title: Awake (2007 film)

text: The film was not screened in advance for critics. The film opened at #5 at the U.S. Box office in its first opening weekend. As of July 11, 2008 it had a domestic box office gross of $14,377,198 in the U.S., and a total of $32,685,679 worldwide.


title: Awake (2007 film)

text: "Awake" received generally negative reviews upon release. The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 24% of critics have given the film a positive review based on 62 reviews, with an average rating of 4.23/10. The site's critics consensus reads, ""Awake" has an interesting premise but would have benefited from tighter performances and more efficient direction and editing." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 33 out of 100 based on 17 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Dennis Harvey of "Variety" said the film "does have an attention-getting plot hook, but piles on too many narrative gimmicks to maintain suspense or credibility." Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" defended the film, saying, "I went to a regular theater to see it Friday afternoon, knowing nothing about it except that the buzz was lethal, and sat there completely absorbed. ... I did not anticipate the surprises, did not anticipate them piling on after one another, got very involved in the gory surgical details, and found the supporting soap opera good as such things go". Frank Scheck of "The Hollywood Reporter" said "[Harold] succeeds in creating a quietly ominous tone that never lets up, with this being the rare modern horror effort that relies on suspense rather than bloodshed."


title: Awake (2007 film)

text: A group representing anesthesiologists in Ontario criticized the film following its release for having its "science completely wrong." Ontario's Anesthesiologists, a section of the Ontario Medical Association, declared numerous scientific and procedural distortions in the film such as the presentation of improper anesthetic techniques. The group disputes the film's claim that anaesthesia awareness occurred as frequently as one in every 700 patients, although this in turn is debated by anesthesia awareness advocate Carol Weihrer.


title: Awake (2007 film)

text: The Region 1-DVD was released on March 4, 2008. Bonus material included an audio commentary by writer/director Joby Harold, seven deleted scenes with optional audio commentary, a behind the scenes featurette, and storyboard-to-film comparisons.


title: Awake (2007 film)

text: A "Blockbuster Exclusive" edition was also available for rental through Blockbuster Video which includes audio commentary, theatrical trailer, as well as outtakes and bloopers. However, it does not include the other extras included with the original DVD release.


title: Ulm Minster

text: Ulm Minster () is a Lutheran church located in Ulm, State of Baden-Württemberg (Germany). It is currently the tallest church in the world. The church is the fifth-tallest structure built before the 20th century, with a steeple measuring .


title: Ulm Minster

text: Though it is sometimes referred to as Ulm Cathedral because of its great size, the church is not a cathedral as it has never been the episcopal see of a bishop. Though the towers and all decorative elements are of stone masonry, attracting the attention of visitors, most of the walls, including the façades of the nave and choir, actually consist of visible brick. Therefore, the building is sometimes referred to as a brick church. As such, it lays claim to the rank of second- to fourth-largest, after San Petronio Basilica in Bologna and together with Frauenkirche in Munich and St. Mary's Church in Gdańsk. The tower however was mainly built from sandstone.


title: Ulm Minster

text: Ulm Minster was begun in the Gothic architecture of the Late Middle Ages but the building was not completed until the late 19th century after a hiatus of centuries. When work ceased in the 16th century all of the church except the towers and some outer decorations were complete, unlike at Cologne Cathedral, where less than half of the work had been done before construction halted in the 15th century.


title: Ulm Minster

text: Visitors can climb the 768 steps that lead to the top of the minster's spire. At it gives a panoramic view of Ulm in Baden-Württemberg and Neu-Ulm in Bavaria and, in clear weather, a vista of the Alps from Säntis to the Zugspitze. The final stairwell to the top (known as the third Gallery) is a tall, spiralling staircase that has barely enough room for one person.


title: Ulm Minster

text: The original parish church in Ulm was built at the gate of the city outside the walls, and this caused much trouble for the citizens of the city in the 14th century's conflicts that involved Ulm, as demonstrated by Emperor Charles IV's siege of the city. This parish church had also been subordinated to Reichenau Monastery by Charlemagne in 813, and the denizens of Ulm wanted a new, independent church inside the city's walls. To this end, the city's near 10,000 inhabitants decided to finance construction themselves. On 30 June 1377, Mayor Ludwig Krafft laid the first stone, the foundation stone, of the new church. This church, whose design would be given to Heinrich Parler, the architect of Holy Cross Minster in Schwäbisch Gmünd. The first plan was to build a stepped hall church with aisles as wide and almost as high as the central nave, with a main spire on the west and two steeples above the choir ( long, wide). The women of the Ulmer Assemblage would also make their contributions to the foundation works, something memorialized by 17th and 18th century composer Barbara Kluntz.


title: Ulm Minster

text: Michael Parler, who had experience from working at the Dombauhütte in Prague, assumed construction of the church in 1381 and continued work on the nave, which had originally been conceived as a triple-aisled hall church with approximately equal height and width. From 1387 to 1391, Heinrich III Parler managed construction as head of the Bauhütte. Then in 1392 Ulrich Ensingen, associated with Strasbourg Cathedral, was appointed master builder. It was Parler's plan to construct the Ulm Minster's spire, the highest of any church. In order to balance its proportions, the nave was now to be much taller than the Parlers had intended, making a noticeable difference in height between the chancel and nave. The church was consecrated on 25 July 1405. In 1446, Ulrich's son Matthäus took over construction and finished the choir vault in 1449 and the vault over the northern nave in 1452. When he died in 1463, his own son, Mortiz, took over construction. Himself dying in 1471, he completed the vaulting over the nave and constructed the sacrament house, finally making the church a basilica according to Ulrich's plan.


title: Ulm Minster

text: In 1477, Matthäus Böblinger took over and made changes to the plans of the church but especially to the main tower and in doing so caused the church's first major structural threat: the heavy vaults of the wide aisles and high nave burdened the columns with too much lateral force at different heights. A new master builder, Burkhart Engelberg of Augsburg, tackled the structural damage by reinforcing the foundation of the west tower and demolishing the heavy aisle vaults and replacing them with vaults of half widths, which afforded rows of additional columns dividing each of the aisles in two. Although catastrophe had been avoided, the walls were left without their buttresses for 350 years and the northern wall of the nave bulges outward by even today.


title: Ulm Minster

text: In a referendum in 1530/31, the citizens of Ulm converted to Protestantism during the Reformation. Ulm Minster became a Lutheran church. Despite its vast size, it is not a cathedral, as the responsible bishop of the Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Württemberg – member of the Evangelical Church in Germany – resides in Stuttgart.


title: Ulm Minster

text: In 1543, construction work ceased at a time when the steeple had reached a height of some . The suspension of the building process was due to a variety of factors which were political and religious, like the Reformation, as well as economic, since the discovery of the Americas during the voyages of Christopher Columbus 1492–1504, the Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India in 1497–99, and Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe led to a epochal shift in trade routes and commodities. One result was economic stagnation and a steady decline, preventing major public expenditure.


title: Ulm Minster

text: In 1817, the interior frescos were covered by painting the walls grey. In 1844, construction work resumed. After a phase of repairs lasting until 1856, the central nave was stabilized by the addition of flying buttresses. Then the small steeples beside the choir were built – without medieval plans. At last, the main steeple was completed, changing the available medieval plan in making it about ten metres taller. Finally, on 31 May 1890 the building was completed.


title: Ulm Minster

text: A devastating air raid hit Ulm on 17 December 1944, which destroyed virtually the entire town west of the church to the railway station and north of the church to the outskirts. The church itself was barely damaged. However, almost all the other buildings of the town square (Münsterplatz) were severely hit and some 80% of the medieval centre of Ulm was destroyed.


title: Ulm Minster

text: The church is currently dealing with problems caused by large numbers of men and women urinating around the structure. In addition to the health issues this presents, acids and salts in the urine are degrading the sandstone foundation of the Münster. Church officials say that festivals and events in the adjacent Münsterplatz draw large numbers of people to the area, but event organizers do not provide sufficient free toilets. After costly repairs to the structure, church leaders pressed city officials to increase patrols and fines, but these have failed to stop offenders.


title: Ulm Minster

text: While the walls of the choir, the side aisles and the tower were constructed of brick, the upper levels of the nave are ashlar, using sandstone from Isny im Allgäu. Limestone from the nearby Swabian Jura was used in small quantities.


title: Ulm Minster

text: The tower contains 13 bells in total and only 10 of the 13 swing. 6 bells in including the largest bell, Gloriosa were cast by Heinrich Kurtz in Stuttgart 1956. Leichenglocke is responsible to chime the quarter-hours and the second largest bell Dominica chimes the hours.


title: Ableton Live

text: Ableton Live is a digital audio workstation for macOS and Windows developed by the German company Ableton. In contrast to many other software sequencers, Ableton Live is designed to be an instrument for live performances as well as a tool for composing, recording, arranging, mixing, and mastering. It is also used by DJs, as it offers a suite of controls for beatmatching, crossfading, and other different effects used by turntablists, and was one of the first music applications to automatically beatmatch songs. Live is available in three editions: Intro (with limited key features), Standard, and Suite.


title: Ableton Live

text: Ableton Live was created by Gerhard Behles, Robert Henke and Bernd Roggendorf in the mid-1990s. Henke left Ableton in 2016 to concentrate on Monolake. Behles and Henke met while studying programming at the Technical University of Berlin, and wrote software in the music programming language Max to perform techno as their band Monolake. Henke and Behles identified a need in Berlin's electronic music scene for user-friendly software for live performances, and worked with local acts to develop it. Though Live was not developed in Max, Max was used to prototype most of its features.


title: Ableton Live

text: Henke said later: "I think the feeling we had was [that] there was enough like-minded people in our closer community who could appreciate a product like this, and that it could work commercially. That gave us confidence to believe that a small company could actually survive on the market." He said one of the first industry figures to recognise Live's potential was the Hollywood composer Hans Zimmer, who was impressed by Live's ability to change the tempo of a loop without altering its pitch. Roggendorf, another programmer, joined Behles and Henke in the late 90s and helped them turn their Max patches into a general set of software for retail. They released the first commercial version of Live on October 30, 2001.


title: Ableton Live

text: Unlike Pro Tools, which focuses on multitrack recording, the first version of Ableton Live was designed for performing with loops. It offered sophisticated tools for triggering loops, playing samples and timestretching audio, and was immediately popular with electronic music producers. Live's timestretching algorithm, known as "warping", was particularly notable and gave DJs greater control over mixing and beatmatching, smoothly blending tracks of different tempos.


title: Ableton Live

text: Live expanded to become a digital audio workstation (DAW) with a MIDI sequencer and support for virtual studio technology (VST). In 2010, Ableton introduced Max for Live, enabling connectivity between Max and Live. Live made it easier for musicians to use computers as instruments in live performance without programming their own software, influencing the rise of global festival culture in the 2000s.


title: Ableton Live

text: Live's user interface is composed of two 'Views' – the Arrangement View and the Session View. Live utilizes audio sample or MIDI sequences, referred to as Clips, which are arranged to be played live (i.e. triggered) or played back in a pre-arranged order. MIDI triggers notes on Live's built in instruments, as well as third party VST instruments or external hardware.


title: Ableton Live

text: The Session View offers a grid-based representation of all of the Clips in a Live Set. These clips can be arranged into scenes which can then be triggered as a unit. For instance a drum, bass and guitar track might comprise a single scene. When moving on to the next scene, which may feature a synth bassline, the artist will trigger the scene, activating the clips for that scene.


title: Ableton Live

text: The Arrangement View offers a horizontal music production timeline of Clips that is more similar to a traditional software sequencer interface. The Arrangement View is used for recording tracks from the session view and further manipulating their arrangement and effects. It is also used for manual MIDI sequencing.


title: Ableton Live

text: The Intro version of Live includes four instruments (Impulse, Simpler, Instrument Rack, and Drum Rack) and the Standard version of Live additionally includes External Instrument, with users having the option to purchase additional instruments. By contrast, Live Suite includes all available instruments.


title: Ableton Live

text: Ableton also offers a selection of Add-on Sample Packs with which a user can expand the sound libraries for their instruments.


title: Ableton Live

text: Akai Professional makes the APC40 mk II, a MIDI controller designed to work solely with Ableton Live. A smaller version, the APC20, was released in 2010. Though there are many MIDI controllers compatible with Live, these Akai units try to closely map the actual Ableton Live layout onto physical space. Novation Digital Music Systems has created the "Launchpad" which is a pad device that has been designed for use with Live. There are currently four different Launchpad models: Launchpad Mini, Launchpad X, Launchpad Pro, and Launchpad Control. Ableton has also released their own MIDI controller, the Push, which is the first pad-based controller that embraces scales and melody. In November 2015, Ableton released an updated MIDI controller, the Push 2, along with Live 9.5. Push 2, in terms of its design, features a new colorful display, improved buttons and pads, and a lighter frame.


title: Ableton Live

text: Most of Live's effects are already common effects in the digital signal processing world which have been adapted to fit Live's interface. They are tailored to suit Live's target audience – electronic musicians and DJs - but may also be used for other recording tasks such as processing a guitar rig. The effects featured in Ableton Live are grouped into two categories - MIDI effects and audio effects.


title: Ableton Live

text: Live is also able to host VST plugins and, on the macOS version, Audio Unit plug-ins as well as Max for Live devices since Live 9.


title: Ableton Live

text: In addition to the instruments mentioned above, Live can work with samples. Live attempts to do beat analysis of the samples to find their meter, number of bars and the number of beats per minute. This makes it possible for Live to shift these samples to fit into loops that are tied into the piece's global tempo.


title: Ableton Live

text: Additionally, Live's Time Warp feature can be used to either correct or adjust beat positions in the sample. By setting warp markers to a specific point in the sample, arbitrary points in the sample can be pegged to positions in the measure. For instance a drum beat that fell 250 ms after the midpoint in measure may be adjusted so that it will be played back precisely at the midpoint.


title: Ableton Live

text: Some artists and online stores, such as The Covert Operators and Puremagnetik, now make available sample packs that are pre-adjusted, with tempo information and warp markers added. The audio files are accompanied with an "analysis file" in Live's native format (.asd files).


title: Ableton Live

text: Ableton Live also supports Audio To MIDI, which converts audio samples into a sequence of MIDI notes using three different conversion methods including conversion to Melody, Harmony, or Rhythm. Once finished, Live will create a new MIDI track containing the fresh MIDI notes along with an instrument to play back the notes. Audio to midi conversion is not always 100% accurate and may require the artist or producer to manually adjust some notes. See Fourier transform.


title: Ableton Live

text: Almost all of the parameters in Live can be automated by envelopes which may be drawn either on clips, in which case they will be used in every performance of that clip, or on the entire arrangement. The most obvious examples are volume and track panning, but envelopes are also used in Live to control parameters of audio devices such as the root note of a resonator or a filter's cutoff frequency. Clip envelopes may also be mapped to MIDI controls, which can also control parameters in real-time using sliders, faders and such. Using the global transport record function will also record changes made to these parameters, creating an envelope for them.


title: Ableton Live

text: Much of Live's interface comes from being designed for use in live performance, as well as for production. There are few pop up messages or dialogs. Portions of the interface are hidden and shown based on arrows which may be clicked to show or hide a certain segment (e.g. to hide the instrument/effect list or to show or hide the help box).


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: The Hyundai Genesis Coupe is a rear-wheel drive sports coupe from Hyundai Motor Company, first released on October 13, 2008, for the Korean market. It is Hyundai's first rear-wheel drive sports coupe, and shares its basic platform with the Hyundai Genesis luxury sedan.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: The Genesis Coupe arrived in United States dealerships on February 26, 2009, as a 2010 model. Hyundai USA acting president and CEO John Krafcik described the Genesis Coupe as being designed "...to deliver a driving experience that challenges cars like the Infiniti G37."


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: With the launch of Genesis Motors as a standalone luxury brand, the Hyundai Genesis Coupe remained branded as a Hyundai and eventually was discontinued in 2016.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: Photos of a heavily camouflaged Genesis Coupe prototype appeared on the internet as early as May 2007, fueling anticipation and speculation. The spy photos suggested that Hyundai's new coupe would be rear-wheel drive, as pictures of the engine bay showed a longitudinal engine orientation typical of front-engine, rear-drive vehicles. The pictures also showed a four-cylinder engine with a heat-wrapped turbocharger. Speculation on potential engines for the new coupe ranged from the turbocharged four-cylinder pictured to the Tau V8 that Hyundai had developed for the luxury-oriented Genesis.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: Shortly before the 2007 Los Angeles Auto Show, more photos were leaked of an uncovered silver Genesis Coupe next to a silver Ford Mustang, presumed to be the Genesis Coupe's target competitor.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: The production Genesis Coupe was unveiled at the 2008 New York International Auto Show, showcasing a red and a silver model. The unveiling was accompanied by a demonstration of the coupe's abilities with powerslides and burnouts. North American models went on sale in spring of 2009 as a 2010 model.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: Genesis Coupe trims are based around two engine choices. Trim levels include: 2.0T Base, 2.0T R-Spec, 2.0T Premium, 2.0T Track (2010 only) (GT in Canada), 3.8 Base (2010), 3.8 R-Spec (2011+), 3.8 Grand Touring, and 3.8 Track (GT in Canada).


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: Base models start with keyless entry, steering wheel audio controls, Bluetooth hands-free, tire pressure monitoring system, cruise control, USB/iPod + Aux input, electronic stability control, ABS, electronic brake force distribution, 18-inch wheels, and strut bar. The 2.0T Base used a 6 speed manual transmission or 5 speed automatic while the 3.8 Base used a 6 speed manual or automatic transmission. The 3.8 Base (only for 2010) adds black leather interior and light-up "Genesis" door sill plates.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: The 2.0T Premium and 3.8 Grand Touring add a touch screen infotainment system with navigation, keyless entry with push-button start, power adjustable driver seat, heated front seats (3.8L US only), leather interior, 360 watt 10 speaker system, automatic headlights, sunroof/moonroof, and electrochromic dimming mirror with compass. The 3.8 Grand Touring is the only model with brown leather instead of black and ultrasonic rear parking sensors. The 3.8 Grand Touring also receives fog lights.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: For enthusiasts, the R-spec models come with 19-inch wheels, Brembo brakes, a Torsen Limited slip differential, a stiffer suspension, summer-only Bridgestone Potenza RE050A tires, and factory supplied front camber bolts (need to be installed). However the R-spec models lose the Premium / Grand Touring features for weight reduction: Bluetooth hands-free, automatic headlights, cruise control, trip computer, chrome interior accents, steering wheel audio controls, and only come with the 6 speed manual transmission. The Genesis Coupe R-Spec trims are available with a base price $3,000 less than the Track models.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: The Track trims combine the enthusiast R-spec features with the Premium / Grand Touring features. In addition, the trims further add HID headlights, fog lights with DRLs, and rear spoiler.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: While the Genesis Coupe that is released in North America will look the same as the Korean version, the suspension setup is stiffer according to American demographic.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: Hyundai Canada offers a proximity key for all V6 models, push button start or side-mirror marker lights on the 3.8L models and no spoiler on either the 2.0T or 3.8L V6 (US track models are the only trims equipped with spoilers). In fall of 2009, Hyundai began Genesis production with Navigation systems.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: In some countries Hyundai Genesis Coupe will also be sold as Hyundai Genesis R-Spec, which comes with both the 3.8-liter and 2.0T engine and features some sport-oriented options.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: The RMR Genesis is a version of the Genesis Coupe 2.0T with an RMR turbo kit, HKS sequential transmission, K&W coil over suspension, silver and black body colour scheme, RMR wide body kit, functional hood scoop, carbon fiber wing, Enkei racing wheels with Bridgestone Protenza RE-01 tires, Brembo brake calipers, Sparco steering wheel and seats, eight-point roll cage, and an RMR carbon fiber dashboard.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: The R-spec 2.0T is a version of the Genesis Coupe 2.0T Track with fewer factory options, resulting in it being 68 pounds lighter than the 2.0T Base/Premium models.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: The RM460 is a Genesis Coupe with a 4.6-liter Hyundai Tau engine V8, built by Rhys Millen Racing. The engine is mounted behind the passenger compartment to become a mid-engine rear wheel drive (MR) platform. The numerous modifications are: an increased compression ratio to 11.0:1, engine management system by AEM, Mendeola five-speed sequential transmission, original MacPherson strut dual-link front suspension and a five-link rear suspension, with a KW coilover component; HRE 560 Series 20-inch wheels with Toyo T1R tires, StopTech brakes, RMR Signature Edition kit, a carbon fiber spoiler and custom carbon fiber rear hatch, custom RM ONYX HD paint from BASF, Sparco Chrono sports seats, Sparco Alcantara and carbon fiber interior panels, Infinity Kappa Perfect Speakers and power amplifier.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: The RM500 is a Genesis Coupe with 5.0-liter Tau V8 engine rated 450 hp, built by Rhys Millen Racing. It included: custom RMR custom stainless exhaust with Greddy rear section muffler and titanium tips, oil cooler, rear differential cooler, RMR Custom Adapter Plate, RMR Custom Light Weight Clutch & Flywheel, K&N Panel Filter, AEM Engine Management System, Brembo Carbon Ceramic Rotors (Front – 15.5-inch, Rear – 15-inch), Brembo Six Piston Front Calipers Four Piston Rear, HRE 793-RS II-Spoke Rims (Front – 19x8.5, Rear – 19x9.5), Hankook Ventus V12 Tires (Front – 245/40ZR19, Rear – 275/35ZR19), RMR Interior Suede Trip Package, Sparco Chrono Sport Seats with RMR Accents, Sparco Track Sliders, RMR Seat Brackets, Sparco Tecno Leather Shift Knob, RMR 1-inch Steering Column Extension, RMR Carbon Front Lip, RMR Carbon Side Skirts, RMR Carbon Rear Diffuser, RMR Carbon Three Piece Spoiler, RMR Carbon Grill, RMR Carbon Overlay Roof, RMR Carbon Fog Light Vents with Brake Ducts, RMR Yellow Fog Light Covers.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: The Hyundai Genesis Coupe competed at the Formula Drift Professional Drifting Championship, the Pikes Peak International Hill Climb and select Redline Time Attack Series events in 2009 – thanks to a joint venture between Hyundai and racing champion Rhys Millen, who will drive the Red Bull-sponsored race car on those events. Millen's V8 engine is running with mostly stock internals and its original Hyundai's 5.0-liter displacement.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: GoGoGear.com Racing started racing a Genesis Coupe in 2012 in the United States Touring Car Championship and won the championship in 2014 in a 3.8 liter V6 Genesis Coupe. They became the first team to win a road racing championship ever in a Hyundai in the USA. In 2015, the team finished second in the championship.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: In July 2009, Millen and the Genesis Coupe set a new record for two-wheel drive production-based cars at Pikes Peak.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: In June 2011, Rhys Millen set a new record for 2WD Time Attack using the same Genesis Coupe with a time of 11:04.912.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: North American model was unveiled in 2012 Detroit North American International Auto Show as 2013 model year vehicle. The Lambda MPi engine was replaced by Lambda GDi engine.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: The front bumper and hood received a styling revision that incorporates Hyundai's fluidic corporate design language a la Veloster. Transmission choices include an 8-speed automatic transmission with paddle-shifters or a 6-speed manual transmission.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: In response to criticisms about materials quality from reviewers and owners, Hyundai significantly improved materials quality for the new model. New features include a leather handbrake handle, plasmacluster air filtering, red leather interior option, LED accents above the foglights, and LED taillights.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: The Genesis Coupe was initially available in one of 10 different colors: Karussell White, Bathurst Black, Aqua Mineral Blue, Interlagos Yellow, Tsukuba Red, Mirabeau Blue, Silverstone, Monaco White, and Nordschleife Gray. A limited edition color (Lime Rock Green) was made available from 2010-2011. For 2013 Mirabeau Blue was discontinued and renamed Shoreline Blue, then again in 2014 was renamed Ibiza Blue.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: Genesis Coupe trims have minor changes from the first generation. Trim levels include: 2.0T Base, 2.0T R-Spec, 2.0T Premium, 3.8 R-Spec (2011+), 3.8 Grand Touring, and 3.8 Track (renamed Ultimate 2014+). Carbon-coated synchronizer rings and hill-start assist were added to the manual transmission for the 2014 model year, which also saw downshift rev-matching system added for the automatic transmission.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: A 30-second Genesis Coupe R-Spec ad titled "Think Fast", was premiered during fourth quarter of Super Bowl XLVI.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: Hyundai had a 3-year partnership with the TV show Burn Notice and the Genesis Coupe was featured prominently in many episodes.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: As part of the Canadian market launch, a Sasquatch commercial titled 'Country Drive' was produced. In addition, there were 9 "Sasquatch on Set" clips to show what it's like working with yeti.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: On September 20, 2012, the game developer Gameloft released a racing simulator for the Android phone platform, under their established GT Racing title series, featuring the 2011 Genesis Coupe as well as their concept I-oniq hybrid car.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: Reception to the revised Genesis Coupe has been mixed. Edmunds praised the 3.8 R-Spec as "the most interesting car that Hyundai makes". They also praised the improved transmission, uprated engine and more balanced suspension, but lamented "we could get into a V6-equipped Mustang or Camaro for less money". They also criticized the slow-moving tachometer and the brief loss of power after high-rpm upshifts.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: Motor Trend was critical of the revised 2.0T R-Spec, placing it last in a comparison test between it, a Ford Mustang V6, a Volkswagen Golf GTI, a Scion FR-S, a Subaru BRZ, and a Mazda MX-5 Miata. They praised its smooth ride and extra power, but criticized its "peaky power delivery", vague shifter and interior ambience.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: When Car and Driver took a 2013 Genesis Coupe 3.8 R-Spec to Virginia International Raceway for its yearly Lightning Lap time trial, they posted a time of 3:13.9 around VIR's Grand West configuration, 0.1 second slower than the 306-hp 2011 Genesis Coupe 3.8 R-Spec and slower than the Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution, Ford Mustang V6, Chevrolet Cobalt SS and Nissan NISMO 370Z. They were unsettled by its tendency to power oversteer, and its brake fade.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: It is a version of Genesis Coupe Lambda 3.8 V6 GDi developed in association with Cosworth, with Improved thermal management, Optimization of induction and exhaust systems, Enhanced engine control parameters, Cosworth Intake and High-flow Exhaust, Cosworth CGRS Steering Wheel, Cosworth CGRS Shift knob, Cosworth CGRS Pedals, Cosworth CGRS Shift Boot, Cosworth Two-Tone Sport Seats, Cosworth Two-Tone Interior Treatment, Cosworth CGRS Satin/Gloss Blue body color, Cosworth CGRS Full front replacement bumper w/ integrated Carbon Fiber Brake Ducts, Cosworth CGRS Carbon fiber front splitter, Cosworth CGRS Carbon fiber side skirt lip, Cosworth CGRS Carbon fiber Diffuser, Cosworth CGRS Integrated Trunk Spoiler, Cosworth CGRS Edition Wheels, Cosworth CGRS logo and hood graphics.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: It is a version of Genesis Coupe Lambda 3.8 V6 GDi developed in association with ARK Performance, with increased engine power to 395 horsepower@6800rpm and 340 lb.-ft.@5400rpm, ARK performance intake system, ARK performance oil cooler, ARK performance lightweight pulley kit, BTRcc Blueprinting, Brian Crower 4.2 Stroker Kit, JE Pistons, BC 4340 Crankshaft, BC 4340 Connecting Rods, ARK performance R-Spec ceramic-coated headers, JPM Coachworks custom interior, Sparco steering wheel L575, Sparco Pro ADV racing seats – red, Cusco 8-point chromoly roll cage, ARK-ADRO FL carbon hood, ARK-ADRO rear diffuser, ARK performance SFX rear overfenders, ARK performance CFX carbon deck lid, APR GT300 carbon wing with mount, ARK carbon plate clutch kit, ARK dual mass flywheel, Cusco type RS 1.5/2-way limited-slip differential, Yokohama ADVAN RS2 tires, Nitto NT05 wheels, Six-piston Big Brake kit F/R, ARK carbon brake pads, ARK stainless steel brake lines, ARK performance DTP coilover system, Cusco suspension bars, arms and control rods.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: It is a version of Genesis Coupe Lambda 3.8 V6 GDi developed in association with Bisimoto Engineering, with increased engine power to 1022 horsepower, steel connecting rods, intake gasket, injectors, level 2.4 camshafts, twin Bisimoto/Turbonetics BTX6162 turbochargers, Godzilla blow-off valve, dual RG45 wastegate, Arias forged pistons, Golden Eagle sleeves, WPC metal surface treatment, Supertech valvetrain, Vibrant VanJen clamps and stainless hardware, Magnafuel 750 fuel pump, ARP head, main, and wheel studs; Portflow custom headwork, AEM Infinity EMS, custom smart ignition coils, NGK Iridium spark plugs, Puröl Elite synthetic oil, Spearco intercooler, Griffin radiator, Kinsler fuel filters, Bisimoto-spec Action Ironman clutch, Bisimoto roll cage, ST coilover suspension and anti-roll bars, Drive Shaft Shop 5.9 Axles and driveshaft, Incurve 20x9.5 and 20x11 aluminum wheels, Toyo Tires R888 R-Compound tires, Buddy Club racing seats and Takata Race harness, Bisimoto reservoir socks, Racepack IQ3 dash, Bisimoto oil cap, Odyssey dry cell battery, Rywire mil-spec harness, G&J braided lines.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: Initially, the Genesis Coupe was available with two engines. The standard engine is a 2.0T Theta turbocharged 4-cylinder producing and torque, with an optional 3.8 L Lambda V6 engine producing and torque.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: The 4-cylinder turbocharged engine shares many components with the Mitsubishi Evo X. Both engines are the result of the Global Engine Manufacturing Alliance, a joint venture among Hyundai, Mitsubishi, and Chrysler, with Hyundai's engine using a different computer from Siemens. Interesting features of the engine include oil injectors under the pistons to keep them cooler.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: A 6-speed manual transmission is standard equipment, with an optional 5- or ZF 6-speed automatic (depending on engine choice).


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: For the facelift models, both engines got upgraded, the new 2.0T now produces and torque due to a bigger turbo, while the now produces and torque thanks to the Gasoline direct injection (GDI). The optional automatic transmission was also upgraded to a 8-speed for both engine choices.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: For the 2015 model year, the 2.0T engine option is no longer available in North America with the becoming the only available engine choice.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: In some regions such as the Middle East and the Philippines the 3.8 L engine still comes with the old MPi version making , starting with 2016 model the 3.8 L offered in these regions are now the GDI version making .


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: Optional equipment includes a Torsen Limited slip differential and four-piston Brembo brakes with rotors in the front and in the rear. 18 inch wheels are standard, while optional 19 inch wheels using 225/40 tires in the front and 245/40 in the rear are packaged together with the Brembo brake upgrade.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: According to Hyundai, the Genesis Coupe has a 24% stiffer bending rigidity than the BMW E46 M3 (2001–2006).


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: The car's wheelbase is , with an overall length of , width of , and height of . The curb weight of the coupe is for the V6 and for the 4-cylinder.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: Hyundai took an aggressive stance on their marketing for the new release of this car with Rhys Millen drifting the car to music by Billy Corgan during a Super Bowl advertisement. They also launched the website edityourown.com that allowed users to create a video that allowed the promotion of the car. This was done previously by other car manufacturers, although none promised the final edit to be seen on TV as well as winning a cash prize along with the new car as Hyundai has.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: Hyundai Genesis (coupe and the four-door saloon version) have appeared in the TV series "Leverage", driven by the main characters. The coupe has also appeared in the TV series "Burn Notice" as Fiona's new car. It also made an appearance in the eighth season of the TV series "24" as one of the pursuit vehicles driven by Jack Bauer.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: The song "FOL" from The Smashing Pumpkins, used in Genesis Coupe Super Bowl ad, was freely available by supplying e-mail address to Hyundai.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: In Travis Scott's song Antidote a modified first generation white Genesis Coupe can be seen in the music video.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: In Loona's song Why Not? a modified second generation black Genesis Coupe appears in the music video.


title: Hyundai Genesis Coupe

text: In Loona's song Not Friends a modified first generation lime green Genesis Coupe appears in the music video.


title: Gorillas in the Mist

text: Gorillas in the Mist is a 1988 American drama film directed by Michael Apted and starring Sigourney Weaver as the naturalist Dian Fossey. It tells the story of her work in Rwanda with mountain gorillas and was nominated for five Academy Awards.


title: Gorillas in the Mist

text: Occupational therapist Dian Fossey (Sigourney Weaver) is inspired by anthropologist Louis Leakey (Iain Cuthbertson) to devote her life to the study of primates. She writes ceaselessly to Leakey for a job cataloging and studying the rare mountain gorillas of Africa. Following him to a lecture in Louisville, Kentucky in 1966, she convinces him of her conviction.


title: Gorillas in the Mist

text: They travel to the Congo, where Leakey and his foundation equip her to make contact with the gorillas, and introduce her to a local animal tracker, Sembagare (John Omirah Miluwi). Settling deep in the jungle, Fossey and Sembagare locate a troop of gorillas, but are displaced by the events of the Congo Crisis and forcibly evicted from their research site by Congolese soldiers, who accuse Fossey of being a foreign spy and agitator.


title: Gorillas in the Mist

text: Fossey is resigned to returning to the United States, but Sembagare and her temporary host Rosamond Carr (Julie Harris) motivate her to stay in Africa. Fossey establishes new research efforts in the jungles of neighboring Rwanda, where rampant poaching and corruption become apparent when she discovers several traps near her new base at Karisoke. Nevertheless, Fossey and her colleagues make headway with the gorillas, taking account of their communication and social groups. Her work impresses Leakey and gains international attention.


title: Gorillas in the Mist

text: "National Geographic", which funds her efforts, dispatches photographer Bob Campbell (Bryan Brown) to highlight her research. Fossey, initially unreceptive, grows increasingly attached to Campbell after several photo sessions with the gorillas, and the two become lovers, in spite of Campbell's marriage. Campbell proposes to divorce his wife and marry Fossey but insists that she would have to spend time away from Karisoke and her gorillas, leading her to end their relationship. Fossey forms an emotional bond with a gorilla named Digit, and attempts to prevent the export of other gorillas by trader Van Vecten (Constantin Alexandrov).


title: Gorillas in the Mist

text: Appalled by the poaching of the gorillas for their skins, hands, and heads, Fossey complains to the Rwandan government and is dismissed, but a government minister (Waigwa Wachira) promises to hire an anti-poaching squad. Fossey's frustrations reach a climax when Digit is beheaded by poachers. She leads numerous anti-poaching patrols, burns down the poachers' villages, and even stages a mock execution of one of the offenders, serving to alienate some of her research assistants and gaining her various enemies. Sembagare expresses concern at Fossey’s opposition to the emergent industry of gorilla tourism, but she nonchalantly dismisses his worries.


title: Gorillas in the Mist

text: On December 27, 1985, Dian Fossey is murdered in the bedroom of her cabin by an unseen assailant. At a funeral attended by Sembagare, Carr, and others, she is buried in the same cemetery where Digit and other gorillas had been laid to rest. Sembagare symbolically links the graves of Fossey and Digit with stones as a sign that their souls rest in peace together before leaving.


title: Gorillas in the Mist

text: The epilogue text explains that Fossey’s actions helped save the gorillas from extinction, while her death remains a mystery.


title: Gorillas in the Mist

text: The screenplay was adapted by Anna Hamilton Phelan from articles by Alex Shoumatoff and Harold T. P. Hayes and a story by Phelan and Tab Murphy. The original music score was composed by Maurice Jarre. The movie was directed by Michael Apted and the cinematography was by John Seale.


title: Gorillas in the Mist

text: The film received generally positive reviews from critics, with many praising both Weaver's performance and the technical accomplishments of the movie while some were frustrated by the lack of depth in Fossey's on-screen characterization.


title: Gorillas in the Mist

text: "At last, [Weaver] may have found a part cut to her scale." wrote Hal Hinson of "The Washington Post". "It's a great role for her to pour herself into, and she doesn't skimp." However, he had his misgivings about the restrictions placed on Fossey's character: "The chief problem with "Gorillas in the Mist" is that it banalizes its heroine; it turns her into one of us. And by all accounts Fossey was anything but ordinary." He also accused the filmmakers of toning down Fossey's unstable mental state: "Fossey was more than merely eccentric...The movie hints at these aspects of her character but tries to soften them;...the filmmakers have done more than sanitize Fossey's life, they've deprived it of any meaning." Hinson concluded that ""Gorillas in the Mist" isn't a terrible film, but it is a frustrating one."


title: Gorillas in the Mist

text: While Roger Ebert was also happy with the casting of Weaver as Fossey ("It is impossible to imagine a more appropriate choice for the role"), he felt the character was too distanced from the audience and that her development and motives were unclear. ""Gorillas in the Mist" tells us what Dian Fossey accomplished and what happened to her, but it doesn't tell us who she was, and at the end that's what we want to know." However, Ebert was impressed by the scenes with the gorillas and the way live footage of gorillas was seamlessly blended with gorilla costumes: "Everything looked equally real to me, and the delicacy with which director Michael Apted developed the relationships between woman and beast was deeply absorbing. There were moments when I felt a touch of awe. Those moments, which are genuine, make the movie worth seeing."


title: Gorillas in the Mist

text: Hinson also agreed that "whenever the cameras turn on the gorillas — who are the film's true stars — you feel you're witnessing something truly great."


title: Gorillas in the Mist

text: The film holds an 85% fresh rating at Rotten Tomatoes based on 20 critics' reviews, with an average review of 6.8/10.


title: Gorillas in the Mist

text: "Gorillas in the Mist" started an exclusive run on 15 screens on September 23, 1988 and grossed $366,925. It expanded to 558 screens the following weekend and was the number one film for the weekend with a gross of $3,451,230. The film went on to gross $24,720,479 in the United States and Canada and $36,429,000 internationally for a worldwide total of $61,149,479.


title: Tammy (film)

text: Tammy is a 2014 American road comedy film directed and co-written by Ben Falcone and produced, co-written by, and starring Melissa McCarthy as the title character. The film also stars Susan Sarandon, Allison Janney, Gary Cole, Mark Duplass, Nat Faxon, Toni Collette, Sandra Oh, with Dan Aykroyd, and Kathy Bates. The film tells the story of a woman named Tammy who hits the road with her profane, alcoholic grandmother after finding out her husband is cheating. "Tammy" was released in theaters on July 2, 2014.


title: Tammy (film)

text: Although a box office success, grossing $100.3 million from a $20 million budget, it received highly negative reviews from critics with McCarthy and Sarandon receiving Razzie nominations for Worst Actress and Worst Supporting Actress respectively.


title: Tammy (film)

text: In Murphysboro, Illinois, Tammy Banks strikes a deer on the way to her job at the fast food restaurant Topper Jack's, damaging her vehicle; when she arrives, her supervisor, Keith Morgan, is forced to fire her from the restaurant. After her car breaks down on the way home on Illinois Route 13, she walks home to find her husband, Greg, eating a romantic meal with their neighbor, Missi. Tammy leaves in frustration and walks two doors down to her parents' house.


title: Tammy (film)

text: She tells her mother, Deb, about her plans to leave and takes her grandmother Pearl's Cadillac DeVille. Pearl requests to come along. Tammy initially refuses but ultimately agrees when Pearl proves that she has a large sum of cash. Tammy has beer with Pearl, and the next morning they wake up near a park where Pearl convinces Tammy not to go back home. Pearl wants to go to Niagara Falls with Tammy since she hadn't gone as a child. Along the way the two stop in a bar in Louisville, Kentucky, Tammy meets Earl Tillman and his son Bobby, and Earl hooks up with Pearl. Tammy and Bobby begin to make a love connection as Pearl and Earl drunkenly make out in the car. Bobby gives Tammy his number to call him so he can pick up Earl. Back at the hotel, Tammy is forced to sleep outside. The next morning, Bobby picks up Earl, and the two leave. Tammy, infuriated with Pearl, leaves her, but returns after feeling guilty. Tammy and Pearl are arrested after Pearl gets caught buying a case of beer for two teenagers as well as shoplifting a pint of whiskey for herself. Tammy is released, but Pearl stays at the jail for possessing illegal prescription drugs.


title: Tammy (film)

text: To bail out Pearl, Tammy robs a Topper Jack's, where she converses with employees Becky (Sarah Baker) and Larry (Rich Williams). Finally having obtained the money, she rushes to the prison to bail Pearl out, but Bobby has already bailed her out. With the help of Pearl's wealthy lesbian cousin Lenore, they destroy the car to hide the evidence from the robbery. The two then stay at the home of Lenore and her wife, Susanne. At a 4th of July party thrown at the house, Pearl gets drunk and humiliates Tammy by making rude comments about her weight and appearance in front of all the guests. After Tammy runs off to the dock on the lake by the house, Lenore follows her with both comfort and some tough love.


title: Tammy (film)

text: Tammy brings coffee to Pearl, who is presumably asleep outside. After repeatedly trying to wake her, Pearl does not wake up and Tammy assumes she is dead. She, Lenore, and Susanne grieve Pearl's death, but Pearl suddenly awakens, much to everyone's shock. Pearl was actually unconscious due to the large amount of alcohol she drank the previous night. Tammy is relieved, and she tearfully demands Pearl to get help for her drinking problem. The ambulance arrives and takes Pearl to the hospital. The police arrive as well, and Tammy is arrested for her robbery of Topper Jack's.


title: Tammy (film)

text: Tammy is released from prison 38 days later, and her father, Don, picks her up. He offers to kill Greg for her, though she declines. Returning home, Tammy finds that Greg and Missi have packed Tammy's belongings. She and Greg agree to an amicable divorce. She walks down the street to her parents' place and finds out that Pearl is now living in Brookview Retirement Home. Tammy goes to Brookview to break her out, but Pearl is actually happy there. She has been attending Alcoholics Anonymous meetings at the home, and she is dating one of the men there. However, they do still take a trip to Niagara Falls.


title: Tammy (film)

text: At Niagara Falls, Bobby surprises Tammy there and they kiss. Tammy tells him about her choice to move to Louisville to get a fresh start in life and get closer to him. Missi leaves Greg to be with Keith and Tammy befriends Becky and Larry.


title: Tammy (film)

text: On November 17, 2011, was reported that New Line Cinema acquired Melissa McCarthy’s script "Tammy", about an overweight woman who is laid off from her job, discovers her husband is having an affair, and decides to go on a road trip with her alcoholic, foul-mouthed, diabetic grandmother. Tate Taylor and Beth McCarthy-Miller were in talks to direct the project, but the deals were never done and Melissa McCarthy's husband, Ben Falcone was chosen to direct the film.


title: Tammy (film)

text: On October 18, 2012, it was announced that Shirley MacLaine has been offered the role of Tammy's diabetic grandmother, but the deal never came to fruition due to her scheduling conflicts with the TV series "Downton Abbey". On March 20, 2013, Susan Sarandon took the role of the grandmother. Sarandon wore prosthetic ankles to reflect her character's diabetes. Kathy Bates joined the cast to play the grandmother's lesbian cousin. In March 2013, Mark Duplass joined the cast as Tammy's love interest. On April 4, Allison Janney was cast to play Tammy's mother. On April 5, Dan Aykroyd joined the cast of the film.


title: Tammy (film)

text: Principal photography began May 3, 2013 in Wilmington, North Carolina. Other filming locations include the surrounding areas of Shallotte, North Carolina, Castle Hayne, North Carolina and Boiling Spring Lakes, North Carolina. Also brief footage was filmed in Louisville, Kentucky and Niagara Falls, New York.


title: Tammy (film)

text: The first official full-length trailer of the film was released on May 6, 2014. On June 3, three posters for the film were released. On June 16, the UK trailer for the film was revealed.


title: Tammy (film)

text: "Tammy" grossed $84.5 million in North America and $16 million in other territories for a total gross of $100.3 million, against its $20 million budget. The film grossed $6.2 million on its opening day, and $21.6 million in its opening weekend, finishing second place at the box office (behind "").


title: Tammy (film)

text: "Tammy" received generally negative reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 24% based on 185 reviews with an average rating of 4.4/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Melissa McCarthy remains an engaging screen presence, but her efforts aren't enough to keep the jumbled "Tammy" on track." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 39 out of 100 based on 36 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Tammy (film)

text: Ian Buckwalter of NPR gave the film a mixed review saying ""Tammy" never quite manages to find that balance between the sweet and the smartass the way "Bridesmaids" did, nor does the mismatched buddy dynamic between McCarthy and Sarandon ever approach the success of "The Heat". But eventually the film does manage to find its own awkward way, with enough effective and less desperate jokes to smooth things over after the rocky start. It's a shakier debut of McCarthy and Falcone's efforts behind the camera than one might have hoped for, but if Tammy can turn things around, surely they can too." Eden Caceda of "Filmink" gave a negative review, saying, "McCarthy plays the same foul-mouthed and distasteful character she’s played in just about every movie since Bridesmaids."


title: Singaporeans

text: Singaporeans, or the Singaporean people, refers to citizens or people who identify with the sovereign island city-state of Singapore. Singapore is a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural and multi-lingual country. Singaporeans of Chinese, Malay, Indian and Eurasian descent have made up the vast majority of the population since the 19th century. The Singaporean diaspora is also far-reaching worldwide.


title: Singaporeans

text: In 1819, the port of Singapore was established by Sir Stamford Raffles, who opened it to free trade and free immigration on the island's south coast. Many immigrants from the region settled in Singapore. By 1827, the population of the island was composed of people from various ethnic groups.


title: Singaporeans

text: Singapore is a multilingual and multicultural society home to people of groups of many different ethnic, religious and national origins, with the majority of the population made up of Chinese, Malay, Indian and Eurasian descent. The Singaporean identity was fostered as a way for the different ethnic groups to integrate and identify with the nation, while preserving the culture and traditions of each ethnic group, instead of assimilating the minority cultures into a single majority culture.


title: Singaporeans

text: According to a 2017 survey by the Institute of Policy Studies, 49% of Singaporeans identify with both the Singaporean identity and their ethnic identity equally, while 35% would identify as "Singaporeans" first and 14.2% would identify with their ethnic identity. As of 2019, the population of Singaporeans stands at 4,026,200 and the population of Overseas Singaporeans stands at 340,751, with 217,200 individuals retaining their citizenship.


title: Singaporeans

text: The earliest records of settlement on the island date back to the 2nd century, where the island was identified as a trading port which was part of a chain of similar trading centres that linked Southeast Asia with the Tamil Indians and the Mediterranean. The earliest settlers of the island were known as the Orang Lauts, and the island was an outpost of the Srivijaya Empire until it was invaded by the Tamil Emperor Rajendra Chola I of the Chola Empire in the 11th century. According to the 19th century Chinese record " Investigation of Southern Pacific" (南洋蠡測) (Nanyang Li Ce), it described the presence of Chinese tombs in Singapore. Words and inscriptions recording the period of Later Liang and Emperor Gong of Song were found on these tombs and this may suggest that from 907 to 1274, some Chinese had settled, lived, died and were buried in Singapore.


title: Singaporeans

text: A small Malay kingdom, known as the Kingdom of Singapura, was founded in 1299 by a fleeing Srivijayan prince, Sang Nila Utama, who was crowned as the Raja of the new state. After the fall of the kingdom in 1398, the island fell under the suzerainty of various regional empires and Malayan sultanates until its destruction by Portuguese raiders in 1613.


title: Singaporeans

text: Prior to the arrival of Raffles, there were about a hundred indigenous Malays living on the island under the Johor Sultanate. Most of the indigenous Malays came from the Malay Archipelago. There were an estimated 150 people living on the island, who were predominantly Orang Laut with small population of 120 Malays who were the followers of Temenggong Abdul Rahman, and about 20–30 Chinese.


title: Singaporeans

text: The majority of Singaporeans today are descendants of immigrants who settled on the island when Singapore was founded as a British trading port by Raffles in 1819, except for the Malays who are indigenous to the region of Malaya. At that time, Raffles decided Singapore would be a free port and as news of the free port spread across the archipelago, Bugis, Javanese, Peranakan Chinese, South Asian and Hadhrami Arab traders flocked to the island, due to the Dutch trading restrictions. After six months of Singapore's founding as a free port, the population increased to 5,000, with the first census of 1824 showing that 6,505 out of the 10,683 total were Malays and Bugis settlers. Within the first few months of becoming a British settlement, a large number of Chinese migrants also started to settle on the island. In 1825, the population of the island had passed the ten thousand mark and by the census of 1826, there were more Chinese with a population of 6,088, as compared to 4,790 Malays excluding the Bugis and Javanese.


title: Singaporeans

text: By 1871, due to the influx of migrants from Malaya, China, India and other parts of Asia, Singapore's population had reached nearly 100,000, with over half of them being Chinese. Many of these early migrants were predominantly male and they would usually return to their home countries after they had earned enough money. By the early to mid twentieth century, an increasingly significant number of migrant workers chose to stay permanently, with their descendants forming the bulk of Singapore's population today.


title: Singaporeans

text: In 1957, Singapore attained self-governance and Singaporean citizenship was granted to selected residents who were born in Singapore or the Federation of Malaya, British citizens who had been resident for two years, and others who had been resident for ten years. On September 16, 1963, all Singaporeans effectively became Malaysian citizens as Malaya, Singapore, North Borneo and Sarawak were merged to form Malaysia. However, about two years after the merger, Singapore seceded from Malaysia on August 9, 1965, and Malaysian citizenship was withdrawn from Singaporean citizens. Singaporean nationality law was incorporated into the new Constitution of Singapore. The constitution repealed the 1957 Ordinance, and all persons who were citizens as of 16 September 1963 by virtue of the Ordinance continued to be Singaporean citizens.


title: Singaporeans

text: Today, Singaporean citizenship is granted by birth, by descent, or by registration. Although provided for in the Constitution, citizenship by naturalisation is no longer granted. The government instead uses the constitutional provision for citizenship by registration to grant citizenship to resident aliens.


title: Singaporeans

text: Singaporeans with Chinese ancestry make up 75.9%, Malays make up 15.4%, Indians make up 7.4%, and residents of other descent make up 1.6% of the 3,498,200 of the resident population (excluding persons holding Permanent Residency). To avoid physical racial segregation and formation of ethnic enclaves common in other multi-racial societies, the Singapore government implemented the "Ethnic Integration Policy" (EIP) in 1989 where each block of units are sold to families from ethnicities roughly comparable to the national average.


title: Singaporeans

text: Today, the Chinese-Malay-Indian-Others (CMIO) model is the dominant organising framework of race in Singapore. The country also celebrates Racial Harmony Day to commemorate the 1964 race riots in Singapore and to remember the consequences of racial disharmony the country experienced during the 1964 racial riots, which were a series of riots that resulted in a total of 36 deaths and 560 others suffered severe injuries.


title: Singaporeans

text: Singaporeans of other ethnicities notably the Arab, Armenians, Chitty, Eurasians, Malaysians and Sri Lankans are classified into broader ethnic groups under the CMIO model. The Javanese are classified under the Malay ethnic group and the Peranakans are classified under the Chinese ethnic group are two examples of the classification of race and ethnicity in Singapore. Other foreign communities in the country or Singaporeans of other ethnic origins includes the Australians, Filipinos, Japanese, Koreans, Nepalis, Pakistanis, and Italians.


title: Singaporeans

text: Singaporean culture is a mix of Asian and European cultures, with influences from the Malay, Indian, Chinese, and Eurasian cultures. This is reflected in the architectural styles of buildings in several distinct ethnic neighbourhoods, such as Little India, Chinatown and Kampong Glam and Singlish, which is a local creole language which consists of words originating from English, Malay, Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese and Tamil, used by Singaporeans in a less formal setting. Due to Singapore's diverse ethnic makeup, the Singapore Constitution prohibits discrimination based on race, religion, descent and place of birth. The state thus promotes cultural policies based on multiculturalism and multiracialism, instead of cultural assimilation.


title: Singaporeans

text: About 70% of Singaporeans also identify with other ethnic cultures in Singapore, notably the Chinese, Malay and Indian cultures. Major festivals including Chinese New Year, Hari Raya Puasa, Deepavali, Vesak Day, Christmas, Good Friday and New Year's Day which are celebrated by the different major racial and religious groups are designated as public holidays.


title: Singaporeans

text: Former Prime Ministers of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew and Goh Chok Tong, have stated that Singapore does not fit the traditional description of a nation, calling it a society-in-transition, pointing out the fact that Singaporeans do not all speak the same language, share the same religion, nor have the same customs. Each Singaporean's behaviours and attitudes are influenced by, among other things, his or her home language and his religion. Singaporeans who speak English as their native language tend to lean toward Western culture and Christian culture, while those who speak Chinese as their native language tend to lean toward Chinese culture and Confucianism. Malay-speaking Singaporeans tend to lean toward Malay culture, which itself is closely linked to Islamic culture.


title: Singaporeans

text: Singaporean cuisine has been largely influenced by different cultures because of its position as an international shipping port since its founding as a British port in 1819. The main influences on Singaporean cuisine came from Chinese, Malay and Indian cuisines, similar to the ethnic makeup of Singaporeans. It is believed that certain dishes that are part of Singaporean cuisine today predates the arrival of Raffles in 1819, some of these dishes include laksa, biryani and betel quid. However, it is unknown when these dishes arrived in Singapore, as historical records on them are largely scattered and inaccurate.


title: Singaporeans

text: A large part of Singaporean cuisine centers around the hawker culture in the country. Hawker stalls first began around mid 1800s and were largely made up of street food stalls selling a huge variety of foods and in 2020, the hawker culture in Singapore was listed by UNESCO as an Intangible Cultural Heritage. Due to the affordability and wide variety that a hawker centre provides, Singaporeans prefer to dine out rather than cook after work.


title: Singaporeans

text: Some well-known Singaporean dishes includes kaya toast, chilli crab, fish head curry, laksa and roti prata. The Hainanese chicken rice is also widely considered to be one of Singapore's national dish.


title: Singaporeans

text: Singapore's historical roots as a trading settlement gave rise to an influx of foreign traders, and their languages were slowly embedded in Singapore's modern day linguistic repertoire. With the influx of traders into Singapore, Bazaar Malay ("Melayu Pasar"), a creole of Malay and Chinese, emerged as the lingua franca of the island, which was the language of trade in the Malay Archipelago. However, under the British colonial government, English gained prestige as the language of administration, law and business in Singapore, and eventually displaced Bazar Malay as the bridging language among the population. As government administration increased, infrastructure and commerce developed, and access to education further catalysed the spread of English among Singaporeans.


title: Singaporeans

text: Today, Singapore has four official languages, English, Malay, Mandarin, and Tamil. Malay is the ceremonial national language of the country and is the home language to 13% of the population. Although most of the younger generation of non-Malay people are non-proficient in the Malay language, Malay is used in the national anthem of Singapore and also in citations for Singapore orders and decorations and military foot drill commands. Almost all Singaporeans are bilingual since Singapore's bilingual language education policy, with Singapore English as the "de facto" lingua franca spoken by Singaporeans today. It is officially the main language of instruction in all school subjects except for Mother Tongue lessons and is also the common language of administration, law and business. In 2009, more than 20 languages were identified as being spoken in Singapore, reflecting a rich linguistic diversity in the city.


title: Singaporeans

text: Singaporean literature consists of literary works that is written in either of the 4 official languages. Although these works may be considered as literature works to their specific languages, they are also viewed as a distinct body of literature portraying various aspects of Singapore society and forms a significant part of the culture of Singapore.


title: Singaporeans

text: Singaporean literature in English was first started by the Peranakan community in colonial Singapore during the 1830s. Singaporean English literature first gained notability in 1937, with a poetry known as "F.M.S.R. A Poem", written by Teo Poh Leng and was followed by Wang Gungwu's work, Pulse, in the 1950. By 1965 when Singapore became an independent nation, authors such as Edwin Thumboo, Arthur Yap, Robert Yeo, Goh Poh Seng, Lee Tzu Pheng, Chandran Nair and Kirpal Singh were mostly focusing on poetry, which makes up most published works of Singapore writing in English.


title: Singaporeans

text: Singaporean literature in Malay can be traced back to 1841. One of the earlier known works of Singaporean literature in Malay was written by Abdullah Bin Abdul Kadir, a Malay scribe, with his work "Cherita Kapal Asap". Some of the other earlier known Malay writers include Tuan Simi and Masuri S. N. Singaporean Malay literary works were similar to its Malaysian counterpart before the early 1970s. Many early pioneers of Singaporean literature in Malay relocated to Malaysia before Singapore became independent as they wanted to be part of the larger Malay community in Malaysia due to the common language in writing. By the 1970s, due to the difference in governance between Singapore and Malaysia, literary works in Malay between the 2 countries became more distinguishable, with Singapore literature in Malay revolving around the themes of freedom, authenticity, and criticality.


title: Singaporeans

text: Singapore is the world's most religiously diverse nation, with Singaporeans following various religious beliefs and practices due to the country's diverse ethnic and cultural mix. The Inter-Religious Organisation, Singapore (IRO) recognises 10 major religions being practiced in the city state. Dharmic religions have the highest number of adherents in Singapore, with 33% of the population practising Buddhism and 5% of the population practising Hinduism. Many Singaporeans are also adherents of Abrahamic religions, with 18.7% of the population identifying as Christian, and 14% identifying as Muslim.


title: Singaporeans

text: Other prominent faiths practised by Singaporeans include Taoism (10%), Chinese folk religion, and other Dharmic religions like Sikhism and Jainism. A small percentage of Singapore's population practices Zoroastrianism and Judaism. 18.5% not identifying with any religion and 0.9% of Singaporeans identify as atheist. In addition, practice of hybrid religions is also common such as the incorporation of Taoism and Hindu traditions into Buddhism and vice versa.


title: Cosmological argument

text: A cosmological argument, in natural theology, is an argument which claims that the existence of God can be inferred from facts concerning causation, explanation, change, motion, contingency, dependency, or finitude with respect to the universe or some totality of objects. A cosmological argument can also sometimes be referred to as an argument from universal causation, an argument from first cause, the causal argument, or prime mover argument. Whichever term is employed, there are two basic variants of the argument, each with subtle yet important distinctions: "in esse" (essentiality), and "in fieri" (becoming).


title: Cosmological argument

text: The basic premises of all of these arguments involve the concept of causation. The conclusion of these arguments is that there exists a first cause (for whichever group of things it is being argued has a cause), subsequently deemed to be God. The history of this argument goes back to Aristotle or earlier, was developed in Neoplatonism and early Christianity and later in medieval Islamic theology during the 9th to 12th centuries, and was re-introduced to medieval Christian theology in the 13th century by Thomas Aquinas. The cosmological argument is closely related to the principle of sufficient reason as addressed by Gottfried Leibniz and Samuel Clarke, itself a modern exposition of the claim that "nothing comes from nothing" attributed to Parmenides.


title: Cosmological argument

text: Contemporary defenders of cosmological arguments include William Lane Craig, Robert Koons, and Alexander Pruss.


title: Cosmological argument

text: Plato (c. 427–347 BC) and Aristotle (c. 384–322 BC) both posited first cause arguments, though each had certain notable caveats. In "The Laws" (Book X), Plato posited that all movement in the world and the Cosmos was "imparted motion". This required a "self-originated motion" to set it in motion and to maintain it. In "Timaeus", Plato posited a "demiurge" of supreme wisdom and intelligence as the creator of the Cosmos.


title: Cosmological argument

text: Aristotle argued "against" the idea of a first cause, often confused with the idea of a "prime mover" or "unmoved mover" ( or "primus motor") in his "Physics" and "Metaphysics". Aristotle argued in "favor" of the idea of several unmoved movers, one powering each celestial sphere, which he believed lived beyond the sphere of the fixed stars, and explained why motion in the universe (which he believed was eternal) had continued for an infinite period of time. Aristotle argued the atomist's assertion of a non-eternal universe would require a first uncaused cause – in his terminology, an efficient first cause – an idea he considered a nonsensical flaw in the reasoning of the atomists.


title: Cosmological argument

text: Like Plato, Aristotle believed in an eternal cosmos with no beginning and no end (which in turn follows Parmenides' famous statement that "nothing comes from nothing"). In what he called "first philosophy" or metaphysics, Aristotle "did" intend a theological correspondence between the prime mover and deity (presumably Zeus); functionally, however, he provided an explanation for the apparent motion of the "fixed stars" (now understood as the daily rotation of the Earth). According to his theses, immaterial unmoved movers are eternal unchangeable beings that constantly think about thinking, but being immaterial, they are incapable of interacting with the cosmos and have no knowledge of what transpires therein. From an "aspiration or desire", the celestial spheres, "imitate" that purely intellectual activity as best they can, by uniform circular motion. The unmoved movers "inspiring" the planetary spheres are no different in kind from the prime mover, they merely suffer a dependency of relation to the prime mover. Correspondingly, the motions of the planets are subordinate to the motion inspired by the prime mover in the sphere of fixed stars. Aristotle's natural theology admitted no creation or capriciousness from the immortal pantheon, but maintained a defense against dangerous charges of impiety.


title: Cosmological argument

text: Plotinus, a third-century Platonist, taught that the One transcendent absolute caused the universe to exist simply as a consequence of its existence ("creatio ex deo"). His disciple Proclus stated "The One is God".


title: Cosmological argument

text: Centuries later, the Islamic philosopher Avicenna (c. 980–1037) inquired into the question of being, in which he distinguished between essence ("māhiyya") and existence ("wuǧūd"). He argued that the fact of existence could not be inferred from or accounted for by the essence of existing things, and that form and matter by themselves could not originate and interact with the movement of the Universe or the progressive actualization of existing things. Thus, he reasoned that existence must be due to an agent cause that necessitates, imparts, gives, or adds existence to an essence. To do so, the cause must coexist with its effect and be an existing thing.


title: Cosmological argument

text: Steven Duncan writes that it "was first formulated by a Greek-speaking Syriac Christian neo-Platonist, John Philoponus, who claims to find a contradiction between the Greek pagan insistence on the eternity of the world and the Aristotelian rejection of the existence of any actual infinite". Referring to the argument as the "'Kalam' cosmological argument", Duncan asserts that it "received its fullest articulation at the hands of [medieval] Muslim and Jewish exponents of "Kalam" ("the use of reason by believers to justify the basic metaphysical presuppositions of the faith").


title: Cosmological argument

text: Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274) adapted and enhanced the argument he found in his reading of Aristotle, Avicenna (the Proof of the Truthful), and Maimonides to form one of the most influential versions of the cosmological argument. His conception of first cause was the idea that the Universe must be caused by something that is itself uncaused, which he claimed is that which we call God:


title: Cosmological argument

text: Importantly, Aquinas' Five Ways, given the second question of his Summa Theologica, are not the entirety of Aquinas' demonstration that the Christian God exists. The Five Ways form only the beginning of Aquinas' Treatise on the Divine Nature.


title: Cosmological argument

text: In the scholastic era, Aquinas formulated the "argument from contingency", following Aristotle in claiming that there must be something to explain why the Universe exists. Since the Universe could, under different circumstances, conceivably "not" exist (contingency), its existence must have a cause – not merely another contingent thing, but something that exists by necessity (something that "must" exist in order for anything else to exist). In other words, even if the Universe has always existed, it still owes its existence to an uncaused cause, Aquinas further said: "... and this we understand to be God."


title: Cosmological argument

text: Aquinas's argument from contingency allows for the possibility of a Universe that has no beginning in time. It is a form of argument from universal causation. Aquinas observed that, in nature, there were things with contingent existences. Since it is possible for such things not to exist, there must be some time at which these things did not in fact exist. Thus, according to Aquinas, there must have been a time when nothing existed. If this is so, there would exist nothing that could bring anything into existence. Contingent beings, therefore, are insufficient to account for the existence of contingent beings: there must exist a "necessary" being whose non-existence is an impossibility, and from which the existence of all contingent beings is ultimately derived.


title: Cosmological argument

text: The German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz made a similar argument with his principle of sufficient reason in 1714. "There can be found no fact that is true or existent, or any true proposition," he wrote, "without there being a sufficient reason for its being so and not otherwise, although we cannot know these reasons in most cases." He formulated the cosmological argument succinctly: "Why is there something rather than nothing? The sufficient reason ... is found in a substance which ... is a necessary being bearing the reason for its existence within itself."


title: Cosmological argument

text: Leibniz's argument from contingency is one of the most popular cosmological arguments in philosophy of religion. It attempts to prove the existence of a necessary being and infer that this being is God. Alexander Pruss formulates the argument as follows:


title: Cosmological argument

text: Premise 1 is a form of the principle of sufficient reason stating that all contingently true sentences (i.e. contingent facts) have a sufficient explanation as to why they are the case. Premise 2 refers to what is known as the Big Conjunctive Contingent Fact (abbreviated BCCF), and the BCCF is generally taken to be the logical conjunction of all contingent facts. It can be thought about as the sum total of all contingent reality. Premise 3 then concludes that the BCCF has an explanation, as every contingency does (in virtue of the PSR). It follows that this explanation is non-contingent (i.e. necessary); no contingency can explain the BCCF, because every contingent fact is a "part" of the BCCF. Statement 5, which is either seen as a premise or a conclusion, infers that the necessary being which explains the totality of contingent facts is God. Several philosophers of religion, such as Joshua Rasmussen and T. Ryan Byerly, have argued for the inference from (4) to (5).


title: Cosmological argument

text: The difference between the arguments from causation "in fieri" and "in esse" is a fairly important one. "In fieri" is generally translated as "becoming", while "in esse" is generally translated as "in essence". "In fieri", the process of becoming, is similar to building a house. Once it is built, the builder walks away, and it stands on its own accord; compare the watchmaker analogy. (It may require occasional maintenance, but that is beyond the scope of the first cause argument.)


title: Cosmological argument

text: "In esse" (essence) is more akin to the light from a candle or the liquid in a vessel. George Hayward Joyce, SJ, explained that, "where the light of the candle is dependent on the candle's continued existence, not only does a candle produce light in a room in the first instance, but its continued presence is necessary if the illumination is to continue. If it is removed, the light ceases. Again, a liquid receives its shape from the vessel in which it is contained; but were the pressure of the containing sides withdrawn, it would not retain its form for an instant." This form of the argument is far more difficult to separate from a purely first cause argument than is the example of the house's maintenance above, because here the first cause is insufficient without the candle's or vessel's continued existence.


title: Cosmological argument

text: The philosopher Robert Koons has stated a new variant on the cosmological argument. He says that to deny causation is to deny all empirical ideas – for example, if we know our own hand, we know it because of the chain of causes including light being reflected upon one's eyes, stimulating the retina and sending a message through the optic nerve into your brain. He summarised the purpose of the argument as "that if you don't buy into theistic metaphysics, you're undermining empirical science. The two grew up together historically and are culturally and philosophically inter-dependent ... If you say I just don't buy this causality principle – that's going to be a big big problem for empirical science." This "in fieri" version of the argument therefore does not intend to prove God, but only to disprove objections involving science, and the idea that contemporary knowledge disproves the cosmological argument.


title: Cosmological argument

text: William Lane Craig, who was responsible for re-popularizing this argument in Western philosophy, presents it in the following general form:


title: Cosmological argument

text: Craig explains, by nature of the event (the Universe coming into existence), attributes unique to (the concept of) God must also be attributed to the cause of this event, including but not limited to: enormous power (if not omnipotence), being the creator of the Heavens and the Earth (as God is according to the Christian understanding of God), being eternal and being absolutely self-sufficient. Since these attributes are unique to God, anything with these attributes must be God. Something does have these attributes: the cause; hence, the cause is God, the cause exists; hence, God exists.


title: Cosmological argument

text: Craig defends the second premise, that the Universe had a beginning starting with Al-Ghazali's proof that an actual infinity is impossible. However, If the universe never had a beginning then there "would" be an actual infinite, Craig claims, namely an infinite amount of cause and effect events. Hence, the Universe had a beginning.


title: Cosmological argument

text: Duns Scotus, the influential Medieval Christian theologian, created a metaphysical argument for the existence of God. Though it was inspired by Aquinas' argument from motion, he, like other philosophers and theologians, believed that his statement for God's existence could be considered separate to Aquinas'. His explanation for God's existence is long, and can be summarised as follows:


title: Cosmological argument

text: Scotus deals immediately with two objections he can see: first, that there cannot be a first, and second, that the argument falls apart when 1) is questioned. He states that infinite regress is impossible, because it provokes unanswerable questions, like, in modern English, "What is infinity minus infinity?" The second he states can be answered if the question is rephrased using modal logic, meaning that the first statement is instead "It is possible that something can be produced."


title: Cosmological argument

text: Depending on its formulation, the cosmological argument is an example of a "positive infinite regress argument". An "infinite regress" is an infinite series of entities governed by a recursive principle that determines how each entity in the series depends on or is produced by its predecessor. An "infinite regress argument" is an argument against a theory based on the fact that this theory leads to an infinite regress. A "positive infinite regress argument" employs the regress in question to argue in support of a theory by showing that its alternative involves a vicious regress. The regress relevant for the cosmological argument is the "regress of causes": an event occurred because it was caused by another event that occurred before it, which was itself caused by a previous event, and so on. For an infinite regress argument to be successful, it has to demonstrate not just that the theory in question entails an infinite regress but also that this regress is vicious. Once the viciousness of the regress of causes is established, the cosmological argument can proceed to its positive conclusion by holding that it is necessary to posit a first cause in order to avoid it.


title: Cosmological argument

text: A regress can be vicious due to "metaphysical impossibility", "implausibility" or "explanatory failure". It is sometimes held that the "regress of causes" is vicious because it is "metaphysically impossible", i.e. that it involves an outright contradiction. But it is difficult to see where this contradiction lies unless an additional assumption is accepted: that actual infinity is impossible. But this position is opposed to infinity in general, not just specifically to the "regress of causes". A more promising view is that the "regress of causes" is to be rejected because it is "implausible". Such an argument can be based on empirical observation, e.g. that, to the best of our knowledge, our universe had a beginning in the form of the Big Bang. But it can also be based on more abstract principles, like Ockham's razor (parsimony), which posits that we should avoid ontological extravagance by not multiplying entities without necessity. A third option is to see the "regress of causes" as vicious due to "explanatory failure", i.e. that it does not solve the problem it was formulated to solve or that it assumes already in disguised form what it was supposed to explain. According to this position, we seek to explain one event in the present by citing an earlier event that caused it. But this explanation is incomplete unless we can come to understand why this earlier event occurred, which is itself explained by its own cause and so on. At each step, the occurrence of an event has to be assumed. So it fails to explain why anything at all occurs, why there is a chain of causes to begin with.


title: Cosmological argument

text: One objection to the argument is that it leaves open the question of why the first cause is unique in that it does not require any causes. Proponents argue that the first cause is exempt from having a cause, while opponents argue that this is special pleading or otherwise untrue. Critics often press that arguing for the first cause's exemption raises the question of why the first cause is indeed exempt, whereas defenders maintain that this question has been answered by the various arguments, emphasizing that none of its major forms rest on the premise of everything having a cause.


title: Cosmological argument

text: William Lane Craig, who popularised and is notable for defending the Kalam cosmological argument, argues that the infinite is impossible, whichever perspective the viewer takes, and so there must always have been one unmoved thing to begin the universe. He uses Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel and the question "What is infinity minus infinity?" to illustrate the idea that the infinite is metaphysically, mathematically, and even conceptually impossible. Other reasons include the fact that it is impossible to count down from infinity, and that, had the universe existed for an infinite amount of time, every possible event, including the final end of the universe, would already have occurred. He therefore states his argument in three points: firstly, everything that begins to exist has a cause of its existence; secondly, the universe began to exist; so, thirdly, therefore, the universe has a cause of its existence. Craig argues in the Blackwell Companion to Natural Theology that there cannot be an infinite regress of causes and thus there must be a first uncaused cause, even if one posits a plurality of causes of the universe. He argues Occam's razor may be employed to remove unneeded further causes of the universe to leave a single uncaused cause.


title: Cosmological argument

text: Secondly, it is argued that the premise of causality has been arrived at via "a posteriori" (inductive) reasoning, which is dependent on experience. David Hume highlighted this problem of induction and argued that causal relations were not true "a priori". However, as to whether inductive or deductive reasoning is more valuable remains a matter of debate, with the general conclusion being that neither is prominent. Opponents of the argument tend to argue that it is unwise to draw conclusions from an extrapolation of causality beyond experience. Andrew Loke replies that, according to the Kalam cosmological argument, only things which begin to exist require a cause. On the other hand, something that is without beginning has always existed and therefore does not require a cause. The Kalam and the Thomistic cosmological argument posit that there cannot be an actual infinite regress of causes, therefore there must be an uncaused first cause that is beginningless and does not require a cause.


title: Cosmological argument

text: According to this objection, the basic cosmological argument merely establishes that a first cause exists, not that it has the attributes of a theistic god, such as omniscience, omnipotence, and omnibenevolence. This is why the argument is often expanded to assert that at least some of these attributes are necessarily true, for instance in the modern Kalam argument given above.


title: Cosmological argument

text: A causal loop is a form of predestination paradox arising where traveling backwards in time is deemed a possibility. A sufficiently powerful entity in such a world would have the capacity to travel backwards in time to a point before its own existence, and to then create itself, thereby initiating everything which follows from it.


title: Cosmological argument

text: The usual reason given to refute the possibility of a causal loop is that it requires that the loop as a whole be its own cause. Richard Hanley argues that causal loops are not logically, physically, or epistemically impossible: "[In timed systems,] the only possibly objectionable feature that all causal loops share is that coincidence is required to explain them." However, Andrew Loke argues that causal loop of the type that is supposed to avoid a first cause suffers from the problem of vicious circularity and thus it would not work.


title: Cosmological argument

text: David Hume and later Paul Edwards have invoked a similar principle in their criticisms of the cosmological argument. William L. Rowe has called this the Hume-Edwards principle:


title: Cosmological argument

text: Nevertheless, David White argues that the notion of an infinite causal regress providing a proper explanation is fallacious. Furthermore, in Hume's "Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion", the character Demea states that even if the succession of causes is infinite, the whole chain still requires a cause. To explain this, suppose there exists a causal chain of infinite contingent beings. If one asks the question, "Why are there any contingent beings at all?", it does not help to be told that "There are contingent beings because other contingent beings caused them." That answer would just presuppose additional contingent beings. An adequate explanation of why some contingent beings exist would invoke a different sort of being, a necessary being that is "not" contingent. A response might suppose each individual is contingent but the infinite chain as a whole is not, or the whole infinite causal chain is its own cause.


title: Cosmological argument

text: Severinsen argues that there is an "infinite" and complex causal structure. White tried to introduce an argument "without appeal to the principle of sufficient reason and without denying the possibility of an infinite causal regress". A number of other arguments have been offered to demonstrate that an actual infinite regress cannot exist, viz. the argument for the impossibility of concrete actual infinities, the argument for the impossibility of traversing an actual infinite, the argument from the lack of capacity to begin to exist, and various arguments from paradoxes.


title: Cosmological argument

text: Some cosmologists and physicists argue that a challenge to the cosmological argument is the nature of time: "One finds that time just disappears from the Wheeler–DeWitt equation" (Carlo Rovelli). The Big Bang theory states that it is the point in which all dimensions came into existence, the start of both space and time. Then, the question "What was there before the Universe?" makes no sense; the concept of "before" becomes meaningless when considering a situation without time. This has been put forward by J. Richard Gott III, James E. Gunn, David N. Schramm, and Beatrice Tinsley, who said that asking what occurred before the Big Bang is like asking what is north of the North Pole. However, some cosmologists and physicists do attempt to investigate causes for the Big Bang, using such scenarios as the collision of membranes.


title: Cosmological argument

text: Philosopher Edward Feser argues that most of the classical philosophers' cosmological arguments for the existence of God do not depend on the Big Bang or whether the universe had a beginning. The question is not about what got things started or how long they have been going, but rather what keeps them going.


title: Personality type

text: In psychology, personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of individuals. Personality types are sometimes distinguished from personality traits, with the latter embodying a smaller grouping of behavioral tendencies. Types are sometimes said to involve "qualitative" differences between people, whereas traits might be construed as "quantitative" differences. According to type theories, for example, introverts and extraverts are two fundamentally different categories of people. According to trait theories, introversion and extraversion are part of a continuous dimension, with many people in the middle. In contrast to personality traits, the existence of personality types remains extremely controversial.


title: Personality type

text: Effective personality typologies reveal and increase knowledge and understanding of individuals, as opposed to diminishing knowledge and understanding as occurs in the case of stereotyping. Effective typologies also allow for increased ability to predict clinically relevant information about people and to develop effective treatment strategies.


title: Personality type

text: There is an extensive literature on the topic of classifying the various types of human temperament and an equally extensive literature on personality traits or domains. These classification systems attempt to describe normal temperament and personality and emphasize the predominant features of different temperament and personality types; they are largely the province of the discipline of psychology. Personality disorders, on the other hand, reflect the work of psychiatry, a medical specialty, and are disease-oriented. They are classified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), a product of the American Psychiatric Association.


title: Personality type

text: The term "type" has not been used consistently in psychology and has become the source of some confusion. Furthermore, because personality test scores usually fall on a bell curve rather than in distinct categories, personality type theories have received considerable criticism among psychometric researchers. One study that directly compared a "type" instrument (the MBTI) to a "trait" instrument (the NEO PI) found that the trait measure was a better predictor of personality disorders. Because of these problems, personality type theories have fallen out of favor in psychology. Most researchers now believe that it is impossible to explain the diversity of human personality with a small number of discrete types. They recommend trait models instead, such as the five-factor model.


title: Personality type

text: One of the more influential ideas originated in the theoretical work of Carl Jung as published in the book "Psychological Types". The original German language edition, "Psychologische Typen", was first published by Rascher Verlag, Zurich, in 1921. Typologies such as Socionics, the MBTI assessment, and the Keirsey Temperament Sorter have roots in Jungian theory.


title: Personality type

text: Jung's interest in typology grew from his desire to reconcile the theories of Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler, and to define how his own perspective differed from theirs. Jung wrote, "In attempting to answer this question, I came across the problem of types; for it is one's psychological type which from the outset determines and limits a person's judgment." (Jung, [1961] 1989:207) He concluded that Freud's theory was extraverted and Adler's introverted. (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 91) Jung became convinced that acrimony between the Adlerian and Freudian camps was due to this unrecognized existence of different fundamental psychological attitudes, which led Jung "to conceive the two controversial theories of neurosis as manifestations of a type-antagonism." (Jung, 1966: par. 64)


title: Personality type

text: Jung went on to suggest that these functions are expressed in either an introverted or extraverted form.


title: Personality type

text: According to Jung, the psyche is an apparatus for adaptation and orientation, and consists of a number of different psychic functions. Among these he distinguishes four basic functions:


title: Personality type

text: Thinking and feeling functions are rational, while sensation and intuition are nonrational. According to Jung, rationality consists of figurative thoughts, feelings or actions with reason — a point of view based on a set of criteria and standards. Nonrationality is not based in reason. Jung notes that elementary facts are also nonrational, not because they are illogical but because, as thoughts, they are not judgments.


title: Personality type

text: Extraversion means "outward-turning" and introversion means "inward-turning". These specific definitions vary somewhat from the popular usage of the words.


title: Personality type

text: The preferences for extraversion and introversion are often called "attitudes". Each of the cognitive functions can operate in the external world of behavior, action, people, and things ("extraverted attitude") or the internal world of ideas and reflection ("introverted attitude"). People who prefer extraversion draw their energy toward objective, external data. They seek to experience and base their judgments on data from the outer world. Conversely, those who prefer introversion draw their energy toward subjective, internal data. They seek to experience and base their judgments on data from the inner world.


title: Personality type

text: The attitude type could be thought of as the flow of libido (psychic energy). The functions are modified by two main attitude types: extraversion and introversion. In any person, the degree of introversion or extraversion of one function can be quite different from that of another function.