title: Gladiator (1992 film)

text: Tommy enjoys a great deal of success and develops a friendship with Romano and Abraham "Lincoln" Haines, two fellow fighters. However, he continues to be harassed by gang members, and discovers that two of them, "Black Death" and "Short Cut" are boxers who fight dirty, using elbows, kicks, knees, and low blows, and counting on the crooked refs to overlook the clear violations. Tommy defeats Black Death in the ring, but Short Cut hides a fluid in his gloves, which he uses to blind Romano during a match. Unable to defend himself, Romano is brutally beaten in the ring and is declared brain dead by the doctors. Short Cut later tries the same trick on Tommy, but Tommy has learned to fight dirty, and defeats Short Cut.


title: Gladiator (1992 film)

text: Meanwhile, Lincoln shows signs of possible brain damage and is told to quit fighting for at least 60 days or else suffer permanent brain damage. Despite this, Horn arranges a match between Lincoln and Tommy. Afraid of killing Lincoln, Tommy takes a beating until the two are unwilling to continue the match. In revenge, Horn, a former boxer who retired with only one defeat, punches Lincoln severely enough to knock him out of the ring.


title: Gladiator (1992 film)

text: Furious, Tommy challenges Horn to a match. If Horn wins, Tommy will continue to work for him indefinitely, but if Tommy wins, his father's debt is wiped clean. Horn accepts on the condition that they fight bare-knuckle. Horn's vast experience with boxing initially gives him the upper hand, and Horn's confidence influences him to play with and humiliate Tommy as a result. Tommy eventually uses the various forms of advice he has received throughout his brief boxing experience to outthink Horn: he fakes a broken hand to give Horn even more confidence, and then uses the element of surprise to defeat Horn, freeing himself from Horn's contract.


title: Gladiator (1992 film)

text: Jon Seda made his debut on the film, auditioning for John G. Avildsen who was the original director. He was later called back for a screen test by Rowdy Herrington and was ultimately cast. He enjoyed working with Herrington, calling him a passionate director.


title: Gladiator (1992 film)

text: "Gladiator" was critically panned. On film aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 31% rating, with an average score of 4.4/10, based on reviews from 13 critics.


title: Gladiator (1992 film)

text: A soundtrack containing a blend of hip hop and rock music was released on February 25, 1992 by Columbia Records It failed to make it to the "Billboard" charts, but Warrant's cover of "We Will Rock You" was a minor hit on the "Billboard" Hot 100, peaking at #83. The soundtrack also contained the last appearance by the rap group, 3rd Bass. Jerry Goldsmith's unused score was released by Intrada Records in 2013, but none of Brad Fiedel's retained score appears on the 1992 album.


title: 2Pacalypse Now

text: 2Pacalypse Now is the debut solo studio album by American rapper 2Pac, released on November 12, 1991, by Interscope Records and Jive Records. "2Pacalypse Now" is Tupac's commentary on contemporary social issues facing American society, such as racism, police brutality, poverty, black on black crime, and teenage pregnancy. It featured three singles: "Brenda's Got a Baby", "Trapped", and "If My Homie Calls".


title: 2Pacalypse Now

text: "2Pacalypse Now" received critically acclaimed reviews from critics and was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on April 19, 1995. In commemoration of its twenty-fifth anniversary, it was released on vinyl and cassette on November 11, 2016.


title: 2Pacalypse Now

text: The album generated significant controversy stemming from then-U.S. Vice President Dan Quayle's public criticism after Ronald Ray Howard murdered a Texas state trooper and his defense attorney claimed he was influenced by "2Pacalypse Now" and its strong theme of police brutality. Quayle made the statement, "There's no reason for a record like this to be published. It has no place in our society."


title: 2Pacalypse Now

text: "2Pacalypse Now" features productions by Digital Underground member Shock G and Stretch, as well as guest appearances from rappers Poppi and Pogo, R&B singer Dave Hollister and Stretch himself.


title: 2Pacalypse Now

text: "2Pacalypse Now" is a socially conscious hip hop album. It serves as Tupac's social commentary on issues that plague American society, including police brutality, gang violence, black on black crime, teenage pregnancy and racism. The album poetically addresses black urban concerns relevant to the present day. Although a relatively tame album compared to Shakur's later works, "2Pacalypse Now" was known for its violent lyrics aimed at police officers and the government in the songs "Trapped", "I Don't Give a Fuck" and "Soulja's Story".


title: 2Pacalypse Now

text: "2Pacalypse Now" received generally positive reviews from critics. Although the album's political messages, lyrics and his storytelling were praised, Tupac Shakur's debut album was criticized for its production. In a retrospective review, RapReviews gave the album 4 stars out of 5 and said: "It's not an extraordinarily long album, but it is a dense and heavy listen that will take a lot out of you if you pay close attention to the persistent theme. The beats overall fail to make much of an impression, but perhaps that is as it should be, since nothing should be allowed to outshine this kind of lyrical performance. Tupac's vitriol is carried by his sincerity and charisma, both of which would emerge as key traits of the figure that blossomed in the years to come. Over the course of Tupac's career, the political got suffused by the personal and receded from the central position it occupied on his debut".


title: 2Pacalypse Now

text: "2Pacalypse Now" peaked at number 64 on the US "Billboard" 200 and number 13 on the US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums charts. On April 19, 1995, the album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for sales of over 500,000 copies in the United States. As of September 2011, the album has sold 923,455 copies in the United States.


title: Sheba

text: Sheba (; "Šəḇāʾ"; "Sabaʾ"; Ge'ez: ሳባ "Saba") is a kingdom mentioned in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) and the Quran. Sheba features in Jewish, Muslim, and Christian traditions, particularly the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo tradition. It was the home of the biblical "Queen of Sheba", who is left unnamed in the Bible, but receives the names "Makeda" in Ethiopian and "Bilqīs" in Arabic tradition. According to Josephus it was also the home of the biblical "Princess Tharbis" said to have been the first wife of Moses when he was still a prince of Egypt.


title: Sheba

text: There are competing theories of where this kingdom was, with some placing it in either South Arabia or the Horn of Africa.


title: Sheba

text: Encyclopedia Britannica posits that the biblical narrative about the kingdom of Sheba was based on the ancient civilization of Saba (Old South Arabian: 𐩪𐩨𐩱 "S-b-ʾ") in South Arabia. This view is echoed by


title: Sheba

text: Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman who write that "the Sabaean kingdom began to flourish only from the eighth century BCE onward" and that the story of Solomon and Sheba is "an anachronistic seventh-century set piece meant to legitimize the participation of Judah in the lucrative Arabian trade".


title: Sheba

text: The two names Sheba (spelled in Hebrew with "shin") and Seba (spelled with "samekh") are mentioned several times in the Bible with different genealogy. For instance, in the Generations of Noah Seba, along with Dedan, is listed as a descendant of Noah's son Ham (as sons of Raamah, son of Cush). Later on in the Book of Genesis, Sheba and Dedan are listed as names of sons of Jokshan, son of Abraham.


title: Sheba

text: Another Sheba is listed in the Table of Nations as a son of Joktan, another descendant of Noah's son Shem.


title: Sheba

text: There are several possible reasons for this confusion. One theory is that the Sabaeans established many colonies to control the trade routes and the variety of their caravan stations confused the ancient Israelites, as their ethnology was based on geographical and political grounds and not necessarily racial. Another theory suggests that the Sabaeans hailed from the southern Levant and established their kingdom on the ruins of the Minaeans.


title: Sheba

text: The most famous claim to fame for the biblical land of Sheba was the story of the Queen of Sheba, who travelled to Jerusalem to question King Solomon, arriving in a large caravan with precious stones, spices and gold (). The apocryphal Christian Arabic text "Kitāb al-Magall" ("Book of the Rolls"), considered part of Clementine literature, and the Syriac "Cave of Treasures", mention a tradition that after being founded by the children of Saba (son of Joktan), there was a succession of 60 female rulers up until the time of Solomon.


title: Sheba

text: Josephus, in his "Antiquities of the Jews", describes a place called Saba as a walled, royal city of Ethiopia that Cambyses II renamed as Meroë. He writes that "it was both encompassed by the Nile quite round, and the other rivers, Astapus and Astaboras", offering protection from both foreign armies and river floods. According to Josephus it was the conquering of Saba that brought great fame to a young Egyptian prince, simultaneously exposing his personal background as a slave child named Moses.


title: Sheba

text: In the Quran, Sheba is mentioned in surat "an-Naml" in a section that speaks of the visit of the Queen of Sheba to Solomon. The Quran mentions this ancient community along with other communities that were destroyed by God.


title: Sheba

text: In the Quran, the story essentially follows the Bible and other Jewish sources. Solomon commanded the Queen of Sheba to come to him as a subject, whereupon she appeared before him ("an-Naml", 30–31, 45). Before the queen had arrived, Solomon had moved her throne to his place with the help of one who had knowledge from the scripture("Quran" 27:40). She recognized the throne, which had been disguised, and finally accepted the faith of Solomon.


title: Sheba

text: Muslim commentators such as al-Tabari, al-Zamakhshari, al-Baydawi supplement the story at various points. The Queen's name is given as "Bilqis", probably derived from Greek παλλακίς or the Hebraised "pilegesh", "concubine". According to some he then married the Queen, while other traditions assert that he gave her in marriage to a tubba of Hamdan. According to the Islamic tradition as represented by al-Hamdani, the queen of Sheba was the daughter of Ilsharah Yahdib, the Himyarite king of Najran.


title: Sheba

text: Although the Quran and its commentators have preserved the earliest literary reflection of the complete Bilqis legend, there is little doubt among scholars that the narrative is derived from a Jewish Midrash.


title: Sheba

text: Bible stories of the Queen of Sheba and the ships of Ophir served as a basis for legends about the Israelites traveling in the Queen of Sheba's entourage when she returned to her country to bring up her child by Solomon. There is a Muslim tradition that the first Jews arrived in Yemen at the time of King Solomon, following the politico-economic alliance between him and the Queen of Sheba.


title: Sheba

text: Muslim scholars, including Ibn Kathir, related that the people of Sheba were Arabs from South Arabia.


title: Sheba

text: In the medieval Ethiopian cultural work called the Kebra Nagast, Sheba was located in Ethiopia. Some scholars therefore point to a region in the northern Tigray and Eritrea which was once called Saba (later called Meroe), as a possible link with the biblical Sheba. Donald N. Levine links Sheba with Shewa (the province where modern Addis Ababa is located) in Ethiopia.


title: Sheba

text: Traditional Yemenite genealogies also mention Saba, son of Qahtan; Early Islamic historians identified Qahtan with the Yoqtan (Joktan) son of Eber (Hūd) in the Hebrew Bible (Gen. 10:25-29). James A. Montgomery finds it difficult to believe that Qahtan was the biblical Joktan based on etymology.


title: Sheba

text: Owing to the connection with the Queen of Sheba, the location has become closely linked with national prestige, and various royal houses claimed descent from the Queen of Sheba and Solomon. According to the medieval Ethiopian work "Kebra Nagast", Sheba was located in Ethiopia. Ruins in many other countries, including Sudan, Egypt, Ethiopia and Iran have been credited as being Sheba, but with only minimal evidence. Even a massive earthen monument of the Yoruba people in Nigeria known as Sungbo's Eredo is held by Yoruba oral tradition to have been built in honour of the powerful aristocrat Oloye Bilikisu Sungbo, who is often said to have been Queen Bilqis.


title: Edsel Ford II

text: Edsel Bryant Ford II (born December 27, 1948) is the great-grandson of Henry Ford I, grandson of Edsel Ford I, and the only son of Henry Ford II. He served as a member of the board of directors of Ford Motor Company for 33 years before announcing his retirement, and serves on the finance committee and sustainability and innovation committee. He is a cousin of the company's Executive Chairman, William Clay Ford Jr.


title: Edsel Ford II

text: Ford attended Eaglebrook School in Deerfield, Massachusetts, and graduated in 1968, from The Gunnery, in Washington, CT, before entering Babson College. He received his business administration bachelor's degree at Babson, and completed the Program for Management Development at the Harvard Business School in 1981.


title: Edsel Ford II

text: As a board member of Ford, Edsel has been active in company affairs and corporate dealer relations. He was named president and chief operating officer of Ford Motor Credit Company in 1991, and elected a Ford Vice President in 1993. In 2013, Edsel was awarded the Keith Crain/Automotive News Lifetime Achievement Award. Long seen as the public face of Ford Motor Company's motor racing efforts, particularly in NASCAR, in May 2019, Edsel was nominated for and won the NASCAR Hall of Fame's Landmark Award. His retirement was announced in 2021 and his son Henry Ford III was elected to the board to replace him at the May shareholders' meeting.


title: Edsel Ford II

text: Edsel Ford II is the chairman of the board of the Henry Ford Estate - Fair Lane in Dearborn, Michigan. He serves on the board of The Henry Ford. He is currently the director emeritus of the board of directors at Henry Ford College in Dearborn, Michigan, and also served on the board of trustees for the Skillman Foundation. He was previously chairman of the National Advisory Board of the Salvation Army and the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago Detroit Branch. Appointed by then-mayor Dennis Archer, Ford was the chairman of Detroit 300, a major civic and philanthropic effort that organized the celebration of the city of Detroit's 300th birthday in 2001. Ford was then appointed as the founding chairman of the Detroit 300 Conservancy and was instrumental in the development and construction of Campus Martius Park (which the conservancy continues to maintain). On Monday July 4, 2016, Edsel was arrested at his home in Grosse Pointe Farms, Michigan on domestic violence charges stemming from a phone call made by his wife Cynthia.


title: Tag (game)

text: Tag (also called touch and go [TAG], tig, it, tiggy, tips, tick, tip) is a playground game involving two or more players chasing other players in an attempt to "tag" and mark them out of play, usually by touching with a hand. There are many variations; most forms have no teams, scores, or equipment. Usually, when a person is tagged, the tagger says, "Tag, you're 'it'!" The last one tagged during tag is "it" for the next round. The game is known by other names in various parts of the world, including "running and catching" in India and "catch and cook" in the Middle East.


title: Tag (game)

text: Players (two or more) decide who is going to be "it", often using a counting-out game such as eeny, meeny, miny, moe. The player selected to be "it" then chases the others, attempting to "tag" one of them (by touching them with a hand) as the others try to avoid being tagged. A tag makes the tagged player "it". In some variations, the previous "it" is no longer "it" and the game can continue indefinitely, while in others, both players remain "it" and the game ends when all players have become "it".


title: Tag (game)

text: Many variants modify the rules for team play or place restrictions on tagged players' behavior. A simple variation makes tag an elimination game, so that tagged drop out of play. Some variants have a rule preventing a player from tagging the person who has just tagged them (known as "no tag-backs", "no catch-backs", "no returns", "can't tag your master" or "can't get the butcher back").


title: Tag (game)

text: Players may be safe from being tagged under certain circumstances: if they are within a pre-determined area, off the ground, or when touching a particular structure. Traditional variants are Wood tag (see knock on wood), Iron tag, and Stone tag, when a player is safe when touching the named material. This safe zone has been called a "gool", "ghoul", or "Dell", probably a corruption of "goal". The term "gool" was first recorded in print in Massachusetts in the 1870s, and is common in the northern states of the US. Variants include gould, goul, and ghoul, and alternatives include base and home. In the United Kingdom, the base is frequently known as "den". In much of Canada and parts of the northern United States, the state or home base of being immune from tagging is known as "times" or "T", most likely as mutilation of "time out".


title: Tag (game)

text: Players may also make themselves safe from being tagged by the use of a truce term. When playing the game tag, some may cross fingers to let others know that they, the player, cannot be it. Yet, this rule may come into play only if the crossing of fingers is shown; if the fingers are not shown to the person who is it, then the crossing does not count.


title: Tag (game)

text: Tag and other chasing games have been banned in some schools in the United States due to concerns about injuries, complaints from children that it can lead to harassment and bullying, and that there is an aspect to the game that possesses an unhealthily predatory element to its nature. In 2008, a 10-year-old boy in Omaha, Nebraska, died from brain injuries suffered from falling onto a metal pole while playing tag. A school dinner lady in Dorset was left partially paralyzed after a boy playing tag ran into her in 2004; her damage claim was rejected by three Court of Appeal judges, who ruled that the boy had not broken any school rules by playing the game.


title: Tag (game)

text: A principal who banned tag in her school criticized the game for creating a "self-esteem issue" in nominating one child as a victim, and noted that the oldest and biggest children usually dominate the game. A dislike of elimination games is another reason for banning tag. In some schools only supervised tag is allowed, sometimes with a type of tagging called butterfly tagging—a light tap on the shoulders, arms or upper back.


title: Tag (game)

text: The president of the US National Association for Sport and Physical Education said that "Tag games are not inherently bad... teachers must modify rules, select appropriate boundaries and equipment, and make sure pupils are safe. Teachers should emphasize tag games that develop self-improvement, participation, fair play, and cooperation."


title: Tag (game)

text: One (or two players) starts as "bulldog", who stands in the middle of the playing area, while the other players stand at one end of the area. The aim is to run from one end of the area to the other without being caught by the bulldog. When a player is caught, he becomes a bulldog himself. The last player is the winner and starts as "bulldog" in the next game.


title: Tag (game)

text: Octopus tag is a mix between Red Rover and tag. "It", or "octopus", attempts to tag the other players. The playing field is known as the ocean. The players, or "fish", line up along one side of the ocean. When the Octopus calls out, "Come fishies come!", "Octopus!", or a matching attribute of one or more fishes, they try to run to the other side without getting tagged. In a variation, once the fish run to the other side without getting tagged, the game pauses until the octopus starts it again. Upon getting tagged the fish become "seaweed" and must freeze or sit where they were tagged, but they can wave their arms around and assist the Octopus in tagging other fish within their reach. The last fish to be tagged becomes the next Octopus. This game can also be played in the water and then it is called Sharks and Minnows.


title: Tag (game)

text: One player, known as the "kite", starts off inside a circle formed by all of the other players holding hands, and then breaks free, with the first of the other players to tag the kite becoming the kite in the next round of play.


title: Tag (game)

text: In this game, usually played by young children, the players sit in a circle facing inward. One player, the "picker" or "fox", walks around tapping or pointing to each player in turn, calling each of them a "duck", until finally announcing one of their choosing to be the "goose". The goose then rises and runs around the circle in the same direction as the picker, attempting to return to their seat before the "picker" can sit back down in the vacated spot. In Minnesota, this game is referred to as "Duck, duck, gray duck".


title: Tag (game)

text: When first tagged each player tags two others. If tagged again they ignore the tag. The game ends when the tagging stops at which point there


title: Tag (game)

text: If the game is played by a number of players equal to a power of two minus one then it is easier to compare each generation to exponential growth. For 1 or 3 players it matches, divergence is expected for 7, 15, 31 and higher players. Plotting the number of tagged versus the generation typically produces a wave shape, summing the generations typically produces an "S"-shaped curve (Sigmoid function).


title: Tag (game)

text: There are multiple variations of four corners; in one variation, four players stand at four corners of a square, and attempt to swap corners with each other without being tagged by "it", who stands in the middle of the square.


title: Tag (game)

text: Freeze tag is a variation of classic tag. A player is deemed "it." When a person is tagged by "it", they are then "frozen" (staying still in the place where they were tagged). All "unfrozen" players still in play can then touch frozen players to "unfreeze" them, allowing them to be back in play. The game ends when "it" freezes all but one of the players who is then typically "it" during the next game. In some variations of the game, there may be multiple players who are "it" working together. Similar games are played that are known as Vish Amrut/Vish Amrit (Poison-Antidote), Lock and Key, Ice and Water, and Stuck in the Mud.


title: Tag (game)

text: Kiss chase, also referred to as Catch and Kiss, is a tag variant in which tagging is performed by kissing. All members of one sex are "it" at once and chase players of the opposite sex until everyone is caught, then the roles are reversed. A variant is that the player chosen to be "it" will, with assistance from players of the same gender, chase all members of the opposite sex and kiss one of them.


title: Tag (game)

text: All of the players stay in a designated area ("land"), while "it" (who is referred to as a "crocodile") stands outside of that area in the "water", and can not step onto land. The players try to run between the water and the land without being tagged.


title: Tag (game)

text: In the game of Poison, play starts with players holding hands around a small "poison" circle marked on the ground. The first player to be pushed or pulled into the circle become "poisoned", all hands are released and the poisoned player or players must chase the others.


title: Tag (game)

text: In River or Mountain (also referred to as Nadi-Parvat in India), designated areas of the field are referred to as "river" or "mountain". The player who is "it" shouts "river" or "mountain", and the other players must go to the area called out. While outside of that area, the players can be tagged and eliminated.


title: Tag (game)

text: In one variation of "The floor is lava", the players must avoid stepping on the floor by staying on raised platforms, while "it" (sometimes referred to as the "Lava Monster") can walk across the floor and attempt to tag other players.


title: Tag (game)

text: Tilo-Express is a variant of hide-and-seek in which the seeker loses if they are tagged by an opponent that they have not spotted.


title: Tag (game)

text: Cops and robbers, sometimes called "jail", "jail tag", "team tag", "chase", "cowboys and indians", "police and thief", "prisoner's base" "jailbreak", "releaseo" or "manhunt", has players split into two teams: cops and robbers.


title: Tag (game)

text: A. M. Burrage calls this version of the game "Smee" in his 1931 ghost story of the same name. The cops, who are in pursuit of robbers (the team being chased), arrest the robbers by tagging the robbers and putting them in jail. Robbers can stage a jailbreak by tagging one of the prisoners in the jail without getting tagged themselves. The game ends if all the robbers are in jail. In a variant, the robbers have five minutes to hide before being hunted, and only one jailbreak may be allowed per robber. In "Mario Kart 8 Deluxe" for the Nintendo Switch, a variation of the game is used as a sub-mode for Battle Mode known as "Renegade Roundup".


title: Tag (game)

text: Humans vs. Zombies is a survival game of tag, where "human" players fight off increasingly large numbers of "zombies"; if a human is "turned" (i.e. tagged), then that player also becomes a zombie. At the game's beginning, there are only one or two zombies; the zombies multiply by tagging humans, turning them into zombies after a period of one hour. Humans can defend themselves from zombies by using socks, marshmallows, Nerf Blasters or any other toys deemed safe and appropriate; if a zombie is hit by one of these, they are stunned (not allowed to interact with the game in any way) for 15 seconds. The goal of the zombies is to turn all the humans; the humans, meanwhile, must outlast all the zombies.


title: Tag (game)

text: Manhunt is a mixture of hide and seek and tag, often played during the night. One person is "it", while the other players have to hide. Then, the person who is "it" tries to find and tag them. The game is over when all players are out. Manhunt is sometimes played in teams. In one variant there is a home base in which a player is safe. That version ends when all players who are not safe are out.


title: Tag (game)

text: In Prisoner's Base, each team starts in a chain, holding hands, with one end of the chain touching the base. The end two players on each team break from the chain and try to tag each other, taking them to their base if they do. The end pair progressively break from the chain and join the tagging. As with Cops and Robbers, prisoners can be freed by tagging them in the base. The game is thought to date back to the Renaissance period, and may be inspired by the act of bride kidnapping. A game of Prisoner's Base was played by members of Lewis & Clark's Corps of Discovery against a group of Nez Perce.


title: Tag (game)

text: In chain tag (also known in India as Jod Saakli or Saakli/Saakhli), one player is "it" and attempts to tag other players. Each tagged player becomes "it" as well, with all of the "it" players required to form and remain in a human chain by holding hands. Only the two players at either end of the chain can tag other players. The game ends once all players have been tagged, with the last person tagged being the winner.


title: Tag (game)

text: One player is chosen to be Mr Wolf and stands facing away from the other players at the opposite end of the playing field. All players except Mr Wolf chant in unison "What's the time, Mr Wolf?", and Mr Wolf will answer in one of two ways: Mr Wolf may call a time – usually an hour ending in "o'clock". The other players take that many steps towards Mr Wolf. They then ask the question again. Alternatively Mr Wolf may call "Dinner time!", and turn and chase the other players back to their starting point. If Mr Wolf tags a player, that player becomes Mr Wolf for the next round.


title: Tag (game)

text: In Ringolevio, there are two teams. In one version, one team goes off and hides. The other team counts to a number such as 30 and then goes looking for them. Each team has its own "jail", a park bench or other defendable area in another version. The game goes on until all of one team is in jail. In many ways, Ringolevio is similar to Prisoner's Base.


title: Tag (game)

text: One player on the offensive team, known as the "king", is stationed about away from the rest of his teammates, who start off in an area known as the "ghar" (home). The king's goal is to reach home without being tagged by the defensive players. The offensive players can form a human chain and tag defensive players to eliminate them.


title: Tag (game)

text: A similar Bengali game, Bauchi, requires the offensive players to hold their breaths so long as they are outside of the home; failing to do so allows the defenders to tag out the offensive players.


title: Tag (game)

text: In Gollachut, one team starts off in the center of a circle, and each of its players attempts to reach an area at the edge of the circle without being tagged by the opponents.


title: Tag (game)

text: Surr is played by two teams of at least four players, in a field divided by two perpendicular "lines of defense" (lanes) into four quadrants. The attacking team gathers in one quadrant, and aims to advance around the other three quadrants without having all of its players tagged out by the defensive team's players, who must remain within the lines of defense.


title: Tag (game)

text: Some variants of tag use equipment such as balls, paintball guns, or even flashlights to replace tagging by hand.


title: Tag (game)

text: Blind man's bluff, also known as Mr Blind Man, is a version of tag in which one player, designated as "it", is blindfolded and attempts to tag the other players, while the other players try to avoid them.


title: Tag (game)

text: The field is divided into two halves, one for each team, and the goal of each team is to have its players go into enemy territory, grab the "flag" located in the back of their territory, and then make it back to friendly territory without being tagged.


title: Tag (game)

text: Flashlight tag, also called "Army tag", "Spotlight", and "German Spotlight", is played at night. Rather than physically tagging, the "it" player tags by shining a flashlight beam on other players.


title: Tag (game)

text: A traditional type of line tag, sometimes played in snow, is Fox and geese. The fox starts at the centre of a spoked wheel, and the geese flee from the fox along the spokes and around the wheel. Geese that are tagged become foxes. The intersections of the spokes with the wheel are safe zones.


title: Tag (game)

text: One person is "it" and a can is placed in an open space. The other players run off and hide, then it tries to find and tag each of them. Tagged players are sent to jail. Any player who has not been caught can kick the can, setting the other players free from jail.


title: Tag (game)

text: Laser tag is similar to flashlight tag, but using special equipment to avoid the inevitable arguments that arise about whether one was actually tagged. Players carry guns that emit beams of light and wear electronic equipment that can detect the beams and register being hit. The equipment often has built-in scoring systems and various penalties for taking hits. Pay-per-game laser tag facilities are common in North America.


title: Tag (game)

text: An aquatic American variant of blind man's bluff, most commonly played in a swimming pool, although it may also be played while swimming in shallow natural bodies of water (typically the areas near the shores of oceans, seas, and lakes). The players may be swimming, treading water, or walking on the bottom of the pool or body of water. The person designated "it" is required to close their eyes, and shouts "Marco!" at regular intervals; the other players must shout "Polo!" in response. "It" must use sound localization to find one of the other players and tag them. The tagged player then generally becomes "it," and the process repeats. In some variants, if any of the players who are not "it" climb out of the water to ensure not being caught (depending on the variant, this may be cheating) and the player designated "it" suspects this, they are to shout "Fish out of water!" and can open their eyes briefly to confirm this. If their suspicions are correct, then the culprit must become "it" as the game starts over.


title: Tag (game)

text: Muckle (sometimes called "muckle the man with the ball", "kill-the-guy-with-the-ball", "smear the queer", "kill the carrier", among other names) is the reverse of regular tag; all the other players chase "it". This player is denoted by carrying a ball (usually a gridiron football). When they are caught, they are tackled, or "muckled". Whoever retrieves the ball first or whoever attacks the one who is it then becomes it. Sometimes the last player arriving to tackle the former ball carrier is the next person to be it; in other variations the player with the ball throws the ball up in the air, where it is caught by another player who becomes it.


title: Tag (game)

text: In Nalugu Rallu Aata (Four-stones game), four players stand in four quadrants of a square, with "it" restricted to moving in the borders between the quadrants. There are four stones in the middle of the square, and the objective is for each player on the team of four to get a stone and then return to their own quadrant without being tagged.


title: Tag (game)

text: Paintball is a sport in which players use compressed air guns (called paintball markers) to tag other players with paint-filled pellets. Games are usually played on commercial fields with a strict set of safety and gameplay rules.


title: Tag (game)

text: In seven stones (known by several other names in India, such as Lagori), the attacking team throws a ball at a pile of seven stones in order to topple them, and then tries to reconstruct the pile as fast as possible. The defensive team can throw the ball at the attackers to eliminate them.


title: Tag (game)

text: A tube sock is filled with a small amount of flour in the toe of the sock; the sock is then gripped by the leg hole and wielded as a flail. Striking a player with any part of the sock counts as a tag. When the sock strikes the player, the impact releases enough flour to leave a mark which serves as proof that the player was tagged.


title: Tag (game)

text: Spud is a tag variant that is best played in large, open areas. Players begin each round in a central location. "it" then throws a ball high into the air. The other players run but must stop as soon as "it" catches the ball and shouts "Spud!" It may then take three large steps toward the player of his choosing before throwing the ball at that player. If the ball hits the target, that player becomes it and the game starts over.


title: Tag (game)

text: In Steal the bacon (also known as Dog and the Bone or Rumal Jhapatta in India, or steal the flingsock/handkerchief), there are two teams on opposite ends of the field, with an object placed in the center of the field. Once play begins, one player from each team attempts to grab the object and then run back to their own team's end of the field to score a point. If a player is holding the object and is tagged by an opponent, then they fail and the other team scores a point.


title: Tag (game)

text: There are several variations of and games related to "Tree climbing monkey" (such as Marakothi and ). A team of several players attempt to climb up trees, while "it" tries to tag all of them. There is a stick in a circle on the ground, and "it" has to ensure none of the opponents touch that stick. In some similar games, such as Siya Satkana, there is no tree-climbing component to the game.


title: Tag (game)

text: The player who is "it" guards a can placed on the ground, while one of the other players tries to throw their slipper at the can to knock it over. After throwing, players must recover their slippers and then return to the throwing area without being tagged. Before "it" can tag the players, "it" must first put the can back upright and in its original position.


title: Tag (game)

text: In South Asia, several sports are variants of tag, played at the team level, sometimes internationally.


title: Tag (game)

text: In , raiders cross a dividing line to try to tag defenders, while continuously chanting "kabbadi" on one breath while over the line, and then attempt to make it back over the line without being stopped (tackled) by the defenders. It is included in the Asian Games and even has a world championship, being played throughout India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Iran, as well as in Indian communities in Canada, Great Britain, the U.S., Australia, New Zealand, and the Netherlands. It was also demonstrated in 1936 Berlin Olympics.


title: Tag (game)

text: involves an attacker trying to tag three defenders in a rectangular court. The attacker's eight teammates sit in a central lane which divides the court into two halves, and which connects two poles at either end of the court. The attacker can not cross the central lane, and can not change direction once they start running towards either pole. The attacker has the option of switching roles with a teammate by touching their back, and can also run around either pole to enter the other half of the court. Kho kho's first major professional franchise competition was the 2022 season of Ultimate Kho Kho.


title: Tag (game)

text: Atya patya is played on a rectangular court, which is split into two halves by a central lane or "trench", and which is further subdivided by nine trenches which are perpendicular to the central trench. The game is played in four 7-minute innings (turns), with teams alternating offense and defense in each inning. The goal of the attacking team is to have their players cross as many trenches as possible without being eliminated by a touch from any of the nine defensive players, each of whom stands in one of the trenches.


title: Tag (game)

text: Langdi is played in a small rectangular court, with the teams each having two 9-minute turns on offense and defense. The offensive team has one player in the court, while the defensive team sends in a batch of three players at a time. The offensive player is restricted to hopping around on one foot, and aims to tag as many defenders as possible.


title: Tag (game)

text: World Chase Tag (WCT) is played between two teams of six players over 16 rounds of gameplay. The playing court is a -square with various objects and obstacles placed within it. Parkour is a major component of how the players navigate the obstacles in the court. In each round, one player from the offensive team (the chaser) tries to tag a player from the defending team (the evader) within 20 seconds. The evader scores a point if they successfully avoid being tagged during the round.


title: Tag (game)

text: Tag or flag rugby is a non-contact variation in which each player wears a belt that has two velcro tags attached to it, or shorts with velcro patches. The mode of play is also similar to rugby league with attacking players attempting to dodge, evade and pass a rugby ball while defenders attempt to prevent them scoring by tagging – pulling a velcro attached tag from the ball carrier. Flag football has similar gameplay, and is a non-contact variation of American football, a game related to rugby. However, the "tag" in "tag rugby" is derived from the "tags" that the players wear and the children's game of tag more closely resembles touch rugby whereby a touch replaces a tackle.


title: Tag (game)

text: In the bat-and-ball game of baseball, the offensive team's players try to score by advancing around four bases without being put out (eliminated) by players on the defensive team. One way for a defender to put out an offensive player is to tag the offensive player (when they are not touching any of the bases) while holding the baseball.


title: Tag (game)

text: Tag-like games have been played throughout history since as far back as the fourth century BC. The Greek poet Erinna, in her poem "The Distaff", speaks of a tag-like game where one girl, the "tortoise", chases other girls, and the tagged girl becomes the new "tortoise".


title: Tag (game)

text: Kho-kho has been played in some form or other for thousands of years, with certain aspects of its gameplay believed to have been mentioned in the Mahabharata, around 300 AD or before. The game involves certain restrictions on where players can run while attempting to tag opponents.


title: Tag (game)

text: Kabaddi is speculated to have been played in prehistoric times, and may also have had certain aspects of its gameplay mentioned in the Mahabharata.


title: Tag (game)

text: Atya-patya, which goes by several other names (such as Klithatu), was mentioned as early as 300 AD or before in the Naṟṟiṇai.


title: Tag (game)

text: In 2018, the popular internet meme "How old when you were when you found out ____" began circulating stating that the meaning of the word tag was an acronym meaning 'touch and go'. Investigation by snopes.com found this to be false. According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the origin of the name 'tag' is unknown, while the "Oxford Dictionary of English" speculates it to be a variant of 'tig', which is speculated to be a variant of 'tick'.


title: Niamey

text: Niamey () is the capital and largest city of Niger. Niamey lies on the Niger River, primarily situated on the east bank. Niamey's population was counted as 1,026,848 as of the 2012 census. As of 2017, population projections show the capital district growing at a slower rate than the country as a whole, which has the world's highest fertility rate. The city is located in a pearl millet growing region, while manufacturing industries include bricks, ceramic goods, cement, and weaving.


title: Niamey

text: Niamey was probably founded in the 18th century and originated as a cluster of small villages (Gaweye, Kalley, Maourey, Zongo and Foulani Koira). Niamey was of little importance until the French developed it as a colonial centre in the late 1890s. The town, then with an estimated population of some 1,800, was chosen as the capital of the newly created Military Territory of Niger in 1905, however, the capital was shifted to the more established city of Zinder in 1912. Zinder's proximity to the Nigerian border and distance from French-controlled ports prompted the French to move the capital back to Niamey in 1926, by which time the city had some 3,000 inhabitants. A series of devastating droughts prompted significant population growth during this period, and by 1945 the population was about 8,000.


title: Niamey

text: Prior to 1926-27 the Upper Volta-Niger border ran along the Niger river, meaning that Niamey lay directly on the boundary.


title: Niamey

text: At the time of independence in 1960 the population had grown to around 30,000. The period from 1970 to 1988 was one in which the economy of Niger boomed, driven by revenue from the uranium mines at Arlit. As a result, the population of Niamey grew from 108,000 to 398,365 inhabitants and the city expanded from in 1970 to by 1977, in the process annexing peripheral villages such as Lazaret. Continuing droughts also caused many rural Nigeriens to move to the growing city.


title: Niamey

text: In 1992 Niamey and its immediate hinterland were split off from Niamey Region to form the much smaller Niamey Capital District, enclaved within the new Tillabéri Region.


title: Niamey

text: By some estimates, the population had reached 700,000 in 2000. In 2011, government press estimated the total urban population at over 1.5 million. A major cause of the increase has been in migration for work and during droughts, as well as high population growth. This last factor means that demographically a majority of the city's citizens are young people.


title: Niamey

text: The Niamey region straddles between the Liptako, corresponding to the northern extremity of the East ridge of Man, and the south-western edge of the Iullemmeden basin. Covering an area of over , the metropolitan area sits atop two plateaux reaching in altitude, bisected by the Niger River. At Niamey, the river, running almost straight SSE from Gao, Mali, makes a series of wide bends. The city was founded on the east ("left bank") of the river as it meanders from west to east flow to run almost directly south. A series of marshy islands begin at Niamey and extend south in the river.


title: Niamey

text: The vast majority of the population and government and commercial buildings are located on the eastern bank of the river. The very centre of the centre contains a number of wide boulevards linking roundabouts. Two bridges connect the two sides - the Kennedy Bridge and the Friendship Bridge. The western bank area consists mainly of residential areas such as Gaweye, Saguia, Lamorde, Saga, and Karadje, as well as Abdou Moumouni University.


title: Niamey

text: The climate is hot semi-arid (Köppen climate classification "BSh"), with an expected rainfall of between and a year, mostly beginning with a few storms in May, then transitioning to a rainy season, usually lasting from sometime in June to early September, when the rains taper off rather quickly. Most of the rainfall is from late June to mid-September. There is practically no rain from October to April. Niamey is remarkably hot throughout the year. In fact, it is one of the hottest major cities on the planet. Average monthly high temperatures reach four months out of the year and in no month do average high temperatures fall below . During the dry season, particularly from November through February, nights are generally cool. Average nighttime lows between November and February range from .


title: Niamey

text: Niamey's population has grown rapidly since independence - the droughts of the early 1970s and 1980s, along with the economic crisis of the early 1980s, have propelled an exodus of rural inhabitants to Niger's largest city. Its population increased gradually, from about 3,000 in 1930 to about 30,000 in 1960, rising to 250,000 in 1980 and, according to the official statistics, to 800,000 in 2000. Under the military government of General Seyni Kountché, there were strict controls on residency and the government would regularly round up and "deport" those without permits back to their villages. The growing freedoms of the late 1980s and 1990s, along with the Tuareg Rebellion of the 1990s and famine in the 2000s, have reinforced this process of internal migration, with large informal settlements appearing on the outskirts of the city. Noticeable in the city's centre since the 1980s are groups of poor, young, or handicapped beggars. Within the richer or more trafficked neighbourhoods, these beggars have in fact formed a well-regulated hierarchical system in which beggars garner "sadaka" according to cultural and religious norms.


title: Niamey

text: In the 1990s, the capital district population growth rate was lower than the torrid national rate, suggesting large rural migration (urbanization) was negligible in Niger, there is an undercount, and/or the government's forced urban to rural deportations were effective.


title: Niamey

text: A major attraction in the city is the Niger National Museum, which incorporates a zoo, a museum of vernacular architecture, a craft centre, and exhibits including dinosaur skeletons and the Tree of Ténéré. Other places of interest include the American, French and Nigerien cultural centres, seven major market centres (including the large Niamey Grand Market), a traditional wrestling arena, and a horse racing track. Most of the colourful pottery sold in Niamey is hand made in the nearby village of Boubon.


title: Niamey

text: Niger being a predominantly Muslim country, mosques are the most common places of worship, with the Grande Mosquée being the largest in the city. There are also various Christian churches, most notably Our Lady of Perpetual Help Cathedral and the Cathedral de Maourey.


title: Niamey

text: The city of Niamey itself is governed as an autonomous first-level administrative block, the Niamey Urban Community (Fr. Communauté Urbaine de Niamey, or CUN). It includes five Urban Communes, divided into 44 "Districts" and 99 "Quartiers", including formerly independent towns. It is a co-equal first division subdivision with the seven Regions of Niger. The Niamey Urban Community includes an administration and Governor appointed by national leaders. Like the rest of Niger, Niamey has seen a decentralisation of governance since 2000. Government Ordinance n°2010–56 and Presidential Decree n°2010-679 of September 2010 mandated an elected City Council for the city of Niamey, subsumed under the CUN. This excludes some outlying areas of the CUN. Forty-five councillors are popularly elected and in turn elect the Mayor of the City of Niamey. In July 2011 the first Mayor under the new system, Oumarou Dogari Moumouni, was installed by the Governor of the CUN Mrs. Aïchatou Boulama Kané and the City Council. The City Council and Mayor have limited roles compared to the CUN Governor. Niamey has a third layer of government in the Commune system. Each Commune elects its own council, and outside major cities, these function like independent cities. Niamey and other major cities have been, since the advent of decentralisation, developing co-ordination of Commune governments in large cities made up of multiple Communes.


title: Niamey

text: Under this devolution process formalised in the 1999 Constitution of Niger, the CUN contains five urban communes, which are further divided into 99 quarters (""Quartiers"") with elected boards.


title: Niamey

text: The CUN includes land where there were formerly several surrounding towns and villages which the city of Niamey has now annexed. These include Soudouré, Lamordé, Gamkallé, Yantala, and Gaweye.


title: Niamey

text: Until 1998, all of greater Niamey was part of Tillabéri Region, which prior to 1992 was named the Niamey Department. The CUN remains surrounded on all sides by Tillabéri Region.


title: Niamey

text: Niamey is served by the Diori Hamani International Airport, located 12 km southeast of the city and is crossed by the RN1 highway. Niamey railway station, officially inaugurated in April 2014, is the first one built in Niger. Boats are also used to travel the Niger River.


title: Niamey

text: The city is also the site of the National School of Administration, Abdou Moumouni University, the Higher Institute of Mining, Industry and Geology which lies on the right bank of the river, and many institutes (Centre Numérique de Niamey, IRD, ICRISAT, Hydrologic Institute, etc.) Niamey hosts the African Centre of Meteorological Application for Development.


title: Strength of materials

text: The field of strength of materials, also called mechanics of materials, typically refers to various methods of calculating the stresses and strains in structural members, such as beams, columns, and shafts. The methods employed to predict the response of a structure under loading and its susceptibility to various failure modes takes into account the properties of the materials such as its yield strength, ultimate strength, Young's modulus, and Poisson's ratio. In addition, the mechanical element's macroscopic properties (geometric properties) such as its length, width, thickness, boundary constraints and abrupt changes in geometry such as holes are considered.


title: Strength of materials

text: The theory began with the consideration of the behavior of one and two dimensional members of structures, whose states of stress can be approximated as two dimensional, and was then generalized to three dimensions to develop a more complete theory of the elastic and plastic behavior of materials. An important founding pioneer in mechanics of materials was Stephen Timoshenko.


title: Strength of materials

text: In the mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. The field of strength of materials deals with forces and deformations that result from their acting on a material. A load applied to a mechanical member will induce internal forces within the member called stresses when those forces are expressed on a unit basis. The stresses acting on the material cause deformation of the material in various manners including breaking them completely. Deformation of the material is called strain when those deformations too are placed on a unit basis.


title: Strength of materials

text: The stresses and strains that develop within a mechanical member must be calculated in order to assess the load capacity of that member. This requires a complete description of the geometry of the member, its constraints, the loads applied to the member and the properties of the material of which the member is composed. The applied loads may be axial (tensile or compressive), or rotational (strength shear). With a complete description of the loading and the geometry of the member, the state of stress and state of strain at any point within the member can be calculated. Once the state of stress and strain within the member is known, the strength (load carrying capacity) of that member, its deformations (stiffness qualities), and its stability (ability to maintain its original configuration) can be calculated.


title: Strength of materials

text: The calculated stresses may then be compared to some measure of the strength of the member such as its material yield or ultimate strength. The calculated deflection of the member may be compared to deflection criteria that are based on the member's use. The calculated buckling load of the member may be compared to the applied load. The calculated stiffness and mass distribution of the member may be used to calculate the member's dynamic response and then compared to the acoustic environment in which it will be used.


title: Strength of materials

text: Material strength refers to the point on the engineering stress–strain curve (yield stress) beyond which the material experiences deformations that will not be completely reversed upon removal of the loading and as a result, the member will have a permanent deflection. The ultimate strength of the material refers to the maximum value of stress reached. The fracture strength is the stress value at fracture (the last stress value recorded).


title: Strength of materials

text: where "F" is the force [N] acting on an area "A" [m]. The area can be the undeformed area or the deformed area, depending on whether engineering stress or true stress is of interest.


title: Strength of materials

text: Material resistance can be expressed in several mechanical stress parameters. The term "material strength" is used when referring to "mechanical stress" parameters. These are physical quantities with dimension homogeneous to "pressure" and "force per unit surface". The traditional measure unit for strength are therefore MPa in the International System of Units, and the psi between the United States customary units.


title: Strength of materials

text: Strength parameters include: yield strength, tensile strength, fatigue strength, crack resistance, and other parameters.


title: Strength of materials

text: The slope of this line is known as Young's modulus, or the "modulus of elasticity." The modulus of elasticity can be used to determine the stress–strain relationship in the linear-elastic portion of the stress–strain curve. The linear-elastic region is either below the yield point, or if a yield point is not easily identified on the stress–strain plot it is defined to be between 0 and 0.2% strain, and is defined as the region of strain in which no yielding (permanent deformation) occurs.


title: Strength of materials

text: Consider the difference between a carrot and chewed bubble gum. The carrot will stretch very little before breaking. The chewed bubble gum, on the other hand, will plastically deform enormously before finally breaking.


title: Strength of materials

text: Ultimate strength is an attribute related to a material, rather than just a specific specimen made of the material, and as such it is quoted as the force per unit of cross section area (N/m). The ultimate strength is the maximum stress that a material can withstand before it breaks or weakens. For example, the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of AISI 1018 Steel is 440 MPa. In Imperial units, the unit of stress is given as lbf/in² or pounds-force per square inch. This unit is often abbreviated as psi. One thousand psi is abbreviated ksi.


title: Strength of materials

text: A factor of safety is a design criteria that an engineered component or structure must achieve. formula_3, where FS: the factor of safety, R: The applied stress, and UTS: ultimate stress (psi or N/m)


title: Strength of materials

text: Margin of Safety is also sometimes used to as design criteria. It is defined MS = Failure Load/(Factor of Safety × Predicted Load) − 1.


title: Strength of materials

text: For example, to achieve a factor of safety of 4, the allowable stress in an AISI 1018 steel component can be calculated to be formula_4 = 440/4 = 110 MPa, or formula_5 = 110×10 N/m. Such allowable stresses are also known as "design stresses" or "working stresses."


title: Strength of materials

text: Design stresses that have been determined from the ultimate or yield point values of the materials give safe and reliable results only for the case of static loading. Many machine parts fail when subjected to a non-steady and continuously varying loads even though the developed stresses are below the yield point. Such failures are called fatigue failure. The failure is by a fracture that appears to be brittle with little or no visible evidence of yielding. However, when the stress is kept below "fatigue stress" or "endurance limit stress", the part will endure indefinitely. A purely reversing or cyclic stress is one that alternates between equal positive and negative peak stresses during each cycle of operation. In a purely cyclic stress, the average stress is zero. When a part is subjected to a cyclic stress, also known as stress range (Sr), it has been observed that the failure of the part occurs after a number of stress reversals (N) even if the magnitude of the stress range is below the material's yield strength. Generally, higher the range stress, the fewer the number of reversals needed for failure.


title: Strength of materials

text: There are four failure theories: maximum shear stress theory, maximum normal stress theory, maximum strain energy theory, and maximum distortion energy theory. Out of these four theories of failure, the maximum normal stress theory is only applicable for brittle materials, and the remaining three theories are applicable for ductile materials.


title: Strength of materials

text: Of the latter three, the distortion energy theory provides most accurate results in a majority of the stress conditions. The strain energy theory needs the value of Poisson's ratio of the part material, which is often not readily available. The maximum shear stress theory is conservative. For simple unidirectional normal stresses all theories are equivalent, which means all theories will give the same result.


title: Strength of materials

text: A material's strength is dependent on its microstructure. The engineering processes to which a material is subjected can alter this microstructure. The variety of strengthening mechanisms that alter the strength of a material includes work hardening, solid solution strengthening, precipitation hardening, and grain boundary strengthening and can be quantitatively and qualitatively explained. Strengthening mechanisms are accompanied by the caveat that some other mechanical properties of the material may degenerate in an attempt to make the material stronger. For example, in grain boundary strengthening, although yield strength is maximized with decreasing grain size, ultimately, very small grain sizes make the material brittle. In general, the yield strength of a material is an adequate indicator of the material's mechanical strength. Considered in tandem with the fact that the yield strength is the parameter that predicts plastic deformation in the material, one can make informed decisions on how to increase the strength of a material depending its microstructural properties and the desired end effect. Strength is expressed in terms of the limiting values of the compressive stress, tensile stress, and shear stresses that would cause failure. The effects of dynamic loading are probably the most important practical consideration of the strength of materials, especially the problem of fatigue. Repeated loading often initiates brittle cracks, which grow until failure occurs. The cracks always start at stress concentrations, especially changes in cross-section of the product, near holes and corners at nominal stress levels far lower than those quoted for the strength of the material.


title: The Price Is Right

text: The Price Is Right is a television game show franchise created by Bob Stewart, originally produced by Mark Goodson and Bill Todman; currently it is produced and owned by Fremantle. The franchise centers on television game shows, but also includes merchandise such as video games, printed media, and board games. The franchise began in 1956 as a television game show hosted by Bill Cullen and was revamped in 1972. This version was originally hosted by Bob Barker. Drew Carey has hosted the program since 2007.


title: The Price Is Right

text: Contestants on the show compete to win cash and prizes by guessing the price of merchandise. The program has been critically successful and remains a stalwart in the television ratings. It also managed to break away from the quiz show format that has been used in other game shows. Since the current version premiered, it has also been adapted in several international formats around the world most notably in the United Kingdom, Spain, Australia, Mexico, and Vietnam.


title: The Price Is Right

text: The original version of "The Price Is Right" was first broadcast on NBC, and later ABC, from 1956 to 1965. Hosted by Bill Cullen, it involved four contestants bidding on a wide array of merchandise prizes with retail prices ranging from a few dollars (in many cases, "bonus" prizes were given to the winner afterward) to thousands. Though conducted in an auction style, Cullen did not play the role of auctioneer. Instead, contestants would try to bid as close to a product's actual retail price without exceeding that price. Depending on the prize, contestants were either allowed, in proper turn, to make multiple bids, or restricted to only one bid. In the case of the former, each contestant would bid on an item until a buzzer sounded. The contestant could make a final bid, or "freeze." The contestant whose bid was closest to, but not more than, the correct value of the prize won it. There was also a special game set aside for the home viewer that offered several prizes in a package, which usually included a luxury vacation trip and/or a new car. Viewers submitted their bids via postcards, and the winner was announced on the air. At the end of each episode, the contestant who had won the most (by dollar value) was declared the winner and became the returning champion, entitled to play again on the next episode.


title: The Price Is Right

text: This version began as part of NBC's daytime schedule. A series of technical problems allegedly made the pilot episode look bad enough for NBC to decline to purchase the show, but after an appeal from the producers, citing the fact that all TV shows at the time were given at least 13 weeks to succeed or fail, it aired on the network. It became successful enough to warrant a second version of the series, beginning on prime time in the fall of 1957. Shown weekly, that version became the first TV game show to be broadcast in color. After being a top-10 primetime show for some time, the show's ratings gradually but noticeably declined, and by 1963 NBC had canceled it. The show was then picked up by ABC and ran in prime time on that network for one full season (1963–64); the daytime version ended in 1965.


title: The Price Is Right

text: When the new format debuted as "The New Price Is Right", shows were 30 minutes in length; three pricing games were played and the two contestants with the highest winnings entered the Showcase. By June 1973, the show was renamed back to "The Price Is Right".


title: The Price Is Right

text: The show was expanded into an hour-long format on November 3, 1975, allowing six pricing games to be played per episode. A new feature, the Showcase Showdown, was added to select the two players for the Showcase. It is played after the first three players have completed their pricing games to select one player from the first half of the show, and again after the last three. In the Showdown, each player is given two chances to spin a large wheel that displays all amounts from 5¢ to $1.00 in 5¢ increments. The player may elect to hold after his or her first spin or to take a second spin; if a second spin occurs, the amount of the second spin is added to the first spin, potentially causing the contestant's total to exceed $1.00 and eliminate the contestant. The player whose total is the closest to $1.00 without exceeding $1.00 advances to the Showcase. A score of exactly $1.00, accomplished by either the first spin stopping on the $1.00 value or by the total of two spins equaling $1.00, awards a cash bonus and gives the player a chance to win larger amounts in a bonus spin.


title: The Price Is Right

text: The series debuted on September 4, 1972, in two forms: a daily version on CBS with Bob Barker as host, and a weekly version, eventually dubbed "the nighttime "Price Is Right"," hosted by Dennis James and airing in first-run syndication. Barker took over the nighttime version in 1977 (which remained a half-hour in length throughout its existence) and hosted both until the nighttime version was discontinued in 1980. The syndicated nighttime version returned five years later, airing five times per week, but ran for only one season, with Tom Kennedy as host.


title: The Price Is Right

text: Barker hosted the program from its debut until June 15, 2007. During the 35 years he was the host, Barker won numerous awards and honors, including Daytime Emmys and a Lifetime Achievement Award. Directors of the show included Marc Breslow, Paul Alter, and Bart Eskander, who received a Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Direction of a Game Show. Producer Roger Dobkowitz won a Daytime Emmy for his work on the show, which included the development of many of the show's games that are still played today.


title: The Price Is Right

text: After a search for Barker's successor, Drew Carey was named the new host, and production resumed in August 2007, with Carey's first episode airing on October 15.


title: The Price Is Right

text: "The Price Is Right" is believed to be the longest-running game show on television (the Spanish-language variety show "Sábado Gigante" ended on September 19, 2015). It is also the longest-running five-days-per-week game show in the world. "The Price Is Right" is one of two game show franchises (along with "To Tell the Truth") to be seen nationally in either first-run network or syndication airings in the U.S. in every decade since the 1950s. CBS has occasionally aired extra episodes of the show for short periods between the cancellation of one daytime program and the premiere of its successor. On occasion since 1986, special episodes have aired during primetime hours, most notably to fill in gaps between the "Survivor" series and during the 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike.


title: The Price Is Right

text: On September 22, 2008, Terry Kneiss made game-show history by bidding the exact amount of his $23,743 showcase. Taping of the show immediately stopped, with Carey and show staffers concerned that cheating was taking place. It was later learned that Ted Slauson, an audience member and long-time fan of the show, had legitimately determined the exact prices of the showcase items after having frequently watched the show, noticing the frequency of certain products and using statistical analysis. Slauson shared this knowledge with Kneiss's wife Linda, who was sitting beside him in the audience, and she signaled the total to her husband on the stage. Kneiss was awarded the prizes, and the show subsequently discontinued certain prizes.


title: The Price Is Right

text: On April Fools' Day in 2014, Craig Ferguson and Carey switched hosting duties, with Carey hosting "The Late Late Show" and Ferguson hosting "The Price Is Right". The episode also featured Shadoe Stevens as announcer. Barker appeared on the April Fools' Day episode in 2015, hosting while the first item up was for bids and the first pricing game; Carey hosted the remainder of the episode.


title: The Price Is Right

text: Since December 1, 2020, Pluto TV airs 1980s-era episodes from the Bob Barker period on its streaming channel "The Price Is Right: The Barker Era".


title: The Price Is Right

text: Primetime episodes have been ordered by CBS on occasion since 1986. The first, "The Price Is Right Special", was a six-week summer series that aired on CBS in 1986, hosted by Barker. In 2002, the show celebrated its 30th year with a Las Vegas special.


title: The Price Is Right

text: Later in 2002, the show began its current line of primetime episodes (known as #xxxSP in show codes). Six special episodes titled "The Price Is Right Salutes" aired in primetime, saluting the branches of the United States armed forces, police, and firefighters of in the wake of the September 11 attacks. "The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular" (#007SP-#033SP) was a series of primetime specials airing from 2003 until 2008 featuring chances to win $1,000,000, as well as more expensive prizes than on the daytime counterpart.


title: The Price Is Right

text: The Celebrity Week format in daytime in which a celebrity plays along with contestants was adopted for the next series of primetime episodes, part of the same series as the 2002 Salutes and 2003–08 $1,000,000 Spectaculars (since #034SP). These shows used former participants on the network's three primetime reality game shows ("Survivor", "The Amazing Race", and "Big Brother") who joined contestants as teams. The three-night special aired May 23–25, 2016. Another series of specials, #037SP (with cast members from "SEAL Team", mainly David Boreanaz, Max Thieriot, Neil Brown Jr., A.J. Buckley, Toni Trucks, Justin Melnick, and Dita the Dog) and #038SP (featuring Seth Rogen), aired during the 2019–20 television season, and three more episodes have been ordered by CBS to air during the season, #039SP-#041SP. Episodes starting with #037SP are designated as "The Price Is Right at Night", with color changes to the show's logo (blue and green instead of red and orange) to represent an evening motif instead of the bright colors of the daytime show.


title: The Price Is Right

text: The civilian-celebrity format beginning with 037SP offers a charitable donation to the celebrity's charity equivalent to the total cash and prizes won, similar to the format used in daytime.


title: The Price Is Right

text: Endless Games, which has produced board games based on several other game shows, including "The Newlywed Game" and "Million Dollar Password", distributes home versions of "The Price Is Right", featuring the voice of announcer Rich Fields, including a DVD edition and a Quick Picks travel-size edition. Ubisoft also released a video game version of the show for the PC, Nintendo DS and Wii console on September 9, 2008. An updated version of the game ("The Price Is Right: 2010 Edition") was released on September 22, 2009. Both versions feature the voice of Fields.


title: The Price Is Right

text: In September 2010, Ludia released the official Facebook version of "The Price Is Right" game. The game had two million monthly active users only two months after the launch.


title: The Price Is Right

text: In October 2011, Ludia (now owned by RTL Group) released "The Price Is Right Decades", a video game featuring production elements from various decades of the show, for the Wii, mobile devices, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 to celebrate the show's 40th anniversary.


title: The Price Is Right

text: The 1972 revised format appeared on Australian television the following year and debuted in the U.K. in 1984. The format has also been adapted elsewhere around the world. Hosts and models from the versions in other countries have made appearances on the U.S. version, usually sitting in the audience and acknowledged by the host during the broadcast. Barker and music director Stan Blits appeared on the Carlo Boszhard-hosted "Cash en Carlo" at the start of the 200th episode.


title: Breast implant

text: A breast implant is a prosthesis used to change the size, shape, and contour of a person's breast. In reconstructive plastic surgery, breast implants can be placed to restore a natural looking breast following a mastectomy, to correct congenital defects and deformities of the chest wall or, cosmetically, to enlarge the appearance of the breast through breast augmentation surgery.


title: Breast implant

text: Complications of implants may include breast pain, rashes, skin changes, infection, rupture, cosmetic changes to the breasts such as asymmetry and hardness, and a fluid collection around the breast.


title: Breast implant

text: The most serious complication is a type of lymphoma (cancer of the immune system) known as Breast Implant Associated Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma (BIA-ALCL).


title: Breast implant

text: There are four general types of breast implants, defined by their filler material: saline solution, silicone gel, structured and composite filler. The saline implant has an elastomer silicone shell filled with sterile saline solution during surgery; the silicone implant has an elastomer silicone shell pre-filled with viscous silicone gel; structured implants use nested elastomer silicone shells and two saline filled lumen; and the alternative composition implants featured miscellaneous fillers, such as soy oil or polypropylene string.


title: Breast implant

text: In surgical practice, for the reconstruction of a breast, the tissue expander device is a temporary breast prosthesis used to form and establish an implant pocket for the future permanent breast implant. For the correction of male breast defects and deformities, the pectoral implant is the breast prosthesis used for the reconstruction and the aesthetic repair of a man's chest wall (see: gynecomastia and mastopexy).


title: Breast implant

text: The operating room (OR) time of post–mastectomy breast reconstruction, and of breast augmentation surgery is determined by the procedure employed, the type of incisions, the breast implant (type and materials), and the pectoral locale of the implant pocket.


title: Breast implant

text: Recent research has indicated that mammograms should not be done with any greater frequency than that used in normal procedure in patients undergoing breast surgery, including breast implant, augmentation, mastopexy, and breast reduction.


title: Breast implant

text: The breast augmentation patient usually is a young woman whose personality profile indicates psychological distress about her personal appearance and her bodily self image, and a history of having endured criticism (teasing) about the aesthetics of her person. The studies "Body Image Concerns of Breast Augmentation Patients" (2003) and "Body Dysmorphic Disorder and Cosmetic Surgery" (2006) reported that the woman who underwent breast augmentation surgery also had undergone psychotherapy, suffered low self-esteem, presented frequent occurrences of psychological depression, had attempted suicide, and had body dysmorphia, a type of mental illness.


title: Breast implant

text: Post-operative patient surveys about mental health and quality-of-life, reported improved physical health, physical appearance, social life, self-confidence, self-esteem, and satisfactory sexual functioning. Furthermore, the women reported long-term satisfaction with their breast implant outcomes; some despite having medical complications that required surgical revision, either corrective or aesthetic. Likewise, in Denmark, 8% of breast augmentation patients had a pre-operative history of psychiatric hospitalization.


title: Breast implant

text: In 2008, the longitudinal study "Excess Mortality from Suicide and other External Causes of Death Among Women with Cosmetic Breast Implants" (2007), reported that women who sought breast implants are almost 3 times as likely to commit suicide as are women who have not sought breast implants. Compared to the standard suicide-rate for women of the general populace, the suicide-rate for women with augmented breasts remained constant until 10-years post-implantation, yet, it increased to 4.5 times greater at the 11-year mark, and so remained until the 19-year mark, when it increased to 6 times greater at 20-years post-implantation. Moreover, additional to the suicide-risk, women with breast implants also faced a trebled death-risk from alcoholism and the abuse of prescription and recreational drugs. Although seven studies have statistically connected a woman's breast augmentation to a greater suicide-rate, the research indicates that breast augmentation surgery does not increase the death rate; and that, in the first instance, it is the psychopathologically-inclined woman who is more likely to undergo a breast augmentation procedure.


title: Breast implant

text: The study "Effect of Breast Augmentation Mammoplasty on Self-Esteem and Sexuality: A Quantitative Analysis" (2007), reported that the women attributed their improved self image, self-esteem, and increased, satisfactory sexual functioning to having undergone breast augmentation; the cohort, aged 21–57 years, averaged post-operative self-esteem increases that ranged from 20.7 to 24.9 points on the 30-point Rosenberg self-esteem scale, which data supported the 78.6 per cent increase in the woman's libido, relative to her pre-operative level of libido. Therefore, before agreeing to any surgery, the plastic surgeon evaluates and considers the woman's mental health to determine if breast implants can positively affect her self-esteem and sexual functioning.


title: Breast implant

text: The plastic surgical emplacement of breast implant devices, either for breast reconstruction or for aesthetic purpose, presents the same health risks common to surgery, such as adverse reaction to anesthesia, hematoma (post-operative bleeding), late hematoma (post-operative bleeding after 6 months or more), seroma (fluid accumulation), incision-site breakdown (wound infection). Complications specific to breast augmentation include breast pain, altered sensation, impeded breast-feeding function, visible wrinkling, asymmetry, thinning of the breast tissue, and symmastia, the "bread loafing" of the bust that interrupts the natural plane between the breasts. Specific treatments for the complications of indwelling breast implants—capsular contracture and capsular rupture—are periodic MRI monitoring and physical examinations. Furthermore, complications and re-operations related to the implantation surgery, and to tissue expanders (implant place-holders during surgery) can cause unfavorable scarring in approximately 6–7 percent of the patients.


title: Breast implant

text: In the 1990s, several reports reviewed the few studies evaluating any increased risk of systemic and auto-immune diseases among women with breast implants. The conclusion at that time was that there was no evidence establishing a causal connection between the implantation of silicone breast implants and either type of disease. However, the Institute of Medicine report pointed out that these earlier studies included too few women to conclusively evaluate the impact on these rare diseases. In addition, many of the studies included women who had breast implants for just a few months, which would be too early to develop a diagnosed autoimmune disease. In recent years, large epidemiological studies have reported clinically and statistically significant increases in some of these diseases. A study by Watad and colleagues that was published in 2018 compared and examined the medical records of more than 24,000 women with breast implants to more than 98,000 "matched controls" who did not have breast implants but shared very similar demographic traits. The study found a statistically significant 22% overall increase in diagnosed autoimmune or rheumatic disorders. The greatest increases in diagnoses for women with breast implants was for Sjögren's syndrome, Multiple Sclerosis (MS), and sarcoidosis, each of which were 58%-98% higher in women with breast implants. That analysis was based on Israeli women with breast implants as confirmed by medical records, and the analyses of diseases were based on diagnoses made after the women got breast implants that were included in medical records during up to 20 years of follow-up.


title: Breast implant

text: A published study of U.S. women with similar results was published in 2019 by Coroneos and his colleagues at MD Anderson Medical Center.  The data were based on two studies with a combined total of almost 100,000 women with breast implants, but many dropped out of the study within a few years of their breast implant surgery.  However, of the women in the study for at least two years, the researchers reported an 800% increase in Sjögren syndrome, 700% increase in scleroderma, and almost 600% increase in rheumatoid arthritis among women with breast implants compared to the general population of women of the same age and demographics.


title: Breast implant

text: Recent research on women who reported autoimmune and other system symptoms but were not diagnosed with an autoimmune disease evaluated whether the women's symptoms changed after their implants were removed.  A 2020 study on the effectiveness of explant surgery on women with breast implant illness found that nearly all of 750 women who underwent explant surgery reported a significant improvement in their health within a month after their surgery. Researchers focused on the following symptoms: hair loss, memory loss, dry eyes and/or blurred vision, numbness or tingling in the extremities, chronic fatigue, joint pain, rashes, breast pain, food intolerance, flu-like symptoms, and difficulty breathing. The same authors also published a study on the impact of breast implant removal on breathing difficulties and found a statistically significant improvement in well-established objective measures of pulmonary function following explant surgery.


title: Breast implant

text: Because a breast implant is a Class III medical device of limited product-life, the principal rupture-rate factors are its age and design; nonetheless, a breast implant device can retain its mechanical integrity for decades in a woman's body. When a saline breast implant ruptures, leaks, and empties, it quickly deflates, and thus can be readily explanted (surgically removed). In some cases, saline implant rupture can result in an infection due to bacteria or mold that had been within the implant, though this is uncommon. The follow-up report, "Natrelle Saline-filled Breast Implants: a Prospective 10-year Study" (2009) indicated rupture-deflation rates of 3–5 per cent at 3-years post-implantation, and 7–10 per cent rupture-deflation rates at 10-years post-implantation. In a study of his 4761 augmentation mammaplasty patients, Eisenberg reported that overfilling saline breast implants 10-13% significantly reduced the rupture-deflation rate to 1.83% at 8-years post-implantation.


title: Breast implant

text: When a silicone breast implant ruptures it usually does not deflate, yet the filler gel does leak from it, which can migrate to the implant pocket; therefore, an intracapsular rupture (in-capsule leak) can become an extracapsular rupture (out-of-capsule leak), and each occurrence is resolved by explantation. Although the leaked silicone filler-gel can migrate from the chest tissues to elsewhere in the woman's body, most clinical complications are limited to the breast and armpit areas, usually manifested as granulomas (inflammatory nodules) and axillary lymphadenopathy (enlarged lymph glands in the armpit area).


title: Breast implant

text: Silicone implant rupture can be evaluated using magnetic resonance imaging; from the long-term MRI data for single-lumen breast implants, the European literature about second generation silicone-gel breast implants (1970s design), reported silent device-rupture rates of 8–15 per cent at 10-years post-implantation (15–30% of the patients).


title: Breast implant

text: The study "Safety and Effectiveness of Mentor's MemoryGel Implants at 6 Years" (2009), which was a branch study of the U.S. FDA's core clinical trials for primary breast augmentation surgery patients, reported low device-rupture rates of 1.1 per cent at 6-years post-implantation. The first series of MRI evaluations of the silicone breast implants with thick filler-gel reported a device-rupture rate of 1 percent, or less, at the median 6-year device-age. Statistically, the manual examination (palpation) of the woman is inadequate for accurately evaluating if a breast implant has ruptured. The study, "The Diagnosis of Silicone Breast implant Rupture: Clinical Findings Compared with Findings at Magnetic Resonance Imaging" (2005), reported that, in asymptomatic patients, only 30 per cent of the ruptured breast implants are accurately palpated and detected by an experienced plastic surgeon, whereas MRI examinations accurately detected 86 per cent of breast implant ruptures. Therefore, the U.S. FDA recommended scheduled MRI examinations, as silent-rupture screenings, beginning at the 3-year-mark post-implantation, and then every two years, thereafter. Nonetheless, beyond the U.S., the medical establishments of other nations have not endorsed routine MRI screening, and, in its stead, proposed that such a radiologic examination be reserved for two purposes: (i) for the woman with a suspected breast implant rupture; and (ii) for the confirmation of mammographic and ultrasonic studies that indicate the presence of a ruptured breast implant.


title: Breast implant

text: Furthermore, "The Effect of Study design Biases on the Diagnostic Accuracy of Magnetic Resonance Imaging for Detecting Silicone Breast Implant Ruptures: a Meta-analysis" (2011) reported that the breast-screening MRIs of asymptomatic women might overestimate the incidence of breast implant rupture. In the event, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration emphasised that "breast implants are not lifetime devices. The longer a woman has silicone gel-filled breast implants, the more likely she is to experience complications."


title: Breast implant

text: The human body's immune response to a surgically installed foreign object—breast implant, cardiac pacemaker, orthopedic prosthesis—is to encapsulate it with scar tissue capsules of tightly woven collagen fibers, in order to maintain the integrity of the body by isolating the foreign object, and so tolerate its presence. Capsular contracture—which should be distinguished from normal capsular tissue—occurs when the collagen-fiber capsule thickens and compresses the breast implant; it is a painful complication that might distort either the breast implant, or the breast, or both. Capsular contracture is diagnosed through a visual and physical examiniation according to level of increasing severity based on the Baker Grade scale: Baker Grade I, Baker Grade II, Baker Grade III, and Baker Grade IV.


title: Breast implant

text: The cause of capsular contracture is unknown, but the common incidence factors include bacterial contamination, device-shell rupture, filler leakage, and hematoma. The surgical implantation procedures that have reduced the incidence of capsular contracture include submuscular emplacement, the use of breast implants with a textured surface (polyurethane-coated); limited pre-operative handling of the implants, limited contact with the chest skin of the implant pocket before the emplacement of the breast implant, and irrigation of the recipient site with triple-antibiotic solutions.


title: Breast implant

text: The correction of capsular contracture might require an open capsulotomy (surgical release) of the collagen-fiber capsule, or the removal, and possible replacement, of the breast implant. Furthermore, in treating capsular contracture, the closed capsulotomy (disruption via external manipulation) once was a common maneuver for treating hard capsules, but now is a discouraged technique, because it can rupture the breast implant. Non-surgical treatments for collagen-fiber capsules include massage, external ultrasonic therapy, leukotriene pathway inhibitors such as zafirlukast (Accolate) or montelukast (Singulair), and pulsed electromagnetic field therapy (PEMFT).


title: Breast implant

text: When the patient is unsatisfied with the outcome of the augmentation mammoplasty; or when technical or medical complications occur; or because of the breast implants' limited product life, it is likely she might require replacing the breast implants. Common revision surgery indications include major and minor medical complications, capsular contracture, shell rupture, and device deflation. Revision incidence rates were greater for breast reconstruction patients, because of the post-mastectomy changes to the soft-tissues and to the skin envelope of the breast, and to the anatomical borders of the breast, especially in women who received adjuvant external radiation therapy. Moreover, besides breast reconstruction, breast cancer patients usually undergo revision surgery of the nipple-areola complex (NAC), and symmetry procedures upon the opposite breast, to create a bust of natural appearance, size, form, and feel. Carefully matching the type and size of the breast implants to the patient's pectoral soft-tissue characteristics reduces the incidence of revision surgery. Appropriate tissue matching, implant selection, and proper implantation technique, the re-operation rate was 3 percent at the 7-year-mark, compared with the re-operation rate of 20 per cent at the 3-year-mark, as reported by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.


title: Breast implant

text: In the 1990s, the national health ministries of the listed countries reviewed the pertinent studies for causal links among silicone-gel breast implants and systemic and diagnosed autoimmune diseases and breast cancer.  A study by researchers at the U.S. National Institute of Health reported an increase in four types of cancer among women with breast implants compared to other plastic surgery patients of the same age and similar demographic traits and health habits.   This increase in cancer was attenuated but did not disappear when the researchers followed the women for 5 more years, with a 43% increase in brain cancer and a 63% increase in respiratory cancer compared to other plastic surgery patients.  A study by Watad et al. evaluated the medical records of more than 24,000 women with breast implants compared to more than 98,000 women with the same demographic traits who did not have breast implants. The researchers found a statistically significant 22 percent increase in several diagnosed diseases, increasing to more than 60% for Sjogren's syndrome, multiple sclerosis, and sarcoidosis After investigating this issue, in 2021 the U.S. FDA revised its "black box warnings" on breast implants to acknowledge the association between breast implants and systemic autoimmune, rheumatologic, and neurological symptoms to state: "Patients receiving breast implants have reported a variety of systemic symptoms, such as joint pain, muscle aches, confusion, chronic fatigue, autoimmune diseases, and others. Individual patient risk for developing these symptoms has not been well established. Some patients report complete resolution of symptoms when the implants are removed without replacement".


title: Breast implant

text: A 2021 study by Cleveland Clinic physicians investigated the outcome of breast implant removal on women with breast implants who had reported difficulty breathing or tightness in their chest; this is one of the symptoms associated with breast implant illness. The study examined breast implant patients who reported problems breathing, comparing their scores on 6 pulmonary function tests before and after their implants and scar capsules were removed. The researchers reported that 74% of the patients reported significant improvements on at least 3 of the pulmonary function tests. In self-reports, all study participants reported that their breathing improved after their implant surgery.


title: Breast implant

text: Platinum is a catalyst used in the making of silicone implant polymer shells and other silicone devices used in medicine. The literature indicates that small amounts of platinum leaches (leaks) from these implants and is present in the surrounding tissue. The FDA reviewed the available studies from the medical literature on platinum and breast implants in 2002 and concluded there was little evidence suggesting toxicity from platinum in implant patients. The FDA revisited this study and additional literature several years later, reaffirming prior conclusions that platinum catalysts used in implants is likely not ionized and therefore would not represent a risk to women.


title: Breast implant

text: The FDA has identified that breast implants may be associated with a rare form of cancer called anaplastic large-cell lymphoma, (ALCL), which some experts believe is believed to be associated with chronic bacterial inflammation. Similar ALCL phenomena have been seen with other types of medical implants including vascular access ports, orthopedic hip implants, and jaw (TMJ) implants. The causal association between breast implants and ALCL was conclusively established in December 2013, when researchers at MD Anderson Cancer Center published a study of 60 women with breast implants who were diagnosed with ALCL in the breast. In 2015, plastic surgeons published an article reviewing 37 articles in the literature on 79 patients and collected another 94 unreported cases, resulting in 173 women with breast implants who had developed ALCL of the breast. They concluded that "Breast implant-associated ALCL is a novel manifestation of site- and material-specific lymphoma originating in a specific scar location, presenting a wide array of diverse characteristics and suggesting a multifactorial cause." They stated that "There was no preference for saline or silicone fill or for cosmetic or reconstructive indications." Where implant history was known, the patient had received at least one textured-surface device. In 2016, the World Health Organization (WHO) officially recognized BIA-ALCL.


title: Breast implant

text: As of April 2022, the FDA has received 1,130 global medical device reports (MDRs) of BIA-ALCL, including 59 deaths. Since ALCL was thought to be diagnosed in only 1 woman in half a million, 60 women was a much higher number than would be expected. The researchers pointed out that BIA-ALCL could be fatal. If women with implants present with delayed swelling or fluid collection, cytologic studies and a test for the marker CD30 are suggested. The American Society of Plastic Surgery (ASPS) states, "CD30 is the main diagnostic test that must be performed on the seroma fluid as routine pathology or H&E staining can frequently miss the diagnosis." Diagnosis and treatment of breast implant-associated ALCL now follows standardized guidelines established by the National Comprehensive Cancer Network.


title: Breast implant

text: The current lifetime risk of BIA-ALCL in the U.S. is unknown, but estimates have ranged between one in 70,000 and one in 500,000 women with breast implants, according to the MD Anderson Cancer Center. Certain geographic locations have demonstrated variable risks. For instance, as of October 2020, Therapeutic Goods Administration of Australia and New Zealand reported a "1:3,345 risk with Allergan Biocell and a 1:86,029 risk with Mentor Siltex.". As of 2022, 798 of the 1,130 global MDRs for BIA-ALCL were of textured breast implants and 37 reports for BIAL-ALCL were of smooth-surfaced implants. The remaining 295 reports did not specify whether the implants were textured or smooth. Most patients had BIA-ALCL affect only one breast with only 8 patients diagnosed with bilateral BIA-ALCL. The most common reported symptom of BIA-ALCL according to the FDA was seroma, followed by breast swelling and pain, capsular contracture, and peri-implant mass or lump. Furthermore, 84 percent of the reported implants were made by Allergan. To date (2017), there has not been a case of BIAL reported where the patient had only implantation of smooth shell breast implants or a textured tissue expander that was exchanged for a smooth implant. The paucity of cases reported in Asian populations has raised the possibility that there may be a range of genetic susceptibility to the phenomenon; alternatively, it may reflect differences in how cases are identified and reported.


title: Breast implant

text: The ASPS and the Plastic Surgery Foundation (PSF) have partnered with the FDA to study this condition and in doing so created the Patient Registry and Outcomes for Breast Implants and Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma Etiology and Epidemiology (PROFILE). The United States FDA strongly encourages all physicians to report cases to PROFILE in an effort to better understand the role of breast implants in ALCL and the management of this disease.