title: Fresnel equations

text: In the case of total internal reflection where the power transmission is zero, nevertheless describes the electric field (including its phase) just beyond the interface. This is an evanescent field which does not propagate as a wave (thus =0) but has nonzero values very close to the interface. The phase shift of the reflected wave on total internal reflection can similarly be obtained from the phase angles of and (whose magnitudes are unity in this case). These phase shifts are different for "s" and "p" waves, which is the well-known principle by which total internal reflection is used to effect polarization transformations.


title: Fresnel equations

text: In the above formula for , if we put formula_15 (Snell's law) and multiply the numerator and denominator by , we obtain


title: Fresnel equations

text: These formulas are known respectively as "Fresnel's sine law" and "Fresnel's tangent law". Although at normal incidence these expressions reduce to 0/0, one can see that they yield the correct results in the limit as .


title: Fresnel equations

text: When light makes multiple reflections between two or more parallel surfaces, the multiple beams of light generally interfere with one another, resulting in net transmission and reflection amplitudes that depend on the light's wavelength. The interference, however, is seen only when the surfaces are at distances comparable to or smaller than the light's coherence length, which for ordinary white light is few micrometers; it can be much larger for light from a laser.


title: Fresnel equations

text: An example of interference between reflections is the iridescent colours seen in a soap bubble or in thin oil films on water. Applications include Fabry–Pérot interferometers, antireflection coatings, and optical filters. A quantitative analysis of these effects is based on the Fresnel equations, but with additional calculations to account for interference.


title: Fresnel equations

text: The transfer-matrix method, or the recursive Rouard method can be used to solve multiple-surface problems.


title: Fresnel equations

text: In 1808, Étienne-Louis Malus discovered that when a ray of light was reflected off a non-metallic surface at the appropriate angle, it behaved like "one" of the two rays emerging from a doubly-refractive calcite crystal. He later coined the term "polarization" to describe this behavior.  In 1815, the dependence of the polarizing angle on the refractive index was determined experimentally by David Brewster. But the "reason" for that dependence was such a deep mystery that in late 1817, Thomas Young was moved to write:


title: Fresnel equations

text: In 1821, however, Augustin-Jean Fresnel derived results equivalent to his sine and tangent laws (above), by modeling light waves as transverse elastic waves with vibrations perpendicular to what had previously been called the plane of polarization. Fresnel promptly confirmed by experiment that the equations correctly predicted the direction of polarization of the reflected beam when the incident beam was polarized at 45° to the plane of incidence, for light incident from air onto glass or water; in particular, the equations gave the correct polarization at Brewster's angle. The experimental confirmation was reported in a "postscript" to the work in which Fresnel first revealed his theory that light waves, including "unpolarized" waves, were "purely" transverse.


title: Fresnel equations

text: Details of Fresnel's derivation, including the modern forms of the sine law and tangent law, were given later, in a memoir read to the French Academy of Sciences in January 1823. That derivation combined conservation of energy with continuity of the "tangential" vibration at the interface, but failed to allow for any condition on the "normal" component of vibration. The first derivation from "electromagnetic" principles was given by Hendrik Lorentz in 1875.


title: Fresnel equations

text: In the same memoir of January 1823, Fresnel found that for angles of incidence greater than the critical angle, his formulas for the reflection coefficients ( and ) gave complex values with unit magnitudes. Noting that the magnitude, as usual, represented the ratio of peak amplitudes, he guessed that the argument represented the phase shift, and verified the hypothesis experimentally. The verification involved


title: Fresnel equations

text: Thus he finally had a quantitative theory for what we now call the "Fresnel rhomb" — a device that he had been using in experiments, in one form or another, since 1817 (see "Fresnel rhomb §History").


title: Fresnel equations

text: The success of the complex reflection coefficient inspired James MacCullagh and Augustin-Louis Cauchy, beginning in 1836, to analyze reflection from metals by using the Fresnel equations with a complex refractive index.


title: Fresnel equations

text: Four weeks before he presented his completed theory of total internal reflection and the rhomb, Fresnel submitted a memoir in which he introduced the needed terms "linear polarization", "circular polarization", and "elliptical polarization", and in which he explained optical rotation as a species of birefringence: linearly-polarized light can be resolved into two circularly-polarized components rotating in opposite directions, and if these propagate at different speeds, the phase difference between them — hence the orientation of their linearly-polarized resultant — will vary continuously with distance.


title: Fresnel equations

text: Thus Fresnel's interpretation of the complex values of his reflection coefficients marked the confluence of several streams of his research and, arguably, the essential completion of his reconstruction of physical optics on the transverse-wave hypothesis (see "Augustin-Jean Fresnel").


title: Fresnel equations

text: In order to compute meaningful Fresnel coefficients, we must assume that the medium is (approximately) linear and homogeneous. If the medium is also isotropic, the four field vectors are related by


title: Fresnel equations

text: where "ϵ" and "μ" are scalars, known respectively as the (electric) "permittivity" and the (magnetic) "permeability" of the medium. For a vacuum, these have the values "ϵ" and "μ", respectively. Hence we define the "relative" permittivity (or dielectric constant) , and the "relative" permeability .


title: Fresnel equations

text: In optics it is common to assume that the medium is non-magnetic, so that "μ"=1. For ferromagnetic materials at radio/microwave frequencies, larger values of "μ" must be taken into account. But, for optically transparent media, and for all other materials at optical frequencies (except possible metamaterials), "μ" is indeed very close to 1; that is, "μ"≈"μ".


title: Fresnel equations

text: In optics, one usually knows the refractive index "n" of the medium, which is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum () to the speed of light in the medium. In the analysis of partial reflection and transmission, one is also interested in the electromagnetic wave impedance , which is the ratio of the amplitude of to the amplitude of . It is therefore desirable to express "n" and in terms of "ϵ" and "μ", and thence to relate to "n". The last-mentioned relation, however, will make it convenient to derive the reflection coefficients in terms of the wave "admittance" , which is the reciprocal of the wave impedance .


title: Fresnel equations

text: In the case of "uniform plane sinusoidal" waves, the wave impedance or admittance is known as the "intrinsic" impedance or admittance of the medium. This case is the one for which the Fresnel coefficients are to be derived.


title: Fresnel equations

text: where is the (constant) complex amplitude vector,  is the imaginary unit,  is the wave vector (whose magnitude is the angular wavenumber),  is the position vector,  "ω" is the angular frequency,  is time, and it is understood that the "real part" of the expression is the physical field.  The value of the expression is unchanged if the position varies in a direction normal to ; hence "is normal to the wavefronts".


title: Fresnel equations

text: To advance the phase by the angle "ϕ", we replace by (that is, we replace by ), with the result that the (complex) field is multiplied by . So a phase "advance" is equivalent to multiplication by a complex constant with a "negative" argument. This becomes more obvious when the field () is factored as where the last factor contains the time-dependence. That factor also implies that differentiation w.r.t. time corresponds to multiplication by .


title: Fresnel equations

text: If "ℓ" is the component of in the direction of the field () can be written .  If the argument of is to be constant,  "ℓ" must increase at the velocity formula_19 known as the "phase velocity" . This in turn is equal to Solving for gives


title: Fresnel equations

text: As usual, we drop the time-dependent factor which is understood to multiply every complex field quantity. The electric field for a uniform plane sine wave will then be represented by the location-dependent "phasor"


title: Fresnel equations

text: If the material parameters "ϵ" and "μ" are real (as in a lossless dielectric), these equations show that form a "right-handed orthogonal triad", so that the same equations apply to the magnitudes of the respective vectors. Taking the magnitude equations and substituting from (), we obtain


title: Fresnel equations

text: From () we obtain the phase velocity For a vacuum this reduces to Dividing the second result by the first gives


title: Fresnel equations

text: Taking the reciprocal of (), we find that the intrinsic "impedance" is In a vacuum this takes the value formula_24 known as the impedance of free space. By division, /\epsilon_{\text{rel}}}</math>.}} For a "non-magnetic" medium, this becomes formula_25


title: Fresnel equations

text: In Cartesian coordinates , let the region have refractive index intrinsic admittance etc., and let the region have refractive index intrinsic admittance etc. Then the plane is the interface, and the axis is normal to the interface (see diagram). Let and (in bold roman type) be the unit vectors in the and directions, respectively. Let the plane of incidence be the plane (the plane of the page), with the angle of incidence measured from towards . Let the angle of refraction, measured in the same sense, be where the subscript stands for "transmitted" (reserving for "reflected").


title: Fresnel equations

text: In the absence of Doppler shifts, "ω" does not change on reflection or refraction. Hence, by (), the magnitude of the wave vector is proportional to the refractive index.


title: Fresnel equations

text: So, for a given "ω", if we "redefine" as the magnitude of the wave vector in the "reference" medium (for which ), then the wave vector has magnitude in the first medium (region in the diagram) and magnitude in the second medium. From the magnitudes and the geometry, we find that the wave vectors are


title: Fresnel equations

text: For the "s" polarization, the field is parallel to the axis and may therefore be described by its component in the  direction. Let the reflection and transmission coefficients be and respectively. Then, if the incident field is taken to have unit amplitude, the phasor form () of its  component is


title: Fresnel equations

text: Under the sign convention used in this article, a positive reflection or transmission coefficient is one that preserves the direction of the "transverse" field, meaning (in this context) the field normal to the plane of incidence. For the "s" polarization, that means the field. If the incident, reflected, and transmitted fields (in the above equations) are in the  direction ("out of the page"), then the respective fields are in the directions of the red arrows, since form a right-handed orthogonal triad. The fields may therefore be described by their components in the directions of those arrows, denoted by .  Then, since


title: Fresnel equations

text: At the interface, by the usual interface conditions for electromagnetic fields, the tangential components of the and fields must be continuous; that is,


title: Fresnel equations

text: When we substitute from equations () to () and then from (), the exponential factors cancel out, so that the interface conditions reduce to the simultaneous equations


title: Fresnel equations

text: For the "p" polarization, the incident, reflected, and transmitted fields are parallel to the red arrows and may therefore be described by their components in the directions of those arrows. Let those components be (redefining the symbols for the new context). Let the reflection and transmission coefficients be and . Then, if the incident field is taken to have unit amplitude, we have


title: Fresnel equations

text: If the fields are in the directions of the red arrows, then, in order for to form a right-handed orthogonal triad, the respective fields must be in the  direction ("into the page") and may therefore be described by their components in that direction. This is consistent with the adopted sign convention, namely that a positive reflection or transmission coefficient is one that preserves the direction of the transverse field the field in the case of the "p" polarization. The agreement of the "other" field with the red arrows reveals an alternative definition of the sign convention: that a positive reflection or transmission coefficient is one for which the field vector in the plane of incidence points towards the same medium before and after reflection or transmission.


title: Fresnel equations

text: So, for the incident, reflected, and transmitted fields, let the respective components in the  direction be .  Then, since


title: Fresnel equations

text: When we substitute from equations () and () and then from (), the exponential factors again cancel out, so that the interface conditions reduce to


title: Fresnel equations

text: Comparing () and () with () and (), we see that at "normal" incidence, under the adopted sign convention, the transmission coefficients for the two polarizations are equal, whereas the reflection coefficients have equal magnitudes but opposite signs. While this clash of signs is a disadvantage of the convention, the attendant advantage is that the signs agree at "grazing" incidence.


title: Fresnel equations

text: The "Poynting vector" for a wave is a vector whose component in any direction is the "irradiance" (power per unit area) of that wave on a surface perpendicular to that direction. For a plane sinusoidal wave the Poynting vector is where and are due "only" to the wave in question, and the asterisk denotes complex conjugation. Inside a lossless dielectric (the usual case), and are in phase, and at right angles to each other and to the wave vector ; so, for s polarization, using the and components of and respectively (or for p polarization, using the and components of and ), the irradiance in the direction of is given simply by which is in a medium of intrinsic impedance . To compute the irradiance in the direction normal to the interface, as we shall require in the definition of the power transmission coefficient, we could use only the component (rather than the full component) of or or, equivalently, simply multiply by the proper geometric factor, obtaining .


title: Fresnel equations

text: From equations () and (), taking squared magnitudes, we find that the "reflectivity" (ratio of reflected power to incident power) is


title: Fresnel equations

text: for the p polarization. Note that when comparing the powers of two such waves in the same medium and with the same cos"θ", the impedance and geometric factors mentioned above are identical and cancel out. But in computing the power "transmission" (below), these factors must be taken into account.


title: Fresnel equations

text: The simplest way to obtain the power transmission coefficient ("transmissivity", the ratio of transmitted power to incident power "in the direction normal to the interface", i.e. the direction) is to use (conservation of energy). In this way we find


title: Fresnel equations

text: In the case of an interface between two lossless media (for which ϵ and μ are "real" and positive), one can obtain these results directly using the squared magnitudes of the amplitude transmission coefficients that we found earlier in equations () and (). But, for given amplitude (as noted above), the component of the Poynting vector in the direction is proportional to the geometric factor and inversely proportional to the wave impedance . Applying these corrections to each wave, we obtain two ratios multiplying the square of the amplitude transmission coefficient:


title: Fresnel equations

text: for the p polarization. The last two equations apply only to lossless dielectrics, and only at incidence angles smaller than the critical angle (beyond which, of course, ).


title: Fresnel equations

text: From equations () and (), we see that two dissimilar media will have the same refractive index, but different admittances, if the ratio of their permeabilities is the inverse of the ratio of their permittivities. In that unusual situation we have (that is, the transmitted ray is undeviated), so that the cosines in equations (), (), (), (), and () to () cancel out, and all the reflection and transmission ratios become independent of the angle of incidence; in other words, the ratios for normal incidence become applicable to all angles of incidence. When extended to spherical reflection or scattering, this results in the Kerker effect for Mie scattering.


title: Fresnel equations

text: Since the Fresnel equations were developed for optics, they are usually given for non-magnetic materials. Dividing () by ()) yields


title: Fresnel equations

text: that is, the admittances are simply proportional to the corresponding refractive indices. When we make these substitutions in equations () to () and equations () to (), the factor "cμ" cancels out. For the amplitude coefficients we obtain:


title: Fresnel equations

text: For equal permeabilities (e.g., non-magnetic media), if and are "complementary", we can substitute for and for so that the numerator in equation () becomes which is zero (by Snell's law). Hence and only the s-polarized component is reflected. This is what happens at the Brewster angle. Substituting for in Snell's law, we readily obtain


title: Fresnel equations

text: Although it is not encountered in practice, the equations can also apply to the case of two media with a common permittivity but different refractive indices due to different permeabilities. From equations () and (), if "ϵ" is fixed instead of "μ", then becomes "inversely" proportional to , with the result that the subscripts 1 and 2 in equations () to () are interchanged (due to the additional step of multiplying the numerator and denominator by ). Hence, in () and (), the expressions for and in terms of refractive indices will be interchanged, so that Brewster's angle () will give instead of and any beam reflected at that angle will be p-polarized instead of s-polarized. Similarly, Fresnel's sine law will apply to the p polarization instead of the s polarization, and his tangent law to the s polarization instead of the p polarization.


title: Fresnel equations

text: This switch of polarizations has an analog in the old mechanical theory of light waves (see "§History", above). One could predict reflection coefficients that agreed with observation by supposing (like Fresnel) that different refractive indices were due to different "densities" and that the vibrations were "normal" to what was then called the plane of polarization, or by supposing (like MacCullagh and Neumann) that different refractive indices were due to different "elasticities" and that the vibrations were "parallel" to that plane. Thus the condition of equal permittivities and unequal permeabilities, although not realistic, is of some historical interest.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin ( (); 1 May 1881 – 10 April 1955) was a French Jesuit priest, scientist, paleontologist, theologian, philosopher and teacher. He was Darwinian in outlook and the author of several influential theological and philosophical books.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: He took part in the discovery of Peking Man. He conceived the vitalist idea of the Omega Point. With Vladimir Vernadsky he developed the concept of the noosphere.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: In 1962, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith condemned several of Teilhard's works based on their alleged ambiguities and doctrinal errors. Some eminent Catholic figures, including Pope Benedict XVI and Pope Francis, have made positive comments on some of his ideas since. The response to his writings by scientists has been divided.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Teilhard served in World War I as a stretcher-bearer. He received several citations, and was awarded the Médaille militaire and the Legion of Honor, the highest French order of merit, both military and civil.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin was born in the Château of Sarcenat, Orcines, some north-west of Clermont-Ferrand, Auvergne, French Third Republic, on 1 May 1881, as the fourth of eleven children of librarian Emmanuel Teilhard de Chardin (1844–1932) and Berthe-Adèle, née de Dompierre d'Hornoys of Picardy, a great-grandniece of Voltaire. He inherited the double surname from his father, who was descended on the Teilhard side from an ancient family of magistrates from Auvergne originating in Murat, Cantal, ennobled under Louis XVIII of France.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: His father, a graduate of the École Nationale des Chartes, served as a regional librarian and was a keen naturalist. He collected rocks, insects and plants and encouraged nature studies in the family. Pierre Teilhard's spirituality was awakened by his mother. When he was twelve, he went to the Jesuit college of Mongré in Villefranche-sur-Saône, where he completed the Baccalauréat in philosophy and mathematics. In 1899, he entered the Jesuit novitiate in Aix-en-Provence. In October 1900, he began his junior studies at the Collégiale Saint-Michel de Laval. On 25 March 1901, he made his first vows. In 1902, Teilhard completed a licentiate in literature at the University of Caen.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: That same year the Émile Combes premiership took over from Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau in pursuit of an anti-clerical agenda. As a result, religious associations had to submit their properties to state control, which obliged the Jesuits to go into exile in the United Kingdom. Theilhard continued his philosophical studies on the island of Jersey until 1905. Strong in science subjects, he was despatched to teach physics at the Collège de la Sainte Famille in Cairo, Khedivate of Egypt until 1908. From there he wrote in a letter: "[I]t is the dazzling of the East foreseen and drunk greedily ... in its lights, its vegetation, its fauna and its deserts."


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: For the next four years he was a Scholastic at "Ore Place" in Hastings, East Sussex where he acquired his theological formation. There he synthesized his scientific, philosophical and theological knowledge in the light of evolution. At that time he read "Creative Evolution" by Henri Bergson, about which he wrote that "the only effect that brilliant book had upon me was to provide fuel at just the right moment, and very briefly, for a fire that was already consuming my heart and mind." Bergson's ideas were influential on his views on matter, life, and energy. On 24 August 1911, aged 30, he was ordained priest.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: From 1912 to 1914, Teilhard worked in the paleontology laboratory of the National Museum of Natural History, France, studying the mammals of the middle Tertiary period. Later he studied elsewhere in Europe. In June 1912 he formed part of the original digging team, with Arthur Smith Woodward and Charles Dawson, at the Piltdown site, after the discovery of the first fragments of the fraudulent "Piltdown Man". Some have suggested he participated in the hoax. Marcellin Boule, a specialist in Neanderthal studies, who as early as 1915 had recognized the non-hominid origins of the Piltdown finds, gradually guided Teilhard towards human paleontology. At the museum's Institute of Human Paleontology, he became a friend of Henri Breuil and in 1913 took part with him in excavations at the prehistoric painted Cave of El Castillo in northwest Spain.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Mobilized in December 1914, Teilhard served in World War I as a stretcher-bearer in the 8th Moroccan Rifles. For his valor, he received several citations, including the Médaille militaire and the Legion of Honor.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: During the war, he developed his reflections in his diaries and in letters to his cousin, Marguerite Teillard-Chambon, who later published a collection of them. (See section below) He later wrote: "...the war was a meeting ... with the Absolute." In 1916, he wrote his first essay: "La Vie Cosmique" ("Cosmic life"), where his scientific and philosophical thought was revealed just as his mystical life. While on leave from the military he pronounced his solemn vows as a Jesuit in Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon on 26 May 1918. In August 1919, in Jersey, he wrote "Puissance spirituelle de la Matière" ("The Spiritual Power of Matter").


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: At the University of Paris, Teilhard pursued three unit degrees of natural science: geology, botany, and zoology. His thesis treated the mammals of the French lower Eocene and their stratigraphy. After 1920, he lectured in geology at the Catholic Institute of Paris and after earning a science doctorate in 1922 became an assistant professor there.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: In 1923 he traveled to China with Father Émile Licent, who was in charge of a significant laboratory collaboration between the National Museum of Natural History and Marcellin Boule's laboratory in Tianjin. Licent carried out considerable basic work in connection with missionaries who accumulated observations of a scientific nature in their spare time.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Teilhard wrote several essays, including "La Messe sur le Monde" (the "Mass on the World"), in the Ordos Desert. In the following year, he continued lecturing at the Catholic Institute and participated in a cycle of conferences for the students of the Engineers' Schools. Two theological essays on original sin were sent to a theologian at his request on a purely personal basis:


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: The Church required him to give up his lecturing at the Catholic Institute in order to continue his geological research in China.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Teilhard traveled again to China in April 1926. He would remain there for about twenty years, with many voyages throughout the world. He settled until 1932 in Tianjin with Émile Licent, then in Beijing. Teilhard made five geological research expeditions in China between 1926 and 1935. They enabled him to establish a general geological map of China.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: In 1926–27, after a missed campaign in Gansu, Teilhard traveled in the Sanggan River Valley near Kalgan (Zhangjiakou) and made a tour in Eastern Mongolia. He wrote "Le Milieu Divin" ("The Divine Milieu"). Teilhard prepared the first pages of his main work "Le Phénomène Humain" ("The Phenomenon of Man"). The Holy See refused the Imprimatur for "Le Milieu Divin" in 1927.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: He joined the ongoing excavations of the Peking Man Site at Zhoukoudian as an advisor in 1926 and continued in the role for the Cenozoic Research Laboratory of the China Geological Survey following its founding in 1928. Teilhard resided in Manchuria with Émile Licent, staying in western Shanxi and northern Shaanxi with the Chinese paleontologist Yang Zhongjian and with Davidson Black, Chairman of the China Geological Survey.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: After a tour in Manchuria in the area of Greater Khingan with Chinese geologists, Teilhard joined the team of American Expedition Center-Asia in the Gobi Desert, organized in June and July by the American Museum of Natural History with Roy Chapman Andrews. Henri Breuil and Teilhard discovered that the Peking Man, the nearest relative of "Anthropopithecus" from Java, was a "faber" (worker of stones and controller of fire). Teilhard wrote "L'Esprit de la Terre" ("The Spirit of the Earth").


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Teilhard took part as a scientist in the Croisière Jaune (Yellow Cruise) financed by André Citroën in Central Asia. Northwest of Beijing in Kalgan, he joined the Chinese group who joined the second part of the team, the Pamir group, in Aksu City. He remained with his colleagues for several months in Ürümqi, capital of Xinjiang.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: In 1933, Rome ordered him to give up his post in Paris. Teilhard subsequently undertook several explorations in the south of China. He traveled in the valleys of the Yangtze and Sichuan in 1934, then, the following year, in Guangxi and Guangdong. The relationship with Marcellin Boule was disrupted; the museum cut its financing on the grounds that Teilhard worked more for the Chinese Geological Service than for the museum.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: During all these years, Teilhard contributed considerably to the constitution of an international network of research in human paleontology related to the whole of eastern and southeastern Asia. He would be particularly associated in this task with two friends, Davidson Black and the Scot George Brown Barbour. Often he would visit France or the United States, only to leave these countries for further expeditions.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: From 1927 to 1928, Teilhard based himself in Paris. He journeyed to Leuven, Belgium, and to Cantal and Ariège, France. Between several articles in reviews, he met new people such as Paul Valéry and Bruno de Solages, who were to help him in issues with the Catholic Church.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Answering an invitation from Henry de Monfreid, Teilhard undertook a journey of two months in Obock, in Harar in the Ethiopian Empire, and in Somalia with his colleague Pierre Lamarre, a geologist, before embarking in Djibouti to return to Tianjin. While in China, Teilhard developed a deep and personal friendship with Lucile Swan.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: During 1930–1931, Teilhard stayed in France and in the United States. During a conference in Paris, Teilhard stated: "For the observers of the Future, the greatest event will be the sudden appearance of a collective humane conscience and a human work to make." From 1932 to 1933, he began to meet people to clarify issues with the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith regarding "Le Milieu divin" and "L'Esprit de la Terre". He met Helmut de Terra, a German geologist in the International Geology Congress in Washington, D.C.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Teilhard participated in the 1935 Yale–Cambridge expedition in northern and central India with the geologist Helmut de Terra and Patterson, who verified their assumptions on Indian Paleolithic civilisations in Kashmir and the Salt Range Valley. He then made a short stay in Java, on the invitation of Dutch paleontologist Gustav Heinrich Ralph von Koenigswald to the site of Java Man. A second cranium, more complete, was discovered. Professor von Koenigswald had also found a tooth in a Chinese apothecary shop in 1934 that he believed belonged to a three-meter-tall ape, "Gigantopithecus," which lived between one hundred thousand and around a million years ago. Fossilized teeth and bone ("dragon bones") are often ground into powder and used in some branches of traditional Chinese medicine.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: In 1937, Teilhard wrote "Le Phénomène spirituel" ("The Phenomenon of the Spirit") on board the boat Empress of Japan, where he met Sylvia Brett, Ranee of Sarawak The ship conveyed him to the United States. He received the Mendel Medal granted by Villanova University during the Congress of Philadelphia, in recognition of his works on human paleontology. He made a speech about evolution, the origins and the destiny of man. "The New York Times" dated 19 March 1937 presented Teilhard as the Jesuit who held that man descended from monkeys. Some days later, he was to be granted the "Doctor Honoris Causa" distinction from Boston College. Upon arrival in that city, he was told that the award had been cancelled.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Rome banned his work "L’Énergie Humaine" in 1939. By this point Teilhard was based again in France, where he was immobilized by malaria. During his return voyage to Beijing he wrote "L'Energie spirituelle de la Souffrance" ("Spiritual Energy of Suffering") (Complete Works, tome VII).


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: In 1941, Teilhard submitted to Rome his most important work, "Le Phénomène Humain". By 1947, Rome forbade him to write or teach on philosophical subjects. The next year, Teilhard was called to Rome by the Superior General of the Jesuits who hoped to acquire permission from the Holy See for the publication of "Le Phénomène Humain". However, the prohibition to publish it that was previously issued in 1944 was again renewed. Teilhard was also forbidden to take a teaching post in the Collège de France. Another setback came in 1949, when permission to publish "Le Groupe Zoologique" was refused.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Teilhard was nominated to the French Academy of Sciences in 1950. He was forbidden by his Superiors to attend the International Congress of


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Paleontology in 1955. The Supreme Authority of the Holy Office, in a decree dated 15 November 1957, forbade the works of de Chardin to be retained in libraries, including those of religious institutes. His books were not to be sold in Catholic bookshops and were not to be translated into other languages.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Further resistance to Teilhard's work arose elsewhere. In April 1958, all Jesuit publications in Spain ("Razón y Fe", "Sal Terrae","Estudios de Deusto", etc.) carried a notice from the Spanish Provincial of the Jesuits that Teilhard's works had been published in Spanish without previous ecclesiastical examination and in defiance of the decrees of the Holy See. A decree of the Holy Office dated 30 June 1962, under the authority of Pope John XXIII, warned:


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: The Diocese of Rome on 30 September 1963 required Catholic booksellers in Rome to withdraw his works as well as those that supported his views.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Teilhard died in New York City, where he was in residence at the Jesuit Church of St. Ignatius Loyola, Park Avenue. On 15 March 1955, at the house of his diplomat cousin Jean de Lagarde, Teilhard told friends he hoped he would die on Easter Sunday. On the evening of Easter Sunday, 10 April 1955, during an animated discussion at the apartment of Rhoda de Terra, his personal assistant since 1949, Teilhard suffered a heart attack and died. He was buried in the cemetery for the New York Province of the Jesuits at the Jesuit novitiate, St. Andrew-on-Hudson, in Hyde Park, New York. With the moving of the novitiate, the property was sold to the Culinary Institute of America in 1970.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: His posthumously published book, "The Phenomenon of Man", set forth a sweeping account of the unfolding of the cosmos and the evolution of matter to humanity, to ultimately a reunion with Christ. In the book, Teilhard abandoned literal interpretations of creation in the Book of Genesis in favor of allegorical and theological interpretations. The unfolding of the material cosmos is described from primordial particles to the development of life, human beings and the noosphere, and finally to his vision of the Omega Point in the future, which is "pulling" all creation towards it. He was a leading proponent of orthogenesis, the idea that evolution occurs in a directional, goal-driven way. Teilhard argued in Darwinian terms with respect to biology, and supported the synthetic model of evolution, but argued in Lamarckian terms for the development of culture, primarily through the vehicle of education.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Teilhard made a total commitment to the evolutionary process in the 1920s as the core of his spirituality, at a time when other religious thinkers felt evolutionary thinking challenged the structure of conventional Christian faith. He committed himself to what the evidence showed.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Teilhard made sense of the universe by assuming it had a vitalist evolutionary process. He interprets complexity as the axis of evolution of matter into a geosphere, a biosphere, into consciousness (in man), and then to supreme consciousness (the Omega Point). Jean Houston's story of meeting Teilhard illustrates this point.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Teilhard's unique relationship to both paleontology and Catholicism allowed him to develop a highly progressive, cosmic theology which took into account his evolutionary studies. Teilhard recognized the importance of bringing the Church into the modern world, and approached evolution as a way of providing ontological meaning for Christianity, particularly creation theology. For Teilhard, evolution was "the natural landscape where the history of salvation is situated."


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Teilhard's cosmic theology is largely predicated on his interpretation of Pauline scripture, particularly Colossians 1:15-17 (especially verse 1:17b) and 1 Corinthians 15:28. He drew on the Christocentrism of these two Pauline passages to construct a cosmic theology which recognizes the absolute primacy of Christ. He understood creation to be "a teleological process towards union with the Godhead, effected through the incarnation and redemption of Christ, 'in whom all things hold together' (Col. 1:17)." He further posited that creation would not be complete until each "participated being is totally united with God through Christ in the Pleroma, when God will be 'all in all' (1Cor. 15:28)."


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Teilhard's life work was predicated on his conviction that human spiritual development is moved by the same universal laws as material development. He wrote, "...everything is the sum of the past" and "...nothing is comprehensible except through its history. 'Nature' is the equivalent of 'becoming', self-creation: this is the view to which experience irresistibly leads us. ... There is nothing, not even the human soul, the highest spiritual manifestation we know of, that does not come within this universal law."


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: "The Phenomenon of Man" represents Teilhard's attempt at reconciling his religious faith with his academic interests as a paleontologist. One particularly poignant observation in Teilhard's book entails the notion that evolution is becoming an increasingly optional process. Teilhard points to the societal problems of isolation and marginalization as huge inhibitors of evolution, especially since evolution requires a unification of consciousness. He states that "no evolutionary future awaits anyone except in association with everyone else." Teilhard argued that the human condition necessarily leads to the psychic unity of humankind, though he stressed that this unity can only be voluntary; this voluntary psychic unity he termed "unanimization". Teilhard also states that "evolution is an ascent toward consciousness", giving encephalization as an example of early stages, and therefore, signifies a continuous upsurge toward the Omega Point which, for all intents and purposes, is God.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Teilhard also used his perceived correlation between spiritual and material to describe Christ, arguing that Christ not only has a mystical dimension but also takes on a physical dimension as he becomes the organizing principle of the universe—that is, the one who "holds together" the universe (Col. 1:17b). For Teilhard, Christ forms not only the eschatological end toward which his mystical/ecclesial body is oriented, but he also "operates physically in order to regulate all things" becoming "the one from whom all creation receives its stability." In other words, as the one who holds all things together, "Christ exercises a supremacy over the universe which is physical, not simply juridical. He is the unifying center of the universe and its goal. The function of holding all things together indicates that Christ is not only man and God; he also possesses a third aspect—indeed, a third nature—which is cosmic."


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: In this way, the Pauline description of the Body of Christ is not simply a mystical or ecclesial concept for Teilhard; it is cosmic. This cosmic Body of Christ "extend[s] throughout the universe and compris[es] all things that attain their fulfillment in Christ [so that] ... the Body of Christ is the one single thing that is being made in creation." Teilhard describes this cosmic amassing of Christ as "Christogenesis". According to Teilhard, the universe is engaged in Christogenesis as it evolves toward its full realization at Omega, a point which coincides with the fully realized Christ. It is at this point that God will be "all in all" (1Cor. 15:28c).


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Tielhard has been criticized as incorporating common notions of Social Darwinism and scientific racism into his work, along with support for eugenics, though he has also been defended by theologian John Haught.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: In 1925, Teilhard was ordered by the Superior General of the Society of Jesus, Włodzimierz Ledóchowski, to leave his teaching position in France and to sign a statement withdrawing his controversial statements regarding the doctrine of original sin. Rather than leave the Society of Jesus, Teilhard signed the statement and left for China.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: This was the first of a series of condemnations by a range of ecclesiastical officials that would continue until after Teilhard's death. The climax of these condemnations was a 1962 "monitum" (warning) of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith cautioning on Teilhard's works. It said:


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: The Holy Office did not, however, place any of Teilhard's writings on the "Index Librorum Prohibitorum" (Index of Forbidden Books), which still existed during Teilhard's lifetime and at the time of the 1962 decree.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Shortly thereafter, prominent clerics mounted a strong theological defense of Teilhard's works. Henri de Lubac (later a Cardinal) wrote three comprehensive books on the theology of Teilhard de Chardin in the 1960s. While de Lubac mentioned that Teilhard was less than precise in some of his concepts, he affirmed the orthodoxy of Teilhard de Chardin and responded to Teilhard's critics: "We need not concern ourselves with a number of detractors of Teilhard, in whom emotion has blunted intelligence". Later that decade Joseph Ratzinger, a German theologian who became Pope Benedict XVI, spoke glowingly of Teilhard's Christology in Ratzinger's "Introduction to Christianity":


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Over the next several decades prominent theologians and prelates, including leading cardinals all wrote approvingly of Teilhard's ideas. In 1981, Cardinal Agostino Casaroli, wrote on the front page of the Vatican newspaper, "l'Osservatore Romano":


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: On 20 July 1981, the Holy See stated that, after consultation of Cardinal Casaroli and Cardinal Franjo Šeper, the letter did not change the position of the warning issued by the Holy Office on 30 June 1962, which pointed out that Teilhard's work contained ambiguities and grave doctrinal errors.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Cardinal Ratzinger in his book "The Spirit of the Liturgy" incorporates Teilhard's vision as a touchstone of the Catholic Mass:


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: In July 2009, Vatican spokesman Federico Lombardi said, "By now, no one would dream of saying that [Teilhard] is a heterodox author who shouldn't be studied."


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Fr Donal Dorr (Theologian) refers to Teilhard in his 2020 book: A Creed for Today. Faith and Commitment for our New Earth Awareness.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: The philosopher Dietrich von Hildebrand criticized severely the work of Teilhard. According to Hildebrand, in a conversation after a lecture by Teilhard: "He (Teilhard) ignored completely the decisive difference between nature and supernature. After a lively discussion in which I ventured a criticism of his ideas, I had an opportunity to speak to Teilhard privately. When our talk touched on St. Augustine, he exclaimed violently: 'Don’t mention that unfortunate man; he spoiled everything by introducing the supernatural.'" Von Hildebrand writes that Teilhardism is incompatible with Christianity, substitutes efficiency for sanctity, dehumanizes man, and describes love as merely cosmic energy.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Julian Huxley, the evolutionary biologist, in the preface to the 1955 edition of "The Phenomenon of Man", praised the thought of Teilhard de Chardin for looking at the way in which human development needs to be examined within a larger integrated universal sense of evolution, though admitting he could not follow Teilhard all the way.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Theodosius Dobzhansky, writing in 1973, drew upon Teilhard's insistence that evolutionary theory provides the core of how man understands his relationship to nature, calling him "one of the great thinkers of our age".


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: According to Daniel Dennett (1995), "it has become clear to the point of unanimity among scientists that Teilhard offered nothing serious in the way of an alternative to orthodoxy; the ideas that were peculiarly his were confused, and the rest was just bombastic redescription of orthodoxy."


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Steven Rose wrote that "Teilhard is revered as a mystic of genius by some, but among most biologists is seen as little more than a charlatan."


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: In 1961, British immunologist and Nobel laureate Peter Medawar wrote a scornful review of "The Phenomenon of Man" for the journal "Mind": "the greater part of it [...] is nonsense, tricked out with a variety of metaphysical conceits, and its author can be excused of dishonesty only on the grounds that before deceiving others he has taken great pains to deceive himself. [...] Teilhard practiced an intellectually unexacting kind of science [...]. He has no grasp of what makes a logical argument or what makes for proof. He does not even preserve the common decencies of scientific writing, though his book is professedly a scientific treatise. [...] Teilhard habitually and systematically cheats with words [...], uses in metaphor words like energy, tension, force, impetus, and dimension as if they retained the weight and thrust of their special scientific usages. [...] It is the style that creates the illusion of content."


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Evolutionary biologist and New Atheist Richard Dawkins called Medawar's review "devastating" and "The Phenomenon of Man" "the quintessence of bad poetic science".


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: George Gaylord Simpson felt that if Teilhard were right, the lifework "of Huxley, Dobzhansky, and hundreds of others was not only wrong, but meaningless", and was mystified by their public support for him. He considered Teilhard a friend and his work in paleontology extensive and important, but expressed strongly adverse views of his contributions as scientific theorist and philosopher.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: In 2019, evolutionary biologist David Sloan Wilson praised Teilhard's book "The Phenomenon of Man" as "scientifically prophetic in many ways", and considers his own work as an updated version of it, commenting that "[m]odern evolutionary theory shows that what Teilhard meant by the Omega Point is achievable in the foreseeable future."


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Wolfgang Smith, an American scientist versed in Catholic theology, devotes an entire book to the critique of Teilhard's doctrine, which he considers neither scientific (assertions without proofs), nor Catholic (personal innovations), nor metaphysical (the "Absolute Being" is not yet absolute), and of which the following elements can be noted (all the words in quotation marks are Teilhard's, quoted by Smith) :


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Smith claims that for Teilhard, evolution is not only a scientific theory but an irrefutable truth "immune from any subsequent contradiction by experience "; it constitutes the foundation of his doctrine. Matter becomes spirit and humanity moves towards a super-humanity thanks to complexification (physico-chemical, then biological, then human), socialization, scientific research and technological and cerebral development; the explosion of the first atomic bomb is one of its milestones, while waiting for "the vitalization of matter by the creation of super-molecules, the remodeling of the human organism by means of hormones, control of heredity and sex by manipulation of genes and chromosomes [...]".


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Teilhard maintains that the human spirit (which he identifies with the "anima" and not with the "spiritus") originates in a matter which becomes more and more complex until it produces life, then consciousness, then the consciousness of being conscious, holding that the immaterial can emerge from the material. At the same time, he supports the idea of the presence of embryos of consciousness from the very genesis of the universe: "We are logically forced to assume the existence [...] of some sort of psyche" infinitely diffuse in the smallest particle.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Smith believes that since Teilhard affirms that "God creates evolutively", he denies the Book of Genesis, not only because it attests that God created man, but that he created him in his own image, thus perfect and complete, then that man fell, that is to say the opposite of an ascending evolution. That which is metaphysically and theologically "above" - symbolically speaking - becomes for Teilhard "ahead", yet to come; even God, who is neither perfect nor timeless, evolves in symbiosis with the World, which Teilhard, a resolute pantheist, venerates as the equal of the Divine. As for Christ, not only is he there to activate the wheels of progress and complete the evolutionary ascent, but he himself evolves..


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: As he wrote to a cousin: "What dominates my interests increasingly is the effort to establish in me and define around me a new religion (call it a better Christianity, if you will)...", and elsewhere: "a Christianity re-incarnated for a second time in the spiritual energies of Matter". The more Teilhard refines his theories, the more he emancipates himself from established Christian doctrine: a "religion of the earth" must replace a "religion of heaven". By their common faith in Man, he writes, Christians, Marxists, Darwinists, materialists of all kinds will ultimately join around the same summit: the Christic Omega Point.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Brian Swimme wrote "Teilhard was one of the first scientists to realize that the human and the universe are inseparable. The only universe we know about is a universe that brought forth the human."


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: George Gaylord Simpson named the most primitive and ancient genus of true primate, the Eocene genus "Teilhardina".


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Teilhard and his work continue to influence the arts and culture. Characters based on Teilhard appear in several novels, including Jean Telemond in Morris West's "The Shoes of the Fisherman" (mentioned by name and quoted by Oskar Werner playing Fr. Telemond in the movie version of the novel). In Dan Simmons' 1989–97 "Hyperion Cantos", Teilhard de Chardin has been canonized a saint in the far future. His work inspires the anthropologist priest character, Paul Duré. When Duré becomes Pope, he takes "Teilhard I" as his regnal name. Teilhard appears as a minor character in the play "Fake" by Eric Simonson, staged by Chicago's Steppenwolf Theatre Company in 2009, involving a fictional solution to the infamous Piltdown Man hoax.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: References range from occasional quotations—an auto mechanic quotes Teilhard in Philip K. Dick's "A Scanner Darkly"—to serving as the philosophical underpinning of the plot, as Teilhard's work does in Julian May's 1987–94 Galactic Milieu Series. Teilhard also plays a major role in Annie Dillard's 1999 "For the Time Being". Teilhard is mentioned by name and the Omega Point briefly explained in Arthur C. Clarke's and Stephen Baxter's "The Light of Other Days".


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: The title of the short-story collection "Everything That Rises Must Converge" by Flannery O'Connor is a reference to Teilhard's work. The American novelist Don DeLillo's 2010 novel "Point Omega" borrows its title and some of its ideas from Teilhard de Chardin. Robert Wright, in his book "", compares his own naturalistic thesis that biological and cultural evolution are directional and, possibly, purposeful, with Teilhard's ideas.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Teilhard's work also inspired philosophical ruminations by Italian laureate architect Paolo Soleri and Mexican writer Margarita Casasús Altamirano, artworks such as French painter Alfred Manessier's "L'Offrande de la terre ou Hommage à Teilhard de Chardin" and American sculptor Frederick Hart's acrylic sculpture "The Divine Milieu: Homage to Teilhard de Chardin". A sculpture of the Omega Point by Henry Setter, with a quote from Teilhard de Chardin, can be found at the entrance to the Roesch Library at the University of Dayton. The Spanish painter Salvador Dalí was fascinated by Teilhard de Chardin and the Omega Point theory. His 1959 painting "The Ecumenical Council" is said to represent the "interconnectedness" of the Omega Point.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: "The Embracing Universe", an oratorio for choir and 7 instruments, composed by Justin Grounds to a libretto by Fred LaHaye saw its first performance in 2019. It is based on the life and thought of Teilhard de Chardin.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Several college campuses honor Teilhard. A building at the University of Manchester is named after him, as are residence dormitories at Gonzaga University and Seattle University.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: "The De Chardin Project", a play celebrating Teilhard's life, ran from 20 November to 14 December 2014 in Toronto, Canada. "The Evolution of Teilhard de Chardin", a documentary film on Teilhard's life, was scheduled for release in 2015.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: The American physicist Frank J. Tipler has further developed Teilhard's Omega Point concept in two controversial books, "The Physics of Immortality" and the more theologically based Physics of Christianity. While keeping the central premise of Teilhard's Omega Point (i.e. a universe evolving towards a maximum state of complexity and consciousness) Tipler has supplanted some of the more mystical/ theological elements of the OPT with his own scientific and mathematical observations (as well as some elements borrowed from Freeman Dyson's eternal intelligence theory).


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: In 1972, the Uruguayan priest Juan Luis Segundo, in his five-volume series "A Theology for Artisans of a New Humanity," wrote that Teilhard "noticed the profound analogies existing between the conceptual elements used by the natural sciences — all of them being based on the hypothesis of a general evolution of the universe."


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: French anthropologist Jean Baudrillard's 1976 book "Symbolic Exchange and Death" explicitly mentions Teilhard de Chardin. He also mentions the OMega point.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: , (alias Claude Aragonnès) was a French writer who edited and had published three volumes of correspondence with her cousin, Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, "La genèse d'une pensée" ("The Making of a Mind") being the last, after her own death in 1959. She furnished each with an introduction. Marguerite, a year older than Teilhard, was considered among those who knew and understood him best. They had shared a childhood in Auvergne; she it was who encouraged him to undertake a doctorate in science at the Sorbonne; she eased his entry into the Catholic Institute, through her connection to Emmanuel de Margerie and she introduced him to the intellectual life of Paris. Throughout the First World War, she corresponded with him, acting as a "midwife" to his thinking, helping his thought to emerge and honing it. In September 1959 she participated in a gathering organised at Saint-Babel, near Issoire, devoted to Teilhard's philosophical contribution. On the way home to Chambon-sur-Lac, she was fatally injured in a road traffic accident. Her sister, Alice, completed the final preparations for the publication of the final volume of her cousin Teilhard's wartime letters.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Teilhard has had a profound influence on the New Age movements and has been described as "perhaps the man most responsible for the spiritualization of evolution in a global and cosmic context".


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Teilhard's words about likening the discovery of the power of love to the second time man will have discovered the power of fire, were quoted in the sermon of the Most Reverend Michael Curry, Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church, during the wedding of Prince Harry and Meghan Markle on 20 May 2018.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: Fritjof Capra's systems theory book "The Turning Point: Science, Society, and the Rising Culture" positively contrasts Teilhard to Darwinian evolution.


title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

text: The dates in parentheses are the dates of first publication in French and English. Most of these works were written years earlier, but Teilhard's ecclesiastical order forbade him to publish them because of their controversial nature. The essay collections are organized by subject rather than date, thus each one typically spans many years.


title: Fluticasone propionate

text: Fluticasone propionate, sold under the brand names Flovent and Flonase among others, is a steroid medication. When inhaled it is used for the long term management of asthma and COPD. In the nose it is used for hay fever and nasal polyps. It can also be used for mouth ulcers. It works by decreasing inflammation.


title: Fluticasone propionate

text: Common side effects when inhaled include upper respiratory tract infections, sinusitis, thrush, and cough. Common side effects when used in the nose include nosebleeding and sore throat.


title: Fluticasone propionate

text: Fluticasone propionate was patented in 1980, and approved for medical use in 1990. It is available as a generic medication. In 2020, fluticasone was the 23rd most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 24million prescriptions.


title: Fluticasone propionate

text: Fluticasone propionate is used by powder or aerosol inhalation for the prophylaxis of asthma. The nasal spray is used for prevention and treatment of allergic rhinitis. Nasal drops are used in the treatment of nasal polyps. The nasal spray can also be used in the mouth for mouth ulcers.


title: Fluticasone propionate

text: Fluticasone propionate in a topical form can be used to treat skin conditions such as eczema, psoriasis, and rashes.


title: Fluticasone propionate

text: If taken correctly, the nasal spray and oral inhaler formulation have fewer corticosteroid side effects than the tablet formulation because they limit systemic (blood) absorption. However, systemic absorption is not negligible even with correct administration. Using the spray or inhaler at higher than recommended doses or with other corticosteroids can increase the risk for serious, systemic corticosteroid induced side effects. These side effects include weakened immune system, increased risk of systemic infections, osteoporosis, and elevated pressure in the eyes.


title: Fluticasone propionate

text: Common side effects may include nasal irritation (burning, stinging, bleeding), headache, upset stomach (nausea, vomiting), and diarrhea. Rare side effects include infection (evidenced by, for example, fever, sore throat, and cough), vision problems, severe swelling, hoarse voice, and difficulty breathing or swallowing.


title: Fluticasone propionate

text: Common side effects may include upper respiratory tract infection, throat irritation, thrush, cough, and headache. Rare side effects include bruising, swelling of the face/neck, depression, tiredness, and shortness of breath.


title: Fluticasone propionate

text: Fluticasone propionate is a highly selective agonist at the glucocorticoid receptor with negligible activity at androgen, estrogen, or mineralocorticoid receptors, thereby producing anti-inflammatory and vasoconstriction effects. It has been shown to have a wide range of inhibitory effects on multiple cell types (e.g. mast cell, eosinophil, neutrophil, macrophages, and lymphocytes) and mediators (e.g. histamine, eicosanoids, leukotrienes, and cytokines) involved in inflammation. Fluticasone propionate is stated to exert a topical effect on the lungs without significant systemic effects at usual doses, due to its low systemic bioavailability.


title: Fluticasone propionate

text: Fluticasone propionate is broken down by CYP3A4 (Cytochrome P450 3A4), and has been shown to interact with strong CYP3A4 inhibitors such as ritonavir and ketoconazole.


title: Fluticasone propionate

text: Ritonavir is a common drug used in the treatment of HIV. Coadministration of ritonavir and fluticasone may lead to increased levels of fluticasone in the body, which may lead to Cushing's Syndrome and adrenal insufficiency.


title: Fluticasone propionate

text: Ketoconazole, an antifungal drug, has also been shown to increase fluticasone concentration leading to systemic corticosteroid side effects.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: Krishna Janmashtami , also known simply as Krishnashtami, Janmashtami, or Gokulashtami, is an annual Hindu festival that celebrates the birth of Krishna, the eighth avatar of Vishnu. According to the Hindu lunisolar calendar, it is observed on the eighth tithi (Ashtami) of the Krishna Paksha (dark fortnight) of Shraavana Masa (according to the amanta tradition) or Bhadrapada Masa (according to the purnimanta tradition). This overlaps with August or September of the Gregorian calendar.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: It is an important festival, particularly in the Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism. Dance-drama enactments of the life of Krishna according to the "Bhagavata Purana" (such as Rasa Lila or Krishna Lila), devotional singing through the midnight when Krishna was born, fasting ("upavasa"), a night vigil (Ratri "Jagaran"), and a festival (Mahotsav) on the following day are a part of the Janmashtami celebrations. It is celebrated particularly in Mathura and Vrindavan, along with major Vaishnava and non-sectarian communities found in Manipur, Assam, Bihar, West Bengal, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and all the other states of India.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: Krishna Janmashtami is followed by the festival Nandotsava, which celebrates the occasion when Nanda distributed gifts to the community in honor of the birth.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: Krishna was Devaki and Vasudeva Anakadundubhi's son, and his birthday is celebrated by Hindus as Janmashtami, particularly those of the Gaudiya Vaishnavite tradition, as he is considered the supreme personality of the Godhead. Janmashtami is celebrated when Krishna is believed to have been born according to Hindu tradition, which was in Mathura at midnight on the eighth day of Bhadrapada or the 23rd day of Shraavana, which overlaps with late August and early September in the Gregorian calendar.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: Krishna was born in an area of chaos. It was a time when persecution was rampant, freedoms were denied, evil was everywhere, and when there was a threat to his life by his uncle, King Kansa. Immediately following the birth of Krishna at Mathura, his father Vasudeva Anakadundubhi took him across the Yamuna river to foster parents in Gokula named Nanda and Yashoda, who were Vasudeva's brother and sister-in-law. Along with Krishna, an avatar of the serpent Shesha was also incarnated on earth as Krishna's older brother Balarama, who was the son of Rohini, Vasudeva's first wife. This legend is celebrated on Janmashtami by people keeping fasts, singing devotional songs of love for Krishna, and keeping a vigil into the night. After Krishna's midnight hour birth, forms of baby Krishna are bathed and clothed, then placed in a cradle. The devotees then break their fast by sharing food and sweets. Women draw tiny footprints outside their house doors and kitchen, walking towards their house, a symbolism for Krishna's journey into their homes.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: Hindus celebrate Janmashtami by fasting, singing, praying together, preparing and sharing special food, night vigils, and visiting Krishna or Vishnu temples. Major Krishna temples organize recitation of "Bhagavata Purana" and "Bhagavad Gita". Many northern Indian communities organize dance-drama events called "Rasa Lila" or "Krishna Lila". The tradition of Rasa Lila is particularly popular in the Mathura region, in northeastern states of India such as Manipur and Assam, and in parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat. It is acted out by numerous teams of amateur artists, cheered on by their local communities, and these drama-dance plays begin a few days before each Janmashtami. People decorate their houses with flowers and light. On this day, People chant "Hare Krishna hare Krishna, Krishna- Krishna Hare Hare". The Janmashtami celebration is followed by "Dahi Handi", which is celebrated the next day.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: In Jammu region, Janamashtami is popularly known by the name ""Thogre/Thakure da Vrat"" (meaning Vrat dedicated to Thakur i.e. Shri Krishna). Observing a "Phalaahari Vrat" for complete one day is the major ritual in the festival. The day is marked by numerous "Phalaahari Dhaams" or "Bhandaras" in the streets of Jammu region's prominent towns.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: Young boys celebrate Janamashtami by flying kites in the sky. Often Shri Krishna themed kites are flown in the sky by kids. Janamashtami marks the beginning of kite flying season in the Jammu region. While on other hand, Girls and women decorate their palms by applying "Teera," dye of an indigenous plant.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: Another ceremony associated with Janamashtami in Jammu region is "'Deyaa Parna"' in which Dogras donate cereal grains in the name of their ancestors & "Kuldevtas." A holy tree called "Jand" is worshipped by women on this day. Special Rotis called "Draupads" are prepared and offered to cows & deities.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: During evening, devotees start assembling at Mandirs for Bhajan Kirtan & processions. Many people dress their children/infant as Bal Gopaal. At midnight Shri Krishna Janam is celebrated. "Abhishek" ceremony of "Bal Gopaal" is performed and Bhog of "Sund Panjiri, Makkhan Mishri & Panchmeva" is offered to "Bal Gopaal" ji.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: Janamashtami is celebrated as Zaram Satam (Janam Saptami) by the native Kashmiri Pandits of Kashmir. The festival is associated with observing a "Vrat" whole day and visiting Thokur Kuth (Krishna Mandir) at midnight. At Night, "Puja" is performed in the temples which includes "Abhishek" to "Krishna Murti" & "Bhajan" singing. "Phalaahari" food items like "Gaer" or "Singhada Lapsi" (made from waterchestnut flour), fruits, dried fruits are consumed on this day.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: Janmashtami (popularly known as "Gokulashtami" as in Maharashtra) is celebrated in cities such as Mumbai, Latur, Nagpur and Pune. "Dahi Handi" is celebrated every August/September, the day after Krishna Janmashtami. Here, people break the Dahi Handi which is a part of this festival. The term Dahi Handi literally means "earthen pot of yogurt". The festival gets this popular regional name from the legend of baby Krishna. According to it, he would seek and steal milk products such as yogurt and butter and people would hide their supplies high up out of the baby's reach. Krishna would try all sorts of creative ideas in his pursuit, such as making human pyramids with his friends to break these high hanging pots. This story is the theme of numerous reliefs on Hindu temples across India, as well as literature and dance-drama repertoire, symbolizing the joyful innocence of children, that love and life's play is the manifestation of god.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: In Maharashtra and other western states in India, this Krishna legend is played out as a community tradition on Janmashtami, where pots of yoghurt are hung high up, sometimes with tall poles or from ropes hanging from the second or third level of a building. Per the annual tradition, teams of youth and boys called the "Govindas" go around to these hanging pots, climb one over another and form a human pyramid, then break the pot. Girls surround these boys, cheer and tease them while dancing and singing. The spilled contents are considered as "Prasada" (celebratory offering). It is a public spectacle, cheered and welcomed as a community event.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: In contemporary times, many Indian cities celebrate this annual Hindu ritual. Youth groups form "Govinda pathaks", which compete with each other, especially for prize money on Janamashtami. These groups are called "mandals" or "handis" and they go around the local areas, attempting to break as many pots as possible every August. Social celebrities and media attend the festivities, while corporations sponsor parts of the event. Cash and gifts are offered for "Govinda" teams, and according to The Times of India, in 2014 over 4,000 "handis" in Mumbai alone were high hung with prizes, and numerous Govinda teams participated.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: People in Dwarka in Gujarat – where Krishna is believed to have established his kingdom – celebrate the festival with a tradition similar to "Dahi Handi", called "Makhan Handi" (pot with freshly churned butter). Others perform folk dances at temples, sing bhajans, visit the Krishna temples such as at the Dwarkadhish Temple or Nathdwara. In the Kutch district region, farmers decorate their bullock carts and take out Krishna processions, with group singing and dancing.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: The carnival-style and playful poetry and works of Dayaram, a scholar of the Pushtimarg of Vaishnavism, is particularly popular during Janmashtami in Gujarat and Rajasthan.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: Gokula Ashtami (Janmashtami or Sri Krishna Jayanti) celebrates the birthday of Krishna. Gokulashtami is celebrated with great fervor in South India.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: In Tamil Nadu, people decorate the floor with kolams (decorative pattern drawn with rice batter). Geetha Govindam and other such devotional songs are sung in praise of Krishna. The footprints of the infant Krishna from the threshold of the house till the pooja room, which depicts the arrival of Krishna into the house. A recitation of "Bhagavad Gita" is also a popular practice. The offerings made to Krishna include fruits, betel and butter. Savories believed to be Krishna's favorites are prepared with great care. The most important of them are seedai, sweet seedai, verkadalai urundai. The festival is celebrated in the evening as Krishna was born at midnight. Most people observe a strict fast on this day and eat only after the midnight puja.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: In Andhra Pradesh, recitation of shlokas and devotional songs are the characteristics of this festival. Another unique feature of this festival is that young boys are dress up as Krishna and they visit neighbours and friends. Different varieties of fruits and sweets are first offered to Krishna and after the puja, these sweets are distributed among the visitors. The people of Andhra Pradesh observe a fast too. Various kinds of sweets are made to offer Gokula Nandan on this day. Eatables along with milk and curd are prepared to make offerings to Krishna. Joyful chanting of Krishna's name takes place in quite a few temples of the state. The number of temples dedicated to Krishna are few. The reason being that people have taken to worship him through paintings and not idols.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: Popular south Indian temples dedicated to Krishna are Rajagopalaswamy Temple in Mannargudi in the Tiruvarur district, Pandavadhoothar temple in Kanchipuram, Sri Krishna temple at Udupi, and the Krishna temple at Guruvayur are dedicated to the memory of Vishnu's incarnation as Krishna. Legend says that the Sree Krishna Idol installed in Guruvayur is from Dwarka which is believed to be submerged in the sea. Varagur sri venkatesa perumal temple tanjore district of Tamil Nadu


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: Janmashtami is the largest festival in the Braj region of north India, in cities such as Mathura where Hindu tradition states Krishna was born, and in Vrindavan where he grew up. Vaishnava communities in these cities in Uttar Pradesh, as well as others in the state, as well as locations in Rajasthan, Delhi, Haryana, Uttarakhand and Himalayan north celebrate Janmashtami. Krishna temples are decorated and lighted up, they attract numerous visitors on the day, while Krishna devotees hold bhakti events and keep night vigil.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: The festival typically falls as the monsoons in north India have begun retreating, fields laden with crops and rural communities have time to play. In the northern states, Janmashtami is celebrated with the "Raslila" tradition, which literally means "play (Lila) of delight, essence (Rasa)". This is expressed as solo or group dance and drama events at Janmashtami, wherein Krishna related compositions are sung, music accompanies the performance, while actors and audience share and celebrate the performance by clapping hands to mark the beat. The childhood pranks of Krishna and the love affairs of Radha-Krishna are particularly popular. According to Christian Roy and other scholars, these Radha-Krishna love stories are Hindu symbolism for the longing and love of the human soul for the divine principle and reality it calls Brahman.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: Janmashtami is widely celebrated by Hindu Vaishnava communities of eastern and northeastern India. The widespread tradition of celebrating Krishna in these regions is credited to the efforts and teachings of 15th and 16th century Sankardeva and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. They developed philosophical ideas, as well as new forms of performance arts to celebrate the Hindu god Krishna such as Borgeet, Ankia Naat, Sattriya and Bhakti yoga now popular in West Bengal and Assam. Further east, Manipur people developed Manipuri dance form, a classical dance form known for its Hindu Vaishnavism themes, and which like Sattriya includes love-inspired dance drama arts of Radha-Krishna called Raslila. These dance drama arts are a part of Janmashtami tradition in these regions, and as with all classical Indian dances, their contextual roots are in the ancient Hindu Sanskrit text "Natya Shastra", but with influences from the culture fusion between India and southeast Asia.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: On Janmashtami, parents dress up their children as characters in the legends of Krishna, such as gopis and as Krishna. Temples and community centers are decorated with regional flowers and leaves, while groups recite or listen to the tenth chapter of "Bhagavata Purana", and the "Bhagavata Gita".


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: Janmashtami is a major festival celebrated with fasts, vigil, recitation of scriptures and Krishna prayers in Manipur. Dancers performing Raslila are a notable annual tradition during Janmashtami in Mathura and Vrindavan. Children play the "Likol Sannaba" game in the Meetei Vaishnava community.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: The Shree Govindajee Temple and the ISKCON temples particularly mark the Janmashtami festival. Janmashtami is celebrated in Assam at homes, in community centers called Namghars (Assamese: নামঘৰ), and the temples usually though Janmashtami. According to the tradition, the devotees sing the "Nam", perform pujas and sharing food and "Prasada".


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: In the eastern state of Odisha, specifically the region around Puri and in Nabadwip, West Bengal, the festival is also referred to as "Sri Krishna Jayanti" or simply "Sri Jayanti". People celebrate Janmashtami by fasting and worship until midnight. The "Bhagavata Purana" is recited from the 10th chapter, a section dedicated to the life of Krishna. The next day is called "Nanda Ucchhaba" or the joyous celebration of Krishna's foster parents Nanda and Yashoda. Devotees keep fasting during the entire day of Janmashtami. They bring water from Ganga to bathe Radha Madhaba during their abhisheka ceremony. A grand abhisheka is performed at midnight for the small Radha Madha.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: About eighty percent of the population of Nepal identify themselves as Hindus and celebrate Krishna Janmashtami. They observe Janmashtami by fasting until midnight. It is a national holiday in Nepal. The devotees recite the Bhagavad Gita and sing religious songs called bhajans and kirtans. The temples of Krishna are decorated. Shops, posters and houses carry Krishna motifs.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: Janmashtami is a national holiday in Bangladesh. On Janmashtami, a procession starts from Dhakeshwari Temple in Dhaka, the National Temple of Bangladesh, and then proceeds through the streets of Old Dhaka. The procession dates back to 1902, but was stopped in 1948. The procession was resumed in 1989.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: At least a quarter of the population in Fiji practices Hinduism, and this holiday has been celebrated in Fiji since the first Indian indentured laborers landed there. Janmashtami in Fiji is known as "Krishna Ashtami". Most Hindus in Fiji have ancestors that originated from Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Tamil Nadu, making this an especially important festival for them. Fiji's Janmashtami celebrations are unique in that they last for eight days, leading up to the eighth day, the day Krishna was born. During these eight days, Hindus gather at homes and at temples with their 'mandalis,' or devotional groups at evenings and night, and recite the Bhagavat Purana, sing devotional songs for Krishna, and distribute Prasadam.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: Janmashtami is celebrated by Pakistani Hindus in the Shri Swaminarayan Mandir in Karachi with the singing of bhajans and delivering of sermons on Krishna. It is an optional holiday in Pakistan


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: Among the Malbars of the French island Réunion, a syncretism of Catholicism and Hinduism can develop.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: 60% of the population is of Indian origins from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, the majority of which more than 80% being hindus. This has been reinforced by Gujrati, Sindhi traders plus now with foreign IT consultants from India and workers from Sri Lanka. Krishna has been revered here since the 18th century by those indentured labourers of different castes who identified themselves as Jahazi bhais. They celebrate the festival with kirtans, and sweets. Dramas, plays, and kirtans illustrating the life of Krishna are played on television.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: In Arizona, United States, Governor Janet Napolitano was the first American leader to greet a message on Janmashtami, while acknowledging ISKCON. The festival is also celebrated widely by Hindus in Caribbean in the countries of Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica and the former British colony Fiji as well as the former Dutch colony of Suriname. Many Hindus in these countries originate from Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar; descendants of indentured immigrants from Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa.


title: Krishna Janmashtami

text: ISKCON temples worldwide celebrate Krishna Janmashtami, as well the birthday of ISKCON founder-acharya A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, which falls on the following day according to the Vaishnava calendar.


title: Brahmacharya

text: Brahmacharya (; ) is a concept within Indian religions that literally means to stay in conduct within one's own Self. In Yoga, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism it generally refers to a lifestyle characterized by sexual continence or complete abstinence.


title: Brahmacharya

text: In the Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist monastic traditions, "brahmacharya" implies, among other things, the mandatory renunciation of sex and marriage. It is considered necessary for a monk's spiritual practice. Western notions of the religious life as practiced in monastic settings mirror these characteristics.


title: Brahmacharya

text: Hence, "brahmacharya" roughly means "to stay true to one's Self or ones own Atma" or "on the path of Brahma".


title: Brahmacharya

text: In ancient and medieval era Indian texts, the term "brahmacharya" is a concept with a more complex meaning indicating an overall lifestyle conducive to the pursuit of sacred knowledge and spiritual liberation. "Brahmacharya" is a means, not an end. It usually includes cleanliness, ahimsa, simple living, studies, meditation, and voluntary restraints on certain foods (eating only Sattvic food), on intoxicants, and on sexual behavior (both sex and masturbation, in some schools of thought).


title: Brahmacharya

text: "Brahmacharya" is traditionally regarded as one of the five yamas in Yoga, as declared in verse 2.30 of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras. It is a form of self-restraint regarded as a virtue, and an observance recommended depending on an individual's context. For a married practitioner it means marital fidelity (not cheating on one's spouse); for a single person it means celibacy. Shandilya Upanishad includes "brahmacharya" as one of ten yamas in Chapter 1, defining it as "refraining from sexual intercourse in all places and in all states in mind, speech or body".


title: Brahmacharya

text: Patanjali in verse 2.38 states that the virtue of brahmacharya leads to the profit of "virya" (वीर्य). This Sanskrit word, "virya", has been variously translated as virility and, by Vyasa, as strength and capacity. Vyasa explains that this virtue promotes other good qualities. Other ancient and medieval era texts of Hinduism describe the fruits of this virtue differently. For example, Pada Chandrika, Raja Marttanda, Sutrartha Bodhini, Mani Prabha and Yoga Sudhakara each state that "brahmacharya" must be understood as the voluntary restraint of power. Chandogya Upanishad in verses of chapter 8.5 extols "brahmacharya" as a sacrament and sacrifice which, once perfected, leads to realization of the Self (Atman), and thereafter becomes the habit of experiencing the Self in others and everything. Tattva Vaisharadi and Yoga Sarasangraha assert that "brahmacharya" leads to an increase in "jñana-shakti" (power of knowledge) and "kriya-shakti" (power of action).


title: Brahmacharya

text: The great epic Mahabharata describes the objective of brahmacharya as knowledge of Brahman (Book Five, Udyoga Parva, the Book of Effort). Brahmacharya leads one to union with the Supreme Self (Chapter 43). By subduing desire, the practice of self-restraint enables the student to learn, pay attention in thought, word and deed to the "guru" (teacher), and discover the truth embodied in the Vedas and Upanishads. According to the epic, the practice of studying and learning requires the "aid of time," as well as personal effort, ability, discussion, and practice, all of which are helped by the virtue of brahmacharya. A brahmachāri should do useful work, and the earnings he obtains should be given away as "dakshina" ("fee," "gift of thanks") to the guru. The epic declares that brahmacharya is one of twelve virtues, an essential part of "angas" in yoga and the path of perfecting perseverance and the pursuit of knowledge.


title: Brahmacharya

text: "Brahmacharya" is one of the five major vows prescribed for the "śrāvakā" (layman) and ascetics in Jainism. For those Jains who adopt the path of monks, celibacy in action, words and thoughts is expected. For lay Jains who are married, the virtue of "brahmacharya" requires remaining sexually faithful to one's chosen partner. For lay Jains who are unmarried, chaste living requires Jains to avoid sex before marriage. "Uttam brahmacharya" (Supreme Celibacy) is one of the ten excellencies of a "Jain monk". "Brahmacharya" is mentioned as one of the "das dharma" (ten virtues) in ancient Jain texts like "Tattvartha Sutra", "Sarvārthasiddhi" and "Puruşārthasiddhyupāya".


title: Brahmacharya

text: Among the Sramanic traditions (Buddhism, Jainism, Ājīvika, and Charvaka schools), "brahmacharya" is the term used for a self-imposed practice of celibacy generally considered a prerequisite for spiritual practice. The fourth of the five great vows of Jain monks, for example, is the vow of celibacy, which in this case means a total abstinence from the sensual pleasure of all five senses, including the avoidance of sexual thoughts and desires. The yogin who is firmly grounded in the virtue of "brahmacharya" is said to gain great vitality.


title: Brahmacharya

text: Brahmacharya in Hinduism literally means "conduct consistent with Brahman" or "on the path of Brahman". Historically "brahmacharya" referred to a stage of life "(asrama)" within the Vedic ashram system. Ancient Hindu culture divided the human lifespan into four stages: "brahmacharya", "Grihastha", "Vanaprastha" and "Sannyasa". "Brahamacarya asrama" occupied the first 20–25 years of life roughly corresponding to adolescence. Upon the child's "Upanayanam", the young person would begin a life of study in the Gurukula (the household of the Guru) dedicated to learning all aspects of "dharma" that is the "principles of righteous living". "Dharma" comprised personal responsibilities towards himself, family, society, humanity and God which included the environment, earth and nature. This educational period started when the child was five to eight years old and lasted until the age of 14 to 20 years. During this stage of life, the traditional vedic sciences and various sastras were studied along with the religious texts contained within the Vedas and Upanishads. This stage of life was characterized by the practice of celibacy.


title: Brahmacharya

text: In one context, "brahmacharya" is the first of four "ashrama" (age-based stages) of a human life, with "grihastha" (householder), "vanaprastha" (forest dweller), and "sannyasa" (renunciation) being the other three "asramas". The "brahmacharya" (bachelor student) stage of life – from childhood up to twenty-five years of age – was focused on education and included the practice of celibacy. In this context, it connotes chastity during the student stage of life for the purposes of learning from a "guru" (teacher), and during later stages of life for the purposes of attaining spiritual liberation (Sanskrit: "moksha").


title: Brahmacharya

text: Naradaparivrajaka Upanishad suggests that the brahmacharya (student) stage of life should extend from the age a child is ready to receive teachings from a "guru", and continue for a period of twelve years.


title: Brahmacharya

text: Graduation from the brahmacharya stage of life was marked by the Samavartanam ceremony. The graduate was then ready to either start Grihastha (householder) stage of life, or wait, or pursue a life of Sannyasa and solitude like Rishis in forest. Vyasa in Chapter 234 of Shanti Parva in the Mahabharata praises "brahmacharya" as an important stage of life necessary for learning, then adds "Grihastha" stage as the root of society and important to an individual's success.


title: Brahmacharya

text: The Vedas and Upanishads do not restrict the student stage of life to males. Atharva Veda, for example, states


title: Brahmacharya

text: Gonda states that there were no age restrictions for the start of brahmacharya in ancient India. Not only young men, but older people resorted to student stage of life, and sought teachers who were authoritative in certain subjects. The Chandogya Upanishad, in Section 5.11, describes "wealthy and learned householders" becoming brahmacārīs (students) with Rishi Kaikeya, to gain knowledge about Atman (inner Self) and Brahman (Ultimate Reality).


title: Brahmacharya

text: The Vedas discuss brahmacharya, both in the context of lifestyle and stage of one's life. Rig Veda, for example, in Book 10 Chapter 136, mentions knowledge seekers as those with "Kesin" (long haired) and soil-colored clothes (yellow, orange, saffron) engaged in the affairs of "Mananat" (mind, meditation). Rigveda, however, refers to these people as "Muni" and "Vati". The Atharva Veda, completed by about 1000 BC, has more explicit discussion of "Brahmacharya", in Book XI Chapter 5. This Chapter of Atharva Veda describes brahmacharya as that which leads to one's second birth (mind, Self-awareness), with Hymn 11.5.3 painting a symbolic picture that when a teacher accepts a brahmacārī, the student becomes his embryo.


title: Brahmacharya

text: The concept and practice of "brahmacharya" is extensively found among the older strata of the Mukhya Upanishads in Hinduism. The 8th-century BC text Chandogya Upanishad describes in Book 8, activities and lifestyle that is brahmacharya:


title: Brahmacharya

text: The Vedas and early Upanishadic texts of Hinduism in their discussion of "brahmacharya", make no mention of the age of the student at the start of brahmacharya, nor any restraint on sexual activity. However, there is a clear general consensus in both specific and various Upanishads (such as the Shandilya Upanishad) as well as Hindu smritis (such as the Manusmriti) that the male "student", referred to as the "Brahmachari[n]" should abstain from the "release of semen." This rule may or may not apply to the guru. The verses 11.5.4.16 and 11.5.4.17 of the Satpatha Brahamana present two different viewpoints on sexual activity, of the guru during the Brahmacharya ashrama, i.e., the teacher of the "student Brahmachari[n]", one against and one as a choice. Similarly, in verse 11.5.4.18, the Satapatha Brahamana presents contrasting viewpoints on an eating restraint (regarding honey) for the brahmacārī student.


title: Brahmacharya

text: Various "Ashrams" (आश्रम, hermitage) and "Matha" (मठ, college of ascetics) of various schools of Hinduism call their male and female initiates as brahmacārī and brahmacārinī.


title: Crawley

text: Crawley () is a large town and borough in West Sussex, England. It is south of London, north of Brighton and Hove, and north-east of the county town of Chichester. Crawley covers an area of and had a population of 106,597 at the time of the 2011 Census.


title: Crawley

text: The area has been inhabited since the Stone Age, and was a centre of ironworking in Roman times. Crawley developed slowly as a market town from the 13th century, serving the surrounding villages in the Weald. Its location on the main road from London to Brighton brought passing trade, which encouraged the development of coaching inns. A rail link to London opened in 1841.


title: Crawley

text: Gatwick Airport, nowadays one of Britain's busiest international airports, opened on the edge of the town in the 1940s, encouraging commercial and industrial growth. After the Second World War, the British Government planned to move large numbers of people and jobs out of London and into new towns around South East England. The New Towns Act 1946 designated Crawley as the site of one of these. A master plan was developed for the establishment of new residential, commercial, industrial and civic areas, and rapid development greatly increased the size and population of the town over a few decades.


title: Crawley

text: The town contains 14 residential neighbourhoods radiating out from the core of the old market town, and separated by main roads and railway lines. The nearby communities of Ifield, Pound Hill and Three Bridges were absorbed into the new town at various stages in its development. In 2009, expansion was being planned in the west and north-west of the town, in cooperation with Horsham District Council, which has now become a new neighbourhood named Kilnwood Vale, but it is not in Crawley. Economically, the town has developed into the main centre of industry and employment between London and the south coast. Its large industrial area supports manufacturing and service companies, many of them connected with the airport. The commercial and retail sectors continue to expand.


title: Crawley

text: The area may have been settled during the Mesolithic period: locally manufactured flints of the Horsham Culture type have been found to the southwest of the town. Tools and burial mounds from the Neolithic period, and burial mounds and a sword from the Bronze Age, have also been discovered. Crawley is on the western edge of the High Weald, which produced iron for more than 2,000 years from the Iron Age onwards. Goffs Park—now a recreational area in the south of the town—was the site of two late Iron Age furnaces. Ironworking and mineral extraction continued throughout Roman times, particularly in the Broadfield area where many furnaces were built.


title: Crawley

text: In the 5th century, Saxon settlers named the area Crow's Leah—meaning a crow-infested clearing, or Crow's Wood. This name evolved over time, and the present spelling appeared by the early 14th century. By this time, nearby settlements were more established: the Saxon church at Worth, for example, dates from between 950 and 1050 AD.


title: Crawley

text: Although Crawley itself is not mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086, the nearby settlements of Ifield and Worth are recorded. The first written record of Crawley dates from 1202, when a licence was issued by King John for a weekly market on Wednesdays. Crawley grew slowly in importance over the next few centuries, but was boosted in the 18th century by the construction of the turnpike road between London and Brighton. When this was completed in 1770, travel between the newly fashionable seaside resort and London became safer and quicker, and Crawley (located approximately halfway between the two) prospered as a coaching halt. By 1839 it offered almost an hourly service to both destinations. The George, a timber-framed house dating from the 15th century, expanded to become a large coaching inn, taking over adjacent buildings. Eventually an annexe had to be built in the middle of the wide High Street; this survived until the 1930s. The original building has become the George Hotel, with conference facilities and 84 bedrooms; it retains many period features including an iron fireback.


title: Crawley

text: Crawley's oldest church is St John the Baptist's, between the High Street and the Broadway. It is said to have 13th-century origins, but there has been much rebuilding (especially in the 19th century) and the oldest part remaining is the south wall of the nave, which is believed to be 14th century. The church has a 15th-century tower (rebuilt in 1804) which originally contained four bells cast in 1724. Two were replaced by Thomas Lester of London in 1742; but in 1880 a new set of eight bells were cast and installed by the Croydon-based firm Gillett, Bland & Company.


title: Crawley

text: The Brighton Main Line was the first railway line to serve the Crawley area. A station was opened at Three Bridges (originally known as East Crawley) in the summer of 1841. Crawley railway station, at the southern end of the High Street, was built in 1848 when the Horsham branch was opened from Three Bridges to Horsham. A line was built eastwards from Three Bridges to East Grinstead in 1855. Three Bridges had become the hub of transport in the area by this stage: one-quarter of its population was employed in railway jobs by 1861 (mainly at the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway's railway works near the station). The Longley company—one of South East England's largest building firms in the late 19th century, responsible for buildings including Christ's Hospital school and King Edward VII Sanatorium in Midhurst—moved to a site next to Crawley station in 1881. In 1898 more than 700 people were employed at the site.


title: Crawley

text: There was a major expansion in house building in the late 19th century. An area known as "New Town" (unrelated to the postwar developments) was created around the railway level crossing and down the Brighton Road; the West Green area, west of the High Street on the way to Ifield, was built up; and housing spread south of the Horsham line for the first time, into what is now Southgate. The population reached 4,433 in 1901, compared to 1,357 a century earlier. In 1891, a racecourse was opened on farmland at Gatwick. Built to replace a steeplechase course at Waddon near Croydon in Surrey, it was used for both steeplechase and flat racing, and held the Grand National during the years of the First World War. The course had its own railway station on the Brighton Main Line.