive. In April 1995, the Transport Minister Brian Mawhinney announced that the Heathrow link roads would be scrapped.


title: M25 motorway

text: In 1995 a contract was awarded to widen the section between Junctions 8 and 10 from six to eight lanes at a cost of £93.4 million, and a Motorway Incident Detection and Automatic Signalling (MIDAS) system was introduced from Junction 10 to Junction 15 in 1995, at a cost of £13.5m. That was extended to Junction 16 in 2002, at a cost of £11.7m. The system consists of a distributed network of traffic and weather sensors, speed cameras and variable-speed signs, that control traffic speeds with little human supervision.It has improved traffic flow slightly, reducing the amount of start-stop driving.


title: M25 motorway

text: After Labour won the 1997 election, the road budget was cut from £6 billion to £1.4 billion. However, the DfT announced new proposals to widen the section between Junction 12 (M3) and Junction 15 (M4) to twelve lanes. At the Heathrow Terminal 5 public inquiry, a Highways Agency official said that the widening was needed to accommodate traffic to the proposed new terminal, but the transport minister said that no such evidence had been given. Environmental groups objected to the decision to go ahead with a scheme to create the widest motorways in the UK, without holding a public inquiry. Friends of the Earth claimed the real reason for the widening was to support Terminal 5. The decision was again deferred. A ten-lane scheme was announced in 1998, and the £148 million 'M25 Jct 12 to 15 Widening' contract was awarded to Balfour Beatty in 2003. The scheme was completed in 2005, with dual-five lanes between Junctions 12 and 14 and dual-six lanes from Junctions 14 to 15.


title: M25 motorway

text: In 2007, Junction 25 (A10/Waltham Cross) was remodelled to increase capacity. The nearby Holmesdale Tunnel was widened to three lanes in an easterly direction, and an additional left-turn lane added from the A10 onto the motorway. The total cost was £75 million.


title: M25 motorway

text: Work to widen the exit slip-roads in both directions at Junction 28 (A12 / A1023) was completed in 2008. That was designed to reduce the amount of traffic queuing on the slip roads at busy periods, particularly traffic from the clockwise M25 joining the northbound A12. In 2018, a new scheme was proposed, because the junction had reached capacity, accommodating over 7,500 vehicles per hour. The scheme involved building a two-lane link road between the M25 and the A12. The work was expected to be completed around 2021/22.


title: M25 motorway

text: In 2006, the Highways Agency proposed widening of the M25 from six to eight lanes, between Junctions 5 and 6, and 16 to 30, as part of a Design, Build, Finance and Operate (DBFO) project. A shortlist of contractors was announced in October 2006 for the project, which was expected to cost £4.5 billion. Contractors were asked to resubmit their bids in January 2008, and in June 2009 the new transport minister indicated that the cost had risen to £5.5 billion and the benefit to cost ratio had dropped considerably. In January 2009 the government announced that plans to widen the sections from Junctions 5 to 7 and 23 to 27 had been 'scrapped' and that hard shoulder running would be introduced instead. However, widening to four lanes was reinstated in the 2013–14 Highways Agency Business Plan.


title: M25 motorway

text: In 2009, a £6.2 billion M25 DBFO private finance initiative contract was awarded to Connect Plus to widen the sections between Junctions 16 to 23 and 27 to 30, and maintain the M25 and the Dartford Crossing for a 30-year period.


title: M25 motorway

text: Work to widen the section between Junctions 16 (M40) and 23 (A1(M)) to dual four lanes started in July 2009 at an estimated cost of £580 million. The Junction 16 to 21 (M1) section was completed by July 2011 and the Junction 21 to 23 by June 2012. Works to widen the Junctions 27 (M11) to 30 (A13) section to dual four lanes also started in July 2009. The Junction 27 to 28 (A12) section was completed in July 2010, and the Junction 28 to 29 (A127) in June 2011, and finally the Junction 29 to 30 (A13) section opened in May 2012.


title: M25 motorway

text: Work to introduce smart motorway technology and permanent hard shoulder running on two sections of the M25 began in 2013. The first section between Junctions 5 (A21/M26) and 7 (M23) started construction in May 2013 with the scheme being completed and opened in April 2014. The second section, between Junctions 23 (A1/A1(M)) and 27 (M11), began construction in February 2013 and was completed and opened in November 2014.


title: M25 motorway

text: In December 2016, Highways England completed the capacity project at Junction 30 (Thurrock) as part of the Thames Gateway Delivery Plan. The £100m scheme included widening the M25 to four lanes, adding additional link roads, and improvements to drainage.


title: M25 motorway

text: The plans to expand junction 10, where the M25 meets the A3, have resulted in concerns about the amount of woodland that would be required.


title: M25 motorway

text: The M25 is one of Europe's busiest motorways. In 2003, a maximum of 196,000 vehicles a day were recorded just south of Heathrow, between junctions 13 and 14. The stretch between the nearby Junctions 14 and 15 consistently records the highest daily traffic counts on the British strategic road network, with the average flow in 2018 being 219,492 vehicles (lower than the record peak measured in 2014 of 262,842).


title: M25 motorway

text: Traffic on the M25 is monitored by Connect Plus Services on behalf of National Highways. The company operates a series of transportable CCTV cameras that can be easily moved into congestion hotspots, allowing operators to have a clear view of the motorway and so assess what might be done to tackle particular areas of congestion. Prior to its liquidation in 2018, Carillion was subcontracted to manage traffic on the M25, delivering live alerts from body-worn cameras via 3G, 4G and Wi-Fi.


title: M25 motorway

text: Since 1995, sections of the M25 have been equipped with variable speed limits, which slow traffic in the event of congestion or an obstruction, and help manage the traffic flow. The scheme was originally trialled between Junctions 10 and 16, and was made a permanent fixture in 1997.


title: M25 motorway

text: The Dartford Crossing is the only fixed vehicle crossing of the Thames east of Greater London. It is also the busiest crossing in the United Kingdom, and consequently puts pressure on M25 traffic. Users of the crossing do not pay a toll, but rather a congestion charge. The signs at the crossing are the same as those deployed over the London congestion charge zone.


title: M25 motorway

text: In 2009, the Department for Transport published options for a new Lower Thames Crossing to add capacity to the Dartford Crossing, or create a new road and crossing linking to the M2 and M20 motorways. Plans for that stalled, and were cancelled in 2013 by the Mayor of London, Boris Johnson, being replaced by a proposed Gallions Reach Crossing. Initially seen as a straight ferry replacement for the Woolwich Ferry, it was later mooted as a bridge or tunnel. By 2019, the plans had changed, and the Docklands Light Railway was extended to Thamesmead instead.


title: M25 motorway

text: On 11 December 1984, nine people died and ten were injured in a multiple-vehicle collision between junctions 5 and 6. Twenty-six vehicles were involved when dense fog descended suddenly.


title: M25 motorway

text: On 16 December 1988, several vehicles were stolen and used as getaway for acts of murder and robbery, using the M25 to quickly move between targets. The M25 Three, including Raphael Rowe, were tried and sentenced to life imprisonment in 1990. Their convictions were overturned in 2000 and Rowe, who studied journalism while in prison, became an investigative journalist for the BBC.


title: M25 motorway

text: In 1996, Kenneth Noye murdered Stephen Cameron in a road rage incident while stopped at traffic lights on an M25 junction in Kent. He was convicted in 2000 and sentenced to life imprisonment. He was released in June 2019.


title: M25 motorway

text: In November 2014, during overnight roadworks, a piece of road surface near Junction 9 at Leatherhead failed to set correctly due to rain. This created a pothole in the road and caused a tailback. The Minister for Transport John Hayes criticised the work and the resulting traffic problems.


title: M25 motorway

text: The M25 has had problems with animals and birds on the carriageway. In 2009, the Highways Agency reported that they had been called out several times a week to remove a swan from the motorway around Junction 13. There have been several crashes resulting in horses escaping their horseboxes onto the carriageway.


title: M25 motorway

text: The orbital nature of the motorway, in common with racetracks, lends itself to unofficial, and illegal, motor racing. At the end of the 1980s, before the advent of automated speed enforcement devices, owners of supercars would meet at night at service stations such as South Mimms and conduct time trials. Times below 1 hour were achieved – an average speed of over 117 mph (188 km/h), which included coming to a halt at the Dartford Tunnel road user charge payment booths. The winner received champagne rather than money. The "Enfield Gazette" referred to an "M25 club", and posters appeared near the M25 advertising the "First London Cannonball Run". The racing had mostly disappeared by the end of the 1980s after speed cameras were introduced.


title: M25 motorway

text: In 2021, several sections of the M25 were disrupted after the home energy and insulation campaign group Insulate Britain blocked junctions including Nos. 3 (Swanley), 6 (Godstone), 14 (Heathrow), 20 (Kings Langley) and 31 (Lakeside). A spokesman for the AA said the actions were counterproductive, as they would cause increased vehicle emissions owing to delays, as well having a negative effect on the economy. 92 people were arrested following the first incident on 13 September, followed by a further 70 two days later. Insulate Britain said they would continue to disrupt the M25 until the government responded.


title: M25 motorway

text: On 29 October, two days before the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference, Insulate Britain protests blocked traffic from junctions 21 to 22 in Hertfordshire and 28 to 29 in Essex. 19 arrests were made.


title: M25 motorway

text: The M25 and the Dartford Crossing are known for frequent traffic jams. This was noticed before the entire road had been completed; at the official opening ceremony Margaret Thatcher complained about "those who carp and criticise". The jams have inspired derogatory names, such as "Britain's Biggest Car Park" and songs (e.g., Chris Rea's "The Road to Hell"). Nevertheless, coach tours around the M25 have continued to run into the 21st century.


title: M25 motorway

text: The M25 plays a role in the comedy-fantasy novel "Good Omens", as "evidence for the hidden hand of Satan in the affairs of Man". The demon character, Crowley, had manipulated the design of the M25 to resemble a Satanic sigil, and tried to ensure it would anger as many people as possible to drive them off the path of good. The lengthy series of public inquiries for motorways throughout the 1970s, particularly the M25, influenced the opening of "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy", where the Earth is destroyed to make way for a hyperspace bypass.


title: M25 motorway

text: The M25 enjoyed a more positive reputation among ravers in the late 1980s, when this new orbital motorway became a popular route to the parties that took place around the outskirts of London. Its use for these raves inspired the name of the electronic duo Orbital.


title: M25 motorway

text: Iain Sinclair's 2002 book and film "London Orbital" is based on a year-long journey around the M25 on foot.


title: M25 motorway

text: A piece of graffiti on the Chalfont Viaduct, clearly visible from the M25 and reading "" (parodying John Lennon's "Give Peace A Chance") became popular with the public, attracting its own Facebook group. The message originally read "Peas", supposedly the tag of a London graffiti artist; the rest of the wording is reported to have referred to his frequent clashes with the law. In September 2018, after almost 20 years, the graffiti was vandalised and then removed and replaced with the message "give Helch a break". A spokesman for Network Rail sympathised with the requests to restore the "much-loved graffiti", but said they do not condone people putting their lives at risk by trespassing.