title: Mechanized infantry

text: The New Zealand Army ultimately fielded a division of a roughly similar composition to a Soviet mechanized corps, which fought in the Italian Campaign, but it had little scope for mobile operations until near the end of the war.


title: Mechanized infantry

text: The Romanian Army fielded a mixed assortment of vehicles. These amounted to 126 French-designed Renault UE Chenillettes which were licence-built locally, 34 captured and refurbished Soviet armored tractors, 27 German-made armored half-tracks of the Sd.Kfz. 250 and Sd.Kfz. 251 types, over 200 Czechoslovak Tatra, Praga and Skoda trucks (the Tatra trucks were a model which was specifically built for the Romanian Army) as well as 300 German Horch 901 4x4 field cars. Sd.Kfz. 8 and Sd.Kfz. 9 half-tracks were also acquired, as well as nine vehicles of the Sd.Kfz. 10 type and 100 RSO/01 fully tracked tractors. The Romanians also produced five prototypes of an indigenous artillery tractor.


title: Mechanized infantry

text: In the postwar era, the early years of the Cold War, the Soviet Army and NATO further developed the equipment and doctrine for mechanized infantry. With the exception of airborne formations, the Red Army mechanized all its infantry formations. Initially, wheeled APCs, like the BTR-152, were used, some of which lacked overhead protection and were therefore vulnerable to artillery fire. It still gave the Soviet Army greater strategic flexibility because of the large land area and the long borders of the Soviet Union and its allies in the Warsaw Pact.


title: Mechanized infantry

text: The US Army established the basic configuration of the tracked APC with the M75 and M59 before it adopted the lighter M113, which could be carried by Lockheed C-130 Hercules and other transport aircraft. The vehicle gave infantry the same mobility as tanks but with much less effective armor protection (it still had nuclear, biological, and chemical protection).


title: Mechanized infantry

text: In the Vietnam War, the M113 was often fitted with extra armament and used as an "ad hoc" infantry fighting vehicle. Early operations by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam using the vehicle showed that troops were far more effective while they were mounted in the vehicles than when they dismounted. American doctrine subsequently emphasized mounted tactics. The Americans ultimately deployed a mechanized brigade and ten mechanized battalions to Vietnam.


title: Mechanized infantry

text: Even more important for future developments was the Soviet BMP-1, which was the first true IFV. Its introduction prompted the development of similar vehicles in Western armies, such as the West German Marder and American M2 Bradley. Unlike the APC, which was intended merely to transport the infantry from place to place under armor, the IFV possessed heavy firepower that could support the infantry in attack or defense. Many IFVs were also equipped with firing ports from which their infantry could fire their weapons from inside, but they were generally not successful and have been dropped from modern IFVs.


title: Mechanized infantry

text: Soviet organization led to different tactics between the "light" and the "heavy" varieties of mechanized infantry. In the Soviet Army, a first-line "motor rifle" division from the 1970s onward usually had two regiments equipped with wheeled BTR-60 APCs and one with the tracked BMP-1 IFV. The "light" regiments were intended to make dismounted attacks on the division's flanks, while the BMP-equipped "heavy" regiment remained mounted and supported the division's tank regiment on the main axis of advance. Both types of infantry regiment still were officially titled "motor rifle" units.


title: Mechanized infantry

text: A line of development in the Soviet Armed Forces from the 1980s was the provision of specialized IFVs for use by the Russian Airborne Troops. The first of them was the BMD-1, which had the same firepower as the BMP-1 but could be carried in or even parachuted from the standard Soviet transport aircraft. That made airborne formations into mechanized infantry at the cost of reducing their "bayonet" strength, as the BMD could carry only three or at most four paratroopers in addition to its three-man crew. They were used in that role in the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979.


title: Mechanized infantry

text: At present, almost all infantry units from industrialized nations are provided with some type of motor transport. Infantry units equipped with IFVs rather than lighter vehicles are commonly designated as "heavy", indicating more combat power but also more costly long-range transportation requirements. In Operation Desert Shield, during the buildup phase of the First Gulf War, the U.S. Army was concerned about the lack of mobility, protection and firepower offered by existing rapid deployment (i.e., airborne) formations; and also about the slowness of deploying regular armored units. The experience led the U.S. Army to form combat brigades based on the Stryker wheeled IFV.


title: Mechanized infantry

text: In the British Army, "heavy" units equipped with the Warrior IFV are described as "armoured infantry", and units with the Bulldog APC as "mechanised infantry". This convention is becoming widespread; for example the French Army has ""motorisées"" units equipped with the wheeled VAB and ""mécanisées"" (armoured) units with the tracked AMX-10P.


title: Mechanized infantry

text: The transport and other logistic requirements have led many armies to adopt wheeled APCs when their existing stocks of tracked APCs require replacement. An example is the Canadian Army, which has used the LAV III wheeled IFV in fighting in Afghanistan. The Italian, Spanish and Swedish armies are adopting (and exporting) new indigenous-produced tracked IFVs. The Swedish CV90 IFV in particular has been adopted by several armies.


title: Mechanized infantry

text: A recent trend seen in the Israel Defense Forces and the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation is the development and introduction of exceptionally well-armored APCs (HAPC), such as the IDF Achzarit, that are converted from obsolete main battle tanks (such as the Soviet T-55). Such vehicles are usually expedients, and lack of space prevents the armament of an IFV being carried in addition to an infantry section or squad. In the Russian Army, such vehicles were introduced for fighting in urban areas, where the risk from short range infantry anti-tank weapons, such as the RPG-7, is highest, after Russian tank and motor infantry units suffered heavy losses fighting Chechen troops in Grozny during the First Chechen War in 1995.


title: Mechanized infantry

text: Many APCs and IFVs currently under development are intended for rapid deployment by aircraft. New technologies that promise reduction in weight, such as electric drive, may be incorporated. However, facing a similar threat in post-invasion Iraq to that which prompted the Russians to convert tanks to APCs, the occupying armies have found it necessary to apply extra armor to existing APCs and IFVs, which adds to the overall size and weight. Some of the latest designs (such as the German Puma) are intended to allow a light, basic model vehicle, which is air-transportable, to be fitted in the field with additional protection, thereby ensuring both strategic flexibility and survivability.


title: Mechanized infantry

text: It is generally accepted that single weapons system types are much less effective without the support of the full combined arms team; the pre-World War II notion of "tank fleets" has proven to be as unsound as the World War I idea of unsupported infantry attacks. Though many nations' armored formations included an organic mechanized infantry component at the start of World War II, the proportion of mechanized infantry in such combined arms formations was increased by most armies as the war progressed.


title: Mechanized infantry

text: The lesson was re-learned, first by the Pakistani Army in the 1965 War with India, where the nation fielded two different types of armored divisions: one which was almost exclusively armor (the 1st), while another was more balanced (the 6th). The latter division showed itself to be far more combat capable than the former.


title: Mechanized infantry

text: Having achieved spectacular successes in the offensive with tank-heavy formations during the Six-Day War, the Israel Defense Forces found in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 that a doctrine that relied primarily on tanks and aircraft had proven inadequate. As a makeshift remedy, paratroopers were provided with motorized transport and used as mechanized infantry in coordination with the armor.


title: Anne Lamott

text: She is also a progressive political activist, public speaker, and writing teacher. Lamott is based in Marin County, California. Her nonfiction works are largely autobiographical. Lamott's writings, marked by their self-deprecating humor and openness, cover such subjects as alcoholism, single-motherhood, depression, and Christianity.


title: Anne Lamott

text: Lamott was born in San Francisco, and is a graduate of Drew School. She was a student at Goucher College for two years where she wrote for the newspaper. Her father, Kenneth Lamott, was also a writer. Her first published novel "Hard Laughter" was written for him after his diagnosis of brain cancer. She has one son, Sam, who was born in August 1989 and a grandson, Jax, born in July 2009.


title: Anne Lamott

text: Lamott's life was documented in Freida Lee Mock's 1999 documentary "Bird by Bird with Annie: A Film Portrait of Writer Anne Lamott". Because of the documentary and her following on Facebook and other online networks, she is often called the "People's Author".


title: Anne Lamott

text: Lamott has described why she writes: I try to write the books I would love to come upon, that are honest, concerned with real lives, human hearts, spiritual transformation, families, secrets, wonder, craziness—and that can make me laugh. When I am reading a book like this, I feel rich and profoundly relieved to be in the presence of someone who will share the truth with me, and throw the lights on a little, and I try to write these kinds of books. Books, for me, are medicine.


title: Anne Lamott

text: Lamott was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1985. She was inducted into the California Hall of Fame in 2010.


title: Anne Lamott

text: On April 13, 2019, when Lamott was 65, she wed for the first time. She married Neal Allen, 63, a former vice president for marketing at the McKesson Corporation in San Francisco. The couple had met in August 2016. He was a twice-divorced father of four, who had left his job at McKesson to devote himself to writing.


title: Kathleen Freeman

text: Kathleen Freeman (February 17, 1923August 23, 2001) was an American actress. In a career that spanned more than 50 years, she portrayed acerbic maids, secretaries, teachers, busybodies, nurses, and battle-axe neighbors and relatives, almost invariably to comic effect. In film, she is perhaps best remembered for appearing in 11 Jerry Lewis comedies in the 1950s and 1960s, "The Blues Brothers" (1980) and its sequel, and "" (1994).


title: Kathleen Freeman

text: Freeman was born on February 17, 1923, in Chicago, Illinois. She began her career as a child, dancing in her parents' vaudeville act. Freeman was a Democrat who supported Adlai Stevenson during the 1952 presidential election.


title: Kathleen Freeman

text: Freeman made her film debut in "Wild Harvest" (1947). For a short time in the early 1950s, Freeman was a Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer contract player, appearing mostly in small and uncredited bit parts. Her most notable early role was an uncredited part in the 1952 MGM musical "Singin' in the Rain" as Jean Hagen's diction coach Phoebe Dinsmore.


title: Kathleen Freeman

text: Beginning with the 1954 film "3 Ring Circus", Freeman became a favorite foil of Jerry Lewis, playing opposite him in 11 films. These included most of Lewis's better-known comedies, including "The Disorderly Orderly" as Nurse Higgins, "The Errand Boy" as the studio boss's wife, and "The Nutty Professor" as Millie Lemon. Over 30 years later, she made a brief appearance in "".


title: Kathleen Freeman

text: Her other film roles included appearances in "The Missouri Traveler" (1958), the horror film "The Fly" (1958), the Western spoofs "Support Your Local Sheriff!" (1969) and "Support Your Local Gunfighter" (1971), and appearances in a spate of comedies in the 1980s and 1990s. Freeman played Sister Mary Stigmata (referred to as the Penguin) in John Landis' "The Blues Brothers" (1980) and "Blues Brothers 2000", had cameos in Joe Dante's "Innerspace" and "" (as tipsy cooking host Microwave Marge), as a foul-mouthed apartment building manager in "Dragnet", and a gangster mother in "Naked Gun : The Final Insult".


title: Kathleen Freeman

text: In addition to teaching acting classes in Los Angeles, Freeman was a familiar presence on television. In 1958–59, she appeared three times on "Buckskin", a children's program set in a hotel in a fictitious Montana town. She appeared from the 1950s until her death in regular or recurring roles on many sitcoms, including six episodes of "The Bob Cummings Show" (as Bertha Krause), "Topper" (as Katie the maid), and "The Donna Reed Show" (as Mrs. Celia Wilgus, the Stones' busybody next door neighbor). In 1964, she appeared in five episodes of "The Lucy Show". Later, she was cast on "Hogan's Heroes" as Frau Gertrude Linkmeyer, General Burkhalter's sister, who longed to wed Colonel Klink. In 1973, she had a co-starring role with Dom DeLuise in the sitcom "Lotsa Luck" (based on the British sitcom "On the Buses").


title: Kathleen Freeman

text: She appeared in several episodes of "Wagon Train", "Funny Face" (as Mrs. Kate Harwell), "I Dream of Jeannie" (as a grouchy supervisor in a fantasy preview of Major Nelson's future, and later as a hillbilly), the short-lived prehistoric sitcom "It's About Time" (as Mrs. Boss), and as the voice of Peg Bundy's mom, an unseen character on "Married... with Children". She played a female arm wrestler on "Mama's Family". She appeared as a nurse in the television series "Love American Style".


title: Kathleen Freeman

text: Freeman played Sgt Carter's mother in a 1969 episode of "Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C.", as well as appearing as a different character in a 1968 episode of the same series. She also starred with Phil Silvers in "The Beverly Hillbillies" in episodes 25 and 26 of season eight and episodes two and three in season nine. She also made a first season appearance playing the wife of a couple who take the Clampetts to court, falsely accusing them of reckless driving and causing injuries to the couple (Season 1, Episode 32).


title: Kathleen Freeman

text: She remained active in her last two years with a regular voice role on "As Told by Ginger", a voice bit in the animated feature film "Shrek", and a guest appearance on the sitcom "Becker." She received a Tony Award nomination and a Theatre World Award for her role as Jeannette Burmeister in the musical version of "The Full Monty". In her final episode of "As Told by Ginger", season two's "No Hope for Courtney", Freeman's character retires from her teaching job, although Carl and Hoodsey try convincing her to return to work. The script originally was written to have Mrs. Gordon return to Lucky Elementary School, but Freeman died before the episode was finished. The script was then rewritten, and Mrs. Gordon died, as well. The episode was dedicated in Freeman's memory. The dedication came at the end of the episode after the announcement that Elaine Gordon had died and Carl was crying. The screen faded to black and a title card said "In Memory of Kathleen Freeman".


title: Kathleen Freeman

text: Weakened by illness, Freeman was forced to leave the "Full Monty" cast. Five days later, she died of lung cancer at age 78 at Lenox Hill Hospital. She was cremated and her ashes interred in a niche at Hollywood Forever Cemetery. She never married and she had no children. British reports of her death mentioned her long-time companion Helen Ramsey, but American obituaries did not.


title: Bravais lattice

text: In geometry and crystallography, a Bravais lattice, named after , is an infinite array of discrete points generated by a set of discrete translation operations described in three dimensional space by


title: Bravais lattice

text: where the "n" are any integers, and a are "primitive translation vectors", or "primitive vectors", which lie in different directions (not necessarily mutually perpendicular) and span the lattice. The choice of primitive vectors for a given Bravais lattice is not unique. A fundamental aspect of any Bravais lattice is that, for any choice of direction, the lattice appears exactly the same from each of the discrete lattice points when looking in that chosen direction.


title: Bravais lattice

text: The Bravais lattice concept is used to formally define a "crystalline arrangement" and its (finite) frontiers. A crystal is made up of one or more atoms, called the "basis" or "motif", at each lattice point. The "basis" may consist of atoms, molecules, or polymer strings of solid matter, and the lattice provides the locations of the basis.


title: Bravais lattice

text: Two Bravais lattices are often considered equivalent if they have isomorphic symmetry groups. In this sense, there are 5 possible Bravais lattices in 2-dimensional space and 14 possible Bravais lattices in 3-dimensional space. The 14 possible symmetry groups of Bravais lattices are 14 of the 230 space groups. In the context of the space group classification, the Bravais lattices are also called Bravais classes, Bravais arithmetic classes, or Bravais flocks.


title: Bravais lattice

text: In crystallography, there is the concept of a unit cell which comprises the space between adjacent lattice points as well as any atoms in that space. A unit cell is defined as a space that, when translated through a subset of all vectors described by formula_2, fills the lattice space without overlapping or voids. (I.e., a lattice space is a multiple of a unit cell.) There are mainly two types of unit cells: primitive unit cells and conventional unit cells. A primitive cell is the very smallest component of a lattice (or crystal) which, when stacked together with lattice translation operations, reproduces the whole lattice (or crystal). Note that the translations must be lattice translation operations that cause the lattice to appear unchanged after the translation. If arbitrary translations were allowed, one could make a primitive cell half the size of the true one, and translate twice as often, as an example. Another way of defining the size of a primitive cell that avoids invoking lattice translation operations, is to say that the primitive cell is the smallest possible component of a lattice (or crystal) that can be repeated to reproduce the whole lattice (or crystal), "and" that contains exactly one lattice point. In either definition, the primitive cell is characterized by its small size. There are clearly many choices of cell that can reproduce the whole lattice when stacked (two lattice halves, for instance), and the minimum size requirement distinguishes the primitive cell from all these other valid repeating units. If the lattice or crystal is 2-dimensional, the primitive cell has a minimum area; likewise in 3 dimensions the primitive cell has a minimum volume. Despite this rigid minimum-size requirement, there is not one unique choice of primitive unit cell. In fact, all cells whose borders are primitive translation vectors will be primitive unit cells. The fact that there is not a unique choice of primitive translation vectors for a given lattice leads to the multiplicity of possible primitive unit cells. Conventional unit cells, on the other hand, are not necessarily minimum-size cells. They are chosen purely for convenience and are often used for illustration purposes. They are loosely defined.


title: Bravais lattice

text: Primitive unit cells are defined as unit cells with the smallest volume for a given crystal. (A crystal is a lattice and a basis at every lattice point.) To have the smallest cell volume, a primitive unit cell must contain (1) only one lattice point and (2) the minimum amount of basis constituents (e.g., the minimum number of atoms in a basis). For the former requirement, counting the number of lattice points in a unit cell is such that, if a lattice point is shared by "m" adjacent unit cells around that lattice point, then the point is counted as 1/"m". The latter requirement is necessary since there are crystals that can be described by more than one combination of a lattice and a basis. For example, a crystal, viewed as a lattice with a single kind of atom located at every lattice point (the simplest basis form), may also be viewed as a lattice with a basis of two atoms. In this case, a primitive unit cell is a unit cell having only one lattice point in the first way of describing the crystal in order to ensure the smallest unit cell volume.


title: Bravais lattice

text: There can be more than one way to choose a primitive cell for a given crystal and each choice will have a different primitive cell shape, but the primitive cell volume is the same for every choice and each choice will have the property that a one-to-one correspondence can be established between primitive unit cells and discrete lattice points over the associated lattice. All primitive unit cells with different shapes for a given crystal have the same volume by definition; For a given crystal, if "n" is the density of lattice points in a lattice ensuring the minimum amount of basis constituents and "v" is the volume of a chosen primitive cell, then "nv" = 1 resulting in "v" = 1/"n", so every primitive cell has the same volume of 1/"n".


title: Bravais lattice

text: Among all possible primitive cells for a given crystal, an obvious primitive cell may be the parallelepiped formed by a chosen set of primitive translation vectors. (Again, these vectors must make a lattice with the minimum amount of basis constituents.) That is, the set of all points formula_3 where formula_4 and formula_5 is the chosen primitive vector. This primitive cell does not always show the clear symmetry of a given crystal. In this case, a conventional unit cell easily displaying the crystal symmetry is often used. The conventional unit cell volume will be an integer-multiple of the primitive unit cell volume.


title: Bravais lattice

text: Any lattice can be specified by the length of its two primitive translation vectors and the angle between them. There are an infinite number of possible lattices one can describe in this way. Some way to categorize different types of lattices is desired. One way to do so is to recognize that some lattices have inherent symmetry. One can impose conditions on the length of the primitive translation vectors and on the angle between them to produce various symmetric lattices. These symmetries themselves are categorized into different types, such as point groups (which includes mirror symmetries, inversion symmetries and rotation symmetries) and translational symmetries. Thus, lattices can be categorized based on what point group or translational symmetry applies to them.


title: Bravais lattice

text: In two dimensions, the most basic point group corresponds to rotational invariance under 2π and π, or 1- and 2-fold rotational symmetry. This actually applies automatically to all 2D lattices, and is the most general point group. Lattices contained in this group (technically all lattices, but conventionally all lattices that don't fall into any of the other point groups) are called oblique lattices. From there, there are 4 further combinations of point groups with translational elements (or equivalently, 4 types of restriction on the lengths/angles of the primitive translation vectors) that correspond to the 4 remaining lattice categories: square, hexagonal, rectangular, and centered rectangular. Thus altogether there are 5 Bravais lattices in 2 dimensions.


title: Bravais lattice

text: Likewise, in 3 dimensions, there are 14 Bravais lattices: 1 general "wastebasket" category (triclinic) and 13 more categories. These 14 lattice types are classified by their point groups into 7 lattice systems (triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, cubic, trigonal, and hexagonal).


title: Bravais lattice

text: In two-dimensional space there are 5 Bravais lattices, grouped into four lattice systems, shown in the table below. Below each diagram is the Pearson symbol for that Bravais lattice.


title: Bravais lattice

text: Note: In the unit cell diagrams in the following table the lattice points are depicted using black circles and the unit cells are depicted using parallelograms (which may be squares or rectangles) outlined in black. Although each of the four corners of each parallelogram connects to a lattice point, only one of the four lattice points technically belongs to a given unit cell and each of the other three lattice points belongs to one of the adjacent unit cells. This can be seen by imagining moving the unit cell parallelogram slightly left and slightly down while leaving all the black circles of the lattice points fixed.


title: Bravais lattice

text: The unit cells are specified according to the relative lengths of the cell edges ("a" and "b") and the angle between them ("θ"). The area of the unit cell can be calculated by evaluating the norm , where a and b are the lattice vectors. The properties of the lattice systems are given below:


title: Bravais lattice

text: In three-dimensional space there are 14 Bravais lattices. These are obtained by combining one of the seven lattice systems with one of the centering types. The centering types identify the locations of the lattice points in the unit cell as follows:


title: Bravais lattice

text: Not all combinations of lattice systems and centering types are needed to describe all of the possible lattices, as it can be shown that several of these are in fact equivalent to each other. For example, the monoclinic I lattice can be described by a monoclinic C lattice by different choice of crystal axes. Similarly, all A- or B-centred lattices can be described either by a C- or P-centering. This reduces the number of combinations to 14 conventional Bravais lattices, shown in the table below. Below each diagram is the Pearson symbol for that Bravais lattice.


title: Bravais lattice

text: Note: In the unit cell diagrams in the following table all the lattice points on the cell boundary (corners and faces) are shown; however, not all of these lattice points technically belong to the given unit cell. This can be seen by imagining moving the unit cell slightly in the negative direction of each axis while keeping the lattice points fixed. Roughly speaking, this can be thought of as moving the unit cell slightly left, slightly down, and slightly out of the screen. This shows that only one of the eight corner lattice points (specifically the front, left, bottom one) belongs to the given unit cell (the other seven lattice points belong to adjacent unit cells). In addition, only one of the two lattice points shown on the top and bottom face in the "Base-centered" column belongs to the given unit cell. Finally, only three of the six lattice points on the faces in the "Face-centered" column belongs to the given unit cell.


title: Bravais lattice

text: The unit cells are specified according to six lattice parameters which are the relative lengths of the cell edges ("a", "b", "c") and the angles between them ("α", "β", "γ"). The volume of the unit cell can be calculated by evaluating the triple product , where a, b, and c are the lattice vectors. The properties of the lattice systems are given below:


title: Bravais lattice

text: In four dimensions, there are 64 Bravais lattices. Of these, 23 are primitive and 41 are centered. Ten Bravais lattices split into enantiomorphic pairs.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: Rothenburg ob der Tauber () is a town in the district of Ansbach of Mittelfranken (Middle Franconia), the Franconia region of Bavaria, Germany. It is well known for its well-preserved medieval old town, a destination for tourists from around the world. It is part of the popular Romantic Road through southern Germany. Today it is one of only three towns in Germany that still have completely intact city walls, the other two being Nördlingen and Dinkelsbühl, also both in Bavaria.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: Rothenburg was a free imperial city from the late Middle Ages to 1803. In 1884 Johann Friedrich (von) Hessing (1838–1918) built "Wildbad Rothenburg o.d.T." 1884–1903.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: The name "Rothenburg ob der Tauber" is German for "Red castle above the Tauber". This is so because the town is located on a plateau overlooking the Tauber River. As to the name "Rothenburg", some say it comes from the German words "rot" (red) and "burg" (burgh, medieval fortified settlement), referring to the red color of the roofs of the houses which overlook the river. The name may also refer to the process of retting (""rotten"" in German) flax for linen production.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: In 1070, the counts of Comburg-Rothenburg, who also owned the village of Gebsattel, built Rothenburg castle on the mountain top high above the River Tauber.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: The counts of the Comburg-Rothenburg dynasty died out in 1116. The last count, Count Heinrich, Emperor Heinrich V appointed instead his nephew Konrad von Hohenstaufen as the successor to the Comburg-Rothenburg properties.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: In 1142, Konrad von Hohenstaufen, who became Konrad III (1138–52), the self-styled King of the Romans, traded a part of the monastery of Neumünster in Würzburg above the village Detwang and built the Stauffer-Castle Rothenburg on this cheaper land. He held court there and appointed officials to act as caretakers.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: In 1170, the city of Rothenburg was founded at the time of the building of Staufer Castle. The center was the marketplace and St. James' Church (in German: the "St. Jakob"). The development of the oldest fortification can be seen, the old cellar/old moat and the milk market. Walls and towers were built in the 13th century. Preserved are the “White Tower” and the Markus Tower with the Röder Arch.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: From 1194 to 1254, the representatives of the Staufer dynasty governed the area around Rothenburg. Around this time, the Order of St. John and other orders were founded near St. James' Church and a Dominican nunnery (1258).


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: From 1241 to 1242, the Staufer Imperial tax statistics recorded the names of the Jews in Rothenburg. Rabbi Meir Ben Baruch of Rothenburg (died 1293, buried 1307 in Worms) had a great reputation as a jurist in Europe.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: In 1274, Rothenburg was accorded privileges by King Rudolf of Habsburg as a free imperial city. Three famous fairs were established in the city and in the following centuries, the city expanded. The citizens of the city and the Knights of the Hinterland build the Franziskaner (Franciscan) Monastery and the Holy Ghost Hospital (1376/78 incorporated into the city walls). The German Order began the building of St. James' Church, which the citizens have used since 1336. The "Heilig Blut" (Holy Blood) pilgrimage attracted many pilgrims to Rothenburg, at the time one of the 20 largest cities of the Holy Roman Empire. The population was around 5,500 people within the city walls and another 14,000 in the of the surrounding territory.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: The Staufer Castle was destroyed by an earthquake in 1356, the St. Blaise chapel is the last remnant today.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: In October 1631, during the Thirty Years' War, the Catholic Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly, wanted to quarter his 40,000 troops in Protestant Lutheran Rothenburg. Rather than allow entrance, the town defended itself and intended to withstand a siege. However, Tilly's troops quickly defeated Rothenburg, losing only 300 soldiers. A popular legend called the "Meistertrunk" states that when General Tilly condemned the councilmen to death and was set to burn the city down, the councilmen tried to sway him with a large drink of 3 1/4 liters wine. Tilly proclaimed that if anyone could drink it all in one drink, he would spare the city. The mayor at the time, Georg Nusch, succeeded, and General Tilly kept his word. However, the story is almost certainly apocryphal. It does not appear in the chronicle of Sebastian Dehner, written about fifteen years after the facts, the earliest account. The "Meistertrunk" appears for the first time in the chronicle of Georg Heinrich Schaffert, more than a century later.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: After the winter, they left the town poor and nearly empty, and in 1634 a bubonic plague outbreak killed many more townsfolk. Without any money or power, Rothenburg stopped growing, thus preserving its 17th-century state.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: Since 1803, the town has been a part of Bavaria. The famous German landscape painter Eugen Bracht visited Rothenburg in 1877; although he stayed only two days, he was clearly impressed. Some years later, especially artists of Romanticism, such as Hans Thoma and Carl Spitzweg, visited Rothenburg, too, followed by the first tourists. Laws were created to prevent major changes to the town. In 1884 Friedrich Hessing built up till 1903 the "Hessingsche Wildbad".


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: Rothenburg held a special significance for Nazi ideologists. For them, it was the epitome of the German 'Home Town', representing all that was quintessentially German. Throughout the 1930s, the Nazi organization KDF ("Kraft durch Freude") "Strength through Joy" organized regular day trips to Rothenburg from all across the Reich. This initiative was staunchly supported by Rothenburg's citizenry – many of whom were sympathetic to National Socialism – both for its perceived economic benefits and because Rothenburg was hailed as "the most German of German towns". In October 1938, Rothenburg expelled its Jewish citizens, much to the approval of Nazis and their supporters across Germany.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: The creation of an ideal Nazi community reminded the peoples of Germany of the way the Nazis wanted them to live as a family and as a community; Rothenburg simply exemplified this Nazi ideology as idealized family life. Additionally, other German towns followed the 'example' set by Rothenburg for the Nazis, this began a trend of Nazi German Nationalism which led to the creation of an "ideal" Nazi community in Rothenburg. This then grew to reveal the ideal Nazi family, as illustrated in the propaganda of the time. This ideal lifestyle was taken further when an approved upbringing for the sons of Nazi Germany was introduced, first growing up in a Nazi or Hitler Youth organization, then protecting the ideals of both Nazi Germany and the Führer Adolf Hitler as a civilian or as military personnel, thus forming the core idea of Nazi patriotism, protecting their own beliefs. In many ways, Rothenburg demonstrated key elements of Nazi ideology and epitomized their desire to expand National Socialist thinking throughout Germany and in all areas with German-speaking people across Europe.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: In March 1945, during World War II, German soldiers were stationed in Rothenburg to defend it. On March 31, bombs were dropped over Rothenburg by 16 planes, killing 37 people and destroying 306 houses, six public buildings, nine watchtowers, and over of the wall. The U.S. Assistant Secretary of War, John J. McCloy, knew about the historic importance and beauty of Rothenburg, so he ordered US Army General Jacob L. Devers not to use artillery in taking Rothenburg. Battalion commander Frank Burke, a future Medal of Honor recipient, ordered six soldiers of the 12th Infantry Regiment, 4th Division to march into Rothenburg on a three-hour mission and negotiate the surrender of the town. First Lieutenant Noble V. Borders of Louisville, Kentucky, First Lieutenant Edmund E. Austingen of Hammond, Indiana, Private William M. Dwyer of Trenton, New Jersey, Private Herman Lichey of Glendale, California, Private Robert S. Grimm of Tower City, Pennsylvania, and Private Peter Kick of Lansing, Illinois were sent on the mission. When stopped by a German soldier, Private Lichey, who spoke fluent German and served as the group's translator, held up a white flag and explained, “We are representatives of our division commander. We bring you his offer to spare the city of Rothenburg from shelling and bombing if you agree not to defend it. We have been given three hours to get this message to you. If we haven’t returned to our lines by 1800 hours, the town will be bombed and shelled to the ground.” The local military commander Major Thömmes gave up the town, ignoring the order of Hitler for all towns to fight to the end and thereby saving it from total destruction by artillery. American troops of the 12th Infantry Regiment, 4th Division occupied the town on April 17, 1945, and in November 1948, McCloy was named an honorary citizen () of Rothenburg.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: Around 40% of Rothenburg ob der Tauber, mainly in the eastern half of the town, had to be repaired or rebuilt after being bombed in World War II (about 30% of the old town's area would have been completely destroyed and subsequently rebuilt from the ground up). Many of the rebuilt facades can now be distinguished from the surviving medieval structures as being plainer, reconstruction aiming not to replicate exactly what stood before, only to rebuild in the same style as the surviving buildings so that the new buildings would still fit into the overall aesthetic of the town. Any surviving walls of bombed-out buildings were kept in their reconstructed facades as much as possible. In the case of more significant or iconic structures, such as the town hall, whose roof was destroyed, and parts of the town wall, restoration to their original state was done as accurately as possible, and they now appear exactly as they did before the war. Donations for the rebuilding works in Rothenburg were received from all over the world, and rebuilt parts of the walls feature commemorative bricks with donor names.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: Much of the eastern portion of Rothenburg was destroyed or damaged in World War II and was later restored. The older western section from which the medieval town originated and contains most of the town's historic monuments, did not suffer from the bombing. Thus, most of the buildings in the west and the south of Rothenburg still exist today in their original medieval or prewar state. It is also noteworthy that while the eastern walls and towers received bomb damage, they, unlike the houses in that part of town, remained relatively intact; many parts even survived completely because of their sturdy stone construction. In most cases, only the wooden upper portions or roofs of the eastern towers and walls needed to be rebuilt, and most of their stone structure had been preserved.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: The "Rathaus" (town hall) is a notable renaissance building. The rear Gothic part of the building dates from 1250, and the attached front Renaissance building was started in 1572. This building served as the seat of government for the city-state during the medieval ages and for the city of Rothenburg since the formation of the federalist government. The town hall tower of Rothenburg ob der Tauber is one of the only accessible towers in the town of Rothenburg. The other is the Roedertor tower at the east end of the city and is open daily for visitors to climb. It is almost tall. At the top of the tower, an admission fee of 2 euros is charged to enter the room with a scenic view of almost the entire town. The room also contains manuscripts providing the visitor with historical information about the construction and relevant history of the city wall.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: While buildings within the walled city reflect the city's medieval history, this part of the city is in many ways a normal, modern German town with some concession to the tourist trade. Many stores and hotels catering to tourists are clustered around the Town Hall Square and along several major streets (such as Herrngasse, Schmiedgasse). Also in the town is a Criminal Museum, containing various punishment and torture devices used during the Middle Ages. A staple pastry of Rothenburg ob der Tauber is the "Schneeball", deep-fried dough shaped like a snowball and covered in either confectioner's sugar or chocolate.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: From 1988 until March 2006, Herbert Hachtel (SPD) was the mayor of Rothenburg. He was succeeded by Walter Hartl.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: Rothenburg has appeared in several films, notably fantasies. It was the inspiration for the village in the 1940 Walt Disney movie "Pinocchio". It was the location for the Vulgarian village scenes in the 1968 family movie, "Chitty Chitty Bang Bang". It is sometimes mistaken as the town at the end of "Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory" (1971); that town was Nördlingen. The town served as a loose basis for the fictional town of Lebensbaum ("life tree") in the video game "Shadow of Memories" ("Shadow of Destiny" in the American market). Pictures of the town were used in some parts of "The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm" and the trailer for the film. The camera flies over the town from the direction of the valley towards the Town Hall. A plaque exists on the rebuilt town wall to commemorate this. Filming was done in Rothenburg for "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1" (2010) and "Part 2" (2011).


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: Robert Shackleton's "Unvisited Places of Old Europe" contains a chapter, "The Old Red City of Rothenburg", about the city and its history. Rothenburg is the primary location for Elizabeth Peters's mystery novel, "Borrower of the Night" (1973) about the search for a missing Tilman Riemenschneider sculpture.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: The town featured as the location in the Belgian comic book, The Adventures of "Yoko Tsuno" in the episode of "La Frontière de la vie" ("On the Edge of Life", 1977) and it inspired the look of the town in the Japanese manga and anime series "A Little Snow Fairy Sugar" (2001).


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: Rothenburg's famous street Kobolzeller Steige and Spitalgasse is depicted on the cover of two Blackmore's Night albums, 1999's "Under a Violet Moon" and their 2006 album "Winter Carols".


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: It is often thought to have inspired the town center of Mêlée Island in the 1990 point-and-click graphic adventure game "The Secret of Monkey Island", but creator Ron Gilbert has claimed the resemblance is a coincidence.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: The video game "Team Fortress 2" features a map titled "Rottenburg", a play on the original's namesake along with visually similar architecture.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: The southern part of the marketplace is prominently featured in the video game "Gabriel Knight 2" depicting the fictional town of Rittersberg.


title: Rothenburg ob der Tauber

text: The WWII-era first-person shooter "", from the "Medal of Honor" video game series, features a level in which the player must fight their way through a snowy town near the Siegfried Line in Germany that is strikingly similar to Rothenburg, buildings with similar architecture can be seen throughout the town, as well as similar-looking streets, as the player makes their way through.


title: Radius of gyration

text: "Radius of gyration" or gyradius of a body about the axis of rotation is defined as the radial distance to a point which would have a moment of inertia the same as the body's actual distribution of mass, if the total mass of the body were concentrated there.


title: Radius of gyration

text: Mathematically the radius of gyration is the root mean square distance of the object's parts from either its center of mass or a given axis, depending on the relevant application. It is actually the perpendicular distance from point mass to the axis of rotation. One can represent a trajectory of a moving point as a body. Then radius of gyration can be used to characterize the typical distance travelled by this point.


title: Radius of gyration

text: Suppose a body consists of formula_1 particles each of mass formula_2. Let formula_3 be their perpendicular distances from the axis of rotation. Then, the moment of inertia formula_4 of the body about the axis of rotation is


title: Radius of gyration

text: Therefore, the radius of gyration of a body about a given axis may also be defined as the root mean square distance of the various particles of the body from the axis of rotation. It is also known as a measure of the way in which the mass of a rotating rigid body is distributed about its axis of rotation.


title: Radius of gyration

text: In structural engineering, the two-dimensional radius of gyration is used to describe the distribution of cross sectional area in a column around its centroidal axis with the mass of the body. The radius of gyration is given by the following formula:


title: Radius of gyration

text: The gyration radius is useful in estimating the stiffness of a column. If the principal moments of the two-dimensional gyration tensor are not equal, the column will tend to buckle around the axis with the smaller principal moment. For example, a column with an elliptical cross-section will tend to buckle in the direction of the smaller semiaxis.


title: Radius of gyration

text: In engineering, where continuous bodies of matter are generally the objects of study, the radius of gyration is usually calculated as an integral.


title: Radius of gyration

text: The radius of gyration about a given axis (formula_17) can be calculated in terms of the mass moment of inertia formula_18 around that axis, and the total mass "m";


title: Radius of gyration

text: In polymer physics, the radius of gyration is used to describe the dimensions of a polymer chain. The radius of gyration of a particular molecule at a given time is defined as:


title: Radius of gyration

text: As detailed below, the radius of gyration is also proportional to the root mean square distance between the monomers:


title: Radius of gyration

text: As a third method, the radius of gyration can also be computed by summing the principal moments of the gyration tensor.


title: Radius of gyration

text: Since the chain conformations of a polymer sample are quasi infinite in number and constantly change over time, the "radius of gyration" discussed in polymer physics must usually be understood as a mean over all polymer molecules of the sample and over time. That is, the radius of gyration which is measured as an "average" over time or ensemble:


title: Radius of gyration

text: An entropically governed polymer chain (i.e. in so called theta conditions) follows a random walk in three dimensions. The radius of gyration for this case is given by


title: Radius of gyration

text: Note that although formula_28 represents the contour length of the polymer, formula_29 is strongly dependent of polymer stiffness and can vary over orders of magnitude. formula_30 is reduced accordingly.


title: Radius of gyration

text: One reason that the radius of gyration is an interesting property is that it can be determined experimentally with static light scattering as well as with small angle neutron- and x-ray scattering. This allows theoretical polymer physicists to check their models against reality.


title: Radius of gyration

text: The hydrodynamic radius is numerically similar, and can be measured with Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS).


title: Radius of gyration

text: Carrying out the summation over the last two terms and using the definition of formula_33 gives the formula


title: Radius of gyration

text: In data analysis, the radius of gyration is used to calculate many different statistics including the spread of geographical locations. These locations have recently been collected from social media users to investigate the typical mentions of a user. This can be useful for understanding how a certain group of users on social media use the platform.


title: 2014 Forest Hills Drive

text: 2014 Forest Hills Drive is the third studio album by American rapper J. Cole. It was released on December 9, 2014, by ByStorm Entertainment, Columbia Records, Dreamville Records and Roc Nation.


title: 2014 Forest Hills Drive

text: Recording sessions took place over the whole year, while the production on the album was primarily handled by Cole himself, along with several others such as Illmind, Vinylz, Phonix Beats and Willie B. It was announced three weeks before its release and had very little marketing, with no singles or promotion taking place prior to its release. The album was supported by four singles: "Apparently", "Wet Dreamz", "No Role Modelz" and "Love Yourz".


title: 2014 Forest Hills Drive

text: "2014 Forest Hills Drive" received generally positive reviews from critics who admired its ambitious concept, production and lyrics. The album debuted at number one on the US "Billboard" 200, selling 353,000 copies in its first week. As of September 2015, the album has sold one million copies in the United States. The album was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in May 2019.


title: 2014 Forest Hills Drive

text: The album won Album of the Year at the 2015 BET Hip Hop Awards, and Top Rap Album at the 2015 "Billboard" Music Awards. It was nominated for Best Rap Album at the 2016 Grammy Awards. The single "Apparently" was nominated for Best Rap Performance at the 2016 Grammy Awards.


title: 2014 Forest Hills Drive

text: The album's title is the address of a home in Fayetteville, North Carolina, where Cole lived from his early youth, until 2003. Cole lived at the property with his mother, his brother and his stepfather, and was the location where Cole wrote some of his earliest songs, and decided to pursue a career as a musician.


title: 2014 Forest Hills Drive

text: In 2014, Cole bought the house, and was the first home he had purchased. The album's title is used to recount Cole's upbringing, and the transition from leaving North Carolina to New York; it battles with the transitions that were taken in order to find his success and fame within the music industry. Cole soon put the home up for an "extremely cheap" renting price, in the hope that any struggling residents could use it to progress their lives, without having to worry about frequent moving, an experience Cole underwent due to frequent financial struggles.


title: 2014 Forest Hills Drive

text: On August 15, 2014, Cole released the song "Be Free", as a response to the shooting of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri. In an interview with NPR's "Microphone Check" radio show, Cole revealed that the song was recorded the same week he recorded the song "Intro" from "2014 Forest Hills Drive", but was never intended for the album. In September 2014, during an interview with "HipHopDX", Bone Thugs-n-Harmony's manager Steve Lobel revealed Krayzie Bone and Bizzy Bone recorded a track with Cole for the album, though the song never made the album's final cut. The production on the album was primarily handled by J. Cole, along with its guest productions, including Dreamville's in-house producer Ron Gilmore, DJ Dahi, Illmind, Willie B, Phonix Beats, Vinylz and Pop Wansel, with additional production provided by Cardiak and CritaCal, among others.


title: 2014 Forest Hills Drive

text: On November 16, 2014, Cole released a video trailer, where he announced he will be releasing his third album, titled "2014 Forest Hills Drive" on December 9. The video also featured footage regarding the making-of the album. Additionally, the album's name sake was revealed to be the address of Cole's childhood home in Fayetteville, North Carolina. Cole held a listening session at the home on 2014 Forest Hills Drive where he invited a select group of fans to hear the album. On February 13, 2015, Cole announced he would further promote the album with a tour called Forest Hills Drive. The tour was divided into three different acts. "Act 1: Hometown", "Act 2: The Journey" and "Act 3: Hollywood". Act 1 started on March 2, 2015, in Eugene, Oregon and ended on April 7, 2015, in Providence, Rhode Island, it featured Dreamville artists such as Bas, Cozz and Omen, who were also served as supporting acts on Act 2 and 3. Act 2 started on April 30, 2015, in Zürich, Switzerland and ended on May 18, 2015, in London, England, it featured Jhené Aiko and Pusha T. Act 3 was the longest leg of the tour, it started on July 12, 2015, in Seattle, Washington and ended on August 29, 2015, in Cole's hometown Fayetteville, North Carolina, and featured Big Sean, YG and Jeremih. Cole brought out Drake and Jay-Z to perform at the last show in Fayetteville, North Carolina. The tour sold over 570,000 tickets worldwide and grossed $20.4 million.


title: 2014 Forest Hills Drive

text: On December 15, 2015, Cole announced a mini-documentary series titled, "" ahead of his special "", and released episode one the same day. Episode two was released on December 23. Episode three was released on December 30, Kendrick Lamar, Wale, ASAP Ferg and Rihanna made appearances. Episode four was released on January 6, 2016. All episodes were available for free on Vimeo until January 9. "Forest Hills Drive: Homecoming" aired January 9, 2016, on HBO and HBO Now. On January 28, 2016, in celebration of his 31st birthday, Cole released his first live album titled, "" and also released the music video for the album's final single "Love Yourz". Both "Forest Hills Drive: Homecoming" and "Forest Hills Drive: Live" covered his fall 2015 show at the Crown Coliseum in Fayetteville, North Carolina.


title: 2014 Forest Hills Drive

text: "Apparently" was serviced to American mainstream urban radio, as the album's first single on December 9, 2014. Cole would also go on to release the music video for "Apparently" on the same day. The song has since peaked at number 58 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. The song was nominated for Best Rap Performance at the 2016 Grammy Awards. The song was also nominated for The Ashford & Simpson Songwriter's Award at the 2015 Soul Train Music Awards and Impact Track at the 2015 BET Hip Hop Awards.


title: 2014 Forest Hills Drive

text: The album's second single, "Wet Dreamz", was released to rhythmic contemporary radio on April 14, 2015. On April 21, the music video was released for "Wet Dreamz". The song has since peaked at number 61 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. On June 16, 2016, "Wet Dreamz" was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).


title: 2014 Forest Hills Drive

text: The album's third single, "No Role Modelz", was sent to urban and rhythmic radio stations on August 4, 2015. The song has since peaked at number 36 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. On May 2, 2016, in an interview with Larry King Now, actress Nia Long was asked about a line from the song where Cole raps, "My only regret was too young for Lisa Bonet, my only regret was too young for Nia Long, now all I'm left with is hoes from reality shows, hand her a script the bitch probably couldn't read along." She responded by saying, "He's really not too young, he just doesn't know it." The song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on May 18, 2016.


title: 2014 Forest Hills Drive

text: Cole released the live music video for "Love Yourz" on January 28, 2016, the music video was filmed during his Forest Hills Drive Tour, and on February 27, 2016, "Love Yourz" was released as the album's fourth and final single. The song was included in Sprite's "Obey Your Verse" campaign in 2016 where 16 lyrics from 2Pac, Missy Eliiot and Cole were emblazoned on Sprite soda cans and bottles. The song won Impact Track at the 2016 BET Hip Hop Awards. "Love Yourz" charted at number 34 on the US Twitter Top Tracks on February 13, 2016. The song has since peaked at number 25 on the US R&B/Hip-Hop Airplay.


title: 2014 Forest Hills Drive

text: On December 5, 2014, Cole released a music video for the song "Intro". On December 13, 2014, rapper Waka Flocka Flame released a freestyle over the song "Fire Squad". On March 23, 2015, a music video was released for "G.O.M.D.". On November 27, 2015, in celebration of Black Friday, Cole and rapper Kendrick Lamar released two separate tracks, both titled "Black Friday". Lamar remixed Cole's "A Tale of 2 Citiez", while Cole remixed Lamar's single "Alright" from his studio album "To Pimp a Butterfly". Rappers Styles P and Juicy J also released freestyles over "A Tale of 2 Citiez".


title: 2014 Forest Hills Drive

text: "2014 Forest Hills Drive" was met with generally positive reviews. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 67, based on 17 reviews. Aggregator AnyDecentMusic? gave it 6.5 out of 10, based on their assessment of the critical consensus.


title: 2014 Forest Hills Drive

text: "Complex" critic Justin Charity praised it as Cole's most mature and well-edited album to date, crediting him for eschewing "much of the whiplash and false bravado" of his previous work. Erin Lowers of "Exclaim!" said, "He shines without any features, standing strong in his delivery and carrying his story to the forefront of the 13-track project. While it may not be his "Late Registration", he has definitely graduated into a class of his own." Andre Grant of "HipHopDX" stated, "It is less artistic than it means to be, but it is truer than anything he's ever made. Its narrative, the tropes, and the strategies are completely overcome by the album's terrifying integrity.." Craig Jenkins of "Pitchfork" said, ""2014 Forest Hills Drive" is a decent album selling itself as great. It wraps itself in the garments of a classic, but you can see that the tailoring is off." Kellan Miller of "XXL" stated, "With every quality drop from the self-proclaimed "God", his ceiling will continue to grow and so will fan expectations." David Jeffries of AllMusic said, ""2014 Forest Hills Drive" comes off as a great, experimental, and advancing mixtape, but it's insider to a fault, as slight as that fault might be." Jesal "Jay Soul" Padania of "RapReviews" said, "He been afforded a rare amount of artistic freedom on "2014 Forest Hills Drive" and there aren't even any singles, so it's great that he's more or less delivered. But whilst this definitely misses out on classic territory, that doesn't mean it isn't a bloody good album for the most part."


title: 2014 Forest Hills Drive

text: Marshall Gu of "PopMatters" said, "On "2014 Forest Hills Drive", we've still got the same ol' Cole, but with diminishing returns and without any friends to help him." David Turner of "Rolling Stone" said, "He speaks some incisive truths about class, race ("Fire Squad") and relationships ("Wet Dreamz"), but those insights are too often undercut by crass humor. The production falls short, too, with dull beats to match his languid flow." Jason Gubbels of "Spin" said, "Cole's keen sense of injustice registers throughout "2014 Forest Hills Drive", whether slagging white artists for artistic thievery or seething over national media outlets pigeonholing black genius into sports/pop either / ors... But the absence of "Be Free" still detracts. Unless you're the type of moviegoer who sits patiently through the end titles, feel free to duck out of "Note to Self" a bit early and head over to SoundCloud." Robert Christgau gave the album a rating in his review for "Cuepoint", naming "Wet Dreamz" and "Love Yourz" as highlights while summing the album up as being "full of the kind of good intentions the road to irrelevance is paved with".


title: 2014 Forest Hills Drive

text: "2014 Forest Hills Drive" debuted at number one on the US "Billboard" 200, selling a total of 371,000 copies, with 353,000 copies consisting of whole album sales and the remaining 17,000 copies determined based on individual song sales and streaming data. This is a tracking change that was implemented by Nielsen SoundScan and "Billboard" in December 2014. "2014 Forest Hills Drive" became the best first week sales of J. Cole's career at the time, outpacing the first week sales of his second album "Born Sinner" (2013), by 74,000 copies (297,000 copies). In addition to the album's sales toppling early projections by over 100,000 copies, "2014 Forest Hills Drive" also broke One Direction's record for most album streams on Spotify, being streamed over 15.7 million times in its first week, compared to One Direction's 11.5 million streams. Drake later broke this record with 17.3 million streams for his mixtape "If You're Reading This It's Too Late". In its second week, the album sold 135,000 more copies. Cole became one of only six rappers to reach number one with their first three full-length studio albums, others being Drake, Rick Ross, Nelly, DMX and Snoop Dogg. As of December 2016, the album has sold 1,240,000 copies in the United States. On May 23, 2019, "2014 Forest Hills Drive" was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for combined sales, streaming and track-sale equivalents of three million units in the United States.


title: 2014 Forest Hills Drive

text: In 2015, "2014 Forest Hills Drive" was ranked as the eighth most popular album of the year on the "Billboard" 200.


title: Kim Dong-wook

text: Kim Dong-wook (born July 29, 1983) is a South Korean actor. After appearing in student short films and several minor parts, Kim became a star through his supporting role in the popular TV series "Coffee Prince" (2007), followed by box office hit "Take Off" (2009). He then starred in "Happy Killers" (2010) and "Romantic Heaven" (2011), his latest drama called Find Me In Your Memory (2020), but it was his acclaimed performance as an obsessed and tormented king in 2012 period drama "The Concubine", and and that brought Kim the best reviews of his career yet.


title: Kim Dong-wook

text: After officially debuting in "A Crimson Mark", Kim Dong-wook's first notable role was the angry, impoverished teenager in director Byun Young-joo's 2004 coming-of-age film "Flying Boys". He then broke into the mainstream as the bubbly waiter in MBC's 2007 hit romantic comedy series "Coffee Prince".


title: Kim Dong-wook

text: In the popular 2009 sports flick "Take Off", he starred as a former night club bouncer who ends up being a member of Korea's national ski jumping team. In spite of the enormous physical challenge, Kim said it was a character he genuinely enjoyed playing.


title: Kim Dong-wook

text: His musical theatre debut was in "On Air: Season 2", which was produced by his fellow alumni from the Korea National University of Arts. A loose spin-off of the TV series "On Air", it takes place at a radio station and centers around an idol singer-turned-DJ and an older female PD. His follow-up the year after was the Korean production of "Legally Blonde", the Broadway musical based on the 2011 Hollywood film of the same name. He played Luke Wilson's role Emmett. Kim said "the show must go on, no matter what" mentality was what he found appealing yet tough about doing musicals.


title: Kim Dong-wook

text: Kim then played lead roles in the omnibus film "Five Senses of Eros", thriller "Happy Killers", and melodrama "Romantic Heaven". But it was his performance in period thriller "The Concubine" that he gained significant attention on the big screen.


title: Kim Dong-wook

text: According to critics one of the finest of achievements of the 2012 period thriller is Kim's engrossing performance as the tormented Prince Sung-won, who gradually loses his sense of judgment and emotional control in the face of obsessive love. Kim said of playing the intense role, "While feeling sorry for him, I also found the complexity of the character fascinating. That's what drew me in."


title: Kim Dong-wook

text: In 2014, Kim made his acting comeback in the period drama series "More Than a Maid". He had his big screen comeback in action comedy "Three Summer Nights" (2015). Kim then played the leading role in the cable slice-of-life drama "Riders: Get Tomorrow" (2015), which won him the Best Character Award at the Korea Cable TV Awards.


title: Kim Dong-wook

text: Kim played a significant role in the fantasy blockbuster "" (2017) and its sequel, "" (2018); which won him several Best Supporting Actor accolades.


title: Kim Dong-wook

text: Kim was then cast in OCN's supernatural thriller "The Guest" (2018). The series was a hit and received positive reviews.


title: Kim Dong-wook

text: In 2019, Kim starred alongside Ko Sung-hee in the romantic comedy film "Trade Your Love". In April, Kim is set to star in the comedy drama "Special Labor Inspector".


title: Kim Dong-wook

text: In 2021, Kim played the role of a psychiatrist in the new drama You Are My Spring, co-starring with Seo Hyun-jin.


title: Kim Dong-wook

text: In 2022, Kim as Hwang Kyung-min, who lives without forgetting the memories of school violence 20 years ago in the web series The King of Pigs.


title: Kim Dong-wook

text: Kim enlisted for his mandatory military service on August 30, 2012 at a training camp in Nonsan, South Chungcheong Province. He underwent five weeks of basic training and served for two years as a riot policeman for the Seoul Metropolitan Police Agency. Kim was discharged on May 29, 2014. He doesn't use social media.


title: Kim Dong-wook

text: On March 8, 2022, Kim donated million to the Hope Bridge Disaster Relief Association to help the victims of the massive wildfire that started in Uljin, Gyeongbuk and has spread to Samcheok, Gangwon.


title: Steal This Album!

text: Steal This Album! is the third studio album by Armenian-American heavy metal band System of a Down, released on November 26, 2002, by American Recordings and Columbia Records. Produced by Rick Rubin and Daron Malakian, it peaked at number 15 on the US "Billboard" 200.


title: Steal This Album!

text: In early 2002, medium-quality MP3s of the album were released on the internet under the name "Toxicity II". The band issued a statement expressing disappointment that fans were hearing material that was unfinished, and they worked to release a completed, better quality version of the album, which became "Steal This Album!".


title: Steal This Album!

text: Though often reported in the media as being a collection of B-sides and outtakes, the band insisted that the "Steal This Album!" material is of the same quality as the tracks which made it onto "Toxicity". Vocalist Serj Tankian has said that the songs were left out of "Toxicity" "because they did not fit the overall continuity of the album". In May 2009, drummer John Dolmayan revealed that the album is his favorite System of a Down release. Similarly, Tankian also called the album his favorite System of a Down album in a 2012 AMA on reddit.


title: Steal This Album!

text: A first version of "Streamline" was used in "The Scorpion King" soundtrack, which was released in early 2002, and as a B-side on the CD2 edition of "Aerials".


title: Steal This Album!

text: Multi-instrumentalist Arto Tunçboyacıyan sings on the song "Bubbles", making his third appearance with System of a Down (having appeared on two songs on "Toxicity").


title: Steal This Album!

text: Commenting on the track "I-E-A-I-A-I-O", drummer John Dolmayan said it was inspired by an encounter he had with "Knight Rider" actor David Hasselhoff in a liquor store in Los Angeles when he was around 12:


title: Steal This Album!

text: The album received generally favorable reviews from music critics scoring 77 out of 100 on aggregate website "Metacritic". Giving the album 4 stars out of 5 in his review for "AllMusic" Chris True noted "If System proved anything with 2001's Toxicity, it's that they're one of the few breaths of fresh air out there in mainstream metal land. This collection is no different, and with its amazing pacing, it's hard to not be moved by what this band can do". "Steal This Album stands head-and-tattooed shoulders above its competition in the hard-rock genre" said "Entertainment Weekly" in a mutually glowing review, awarding the album a B+ rating.


title: Steal This Album!

text: "Rolling Stone" called "Steal This Album" "An absurdist blast of political rage, silly theater and shattered math metal." Jeremy Gladstone of "Kludge" gave the album a score of 7 out of 10 in his review and both praised and criticized the album writing "Love them or hate them, System is here to stay. The writing is consistent and the music is as tight as we have been accustomed to, perhaps a degree more so at times on the album. Steal This Album is guaranteed to satisfy every System of a Down fan listening. However, from song eight to twelve on the album, the material is a little too similar to really stand out compared to the more intense tracks. Unreleased material can sometimes be good, and sometimes it still doesn't work out".


title: Steal This Album!

text: Victoria Segal, writing for "NME", gave "Steal This Album!" 3.5 stars out of 5 in a less flattering review, stating "System Of A Down's concerns may be no laughing matter, but unfortunately, their music often is. Guitarist Daron Malakian describes this record as 'a bridge between "Toxicity" and our next record,' which only indicates troubled waters ahead". She did however end her review with "Yes, System Of A Down are insane, ridiculous, a brain-pan pizza with extra mushrooms. But how can something this righteous ever be wrong?"


title: Steal This Album!

text: There are four limited-edition alternate CD designs, each designed and drawn by a member of the band. Tankian's is blue with a poem in white spiraling into its center, Odadjian's is red with psychedelic flames, Dolmayan's is black with a gray skull incorporating the album's title into its teeth, and Malakian's is white with the legs of a man (in jeans) and woman (in red stockings). The vinyl edition of the album was released as a double picture disc with each side featuring one of these designs.


title: Steal This Album!

text: In Europe and the UK the standard version includes a one-sided front insert, the reason for this being that most CDs in the UK are not sold sealed so it might appear that the cover had been stolen had it been shipped without it. It is all white with the album title in black, similar to the original CD cover. The insert contains minimal information and contains a link to the official website for more track information.


title: Steal This Album!

text: All lyrics written by Serj Tankian, except where noted. All music written by Daron Malakian, except where noted.


title: Beta Ray Bill

text: Beta Ray Bill is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Debuting in the Bronze Age of Comic Books, the character was initially intended to be a surprise; an apparent monster who unexpectedly turns out to be a great hero. As such, Bill is the first being outside the Marvel Universe's Norse pantheon to be introduced as being worthy to wield Thor's hammer, Mjolnir. After an initial rivalry for possession of the weapon, the alien warrior was granted a war hammer of his own, called Stormbreaker, and the two reconciled as staunch allies, going on to fight side by side.


title: Beta Ray Bill

text: Beta Ray Bill has been featured in other Marvel-endorsed products, such as , video games, and merchandise.


title: Beta Ray Bill

text: Beta Ray Bill debuted in "The Mighty Thor" #337 (November 1983), being established as an alien of the Korbinite race.


title: Beta Ray Bill

text: During a "Thor Spotlight" panel at the Baltimore Comic Con, August 28, 2010, Simonson further stated:


title: Beta Ray Bill

text: The character's introduction continued in "Thor" vol. 1 #338–340. He continued to make appearances in "Thor" sporadically. He appeared in the "Maximum Security" crossover in January 2001 and the "Secret Invasion" crossover in 2008. He starred in the six-issue miniseries "Stormbreaker: The Saga of Beta Ray Bill" and its two follow-ups, the one-shot "Beta Ray Bill: The Green of Eden" and three-issue "Beta Ray Bill: Godhunter". A "Beta Ray Bill" mini-series was published in 2021 with a confrontation with Fin Fang Foom.


title: Beta Ray Bill

text: Spy organization S.H.I.E.L.D. detected an alien fleet passing through Earth's galaxy, with Director Nick Fury asking Thor to investigate. When Thor finds the advanced ship, it scans Thor and perceives him to be a threat. Unable to stop Thor, the sentient ship—called "Skuttlebutt"—revives Beta Ray Bill, who is in suspended animation. Bill battles Thor to a standstill, until the ship reaches the Solar system, where one of the mystical enchantments of Thor's hammer Mjolnir comes into effect, which means that Thor will revert to his mortal persona of Donald Blake if separated from the hammer for more than 60 seconds. When that happens, Blake is knocked unconscious by Bill, who examines Blake's cane (Mjolnir's "shell" when Thor is in Blake's form) and, upon striking the cane, received Thor's power and a variant of his costume.


title: Beta Ray Bill

text: Once "Skuttlebutt" arrives on Earth, Bill easily defeats an approaching S.H.I.E.L.D. team and is then transported to Asgard by the King of the Norse gods, Odin, who mistakes Bill for Thor. After some initial confusion, Odin returns Thor to Asgard, and Bill's origin is revealed. Bill's race, the Korbinites, were almost rendered extinct when their galaxy exploded. The remnants of the Korbinite race fled in a fleet of warships, guarded by a sentient ship called "Skuttlebutt" and a dedicated champion, Beta Ray Bill. Via Korbinite science, Bill was physically augmented and given the attributes of an indigenous wild beast (a process that killed all of Bill's predecessors). "Skuttlebutt" attacked Thor because the ship recognized the Asgardian magic as similar to that of the previous global threat, and assumed the Korbinites were being threatened once again.


title: Beta Ray Bill

text: On discovering that Bill was worthy enough to lift Mjolnir, Odin proposes a battle to the death in the fiery Asgardian realm of Skartheim to decide who will wield the hammer. Bill and Thor render each other unconscious. Bill's resistance to heat allows him to recover first, however, and he is deemed the winner—but he also saves Thor from falling into lava, believing he is too worthy an opponent to die, but he feels he needs the hammer to protect his people. After Bill reconsiders his claim to the hammer, Odin orders the making of a new hammer for Bill: Stormbreaker, equal in power to Mjolnir and created from the same metal and by the same dwarfs led by Eitri. Odin also transfers an enchantment from Mjolnir to Stormbreaker, so that Bill can return to his original Korbinite form by striking Stormbreaker upon the ground—and Thor can no longer become Donald Blake. After learning that the mishap that killed most of Bill's people was caused by the fire demon Surtur, one of Asgard's most powerful enemies, Bill agrees to join the Asgardians in a war to stop Surtur and his armies.


title: Beta Ray Bill

text: Bill leads many of Earth's heroes against Surtur's forces on Earth while Thor, Odin, and Thor's adopted brother Loki confront Surtur in Asgard. Surtur is eventually defeated, but apparently kills Odin when they both fall through a mystic portal. Bill remains on Earth, aiding the spaceknight Rom against the threat of the alien Dire Wraiths and foes such as Iron Man opponent Titanium Man.


title: Beta Ray Bill

text: Forming an attachment with the Asgardian goddess Sif, Bill aids Thor against the Dark Elf Kurse in a two-part storyline before returning to his people.


title: Beta Ray Bill

text: Bill remains a staunch ally of Thor and Asgard before featuring in a storyline involving a creation of Galactus, Tyrant. Bill also features in the storyline "Blood and Thunder", attempting alongside Adam Warlock, Thanos and others to deal with the "warrior madness" of Thor in which he is trying to destroy the universe, although at one point he is struck with enough force to destroy a planet. Together with Thor, Bill joins with other versions of the Thunder God in the "Thor Corps" against the entity Demonstaff. and has several cosmic adventures.


title: Beta Ray Bill

text: Bill also participates in a battle between the heroes of Earth and several alien races such as the Kree, Shi'ar, and Z'Nox. and after several adventures with Thor guest starring in the final storyline, when Thor—determined to end the perpetual cycle of death and rebirth the Asgardians are trapped in—brings about Ragnarök (in Norse mythology this event means the end of Asgard and its gods, as they die in battle against the armies of evil). Although Bill attempts to aid the Asgardians, Thor teleports Bill away as it is not his destiny to die in Ragnarök.


title: Beta Ray Bill

text: Bill visits his people's new homeworld, where he is attacked by his insane predecessor, "Alpha Ray", defeating him just as the cosmic entity Galactus and his herald Stardust arrive. Despite Bill's efforts, Galactus consumes the world and almost kills him, with Bill drifting in space until recovered by "Skuttlebutt". After finding an orb containing the souls of many of the Korbinites, Bill revisits a desolate Asgard, and joins forces with Stardust to battle a new demonic menace named "Asteroth".


title: Beta Ray Bill

text: Although victorious, Bill is mortally wounded, and while near death is healed by an unknown entity that also claims the remaining souls in the orb. Placed in the recently deceased body of a war veteran named "Simon Walters" (a reference to his creator, Walt Simonson) on Earth, Bill has a brief encounter with the villain "Boar" and the hero Spider-Man. Bill eventually finds and joins Canadian superhero team "Omega Flight" against the supervillain team the Wrecking Crew, who release the supernatural Great Beasts. The battle ends with Bill and the Beasts trapped in an alternate dimension.


title: Beta Ray Bill

text: During the "Secret Invasion" storyline, Bill is wounded and captured by the alien Skrulls, who bestow his hammer Stormbreaker on a warrior Super-Skrull called the "Godkiller". Thor rescues Bill, although Loki starts a rumor that Bill may be a Skrull, causing some Asgardians to go against him despite Balder telling them to stop. Thor throws Mjolnir at Bill, who catches it, proving he really is Bill. After being nursed back to health, the character retrieves his hammer. Although the Godkiller defeats him, with Thor's help, he tricks the Godkiller, causing Asgard to fall onto it, killing the Skrull. Thor and Bill then raise the city again.


title: Beta Ray Bill

text: Bill decides to hunt the cosmic entity Galactus, to avenge the destruction of the Korbinites' second homeworld, and the seeming eradication of his species. After a brief confrontation with the herald, Stardust, Bill is intercepted by the Silver Surfer, who is puzzled by the Korbinite's apparently futile quest to destroy Galactus. During a brief battle, Bill explains that while he understands he cannot hope to destroy Galactus with his power alone, he intends to destroy Galactus by annihilating any and all worlds Galactus seeks to feed from, thus starving him to death. The character's obsession with stopping Galactus eventually results in him being unable to lift his own enchanted weapon, an object that can only be wielded by the worthy. Equipped with alien weapons, Bill finds Galactus but discovers the entity already under attack by another race. In a moment of conscience, Bill saves Galactus. The grateful entity rewards Bill by creating a Korbinite mate for him, with Bill also regaining the ability to wield Stormbreaker.


title: Beta Ray Bill

text: When the universe is invaded during "The Thanos Imperative" storyline, Beta Ray Bill joins Cosmo's select group to travel across the Fault and into the Cancerverse. Bill is recruited by Cosmo to join the Annihilators, a new super-group intended to replace the fallen Guardians of the Galaxy. The Annihilators defend Galador from the Dire Wraiths, resulting in a peace between the two groups who have been at war for generations. Later, when trying to end a conflict between warring factions of the Universal Church of Truth, the Annihilators are transported to a Church base on Earth and come into conflict with the Avengers.


title: Beta Ray Bill

text: During the "Death of the Inhumans" miniseries, Medusa and the surviving Inhuman Royal Family members ask for Beta Ray Bill to help to confront the Kree and their Super-Inhuman Vox as well as rescuing Black Bolt from them. Beta Ray Bill agreed to help them. When they reach the location where Black Bolt is being attacked by Vox, Beta Ray Bill helps Black Bolt, and takes down Vox, who is revealed to be a brainwashed Maximus. He and the Inhuman Royal Family witness something on the Vox costume teleport Crystal away while also killing Maximus.


title: Beta Ray Bill

text: When Thor became unworthy of Mjolnir after Nick Fury whispered a secret to him, Thor spent months drinking and fighting to avoid thinking about his loss. Bill eventually came to visit Thor- now calling himself 'Odinson'- and offered his old friend Stormbreaker instead, only for Odinson and Bill to be captured by the Collector as they examined the remains of Asgard where the hammer of an alternate version of Thor had recently crashed. Although the Collector tried to force Odinson to help him find some means of bypassing the worthiness enchantment so that he could lift the hammer himself, Odinson eventually escaped and used the hammer's power to return Asgard to its original place. Once free, Odinson told Bill that the secret Fury had shared with him was "Gorr was right", a reference to Thor's old foe Gorr the God Butcher who believed that all gods brought nothing but pain and suffering to the universe. However, Bill assured Odinson that, regardless of his ability to wield Mjolnir, even if the gods were not worthy, Odinson proved himself to be a hero as he continued to fight for humanity even when officially unworthy.


title: Beta Ray Bill

text: Beta Ray Bill's life force and consciousness were transferred by scientists of his race into the body of an alien carnivorous equine-like beast that had been bionically restructured into a cyborg. Courtesy of highly advanced genetic engineering and cyborg implants, Beta Ray Bill possesses vast superhuman strength, speed, stamina and durability, and a highly extended lifespan. Beta Ray Bill is also a superior hand-to-hand combatant. His combat prowess is such that he was able to fight Thor, noted as one of the best hand-to-hand fighters in the Marvel Universe, to a standstill.


title: Beta Ray Bill

text: Beta Ray Bill's weapon, Stormbreaker, also has the same properties as Thor's hammer, Mjolnir, and includes the ability to transform into a cane when struck upon the ground and return Bill to his unaltered Korbinite form.


title: Beta Ray Bill

text: Beta Ray Bill has a partner in the form of a Korbanite sentient warship named Skuttlebutt. The same technology that transferred Bill's consciousness into his cyborg body, was also used to transfer an unknown Korbanite's consciousness into a large combat cruiser retrofitted with medical, cargo, and humanitarian equipment and facilities to accommodate the attempt to transport Bill's people off planet to avoid the incoming attack by Galactus. Loyal Skuttlebutt often uses his medical facilities to repair Bill's tissue and implants from damage after battles.


title: Dumbwaiter

text: A dumbwaiter is a small freight elevator or lift intended to carry food. Dumbwaiters found within modern structures, including both commercial, public and private buildings, are often connected between multiple floors. When installed in restaurants, schools, hospitals, retirement homes or in private homes, the lifts generally terminate in a kitchen.


title: Dumbwaiter

text: The term seems to have been popularized in the United States in the 1840s, after the model of earlier "dumbwaiters" now known as serving trays and lazy Susans. The mechanical dumbwaiter was invented by George W. Cannon, a New York City inventor. He first filed for the patent of a brake system (US Patent no. 260776) that could be used for a dumbwaiter on January 6, 1883. He later filed for the patent on the mechanical dumbwaiter (US Patent No. 361268) on February 17, 1887. He reportedly generated vast royalties from the patents until his death in 1897.


title: Dumbwaiter

text: A simple dumbwaiter is a movable frame in a shaft, dropped by a rope on a pulley, guided by rails; most dumbwaiters have a shaft, cart, and capacity smaller than those of passenger elevators, usually 45 to 450 kg (100 to 992 lbs.) Before electric motors were added in the 1920s, dumbwaiters were controlled manually by ropes on pulleys.


title: Dumbwaiter

text: Early 20th-century building codes sometimes required fireproof dumbwaiter walls and self-closing fireproof doors and mention features such as buttons to control movement between floors and locks on doors preventing them from opening unless the cart is stopped at that floor.


title: Dumbwaiter

text: Dumbwaiter lifts in London were extremely popular in the houses of the rich and privileged. Maids would use them to deliver laundry to the laundry room from different rooms in the house. This obviated carrying dirty washing through the house, saving time and preventing injury.


title: Dumbwaiter

text: A legal complaint about a Manhattan restaurant's dumbwaiter in 1915, which also mentions that food orders are shouted up and down the shaft, describes its operation and limitations as follows:


title: Dumbwaiter

text: [There is] ... great play between the cart of the dumb-waiter and the guides on which it runs, with the result that the running of the cart is accompanied by a loud noise. The rope which operates the cart of the dumb-waiter runs in a wheel with a very shallow groove, so that the rope is liable to and does at times slip off. ... The cart has no shock absorbers at the top, so that when it strikes the top of the shaft or wheel there is a loud report. ... [T]he ropes of the dumb-waiter strike such wall at frequent intervals with a loud report. ... [T]he dumb-waiter is often negligently operated, by running it faster than necessary, and by letting it go down with a sudden fall.


title: Dumbwaiter

text: More recent dumbwaiters can be more sophisticated, using electric motors, automatic control systems, and custom freight containers of other kinds of elevators. Recently constructed book lifts in libraries and mail or other freight transports in office towers may be larger than many dumbwaiters in public restaurants and private homes, supporting loads as heavy as 450 kg (1000 lbs).


title: Dumbwaiter

text: Building codes have regulated the construction and operation of dumbwaiters in parts of North America since the 19th century. Modern dumbwaiters in the United States and Canada must comply with American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) codes and, therefore, have features similar to those of passenger elevators. The construction, operation and usage of dumbwaiters varies widely according to country.


title: Dumbwaiter

text: Margaret Bayard Smith wrote that former U.S. President Thomas Jefferson had kept dumbwaiters at both the White House and his Monticello estate whenever she visited him at both places. Smith also wrote that these dumbwaiters were built to reduce the number of servants who could be near dining rooms, thus having more privacy in conversations which at times contained sensitive information which could have been leaked outside the White House. After defecting from the Soviet underground in 1938, Whittaker Chambers gave a last stash of stolen documents to his nephew-in-law, Nathan Levine, who hid them in a dumbwaiter in his mother's house in Brooklyn. A decade later, Chambers asked his nephew to retrieve them (which Chambers referred to as his "life preserver"). Handwritten and typewritten papers therein came from Alger Hiss and Harry Dexter White (and became known as the "Baltimore Documents"). Microfilm contained therein was subpoenaed and sensationalized (misnamed the "Pumpkin Papers" in the press) by Richard M Nixon for HUAC.


title: Metre (poetry)

text: In poetry, metre (Commonwealth spelling) or meter (American spelling; see spelling differences) is the basic rhythmic structure of a verse or lines in verse. Many traditional verse forms prescribe a specific verse metre, or a certain set of metres alternating in a particular order. The study and the actual use of metres and forms of versification are both known as prosody. (Within linguistics, "prosody" is used in a more general sense that includes not only poetic metre but also the rhythmic aspects of prose, whether formal or informal, that vary from language to language, and sometimes between poetic traditions.)


title: Metre (poetry)

text: The metre of most poetry of the Western world and elsewhere is based on patterns of syllables of particular types. The familiar type of metre in English-language poetry is called qualitative metre, with stressed syllables coming at regular intervals (e.g. in iambic pentameters, usually every even-numbered syllable). Many Romance languages use a scheme that is somewhat similar but where the position of only one particular stressed syllable (e.g. the last) needs to be fixed. The metre of the old Germanic poetry of languages such as Old Norse and Old English was radically different, but was still based on stress patterns.


title: Metre (poetry)

text: Some classical languages, in contrast, used a different scheme known as quantitative metre, where patterns were based on syllable weight rather than stress. In the dactylic hexameters of Classical Latin and Classical Greek, for example, each of the six feet making up the line was either a dactyl (long-short-short) or a spondee (long-long): a "long syllable" was literally one that took longer to pronounce than a short syllable: specifically, a syllable consisting of a long vowel or diphthong or followed by two consonants. The stress pattern of the words made no difference to the metre. A number of other ancient languages also used quantitative metre, such as Sanskrit, Persian, Old Church Slavonic and Classical Arabic (but not Biblical Hebrew).


title: Metre (poetry)

text: Finally, non-stressed languages that have little or no differentiation of syllable length, such as French or Chinese, base their verses on the number of syllables only. The most common form in French is the , with twelve syllables a verse, and in classical Chinese five characters, and thus five syllables. But since each Chinese character is pronounced using one syllable in a certain tone, classical Chinese poetry also had more strictly defined rules, such as thematic parallelism or tonal antithesis between lines.


title: Metre (poetry)

text: In many Western classical poetic traditions, the metre of a verse can be described as a sequence of "feet", each foot being a specific sequence of syllable types – such as relatively unstressed/stressed (the norm for English poetry) or long/short (as in most classical Latin and Greek poetry).


title: Metre (poetry)

text: Iambic pentameter, a common metre in English poetry, is based on a sequence of five "iambic feet" or "iambs", each consisting of a relatively unstressed syllable (here represented with "˘" above the syllable) followed by a relatively stressed one (here represented with "/" above the syllable) –


title: Metre (poetry)

text: This approach to analyzing and classifying metres originates from Ancient Greek tragedians and poets such as Homer, Pindar, Hesiod, and Sappho.


title: Metre (poetry)

text: However some metres have an overall rhythmic pattern to the line that cannot easily be described using feet. This occurs in Sanskrit poetry; see Vedic metre and Sanskrit metre. (Although this poetry is in fact specified using feet, each "foot" is more or less equivalent to an entire line.) It also occurs in some Western metres, such as the hendecasyllable favoured by Catullus and Martial, which can be described as:


title: Metre (poetry)

text: If the line has only one foot, it is called a "monometer"; two feet, "dimeter"; three is "trimeter"; four is "tetrameter"; five is "pentameter"; six is "hexameter", seven is "heptameter" and eight is "octameter". For example, if the feet are iambs, and if there are five feet to a line, then it is called an iambic pentameter. If the feet are primarily "dactyls" and there are six to a line, then it is a dactylic hexameter.


title: Metre (poetry)

text: Sometimes a natural pause occurs in the middle of a line rather than at a line-break. This is a caesura (cut). A good example is from "The Winter's Tale" by William Shakespeare; the caesurae are indicated by '/':


title: Metre (poetry)

text: Each line of traditional Germanic alliterative verse is divided into two half-lines by a caesura. This can be seen in Piers Plowman:


title: Metre (poetry)

text: By contrast with caesura, enjambment is incomplete syntax at the end of a line; the meaning runs over from one poetic line to the next, without terminal punctuation. Also from Shakespeare's "The Winter's Tale":


title: Metre (poetry)

text: Poems with a well-defined overall metric pattern often have a few lines that violate that pattern. A common variation is the "inversion" of a foot, which turns an iamb ("da-DUM") into a trochee ("DUM-da"). A second variation is a "headless" verse, which lacks the first syllable of the first foot. A third variation is catalexis, where the end of a line is shortened by a foot, or two or part thereof – an example of this is at the end of each verse in Keats' "La Belle Dame sans Merci":


title: Metre (poetry)

text: Most English metre is classified according to the same system as Classical metre with an important difference. English is an accentual language, and therefore beats and offbeats (stressed and unstressed syllables) take the place of the long and short syllables of classical systems. In most English verse, the metre can be considered as a sort of back beat, against which natural speech rhythms vary expressively. The most common characteristic feet of English verse are the iamb in two syllables and the anapest in three. (See Foot (prosody) for a complete list of the metrical feet and their names.)


title: Metre (poetry)

text: The number of metrical systems in English is not agreed upon. The four major types are: accentual verse, accentual-syllabic verse, syllabic verse and quantitative verse. The alliterative verse of Old English could also be added to this list, or included as a special type of accentual verse. Accentual verse focuses on the number of stresses in a line, while ignoring the number of offbeats and syllables; accentual-syllabic verse focuses on regulating both the number of stresses and the total number of syllables in a line; syllabic verse only counts the number of syllables in a line; quantitative verse regulates the patterns of long and short syllables (this sort of verse is often considered alien to English). The use of foreign metres in English is all but exceptional.


title: Metre (poetry)

text: The most frequently encountered metre of English verse is the iambic pentameter, in which the metrical norm is five iambic feet per line, though metrical substitution is common and rhythmic variations are practically inexhaustible. John Milton's "Paradise Lost", most sonnets, and much else besides in English are written in iambic pentameter. Lines of unrhymed iambic pentameter are commonly known as blank verse. Blank verse in the English language is most famously represented in the plays of William Shakespeare and the great works of Milton, though Tennyson ("Ulysses", "The Princess") and Wordsworth ("The Prelude") also make notable use of it.


title: Metre (poetry)

text: A rhymed pair of lines of iambic pentameter make a heroic couplet, a verse form which was used so often in the 18th century that it is now used mostly for humorous effect (although see "Pale Fire" for a non-trivial case). The most famous writers of heroic couplets are Dryden and Pope.


title: Metre (poetry)

text: Another important metre in English is the ballad metre, also called the "common metre", which is a four-line stanza, with two pairs of a line of iambic tetrameter followed by a line of iambic trimeter; the rhymes usually fall on the lines of trimeter, although in many instances the tetrameter also rhymes. This is the metre of most of the Border and Scots or English ballads. In hymnody it is called the "common metre", as it is the most common of the named hymn metres used to pair many hymn lyrics with melodies, such as "Amazing Grace":


title: Metre (poetry)

text: Standard traditional works on metre are Pingala's and Kedāra's . The most exhaustive compilations, such as the modern ones by Patwardhan and Velankar contain over 600 metres. This is a substantially larger repertoire than in any other metrical tradition.


title: Metre (poetry)

text: The metrical "feet" in the classical languages were based on the length of time taken to pronounce each syllable, which were categorized according to their weight as either "long" syllables or "short" syllables (indicated as "dum" and "di" below). These are also called "heavy" and "light" syllables, respectively, to distinguish from long and short vowels. The foot is often compared to a musical measure and the long and short syllables to whole notes and half notes. In English poetry, feet are determined by emphasis rather than length, with stressed and unstressed syllables serving the same function as long and short syllables in classical metre.


title: Metre (poetry)

text: The basic unit in Greek and Latin prosody is a mora, which is defined as a single short syllable. A long syllable is equivalent to two morae. A long syllable contains either a long vowel, a diphthong, or a short vowel followed by two or more consonants. Various rules of elision sometimes prevent a grammatical syllable from making a full syllable, and certain other lengthening and shortening rules (such as correption) can create long or short syllables in contexts where one would expect the opposite.