title: Grievance studies affair

text: Upon Boghossian's employer Portland State University initiating a research misconduct inquiry on the grounds of conducting human subject-based research without approval, and further considering a charge of fabricating data, a number of prominent academics submitted letters of support to him and defended the motive of the hoax, including Steven Pinker and various Portland State students. Richard Dawkins compared Boghossian to a novelist, pointing out that George Orwell's novel "Animal Farm" could be criticized for its many "falsehoods" regarding the capabilities of animals to speak English. He asked:


title: Grievance studies affair

text: The psychologist Jonathan Haidt stated that the inquiry would be "a profound moral error—an injustice—that will be obvious to all who hear about your decision, and that will have bad effects upon the public perception of PSU and of universities in general", and concluded that Boghossian and his co-authors are whistleblowers, who undertook a "career-risking project to stand up for academic integrity by exposing what is, arguably, an academic subculture that tolerates intellectual fraud." Philosopher Daniel Dennett stated that Boghossian's targets "could learn a few things about academic integrity" from his "fine example", undertaken "in good faith". Alan Sokal and Jordan Peterson also supported Boghossian.


title: Grievance studies affair

text: The "World Socialist Web Site" Eric London said the hoax was "a well-timed blow" against the "identity politics industry" and postmodernism.


title: Grievance studies affair

text: Writing for "Slate", Daniel Engber criticized the project, saying that "one could have run this sting on almost any empirical discipline and returned the same result". Similarly, Sarah Richardson, Harvard University professor of women's studies, criticized the hoaxers for not including a control group in their experiment, telling "BuzzFeed News": "By their own standards, we can't scientifically conclude anything from it." "n+1" magazine published a critical article that cited a survey by the science writer Jim Schnabel of similar hoax attempts, summarizing Schnabel's conclusion as "the educated public makes a decision based not on the scientific merits of the hoax but on the relative orthodoxy of the hoaxer and hoaxee. In effect, the result of the trick is decided in advance by the power relations of the field." The article goes on to assert that the relative orthodoxy in this case was "not an orthodoxy of scientific legitimacy but rather the emerging consensus of tech bros, Davos billionaires, and alt-right misogynists".


title: Grievance studies affair

text: In "UnHerd", Chivers noted that while the so-called "grievance studies" fields "probably" contain more "bullshit… than most scientific fields", the project distracted attention from problems of shoddy scholarship across the entirety of academia. He highlighted that several weeks prior to the project's public revelation, professor of food behaviour Brian Wansink had resigned from his position at Cornell University following exposure of instances of scientific misconduct on his part.


title: Grievance studies affair

text: Carl T. Bergstrom, writing in "The Chronicle of Higher Education", says: "the hoaxers appear woefully naïve about how the system actually works". Peer review is not designed to remove fraud or even absurd ideas, he claimed, and replication will lead to self-correction. In the same article, David Schieber said he was one of the two anonymous reviewers for "Rubbing One Out", and argued that the hoaxers selectively quoted from his review. "They were turning my attempt to help the authors of a rejected paper into an indictment of my field and the journal I reviewed for, even though we rejected the paper."


title: Grievance studies affair

text: Ten professors at Portland State University signed an open letter saying the hoax was not comparable to the Sokal affair, the latter taking place during "a time of debate and exploration in the field of philosophy and science", and that the trio were only exploiting "credulous journalists interested mainly in spectacle" to conduct academic fraud. They compared the trio's style to "Trumpist politics" and wrote that "[d]esperate reasoning, basic spite and a perverse interest in public humiliation seem to have overridden any actual scholarly goals." The authors asked to remain anonymous, alleging Boghossian had targeted academics at other institutions and that they would likely receive "threats of death and assault from online trolls".


title: Grievance studies affair

text: In an article in the journal "Science, Technology, and Human Values", Mikko Lagerspetz analyzed the project's experimental design and its possible results, based on the peer reviews and editorial decisions available through the project's website. He sums up as follows:


title: Grievance studies affair

text: He concludes that the experiment was flawed both experimentally and ethically, and failed to provide the evidence it sought. It is unclear, on what grounds the project group decided what journals to target. One third (7) of the 21 final editorial decisions the authors received were positive, two thirds of the decisions were negative. In the absence of a control group, it is impossible to tell whether this ratio could have been lower or higher within some other disciplines.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: On 3 June 2017, a terrorist vehicle-ramming and stabbing took place in London, England. A van was deliberately driven into pedestrians on London Bridge, and then crashed on Borough High Street, just south of the River Thames. The van's three occupants then ran to the nearby Borough Market area and began stabbing people in and around restaurants and pubs. They were shot dead by Metropolitan Police and City of London Police authorised firearms officers, and were found to be wearing fake explosive vests. Eight people were killed and 48 were injured, including members of the public and four unarmed police officers who attempted to stop the assailants. British authorities described the perpetrators as "radical Islamic terrorists".


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: In March 2017, five people had been killed in a combined vehicle and knife attack at Westminster. In late May, a suicide bomber killed 22 people at an Ariana Grande concert at Manchester Arena. After the Manchester bombing, the UK's terror threat level was raised to "critical", its highest level, until 27 May 2017, when it was lowered to severe.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: The attack was carried out using a white Renault Master hired earlier on the same evening in Harold Hill, Havering by Khuram Butt. He had intended to hire a 7.5 tonne lorry, but was refused due to his failure to provide payment details. The attackers were armed with 12-inch (30 cm) kitchen knives with ceramic blades, which they tied to their wrists with leather straps. They also prepared fake explosive belts by wrapping water bottles in grey tape.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: At 21:58 BST (UTC+1) on 3 June 2017, the van travelled south across London Bridge, and returned six minutes later, crossing over the bridge northbound, making a U-turn at the northern end and then driving southbound across the bridge. It mounted the pavement three times and hit multiple pedestrians, killing two. Witnesses said the van was travelling at high speed. 999 emergency calls were first recorded at 22:07. The van was later found to contain 13 wine bottles containing flammable liquid with rags stuffed in them, along with blow torches.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: The van crashed on Borough High Street, after crossing the central reservation. The van's tyres were destroyed by the central reservation and the three attackers, armed with knives, abandoned the vehicle. Then they ran down the steps to Green Dragon Court, where they killed five people outside and near the Boro Bistro pub. After attacking the Boro Bistro pub, the attackers went back up the steps to Borough High Street and attacked three bystanders. Police tried to fight the attackers, but were stabbed, and Ignacio Echeverría helped them by striking Redouane and possibly Zaghba with his skateboard. Echeverría was later killed outside Lobos Meat and Tapas. Members of the public threw bottles and chairs at the attackers. Witnesses reported that the attackers were shouting "This is for Allah".


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: People in and around a number of other restaurants and bars along Stoney Street were also attacked. During the attack, an unknown man was spared by Rachid Redouane, but despite many efforts the man was never found. A Romanian baker hit one of the attackers over the head with a crate before giving shelter to 20 people inside a bakery inside Borough Market.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: One man fought the three attackers with his fists in the Black and Blue steakhouse, shouting "Fuck you, I'm Millwall", giving members of the public who were in the restaurant the opportunity to run away. He was stabbed eight times in the hands, chest and head. He underwent surgery at St Thomas' Hospital and was taken off the critical list on 4 June. A British Transport Police officer armed with a baton also took on the attackers, receiving multiple stab wounds and temporarily losing sight in his right eye as a consequence. Off-duty Metropolitan police constables Liam Jones and Stewart Henderson rendered first aid to seriously injured members of the public before protecting 150+ people inside the Thameside Inn and evacuating them by Metropolitan marine support unit and RNLI boats to the north shore of the Thames.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: The three attackers were then shot dead by armed officers from the City of London and Metropolitan police Specialist Firearms Command eight minutes after the initial emergency call was made. CCTV footage showed the three attackers in Borough Market running at the armed officers; the attackers were shot dead 20 seconds later. A total of 46 rounds were fired by three City of London and five Metropolitan Police officers.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: The Metropolitan Police issued 'Run, Hide, Tell' notices via social media during the attack, and asked for the public to remain calm and vigilant.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: All buildings within the vicinity of London Bridge were evacuated, and London Bridge, Borough and Bank Underground stations were closed at the request of the police. The mainline railway stations at London Bridge, Waterloo East, Charing Cross and Cannon Street were also closed. The Home Secretary approved the deployment of a military counter terrorist unit from the Special Air Service (SAS). The helicopters carrying the SAS landed on London Bridge to support the Metropolitan Police because of concerns that there might be more attackers at large.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: The Metropolitan Police Marine Policing Unit dispatched boats on the River Thames, with assistance from the Royal National Lifeboat Institution (RNLI), to contribute to the evacuation of the area and look for any casualties who might have fallen from the bridge.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: A stabbing incident took place in Vauxhall at 23:45, causing Vauxhall station to be briefly closed; this was later confirmed to be unrelated to the attack.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: At 01:45 on 4 June, controlled explosions took place of the attackers' bomb vests, which were found to be fake.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: An emergency COBR meeting was held on the morning of 4 June. London Bridge mainline railway and Underground stations remained closed throughout 4 June, while Borough tube station reopened that evening. A cordon was established around the scene of the attack. London Bridge station reopened at 05:00 on Monday 5 June.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: Mayor of London Sadiq Khan said that there was a surge of hate crimes and islamophobic incidents following the attack.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: New security measures were implemented on eight central London bridges following the attack, to reduce the likelihood of further vehicle attacks, with concrete barriers installed. The barriers have been criticised for causing severe congestion in cycle lanes during peak hours.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: Eight civilians died: one Spaniard, one Briton, two Australians, one Canadian and three French citizens were killed by the attackers, and the three attackers themselves were killed by armed police. Forty-eight people were injured in the attack, including one New Zealander, two Australians, two Germans and four French citizens; of the 48 people admitted to hospital, 21 were initially reported to be in a critical condition. One body was recovered from the Thames near Limehouse several days after the attack. Two of the fatalities were caused in the initial vehicle-ramming attack, while the remaining six were stabbed to death.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: Four police officers were among those injured in the attack. A British Transport Police officer was stabbed and suffered serious injuries to his head, face and neck. An off-duty Metropolitan Police officer was seriously injured when he was stabbed. Two other Metropolitan Police officers received head and arm injuries. As a result of the police gunfire, a bystander received an accidental gunshot wound, which was "not critical".


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: On 4 June the Home Secretary, Amber Rudd, said that "We are confident about the fact that they were radical Islamic terrorists, the way they were inspired, and we need to find out more about where this radicalisation came from." Amaq News Agency, an online outlet associated with the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS), said the attackers were ISIS fighters. On 5 June, two of the attackers were identified as Khuram Shazad Butt and Rachid Redouane. The third of the three attackers, Youssef Zaghba, was identified the following day.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: Butt (born 20 April 1990) was a Pakistan-born British citizen whose family came from Jhelum. He grew up in Britain, living in Plaistow. He had a wife and two children. Neighbours told the BBC that Butt had been reported to police for attempting to radicalise children; he had also expressed disgust at the way women dressed. He was known to police as a "heavyweight" member of the banned extremist group Al-Muhajiroun. A BBC interviewee said he had a verbal confrontation with Butt in 2013 on the day after another Al-Muhajiroun follower had murdered Fusilier Lee Rigby.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: Butt was part of an al-Muhajiroun campaign in 2015 to intimidate Muslims who planned to vote in the UK general elections of that year, on the basis that it was forbidden in Islam. He was known for holding extreme views, having been barred from two local mosques. He appeared in a 2016 Channel 4 Television documentary, "The Jihadis Next Door", which showed him arguing with police over the unfurling of an ISIL black flag in Regent's Park. According to a friend, he had been radicalised by the YouTube videos of the American Muslim hate preacher Ahmad Musa Jibril. Butt was known to have taken drugs before he became radicalised. After radicalisation, Butt started to stop his neighbours on the street and ask them whether they had been to the mosque.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: Butt had worked for a man accused of training Mohammad Sidique Khan, the leader of the July 2005 London bombing. The police and MI5 knew of Butt and he was investigated in 2015. The investigation was later "moved into the lower echelons",<ref name="Guardian7/6/2017"></ref> and his file was classed as low priority.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: Butt sometimes manned the desk of the Ummah Fitness Centre gym, where he prayed regularly. CCTV footage has been released of Butt, Redouane and Zaghba meeting outside the gym days before the attack. A senior figure at a local mosque had reported the gym to police.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: "The New York Times" said that Butt and his brother were part of the UK government's "Prevent" programme, which aims to stop people from becoming terrorists, and which reports suspected radicals to police programmes. At the time of the attack he was on police bail following an allegation of fraud, though the police had intended to take no further action due to a lack of evidence. He had previously been cautioned by police for fraud in 2008 and common assault in 2010.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: Redouane (born 31 July 1986) was a failed asylum seeker in the UK, whose application was denied in 2009, and not previously known to police. He had claimed to be either Moroccan or Libyan.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: Redouane worked as a pastry chef and in 2012 he married an Irish woman in a ceremony in Ireland. He beat and bullied his wife. She eventually divorced him after he tried to force his extremist beliefs on her. He used to drink alcohol. He lived variously in Rathmines, a suburb of Dublin, also in Morocco and the UK. According to his wife, Redouane was most likely radicalised in Morocco. Later the couple stayed in the UK on an EU residency card where they had a daughter in 2015. The couple separated in 2016. At the time of the attack, he was living in Dagenham, East London.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: Zaghba (born 1995 in Fez, Morocco) was at the time of the attack living in east London where he worked in a fast-food outlet. He also worked at an Islamic television channel in London. Zaghba was born to a Moroccan Muslim father and an Italian Catholic Christian mother who had converted to Islam when she married. Zaghba had dual Moroccan and Italian nationality. When his parents divorced, he went to Italy with his mother. In 2016, Zaghba was stopped at Bologna Guglielmo Marconi Airport by Italian officers who found ISIS-related materials on his mobile phone; he was stopped from continuing his journey to Istanbul. According to The Times newspaper, Italian authorities had failed to notify British authorities directly and had entered incomplete and incorrect information onto the Schengen Information System, this allowed Zaghba to enter the UK without being flagged as a terrorist threat Italian authorities despite allegations of corruption and incompetence stated their "conscience was clear" over the attacks. Italian authorities said Zaghba was monitored continuously while in Italy and that the UK was informed about him. Giuseppe Amato, an Italian prosecutor, said "We did our best. We could just monitor and surveil ... [Zaghba] and send a note to British authorities, that's all we could do and we did it. Since he moved to London, he came back to Italy once in a while for a total of 10 days. And during those 10 days we never let him out of our sight."


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: According to "The New York Times", the Italian branch of Al-Muhajiroun had introduced Butt to Zaghba.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: On the morning of 4 June, police made 12 arrests following raids in flats in the Barking area of east London, where one of the attackers lived; controlled explosions were carried out during the raids. Those held included five males aged between 27 and 55, arrested at one address in Barking, and six females aged between 19 and 60, arrested at a separate Barking address. One of the arrested males was subsequently released without charge. Four properties were being searched, including two in Newham in addition to the two in Barking. Further raids and arrests were made at properties in Newham and Barking early on the morning of 5 June. On 6 June, a man was arrested in Barking, and another in Ilford the following day. By 16 June, all those arrested had been released without charge.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: On 7 May 2019, an inquest into the deaths of the victims opened at the Old Bailey in London. Judge Mark Lucraft QC, Chief Coroner of England and Wales, presided, and people related to the dead gave accounts of what happened and who they had lost. The inquest concluded on 16 July 2019 that all three attackers had been lawfully killed.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: The Prime Minister, Theresa May returned to Downing Street from campaigning for the forthcoming snap general election. May, on the morning after the attack, said the incident was being treated as terrorism, and that the recent terror attacks in the UK are "bound together by the single evil ideology of Islamist extremism" which "is a perversion of Islam". As part of a four-point plan to tackle terrorism, she called for tighter internet regulations to "deprive the extremists of their safe spaces online", saying that technology firms were not currently doing enough. May's stance on the role of the internet and social media in enabling radicalisation was criticised by the Open Rights Group and the International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence. May was also criticised for using the speech to detail policy measures to respond to the terror threat, which some saw as contrary to her pledge to pause campaigning out of respect for the victims. May said a review would be carried out by the police and intelligence agencies to establish whether the attack could have been prevented, and on 28 June Home Secretary Amber Rudd commissioned David Anderson QC to provide independent assurance of the review work.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: The Leader of the Opposition Jeremy Corbyn, the Liberal Democrat leader Tim Farron and the Mayor of London Sadiq Khan all wrote on Twitter that their thoughts were with those affected and expressed thanks to the emergency services. Khan described the attack as "deliberate and cowardly" and condemned it "in the strongest possible terms". He later said that "the city remains one of the safest in the world" and there was "no reason to be alarmed" over the increased police presence around the city.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: The Conservative Party, Labour Party, Liberal Democrats and Scottish National Party suspended national election campaigning for a day after the attack. The UK Independence Party chose not to suspend its campaigning; leader Paul Nuttall said it was "what the extremists would want". May confirmed that the general election would go ahead as scheduled on 8 June. The BBC cancelled or postponed a number of political programmes due to air on 4 June.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: Harun Khan, the secretary general of the Muslim Council of Britain also condemned the attack. More than 130 imams condemned the attackers, refused them Islamic burials, and said in a statement that the terrorists did not represent Islam.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: Condolences, expressions of shock, support, solidarity and sympathy were offered by many national governments and supranational bodies.


title: 2017 London Bridge attack

text: Three George Medals were awarded in relation to the attacks: Ignacio Echeverría (posthumous), a civilian; and two police officers, PC Charlie Guenigault of the Metropolitan Police and PC Wayne Marques of the British Transport Police. All three were seriously injured as they directly confronted the terrorists and attempted to save others. PCs Liam Jones and Stewart Henderson, both of the Metropolitan Police, received the British Empire Medal. PC Leon McLeod of the British Transport Police received a Queen's Gallantry Medal, and PCs Tim Andrews, Sam Balfour, Lian Rae, and Bartosz Tchorzewski received the Queen's Police Medal for Distinguished Service. Four civilians were awarded the Queen's Commendation for Bravery: Kirsty Boden (posthumous); Ellen Gauntlett; Justin Jones; and Florin Morariu. Joy Ongcachuy, Acting Detective Zac Idun, London Ambulance Service operations director Paul Woodrow, NHS England administrator Peter Boorman, Malik Ramadhan and Claire Summers were awarded OBEs for, variously, responding to the attacks, treating victims and liaising with their families, and conducting related investigations.


title: Jamais vu

text: In psychology, jamais vu ( , , ), a French borrowing meaning "never seen", is the phenomenon of experiencing a situation that one recognizes in some fashion, but that nonetheless seems novel and unfamiliar.


title: Jamais vu

text: Jamais vu is often described as the opposite of "déjà vu". "Jamais vu" involves a sense of eeriness and the observer’s impression of experiencing something for the first time, despite rationally knowing that they have experienced it before. "Jamais vu" is sometimes associated with certain types of aphasia, amnesia, and epilepsy.


title: Jamais vu

text: "Jamais vu" is more commonly explained as when a person momentarily does not recognise a word or, less commonly, a person or place, that they already know. This can be achieved by anyone by repeatedly writing or saying a specific word out loud. After a few seconds one will often, despite knowing that it is a real word, feel as if "there's no way it is an actual word."


title: Jamais vu

text: The phenomenon is often grouped with "déjà vu" and "presque vu" ("tip of the tongue", literally "almost seen").


title: Jamais vu

text: Theoretically, a "jamais vu" feeling in a sufferer of a delirious disorder or intoxication could result in a delirious explanation of it, such as in Capgras delusion, in which the patient considers someone they know to be a false double or impostor. If the patient sees themselves as the impostor, the clinical setting would be the same as the one described as depersonalization; hence, "jamais vus" of oneself, or of the very "reality of reality", are termed depersonalization and derealization, respectively.


title: Jamais vu

text: A study by Chris Moulin of Leeds University asked 92 volunteers to write out "door" 30 times in 60 seconds. In July 2006 at the 4th International Conference on Memory in Sydney he reported that 68 percent of volunteers showed symptoms of "jamais vu", such as beginning to doubt that "door" was a real word. Moulin believes that a similar brain fatigue underlies a phenomenon observed in some schizophrenia patients: that a familiar person has been replaced by an impostor. Moulin suggests they could be suffering from chronic "jamais vu".


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Warhammer Fantasy is a fictional fantasy universe created by Games Workshop and used in many of its games, including the table top wargame "Warhammer Fantasy Battle", the "Warhammer Fantasy Roleplay" (WFRP) pen-and-paper role-playing game, and a number of video games: the MMORPG "", the strategy games "", "" and "" and the two first-person shooter games in the Warhammer Vermintide series, "" and "".


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Warhammer is notable for its "dark and gritty" background world, which reference a range of historical cultures, along with other fantasy settings, in particular Tolkien's Middle-earth. From Michael Moorcock, its creators took the theme of "Chaos" as a force unceasingly attempting to tear the mortal world asunder. The world itself was populated with a variety of races such as humans, high elves, dark elves, wood elves, dwarfs, undead, orcs, lizardmen, and other creatures familiar to many fantasy/role-playing settings.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The Warhammer world drew inspiration from Tolkien's Middle-earth, but also from Robert E Howard ("Conan the Barbarian") and Michael Moorcock, as well as history, particularly European history. What is recognizable as the Warhammer World began with the expansion material to the first edition of the game Warhammer, but was formulated as a distinct setting with a world map in the second edition.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The Warhammer World borrowed considerably from historical events and other fantasy fiction settings. The Old World is recognisably Europe approximating to a variety of historical periods including the Renaissance - the Empire being set over what is modern Germany - medieval France, Roman Italy and Celtic Britain. Many events are lifted and modified directly from real-world history, including the Black Plague and the Moorish invasion of Spain, and others from original fantasy sources. Like Middle-earth, Warhammer's Dwarfs are declining in population, the Elves have mostly departed for homelands in the West, and a Great Necromancer is reborn after the defeats in his Southern stronghold.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: There are numerous nations and races in the Warhammer World. Mankind, the most prominent, often proves to be the most susceptible to the corrupting influence of Chaos. Most of the featured human nations are based in the Old World (analogous to real world Europe): The Empire (Holy Roman Empire), Bretonnia (France and King Arthur), and Kislev (Russia). Further east of them is another powerful human civilisation known as Grand Cathay (corresponding to China).


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Many factions, such as the Elves, the Lizardmen, the Ogres and the Halflings, have been created by the Old Ones: star-travelling gods responsible for the creation of most of the setting's sentient races. These Old Ones were brought low by the daemonic forces inadvertently unleashed by the collapse of their Warp Gates (one on the North Pole and one on the South Pole), leaving their creations to fend for themselves. This backstory also provides an easy explanation for the presence of a variety of familiar fantasy races. Ogres and Halflings, for example, are closely related. Both are resistant to the mutating effects of Chaos energies (fuelled by hearty appetites and efficient metabolisms), but have opposite physical templates.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The Elves were the first civilized race to walk the Warhammer world. Brought into creation by the Old Ones, the Elves showed a natural talent for magic and superlative martial skill. The once thriving civilization of the Elves was torn asunder many thousands of years ago by a bitter civil war, resulting in the sundering of the race into three distinct kindreds: the evil, twisted Dark Elves, the proud, noble and magical High Elves who continue the ancient traditions from before the sundering, and a third group as the rustic, sylvan and mysterious Wood Elves. The High Elves inhabit the magical island of Ulthuan (analogous to Atlantis), while the Dark Elves inhabit the continent of Naggaroth (correspondent to North America in the real world), a desolate icy wilderness and the Wood Elves live in the forests of Athel Loren in the Old World.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Many races have fallen to, or been corrupted by Chaos. The barbaric Warriors of Chaos (formerly called "Hordes of Chaos") invade the civilized nations from the far northern Chaos Wastes. Beastmen, the human-animal hybrid products of Chaos are found in the dark forests of the entire Warhammer world.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The Chaos forces are the personified flaws of sapient beings; the inner daemons of living things come back through a magic medium as literal daemons to torment and kill. The ultimate victory of these forces is often hinted at, highlighting a strong assumption that sentient beings are fundamentally flawed and will eventually bring about their own destruction via the forces of Chaos. The possibility of the victory of Chaos is a major theme in the End Times campaign.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Dwarfs are an ancient, gritty, and determined race integral in the founding of the Empire. Dwarfs are the greatest craftsmen in the Warhammer World, a skill largely matched by the Chaos Dwarfs who split from their brothers after being corrupted by Chaos.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: In the jungles of the Lustria continent (Central and South America) are the Lizardmen who were created by the Old Ones to aid in their great works. The Slann, who act as leaders and priests, now lead the Lizardmen blindly, via ancient prophesies containing almost incomprehensible instructions left by the Old Ones. The culture and aesthetic of the Lizardmen are heavily inspired by those of the Aztec and Mayan cultures.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Orcs and Goblins, and their kin (also known as Greenskins), are relatively primitive and disorganized, but their instinctive belligerence threatens the various nations. Their violent nature commonly causes wars against not only the neighboring peoples, but also their own kind. They are found predominantly in the forests and mountains of the Old World, as well in the jungles to the south and stretched across the steppes to the East, but their kin can be found all over the world, inhabiting almost all continents and adapting to their environments. Thus there are many sub-species of Orcs and Goblins such as Black Orcs and Night Goblins.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Living underneath much of the known world are the Skaven, diabolical ratmen living in a subterranean dog-eat-dog machiavellian society, called the "Under-empire". They are divided into clans such as Clan Eshin, master assassins, or Clan Skryre, master engineers. It is believed that they are so numerous that if they worked together they would be able to destroy the world, however their innate predilection for cowardice and betrayal makes long term cooperation unlikely.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Besides these, there are the Undead, who are a result of the black sorceries of the first necromancer, Nagash, in the long distant past. His legacy has left the Tomb Kings, who are the resurrected armies of the first human civilisation, in the hot desert lands of Nehekhara to the south of the Old World (based on Ancient Egypt), the Vampire Counts in the Old World (based upon "Dracula" which is set in Transylvania), the zombie pirates of Luthor Harkon's Vampire Coast found on the eastern coast of Lustria (based on stereotypical pirates of the 18th century), and Nagash in his own city of undead. Prior to Games Workshop retconning the backstory, there was previously a unified Undead Army.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Outside of games, there have been novels, novellas and short stories by various authors set in the "Warhammer" world, the most famous of which are the novels featuring Gotrek and Felix by William King. The "Gotrek and Felix" series was taken over by Nathan Long, starting with "Orcslayer" in 2006.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: "Warhammer Fantasy" author Stephen Baxter has stated that according to Marc Gascoigne the idea of Chaos in Warhammer was inspired by "The Eternal Champion" and its sequels, written by Michael Moorcock, who made use of ideas from "Three Hearts and Three Lions" by Poul Anderson. The Warhammer elves were inspired by "The Broken Sword" by Poul Anderson as well the Middle-earth canon of J. R. R. Tolkien.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Early in his career, Kim Newman wrote Warhammer novels under the pen name Jack Yeovil. Some elements from these books (in particular his heroine Genevieve Dieudonné) later reappeared in the award-winning Anno Dracula series.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Early novels were published as "GW Books" by Boxtree Ltd, but more recently novels have been under Games Workshop's publishing arm, the Black Library. "Warhammer Monthly" was a comic book, published by Black Library, which ran for over 5 years and included strips set in the other areas of the Warhammer Universe. Generally running concurrently with "Warhammer Monthly" was "Inferno!" - also published by Black Library - a magazine which compiled short stories and occasional unconnected illustrations set in the fictional backgrounds of Games Workshop.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Games Workshop licensed out the rights for comic books. Boom! Studios have been working on a series of Warhammer and Warhammer 40,000 comics, written by Dan Abnett and Ian Edginton. The first was the Warhammer 40k strip "Damnation Crusade", but this was followed by one in the fantasy universe "Forge of War". When this was finished, they started a new series located in the "Warhammer Fantasy" universe, called "Warhammer - Condemned by Fire". This series features a witch-hunter fighting the Chaos minions in the remote regions of the Empire.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The Realm of Chaos (also called the Warp, the Aethyr, the Empyrean, the Realm of Souls or the Immaterium) is an alternate dimension which is found in several of Games Workshop's fictional universes, including Warhammer Fantasy. It is separate to the physical world of Warhammer, and draws inspiration from depictions of hell, the underworld and cosmic horror. The normal laws of physics and linear time/causality do not apply in the Realm of Chaos, and it is said that mortals who enter or even glimpse it tend to go insane.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The Realm itself is composed of raw magical energy generated by the emotions and thoughts of sapient creatures such as humans. Thus, the Realm of Chaos is the source of magic in the Warhammer World, and this is why magic is such an unwieldy, dangerous and often mutating force. The Realm is inhabited by maleovent daemonic creatures made of magic, the souls of mortal creatures, and most notably the four evil Chaos Gods. These four "Ruinous Powers" exert a corrupting influence upon mortals in the physical world. Their ultimate goal is to expand the Realm of Chaos, engulfing and destroying the physical world entirely.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: In contrast to the Realm of Chaos, the Chaos Wastes (also known as the Umbra Chaotica) are a part of the physical world. They are a vast, warped, cold and barren wasteland surrounding the northern polar region (and probably also the southern polar region) of the world. The Wastes border Grand Cathay, the Eastern Steppes, the Ogre Kingdoms, Norsca and Naggaroth. Norsca and the Eastern Steppes are sometimes considered to be part of the Wastes. At the north pole, there is a great collapsed Chaos Portal which allows travel between the physical world and the Realm of Chaos. This Portal spews dangerous, raw magical energy into the physical world, causing mutations to any person or creature in the north, and even to the land, climate and flow of time.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The Chaos Wastes are inhabited by various mutated flora and fauna, Daemons, Chaos monsters (including Beastmen), Greenskins and the barbaric human tribes of the Norse, Kurgan, Hung and Tong. These "Warriors of Chaos" worship the evil Chaos Gods whose influence is strong in the Wastes. In order to guard against incursions from the north, Grand Cathay has constructed a Great Bastion (similar to the real-world Great Wall of China), while the Dark Elves of Naggaroth have constructed a series of Watchtower fortresses.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The Old World is a northerly region, roughly an analogue to Europe. It is a broadly temperate area dominated by several large human countries as well as smaller states controlled by Dwarfs and Wood Elves. There are also some areas controlled by Undead lords, or marauding Beastmen, Orcs, or Goblins.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The Empire of Man, known to most as the Empire, is the largest and oldest human civilization in the Old World. It is culturally, technologically, and geographically based on early modern Germany, with its name being an allusion to the historical Holy Roman Empire. To the east lie the World's Edge Mountains, to the west Bretonnia, to the south the Border Princes/Badlands and to the north is Kislev and the sea. The main cities (which mostly lie in the south) are Altdorf (the current capital), Middenheim, Nuln, Talabheim and Averheim.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The Empire was originally founded thousands of years ago, when the Warrior-King Sigmar Heldenhammer (a Conan the Barbarian-type figure) united several bronze-age tribes, and allied with the Dwarfs, to face the greater threats of Orcs and Goblins, Undead and Chaos. Sigmar has since become the primary God worshipped in the Empire, representing justice and strength, although there are also other important ones such as Ulric (god of wolves, winter and battle), Shallya (goddess of mercy and healing), Rhya (goddess of harvest and family) and Morr (god of death and the afterlife).


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The Empire is a large, diverse country based around several large rivers: the Reik, Talabec, Stir and Aver. The various Provinces are each ruled by an Elector Count or equivalent, who elect an Emperor to rule for life. Despite this, the provinces have a great deal of autonomy to govern and defend themselves, and there has been centuries-long periods of civil war and contending-Emperors/Empresses. The center and north of the country is dominated by huge forests, which often house bandits, Chaos cultists, Orcs/Goblins or Beastmen who prey on isolated settlements. The south of the country has a warmer climate and is dominated by grassland and extensive fields. Despite the great differences between the provinces, the people of the Empire are kept united by their "steel, gunpowder and faith in Sigmar" as well as a common language: Reikspiel.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Bretonnia lies west of the Empire, across the Grey Mountains, and north of Estalia. Bretonnia is a temperate land with a mild climate and fertile soils, inspired by Medieval France and legends of King Arthur. In the center of the country lie the Forest of Arden and Massif Orcal, two wild regions inhabited by Beastmen and Orcs/Goblins, respectively. Dominated by feudal dukedoms and ruled by a King, Bretonnia has a stark class divide between the wealthy knightly nobility, and the peasants who live in poverty and squalor, with very low class mobility. The nobility are supposed to follow a code of chivalry, and a small number eventually complete religious pilgrimage, becoming virtuous Grail Knights. However the majority of the upper classes are fiercely oppressive towards the peasants.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The main God of the nobility is the Lady of the Lake, although the peasant classes worship the polytheistic Gods of the rest of the Old World, particularly Rhya. Bretonnia nominally includes the forest of Loren, although in reality most Bretonnians fear and avoid the Woodland Realm, and have many superstitions about it.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Kislev is a cold land, north of The Empire but south of Norsca. It is primarily based on Russia, with some references to other Eastern European countries, such as the unit called winged lancer - a reference to the Polish winged hussar. Much of Kislev is cold steppe, although there is an extensive taiga forest in the east. To the northwest, there is an ill-defined border between Kislev and Troll Country, a marshy, frigid wilderness infested with monsters. Historically, Kislev has been inhabited by a succession of human ethnic groups: first the Roppsmenn, then the Ungols and most recently the Gospodars who have united the region.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The state is ruled by Tzars (female title: Tzarina) and the current ruler is Tzarina Katarin, the "Ice Queen." Tzars rule over Boyars (the middle nobility) and the Druzhina (the lowest nobility, mostly composed of ethnic Gospodars). There's also the Chekist, the secret police and the analogue of the Empire's Inquisition that's used by the Tzars against heritics and political enemies alike. Kislev's military is primarily composed of rotas of the Streltsi (firearm-welding infantry, hence the name) and the Winged Lancers - also known as "the Riders of the Dead,” for "they are mourned as if already deceased".


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The country's recently established official religion is the Great Orthodoxy. The country's most important god is Ursun, the bear-god of winter and strength, and the Kislevites seem to have a special affinity with bears. Other important Gods include Dazh (god of fire, the sun, summer, family and hospitality) and Tor (god of storms). The main cities of Kislev are the eponymous Kislev, Erengrad and Praag The Cursed, which rule over the vast Oblasts surrounding them.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The country's northern frontier position means that it often bears the brunt of devastating Chaos invasions, as Kislevite warriors spill their blood to keep the southern lands safe. Combined with poor soil and notoriously freezing winters, this has made the Kislevites a hardy, no-nonsense people. Out of necessity, Kislev has retained good relations with The Empire and Dwarfs: close allies against Chaos.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The Dark Lands lie east of the Old World and west of the Far East, between the World's Edge Mountains and Mountains of Mourn. It lacks any real-world equivalent, but is similar to Mordor of Tolkien's Middle-earth, with a dry climate and many volcanoes.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: In the northern Dark Lands is the empire of the "Chaos Dwarfs". They are the most powerful faction in the region, and mesh industrialisation and mesopotamian influences. Outside of this area, the Dark Lands are mostly dominated by barbaric Orcs and Goblin tribes. The River Ruin is the only major River in the Dark Lands, and it is heavily polluted by Chaos Dwarf industry.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: To the southwest is the Plain of Bones where the remains of many dead dragons can be found. This area draws practitioners of necromancy and the Undead. To the southeast are the Dragon Isles which are often cited as a desirable, if dangerous, location for voyages in search of riches to aim for. On its southern coastline in the river delta region lies the frontier human settlement Pigbarter.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: East of the Dark Lands lie the Mountains of Mourn and Ancient Giant Lands, extremely high mountains with a cold climate, which resemble the Himalayas of the real world. This region is inhabited by fierce monsters resembling pleistocene megafauna. The brutish, semi-nomadic


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: "The Ogre Kingdoms" dominate here. They are primarily based on the nomadic Mongol Empire, as well as some of the cavemen and Neanderthal tropes. The Ogres also have a race of slave Gnoblars (relatives of Goblins), and are said to be always hungry, valuing food as much as gold.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: This area of the Warhammer World is equivalent to East/Southeast Asia. It is not greatly developed in the published games or fiction, but there are human civilizations there, specifically Ind, Grand Cathay, and Nippon (which are equivalents of India, China and Japan respectively). To the south lies the Hinterlands of Khuresh (which is inhabited by Nāgas) and Lost Isles of Ethlis, equivalent to Southeast Asia.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Grand Cathay is the largest human empire in Warhammer Fantasy, ruled by the Celestial Dragon Emperor and Moon Empress, who are immortal dragons able to shapeshift into human form. They delegate most governing of Cathay to 5 of their children, who are also immortal shapeshifting dragons and each rule a different region of the empire. Grand Cathay have long ago constructed an enormous fortification called the Great Bastion on their northern border, to guard against incursions from Hobgoblins and the forces of Chaos who dwell on the Eastern Steppes. There is some trade with the human nations of the Old World (via the "Ivory Road") and the High Elves (via the sea), as well as coastal raids by the Dark Elves. But overall, contact between the east and west is quite limited, and Grand Cathay is fairly isolationist.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: For the videogame "", Games Workshop has worked together with British developer Creative Assembly to create background information for Grand Cathay, so that the faction may be included in the game.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Various tunnels, caverns and entire cities, lie beneath the Old World, World's Edge Mountains and the rest of the world. Most cities of the Dwarfs are underground, and many Orc/Goblin settlements are as well (the Night Goblins are especially known for being cave-dwellers and rarely come to the surface during daylight).


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: In ages past, the Dwarfs built the Underway, a great system of highways, mines and settlements which stretched huge distances between their great underground fortress-cities. Today, much of the underway is in ruins and highly dangerous. Many former Dwarf cities and Underway sections are now occupied by Night Goblins and Skaven (a race of evil, intelligent anthropomorphic rats, about the size of a human). The Dwarfs, Skaven and Orcs/Goblins are locked in a constant three-way war for control of the underground.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Ulthuan is a ring-shaped island continent, controlled by the High Elves. It lies in the ocean (equivalent to the Atlantic) to the west of the Old World, and east of the New World. It draws inspiration from Atlantis, Melniboné and Numenor. The Annuli Mountains run through the center of the island. The capital and largest city of the High Elves is Lothern, located at a strait connecting the outer Ocean and Ulthuan's Inner Sea. Politically, the island is divided up into 10 Kingdoms, although they all owe loyalty to the Phoenix King (High King) in Lothern and the Everqueen in Avelorn. Prior to the High Elves, Ulthuan was inhabited by many Dragons, and many still slumber here under the mountains.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Outside of infrequent invasions, the only threats on Ulthuan are monsters in the Annuli Mountains. As Ulthuan is a magical floating island, the Underway and Under-Empire do not extend to it.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: At the center of the Inner Sea lies the Great Vortex, a magical storm that drains excess magical energy from the world, fed by a global network of waystones maintained by the High Elves. If the Vortex were to fail, magical energy would build up and allow large scale invasions of Daemons from the Realm of Chaos.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Naggaroth is the cold, bleak land analogous to North America. It is dominated by the cruel Dark Elves, who broke away from the High Elves following a destructive civil war called the Sundering. In general Naggaroth is quite wild and sparsely inhabited. In the north it has a tundra climate, while in the center, pine forests grow, inhabited by Beastmen. In the south lie steaming subtropical swamps and a land bridge to Lustria. The Dark Elves dwell primarily in large cities in the northeast: Naggarond (the capital), Ghrond, Clar Karond, Karond Kar and Har Ganeth. In the west lie the Black Spine Mountains, home to outcast Dark Elves called Shades, and the dry west coast. To the north, Naggaroth borders the Chaos Wastes and the Dark Elves have constructed a system of Watchtowers to defend against Chaos incursions.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Lustria is a tropical southern continent equivalent to South America. Most of the continent is covered in extremely dangerous tropical rainforest full of poisonous and venomous creatures. The Lizardmen are the dominant power on the continent, and their ancient Temple-Cities (the greatest of which are Itza and Hexoatl) can be seen deep in the Jungle. Despite their bestial appearance, the Lizardmen are actually staunch opponents of Chaos and protectors of Order, although they are often apathetic towards the other races and hostile to those who trespass on Lustria. The wildlife of Lustria is dominated by large reptiles resembling dinosaurs and pterosaurs, and large insects which form the main food source of the Lizardmen. There is also various human, elven colonies along the coast, and undead (resulting from shipwrecked vampires) dominate The Vampire Coast in the east. In Lustria's west there is the volcanic Spine of Sotek mountains, and to the west of that is the more arid west coast. To the east of Lustria, across the Great Ocean, lies the Southlands. To the north, across and isthmus, lies Naggaroth.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Nehekhara, also called "The Land of the Dead" lies to the South of the Badlands and Old World, west of the Dark Lands. To the west lies Araby and to the south, the Southlands.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Nehekhara is inhabited by the "Tomb Kings", an undead faction based heavily on Ancient Egypt and pop culture undead mummies. Nehekhara has a dry climate, with much of it being desert. The western half of the country contains the Great Mortis (formerly Great Vitae) River and the largest city, Khemri as well as other cities. The east of the country, across the Charnel Pass and World's Edge Mountains, contains the infamous city of Lahmia.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The Tomb Kings/Nehekharans were formerly a living civilization of humans. Their first King and uniter was Settra the Imperishable, who began the tradition of attempting to prolong life and avoid death. Thousands of years and many dynasties later, a new leader called Nagash came to power. Nagash became the first necromancer and indirectly created the first vampires in Lahmia, leading to civil war. Later, Nagash enacted a great ritual to kill everyone in Nehekhara and raise them again as undead slaves. During the ritual, Nagash was killed by the last King of Nehekhara, Alcadizzar. With the ritual gone awry, the mummified Nehekharan Kings and their skeletal soldiers awoke not to the promised afterlife, but to a nightmare of living death, and were very angry about this.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Norsca is isomorphic in position within the "Old World" to Scandinavia, and similar in shape and climate. Its human occupants, the "Norse", were originally based upon historical Vikings, though as the setting developed the Norse departed from the historical template increasingly and are now one of the main tribes of the Warriors of Chaos.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Norsca abuts the Realm of Chaos (also called Shadowlands by Norse, Kurgans and Hung and known as Chaos Wastes) to its north. To its south beyond the Sea of Claws lies the Empire and to the east and Southeast the Eastern Steppes and Kurgan nation and the Kingdom of Kislev, respectively. Between Norsca and Kislev is a wilderness area called Troll Country.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Norsca was originally populated by both High Elves and Dwarfs. Humans came to this land long after them. Norse Dwarves still remain and often come into conflict with the Norse tribes, but Elves have left the land. There are many ancient elven ruins. One of these mysterious places is the Forest of Knives, in the middle of Norsca, where an ancient Elven temple is located.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Some novels involving mostly Norse characters and places are C.L. Werner's Palace of the Plague Lord, Forged by Chaos and the Wulfrik, Valkia and Sigvald novels for Warhammer Heroes. "The Legend of Sigmar" novels also displays the Norse as the main antagonists of the first two books. Slaves to Darkness, by Gav Thorpe, also shows the Norse tribes as important supporting characters to the Imperial born Chaos Champion protagonist.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The Norse Dwarfs is the most northerly of the Dwarfs of the Old World. While related to the Dwarfs in their strongholds to the South the separation over the years has led to some changes and the Norse Dwarfs have taken on some more wild characteristics compared to the mainstream of Dwarf society.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Norse Dwarfs are featured in the Warhammer Fantasy Roleplay (WFRP1) supplement and also in the (WFRP2) supplement Tome of Corruption.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The Norse are, like the historical Norsemen, great seaborne explorers, traders, reavers, and slavers who have built and maintain colonies in Lustria (the Warhammer world's version of South and Meso America).


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Through the 1980s, the Norse troops and characters in Warhammer Fantasy were closely based on the historical Vikings. Later, the Norse were largely merged into the Chaos faction as the Warriors of Chaos (main human footsoldiers of Chaos).


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The Southlands correspond to real world sub-Saharan Africa. The Southlands lie south of the Land of the Dead and are dominated by dense swamplands and rain forest. These are inhabited by Lizardmen, savage orcs and forest goblins, and small tribes of what adventurers call the "Dark Men", who are content to live at peace with nature and seem to have the protection of the Lizardmen.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Lizardmen are the primary power in the Southlands and have five temple-cities, though one is ruined. Due to centuries of separation from their Lustrian brothers, the spawnings of saurus have become slightly rare and so skinks dominate in both civil life and warfare. Although similar in climate and culture to Lustria, the Southlands remain much less explored by human or High Elves and thus the Slann of the Southlands are said to have a much more complete set of Old One prophecies as they have not been pillaged by treasure hunters. However, the Slann practice of embalming their dead under pyramids is said to have had a major influence on the early Khemrian civilisation in the Land of the Dead, which suggests they were not always so isolated. They are reported to have come in conflict with the fabled "Lost Hold" of the Dwarfs, Karak Zorn, which is said to be located somewhere in the mountains of the Southlands.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The Southlands are believed to be the original homeland of the Dwarfs, where they began as simple cave dwellers using crude stone tools, before following the chain of mined riches up the mountain chain towards the north.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: When the Skaven Clan Pestilens ravaged Lustria, they were driven out by Sotek and they migrated to the Southlands. Sotek also took action against them here by sending jungle swarms to destroy the clan.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The Worlds Edge Mountains are a significant geographic location in the fictional setting of the game of Warhammer Fantasy.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: To the east of the Old World lies the ancient and impossibly high Worlds Edge Mountains. This snow-capped mountain range officially extends from the Nehekhara in the far south, up into the far north past Kislev, before branching west into Norsca. They separate the desolate Dark Lands in the east from the civilised lands of The Empire and Kislev in the west.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Though the unbroken chain of mountains reaches into the Southlands from the Worlds Edge Mountains, the peaks south of the Nehekharan deserts are technically part of the Great Mountains chain.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The High Pass is the northernmost route traversing the range, and descends into the lands of the Troll Country before its road leads eventually into the city of Praag in Kislev. A very popular invasion route for the marauder tribes of the west and the Orcish Warlord Grimgor Ironhide's greenskins hordes.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Peak Pass is the next most northerly passage across the mountains. It is overlooked at its eastern starting point by the greenskin fortress of Gnashrak's Lair, and at its western end by the Dwarf Stronghold of Karak Kadrin. In olden times it enabled Dwarfs to travel between the western and eastern fronts of the range. Though its importance has much declined since then and after the Dwarfs had forsaken the mines and watchposts on the eastern frontier. In the present times it must be guarded vigilantly for invading Orcs and Goblins moving from their eastern lairs use it as one of their main attack routes. The Karak Kadrin Dwarfs guard it fiercely against these intruders


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The Silver Road is a central route that comes in from the easterly Wolf Lands. Its western opening bypasses The Dwarfen capital city Karaz-a-Karak, while its east is haunted by the Orc-infested ruins of the old Dwarf mine, Mount Silverspear, which is now known more commonly as Mount Grimfang, after the Orcish warlord who captured it. In olden times the pass was the scene of the bloody battles of the Silver Road Wars.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Black Fire Pass is originally named Haz-Drazh-Kadrin by the Dwarfs, which literally translates into human tongue as "Passage of Black Flame". It forms a divider between the Black mountains and the World's Edge Mountains and is the main route between the lands of the Border Princes, Karaz-a-Karak and the southern regions of The Empire, travelling along the historical Old Dwarf Road. It is essentially a deep chasm, created when volcanic eruptions tore the peaks in ages past. Orc and goblin tribes in the south use this as their principal route of invasion through the mountains. More importantly, "The Battle of Black Fire Pass" was played out here, which an alliance of tribes of men of the time before the Empire, and the Dwarfs, engaged a massive invading greenskin army in the pass. The ensuing victory was the beginning of the founding of the nation of men under Sigmar.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Mad Dog Pass, alternately known as Varag Kadrin, was in the days of the Dwarf's greatest power, the chief thoroughfare to the isolated mines of the Dark Lands and the eastern front of the ranges. It is now only occasionally used, and studded with Night Goblin fortresses and their tunnels riddle its steep sides.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Black Water is an immense mountain lake high in the western highlands, and its Black Falls empty down into the Skull River. The lake is actually a vast crater, and was filled up with melted ice water from the surrounding snowy mountains. In ancient times a meteor fell from the heavens and punched this massive crater into the rock. Valuable metals and ores can be found all around the lake. Many Dwarf strongholds were founded around Black Water to mine and refine these meteoric ores, and to take advantage of the raging torrents gushing down the mountainside from the Black Falls, powering waterwheels and machinery. Its black depths are home to ancient and dark monsters. "The Battle of Black Falls" also took place here, when Dwarf and Goblin armies met on the shores of Black Water. The High King Alrik and the Goblin Warlord Gorkil Eyegouger were both slain while fighting along the edge of the Black Falls.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The South World's Edge Mountains are more volcanically active than the northern regions. The largest volcanoes are named Fire Mountain, Red Cloud Mountain and Thunder Mountain. They continually bring up new minerals from the planet's interior, and thus attract many miners, although their settlements are frequently destroyed by eruptions and earthquakes.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The Worlds Edge Mountains are a barren wilderness. The Dwarf Strongholds are the only enclaves of civilisation in the region. The Greenskins also have many crude settlements in the mountains, as do the Skaven. The fallen Holds are also home to these two races.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Karaz-a-Karak means "Pinnacle of the Mountains" and is also known to men as "The Everpeak". This Dwarfen Hold is the largest and most powerful, and is also their capital city. Its lord is the High King of all the Dwarfs. Currently ruled over by High King Thorgrim Grudgebearer. The temples of the venerable Ancestor Gods are here, and is also home to the Great Book of Grudges, a vast account of all wrongdoings and breaches of faith against the Dwarfen race.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Karak Ungor, now known as Red Eye Mountain. It is now overrun by the Red Eye Tribe of the Night Goblins, and was the first Dwarfen Hold to fall. It sits in the north, overlooking western Kislev.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Karak Kadrin, has a reputation as being home to fierce Dwarf clans. Known commonly as Slayer Keep. Home to the Shrine of Grimnir, and where the Dwarf Slayer Cult makes pilgrimages to. Its King is bound by two incompatible Oaths. That of "A King to his People", and that of his family's hereditary "Slayer Oath", neither of which he can successfully fulfill without failing in the other.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: Cripple Peak is the mountain spire in the south overlooking the Sour Sea. It is riddled with the tainted rock known as Warpstone, which is highly prized by the Skaven and Necromancers. It is the home of the Supreme Lord of the Undead, Nagash. A massive army of skeletal warriors patrols the ramparts of the fortified mountain while their master regains his power after the last time he was defeated. Nagash ordered the mountain to be mined for all of its Warpstone for his use in Necromancy, by his legions of undead and local human tribes which pledged allegiance to him out of terror. The lower regions are known as the Cursed Pit.


title: Warhammer Fantasy (setting)

text: The Worlds Edge Mountains are also home to many great Dragons. Throughout history there have been many dragon nests discovered by miners, and their hoards are of great proportions. Most of the time these dragons are in a deep slumber. Notable dragons include Skaladrak Incarnadine, Mordrak, Fyrskar and Graug the Terrible.


title: DC Universe (streaming service)

text: DC Universe was an American subscription video-on-demand (SVOD) and digital comics service operated by DC Entertainment and Warner Bros. Digital Networks, both divisions of WarnerMedia. Launched on September 15, 2018, the service featured a streaming library of animated series and films based on DC Comics properties, new original television series adapted from DC properties, as well as a rotating back catalogue of DC Comics publications, and online community features. In 2020, the service won the Webby People's Voice Award for Media Streaming.


title: DC Universe (streaming service)

text: In June 2020, WarnerMedia began to phase out DC Universe in favor of its new flagship streaming service HBO Max, initially by offering a promotional offer via DC Universe for new subscribers. In September 2020, it was announced that DC Universe would be relaunched as DC Universe Infinite—which is solely a digital comics subscription service—on January 21, 2021, and that DC Universe's original series and future streaming productions would move to HBO Max and become Max Originals.


title: DC Universe (streaming service)

text: In April 2017, DC Universe was announced as an untitled service with original television programming, with its title revealed a year later in May. The next month, the features of the service beyond original programming were revealed, including access to older DC live-action and animated films and animated series for a select period of time, a rotating selection of comics, forum discussion space, a merchandise store, and DC encyclopedia. Sam Ades, the general manager and senior vice-president at Warner Bros. Digital Network, managed the service.


title: DC Universe (streaming service)

text: Several original series were announced and developed for DC Universe: "Titans" and "", premiered in 2018 and 2019, respectively. "Harley Quinn", a half-hour animated series, premiered in 2019. A Superman prequel series titled "Metropolis" was announced in January 2018, focusing on Lois Lane and Lex Luthor. Two live-action series "Swamp Thing" and "Doom Patrol" were released in 2019, while "Metropolis" was being redeveloped. A live-action "Stargirl" series was released in 2020, which features additional members of the Justice Society of America. "DC Daily" was released in September 2018, ending in July 2020.


title: DC Universe (streaming service)

text: In May 2020, WarnerMedia launched a new streaming service, HBO Max. The following month, DC Universe subscribers became eligible for a promotional discount on HBO Max for new subscribers. At the end of July, DC Universe no longer offered the yearly subscription option for the service. In August, DC Comics publisher Jim Lee revealed that all original programming would be migrated over to HBO Max. Speaking to the community aspect of DC Universe, as well as the ability to access the backlog of comics titles, Lee said "there is always going to be a need for that" and that DC was looking at ways to transform the platform so that content would not go away.


title: DC Universe (streaming service)

text: Sibling broadcast network The CW (which has carried its "Arrowverse" dramas adapted from DC Comics characters) has also carried selected DC Universe programs, including "Stargirl" (which aired new episodes on The CW on a one-day delay from its release on DC Universe), and "Swamp Thing" (acquired for its 2020 fall schedule, amid the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on television in the United States).


title: DC Universe (streaming service)

text: DC announced in September 2020 that the service would change its name to DC Universe Infinite and become solely a digital comics subscription service on January 21, 2021. DC Universe subscriptions would automatically transfer over to DC Universe Infinite. "Young Justice" seasons 1–4, "Titans" season 1–3, "Doom Patrol" seasons 1–3, the first season of "Stargirl", and "Harley Quinn" seasons 1–3 moved to HBO Max to become Max Original series, with new DC series and "key DC classics" also being available there. "Stargirl" was renewed exclusively by The CW for a second season.


title: DC Universe (streaming service)

text: DC Universe launched in the U.S. on September 15, 2018, and was available on iOS, Android, Roku, Apple TV, Android TV, Amazon Fire TV, and Xbox One in addition to web and mobile web access. Each subscription to DC Universe could be used on two devices at a time. Pre-orders for the streaming service became available starting on July 19, while an early beta-version was made available to select users in August. Live-action series were produced in 4K with HDR.


title: DC Universe (streaming service)

text: DC Universe was only available in the United States. At Fan Expo Canada 2018, DC editor Dan DiDio claimed the service was being beta tested in Canada with plans to launch at an unspecified date. Meanwhile, several original shows from the service were acquired by Corus Entertainment (for broadcast on its Teletoon, Adult Swim, and Showcase cable networks), while "Doom Patrol" was acquired by Bell Media for its CTV Sci-Fi Channel. "Titans" was distributed internationally on Netflix.


title: DC Universe (streaming service)

text: "BizarroTV", an anthology series, was announced in October 2019 as being in development, and had an expected release date in 2020. It was unclear if it will migrate to an HBO Max Original series when the service became DC Universe Infinite.


title: DC Universe (streaming service)

text: At launch, the service included the four live-action Christopher Reeve "Superman" films, "Batman Begins" and "The Dark Knight", animated television series "", "Static Shock", "Young Justice", "Teen Titans", "Batman Beyond", "", and "Justice League", live-action television series "" and "Wonder Woman", the last remastered in high-definition, and animated films including "", "", and "Wonder Woman", among others. Content was updated on a monthly basis. The service added the 1970s live-action series "Shazam!" in March the following year.


title: History of masturbation

text: The history of masturbation describes broad changes in society concerning the ethics, social attitudes, scientific study, and artistic depiction of masturbation over the history of sexuality.


title: History of masturbation

text: interpreted variously by different religions, and has been the subject of legislation, social controversy, activism, as well as intellectual study in sexology.


title: History of masturbation

text: Social views regarding masturbation taboo have varied greatly in different cultures, and over history.


title: History of masturbation

text: There are depictions of male and female masturbation in prehistoric rock paintings around the world. Most early people seem to have connected human sexuality with abundance in nature. A clay figurine of the 4th millennium BC from a temple site on the island of Malta, depicts a woman masturbating. However, in the ancient world, depictions of male masturbation are far more common.


title: History of masturbation

text: From the earliest records, the ancient Sumerians had very relaxed attitudes toward sex. The Sumerians widely believed that masturbation enhanced sexual potency, both for men and for women, and they frequently engaged in it, both alone and with their partners. Men would often use "puru"-oil, a special oil probably mixed with pulverized iron ore intended to enhance friction. Masturbation was also an act of creation and, in Sumerian mythology, the god Enki was believed to have created the Tigris and Euphrates rivers by masturbating and ejaculating into their empty riverbeds.


title: History of masturbation

text: Male masturbation was an even more important image in ancient Egypt: when performed by a god it could be considered a creative or magical act: the god Atum was believed to have created the universe by masturbating to ejaculation.


title: History of masturbation

text: The ancient Greeks also regarded masturbation as a normal and healthy substitute for other forms of sexual pleasure. Most information about masturbation in ancient Greece comes from surviving works of ancient Greek comedy and pottery. Masturbation is frequently referenced in the surviving comedies of Aristophanes, which are the most important sources of information on ancient Greek views on the subject. In ancient Greek pottery, satyrs are often depicted masturbating.


title: History of masturbation

text: According to the "Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers" by the third-century AD biographer Diogenes Laërtius, Diogenes of Sinope, the fourth-century BC Cynic philosopher, often masturbated in public, which was considered scandalous. When people confronted him over this, he would say, "If only it were as easy to banish hunger by rubbing my belly." Diogenes, speaking in jest, credited the god Hermes with its invention: he allegedly took pity on his son Pan, who was pining for Echo but unable to seduce her, and taught him the trick of masturbation in order to relieve his suffering. Pan in his turn taught the habit to young shepherds.


title: History of masturbation

text: Masturbation is little noted in the sources for ancient Roman sexuality. The poet Martial considers it an inferior form of sexual release resorted to by slaves. Aulus Gellius, a Latin writer of the second century A.D., claims that the fragment of Empedocles "O wretches, utter wretches, from beans withhold your hands" refers to the testicles symbolically, trying to keep men away "from excess in venery". Though infrequently mentioned, masturbation was a longstanding theme in Latin satire, appearing in one of the few surviving fragments of Lucilius, Rome's earliest practitioner of the genre. The Romans preferred the left hand for masturbation.


title: History of masturbation

text: Within the African Congo Basin, the Aka and Ngandu ethnic groups all lack a word for masturbation in their languages and are confused by the concept of masturbation.


title: History of masturbation

text: Several medical papers were written on insanity as a result of masturbation, and this was written as a reason for admission when a person was confined in a hospital. A doctor named J W Robertson tried to describe the differences between different types of masturbation in the year 1898, when addressing the Medical Society of the State of California.


title: History of masturbation

text: The first use of the word "onanism" to consistently and specifically refer to masturbation is a pamphlet first distributed in London in 1716, titled "Onania, or the Heinous Sin of self-Pollution, And All Its Frightful Consequences, In Both Sexes, Considered: With Spiritual and Physical Advice To Those Who Have Already Injured Themselves By This Abominable Practice." It drew on familiar themes of sin and vice, this time in particular against the "heinous sin" of "self-pollution", with dire warnings that those who so indulged would suffer:


title: History of masturbation

text: Disturbances of the stomach and digestion, loss of appetite or ravenous hunger, vomiting, nausea, weakening of the organs of breathing, coughing, hoarseness, paralysis, weakening of the organ of generation to the point of impotence, lack of libido, back pain, disorders of the eye and ear, total diminution of bodily powers, paleness, thinness, pimples on the face, decline of intellectual powers, loss of memory, attacks of rage, madness, idiocy, epilepsy, fever and finally suicide.


title: History of masturbation

text: Included were letters and testimonials supposedly from young men ill and dying from the effects of compulsive masturbation. The pamphlet then goes on to recommend as an effective remedy a "Strengthening Tincture" at 10 shillings a bottle and a "Prolific Powder" at 12 shillings a bag, available from a local shop.


title: History of masturbation

text: "Onania" was a huge success with over 60 editions published and being translated into several languages.


title: History of masturbation

text: In 1743–45, the British physician Robert James published "A Medicinal Dictionary", in which he described masturbation as being "productive of the most deplorable and generally incurable disorders" and stated that "there is perhaps no sin productive of so many hideous consequences".


title: History of masturbation

text: One of the many horrified by the descriptions of malady in "Onania" was the notable Swiss physician Samuel-Auguste Tissot. In 1760, he published L'Onanisme, his own comprehensive medical treatise on the purported ill-effects of masturbation. Citing case studies of young male masturbators amongst his patients in Lausanne, Switzerland as basis for his reasoning, Tissot argued that semen was an "essential oil" and "stimulus", the loss of which in great amounts would cause "a perceptible reduction of strength, of memory and even of reason; blurred vision, all the nervous disorders, all types of gout and rheumatism, weakening of the organs of generation, blood in the urine, disturbance of the appetite, headaches and a great number of other disorders."


title: History of masturbation

text: In a 17th-century law code for the Puritan colony of New Haven, Connecticut, blasphemers, homosexuals and masturbators were eligible for the death penalty.


title: History of masturbation

text: Though Tissot's ideas are now considered conjectural at best, his treatise was presented as a scholarly, scientific work in a time when experimental physiology was practically nonexistent. The authority with which the work was subsequently treated – Tissot's arguments were even acknowledged and echoed by Kant and Voltaire – arguably turned the perception of masturbation in Western medicine over the next two centuries into that of a debilitating illness.


title: History of masturbation

text: In 1812 Benjamin Rush included "Of the Morbid State of the Sexual Appetite" as chapter 18 of his book on diseases of the mind. In it he cites excessive eating, intemperance in drinking, and idleness as causative factors of onanism. Earlier in the book (page 33) he claims there is a "train of physical and moral evils which this solitary vice fixes upon the body and mind." In his charge of mentally ill people he notes three driven to mania by onanism (page 48). In his observation of "congenital idiotism" (page 292) he notes, "The venereal appetite exists in them with great force, and they gratify it after puberty by onanism."


title: History of masturbation

text: By 1838 Jean Esquirol declared in his "Des Maladies Mentales" that masturbation was "recognized in all countries as a cause of insanity."


title: History of masturbation

text: In the 1870 book "A Solemn Appeal Relative to Solitary Vice, and the Abuses and Excesses of the Marriage Relation", edited by James Springer White, and written by Ellen G. White, we find:


title: History of masturbation

text: If the practice [of self-indulgence] is continued from the age of fifteen and upward, nature will protest against the abuse he has suffered, and continues to suffer, and will make them pay the penalty for the transgression of his laws, especially from the ages of thirty to forty-five, by numerous pains in the system, and various diseases, such as affection of the liver and lungs, neuralgia, rheumatism, affection of the spine, diseased kidneys, and cancerous humors. Some of nature's fine machinery gives way, leaving a heavier task for the remaining to perform, which disorders nature's fine arrangement, and there is often a sudden breaking down of the constitution; and death is the result.


title: History of masturbation

text: Females possess less vital force than the other sex, and are deprived very much of the bracing, invigorating air, by their in-door life. The result of self-abuse in them is seen in various diseases, such as catarrh, dropsy, headache, loss of memory and sight, great weakness in the back and loins, affections of the spine, and frequently, inward decay of the head. Cancerous humor, which would lie dormant in the system their lifetime, is inflamed, and commences its eating, destructive work. The mind is often utterly ruined, and insanity supervenes.


title: History of masturbation

text: Doctor John Harvey Kellogg (February 26, 1852 – December 14, 1943) was an especially zealous campaigner against masturbation. Kellogg was able to draw upon many medical sources' claims such as "neither the plague, nor war, nor small-pox, nor similar diseases, have produced results so disastrous to humanity as the pernicious habit of onanism," credited to one Dr. Adam Clarke. Kellogg strongly warned against the habit in his own words, claiming of masturbation-related deaths "such a victim literally dies by his own hand," among other condemnations. Kellogg believed the practice of "solitary-vice" caused cancer of the womb, urinary diseases, nocturnal emissions, impotence, epilepsy, insanity, and mental and physical debility – "dimness of vision" was only briefly mentioned.


title: History of masturbation

text: In "Plain Facts for Old and Young", Kellogg issued a warning on the evils of sex. Of the 644 pages, 97 address "Secret Vice (Solitary Vice or Self-Abuse)", its symptoms and results. Included are 39 signs indicating someone is masturbating.


title: History of masturbation

text: He recommended, to cure children from this "solitary vice", bandaging or tying their hands, covering their genitals with patented cages, sewing the foreskin shut and electrical shock, and circumcision without anesthesia, which would break the habit. In order to prevent it, he advised parents first to teach children to avoid handling their genitalia, and as they get more mature, to inform them "of the evil consequences". He also warned parents against "evil associations", servants, and "wicked or ignorant" nurses who would masturbate children in order to quiet them.


title: History of masturbation

text: Sigmund Freud wrote of the "disease of masturbation": "He was suffering from the effects of masturbation."


title: History of masturbation

text: In the 1990s, Abd al-Aziz bin Baz, the Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia, argued masturbation causes disruption of the digestive system, inflammation of the testicles, damage to the spine, "trembling and instability in some parts of the body like the feet", weakening of the "cerebral glands" leading to decreased intellect and even "mental disorders and insanity".


title: History of masturbation

text: Immanuel Kant regarded masturbation as a violation of the moral law. In the "Metaphysics of Morals" (1797) he made the "a posteriori" argument that 'such an unnatural use of one's sexual attributes' strikes 'everyone upon his thinking of it' as 'a violation of one's duty to himself', and suggested that it was regarded as immoral even to give it its proper name (unlike the case of the similarly undutiful act of suicide). He went on, however, to acknowledge that 'it is not so easy to produce a rational demonstration of the inadmissibility of that unnatural use', but ultimately concluded that its immorality lay in the fact that 'a man gives up his personality … when he uses himself merely as a means for the gratification of an animal drive'.


title: History of masturbation

text: The 18th-century philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau saw masturbation as equal to 'mental rape', and discussed it in both and Confessions. He argued that it was the corrupting influence of society that led to such unnatural acts as masturbation and that humans living a simple life amidst nature would never do such things.


title: History of masturbation

text: This continued well into the Victorian Era, where such medical censure of masturbation was in line with the widespread social conservatism and opposition to open sexual behavior common at the time.


title: History of masturbation

text: In 1879, Mark Twain wrote a speech titled "Some Thoughts on the Science of Onanism" which he ended with the words:


title: History of masturbation

text: There were recommendations to have boys' trousers constructed so that the genitals could not be touched through the pockets, for schoolchildren to be seated at special desks to prevent their crossing their legs in class and for girls to be forbidden from riding horses and bicycles because the sensations these activities produce were considered too similar to masturbation. Boys and young men who nevertheless continued to indulge in the practice were branded as "weak-minded." Many "remedies" were devised, including eating a bland, meatless diet. This approach was promoted by Dr. John Harvey Kellogg (inventor of corn flakes) and Rev. Sylvester Graham (inventor of Graham crackers). The medical literature of the times describes procedures for electric shock treatment, infibulation, restraining devices like chastity belts and straitjackets, cauterization or – as a last resort – wholesale surgical excision of the genitals. Routine neonatal circumcision was widely adopted in the United States and the UK at least partly because of its believed preventive effect against masturbation (see also History of male circumcision). In later decades, the more drastic of these measures were increasingly replaced with psychological techniques, such as warnings that masturbation led to blindness, hairy hands or stunted growth. Some of these persist as myths even today. Referring to such viewpoints and treatments, Messer and Walker stated: "These are some of the darkest pages of religious and medical history."


title: History of masturbation

text: In 1905, Sigmund Freud addressed masturbation in his "Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality" and associated it with addictive substances. He described the masturbation of infants at the period when the infant is nursing, at four years of age, and at puberty.


title: History of masturbation

text: In 1910, the meetings of the Vienna psychoanalytic circle discussed the moral or health effects of masturbation but its publication was suppressed.


title: History of masturbation

text: Medical attitudes toward masturbation began to change at the beginning of the 20th century when H. Havelock Ellis, in his seminal 1897 work "Studies in the Psychology of Sex", questioned Tissot's premises, cheerfully named famous men of the era who masturbated and then set out to disprove (with the work of more recent physicians) each of the claimed diseases of which masturbation was purportedly the cause. "We reach the conclusion", he wrote, "that in the case of moderate masturbation in healthy, well-born individuals, no seriously pernicious results necessarily follow."


title: History of masturbation

text: Robert Baden-Powell, the founder of The Scout Association, incorporated a passage in the 1914 edition of "Scouting for Boys" warning against the dangers of masturbation. This passage stated that the individual should run away from the temptation by performing physical activity which was supposed to tire the individual so that masturbation could not be performed. By 1930, however, Dr. F. W. W. Griffin, editor of "The Scouter," had written in a book for Rover Scouts that the temptation to masturbate was "a quite natural stage of development" and, citing Ellis' work, held that "the effort to achieve complete abstinence was a very serious error."


title: History of masturbation

text: "Concerning Specific Forms of Masturbation" is a 1922 essay by Austrian psychiatrist and psychoanalyst Wilhelm Reich.


title: History of masturbation

text: In the seven and a half page essay Reich accepts the prevalent notions on the roles of unconscious fantasy and the subsequent emerging guilt feelings which he saw as originating from the act itself.


title: History of masturbation

text: The works of sexologist Alfred Kinsey during the 1940s and 1950s, most notably the Kinsey Reports, insisted that masturbation was an instinctive behaviour for both males and females, citing the results of Gallup Poll surveys indicating how common it was in the United States. Some critics of this theory held that his research was biased and that the Gallup Poll method was redundant for defining "natural behavior".


title: History of masturbation

text: In the US masturbation has not been a diagnosable condition since DSM II (1968). The American Medical Association consensually declared masturbation as normal in 1972.


title: History of masturbation

text: Thomas Szasz states the shift in scientific consensus as "Masturbation: the primary sexual activity of mankind. In the nineteenth century it was a disease; in the twentieth, it's a cure."


title: History of masturbation

text: In the 1980s Michel Foucault was arguing masturbation taboo was "rape by the parents of the sexual activity of their children":


title: History of masturbation

text: To intervene in this personal, secret activity, which masturbation was, does not represent something neutral for the parents. It is not only a matter of power, or authority, or ethics; it's also a pleasure.


title: History of masturbation

text: In 1994, when the Surgeon General of the United States, Dr. Joycelyn Elders, mentioned as an aside that it should be mentioned in school curricula that masturbation was safe and healthy, she was forced to resign, with opponents asserting that she was promoting the teaching of "how" to masturbate.


title: Noël Wells

text: Noël Kristi Wells (born December 23, 1986) is an American actress, comedian, musician, director, and writer. She is known for her television roles as Rachel Silva in Netflix comedy-drama "Master of None" (20152017), as the voice of Kelsey Pokoly in the Cartoon Network animated television series "Craig of the Creek" (2018present), as the voice of Ensign D'Vana Tendi in the Paramount+ animated series "" (2020present), and as a featured player on "Saturday Night Live" (20132014), as well as for writing, directing, and starring in the film "Mr. Roosevelt" (2017). Outside of comedy and acting, Wells has also ventured into music; her debut album "It's So Nice!" was released in 2019.


title: Noël Wells

text: Wells was born in San Antonio, Texas. Her father is a Tunisian immigrant, and her mother is of half Mexican descent. She says her parents named her Noël because she was born two days before Christmas.


title: Noël Wells

text: Wells attended Memorial High School in Victoria, Texas, where she was active in speech and debate and graduated as salutatorian. She graduated from the University of Texas at Austin in 2010 with degrees in Plan II Honors and Radio-Television-Film. While attending college, she was a cast member of Esther's Follies, Austin's long-running musical satire show, where she performed in sketches and as a magician's assistant. Before becoming an actress, she worked as an editor and did motion graphics.


title: Noël Wells

text: In 2010, Wells moved to Los Angeles and performed at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre with the sketch team "New Money". She appeared in numerous Cracked.com and CollegeHumor videos, and was known for her own sketch and parody videos, which have over 18 million views on YouTube.


title: Noël Wells

text: In 2013, Wells joined the cast of "Saturday Night Live" during its 39th season as a featured player along with fellow Upright Citizens Brigade performers John Milhiser, Kyle Mooney, and Beck Bennett, as well as writer Mike O'Brien and stand-up comedian Brooks Wheelan. On July 15, 2014, it was announced that Wells would not be returning for a second season.


title: Noël Wells

text: Wells has made guest appearances on television programs such as "The Aquabats! Super Show!" and "Comedy Bang! Bang!", as well as doing recurring voice work on Hulu's "The Awesomes," Disney XD's "Wander Over Yonder, and Cartoon Network's Craig of the Creek."


title: Noël Wells

text: In 2015, Wells co-starred on the critically acclaimed Netflix comedy "Master of None", created by Aziz Ansari and Alan Yang. Wells played Rachel, the love-interest of Ansari's character. Hitfix's Alan Sepinwall said the "Dev/Rachel story is so smartly developed, with such strong chemistry between Ansari and Wells.” Richard Lawson of "Vanity Fair" said her portrayal of Rachel was a “star-making...performance. It’s subtle, but not minimalist or deadpan.” All 10 episodes premiered on November 6, 2015, and it won the 2016 Critics' Choice Award for Best Comedy.


title: Noël Wells

text: In March 2017, Wells wrote, directed, and starred in the feature film "Mr. Roosevelt", which premiered at the SXSW film festival in Narrative Spotlight. It won multiple awards including the Audience Award and Louis Black Lone Star Jury Award at SXSW and Best US Narrative Feature at the Traverse City Film Festival.


title: Noël Wells

text: Wells released her debut album "It's So Nice" on August 30, 2019. Written and recorded over a two-year period, it marks Wells' first foray as a musician and singer-songwriter.


title: Noël Wells

text: crewmember (one of four main characters) aboard the "USS Cerritos" working in the ship's medical bay.


title: Noël Wells

text: Wells is an avid photographer and has had her photography featured in exhibitions and the literary magazine "Oxford American". She has lived in Los Angeles and New York City.


title: Neeraj Vora

text: Neeraj Vora (22 January 1963 14 December 2017) was an Indian film director, writer, actor and composer from Gujarat. He made a mark in Bollywood with his work as a writer for Ram Gopal Verma's film "Rangeela" (1995). His directorial debut was Akshay Kumar starrer "Khiladi 420" in 2000 and also directed "Phir Hera Pheri (2006)". He has written screenplay and dialogues of some popular Bollywood comedy films including ""Hera Pheri" franchise", "Garam Masala" (2005), "Bhagam Bhag" (2006), "" (2006), "Bhool Bhulaiya" (2007). As an actor, His notable work includes "Mann" (1999), "Hello Brother" (1999), "Khatta Meetha" (2010), Bol Bachchan" (2012).


title: Neeraj Vora

text: He suffered a stroke in October 2016, putting him in coma. He was working on "Hera Pheri 3" before he went into coma and died on 14 December 2017 at 4 a.m. in Criticare hospital, Mumbai.


title: Neeraj Vora

text: Vora was born in Bhuj, Gujarat in a Gujarati family in 1963. But he grew up in Santacruz, a suburb of Mumbai, Maharashtra. His father, Pandit Vinayak Rai Nanalal Vora was a classical musician and a proponent of Tar-Shehnai. His father popularised Tar-Shehnai as the solo instrument for classical music.


title: Neeraj Vora

text: As a child, Vora had no access to Bollywood movies. As he hailed from a classical musician's family, listening to film music and watching films was not allowed. His mother Premila Ben had a tremendous fascination for films, and she used to secretly take her son Neeraj to watch movies. Vora went to famous Pupils' Own School in Khar, Mumbai. Many famous celebrities such as Falguni Pathank, Kinjal Bakshi, Tina Munim were his compatriots at this school.


title: Neeraj Vora

text: Many students from his school used to attend music coaching classes conducted by his father, who insisted on teaching classical Indian music while Neeraj would sneakily teach them how to play Bollywood songs on harmonium. This made Neeraj very popular at the school.


title: Neeraj Vora

text: During his college days, he started working professionally as an actor and he received intercollegiate awards for drama. In 1984, he worked for the film "Holi", by Ketan Mehta and later did a television show "Choti Badi Baatien, Circus".


title: Neeraj Vora

text: He later worked as an actor in "Rangeela" too, as the film director wanted to bring down the sets and the actor was absent. Neeraj Vora, who had written the script, played the role to finish shooting. After seeing that scene, Anil Kapoor and Priyadarshan called him for "Virasat", followed by Aamir for "Mann" and several other projects.


title: Neeraj Vora

text: His 1992 Gujarati play "Aflatoon", which was a superhit was adapted by Rohit Shetty for "". The play was written and directed by Neeraj Vora. It was adapted from Harsh Shivsharan's original Marathi play "Ghar-Ghar".


title: Neeraj Vora

text: After "Circus" in 1993, Neeraj Vora, Ashutosh Gowarikar and Deepak Tijori got together and made "Pehla Nasha", with Deepak Tijori as lead actor. Neeraj Vora was the writer and his he along with his brother directed music as Neeraj-Uttank. Later his career in writing took off after he wrote for "Rangeela" and then "Akele Hum Akele Tum", "Josh", "Badshah", "Chori Chori Chupke Chupke", "Awara Paagal Deewana", "Deewane Huye Paagal", "Ajnabee", "Hera Pheri" and "Phir Hera Pheri" among many others. Vora's work has always been appreciated by the critics. For "Phir Hera Pheri", film critic Taran Adarsh said: "Vora's dialogues, as always, are outstanding!"