title: Zebra murders

text: In response to the public backlash about the program, Alioto compared the interrogations to that of the Zodiac murders, in which hundreds of white people were also stopped, and defended the searches as constitutional. Dr. Washington Garner, the first black Police Commissioner for the city of San Francisco, urged the city's black men, "If you are stopped, don't resent it. Show your identification and, if necessary, permit a search."


title: Zebra murders

text: Two lawsuits were filed; one by the NAACP, asking that stop-and-search tactic be declared unconstitutional, and another by the ACLU, on behalf of six young black men, asking that the searches be stopped. Nathaniel Colley, an attorney for the NAACP, told the judge, "By admission, the police are engaged in a wholesale violation of every black male's rights if he happens to be what they think fits the description of the Zebra killer."


title: Zebra murders

text: On April 22, 1974, Alioto was spat on and struck on the head with protest signs as he walked through a crowd of about 1,000 demonstrators, organized by a group called, "Coalition to Stop Operation Zebra."


title: Zebra murders

text: During the hearing for the lawsuits, which began on April 24, 1974, Chief of Inspectors Charles Barca reported that of the 567 black men that had been stopped, 181 field interrogation cards were submitted, and that the searches produced, "no effective leads." A memo from Barca, disclosed that day, revealed directions to police that stated, "be more selective in making stops. Make them when the individual is acting, or appears to be out of the ordinary."


title: Zebra murders

text: On April 25, 1974, U.S. District Judge Alfonso Zirpoli issued a court order ruling that the searches unconstitutionally violated the rights of young black men, and said officers must have probable cause, and that a likeness to the composite drawing was not enough. Following the order, the police cut back interrogations to just over a dozen per day, and on April 26, 1974, the city filed an appeal to Zirpoli's order.


title: Zebra murders

text: By April 18, 1974, rewards totaling $30,000 were being offered for information leading to the arrest and conviction of the person(s) involved in the murders.


title: Zebra murders

text: Just ten days later, on April 28, 1974, Anthony Harris attended a secret meeting with the mayor that the led to the arrests of seven men on May 1, 1974, just six months after the killings began. The men were identified as: J. C. Simon, 29; Larry Green, 22; Manuel Moore, 23; Dwight Stallins, 28; Thomas Manney, 31; Edgar Burton, 22; Clarence Jamison, 27; the last four were released due to lack of evidence.


title: Zebra murders

text: It was later reported that Harris, the informant, had actually been in discussions with police prior to meeting with Alioto. In the ten hours of interrogation that was taped, he provided names, vehicle descriptions, stash locations inside of vehicles, and the center location where victims were taken for killing and dismemberment. As a result of this information, a special 28-man group of black police officers was divided into teams in order to maintain 24-hour surveillance on the named suspects. A public reference to this special team was made by Chief Scott on April 23, 1974. As an informant to police, Harris was stashed in a hotel and kept under guard. Two days later, Mayor Alioto was approached by a lawyer on behalf of Harris, who was motivated by a $30,000 reward.


title: Zebra murders

text: Despite this fumble, a meeting attended by the Mayor, Chief Scott, Chief of Inspectors Charles Barca, Lieutenant Charles Ellis, Inspector Gus Coreris, and Prosecutor Walter Giubbini resulted in the decision to move forward with the arrests.


title: Zebra murders

text: Search warrants were issued for a Black Self-Help center where Green, Simon, and Moore worked, in Green and Simon's apartment, and in automobiles seized. At the center they collected a roll of rope, an axe, bows and arrows, a sickle, a machete, wire, plastic bags, five knives, a small hatchet, a hand saw, and a spear. In the apartment, they found two swords with scabbards and rope.


title: Zebra murders

text: The police have arrested several suspects in connection with the Zebra killings. At this stage of the proceedings all of these suspects are entitled in the presumption that they are innocent. And the police and I are entitled to the opinion that the ring leaders who perpetrated the wave of terror in San Francisco are behind bars. The investigation will continue until we are satisfied that we have rounded up all of the members of this group and have insured the fact that new members will not take their place.


title: Zebra murders

text: I am confident that the trial judges have ample power to protect the suspects from the publicity which the Zebra slayings have generated. I am also of the opinion that this community is entitled to know the nature of the terrorist organization responsible for the recent rash of crimes.


title: Zebra murders

text: The San Francisco police, under the leadership of Chief Donald Scott, have pierced the veil of a vicious ring of murders called "DEATH ANGELS." The local group is a division of a larger organization dedicated to the murder and mutilation of whites and dissident Blacks. The pattern of killing is by random street shooting or hacking to death with machete, cleaver or knife. Decapitation or other forms of mayhem bring special credit from the organization for the killers. Hitchhikers are a particular prey.


title: Zebra murders

text: "DEATH ANGELS," a kind of reverse Ku Klux Klan, is based on the muddled aberrations clearly outside the mainstream of Islamic religions. In my opinion, it represents as much a potential threat to Blacks as to whites. Members are usually characterized by trim, neat appearance, and purport to live by a puritanical code of moral conduct. They are fanatical believers in Black separatism. The training of young boys fourteen years of age and over in what they call "martial arts" is a practice of this group. It consists of teaching manual methods and techniques of killing or incapacitating.


title: Zebra murders

text: Our intelligence indicates that the national leader of this organization is apparently located outside of California and that he determines levels of promotion in the local divisions. The "DEATH ANGELS" who use wings as an insignia, literally earn their promotions upon presentation of proof of the number and nature of the murders committed.


title: Zebra murders

text: Nearly 80 California murderous assaults, principally in Los Angeles, San Francisco, Alameda, and Sacramento counties between September of 1970 to date, have been characterized by the "DEATH ANGEL" pattern of operations, i.e. unprovoked attacks involving random shooting of whites in the street or mutilation by heavy-bladed weapons committed by neatly dressed young black men. An examination of the specific facts in the attached partial list of victims amply supports the inference, on courtroom evidence, that the similarity of pattern is better explained by concert of action than by coincidence.


title: Zebra murders

text: A concerted drive by local, state, and national law enforcement agencies is desperately needed to shatter this organization. Otherwise the arrest of present perpetrators will result in their replacement by other "DEATH ANGELS." The jails are favorite places of recruitment, with job opportunities upon release as one of the inducements.


title: Zebra murders

text: Investigation by local police, the FBI, and grand juries, preferably coordinated by the Attorney General of California, is in my opinion an absolute imperative. This investigation must be carried on by skilled, professional, dispassionate police work, avoiding emotional appeals and hysterical speculation. While it must be vigorous and relentless, it must stay within constitutional limitations.


title: Zebra murders

text: The public is urged to cooperate with police authorities and to come forward with information, with the assurance that all the law permits by way of reward of leniency will be recommended in appropriate cases in exchange for valuable information.


title: Zebra murders

text: Special care must be taken by public officials and the police to prevent hate groups from converting a criminal investigation into a racial struggle. The inescapable fact of the matter is that most mass murderers of recent years - Manson, the Santa Cruz murderers, Corona, and Zodiac have been white. Murder knows no color and must be fought without aggravating sensitive racial tensions.


title: Zebra murders

text: For that reason, numerous Blacks and whites with unquestioned credentials in the Black community must participate in these law enforcement efforts. However, it should be clear that a constitutional assault on a murderous society of brutal killers cannot be diminished because its members are Black, anymore than if they were white. Murder is murder, and no community will endure that approaches the struggle for effective law enforcement with anything less than rugged determination to wipe out organized lawlessness.


title: Zebra murders

text: The grand jury's first meeting began on May 6, 1974 with unprecedented security. Witness identities remained protected due to an order banning extrajudicial statements. The following week, protestors from the Progressive Labor Party distributed literature demanding the indictment of Mayor Alioto and the police department for the harassment and terrorization of black people. They also requested the destruction of the Operation Zebra field interrogation cards.


title: Zebra murders

text: A grand jury transcript revealed that police officers unknowingly questioned and released the suspects seven times, including during the abduction on the Hagues. Green, who was driving a white van at the time, was also stopped by an officer on October 31, 1973, but was released. Two months later, on December 22, 1973, Simon and Moore interfered while an officer was conducting a traffic stop. Neither was cited and two hours later two more Zebra murders occurred. Several more times, Simon, Green, and Moore were stopped, and each time they were let go.


title: Zebra murders

text: On May 9, 1974, Moore, Green, and Simon pleaded innocent to the murder charges. Their bail was set at $250,000 each.


title: Zebra murders

text: Harris' testimony, which covered 62 pages of the grand jury transcript, indicated he was present for 10 murders but did not actively participate. He said that he was told that the "Death Angels" were "supposed to be a pretty high branch of the Nation of Islam," and had 2,000 members nationwide. He also stated that the killings began after a meeting in September or October in Simon's apartment, at which 12 or 13 people were present. On the date of the Hague murder and assault, Harris testified that Green and Cooks offered him a ride home, but instead made him a participant in the kidnapping of the couple.


title: Zebra murders

text: On May 16, 1974, the grand jury indicted all four men on murder charges. Moore and Simon were indicted on two counts each of murder and assault with a deadly weapon. Moore was charged with two additional accounts of assault with an additional weapon. Green and Cooks were indicted on one count each of murder, two counts of kidnapping, two counts of robbery, and one of assault with a deadly weapon. Bail was set for each at $300,000.


title: Zebra murders

text: On May 29, 1974, all four suspects pleaded innocent to the charges for the three murders. The trial date was originally set for July 8, 1974, however, due to a scheduling conflict with the defendants' attorney, the trial was postponed multiple times.


title: Zebra murders

text: By February 21, 1975, Clinton White, the attorney for defendants Green, Moore, and Simon, said Harris sent him two letters claiming police threatened to revoke his burglary conviction if he fails to testify. White, and defense attorney for Cooks, Roger Pierucci, tape recorded an interview with Harris, in which the informant recanted his testimony.


title: Zebra murders

text: On February 24, 1975, a $14 million dollar lawsuit was filed in which Mayor Alioto and the San Francisco Police Department found themselves the defendants; the Zebra killings defendants and the four men that were released were the plaintiffs. They asked for damages for false arrests and the "fright, shame, humiliation, embarrassment, and worry" suffered.


title: Zebra murders

text: The trial began on March 3, 1975. During the first day of trial, 48 jurors were excused for hardship. Defense attorney Clinton White requested a delay due illness of their chief strategist, Edward Jacko. That same night, a briefcase, tape recorder, cassettes, and binders concerning the Zebra trial were stolen from the parked car of one of the defense attorneys, John Cruikshank.


title: Zebra murders

text: After questioning 205 potential jurors over the course of four weeks, on March 27, 1975, the juror panel was seated; five men and seven women.


title: Zebra murders

text: In opening remarks by the prosecution, District Attorney Robert Podesta stated police have the .32 caliber pistol that was used in 5 of the 20 murders and assaults. He also revealed they have a wedding ring taken from Quita Hague. Harris, who was granted immunity, describing the machete slaying of Quita Hague, said "Larry grabbed the woman by her hair and took a machete knife and took her 20 feet from the van. He raised it over his head and sliced down on her neck. He kept chopping, chopping." He continued, "He came over to where I was standing and said, 'You should have seen the blood gush out of that devil's neck.'" He then described Cooks attack on Quita's husband. Harris also testified that he rode for several hours with the defendants on the night in January that four persons were killed and one was wounded. When questioned about the letters he wrote to defense attorney White, Harris said he "just made up" the story because of pressures on his wife and anger towards the district attorney's office. Michael Armstrong, 23, testified under immunity that he sold the gun that killed and wounded several victims in 1974 to Thomas Manney, manager of the Black Self-Help center and former suspect in the Zebra killings. A month into the trial, a 12-year-old girl identified Cooks in court, as the man who tried to abduct her at gunpoint on October 20, 1973. Her testimony coincided with Harris', who described how he, Cooks, and two other men, attempted to abduct three children before abducting the Hagues. Also heard in the trial was Cooks' confession to the Frances Rose shooting. Linda Story, who survived with a bullet lodged in her spine, testified about the attack on her and fellow cadet Tom Rainwater.


title: Zebra murders

text: After twelve months, 212 days in court, and testimony from 181 witnesses, jury deliberations would begin. Just three days later, all four defendants were found guilty. Green laughed out loud as jurors were polled; Cooks also laughed after conferring with his attorney. Moore and Simon showed no emotion.


title: Zebra murders

text: Moore and Simon were charged with two counts each of murder and assault with a deadly weapon in the murders of Tana Smith and Jane Holly. Each was also charged with two counts of assault in the attack on Roxanne McMillan. In addition, Moore was charged with assault on Terry White and Ward Anderson. Green and Cooks were charged with one count each of murder, two counts of kidnapping, two counts of robbery, and one assault with a deadly weapon for the murder of Quita Hague and the attack on her husband, Richard Hague.


title: Zebra murders

text: On March 29, 1976, Cooks, Green, Moore, and Simon were sentenced to life in prison, the maximum penalty allowed.


title: Zebra murders

text: On March 12, 2015, J. C. X. Simon (aged 69) was found unresponsive in his cell at San Quentin State Prison, where since 1976 he had been serving a life sentence with the possibility of parole. He was declared dead of unknown causes, pending an autopsy. Moore (aged 75) died in 2017 at the California Health Care Facility.


title: Zebra murders

text: Cooks died in prison on June 30, 2021 at the Richard J. Donovan Correctional Facility and Green is in the California State Prison, Solano.


title: Hvitserk

text: Hvitserk ("Hvítserkr", "White-Shirt") was one of the sons of the legendary 9th-century Viking Ragnar Lothbrok and his wife Aslaug.


title: Hvitserk

text: Hvitserk is attested to by the Tale of Ragnar's Sons ("Ragnarssona þáttr"). He is not mentioned in any source that mentions Halfdan Ragnarsson, one of the leaders of the Great Heathen Army that invaded the Kingdom of East Anglia in 867, or vice versa, which consequently led some scholars to suggest that they are the same individual with "Hvitserk" being only a nickname.


title: Hvitserk

text: After having avenged his father together with his brothers, he went to Gardarike ("Garðaríki"). Hvitserk also pillaged with the Rus. He was, however, opposed by such a large foe that he could not win. When asked about how he wished to die, he decided to be burned alive at a stake of human remains.


title: Hvitserk

text: The Ukrainian historian Leontii Voitovych assumed that Hvitserk was possibly another name of the Kievan prince Askold.


title: Hvitserk

text: Modern depictions of Hvitserk as a son of Ragnar include History's historical drama television series "Vikings", where he features as Ragnar's son by Aslaug (played by Marco Ilsø).


title: Uppalapati Surya Narayana Raju

text: Uppalapati Surya Narayana Raju was an Indian film producer. He is the younger brother of Krishnam Raju and father of Prabhas. His movie banner is Gopi Krishna Movies and he is the producer of "Bhakta Kannappa".


title: Uppalapati Surya Narayana Raju

text: Suryanarayana Raju was born in Mogalthur, West Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh, to Veera Venkata Satyanarayana Raju.


title: Bright Star (film)

text: Bright Star is a 2009 biographical romantic drama film, written and directed by Jane Campion. It is based on the last three years of the life of poet John Keats (played by Ben Whishaw) and his romantic relationship with Fanny Brawne (Abbie Cornish). Campion's screenplay was inspired by a 1997 biography of Keats by Andrew Motion, who served as a script consultant.


title: Bright Star (film)

text: "Bright Star" was in the main competition at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival, and was first shown to the public on 15 May 2009. The film's title is a reference to a sonnet by Keats titled "Bright star, would I were steadfast as thou art", which he wrote while he was with Brawne.


title: Bright Star (film)

text: In 1818 Hampstead, the fashionable Fanny Brawne is introduced to poet John Keats through the Dilke family. The Dilkes occupy one half of a double house, with Charles Brown occupying the other half. Brown is Keats' friend, roommate, and associate in writing.


title: Bright Star (film)

text: Fanny's flirtatious personality contrasts with Keats' notably more aloof nature. She begins to pursue him after her siblings Samuel and Toots obtain his book of poetry, "Endymion". Her efforts to interact with the poet are fruitless until he witnesses her grief for the loss of his brother, Tom. Keats begins to open up to her advances while spending Christmas with the Brawne family. He begins giving her poetry lessons, and it becomes apparent that their attraction is mutual. Fanny is nevertheless troubled by his reluctance to pursue her, on which her mother surmises, "Mr. Keats knows he cannot like you, he has no living and no income."


title: Bright Star (film)

text: It is only after Fanny receives a valentine from Brown that Keats passionately confronts them and asks if they are lovers. Brown sent the valentine in jest, but warns Keats that Fanny is a mere flirt playing a game. Fanny is hurt by Brown's accusations and Keats' lack of faith in her; she ends their lessons and leaves. The Dilkes move to Westminster in the spring, leaving the Brawne family their half of the house and six months rent. Fanny and Keats then resume their interaction and fall deeply in love. The relationship comes to an abrupt end when Brown departs with Keats for his summer holiday, where Keats may earn some money. Fanny is heartbroken, though she is comforted by Keats' love letters. When the men return in the autumn, Fanny's mother voices her concern that Fanny's attachment to the poet will hinder her from being courted. Fanny and Keats secretly become engaged.


title: Bright Star (film)

text: Keats contracts tuberculosis the following winter. He spends several weeks recovering until spring. His friends collect funds so that he may spend the following winter in Italy, where the climate is warmer. After Brown impregnates a maid and is unable to accompany him, Keats finds accommodation in London for the summer, and is later taken in by the Brawne family following an attack of his illness. When his book sells with moderate success, Fanny's mother gives him her blessing to marry Fanny once he returns from Italy. The night before he leaves, he and Fanny say their tearful goodbyes in privacy. Keats dies in Italy the following February of complications from his illness, as his brother Tom did.


title: Bright Star (film)

text: In the last moments of the film, Fanny cuts her hair in an act of mourning, dons black attire, and walks the snowy paths that Keats had walked many times. It is there that she recites the love sonnet that he had written for her, called "Bright Star", as she grieves the death of her lover.


title: Bright Star (film)

text: In addition to "Bright Star" several other poems are recited in the film, including "La Belle Dame sans Merci" and "Ode to a Nightingale". Both Campion and Whishaw completed extensive research in preparation for the film. Many of the lines in the script are taken directly from Keats' letters. Whishaw, as well, learned how to write with a quill and ink during filming. The letters that Fanny Brawne receives from Keats in the film were actually written by Whishaw in his own hand.


title: Bright Star (film)

text: Janet Patterson, who has worked with Campion for over 20 years, served as both costume designer and production designer for the film.


title: Bright Star (film)

text: The Hyde House and Estate in Hyde, Bedfordshire, substituted for the Keats House in Hampstead. Campion decided that the Keats House (also known as Wentworth Place) was too small and "a little bit fusty". Some filming also took place at Elstree Studios.


title: Bright Star (film)

text: The film garnered positive reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 83% out of 175 critics gave the film a positive review, with an average score of 7.26/10. The website's critical consensus states, "Jane Campion's direction is as refined as her screenplay, and she gets the most out of her cast – especially Abbie Cornish – in this understated period drama." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 81 out of 100, based on 34 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: Bright Star (film)

text: Mary Colbert of SBS awarded the film five stars out of five. "If Campion intended to inspire an appreciation and rediscovery of Keats' poetry," she writes, "she has not only succeeded but herself created an artistic monument to his life, love, poetry and soul." Craig Mathieson stated in the same review that "Bright Star" is Jane Campion's "best work since "The Piano", her epochal 1993 masterpiece." Roger Ebert gave the film three and a half stars out of four.


title: Bright Star (film)

text: Poet and scholar Stanley Plumly, the author of "Posthumous Keats: A Personal Biography", wrote of the film's writing and direction: "Jane Campion has understood the richly figurative in Keats' life without sacrificing the literal wealth of its texture. She has evoked the mystery of his genius without giving up the reality of its dailiness." In 2019, "The Guardian" added the film in its 100 best films of the 21st century list. In 2019, the BBC polled 368 film experts from 84 countries to name the 100 greatest films directed by women; "Bright Star" was voted at No. 54.


title: Bright Star (film)

text: Lakeshore Records released the soundtrack for "Bright Star" digitally (iTunes and Amazon Digital) on 15 September 2009 and in stores on 13 October 2009. The film's soundtrack features original music by Mark Bradshaw with dialogue from the film voiced by Cornish and Whishaw.


title: Bright Star (film)

text: A collection of Keats's love letters and selected poems was published in 2009 as a companion to the motion picture, entitled "Bright Star: Love Letters and Poems of John Keats to Fanny Brawne". The 144-page book was published by Penguin and includes an introduction written by Campion.


title: Bright Star (film)

text: Composer Mark Bradshaw can be seen in the film as the conductor while the men choir performs the track "Human Orchestra", which Bradshaw arranged from the third movement of the serenade for twelve winds and string bass by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.


title: Bright Star (film)

text: Actor Ben Whishaw, who plays John Keats, met Bradshaw on set. In 2012, they entered into a civil partnership.


title: Uxoricide

text: Uxoricide (from Latin "uxor" meaning "wife" and -cide, from "caedere" meaning "to cut, to kill") is the killing of one's own wife. It can refer to the act itself or the person who carries it out. It can also be used in the context of the killing of one's own girlfriend. The killing of a husband is called mariticide.


title: Uxoricide

text: Though overall rates of spousal violence and homicide in the US have declined since the 1970s, rates of uxoricide are significantly higher than rates of mariticide (the murder of a husband). Of the 2340 deaths at the hands of intimate partners in the US in 2007, female victims made up 70%. FBI data from the mid-1970s to mid-1980s found that for every 100 husbands who killed their wives in the United States, about 75 women killed their husbands. However, wives were more likely to kill their husbands than vice versa in some US cities including Chicago, Detroit, Houston, and St. Louis. Per the US Bureau of Justice Statistics, white men are statistically more likely to be perpetrators of uxoricide than any other demographic between 1998 and 2002.


title: Uxoricide

text: In the region of South-East Asia, 55% of all murdered women died at the hands of their partner, followed by 40% in the African region and 38% in the Americas. A 2013 study found that 38.6% of murders of women are committed by intimate partners.


title: Uxoricide

text: Rates of uxoricide seem to fluctuate across western cultures, with approximately seven women being killed per month in England and Wales, approximately four women per month in Australia, and approximately 76 women per month in the United States. Note that these data come from different years and represent raw data, having neither been adjusted for nor indexed by country population.


title: Uxoricide

text: Proponents of psychodynamic theories have offered explanations for the mechanisms underlying the occurrence of uxoricide. It has been suggested that men who kill their partners experience both an unconscious dependence on their wife and a resentment of her. These men wish to leave the relationship, but unknowingly perceive themselves as too helpless to do so, which culminates into a belief that killing the wife is the only way to be free of her. This approach also offers an alternative explanation for instances where a man commits uxoricide and subsequent immediate suicide – the man ends his life not due to guilt, but instead due to his perceived helplessness and dependency.


title: Uxoricide

text: Links have also been established between violence in childhood and likelihood of uxoricide occurring. Psychodynamic researchers argue that being the victim of abuse in childhood leads to being a perpetrator of domestic abuse in adulthood via the route of defence mechanisms – in this case, violence is an unconscious defensive adaption to childhood trauma and other adverse events. Other psychodynamic researchers have reported that Thematic Apperception Tests reveal significant trends of rejection by a mother or wife in men who commit uxoricide. Psychoanalytic dream interpretation has also argued that unconscious conflict manifests into violent outbursts. For example, in one instance one man had experienced and recorded over 200 distressing, mostly violent dreams prior to murdering his wife.


title: Uxoricide

text: In slightly more than two-thirds of US spousal homicides, a verbal disagreement escalated to homicide.


title: Uxoricide

text: In two studies conducted in Canada and Britain, cohabiting women were found at greater risk of domestic violence and uxoricide than married women. Research has found that cohabiting women are nine times more likely to be killed by their intimate partner than married women. A number of possible reasons for this finding have been studied. Cohabiting women are more likely to be younger, have a lower level of education and are more likely to bring children from a previous relationship into their home with their new intimate partner. In addition to this heightened risk to a mother with stepchildren, the genetically unrelated stepfather also poses a risk to the child; research has shown that children are at much greater risk of violence and filicide (murder of a child) from stepfathers compared to a genetic father. This may be because investment from a stepfather reduces reproductive benefits. Research has found that the presence of stepchildren can significantly increase the risk of uxoricide for women. A large number of filicides are accompanied by uxoricide and suicide.


title: Uxoricide

text: Additionally, cohabiting relationships have higher separation rates and males in these types of relationships may not feel in control of their intimate partners and may feel threatened by male sexual competitors. Research has found that a large proportion of uxoricide cases follow on from the male believing that his female intimate partner has been unfaithful or the female partner attempting to end the relationship. Research has shown that females often experience increased abuse following the termination of a relationship. An Australian study found that of a sample of uxoricide cases, 47% of women were murdered by their male intimate partner within two months of separating. Sexual jealousy may be a possible reason for this heightened risk following separation.


title: Uxoricide

text: Another risk factor for uxoricide is estrangement. Women who choose to leave their partner are at higher risk of spousal homicide. These crimes have been termed "abandonment homicides", and are most commonly committed by men with childhood histories of abandonment and trauma, in conjunction with markedly low serotonin levels and frontal cortex damage that contribute to poor impulse control. The male is more likely to kill his mate before she has had the chance to form a new relationship with another man as he fears she will then devote her reproductive resources to a male rival's offspring. Therefore, by killing his partner he will avoid the reputational damage associated with intrasexual competition and will eliminate the chances of another man having access to a high value mate. This also explains why those women who have had children from a previous relationship are at higher risk of spousal homicide compared with those who have only had children with their current partner. The female partner has already devoted her reproductive resources to another man, therefore when she establishes a new relationship, the male becomes involved in the upbringing of another man's offspring which will damage his hierarchical status amongst intrasexual rivals.


title: Uxoricide

text: The greater age disparity between spouses, the higher risk of spousal homicide. For a male, the damage associated with infidelity is greater when the partner is younger. A woman's fertility decreases as she gets older, therefore, age is key indicator of reproductive success. As a result, a man will place high levels of importance on a mate with greater reproductive value. A man is more likely to engage in "hands on" killing methods when the mate has high reproductive value. "Hands on" refers to more violent methods such as using weapons, drowning, stabbing and strangling.


title: Uxoricide

text: Some instances of uxoricide are facilitated by the culture of the victim and the perpetrator. For example, honor killings, whereby a man kills his wife because she has brought shame upon their family, are approved in some male-dominated, patriarchal societies. Approximately 42% of female victims of honour killings worldwide were killed because it was believed they had committed a 'sexual impropriety'. Other facilitating cultural norms include discriminatory family laws and articles in the Criminal Code which display leniency towards honor killings. In Turkey, it has been reported that little social stigma is attached to honor killings, and around 37% of those living in conservative areas believe that adulterous women should be killed. These attitudes favouring honor killings have also been echoed amongst children and adults in Jordan and India. In Uruguay, until 2017 crimes of passion related to adultery were tolerated under Article 36 of the Penal Code (The passion provoked by adultery) – "Artículo 36. (La pasión provocada por el adulterio)". On 22 December 2017, Article 36 of the Criminal Code was modified to remove the crime of passion. There had been ongoing political efforts to remove this provision from the Criminal Code since 2013. Uruguay has a very high rate of killing of women; according to a 2018 United Nations study, Uruguay has the second-highest rate of killings of women by current or former partners in Latin America, after Dominican Republic.


title: Uxoricide

text: Uxoricide can also be prevalent in countries where honor killings are not considered acceptable. In South Africa, for example, as many as five women are estimated to be killed each week by an intimate partner. It has been suggested that this high rate of uxoricide is a result of the prevalence of violence in South African society, and how it is deemed socially acceptable in many circumstances – conservative attitudes towards women in this society have been suggested to facilitate uxoricide. Studies conducted in Italy exhibit similar findings, reporting that a man's cultural values concerning the position of women in society links to his likelihood of committing uxoricide.


title: Uxoricide

text: When a parent kills another parent, children experience significant trauma. The other parent is likely to be in prison or may have committed suicide and therefore, the child will go through significant loss. The child has not only lost a parent but has also lost the other parent that would help and support them through this loss. This type of extreme traumatic event can have serious implications on wellbeing and mental health.


title: UFC 282

text: UFC 282: Błachowicz vs. Ankalaev was a mixed martial arts event produced by the Ultimate Fighting Championship. It took place on December 10, 2022, at the T-Mobile Arena in Paradise, Nevada, part of the Las Vegas Metropolitan Area, United States.


title: UFC 282

text: A UFC Light Heavyweight Championship rematch between then current champion Jiří Procházka (also former Rizin Light Heavyweight Champion) and former champion Glover Teixeira was originally expected to headline the event. The pair previously met at UFC 275 in June, with Procházka winning the back and forth fight (and championship) by submission in the fifth round. However, on November 23, Procházka pulled out due to a shoulder injury that will require surgery and at least six months of rehabilitation. He decided to vacate the title, and Teixeira subsequently refused a replacement fight against Magomed Ankalaev. Therefore, the co-main event bout between former champion Jan Błachowicz (also former KSW Light Heavyweight Champion) and Ankalaev was promoted to the main event status and arranged for the vacant championship.


title: UFC 282

text: A heavyweight bout between Jairzinho Rozenstruik and Chris Daukaus was originally scheduled for , but it was moved to this event for undisclosed reasons.


title: UFC 282

text: Promotional newcomer Bo Nickal was expected to face Jamie Pickett in a middleweight bout. However, it was announced in late October that Nickal withdrew due to injury and the bout was scrapped.


title: UFC 282

text: A light heavyweight bout between former title challenger Alexander Gustafsson and former interim title contender Ovince Saint Preux was expected to take place at the event. However, Gustafsson withdrew due to an undisclosed reason and was replaced by 2018 PFL heavyweight tournament winner Philipe Lins. In turn, Lins withdrew from the bout due to an undisclosed reason and was replaced by Antonio Trocoli. However, Trocoli withdrew due to visa issues. As a result, Saint Preux was pulled from the card as well due to the promotion being unable to find another replacement.


title: UFC 282

text: A bantamweight bout between Cameron Saaiman and Ronnie Lawrence was expected to take place at the event. However, Lawrence withdrew for unknown reasons the week before the event and was replaced by promotional newcomer Steven Koslow.


title: UFC 282

text: A welterweight bout between former UFC Welterweight Champion Robbie Lawler and Santiago Ponzinibbio was expected to take place at the event. The pairing was previously scheduled to meet at UFC 245 in 2019 but Ponzinibbio withdrew due to a staph infection. However, the week of the event, the bout fell through again as Lawler was forced to withdraw due to an undisclosed injury. He was replaced by Alex Morono at a catchweight of 180 pounds.


title: UFC 282

text: A flyweight bout between Daniel da Silva and Vinicius Salvador was expected to take place at the event. However, after the official weigh-ins, in which da Silva weighed in at 129 pounds, three pounds over the flyweight non-title fight limit, it was announced he had been pulled from the card due to an undisclosed medical issue and the bout was scrapped.


title: Dutee Chand

text: Dutee Chand (born 3 February 1996) is an Indian professional sprinter and current national champion in the women's 100 metres event. She is the first Indian to win a gold medal in 100m race in a global competition. She is the third Indian woman to ever qualify for the Women's 100 metres event at the Summer Olympic Games. However, in the 2016 Summer Olympics, her 11.69 s in the preliminary round did not qualify her for the next round. In 2018, Chand clinched silver in women's 100m at the Jakarta Asian Games. It was India's first medal in this event since 1998. In 2019, she became the first Indian sprinter to win gold at the Universiade, clocking 11.32 seconds in the 100 m race.


title: Dutee Chand

text: She is the reigning national champion in the 100 m event. Chand, who was once forced to sit out due to the IAAF hyperandrogenism regulations, qualified for the Women's 100 m event at the 2016 Rio Olympics, 36 years after P. T. Usha took part in the 1980 Moscow Olympics. In 2016, she was appointed as an assistant manager in the state government-run Odisha Mining Corporation (OMC).


title: Dutee Chand

text: Dutee is also India's first athlete to openly come out as a member of the LGBTQ+ community, when she spoke about being in a same-sex relationship in 2019. Later that year, she signed up a two-year deal with sportswear brand Puma to endorse their products.


title: Dutee Chand

text: Chand was born on 3 February 1996 to Chakradhar Chand and Akhuji Chand in the Chaka Gopalpur village, Jajpur district of Odisha. She is from a below poverty line weavers family. Her source of inspiration is her older sister Saraswati Chand, who competed in running at state level. Chand and her elder sister Saraswati were enrolled in a government sports hostel in 2006.


title: Dutee Chand

text: In 2012, Dutee Chand became a national champion in the under-18 category, when she clocked 11.85 seconds in the 100 metres event.


title: Dutee Chand

text: Clocking 23.811 seconds, Chand won the bronze in the Women's 200 metres event at the 2013 Asian Athletics Championships at Pune. The year also saw her become the first Indian to reach the final of a global athletics 100 metres final, when she reached the final in the 2013 World Youth Championships. In the same year, she became the national champion in 100 metres and 200 metres when she won the events clocking 11.73 s in the final in 100 metres and a career-best 23.73 s in 200 metres at the National Senior Athletics Championships at Ranchi.


title: Dutee Chand

text: In June 2014, she won two gold medals at Asian Junior Athletics Championships in 200 metres and 4 × 400 m relays. In the 200 m event she bettered her previous timing to 23.74 secs and hoping to get qualified for the Commonwealth Games but Chand was dropped from the 2014 Commonwealth Games contingent at the last minute after the Athletic Federation of India stated that hyperandrogenism made her ineligible to compete as a female athlete. Following the Commonwealth Games she was also dropped from the Indian contingent for the 2014 Asian Games. There was no suggestion that Chand was involved in cheating or doping, and the decision was widely criticized by intersex advocates.


title: Dutee Chand

text: Chand appealed to the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS). The Canadian law firm Davies, Ward, Philips & Vineberg, LLP represented her on a "pro bono" basis. The IAAF policy on hyperandrogenism, or high natural levels of testosterone in women, was suspended following the case of "Dutee Chand v. Athletics Federation of India (AFI) & The International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF)", in the Court of Arbitration for Sport, decided in July 2015. The ruling found that there was a lack of evidence provided that testosterone increased female athletic performance and notified the IAAF that it had two years to provide the evidence. This effectively removed the suspension of Chand from competition, clearing her to race again.


title: Dutee Chand

text: Santhi Soundarajan, an Indian middle-distance runner, extended her support to Chand, saying that Chand should not be "victimized". She said that steps should be taken to ensure Chand's return to the track.


title: Dutee Chand

text: Following the hyperandrogenism rule change, Chand resumed competing and participated at the 2016 Asian Indoor Athletics Championships in 60 metres where in the qualification round she set the Indian national record clocking in at 7.28 secs and went on to win the bronze medal in the final with a time of 7.37 secs.


title: Dutee Chand

text: Dutee clocked 11.33 secs in women's 100m dash to win the gold and erase Rachita Mistry’s 16-year-old earlier national record of 11.38 s in the 2016 Federation Cup National Athletics Championships in New Delhi, however she missed the Rio Olympics qualification norm of 11.32 s by one-hundredth of a second. But finally on 25 June 2016, Dutee broke the same National record twice in one day after clocking 11.24 at the XXVI International Meeting G Kosanov Memorial at Almaty, Kazakhstan, thereby qualifying for the Olympic Games. "I am really happy at the moment, it has been a tough year for me and I am so happy that my coach ... and my hard work has paid off. I would like to thank all the people in India who were praying for me to qualify. Your wishes have paid off."


title: Dutee Chand

text: At Rio 2016 Olympics, she became the third Indian woman to participate in the Women's 100 metres, though she did not move beyond the heats, where she clocked 11.69 seconds.


title: Dutee Chand

text: Since Rio, Chand has been training at Hyderabad with young athletes, most notable among them Indian Badminton Star P. V. Sindhu.


title: Dutee Chand

text: In 2017, at the Asian Athletics Championships she clinched two bronze medals, one in the Women's 100 metres, another in the Women's 4 × 100 m relay with Srabani Nanda, Merlin K Joseph, and Himashree Roy at Bhubaneswar.


title: Dutee Chand

text: At the 2018 Asian Games, in the Women's 100 metres finals, Chand won the silver medal, her first Asian games medal, clocking 11.32 sec on 26 August. Again on 29 August, she bagged her second silver at the Asian games in the Women's 200 metres final. Her silver in 100 m, was India's silver medal in this category after 32 years since P.T.Usha won in 1986 and Chand's first medal in the Asian games as she was banned in 2014 and her 200 m silver is after 16 years for India since Saraswati Saha's gold in 2002 at Busan.


title: Dutee Chand

text: As she won these two medals after a long court battle, she expressed her concern about her future saying, "My legal team helped me to come back. But nobody could guarantee what will happen in the future." Citing Caster Semenya's ongoing fight, she said, "Caster Semenya is still fighting. There is always fear but you need to overcome it."


title: Dutee Chand

text: At the 2019 Summer Universiade in Napoli, Chand won gold in the 100m race, becoming the first Indian woman sprinter to win gold at the Universiade. She finished the sprint in 11.32 seconds. She was also the flag-bearer during the opening ceremony of the event.


title: Dutee Chand

text: Caster Semenya is the 2012 and 2016 Olympic champion and former world champion in women's 800 metres. She is also affected by the hyperandrogenism rule of IAAF like Dutee but faced a different fate. In April 2018, the IAAF announced new rules that required hyperandrogenous athletes to take medication to lower their testosterone levels, effective beginning in November 2018. Due to the narrow scope of the changes, which only apply to athletes competing in the 400 m, 800 m, and 1500 m, many people thought the rule change was designed specifically to target Semenya.


title: Dutee Chand

text: At an interview to "The Indian Express", Chand expressed her pain and struggle of four years, when she was controversially not allowed to compete in any international events due to hyperandrogenism. "These four years have been extremely tough for me. The negativity, fear of my career ending prematurely, insensitive comments about my body, I have faced them all. I am extremely relieved that I can run fearlessly again, knowing that now my battle exists only on the track and not off it."


title: Dutee Chand

text: In 2013, she enrolled in the KIIT University to study law. She is presently employed as an executive officer in the state PSU The Odisha Mining Corporation Ltd.


title: Dutee Chand

text: In 2019, she became India's first ever openly queer athlete as she publicly stated that she is in a same-sex relationship, saying that the Indian Supreme Court's decision to decriminalise gay sex in 2018 encouraged her to speak publicly about her sexuality, mentioning that she was in a same-sex relationship. Chand faced severe backlash from her home village after her announcement, whose residents disavowed her remarks and called them "humiliating". Her eldest sister had threatened to expel her from the family.


title: Dutee Chand

text: In August 2019, prominent sportswear brand Puma signed Chand for two years to endorse their products.


title: How much wood would a woodchuck chuck

text: "How much wood would a woodchuck chuck" (sometimes phrased with "could" rather than "would") is an American English-language tongue-twister. The woodchuck, a word originating from Algonquian "wejack", is a kind of marmot, regionally called a groundhog. The complete beginning of the tongue-twister usually goes: "How much wood would a woodchuck chuck if a woodchuck could chuck wood?" The tongue-twister relies primarily on alliteration to achieve its effects, with five "w" sounds interspersed among five "ch" sounds, as well as 6 "ood" sounds.


title: How much wood would a woodchuck chuck

text: A traditional, if nonsensical, "response" to the question is: "A woodchuck would chuck as much wood as a woodchuck could chuck if a woodchuck could chuck wood". Other — similarly unhelpful — responses include "So much wood would a woodchuck chuck as a woodchuck would if a woodchuck could chuck wood!", "He would chuck, he would, as much as he could, and chuck as much wood as a woodchuck would if a woodchuck could chuck wood.", and "As much wood as a woodchuck would if a woodchuck could chuck wood!"


title: How much wood would a woodchuck chuck

text: A 1957 Associated Press piece refers to the question as "a riddle which beats the Sphinx, since it's still unanswered". A more concrete answer was published by the Associated Press in 1988, which reported that a New York fish and wildlife technician named Richard Thomas had calculated the volume of dirt in a typical long woodchuck burrow and had determined that if the woodchuck had moved an equivalent volume of wood, it could move "about on a good day, with the wind at his back". Another study, which considered "chuck" to be the opposite of upchucking, determined that a woodchuck could ingest of wood per day.


title: How much wood would a woodchuck chuck

text: The origin of the phrase is from a 1902 song "The Woodchuck Song", written by Robert Hobart Davis for Fay Templeton in the musical "The Runaways". The lyrics became better known in a 1904 version of the song written by Theodore Morse, with a chorus of "How much wood would a woodchuck chuck if a woodchuck could chuck wood?", which was recorded by Ragtime Roberts, in 1904.


title: How much wood would a woodchuck chuck

text: The tongue-twister is documented as "folklore" in 1972 at Farmington, Michigan. It is used in the title of Werner Herzog's 1976 film "How Much Wood Would a Woodchuck Chuck", a documentation of the World Livestock Auctioneer Championship in New Holland, Pennsylvania.


title: Kumar Vishwas

text: Kumar Vishwas (born Vishwas Kumar Sharma; 10 February 1970) is an Indian Hindi poet, politician, and a lecturer. He was a founding member of the Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) and a former member of its National Executive.


title: Kumar Vishwas

text: Vishwas was born on 10 February 1970 in a middle-class family in the town of Pilkhuwa in Uttar Pradesh, where he studied at Lala Ganga Sahay School. His father, Chandra Pal Sharma, was a lecturer at R.S.S. Degree College in Pilkhuwa and his mother, Rama Sharma, was a homemaker. Vishwas is the youngest child and has four brothers and a sister. He studied at the Rajputana Regiment Inter College and then joined Motilal Nehru Regional Engineering College because his father wanted him to become an engineer. However, engineering did not interest Vishwas and he left it to study Hindi literature, in which he subsequently earned a PhD.


title: Kumar Vishwas

text: It was while studying for his PhD that Vishwas changed his name from Viswas Kumar Sharma to Kumar Vishwas, to maintain an identity separate from his caste. In 1994, he became a lecturer in Indra Gandhi PG college 'Pilibanga' Rajasthan, then taught Hindi literature at Lala Lajpat Rai College. In 2012, he joined the newly formed AAP as a volunteer worker.


title: Kumar Vishwas

text: Vishwas hosts a comedy show called "KV Sammelan" on the Aaj Tak television channel that first premiered on 29 September 2018.


title: Kumar Vishwas

text: Vishwas routinely gives performances in which he demonstrates his poetry and love for Hindi, Urdu and Sanskrit literature. He incorporates his comments on topical issues relating to India. He has participated in poetry recitations and functions abroad including the US, UK, Dubai, Oman, Singapore and Japan.


title: Kumar Vishwas

text: Vishwas has known Arvind Kejriwal since 2005 and joined the India Against Corruption movement led by Anna Hazare. Thereafter, as the movement faded and morphed into what is today known as the AAP, led by Kejriwal, he was asked to become a member of its national executive.


title: Kumar Vishwas

text: He contested the 2014 Lok Sabha election as an AAP candidate from Amethi, but lost to then incumbent Rahul Gandhi, securing only 25,000 votes.


title: Kumar Vishwas

text: A sting operation was carried out by a tabloid media portal called "Media Sarkar" ahead of the 2013 Delhi Assembly elections that claimed that some AAP members, including Vishwas and Shazia Ilmi, had raised illegal cash donations. The AAP accused the portal of slandering the leaders of the party. Mediasarkar.com and AAP filed cross complaints against each other. The police promised action after a thorough investigation.


title: Kumar Vishwas

text: As elections approached, a doctored video clip from a Kavi sammelan went viral in which he was shown making alleged derogatory remarks about Imam Hussain and Hindu deities and nurses from Kerala. As a result, various cases were registered against him. Vishwas responded that the clippings were doctored and later apologised for his remarks, saying it was not his intention to hurt anyone's sentiments or feelings.


title: Kumar Vishwas

text: In 2016, Vishwas was accused by a campaign volunteer of molestation and making "sexually coloured" remarks. The courts ordered a FIR to be registered because of the complaint but an investigation by Delhi Police found no significant evidence to substantiate it.


title: Kumar Vishwas

text: In July 2017, Vishwas was accused of copyright infringement by Amitabh Bachchan in relation to a posting on YouTube of a poem by his father Harivansh Rai Bachchan. The video was taken down and a compensation of ₹32 was paid. This was around the same time that he was embroiled in a dispute within the AAP, which he had threatened to quit.


title: Kumar Vishwas

text: On 23 March 2019, Vishwas was served with a legal notice by Amritsar based advocate, NPS Hira, for allegedly cracking jokes on the Sikh community in a demeaning manner in a programme organized at NIT ground Faridabad on 15 March 2019. Hira also warned Vishwas of criminal complaint if he fails to visit Sri Akal Takht Sahib and apologize.


title: Kumar Vishwas

text: On 16 February 2022 just before 2022 Punjab Legislative Elections, Vishwas claimed that the AAP Supremo Kejriwal once said him that even if he loses the election, he will become the first prime minister of an independent Khalistan by taking the help of separatists. Kejriwal termed these claims as politically motivated and a "big joke" as had he been a terrorist why hadn't he been probed since so many years in electoral politics. Delhi High Court called a petition related to this matter "frivolous". Aap MLAs offered "laddoos" to Vishwas in the wake of their Punjab victory.


title: Kumar Vishwas

text: Vishwas has been a guest judge on the "Indian Idol" television show and a guest on Zee TV's talent hunt show "Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Li'l Champs". He wrote the songs "De De Jagah" for the 2018 Hindi film "" and "Veer Bhagat Singh". Vishwas was a guest on 1 July 2017 episode of The Kapil Sharma Show along with Rahat Indori and Shabinaji. He was a guest again on 21 September 2019 episode of The Kapil Sharma Show along with Manoj Bajpai and Pankaj Tripathi.


title: Kumar Vishwas

text: He also presented "Tarpan", a musical poetry series, where he would recite poems of famous historical poets, against a background of music.


title: Kumar Vishwas

text: Kumar Vishwas will be seen as judge, evaluating performances of the contestants on parameters of sur, bhaav and saar in upcoming spiritual musical reality show Swarna Swar Bharat on Zee TV, Zee Anmol and Zee5


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: Egyptian Jews constitute both one of the oldest and youngest Jewish communities in the world. The historic core of the Jewish community in Egypt consisted mainly of Egyptian Arabic speaking Rabbanites and Karaites. Though Egypt had its own community of Egyptian Jews, after the Jewish expulsion from Spain more Sephardi and Karaite Jews began to migrate to Egypt, and then their numbers increased significantly with the growth of trading prospects after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. As a result, Jews from many territories of the Ottoman Empire as well as Italy and Greece started to settle in the main cities of Egypt, where they thrived. The Ashkenazi community, mainly confined to Cairo's Darb al-Barabira quarter, began to arrive in the aftermath of the waves of pogroms that hit Europe in the latter part of the 19th century.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: In the 1950s, Egypt began to expel its Jewish population (estimated at between 75,000 and 80,000 in 1948), also sequestering Jewish-owned property at this time.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: , the president of Cairo's Jewish community said that there were 6 Jews in Cairo, all women over age 65, and 12 Jews in Alexandria. , there were 5 in Cairo. As of 2022 the total number of known Jews permanently residing in Egypt is 3.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: In the Elephantine papyri, caches of legal documents and letters written in Aramaic amply document the lives of a community of Jewish soldiers stationed there as part of a frontier garrison in Egypt for the Achaemenid Empire. Established at Elephantine in about 650 BCE during Manasseh's reign, these soldiers assisted Pharaoh Psammetichus I in his Nubian campaign. Their religious system shows strong traces of Babylonian polytheism, something which suggests to certain scholars that the community was of mixed Judaeo-Samaritan origins, and they maintained their own temple, functioning alongside that of the local deity Chnum. The documents cover the period 495 to 399 BCE.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: The Hebrew Bible also records that a large number of Judeans took refuge in Egypt after the destruction of the Kingdom of Judah in 597 BCE, and the subsequent assassination of the Jewish governor, Gedaliah. (, ) On hearing of the appointment, the Jewish population that fled to Moab, Ammon, Edom and other countries returned to Judah. () However, before long Gedaliah was assassinated, and the population that was left in the land and those that had returned ran away to Egypt for safety. (, ) The numbers that made their way to Egypt are subject to debate. In Egypt, they settled in Migdol, Tahpanhes, Noph, and Pathros. ()


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: Further waves of Jewish immigrants settled in Egypt during the Ptolemaic era, especially around Alexandria. Thus, their history in this period centers almost completely on Alexandria, though daughter communities rose up in places like the present Kafr ed-Dawar, and Jews served in the administration as custodians of the river. As early as the 3rd century BCE, there was a widespread diaspora of Jews in many Egyptian towns and cities. In Josephus's history, it is claimed that, after the first Ptolemy took Judea, he led some 120,000 Jewish captives to Egypt from the areas of Judea, Jerusalem, Samaria, and Mount Gerizim. With them, many other Jews, attracted by the fertile soil and Ptolemy's liberality, emigrated there of their own accord. An inscription recording a Jewish dedication of a synagogue to Ptolemy and Berenice was discovered in the 19th century near Alexandria.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: Josephus also claims that, soon after, these 120,000 captives were freed from bondage by Philadelphus.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: The history of the Alexandrian Jews dates from the foundation of the city by Alexander the Great, 332 BCE, at which they were present. They were numerous from the very outset, forming a notable portion of the city's population under Alexander's successors. The Ptolemies assigned them a separate section, two of the five districts of the city, to enable them to keep their laws pure of indigenous cultic influences. The Alexandrian Jews enjoyed a greater degree of political independence than elsewhere. While the Jewish population elsewhere throughout the later Roman Empire frequently formed private societies for religious purposes, or organized corporations of ethnic groups like the Egyptian and Phoenician merchants in the large commercial centers, those of Alexandria constituted an independent political community, side by side with that of the other ethnic groups.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: During the period of Roman occupation, there is evidence that at Oxyrynchus (modern "Behneseh"), on the west side of the Nile, there was a Jewish community of some importance. Many of the Jews there may have become Christians, though they retained their Biblical names (e.g., "David" and "Elizabeth," who appear in litigation concerning an inheritance). Another example was Jacob, son of Achilles (c. 300 CE), who worked as a beadle in a local Egyptian temple.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: The Hellenistic Jewish community of Alexandria translated the Old Testament into Greek. This translation is called the "Septuagint". The translation of the Septuagint itself began in the 3rd century BCE and was completed by 132 BCE, initially in Alexandria, but in time elsewhere as well. It became the source for the Old Latin, Slavonic, Syriac, Old Armenian, Old Georgian and Coptic versions of the Christian Old Testament.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: The Jewish community of Alexandria was "extinguished" by Trajan's army during the Kitos War of 115–117 CE, also known as the Diaspora Revolt. The Jewish revolt, which is said to have begun in Cyrene and spread to Egypt, was largely motivated by religious zealotry, aggravation after the failed Great Revolt and destruction of the Temple, and anger at discriminatory laws.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: The greatest blow Alexandrian Jews received was during the Byzantine Empire rule and the rise of a new state religion: Christianity. There was an expulsion of a large amount of Jews from Alexandria (the so-called "Alexandria Expulsion") in 414 or 415 CE by Saint Cyril, following a number of controversies, including threats from Cyril and supposedly (according to Christian historian Socrates Scholasticus) a Jewish-led massacre in response. Later violence took on a decidedly anti-Semitic context with calls for ethnic cleansing. Before that time, state/religious-sanctioned claims of a Jewish pariah were not common. In The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Edward Gibbon describes the Alexandria pogrom:


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: Without any legal sentence, without any royal mandate, the patriarch (Saint Cyril), at the dawn of day, led a seditious multitude to the attack of the synagogues. Unarmed and unprepared, the Jews were incapable of resistance; their houses of prayer were leveled with the ground, and the episcopal warrior, after rewarding his troops with the plunder of their goods, expelled from the city the remnant of the unbelieving nation.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: Some authors estimate that around 100 thousand Jews were expelled from the city. The expulsion then continued in the nearby regions of Egypt and Palestine followed by a forced Christianization of the Jews.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: The Arab conquest of Egypt at first found support from Jewish residents as well, disgruntled by the corrupt administration of the Patriarch Cyrus of Alexandria, notorious for his Monotheletic proselytizing. In addition to the Jewish population settled there from ancient times, some are said to have come from the Arabian Peninsula. The letter sent by Muhammad to the Jewish "Banu Janba" in 630 is said by Al-Baladhuri to have been seen in Egypt. A copy, written in Hebrew characters, has been found in the Cairo Geniza.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: Many Jewish residents had no reason to feel kindly toward the former masters of Egypt. In 629 the Emperor Heraclius I had driven the Jewish population from Jerusalem, and this was followed by massacres of Jewish residents throughout the empire—in Egypt, often aided by the Coptic population, who may have been trying to settle old grievances against Jewish groups, dating from the Persian conquest of Amida at the time of Emperor Anastasius I (502) and of Alexandria by the Persian general Shahin Vahmanzadegan (617), when some of the Jewish residents sided with the conquerors. The "Treaty of Alexandria" (November 8, 641), which sealed the Arab conquest of Egypt, expressly stipulated that the Jewish residents were to be allowed to remain in that city unmolested; and at the time of the capture of that city, 'Amr ibn al-'As, in his letter to the caliph, relates that he found there 40,000 Jews.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: Of the fortunes of the Jewish population of Egypt under the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates (641–868), little is known. Under the Tulunids (863-905), the Karaite community enjoyed robust growth.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: At this time, Jews from North Africa came to settle in Egypt after the Fatimid conquest of Egypt in 969. These Jewish immigrants made up a significant amount of the population from all the Jews living in Egypt. Due to the discovery of the Cairo Geniza documents at the end of the 19th century, a lot is known about Egyptian Jews. From private records, letters, public records, and documents, these sources held the information about the society of the Egyptian Jews.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: The rule of the Fatimid Caliphate was in general favorable for the Jewish communities, except the latter portion of al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah's reign. The foundation of Talmudic schools in Egypt is usually placed at this period. One of the Jewish citizens who rose to high position in that society was Ya'qub ibn Killis.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: The caliph al-Hakim (996–1020) vigorously applied the Pact of Umar, and compelled the Jewish residents to wear bells and to carry in public the wooden image of a calf. A street in the city, al-Jawdariyyah, was designated for Jewish residency. Al-Hakim, hearing allegations that some mocked him in verses, had the whole quarter burned down.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: In the beginning of the 12th century, a Jewish man named Abu al-Munajja ibn Sha'yah was at the head of the Department of Agriculture. He is especially known as the constructor of a Nile sluice (1112), which was called after him "Baḥr Abi al-Munajja". He fell into disfavor because of the heavy expenses connected with the work, and was incarcerated in Alexandria, but was soon able to free himself. A document concerning a transaction of his with a banker has been preserved. Under the vizier Al-Malik al-Afḍal (1137) there was a Jewish master of finances, whose name, however, is unknown. His enemies succeeded in procuring his downfall, and he lost all his property. He was succeeded by a brother of the Christian patriarch, who tried to drive the Jews out of the kingdom. Four leading Jews worked and conspired against the Christian, with what result is not known. There has been preserved a letter from this ex-minister to the Jews of Constantinople, begging for aid in a remarkably intricate poetical style. One of the physicians of the caliph Al-Ḥafiẓ (1131–49) was a Jew, Abu Manṣur (Wüstenfeld, p. 306). Abu al-Faḍa'il ibn al-Nakid (died 1189) was a celebrated oculist.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: As for government power in Egypt, the highest legal authority who was called chief scholar was held by Ephraim. Later on in the 11th century, this position was held by a father and son with the names of Shemarya b. Elhanan and Elhanan b. Shemarya. Soon the chief of the Palestinian Jews took over the position of chief scholar for the Rabbinates after the death of Elhanan. Around 1065, a Jewish leader was recognized as "ráīs al-Yahūd" meaning the head of the Jews in Egypt. Later for a sixty-year rule, three family members of court physicians took the position of "ráīs al-Yahūd" whose names were Judah b. Såadya, Mevorakh b. Såadya, and Moses b. Mevorakh. The position was eventually handed down from Moses Maimonides in the late 12th century to early 15th centuries and was given to his descendants.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: As for the Jewish population, there were over 90 Jewish habitations known during the 11th and 12th centuries. These included cities, towns, and villages, contained over 4,000 Jewish citizens. Also for the Jewish population, a little more light is thrown upon the communities in Egypt through the reports of certain Jewish scholars and travelers who visited the country. Judah Halevi was in Alexandria in 1141, and dedicated some beautiful verses to his fellow resident and friend Aaron Ben-Zion ibn Alamani and his five sons. At Damietta Halevi met his friend, the Spaniard Abu Sa'id ibn Ḥalfon ha-Levi. About 1160 Benjamin of Tudela was in Egypt; he gives a general account of the Jewish communities which he found there. At Cairo there were 2,000 Jews; at Alexandria 3,000, whose head was the French-born R. Phineas b. Meshullam; in the Faiyum there were 20 families; at Damietta 200; at Bilbeis, east of the Nile, 300 persons; and at Damira 700.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: Saladin's war with the Crusaders (1169–93) does not seem to have affected the Jewish population with communal struggle. A Karaite doctor, Abu al-Bayyan al-Mudawwar (d. 1184), who had been physician to the last Fatimid, treated Saladin also. Abu al-Ma'ali, brother-in-law of Maimonides, was likewise in his service. In 1166 Maimonides went to Egypt and settled in Fostat, where he gained much renown as a physician, practising in the family of Saladin and in that of his vizier al-Qadi al-Fadil, and Saladin's successors. The title "Ra'is al-Umma" or "al-Millah" (Head of the Nation or of the Faith), was bestowed upon him. In Fostat he wrote his "Mishneh Torah" (1180) and "The Guide for the Perplexed", both of which evoked opposition from Jewish scholars. From this place he sent many letters and responsa; and in 1173 he forwarded a request to the North African communities for help to secure the release of a number of captives. The original of the last document has been preserved. He caused the Karaites to be removed from the court.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: In the mid thirteenth century the Ayyubid empire was plagued with famine, disease, and conflict; a great period of upheaval would see the Golden Islamic Period come to a violent end. Foreign powers began to encircle the Islamic World as the French endeavored on the 7th crusade in 1248 and the Mongol campaigns in the east rapidly making its way into the heartland of Islam. These internal and external pressure weakened the Ayyubid empire.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: In 1250 following the death of Sultan Al Alih Ayyub,  slave soldiers, Mamluks, rose up and slaughtered all the Ayyubid heirs and the Mamluk leader Emir Aybak became the new sultan. The Mamluks were quick to consolidate power using a strong spirit of defense growing among Muslim faithfuls to rally victoriously against the Mongols in 1260 and consolidating the remnants of the Ayyubid Syria in 1299.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: In this period of aggressive posturing the ulema were quick to denounce foreign influences to safeguard the purity of Islam. This led to unfortunate situations for Mamluk Jews. In 1300 Sultan Al-Nasir Qalawan ordered all Jews under his rule to wear yellow headgear to isolate the Egyptian Jewish community.  This law would be enforced for centuries and later amended in 1354 to force all Jews to wear a sign in addition to yellow headwear. On multiple occasions the ulema persuaded the government to close or convert synagogues. Even major places of pilgrimage for Egyptian Jews such as the Dammah Synagogue were forced to close in 1301. Jews subsequently were excluded from bath houses and were prohibited to work in the national treasury. This repression of the Jewish community would continue for centuries.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: In all the religious fervor of the period the Mamluks began to adopt Sufi Islam in an attempt to assuage dissatisfaction with traditional Sunni Islam facilitated solely by the Sultan. At the same time the Mamluk government was unwilling to relinquish control of religion to a clerical class. They endeavored on a massive project of inviting and subsidizing Sufi clerics in an attempt to promote a new state religion. All throughout the country new government-backed Sufi brotherhoods and saint cults grew almost overnight and was able to quell the disapproval of the population. The Mamluk Sultanate would become a safe haven for Sufi mystics all throughout the Islamic world. Across the empire state-sponsored Sufi ceremonies were a clear sign of the full-fledged shift that took hold.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: Jews who for the most part were kept segregated from Arab communities first came into contact with Sufism in these state sponsored ceremonies, as they were obliged to attend out of a show of loyalty to the sultan. It is in these ceremonies where many Egyptian Jews first came into contact with Sufism and it would eventually spark a massive movement amongst the Mamluk Jews.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: Now most Egyptian Jews of the time were members of the Karaite sect. This was  a 1st-century anti-Pharisee movement who rejected the teachings of the Talmud. It is believed by historians such as Paul Fenton that the Karaites settled in Egypt as early as the 7th century, and Egypt would remain a bastion for Karaites all the way through the 19th century. As time passed in contact with these relatively new Sufi ideas many Karaites began to push towards reform. Admiration for the structure of Hanaqas, Sufi schools, and its doctrinal focus on mysticism began to make many Egyptian Jews long to adopt something similar.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: Abraham Maimonides (1204–1237), who was considered to be the most prominent leader and government representative of all Mamluk Jews, advocated reorganizing Jewish schools to be more like Sufi Hanaqas. His heir Obadyah Maimonides(1228-1265) wrote the "Treatise of the Pool", which is a mystical manual written in Arabic and filled with Sufi technical terms. In it he laid out how one may obtain union with the unintelligible world, showing his full adherence and advocacy of mysticism. He also began to reform practices advocating for celibacy and Halwa, solitary meditation, to better tune oneself to the spiritual plane. These were imitations of long held Sufi practices. In fact, he would often portrayed Jewish patriarchs such as Moses and Isaac as hermits who relied on isolated meditation to remain in touch with God. The Maimonides dynasty would essentially spark a new movement, Pietism, amongst Egyptian Jews.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: Pietism gained a huge following, mainly amongst the Jewish elite, and it would continue to gain momentum until the end of the Maimonides dynasty in the 15th century. Additionally, forced conversions in Yemen, Crusader and Almohad massacres in North Africa, and the collapse of Islamic Andalusia forced large number of Jews to resettle to Egypt, many of whom would join the Pietist movement enthusiastically.  This enthusiasm may have been largely practical, as the adoption of Sufi ideas did much to ingratiate the Mamluk Jewish community with their Muslim overlords. This may have appealed to many of these refugees, as some historians state that the Maimonides dynasty itself originated from Al Andalus and resettled in Egypt.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: Pietism would in some ways become indistinguishable from Sufism. Pietists would clean their hands and feet before praying in the temple. They would face Jerusalem as they prayed. They frequently practiced daytime fasting and group meditation or muraqaba.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: There was vehement opposition to the revisionism of Pietism just as there was with Hasidism. Opposition was so strong there are records of Jews reporting fellow Jews to Muslim authorities on the grounds that they were practicing Islamic heresy. David Maimonides, brother of Obadyah and his heir, was eventually exiled to Palestine at the behest of other leaders in the Jewish community. Eventually Pietism fell out of favor in Egypt, as its leaders were exiled and Jewish immigration slowed.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: Per Fenton, the influence of Sufism is still present in many Kabbalistic rituals, and some of the manuscripts authored under the Maimonides dynasty are still read and revered in Kabbalist circles.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: On January 22, 1517, the Ottoman sultan, Selim I, defeated Tuman Bey, the last of the Mamelukes. He made radical changes in the governance of the Jewish community, abolishing the office of nagid, making each community independent, and placing David ibn Abi Zimra, at the head of that of Cairo. He also appointed Abraham de Castro to be master of the mint. It was during the reign of Selim's successor, Suleiman I, that Aḥmad Pasha, Viceroy of Egypt, revenged himself upon the Jews because de Castro had revealed in 1524 to the sultan of his designs for independence. The "Cairo Purim," is still celebrated in commemoration of their escape.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: Towards the end of the 16th century, Talmudic studies in Egypt were greatly fostered by Bezaleel Ashkenazi, author of the "Shiṭṭah Meḳubbeẓet". Among his pupils were Isaac Luria, who as a young man had gone to Egypt to visit a rich uncle, the tax-farmer Mordecai Francis (Azulai, "Shem ha-Gedolim," No. 332); and Abraham Monson. Ishmael Kohen Tanuji finished his "Sefer ha-Zikkaron" in Egypt in 1543. Joseph ben Moses di Trani was in Egypt for a time (Frumkin, l.c. p. 69), as well as Ḥayyim Vital Aaron ibn Ḥayyim, the Biblical and Talmudical commentator (1609; Frumkin, l.c. pp. 71, 72). Of Isaac Luria's pupils, a Joseph Ṭabul is mentioned, whose son Jacob, a prominent man, was put to death by the authorities.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: According to Manasseh b. Israel from 1656, "The viceroy of Egypt has always at his side a Jew with the title 'zaraf bashi,' or 'treasurer,' who gathers the taxes of the land. At present Abraham Alkula holds the position". He was succeeded by Raphael Joseph Tshelebi, the rich friend and protector of Shabbatai Zevi. Shabbetai was twice in Cairo, the second time in 1660. It was there that he married the ill-famed Sarah, who had been brought from Leghorn (Livorno). The Shabbethaian movement naturally created a great stir in Egypt. It was in Cairo that Miguel (Abraham) Cardoso, the Shabbethaian prophet and physician, settled in 1703 becoming physician to the pasha Kara Mohammed. In 1641 Samuel b. David, Karaite, visited Egypt. The account of his journey supplies special information in regard to his fellow sectaries. He describes three synagogues of the Rabbinites at Alexandria, and two at Rashid. A second Karaite, Moses ben Elijah ha-Levi, has left a similar account of the year 1654; but it contains only a few points of special interest to the Karaites.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: Sambari mentions a severe trial which came upon the Jews, due to a certain "ḳadi al-'asakir" ("generalissimo," not a proper name) sent from Constantinople to Egypt, who robbed and oppressed them, and whose death was in a certain measure occasioned by the graveyard invocation of one Moses of Damwah. This may have occurred in the 17th century. David Conforte was dayyan in Egypt in 1671. Blood libels occurred at Alexandria in 1844, in 1881, and in January 1902. In consequence of the Damascus Affair, Moses Montefiore, Isaac Crémieux, and Salomon Munk visited Egypt in 1840, and the last two did much to raise the intellectual status of their Egyptian brethren by the founding, in connection with Rabbi Moses Joseph Algazi, of schools in Cairo. According to the official census published in 1898 (i., xviii.), there were in Egypt 25,200 Jews in a total population of 9,734,405.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: At the turn of the 20th century, a Jewish observer noted with 'true satisfaction that a great spirit of tolerance sustains the majority of our fellow Jews in Egypt, and it would be difficult to find a more liberal population or one more respectful of all religious beliefs.’


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: During British rule, and under King Fuad I, Egypt was friendly towards its Jewish population although between 86% and 94% of Egyptian Jews did not possess Egyptian nationality whether they had been denied it or opted not to apply. Jews played important roles in the economy, and their population climbed to nearly 80,000 as Jewish refugees settled there in response to increasing persecution in Europe. Many Jewish families, such as the Qattawi family, had extensive economic relations with non-Jews.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: A sharp distinction had long existed between the respective Karaite and Rabbanite communities, among whom traditionally intermarriage was forbidden. They dwelt in Cairo in two contiguous areas, the former in the "harat al-yahud al-qara’in", and the latter in the adjacent "harat al-yahud" quarter. Notwithstanding the division, they often worked together and the younger educated generation pressed for improving relations between the two.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: Individual Jews played an important role in Egyptian nationalism. René Qattawi, leader of the Cairo Sephardi community, endorsed the creation in 1935 of the Association of Egyptian Jewish Youth, with its slogan: 'Egypt is our homeland, Arabic is our language.' Qattawi strongly opposed political Zionism and wrote a note on 'The Jewish Question' to the World Jewish Congress in 1943 in which he argued that Palestine would be unable to absorb Europe's Jewish refugees.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: Nevertheless, various wings of the Zionist movement had representatives in Egypt. Karaite Jewish scholar (1866–1956) was both an Egyptian nationalist and a passionate Zionist. His poem, 'My Homeland Egypt, Place of my Birth', expresses loyalty to Egypt, while his book, "al-Qudsiyyat" (Jerusalemica, 1923), defends the right of the Jews to a State. "al-Qudsiyyat" is perhaps the most eloquent defense of Zionism in the Arabic language. Mourad Farag was also one of the coauthors of Egypt's first Constitution in 1923.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: Another famous Egyptian Jew of this period was Yaqub Sanu, who became a patriotic Egyptian nationalist advocating the removal of the British. He edited the nationalist publication Abu Naddara 'Azra from exile. This was one of the first magazines written in Egyptian Arabic, and mostly consisted of satire, poking fun at the British as well as the ruling Muhammad Ali dynasty, seen as puppets of the British. Another was Henri Curiel, who founded 'The Egyptian Movement for National Liberation' in 1943, an organization that was to form the core of the Egyptian Communist party. Curiel was later to play an important role in establishing early informal contacts between the PLO and Israel.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: In 1937, the Egyptian government annulled the Capitulations, which gave foreign nationals a virtual status of exterritoriality: the minority groups affected were mainly from Syria, Greece, and Italy, ethnic Armenians, and some Jews who were nationals of other countries. The foreign nationals‘ immunity from taxation ("mutamassir") had given the minority groups trading within Egypt highly favourable advantages. Many European Jews used Egyptian banks as a vehicle for transferring money from central Europe, not least those Jews escaping the Fascist regimes. In addition to this, many Jewish people living in Egypt were known to possess foreign citizenship, while those possessing Egyptian citizenship often had extensive ties to European countries.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: The impact of the well-publicized Arab-Jewish clash in Palestine from 1936 to 1939, together with the rise of Nazi Germany, also began to affect the Jewish relations with Egyptian society, despite the fact that the number of active Zionists in their ranks was small. The rise of local militant nationalistic societies like "Young Egypt" and the "Society of Muslim Brothers", who were sympathetic to the various models evinced by the Axis Powers in Europe, and organized themselves along similar lines, were also increasingly antagonistic to Jews. Groups including the Muslim Brotherhood circulated reports in Egyptian mosques and factories claiming that Jews and the British were destroying holy places in Jerusalem, as well as sending other false reports stating that hundreds of Arab women and children were being killed. Much of the anti-Semitism of the 1930s and 1940s was fueled by a close association between Hitler's new regime in Germany and anti-imperialist Arab powers. One of these Arab authorities was Haj Amin al-Husseini, who was influential in securing Nazi funds that were appropriated to the Muslim Brotherhood for the operation of a printing press for the distribution of thousands of Anti-Semitic propaganda pamphlets.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: By the 1940s, the situation worsened. Sporadic pogroms took place in 1942 onwards. The Jewish quarter of Cairo was severely damaged in the 1945 Cairo pogrom. As the Partition of Palestine and the founding of Israel drew closer, hostility towards the Egyptian Jews strengthened, fed also by press attacks on all foreigners accompanying the rising ethnocentric nationalism of the age. In 1947, the Company Laws set quotas for employing Egyptian nationals in incorporated firms, requiring that 75% of salaried employees, and 90% of all workers, must be Egyptian. As Jews were denied citizenship as a rule, this constrained Jewish and foreign-owned entrepreneurs to reduce recruitment for employment positions from their own ranks. The law also required that just over half of the paid-up capital of joint stock companies be Egyptian.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: “All Jews were potential Zionists [and] ...anyhow all Zionists were Communists". On 24 November 1947, the head of the Egyptian delegation to the UN General Assembly, Muhammad Hussein Heykal Pasha, said that “the lives of 1,000,000 Jews in Moslem countries would be jeopardized by the establishment of a Jewish state." On 24 November 1947, Dr Heykal Pasha said: "if the U.N. decide to amputate a part of Palestine in order to establish a Jewish state... Jewish blood will necessarily be shed elsewhere in the Arab world… to place in certain and serious danger a million Jews. Mahmud Bey Fawzi (Egypt) said: "Imposed partition was sure to result in bloodshed in Palestine and in the rest of the Arab world".


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: After the foundation of Israel in 1948, and the subsequent 1948 Arab–Israeli War, in which Egypt participated, difficulties multiplied for Egyptian Jews, who then numbered 75,000. That year, bombings of Jewish areas killed 70 Jews and wounded nearly 200, while riots claimed many more lives. During the Arab-Israeli war, the Cicurel department store near Cairo's Opera Square was firebombed. The government helped with funds to rebuild it, but it was again burnt down in 1952, and eventually passed into Egyptian control. As a result, many Egyptian Jews emigrated abroad. By 1950, nearly 40% of Egypt's Jewish population had emigrated. About 14,000 of them went to Israel, and the rest to other countries.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: The 1954 Lavon Affair was an Israeli sabotage operation designed to discredit and overthrow the then Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser and to end secret negotiations with Egypt being pursued by then Israeli prime minister Moshe Sharett, who did not know of the operation. Sharett did not learn the truth until after he had denounced the charges by the Egyptian government in a speech in the Knesset as a blood libel, which caused him to feel deep humiliation that he had lied to the world, and was one factor in Sharett's resignation as prime minister. The operation blew up Western targets (without causing any deaths), led to deeper distrust of Jews—key agents in the operation had been recruited from the Egyptian Jewish community—and led to sharply increased emigration of Jews from Egypt. In his summing up statement Fu’ad al-Digwi, the prosecutor at the trial of captured operatives, repeated the official government stance: "The Jews of Egypt are living among us and are sons of Egypt. Egypt makes no difference between its sons whether Muslims, Christians, or Jews. These defendants happen to be Jews who reside in Egypt, but we are trying them because they committed crimes against Egypt, although they are Egypt's sons."


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: Two members of the ring, Dr. Moussa Marzouk and Shmuel Azzar, were sentenced to death. In 1953, a cousin of Marzouk, Kamal Massuda, was killed, and the authorities did not make arrests. Other members of the sabotage rings had families who lost their livelihood after the 1947 Company Laws, which severely restricted the right to work and to own companies of non-Egyptian citizens (Jews were not in general allowed citizenship), were implemented.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: In the immediate aftermath of trilateral invasion on 23 November 1956 by Britain, France, and Israel (known as the Suez Crisis), a proclamation was issued stating that 'all Jews are Zionists and enemies of the state', and it promised that they would be soon expelled. Some 25,000 Jews, almost half of the Jewish community left for Israel, Europe, the United States, and South America, after being forced to sign declarations that they were leaving voluntarily, and agreed with the confiscation of their assets. Some 1,000 more Jews were imprisoned. Similar measures were enacted against British and French nationals in retaliation for the invasion. In Joel Beinin's summary: "Between 1919 and 1956, the entire Egyptian Jewish community, like the Cicurel firm, was transformed from a national asset into a fifth column." After 1956, prominent families, like the Qattawis, were left with only a fraction of the social clout they had once enjoyed, if they could remain in Egypt at all. Ironically Jews like Rene Qattawi were in full support of establishing an Arab-Egyptian nationalism, and were opposed to the rise of Zionism and the establishment of the State of Israel. Nonetheless, even this social elite of the Jewish population was not believed to have any place in the new Egyptian regime.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: UN High Commissioner for Refugees Auguste Lindt stated in his Report to the UNREF Executive Committee's Fourth Session (Geneva 29 January to 4 February 1957) “Another emergency problem is now arising: that of refugees from Egypt. There is no doubt in my mind that those refugees from Egypt who are not able, or not willing, to avail themselves of the protection of the Government of their nationality fall under the mandate of my office.”


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: The last chief Rabbi of Egypt was Haim Moussa Douek, who served from 1960 until he left Egypt in 1972. After the Six-Day War in 1967, more confiscations took place. Rami Mangoubi, who lived in Cairo at the time, said that nearly all Egyptian Jewish men between the ages of 17 and 60 were either thrown out of the country immediately, or taken to the detention centers of Abou Za'abal and Tura, where they were incarcerated and tortured for more than three years. The eventual result was the almost complete disappearance of the 3,000-year-old Jewish community in Egypt; the vast majority of Jews left the country. Most Egyptian Jews fled to Israel (35,000), Brazil (15,000), France (10,000), the US (9,000) and Argentina (9,000). A letter published by the Jerusalem Post from Dr. E. Jahn, of the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees stated: “I refer to our recent discussion concerning Jews from Middle Eastern and North African countries in consequence of recent events. I am now able to inform you that such persons may be considered prima facie within the mandate of this Office.”


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: According to a 2009 report by the Anti-Defamation League, anti-semitic and anti-Israel sentiments continued to run high. Israel and Zionism were frequently associated with conspiracy theories of subverting and weakening the state. The last Jewish wedding in Egypt took place in 1984.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: The Jewish population of Egypt was estimated at less than 200 in 2007, less than 40 in 2014, and as of 2017, is estimated at 18 (6 in Cairo, 12 in Alexandria). In 2018 the estimated Jewish population was 10 Marriage restriction has caused many members to convert to other religions, mainly Jewish women who convert to Islam, due to being married to Egyptian Muslim men. Because a Jewish man cannot marry an Egyptian Muslim woman, but an Egyptian Muslim man may marry a Jewish woman, the community has lost many male members who are no longer Jewish on official documents. In April 2021 One of the last members of the community, Albert Arie, died aged 90, converted to Islam, married an Egyptian woman and was buried as a Muslim. One of the four remaining Jews in Egypt, Reb Yosef Ben-Gaon of Alexandria died in November 2021. In March 2022, part of the Jews of Cairo archives were confiscated by the Egyptian government.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: The Hebrew Bible, especially the Books of Genesis and Exodus, describes a long period during which the children of Israel, also called Israelites, lived in the Nile Delta of ancient Egypt. The Egyptians appear to have called them Hebrews and enslaved them. The Israelites, by then organised into twelve tribes, escaped from servitude, spending forty years wandering in the wilderness of Sinai.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: It has been claimed that the Hebrews/Israelites were a federation of Habiru tribes of the hill-country around the Jordan River. The Bronze Age term "Habiru" was less specific than the Biblical term "Hebrew", because the Habiru included Levantine people who were members of various religions and ethnicities. Mesopotamian, Hittite, Canaanite, and Egyptian sources largely describe the Habiru as bandits. Certainly, there were some Habiru slaves in ancient Egypt, but native Egyptian kingdoms were not heavily slave-based.


title: History of the Jews in Egypt

text: According to Shaye J. D. Cohen, "Most Israelites were actually of Canaanite stock; their ancestors did not participate in an Exodus from Egypt; Israelites did not build the pyramids!!!"


title: Operation Vengeance

text: Operation Vengeance was the American military operation to kill Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto of the Imperial Japanese Navy on April 18, 1943, during the Solomon Islands campaign in the Pacific Theater of World War II. Yamamoto, commander of the Combined Fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy, was killed on Bougainville Island when his transport bomber aircraft was shot down by United States Army Air Forces fighter aircraft operating from Kukum Field on Guadalcanal.


title: Operation Vengeance

text: The mission of the U.S. aircraft was specifically to kill Yamamoto and was based on United States Navy intelligence on Yamamoto's itinerary in the Solomon Islands area. The death of Yamamoto reportedly damaged the morale of Japanese naval personnel, raised the morale of the Allied forces, and was intended as revenge by U.S. leaders, who blamed Yamamoto for the attack on Pearl Harbor that initiated the war between Imperial Japan and the United States.


title: Operation Vengeance

text: The U.S. pilots claimed to have shot down three twin-engine bombers and two fighters during the mission, but Japanese records show only two bombers were shot down. There is a controversy over which pilot shot down Yamamoto's plane, but most modern historians credit Rex T. Barber.


title: Operation Vengeance

text: Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, commander of the Imperial Japanese Navy, scheduled an inspection tour of the Solomon Islands and New Guinea. He planned to inspect Japanese air units participating in Operation I-Go that had begun April 7, 1943; in addition, the tour would boost Japanese morale following the disastrous Guadalcanal Campaign and its subsequent evacuation during January and February.


title: Operation Vengeance

text: On April 14, the U.S. naval intelligence effort code-named "Magic" intercepted and decrypted orders alerting affected Japanese units of the tour.


title: Operation Vengeance

text: The original message, NTF131755, addressed to the commanders of Base Unit No. 1, the 11th Air Flotilla, and the 26th Air Flotilla, was encoded in the Japanese Naval Cipher JN-25D, and was picked up by three stations of the "Magic" apparatus, including Fleet Radio Unit Pacific Fleet. The message was then deciphered by Navy cryptographers (among them future Supreme Court Justice John Paul Stevens); it contained time and location details of Yamamoto's itinerary, as well as the number and types of planes that would transport and accompany him on the journey.


title: Operation Vengeance

text: The decrypted text revealed that on April 18 Yamamoto would fly from Rabaul to Balalae Airfield, on an island near Bougainville in the Solomon Islands. He and his staff would fly in two medium bombers (Mitsubishi G4M Bettys of the Kōkūtai 705), escorted by six navy fighters (Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters of the Kōkūtai 204), to depart Rabaul at 06:00 and arrive at Balalae at 08:00, Tokyo time.


title: Operation Vengeance

text: President Franklin D. Roosevelt may have authorized Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox to "get Yamamoto", but no official record of such an order exists and sources disagree whether he did so. Knox essentially let Admiral Chester W. Nimitz make the decision. Nimitz first consulted Admiral William F. Halsey Jr., Commander, South Pacific, and then authorized the mission on April 17. These U.S. commanders judged that the benefits of a successful mission included that Japanese morale would be negatively affected by news of Yamamoto's death and that Yamamoto's replacement would be less capable. When the issue was raised that the mission could reveal that the United States had broken Japanese naval codes, the commanders decided the knowledge could be protected as long as the true source of the intelligence was kept hidden from unauthorized American personnel and the press.