text: An OFDM carrier signal is the sum of a number of orthogonal subcarriers, with baseband data on each subcarrier being independently modulated commonly using some type of quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) or phase-shift keying (PSK). This composite baseband signal is typically used to modulate a main RF carrier.


title: Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing

text: formula_11 is a serial stream of binary digits. By inverse multiplexing, these are first demultiplexed into formula_12 parallel streams, and each one mapped to a (possibly complex) symbol stream using some modulation constellation (QAM, PSK, etc.). Note that the constellations may be different, so some streams may carry a higher bit-rate than others.


text: An inverse FFT is computed on each set of symbols, giving a set of complex time-domain samples. These samples are then quadrature-mixed to passband in the standard way. The real and imaginary components are first converted to the analogue domain using digital-to-analogue converters (DACs); the analogue signals are then used to modulate cosine and sine waves at the carrier frequency, formula_13, respectively. These signals are then summed to give the transmission signal, formula_14.


text: The receiver picks up the signal formula_15, which is then quadrature-mixed down to baseband using cosine and sine waves at the carrier frequency. This also creates signals centered on formula_16, so low-pass filters are used to reject these. The baseband signals are then sampled and digitised using analog-to-digital converters (ADCs), and a forward FFT is used to convert back to the frequency domain.


text: This returns formula_12 parallel streams, each of which is converted to a binary stream using an appropriate symbol detector. These streams are then re-combined into a serial stream, formula_18, which is an estimate of the original binary stream at the transmitter.


text: If formula_12 subcarriers are used, and each subcarrier is modulated using formula_20 alternative symbols, the OFDM symbol alphabet consists of formula_21 combined symbols.


text: where formula_23 are the data symbols, formula_12 is the number of subcarriers, and formula_25 is the OFDM symbol time. The subcarrier spacing of formula_26 makes them orthogonal over each symbol period; this property is expressed as:


text: To avoid intersymbol interference in multipath fading channels, a guard interval of length formula_30 is inserted prior to the OFDM block. During this interval, a "cyclic prefix" is transmitted such that the signal in the interval formula_31 equals the signal in the interval formula_32. The OFDM signal with cyclic prefix is thus:


text: The low-pass signal filter above can be either real or complex-valued. Real-valued low-pass equivalent signals are typically transmitted at baseband—wireline applications such as DSL use this approach. For wireless applications, the low-pass signal is typically complex-valued; in which case, the transmitted signal is up-converted to a carrier frequency formula_13. In general, the transmitted signal can be represented as:


text: OFDM is used in ADSL connections that follow the ANSI T1.413 and G.dmt (ITU G.992.1) standards, where it is called "discrete multitone modulation" (DMT). DSL achieves high-speed data connections on existing copper wires. OFDM is also used in the successor standards ADSL2, ADSL2+, VDSL, VDSL2, and G.fast. ADSL2 uses variable subcarrier modulation, ranging from BPSK to 32768QAM (in ADSL terminology this is referred to as bit-loading, or bit per tone, 1 to 15 bits per subcarrier).


text: Long copper wires suffer from attenuation at high frequencies. The fact that OFDM can cope with this frequency selective attenuation and with narrow-band interference are the main reasons it is frequently used in applications such as ADSL modems.


text: OFDM is used by many powerline devices to extend digital connections through power wiring. Adaptive modulation is particularly important with such a noisy channel as electrical wiring. Some medium speed smart metering modems, "Prime" and "G3" use OFDM at modest frequencies (30–100 kHz) with modest numbers of channels (several hundred) in order to overcome the intersymbol interference in the power line environment.


text: The IEEE 1901 standards include two incompatible physical layers that both use OFDM. The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed local area networking over existing home wiring (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables) is based on a PHY layer that specifies OFDM with adaptive modulation and a Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) FEC code.


text: IEEE 802.11a/g/n, operating in the 2.4 and 5 GHz bands, specifies per-stream airside data rates ranging from 6 to 54 Mbit/s. If both devices can use "HT mode" (added with 802.11n), the top 20 MHz per-stream rate is increased to 72.2 Mbit/s, with the option of data rates between 13.5 and 150 Mbit/s using a 40 MHz channel. Four different modulation schemes are used: BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM, and 64-QAM, along with a set of error correcting rates (1/2–5/6). The multitude of choices allows the system to adapt the optimum data rate for the current signal conditions.


text: OFDM is also now being used in the WiMedia/Ecma-368 standard for high-speed wireless personal area networks in the 3.1–10.6 GHz ultrawideband spectrum (see MultiBand-OFDM).


text: Much of Europe and Asia has adopted OFDM for terrestrial broadcasting of digital television (DVB-T, DVB-H and T-DMB) and radio (EUREKA 147 DAB, Digital Radio Mondiale, HD Radio and T-DMB).


text: By Directive of the European Commission, all television services transmitted to viewers in the European Community must use a transmission system that has been standardized by a recognized European standardization body, and such a standard has been developed and codified by the DVB Project, "Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB); Framing structure, channel coding and modulation for digital terrestrial television". Customarily referred to as DVB-T, the standard calls for the exclusive use of COFDM for modulation. DVB-T is now widely used in Europe and elsewhere for terrestrial digital TV.


text: The ground segments of the Digital Audio Radio Service (SDARS) systems used by XM Satellite Radio and Sirius Satellite Radio are transmitted using Coded OFDM (COFDM). The word "coded" comes from the use of forward error correction (FEC).


text: The question of the relative technical merits of COFDM versus 8VSB for terrestrial digital television has been a subject of some controversy, especially between European and North American technologists and regulators. The United States has rejected several proposals to adopt the COFDM-based DVB-T system for its digital television services, and for many years has opted to use 8VSB (vestigial sideband modulation) exclusively for terrestrial digital television. However, in November 2017, the FCC approved a voluntary transition to ATSC 3.0, a new broadcast standard which is based on COFDM. Unlike the first digital television transition in America, TV stations will not be assigned separate frequencies to transmit ATSC 3.0 and are not required to switch to ATSC 3.0 by any deadline. Televisions sold in the U.S. are also not required to include ATSC 3.0 tuning capabilities. Full-powered television stations are permitted to make the switch to ATSC 3.0, as long as they continue to make their main channel available through a simulcast agreement with another in-market station (with a similar coverage area) through at least November 2022.


text: One of the major benefits provided by COFDM is in rendering radio broadcasts relatively immune to multipath distortion and signal fading due to atmospheric conditions or passing aircraft. Proponents of COFDM argue it resists multipath far better than 8VSB. Early 8VSB DTV (digital television) receivers often had difficulty receiving a signal. Also, COFDM allows single-frequency networks, which is not possible with 8VSB.


text: However, newer 8VSB receivers are far better at dealing with multipath, hence the difference in performance may diminish with advances in equalizer design.


text: COFDM is also used for other radio standards, for Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), the standard for digital audio broadcasting at VHF frequencies, for Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM), the standard for digital broadcasting at shortwave and medium wave frequencies (below 30 MHz) and for DRM+ a more recently introduced standard for digital audio broadcasting at VHF frequencies. (30 to 174 MHz)


text: The United States again uses an alternate standard, a proprietary system developed by iBiquity dubbed "HD Radio". However, it uses COFDM as the underlying broadcast technology to add digital audio to AM (medium wave) and FM broadcasts.


text: Both Digital Radio Mondiale and HD Radio are classified as in-band on-channel systems, unlike Eureka 147 (DAB: Digital Audio Broadcasting) which uses separate VHF or UHF frequency bands instead.


text: The "band-segmented transmission orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing" ("BST-OFDM") system proposed for Japan (in the ISDB-T, ISDB-TSB, and ISDB-C broadcasting systems) improves upon COFDM by exploiting the fact that some OFDM carriers may be modulated differently from others within the same multiplex. Some forms of COFDM already offer this kind of hierarchical modulation, though BST-OFDM is intended to make it more flexible. The 6 MHz television channel may therefore be "segmented", with different segments being modulated differently and used for different services.


text: It is possible, for example, to send an audio service on a segment that includes a segment composed of a number of carriers, a data service on another segment and a television service on yet another segment—all within the same 6 MHz television channel. Furthermore, these may be modulated with different parameters so that, for example, the audio and data services could be optimized for mobile reception, while the television service is optimized for stationary reception in a high-multipath environment.


text: Ultra-wideband (UWB) wireless personal area network technology may also use OFDM, such as in Multiband OFDM (MB-OFDM). This UWB specification is advocated by the WiMedia Alliance (formerly by both the Multiband OFDM Alliance [MBOA] and the WiMedia Alliance, but the two have now merged), and is one of the competing UWB radio interfaces.


text: "Fast low-latency access with seamless handoff orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing" (Flash-OFDM), also referred to as F-OFDM, was based on OFDM and also specified higher protocol layers. It was developed by Flarion, and purchased by Qualcomm in January 2006. Flash-OFDM was marketed as a packet-switched cellular bearer, to compete with GSM and 3G networks. As an example, 450 MHz frequency bands previously used by NMT-450 and C-Net C450 (both 1G analogue networks, now mostly decommissioned) in Europe are being licensed to Flash-OFDM operators.


text: In Finland, the license holder Digita began deployment of a nationwide "@450" wireless network in parts of the country since April 2007. It was purchased by Datame in 2011. In February 2012 Datame announced they would upgrade the 450 MHz network to competing CDMA2000 technology.


text: Slovak Telekom in Slovakia offers Flash-OFDM connections with a maximum downstream speed of 5.3 Mbit/s, and a maximum upstream speed of 1.8 Mbit/s, with a coverage of over 70 percent of Slovak population. The Flash-OFDM network was switched off in the majority of Slovakia on 30 September 2015.


text: T-Mobile Germany used Flash-OFDM to backhaul Wi-Fi HotSpots on the Deutsche Bahn's ICE high speed trains between 2005 and 2015, until switching over to UMTS and LTE.


text: American wireless carrier Nextel Communications field tested wireless broadband network technologies including Flash-OFDM in 2005. Sprint purchased the carrier in 2006 and decided to deploy the mobile version of WiMAX, which is based on Scalable Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple Access (SOFDMA) technology.


text: Citizens Telephone Cooperative launched a mobile broadband service based on Flash-OFDM technology to subscribers in parts of Virginia in March 2006. The maximum speed available was 1.5 Mbit/s. The service was discontinued on April 30, 2009.


text: VOFDM was proposed by Xiang-Gen Xia in 2000 ("Proceedings of ICC 2000", New Orleans, and "IEEE Trans. on Communications", Aug. 2001) for single transmit antenna systems. VOFDM replaces each scalar value in the conventional OFDM by a vector value and is a bridge between OFDM and the single carrier frequency domain equalizer (SC-FDE). When the vector size is formula_36, it is OFDM and when the vector size is at least the channel length and the FFT size is formula_36, it is SC-FDE.


text: In VOFDM, assume formula_38 is the vector size, and each scalar-valued signal formula_39 in OFDM is replaced by a vector-valued signal formula_40of vector size formula_38, formula_42. One takes the formula_43-point IFFT of formula_44, component-wisely and gets another vector sequence of the same vector size formula_38, formula_46. Then, one adds a vector CP of length formula_47 to this vector sequence as


text: This vector sequence is converted to a scalar sequence by sequentializing all the vectors of size formula_38, which is transmitted at a transmit antenna sequentially.


text: At the receiver, the received scalar sequence is first converted to the vector sequence of vector size formula_38. When the CP length satisfies formula_51, then, after the vector CP is removed from the vector sequence and the formula_43-point FFT is implemented component-wisely to the vector sequence of length formula_43, one obtains


text: where formula_55 are additive white noise and formula_56 and formula_57 is the following formula_58 polyphase matrix of the ISI channel formula_59:


text: where formula_61 is the formula_62th polyphase component of the channel formula_63. From (1), one can see that the original ISI channel is converted to formula_43 many vector subchannels of vector size formula_38. There is no ISI across these vector subchannels but there is ISI inside each vector subchannel. In each vector subchannel, at most formula_38 many symbols are interfered each other. Clearly, when the vector size formula_67, the above VOFDM returns to OFDM and when formula_68 and formula_69, it becomes the SC-FDE. The vector size formula_38 is a parameter that one can choose freely and properly in practice and controls the ISI level. There may be a trade-off between vector size formula_38, demodulation complexity at the receiver, and FFT size, for a given channel bandwidth.


text: Note that the length of the CP part in the sequential form does not have to be an integer multiple of the vector size, formula_72. One can truncate the above vectorized CP to a sequential CP of length not less than the ISI channel length, which will not affect the above demodulation.


text: Also note that there exist many other different generalizations/forms of OFDM, to see their essential differences, it is critical to see their corresponding received signal equations to demodulate. The above VOFDM is the earliest and the only one that achieves the received signal equation (1) and/or its equivalent form, although it may have different implementations at transmitter vs. different IFFT algorithms.


text: It has been shown (Yabo Li et al., "IEEE Trans. on Signal Processing", Oct. 2012) that applying the MMSE linear receiver to each vector subchannel (1), it achieves multipath diversity and/or signal space diversity. This is because the vectorized channel matrices in (1) are pseudo-circulant and can be diagonalized by the formula_20-point DFT/IDFT matrix with some diagonal phase shift matrices. Then, the right hand side DFT/IDFT matrix and the formula_74th diagonal phase shift matrix in the diagonalization can be thought of the precoding to the input information symbol vector formula_75 in the formula_74th sub vector channel, and all the vectorized subchannels become diagonal channels of formula_20 discrete frequency components from the formula_78-point DFT of the original ISI channel. It may collect the multipath diversity and/or signal space diversity similar to the precoding to collect the signal space diversity for single antenna systems to combat wireless fading or the diagonal space-time block coding to collect the spatial diversity for multiple antenna systems. The details are referred to the IEEE TCOM and IEEE TSP papers mentioned above.


text: OFDM has become an interesting technique for power line communications (PLC). In this area of research, a wavelet transform is introduced to replace the DFT as the method of creating orthogonal frequencies. This is due to the advantages wavelets offer, which are particularly useful on noisy power lines.


text: Instead of using an IDFT to create the sender signal, the wavelet OFDM uses a synthesis bank consisting of a formula_12-band transmultiplexer followed by the transform function


text: On the receiver side, an analysis bank is used to demodulate the signal again. This bank contains an inverse transform


text: followed by another formula_12-band transmultiplexer. The relationship between both transform functions is


text: An example of W-OFDM uses the Perfect Reconstruction Cosine Modulated Filter Bank (PR-CMFB) and Extended Lapped Transform (ELT) is used for the wavelet TF. Thus, formula_84 and formula_85 are given as


text: These two functions are their respective inverses, and can be used to modulate and demodulate a given input sequence. Just as in the case of DFT, the wavelet transform creates orthogonal waves with formula_87, formula_88, ..., formula_89. The orthogonality ensures that they do not interfere with each other and can be sent simultaneously. At the receiver, formula_90, formula_91, ..., formula_92 are used to reconstruct the data sequence once more.


text: Mainly, the sidelobe levels of W-OFDM are lower. This results in less ICI, as well as greater robustness to narrowband interference. These two properties are especially useful in PLC, where most of the lines aren't shielded against EM-noise, which creates noisy channels and noise spikes.


text: A comparison between the two modulation techniques also reveals that the complexity of both algorithms remains approximately the same.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: The German invasion of Denmark (), was the German attack on Denmark on 9 April 1940, during the Second World War. The attack was a prelude to the invasion of Norway (, 9 April – 10 June 1940).


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: Denmark's strategic importance for Germany was limited. The invasion's primary purpose was to use Denmark as a staging ground for operations against Norway, and to secure supply lines to the forces about to be deployed there. An extensive network of radar systems was built in Denmark to detect British bombers bound for Germany.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: The attack on Denmark was a breach of the non-aggression pact Denmark had signed with Germany less than a year earlier. The initial plan was to push Denmark to accept that German land, naval and air forces could use Danish bases, but Adolf Hitler subsequently demanded that both Norway and Denmark be invaded.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: Denmark's military forces were inferior in numbers and equipment, and after a short battle were forced to surrender. After less than two hours of struggle, Danish Prime Minister Thorvald Stauning ended the opposition to the German attack, for fear that the Germans would bomb Copenhagen, as they had done with Warsaw during the invasion of Poland in September 1939. Due to communication difficulties, some Danish forces continued to fight, but after a further two hours, all opposition had stopped.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: Lasting approximately six hours, the German ground campaign against Denmark was one of the shortest military operations of the Second World War.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: The attack on Denmark was part of Operation Weserübung Süd, Germany's plan for the invasion of Norway. Its main purpose was to secure the iron ore that shipped from Narvik. To capture Norway, the Germans had to control the port outside Aalborg in northern Jutland. The "Kriegsmarine" high command approved of occupying Denmark to extend the German sea-defence network northward, making it harder for British ships to outflank it from the north when attacking ships in the Atlantic. Norway's fjords also provided excellent bases for German submarines in the North Atlantic. The Germans presented the invasion as an act of protection against a supposed imminent attack by the United Kingdom.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: The German High Command planned a combined assault on Denmark to overrun the country as swiftly as possible. It included an airborne assault on the Aalborg airfields, a surprise landing of infantry from naval auxiliaries at Copenhagen, and a simultaneous ground assault across the Jutland peninsula. On 4 April, Admiral Wilhelm Canaris, chief of the Abwehr and involved in the German resistance to Nazism, warned the Danes of an imminent invasion.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: Although the Royal Danish Army was warned of the attack, it was denied permission to deploy or prepare defensive positions as the Danish government did not want to give the Germans any provocation for their actions. Only small and scattered units of the frontier guard and elements of the Jutland division were available to meet the land invasion. Believing the attack was imminent, the troops were placed on full alert at 13:30 on 8 April.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: The Danish border was breached at Sæd, Rens, Padborg and Krusaa at 04:15 on the 9th. With the "Kriegsmarine" simultaneously landing troops at Lillebælt, Danish troops at the border were cut off at the beginning of the fighting. The alarm was sounded at 04:17, and the first Danish troops were dispatched at 04:35.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: The first clash between the Danish Army and the invading forces occurred at Lundtoftbjerg, where a Danish anti-tank platoon armed with two 20 mm guns and a light machine gun had taken up positions covering the road. A German column appeared at 04:50, and the 20mm cannons opened fire on the armoured cars while the machine gun took aim at the motorcyclists. A fire started in a nearby barn, filling the air with smoke and hindering the German advance. Eventually the anti-tank platoon was forced to withdraw to Aabenraa. About 1.5 km (1 mile) to the north, a bicycle platoon prepared a defence of a railway bridge, but fire from the armoured cars and strafing fighter aircraft forced them to retreat, and a third of them were captured. The Germans lost two armoured cars and three motorcycles, while the Danes suffered one dead and one wounded.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: Another German column reached Hokkerup a few kilometers (miles) east of Lundtoftbjerg at 05:30. They encountered a roadblock made with farm equipment, set up only 20 minutes earlier by 34 Danish soldiers. The Danes knocked out the three leading armoured cars, forcing them to pull back. The Germans set up a 37 mm gun 300 meters (yards) away, but it managed to fire only one round before being knocked out by two rounds from a 20mm gun. Hand-to hand combat ensued in which one Dane was killed and three wounded, one fatally. With air support, the 100 or so Germans managed to surround and capture the Danish unit at 06:15.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: Seven kilometers (miles) north of Lundtoftbjerg, one motorcycle and two bicycle platoons arrived at Bjergskov at around 05:00. Under Lieutenant Colonel S.E. Clausen the motorcycle troops set up a roadblock with two 20 mm guns while the remaining platoons spread out in the woods. A German column arrived at 06:30. Their tanks pushed the roadblock aside and opened fire. One gun returned fire until a tank drove over it. The gunner attempted to run for cover in the woods but was killed when a German aircraft strafed the road. The second gun malfunctioned. The Danes tried to escape on motorcycles but the Germans surrounded them with armoured vehicles and captured them. A further four Danish soldiers were wounded, while one German armored car was damaged.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: In an encounter between Danish and German forces at Bredevad, 10 km (6 miles) north of the border, a German vanguard of four armoured cars approached the village. The Danes arrived at 6:30 AM and, without time to build a roadblock, took cover in a garden. A machine gun and a 20 mm cannon, manned by one and a half platoons, fired warning shots. When the Germans ignored this, the Danes opened fire from 300 meters (yards) out, knocking out the lead armoured car and killing its driver. A short skirmish followed. The Danes knocked out three more German armoured cars and suffered four casualties. At 07:15 a reinforcing German motorized column arrived from Tinglev, cutting off the Danes and forcing them to surrender. Two Danes were killed and five were wounded.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: A cyclist platoon from Korskro arrived at Rabsted at 6:45. While lying in wait, they managed to capture two German dispatch riders. Learning from them that Bredevad had been taken, they retreated to the northeast via secondary roads.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: As the Danish forces at Søgaard army camp prepared to pull back north to Vejle, where the main force of the Jutland Division was preparing for battle, a short skirmish occurred at Aabenraa as the anti-tank platoon from Lundtoftbjerg attacked 15 or so pursuing German vehicles. After disabling a German tank, the rearguard pulled back to Knivsberg. They rendezvoused with a bicycle platoon from Stubbæk Skov, which had suffered one killed and three wounded by German aircraft. The Danish CO ordered them to northern Haderslev.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: Haderslev had a garrison of 225 men of the Jutland Division under Colonel A. Hartz, which defended both the barracks in the town and the road leading to it. Troops in the town mobilized at 07:00 on hearing instructions broadcast from police loudspeaker vans. Bolstered by retreating units, approximately 400 Danes defended the town. Three roadblocks were set up: one with dumping wagons, the other two from spare lumber.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: At about 07:50 on the southern outskirts of Haderslev, a Danish 37 mm anti-tank gun with a crew of five attacked the approaching armour. Two German tanks lined up adjacent to one another and opened fire. The Danes landed all three of their shots—one in a tank's tracks—but two of the gun crew were killed and the rest wounded. One tank then drove over the gun. Around the curve on Sønderbro Street, two 20 mm cannon and a machine gun put up resistance at the wagon roadblock on Sønderbro Street. The Germans laid down heavy fire. A Danish soldier was killed and two were wounded, but the Germans were effectively pinned down. The fighting continued for ten minutes until the order to surrender was received from Copenhagen by telephone. The Germans were then allowed to proceed into Haderslev, but the Danish garrison stationed there had not received the order to surrender and fired on them. Two German tanks and a motorcycle proceeded unsuspecting towards the barracks, which were defended by the anti-tank unit from Lundtoftbjerg. They opened fire, killing the motorcyclist and blowing the tracks off one tank, sending it crashing into a house. However, the Danish garrison capitulated at 08:15 when the order to surrender finally came through. One Danish soldier was killed while defending the barracks, and three civilians were killed in the crossfire.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: The first fighting in Western Jutland occurred against the Tønder garrison, which was dispatched to Abild and Sølsted.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: At Abild, a Danish 20 mm gun crew knocked out two German armoured cars of the German 11th Motorized Regiment before pulling back. At Sølsted, a Danish anti-tank unit consisting of fewer than 50 men set up a defensive position with a 20 mm gun on a road. When a force of the German 11th Motorized Regiment approached, the Danes opened fire as soon as the first German armoured car came within range. The first vehicle was knocked out and ended up in a ditch, while the next continued forward, but pulled back after being hit. It was hit several more times, but was able to fire back. German infantry attempted twice to outflank the Danish positions, but both attempts were met with heavy fire and they became bogged down. Seeing that his attack was failing, the German regimental commander radioed for support and three German Henschel Hs 126 aircraft soon appeared. They bombed and strafed the Danish force until the Danish commander ordered his troops to fall back to Bredebo. In spite of this, no Danish casualties were reported. When the men of the Tønder garrison reached Bredebro, the order to capitulate had been issued and the fighting was over.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: At approximately 05:00, history's first paratrooper attack took place. 96 "Fallschirmjäger" jumped from nine Junkers Ju 52 transport aircraft to secure Storstrøm Bridge, connecting the island of Falster with Zealand (Sjælland) and the coastal fortress on Masnedø island. The elite German troops expected heavy fighting around the fortress, but much to their surprise, only two privates and an officer were found inside. The landing opened the way for a battalion of the 198. Infanterie-Division to advance on Copenhagen by land.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: Two hours later, a platoon of paratroopers from the 4th battalion of Fallschirmjäger Regiment I landed in Aalborg, the main city of northern Jutland, to secure "Weserübung Süd's" primary target: the airfield at Aalborg, to be used as a stepping-stone for the invasion of Norway. The "Fallschirmjäger"s encountered no resistance, and in less than an hour German aircraft were landing there in huge numbers. More than 200 landings and takeoffs were recorded on the first day, most of them transporting troops and fuel to Fornebu Airport in Norway.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: In order to capture the connections between Jutland and Zealand, the "Kriegsmarine" landed more troops from the 198th Infantry Division at Funen.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: At the same time, troops supported by the battleship "Schleswig-Holstein" landed in Korsør and Nyborg, cutting off connections between Funen and Zealand. Meeting no resistance, the troops in Korsør reached Copenhagen at noon.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: Shortly earlier, at 03:55, the Germans made a surprise attack on Gedser, Denmark's southernmost city. They utilized the local ferry from Warnemünde, which they crammed with troops. Soldiers swarmed inland and cut telephone lines. Armour and motorcycles followed, and rapidly advanced to and captured the Storstrøm Bridge together with the paratroopers.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: To secure Denmark's quick surrender, the capture of the capital city was considered essential. At 04:20 the 2,430 ton minelayer , with an escort of the icebreaker and two patrol boats, entered Copenhagen harbour with battle flags flying. The harbour was covered by the coastal artillery guns of Fort Middelgrund. The newly appointed Danish commander ordered a warning shot to be fired, but the recently arrived recruits could not operate the gun. After landing a battalion of the 198th Infantry at 05:18, German forces captured the 70-strong garrison of the Citadel, the headquarters of the Danish Army, without a single shot. Their next target was Amalienborg Palace, residence of the Danish royal family.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: When the German infantry arrived at Amalienborg, they were met with determined opposition from the on-duty company of the King's Royal Guard, which repulsed the initial attack but suffered three wounded. The fighting intensified as reinforcements hastily arrived from Rosenborg Barracks equipped with multiple Madsen machine gun. The German advance was stopped dead, as intense street fighting ensued around Amalienborg. The dogged resistance of the Royal Guard gave King Christian X and his ministers time to confer with the Danish commander-in-chief General Prior. During the discussions, several formations of Heinkel He 111 and Dornier Do 17 bombers from "Kampfgeschwader 4" roared over the city dropping OPROP! leaflets. Faced with the explicit threat of "Luftwaffe" bombing Copenhagen's civilian population, all but General Prior favoured surrender. The argument for surrender was that Denmark's military position was untenable. Its land and population were too small to hold out against Germany for any sustained period, and its flat terrain would be easily overrun by German panzers. (Jutland, for instance, was wide open to a panzer attack from Schleswig-Holstein to the south.) Unlike Norway, Denmark had no mountain ranges where a drawn-out resistance could be mounted. On the other hand, Denmark had significant water obstacles between the panzers and the capital city, Copenhagen, a long coastline, and a significant navy that could expect help from Great Britain and France. A third option, the government going into exile as the Czechoslovakian government had done, was not chosen. The Danish government ordered a ceasefire at 06:00, and formally capitulated at 08:34 in exchange for retaining political independence in domestic matters.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: The order of standing down and the disarmament of the Royal Guard, infuriated the Guardsmen, who was still confident that they could expel the Germans from the capital. It culminated in an uproar, where the Guardsmen attempted to rearm themselves. It was only because the officers argued that even if they succeeded in expelling the initial Germans troops from the capital, further overwhelming forces would arrive, that the Guardsmen abandoned the attempt.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: The entire four squadron Danish Army Air Service was stationed at Værløse near Copenhagen. In anticipation of the German invasion, they had prepared to disperse to airfields around the country, but this had not been accomplished by 05:25 when "Luftwaffe" aircraft appeared over the airbase. As the German aircraft reached Værløse, one Fokker C.V-E reconnaissance aircraft was getting airborne, but was shot down by a Messerschmitt Bf 110 flown by "Hauptmann" Wolfgang Falck at an altitude of 50 metres (200'). Both crew members were killed. The German Bf 110s then strafed the base under heavy anti-aircraft fire. They destroyed 11 aircraft and badly damaged another 14 as they taxied to take-off, wiping out most of the Danish Army Air Service in one action. The Danish Navy Air Service remained at its bases and escaped damage.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: While most of the Danish Army followed the order to surrender, one unit refused. Colonel , commander of the 4th Regiment at Roskilde, believed that the order to surrender had been forced on the government by the Germans and that Sweden had also been attacked. Bennike and his unit boarded the ferry in Elsinore to Sweden and went into exile. When the misunderstanding was later cleared up, most of the Danish soldiers stayed in Sweden and would form the core of the Danish Brigade in Sweden in 1943.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: For propaganda purposes, the German High Command tried to present the invasion of Denmark as a peaceful one, so it would be believed that Denmark did not put up any resistance to it.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: In his first monograph, author Kay Søren Nielsen states that in the archives of the Danish weapons manufacturer DISA (Danish Industrial Syndicate), 203 German soldiers were claimed to be killed in Jutland.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: The report was made in cooperation with the German Waffenamt which gives it weight. This number is also backed up by testimonies from veterans and eyewitnesses, including the veteran Frode Jensen, who after the battle was over, was told by the Germans, that they had lost 18 men while his unit had only suffered 2 casualties.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: In 2015, the Journal of Military History, "Krigshistorisk Tidsskrift", published an article for the Royal Danish Defence College (RDDC), in which military correspondent Lt. Col Jürgensen H.J. (ret.) summarized key points in the German invasion. He argued that actual German losses were 2-3 killed and 25-30 wounded, and that the Danish military suffered a confirmed 16 dead and 20 wounded. Casualties among the civil resistance is not certain, but are given as 10 dead and 3 wounded.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: Military historian David T. Zabecki notes in ""Germany at War: 400 Years of Military History"" that Denmark suffered 49 casualties (26 killed and 23 wounded), and that 20 German soldiers were killed or wounded.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: Other than the casualties at the front, a few aircraft were shot down or crashed, a tugboat sank after a collision with a German vessel in the Great Belt and the German battleship "Schleswig-Holstein" was temporarily grounded west of Agersø.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: The Danes capitulated within six hours, resulting in a uniquely lenient occupation, as the Germans were content to leave the Aryan Danes to manage their own affairs. Danish soldiers were disarmed that afternoon, and those captured were allowed to return to their units. The following day, the island of Bornholm was occupied without incident. The Royal Danish Army was severely reduced after the invasion, with only a 3,300-strong "Life Guard" unit allowed to remain. Many Danish merchant ships were caught out abroad following the sudden and rapid invasion. Approximately 240 of these ships were incorporated into the Allied merchant navy while ships still in Danish ports served the Germans in transporting iron ore. A handful of Danish soldiers and pilots escaped to the United Kingdom either directly by plane or via neutral Sweden. Those who escaped either served amongst the RAF or SOE.


title: German invasion of Denmark (1940)

text: Following the reported peaceful occupation of Denmark, Allied views on Denmark were contemptuous. It was alleged that a boxing commentator had said "without fighting—like a Dane" concerning a first-round knockout. Danes have since adopted the saying "" ().


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Jehan Daruvala (born 1 October 1998) is an Indian racing driver currently serving as a reserve driver for the Mahindra Racing Formula E team. He was a protégé of the Force India F1 team, after being one of three winners of a 'One in a Billion hunt' organized by the team in 2011. He is currently a member of the Red Bull Junior Team.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Daruvala was born in Mumbai to Khurshed and Kainaz Daruvala, a Parsi family. He studied at Bombay Scottish School, Mahim. His father Khurshed is the current MD of Sterling & Wilson, an associate company of Shapoorji Pallonji.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Daruvala started karting at the age of thirteen in 2011, participating in many events across his karting career. He won the 2012 Asia-Pacific Championship and 2013 Super 1 National Championship titles as champion and many other series as vice champion across Asia and Europe. Daruvala placed third in the 2014 Karting World Championship. He was coached by Rayomand Banajee who recognised his talent early on and was instrumental in laying the foundations for his future success.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: In 2015, Daruvala stepped up to single-seaters with Fortec Motorsport in the Formula Renault 2.0 championships. Three podiums, including consistent points scoring helped him rank fifth in the Northern European Cup. He partook as a guest driver in the Eurocup and Alps series.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: The following year, Daruvala switched to reigning series champions Josef Kaufmann Racing partnering Lando Norris and Robert Shwartzman. He took an opening pole position at Monza, and in the second race, he took a podium. In Hungary, he took his first Northern European Cup win. Three more third places saw Daruvala rank fourth in the North European Cup. In the Eurocup, Daruvala took an opening podium but was unable to replicate the result again. He eventually finished ninth in the Eurocup standings.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Before the start of Daruvala's 2016 season, he took part in the Toyota Racing Series. Three wins and three more podiums helped Daruvala become vice-champion to Lando Norris.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Daruvala returned to the Toyota Racing Series for the 2017 season. He claimed the most pole positions of any driver and claimed two wins, one of which was the New Zealand Grand Prix. Despite that, he only ranked fifth in the championship, as the championship fight was more competitive.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: In November 2016, Daruvala stated his intention to switch to the European Formula 3 Championship for the 2017 season. He signed to race with Carlin the following month. At the first Monza race, Daruvala took his first pole position in the series and would convert it into a second place, having led the majority of the race. He scored another podium at the Hungaroring before finally taking his maiden win at the Norisring, passing polesitter Maximilian Günther on the first lap from second. Daruvala finished sixth in the championship. He also participated in the 2017 Macau Grand Prix, finishing tenth in the race after starting 16th.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Daruvala remained with Carlin for the 2018 season. He achieved a third place in the opening weekend at Pau, during the third race. Daruvala scored his only win of the year in the first race of the Spa-Francorchamps round, taking pole position and the fastest lap. Overall, he claimed a total of five podiums, including one win and a pole position. Despite that, Daruvala only ranked tenth in the standings, due to his inconsistent points scoring. Daruvala once again participated in the 2018 Macau Grand Prix. He finished two places lower than the previous year in 12th, having started 17th.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Daruvala joined MP Motorsport in the Yas Marina GP3 finale, taking Niko Kari's seat. He finished both races in 19th and 13th.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: In 2019, Daruvala competed in the inaugural Formula 3 season for the Prema Powerteam, alongside Robert Shwartzman and Marcus Armstrong. He qualified fourth at the first race in Barcelona, but fell to seventh in the first race. He made a good start in the second race to pass polesitter Niko Kari at the start. Despite a safety car, he eventually took his inaugural victory. Daruvala qualified on the front row in Paul Ricard, alongside Jake Hughes. He made a slow start, but later passed Hughes later in the race to take his second successive win. This would prove to be his last win of the season. Daruvala pressed hard in the second race to take a third place, his third podium in four races. Daruvala qualified fourth at the Red Bull Ring, he remained and finished in that position in Race one, having nearly taken third place from teammate Armstrong on the last lap. In the second race, Daruvala sat in fourth place heading into the final lap, but ahead his two Prema teammates collided which saw Daruvala promoted to second place at the flag.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Daruvala maintained his qualifying form in Silverstone, doing so in third. On the first lap in the first race, Daruvala made up a position on Christian Lundgaard. Mid-race, he aggressively defended from Armstrong but held on and would finish in second place. In the second race, Daruvala and Pedro Piquet duelled for fourth place until Daruvala hit and spun Piquet out. Piquet retired on the spot, while Daruvala came to a halt at the first corner just a few moments later. Daruvala had his worst qualifying of the year in Hungary, qualifying in 17th place. Daruvala progressed up to tenth in the first race, but on the final lap was passed by Logan Sargeant, therefore scoring no points. It was the first weekend for Daruvala to not score any podiums. Daruvala regrouped for the Spa-Francorchamps round, achieving his maiden pole position. His hopes of a third win were shattered, when midway through the first lap, Piquet who had started second, passed him for the lead. Daruvala was unable to pass Piquet, and eventually was passed by teammate Shwartzman. Daruvala ended the race in third. In the second race, Daruvala pushed to finish in fifth.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: In Monza, Daruvala qualified fourth. However, he was penalized five places for each race due to driving unnecessarily slowly, which saw him demoted down to tenth. But he made a strong fightback, finishing third behind both his teammates. In the second race, Daruvala dropped off the points positions at the start, and was unable to recover, eventually finishing in 13th place. At the Sochi season finale, Daruvala qualified in second, but made a terrible start, being passed by Armstrong, Niko Kari and Leonardo Pulcini. He lost another place to Jüri Vips and eventually finished sixth. He was promoted back to fifth after Vips was penalized. Daruvala was set to start in fourth for the second race, but stalled during the formation lap. He battled his way through the field to end the race in 14th. Overall Daruvala scored seven podiums, including two wins, two fastest laps and one pole position. Daruvala was set to compete in the 2019 Macau Grand Prix, but was forced to pull out due to an injury, he was replaced by the 2019 Formula Regional European champion Frederik Vesti.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: In February 2020, Daruvala reunited with Carlin to contest the 2020 season alongside Red Bull Junior Team member Yuki Tsunoda. Additionally, he was also named as a Red Bull Junior. At the same time, he was aiming for a Formula One seat in 2021.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Daruvala finally made his debut at the Red Bull Ring round following a delayed start to the season. He qualified sixth on his debut weekend. Daruvala's hope of points were over following a poor start, before being tipped into a spin by Tsunoda. Daruvala was unable to recover and finished in 13th. He finished 16th in the sprint race, his highlight of the race being punting Luca Ghiotto out of the race. Daruvala qualified seventh for the 2nd Red Bull Ring round. However, he had slow pace compared to the others and slowly dropped out of the points to finish 12th. In the sprint race, Daruvala advanced up to ninth but in the end just missed out on points, finishing just five tenths behind Nikita Mazepin.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Daruvala qualified 16th at the Hungaroring. For the feature race, he would attempt the alternate strategy by starting on the hard tyres. It would prove to be massively successful for Daruvala, as he made many overtakes to finish sixth, scoring his first Formula 2 points. Daruvala had an atrocious start in the sprint race, falling to ninth by the first lap. But he was able to recover and finish sixth once again. Daruvala kept his top 10 qualifying streak, ranking seventh in Silverstone. He had another poor start, falling to tenth in the first few laps. He pitted early and was back up in seventh, but when drivers behind on fresher tyres passed him, Daruvala dropped to tenth at the flag. He fell to 12th at the start, but made an opportunity to pit under the safety car. He made passes to end the race in fifth, after Guanyu Zhou spun on the last lap. Daruvala qualified in a poor 16th at the second Silverstone weekend. His weekend was uneventful, finishing 12th in the feature race and just missing points in 9th in the sprint race. Daruvala had another uneventful and poor weekend in Spain, qualifying 12th and finishing both races in 17th.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Daruvala qualified ninth in Spa-Francorchamps. His weekend would turn out to be frustrating, suffering contact at the start and suffering damage to his front wing and tyre. After pitting for repairs, Daruvala had a lonely race to finish 19th, a minute and a half behind the leader. He finished 16th in the sprint race, which was his third non-scoring weekend. Daruvala qualified eighth in Monza. He went on the alternate strategy during the feature race and was down in 12th after his pit stop. A last lap pass on Marcus Armstrong saw him take 10th place and one point to end his non-scoring run. Daruvala benefitted from many retirements to finish seventh in the sprint race, before being promoted to sixth. Daruvala qualified sixth in Mugello. Once again, he had another poor start, dropping to 12th. He finished the race in 11th, but was elevated to tenth after Tsunoda was penalized. Daruvala finished the sprint race in sixth, benefitted from a collision by the Hitech Grand Prix drivers.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Daruvala qualified a season best second in Sochi qualifying, forming a Carlin front-row lockout alongside Tsunoda. He dropped to third at the start after being overtaken by Mick Schumacher. Daruvala was then undercut by Callum Ilott and Luca Ghiotto to end the race in fifth. Starting fourth in the sprint race, Daruvala dropped to fifth before receiving a five-second time penalty for corner cutting while battling Jack Aitken. With the race red-flagged, Daruvala was re-classified 11th. From eighth in Bahrain, Daruvala had a good start, making up two places in the feature race start. He soon faded down to tenth, and pitted early. As a result, Daruvala made an undercut on many drivers and was up to third. He defended hard from Schumacher in the late stages of the race to come through for his maiden Formula 2 podium. Daruvala was up in third during the sprint race opening lap. It was not to last however, he was soon passed by Mazepin before being hit by Ilott behind, ending Daruvala's race. Daruvala qualified third for the second Bahrain round, but dropped to sixth during the feature race start. He eventually finished seventh. Lining up second for the sprint race, Daruvala was passed by Schumacher on lap 4 but re-passed him back four laps later. He then hunted down Dan Ticktum and overtook him. He then took his first Formula 2 victory ahead of Tsunoda. Followed the win, Daruvala stated that he was "really excited for the future". Daruvala finished the championship with 72 points, in 12th place, far behind teammate Tsunoda in third who graduated to Formula One.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Before Daruvala's main campaign, he took part in the 2021 F3 Asian Championship with Mumbai Falcons. Overall, he claimed three victories and eight podiums. This saw him rank third in the championship, behind Pierre-Louis Chovet and champion Guanyu Zhou.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Daruvala continued in the 2021 season with Carlin alongside Dan Ticktum. He finished in second place in the first sprint race at Bahrain, after passing David Beckmann and a retirement for Théo Pourchaire. He pressured race leader Liam Lawson in the end but was unable to pass him. Daruvala followed it up with fourth place after a slow start in the second sprint race and sixth in the feature race. In Monaco, during the first sprint race, Daruvala ran in tenth place after Christian Lundgaard had retired. However, at the penultimate corner on the final lap, Daruvala was divebombed by Marcus Armstrong and so, lost reverse pole from him. During the second sprint, Daruvala was once again passed on the last lap, this time by Lirim Zendeli for eighth. Fortunately, race winner Lawson was disqualified and Daruvala was promoted to 8th, scoring a point. He rounded out his difficult weekend with a retirement, after making contact with Gianluca Petecof after pitting.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Daruvala qualified ninth and started in second in the first sprint at Baku. However, he was unable to pressure race leader Robert Shwartzman and faded to fourth after being overtaken by Guanyu Zhou and Ticktum. Daruvala managed to escape the start chaos in the second sprint to move into 4th. Following a safety car restart, he managed to get the better of Bent Viscaal and pass him into the first corner for third place. He would remain in that position for the remainder of the race. During the feature race, Daruvala was up in fifth at the end of lap 1, but fell to 7th at the flag. Daruvala qualified a lowly 12th in Silverstone and finished in the same position in sprint race 1. During the second sprint, Daruvala attempted to pass Viscaal into Stowe, but instead made contact and took him out whilst damaging his front wing. Daruvala was soon given a 10-second time penalty for the incident and finished in 19th. The feature race was slightly brighter for him, as he finished tenth, just two tenths behind Zendeli but scoring a fastest lap. Just like Monaco, his weekend was difficult, scoring only 3 points.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Daruvala qualified in 2nd place at Monza, only missing out to Oscar Piastri. Daruvala would start in ninth for sprint race 1, which was where he finished, after pitting midway through the race. Having started in second for the second sprint, Daruvala took the lead from David Beckmann into the first corner. He would control the race from start to finish, and eventually took his first win of the year by six seconds. Daruvala felt that his win was "overdue" due to him being "quick in the races, not so much in qualifying". Daruvala experienced a poor start in the feature race, sinking to fourth as Zhou and Lawson both passed him. After his pit-stops, Daruvala passed Zhou off track and was forced to give it back. But a few laps later, Daruvala was passed by Pourchaire and also later by a resurgent Ticktum. Daruvala eventually finished in fifth. In Sochi, he qualified in second place. Daruvala pushed his way up into fifth in the sprint race. His efforts would be undone however, as he spun and dropped to 12th. In the feature race, a difficult start by Daruvala saw him drop to 4th after being passed by Pourchaire and Ralph Boschung. He remained behind Boschung until lap 22, when Boschung locked up and slid wide, allowing Daruvala to move up into 3rd place and score another podium.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: At Jeddah, Daruvala qualified tenth. He made a move into the final corner during the first sprint, overtaking both Lundgaard and Piastri, eventually finishing in fifth. However, Daruvala was given a five-second time penalty for overtaking Ticktum off-track and gaining an advantage. He was demoted to 10th, but was given reverse pole for the second sprint. Following a safety car restart, Daruvala locked up and went off-track, gaining an advantage on second-placed Piastri. He was given a five-second time penalty for doing so. For the later part of the race, Daruvala was involved in a battle with Piastri in which the Australian won on lap 17. Just a lap later, the safety car was brought out following Lawson's crash and the whole field was bunched up. With the penalty applied, Daruvala was dropped to 14th place. His point-less weekend ended in 11th place following a red-flagged feature race. Daruvala qualified in tenth for the season finale at Yas Marina, which gave him reverse pole for the first sprint race. Throughout the race, Daruvala was pressured by Felipe Drugovich but as the race neared its end, Drugovich's challenge faded, allowing Daruvala to score his second win of the 2021. Daruvala climbed to fifth in an action-packed second sprint, but was overtaken by Drugovich and Lawson towards the end. Daruvala ended the season in 11th place. Throughout his 2021 campaign, Daruvala finished seventh in the standings and was outscored by teammate Ticktum. He achieved a total of 113 points including two race victories, a fastest lap and five podiums.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: In January 2022, he reunited with reigning champions Prema Powerteam for the 2022 season partnering fellow Red Bull Junior Team member and 2021 FIA Formula 3 champion Dennis Hauger. It is also expected to be Daruvala's final year competing in Formula 2, as he faces a 'make or break' year.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Daruvala qualified seventh for the Bahrain season opener. He progressed to third during the sprint race start. On lap 16, Daruvala battled with 2nd-placed Ralph Boschung in which the Indian driver won out on lap 18 and hence take second place. He fell to 11th at the race start. While running ninth after the pit stops, Daruvala made contact with a rival and was forced to pit for a front wing change. He eventually finished 14th. Daruvala qualified poorly in 14th in Jeddah. Daruvala finished the sprint race in ninth, but was elevated to seventh after Boschung and Jake Hughes were penalized. Daruvala pitted early on lap 7 during the feature race, and his strategy would pay off, overtaking a few drivers to take a surprise third place.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Daruvala qualified eighth in Imola. From third, Daruvala passed Logan Sargeant to take second. He was unable to pass race leader Marcus Armstrong and had to settle for second. Daruvala went on the alternate strategy during the feature race; starting on the hards and later pitting for softs. The strategy would fail to work, as the other runners pitting during an early safety car. As the lead runner on the alternate strategy, Daruvala eventually finished ninth. He qualified fourth in Barcelona. Starting seventh in the sprint race, Daruvala improved to fifth at the start and late in the race, passed Hughes to finish fourth. In the feature race, Daruvala was on the same alternate strategy as Imola. But on just the second lap, Daruvala retired on track with an electronic failure.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Daruvala qualified eighth in Monaco. Starting third in the sprint race, he made up one place at the start after Hughes stalled. He would go on to finish in second place behind Hauger, rounding out a Prema 1-2. Daruvala's highlight of the feature race would be an overtake on Calan Williams, to finish in the position that he started. In Baku, Daruvala secured eighth in qualifying. From third, he pounced into the lead, passing the slow starting Frederik Vesti. However during after the second safety car period, Daruvala locked up and Vesti sneaked past him, leaving him to content with second place. In a chaotic feature race, Daruvala stayed away from the chaos and brought home fourth place.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Daruvala started on pole in the sprint race having qualifying tenth in Silverstone. However, like many others, he failed to make his tyres work and dropped to eighth position when the chequered flag fell. In the feature race, he once again started on the alternate strategy and it paid off, finishing four places higher in sixth place. In Austria, Daruvala ranked 11th in qualifying, and finished in the same position during the sprint race. In the feature race, Daruvala was one of the drivers to fit slicks at the start to move into second by lap 7. He was overtaken by Roberto Merhi late in the race, but the Spaniard was penalised for track limits. Daruvala eventually finished in second place and stood on the podium, but later was given a 20-second penalty due to a track-drying infringement and dropped to 12th. Were this not to happen, he would have taken his maiden win of the season as winner Richard Verschoor would eventually be disqualified.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Daruvala once again started on reverse pole by qualifying tenth in France. He led the race until after the safety car restart, where Liam Lawson soared past him for the lead. Daruvala eventually settled for second place for his seventh podium of the year. The alternative strategy in the feature race once again gave Daruvala a solid result with seventh place. However, the next three rounds would go poorly for Daruvala. Starting 12th in both races, he jumped to sixth place at the start of the sprint race. However, his tyres faded and he slipped down the order, also compounded with a 10-second penalty for contact with a rival to finish 17th. In the feature race, Daruvala drove a clean race but barely missed points in 11th.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: In Spa-Francorchamps, Daruvala qualified in ninth position. He was set to start second in the sprint race, however a technical issue pre-race brought his day to a close. In the feature race, a collision saw him pit for repairs early on, and would cap off his disappointing weekend with 20th. In Zandvoort, a spin in qualifying saw Daruvala down in 17th, and the lack of overtaking opportunities in the circuit saw him finish 16th in the sprint race. In the feature race, Daruvala was passed by Théo Pourchaire for tenth on the last lap, but a penalty for David Beckmann promoted him back to the points position.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Looking to banish his poor results from previous rounds, Daruvala managed sixth in Monza qualifying. He made up two places during the start of the sprint race, and then later passed Ayumu Iwasa to take third place. In the feature race, he was caught up in an incident with Jack Doohan and Logan Sargeant on the opening lap at Turn 4, when he moved in the braking zone to defend from Doohan, unbeknownst to the fact that was Sargeant on the outside of Doohan. This resulted in contact, with Doohan and Sargeant hitting the wall, causing the both of them to retire from the race. Daruvala was given a reprimand for the incident, but no penalty. On lap 7, he pit under the safety car which was brought out by Calan Williams' accident at the Ascari chicane, and he would jump both Iwasa and Armstrong in the pit stops. When the other drivers pit later on, Daruvala inherited the lead of the race, and held on to take his first win of the year, as well as his first ever Formula 2 feature race win.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: After achieving his maiden feature race win, Daruvala went into the Abu Dhabi weekend with high hopes, but he could only manage twelfth in qualifying, albeit only three and a half tenths behind pole position. On the opening lap of the sprint race, Daruvala was caught up in a major incident with Enzo Fittipaldi. Exiting Turn 2, Daruvala lost control of his car for a second and tapped the side of Fittipaldi's car, which caused the both of them to go into the barriers hard, bringing out the red flag. Both drivers were ok. Daruvala was unable to score any points in the feature race, and fell down to seventh at the conclusion of the championship.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Daruvala was announced as member of the Red Bull Junior Team, prior to driving in the 2020 Formula 2 Championship.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: On the weekend after the 2022 Canadian Grand Prix, Daruvala was announced to have his first taste of a Formula One car with McLaren, testing the McLaren MCL35M at the Silverstone Circuit. He also had another test at the Algarve International Circuit, from July 18-19. A third F1 test came during the end of September, where he drove at the Circuit Paul Ricard.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: At the end of November 2022, Daruvala was announced as a test and reserve driver for Mahindra Racing in Formula E for the 2022-23 Formula E season.


title: Jehan Daruvala

text: Driver did not finish the race, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance.<br>


title: The Princess and the Queen

text: The Princess and the Queen, or, the Blacks and the Greens is an epic fantasy novella by American novelist George R. R. Martin, published in the 2013 Tor Books anthology "Dangerous Women". The novella is presented in the form of writings by the fictional historian Archmaester Gyldayn, who is also the "author" of Martin's 2014 novella "The Rogue Prince", a direct prequel to "The Princess and the Queen". The plot of both "The Princess and the Queen" and "The Rogue Prince" is later expanded further in the 2018 novel "Fire & Blood", which also spawned a television series in 2022.


title: The Princess and the Queen

text: A spin-off of Martin's famed "A Song of Ice and Fire" novel series, "The Princess and the Queen" is set about 200 years before the events of "A Game of Thrones" (1996), and chronicles the "continent-burning warfare" of a Targaryen war of succession that explodes between heir to the throne Crown Princess Rhaenyra Targaryen (whose supporters are known as "the blacks") and her stepmother Queen Alicent Hightower (supported by "the greens"), who conspired to usurp Rhaenyra and have her half-brother Aegon (Alicent's eldest son) crowned on the Iron Throne instead. Both Aegon (as Aegon II) and Rhaenyra are crowned by their respective followers at the start of the civil war, and both are eventually killed, but Rhaenyra's supporters emerge victorious, with her oldest surviving child (the older three having died in the war) being crowned as the unchallenged King Aegon III. House Targaryen, continuing through Rhaenyra's direct family line, reigns for the next 200 years, until it is overthrown by Robert Baratheon of House Baratheon, tying the outcome of "The Princess and the Queen" into the opening status of Westeros in the main "A Song of Ice and Fire" novels. The civil war is called the "Dance of the Dragons" due to the active involvement of dragonriders, and is designated the primary cause for the extinction of dragons in Westeros before the time of "A Song of Ice and Fire".


title: The Princess and the Queen

text: The novel (and its expanded version, published in "Fire & Blood") has been adapted into the HBO series "House of the Dragon", a prequel to "Game of Thrones".


title: The Princess and the Queen

text: When King Viserys I Targaryen dies, his second wife and widow, Queen Alicent of House Hightower, conspires a coup and has their eldest son Prince Aegon crowned as King Aegon II, before Viserys' daughter and only surviving child from his first marriage, Crown Princess Rhaenyra, can inherit the Iron Throne herself. Although Rhaenyra is the king's oldest child and had been named heir apparent years before, Queen Alicent and her supporters declare Rhaenyra unfit to rule (as Rhaenyra just had a painful prolonged labor to a disfigured stillbirth) and argue that, as a woman, Rhaenyra should be placed after Alicent's male children in the line of succession.


title: The Princess and the Queen

text: After Rhaenyra is crowned Queen by her followers at the Targaryen ancestral seat of Dragonstone, her second born son Lucerys Velaryon and King Aegon's younger brother Aemond both take their dragons to seek the support of Lord Borros Baratheon of Storm's End. However, Lucerys and his dragon Arrax are attacked and killed over the Shipbreaker Bay by Aemond, who rides the much larger dragon Vhagar. In revenge, Rhaenyra's uncle and second husband, Prince Daemon, has Aegon II's elder son and heir Jaehaerys murdered by a pair of assassins. Soon both branches of the Targaryen royal line are at open war, rallying various noble houses supporting Rhaenyra (known as "The Blacks", a colour she often wore) against those supporting Aegon II and Queen Alicent (known as "The Greens", a colour she often wore).


title: The Princess and the Queen

text: The war of successionknown as the "Dance of the Dragons" due to both sides having dragonridersis the first major civil war of the Targaryen dynasty, and sees many Targaryen kinsmen, dragons and noblemen killed in combat. After some early Greens victories, Rhaenyra successfully turns the tide and assaults the capital, King's Landing, expelling Aegon II and captures large numbers of Greens members. However, the harsh taxes she then enacts (due to the treasury being secretly emptied by the Greens supporters), as well as her vengeful lust, paranoia and subsequent summary executions of perceived traitors, trigger a violent riot in the capital, during which angry mobs fearful of dragons storm the Dragonpit and kill most of the remaining dragons (as well as Joffrey Velaryon, her last surviving son from her first marriage to Laenor Velaryon), and she is forced to flee after just half a year on the throne. Eventually, Aegon II's two brothers, Aemond and Daeron, as well as his only remaining son, Maelor, are all killed, and himself rendered crippled and no longer fertile; likewise, by the ending moments of the war, Rhaenyra's three eldest children have all been killed. Rhaenyra herself is betrayed and captured by Aegon II, who brutally executes her by having his crippled dragon Sunfyre burn her alive before devouring her in six bites. The war however continues after Rhaenyra's death, with her Blacks supporters rallying behind her fourth son, Aegon the Younger, despite the latter being imprisoned as a hostage by Aegon II.


title: The Princess and the Queen

text: As the last other living male member of House Targaryen (other than the lost prince, Viserys Targaryen), Rhaenyra's son Aegon the Younger is named by Aegon II as his heir, but is constantly threatened with execution by his uncle. However, after the Greens' last army is annihilated at the Battle of the Kingsroad, the stubbornly defiant Aegon II is assassinated by his own men, who then surrendered unconditionally to the Blacks. Aegon the Younger is freed and crowned as King Aegon III, ending the conflict. However, House Targaryen had lost virtually all of their dragons, and the surviving ones had either gone feral and/or died out during the reign of Aegon III, earning him the infamous nickname "Dragonbane".


title: The Princess and the Queen

text: According to George R. R. Martin, the Dance of the Dragons, the main conflict portrayed in "The Princess and the Queen", was inspired by the 15-year-long civil war in High Medieval England known as The Anarchy, where Empress Matilda, the daughter and heir of Henry I of England, fought a protracted war of succession against her cousin Stephen from 1138 to 1153 AD, which eventually ended with the ascension of Matilda's son Henry II, the founder of the Plantagenet dynasty.


title: The Princess and the Queen

text: The story was to be included in the companion book "The World of Ice & Fire" but was removed because the book was becoming too long for the original concept of a fully illustrated book. It and several other stories appeared in abridged versions in other anthologies.


title: The Princess and the Queen

text: "Entertainment Weekly" called the 35,000-word novella "a great demonstration of Martin's ability to dramatize the slippery complexities of power: how evil begets heroism, how heroes become villains". "The Princess and the Queen" was nominated for a 2014 Locus Award.


title: The Princess and the Queen

text: An HBO series adaptation of "The Princess and the Queen", called "House of the Dragon", began airing from August 21, 2022. "House of the Dragon" is a prequel to "Game of Thrones" covering the Dance of Dragons civil war, and incorporates additional material from "Fire and Blood" and the expanded text "The Dying of Dragons." The show is produced by Martin, Vince Gerardis, Ryan Condal, and Miguel Sapochnik; in addition, the latter two are its showrunners.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: The Norwegian heavy water sabotage (; ) was a series of Allied-led efforts to halt German heavy water production via hydroelectric plants in Nazi Germany-occupied Norway during World War II, involving both Norwegian commandos and Allied bombing raids. During the war, the Allies sought to inhibit the German development of nuclear weapons with the removal of heavy water and the destruction of heavy-water production plants. The Norwegian heavy water sabotage was aimed at the 60 MW Vemork power station at the Rjukan waterfall in Telemark.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: The hydroelectric power plant at Vemork was built in 1934. It was the world's first site to mass-produce heavy water (as a byproduct of nitrogen fixing), with a capacity of 12 tonnes per year. Before the German invasion of Norway on 9 April 1940, the French Deuxième Bureau removed of heavy water from the Vemork plant in then-neutral Norway.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: The plant's managing director agreed to lend France the heavy water for the duration of the war. The French transported it secretly to Oslo, then to Perth, Scotland, and then to France. The plant was still capable of producing heavy water, however, and the Allies were concerned that the Germans would use the facility to produce more heavy water.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: Between 1940 and 1944, a series of sabotage actions by the Norwegian resistance movement and Allied bombing ensured the destruction of the plant and the loss of its heavy water. These operations — code-named Grouse, Freshman, and Gunnerside — knocked the plant out of production in early 1943.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: In Operation Grouse, the British Special Operations Executive (SOE) successfully placed an advance team of four Norwegians on the Hardanger Plateau above the plant in October 1942. The unsuccessful Operation Freshman was mounted the following month by British paratroopers, who were to rendezvous with the Operation Grouse Norwegians and proceed to Vemork. This attempt failed when the military gliders (and one of their tugs, a Handley Page Halifax) crashed short of their destination. Except for the crew of one Halifax bomber, all the participants were killed in the crashes or captured, interrogated and executed by the Gestapo.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: In February 1943, a team of SOE-trained Norwegian commandos destroyed the production facility in Operation Gunnerside; this was followed by Allied bombing raids. The Germans ceased operations, and attempted to move the remaining heavy water to Germany. Norwegian resistance forces then sank the ferry carrying the heavy water, the , on Lake Tinn.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: Enrico Fermi and his colleagues studied the results of bombarding uranium with neutrons in 1934. That year, Ida Noddack first mentioned the concept of nuclear fission. In December 1938, four years after the Fermi publication, Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch correctly interpreted Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann's radiochemical experimental results as evidence of nuclear fission.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: News of the discovery spread quickly among physicists and it was realized that if chain reactions could be controlled, fission might be a new source of great power. What was needed was a substance which could moderate the energy of the secondary neutrons emitted by fission, so they could be captured by other fissile nuclei. Heavy water and graphite were the prime candidates for moderating neutron energy.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: When Nazi Germany investigated the production of an atomic bomb, a range of options was identified. Although historical records provide limited detail on the German decision to pursue the heavy water approach, it became clear after the war that they had explored that option. Although ultimately unsuccessful, the approach chosen has been demonstrated as technically viable. Plutonium-239 (Pu) makes effective weapons material, although requiring an implosion-type mechanism as a simpler Thin Man gun-type bomb is not feasible. Heavy water has been demonstrated as an effective moderator for Pu production, and may be separated from ordinary water by electrolysis. The German program had already been handicapped by the Nazi purging of German Jewish physicists and the conscription of others and ended in the autumn of 1942.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: In nuclear-weapon development, the main problem is securing sufficient weapons-grade material; it is particularly difficult to acquire fissile isotopes of uranium-235 (U) or Pu. Weapons-grade uranium requires mining, extracting and enriching natural ore. Plutonium can be "bred" in reactors fueled by unenriched uranium, which requires chemical separation of the Pu produced.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: Although the most common isotope of uranium, uranium-238 (U), can be used as secondary fissile material in hydrogen (fusion) bombs, it cannot be used as the primary fissile material for an atomic (fission-only) bomb. U can be used to produce Pu through the fission of U, which produces neutrons (some of which will be absorbed by U, creating U). The U will decay after a few days, turning into weapons-usable Pu.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: The Germans found that a chain reaction could not be sustained if graphite was used as a moderator, and abandoned it. Unaware that this was due to impurities, they did not test ultra-pure graphite (which would have been suitable). Instead, they settled on a heavy-water-based reactor design. A heavy-water-moderated nuclear reactor could be used for nuclear-fission research and, ultimately, to breed the plutonium with which a bomb could be made.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: In normal water, there is only one deuterium atom for every 6,400 hydrogen atoms; deuterium is more prevalent in the residue of water used as an electrolyte. An analysis of residues from the Vemork hydroelectric plant, a large-scale nitrate production plant using the Haber process, showed a hydrogen-to-deuterium ratio of 48 (most of the deuterium bound in HDO molecules). Norwegian Institute of Technology lecturer Leif Tronstad and Jomar Brun, head of the hydrogen plant, proposed a project in 1933 (the year heavy water was first isolated). It was accepted by Norsk Hydro, and production began in 1935.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: The technology is straightforward. Heavy water (DO) is separated from normal water by electrolysis, because the difference in mass between the two hydrogen isotopes translates into a slight difference in the speed at which the reaction proceeds. To produce pure heavy water by electrolysis requires a large cascade of electrolysis chambers, and consumes large amounts of power. Since excess power was available, heavy water could be purified from the existing electrolyte. Norsk Hydro became the heavy-water supplier for the world's scientific community, as a by-product of fertilizer production for which the ammonia was used. Hans Suess, a German adviser on the production of heavy water, had assessed the Vemork plant as incapable of producing militarily-useful quantities of heavy water in less than five years at its capacity at the time.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: French research considered the production of Pu using reactors moderated by heavy water and graphite. Preliminary French research indicated that the graphite then available commercially was not pure enough to serve the purpose, and heavy water would be required. The German research community had reached a similar conclusion, and had procured additional heavy water from Vemork in January 1940. The German firm IG Farben, a partial owner of Norsk Hydro, had ordered per month; Norsk Hydro's maximum production rate was then limited to per month.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: The Deuxième Bureau (French military intelligence) directed three French agents (Captain Muller and Lieutenants Mossé and Knall-Demars) to remove the world's extant supply, , of heavy water from the Vemork plant in then-neutral Norway in 1940. Norsk Hydro general director Axel Aubert agreed to lend the heavy water to France for the duration of the war, noting that if Germany won the war he would probably be shot. Transportation was difficult, since the Abwehr (German military intelligence) was present in Norway and had been alerted of ongoing French activities in Norway (although they were not specifically warned about heavy water). If they had become aware of the shipment, they might have tried to intercept it. The French transported it secretly to Oslo, then to Perth, Scotland, and finally to France.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: When France was invaded, French nuclear scientist Frédéric Joliot-Curie took charge of the material and hid it in a Banque de France vault and then in a prison. Joliot-Curie moved it to Bordeaux, where it, research papers and most of the scientists (Joliot-Curie remained in France) boarded the British tramp steamer (one of the many merchant ships involved in saving over 200,000 troops and civilians in the three weeks after the Dunkirk evacuation).


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: The ship already had industrial diamonds, machinery and a number of British evacuees aboard. The "Broompark" delivered its passengers and cargo, including the global stockpile of heavy water, to Falmouth, Cornwall on 21 June. The award of an OBE to Captain Paulsen was recorded in "The London Gazette" of 4 February 1941. Crucial to the success of the mission was the role played by Charles Howard, 20th Earl of Suffolk, the British liaison to the French scientific establishment.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: Although the supply of heavy water had been removed, the plant was capable of producing more. The Norsk Hydro management's collaboration with the Germans was examined during investigations of collaborationism begun by Norwegian authorities after the war, but Aubert's cooperation with the French aided the company's case.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: In October 1942, Combined Operations Headquarters began operations to destroy the Vemork plant. There were two operations; the first (Operation Grouse) would drop a number of Norwegians in the area as an advance force. When they were in place, a party of British engineers would be landed by military glider to attack the plant itself (Operation Freshman).


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: On 18 October 1942, a four-man team of Special Operations Executive (SOE)-trained Norwegian commandos parachuted into Norway. Since they had to ski a long distance to the plant from their drop point in the wilderness, considerable time was allotted for Operation Grouse. Unlike previous failed plans, Grouse required the team to memorize blueprints.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: The British were suspicious, because the Norwegian Grouse team were delayed in contacting SOE team; the Norwegians had been dropped at the wrong place, however, and had gone off course several times. The secret question was, "What did you see in the early morning of (a day)?" The Grouse team replied, "Three pink elephants." The British were ecstatic at the success of Grouse, and the next phase of the operations began.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: On 19 November 1942, Operation Freshman followed with a planned glider-borne landing on the frozen lake Møsvatn near the plant. Two Airspeed Horsa gliders, towed by Handley Page Halifax bombers (each glider carrying two pilots and 15 Royal Engineers of the 9th Field Company, 1st British Airborne Division), took off from RAF Skitten near Wick, Caithness, Scotland. The towing of gliders, always hazardous, was worse in this case because of the long flight distance to Norway and poor visibility.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: One of the Halifax tugs crashed into a mountain, killing all seven aboard; its glider cast off but crashed nearby, resulting in several casualties. Although the other Halifax arrived at the vicinity of the landing zone, the zone could not be precisely identified because the link between the Eureka (ground) and Rebecca (aircraft) radar beacons failed.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: After many tries and with fuel running low, the Halifax pilot decided to abort the operation and return to base. Shortly afterward, the tug and glider experienced heavy turbulence and the tow rope broke. The glider crash-landed near the crash site of the other glider, killing and injuring several more people. The Norwegians were unable to reach the crash sites in time; the survivors were captured by the Gestapo, who tortured and later had them executed under Adolf Hitler's Commando Order.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: The unsuccessful raid alerted the Germans to Allied interest in their heavy-water production. The surviving Norwegian Grouse team had a long wait in their mountain hideaway, subsisting on moss and lichen until they captured a reindeer just before Christmas.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: British authorities, aware that the Grouse team was still operational, decided to mount another operation with them; by this time, the Grouse team was known as Swallow. On the night of 16 February 1943, in Operation Gunnerside (named after the village of Gunnerside, where SOE head Charles Jocelyn Hambro and his family used to shoot grouse), an additional six Norwegian commandos were dropped by parachute by a 138 Squadron Halifax bomber from RAF Tempsford. They landed successfully, and found the Swallow team after a few days of searching on cross-country skis. The combined team made final preparations for their assault, scheduled for the night of 27–28 February 1943.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: Supplies required by the commandos were dropped with them in special CLE containers. One container was buried in the snow by a Norwegian patriot to hide it from the Germans; he later recovered it, and gave it to an officer of the British Army Air Corps (which was conducting exercises in the area) in August 1976. The container was brought back to England and displayed at the Airborne Museum at Aldershot, which became part of the Imperial War Museum Duxford.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: After the failed Freshman attempt, the Germans placed mines, floodlights, and additional guards surrounding the plant. Although the mines and lights remained in place, security at the plant had weakened over the winter. The bridge spanning the deep ravine above the river Måna, however, was fully guarded.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: The force decided to descend into the ravine, ford the icy river and climb the steep hill on the far side. The winter river level was very low, and on the far side (where the ground leveled) they followed a single railway track straight into the plant without encountering any guards. Even before Grouse landed in Norway, SOE had a Norwegian agent in the plant who supplied detailed plans and schedules. The demolition party used this information to enter the main basement by a cable tunnel and through a window. The only person they encountered in the plant was a Norwegian caretaker named Johansen, who was very willing to cooperate with them.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: The saboteurs then placed explosive charges on the heavy-water electrolysis chambers, and attached a fuse which allowed sufficient time for their escape. In an attempt to prevent reprisals, a Thompson submachine gun was purposely left behind to indicate that this was the work of British forces and not the local resistance. When the fuses were about to be lit, the caretaker was worried about his spectacles (which were somewhere in the room; during the war, new eyeglasses were nearly impossible to obtain). A frantic search ensued; the spectacles were found, and the fuses lit. The explosive charges detonated, destroying the electrolysis chambers.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: The raid was considered successful. The entire inventory of heavy water produced during the German occupation, over , was destroyed with equipment critical to the operation of the electrolysis chambers. Although 3,000 German soldiers were dispatched to search the area for the commandos, all escaped; five commandos escaped by skiing to Sweden, two proceeded to Oslo (where they assisted Milorg), and four remained in the region for further resistance work.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: The attack halted production for several months, although it did not permanently damage the Vemork plant. The plant was repaired by April; SOE concluded that a repeat commando raid would be extremely difficult, since German security was considerably improved.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: Almost as soon as production resumed, the USAAF began a series of raids on Vemork. The plant was attacked in November by a massive daylight bombing raid of 143 B-17 heavy bombers, which dropped 711 bombs. Although the raid caused extensive damage, at least 600 bombs missed the plant.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: On 16 and 18 November, 35 B-24 heavy bombers from the 392nd Bomber Group (based at Wendling, Station 118) extensively attacked the hydro-electric power station at Rjukan. The missions, the bomber group's longest, lasted and hours respectively.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: There was less need for ground assaults than a year earlier, since night bombing (previously unrealistic due to German air cover) was now an alternative. The Germans, convinced that air raids would result in further serious damage, decided to abandon the plant and move its remaining stocks and critical components to Germany in 1944.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: Knut Haukelid (the only trained commando in the immediate area) was informed of the German plan to remove the heavy water, and was advised to muster support and destroy the shipment. Haukelid recruited two people, and they decided to sabotage a ferry which would be carrying the heavy water across Lake Tinn on the Tinnsjø railway ferry. One of his recruits recognized a ferry-crew member and spoke with him, taking an opportunity to slip into the bottom of the ship, plant the bomb and slip away. Eight-and-a-half kilograms of plastic explosives (with two alarm-clock fuses) were fixed to the keel of the , which would transport railway cars with drums of the heavy water across Lake Tinn.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: The ferry and its cargo sank in deep water shortly after its departure around midnight on 20 February 1944. Witnesses reported seeing steel drums floating after the ferry sank, leading to speculation that they did not really contain heavy water; an examination of records after the war showed that some barrels were only half-full, however, and would have floated. A few may have been salvaged and transported to Germany.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: Despite the mission's intention to minimize casualties, 18 people were killed; 29 survived. The dead were 14 Norwegian crew and passengers and four German soldiers.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: A 2005 expedition retrieved a barrel, numbered "26", from the bottom of the lake. Its heavy-water contents matched the concentration noted in German records, confirming that the shipment was not a decoy. The concentration of heavy water in a number of the barrels was too small to be of value to a weapons program, however, which might explain the lack of tight security around the shipment and why the ferry was not searched for bombs. In the film "The Heroes of Telemark", the locomotive and train is shown covered with German soldiers, according to Ray Mears' BBC Television coverage, the general in command had ordered this disposition of troops.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: Recent investigation of production records at Norsk Hydro and analysis of an intact barrel which was salvaged in 2004 indicated that although the barrels in this shipment contained pH 14 water (suggestive of the alkaline electrolytic-refinement process), they did not contain high concentrations of DO. Despite the apparent shipment size, the total quantity of pure heavy water was limited; most barrels contained only 0.5–1.0 percent heavy water, confirming the success of Operation Gunnerside in destroying higher-purity heavy water.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: The Germans would have needed a total of about of heavy water to operate a nuclear reactor, and the manifest indicated that there was only of heavy water being transported to Germany. The "Hydro" was carrying too little heavy water to supply one reactor, let alone the 10 or more tons of heavy water needed to make enough plutonium for a nuclear weapon.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: The historical consensus about the German nuclear weapons program is that it was a long way from producing a bomb, even if the Norwegian heavy water had been produced and shipped at the maximum rate. However, the unsuccessful Operation Freshman and the efforts of the saboteurs in Swallow, Grouse and Gunnerside made the secret war on heavy-water production internationally known.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: Joachim Rønneberg, the last surviving member of the Gunnerside team, died on 21 October 2018 at age 99. "The New York Times" reported that at 95, Rønneberg was "still mentally sharp ... and possessed of the unflappable calm that so impressed British military commanders more than 70 years ago." Einar Skinnarland was the first agent inside.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: After interviewing Nielsen and Helberg, Barbara Wace of the Associated Press filed a news article on the sabotage in May 1945. Wartime censorship delayed publication until after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. "But For These Men" (), a 1962 book by John D. Drummond, recounts two dramatic raids: on the Norsk Hydro heavy-water factory at Vemork and another the railway ferry "Hydro". "The Real Heroes of Telemark: The True Story of the Secret Mission to Stop Hitler's Atomic Bomb", a 2003 book by Ray Mears (), emphasises the Norwegian commandos' unique survival skills. The book is a companion volume to "The Real Heroes of Telemark", a BBC television documentary series.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: "Skis Against the Atom" () is a first-hand account by Knut Haukelid, one of the Gunnerside raiders who remained behind. Jens-Anton Poulsson (Swallow and Grouse) wrote "The Heavy Water Raid: The Race for the Atom Bomb 1942–1944" (), a 2009 book. Operation Freshman is covered in two books: Richard Wiggan's 1986 "Operation Freshman: The Rjukan Heavy Water Raid 1942" () and Jostein Berglyd's 2007 "Operation Freshman: The Actions and the Aftermath" ().


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: Richard Rhodes's Pulitzer Prize-winning book, "The Making of the Atomic Bomb", includes details of the events. Leo Marks' 1998 book, "Between Silk and Cyanide: A Codemaker's Story 1941–1945" (), also details the story. Marks (SOE's cryptographer) knew the Norwegian team, trained them in cryptography so they could communicate with SOE in England, and followed their progress after they were dropped in Norway. The raid is the subject of "Assault in Norway: Sabotaging the Nazi Nuclear Program" (), a 2002 book by Thomas Gallagher based on interviews with many of the commandos.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: An account of Operation Gunnerside is part of Neal Bascomb's 2016 "The Winter Fortress: The Epic Mission to Sabotage Hitler's Atomic Bomb" (). Damien Lewis's book "Hunting Hitler's Nukes: The Secret Race to Stop the Nazi Bomb" (), also published that year, details the raid and the sinking of the SF "Hydro". The 2018 book, "Heroes of Telemark; Sabotaging Hitler's atomic bomb, Norway 1942–44" by David Greentree (), describes the operation's planning, execution and aftermath.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: "" ("Kampen om tungtvannet"), a 1948 Norwegian film based on Operations Freshman and Grouse, includes several participants in the raid.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: "The Heroes of Telemark", a 1965 British film based on Operation Gunnerside, features one of the original participants in the raid as the Nazi pursuer of the escapees.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: On 8 November 2005, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting's WGBH-TV in Boston aired a documentary about the work of underwater archaeologists exploring the sunken SF "Hydro" in Lake Tinn.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: BBC News interviewed Joachim Rønneberg, the leader and last surviving member of the Gunnerside team, in 2013 for the 70th anniversary of Operation Gunnerside. "The Heavy Water War" ("The Saboteurs" in the UK), a six-episode TV mini-series, emphasises the role of Leif Tronstad. The Norwegian–Danish–British co-production was initially broadcast on 4 January 2015.


title: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

text: "Battlefield 5" In 2019 the popular video game franchise battlefield featured the commando raids of the plant and the ferry bombing in "Battlefield V". However it features no British or Norwegian team of commandos. Instead a young Norwegian girl named Solveig (player character) operates a solo mission into the facility to rescue her mother who is now hostage and was a scientist working at the plant. Upon the player reaching this objective the mother informs the player they must destroy the plant due to its heavy water production and deliver intel at a rendezvous point. After completing this, Solveig suffering from hypothermia falls into subzero water, climbs out, falls asleep, wakes up and eventually makes it to a cabin with a lone german she quickly overpowers physically before finally warming up and reading the intel. After doing so the next day she decides to strike the ferry carrying the heavy water alone. These events vary greatly from the historical operations. Fans of the Battlefield franchise have been critical of this and other historical inaccuracies present in the game.


title: George Cole (actor)

text: George Edward Cole, OBE (22 April 1925 – 5 August 2015) was an English actor whose career spanned 75 years. He was best known for playing Arthur Daley in the long-running ITV comedy-drama show "Minder" and Flash Harry in the early "St Trinian's" films.


title: George Cole (actor)

text: Cole was born in Tooting, London. He was given up for adoption at ten days of age and adopted by George and Florence Cole, a Tooting council employee and charwoman (cleaner) respectively. He attended secondary school in nearby Morden. He left school at 14 to be a butcher's boy and had an ambition to join the Merchant Navy but landed a part in a touring musical and chose acting as a career. He recalled during that year (1939) he was in Dublin on the day of Britain's entry into World War II when he witnessed an effigy of Neville Chamberlain being publicly burned without interference from the local police.