title: Kree

text: At the beginning of the War, the Kree established a station on Uranus. Through their work, they discovered that sentient life on Earth had genetic potential invested in it by the Celestials. Intrigued, the Kree began to experiment on Earth's homo sapiens.


title: Kree

text: Their goal was twofold – to investigate possible ways of circumventing their own evolutionary stagnation, and to create powerful soldiers to use against the Skrulls. However, the Kree abandoned their experiments because the Supreme Intelligence foresaw the experiments leading to the destruction of the Kree. In order to disprove that prophecy, the Intelligence ordered Accuser Huran to murder the scientists responsible for the experiments and summon the Accuser Corps to cleanse the experiments. In its haste, however, the Supreme Intelligence failed to download the full data packet, and five worlds that were seeded escaped the slaughter: Badoon, Centaurians, Dire Wraiths, Kymellians and early humans.


title: Kree

text: The humans test subjects, eventually dubbed the Inhumans, went on to form a society of their own. Later a surveillance robot, Sentry 459, that was stationed on South Pacific island was eventually awakened by the Fantastic Four and alerted the Kree. This caused Ronan the Accuser to punish those who "murdered" the guard, but the Fantastic Four defeated him.


title: Kree

text: As the war dragged on, the Supreme Intelligence accrued more political power and responsibility until finally it was elected as absolute ruler of the Kree and came to be worshipped.


title: Kree

text: The Earth's importance as a strategic beachhead became apparent when the Avengers became involved in the Kree-Skrull hostilities. In the meantime, the Kree were reestablishing cultural ties with the Inhumans.


title: Kree

text: At this point, the Kree hero, Captain Marvel, revealed to the Avengers that the Kree were planning to 'erase' humanity. This scheme was foiled by Mar-Vell and the Avengers.


title: Kree

text: As the war escalated and Earth's position became increasingly precarious, the original Avengers were recalled to active service after a Skrull scouting party managed to abduct Mar-Vell, Quicksilver, and Scarlet Witch and also attempted to destroy the Inhumans' Great Refuge, but failed when the Avengers intervened. During the conflict, the Super-Skrull took his prisoners back to the Skrull home-world, leaving the remaining Avengers to pick up the pieces and reform their tattered forces.


title: Kree

text: The conflict worsened when the Avengers began to understand the scale of the war. They discovered a Skrull fleet wanting to destroy Earth and a Kree fleet wanting to stop them. All sides were determined to either invade or decimate the Earth in order to prevent it falling into the 'wrong' hands. Led by Thor, Iron Man, and The Vision, the Avengers launched an attack on the Skrull flagship, somehow managing to turn back the fleet after a desperate battle.


title: Kree

text: The war came to a close when the Supreme Intelligence managed to bring Rick Jones into his presence and temporarily altered Rick's DNA to release his 'full evolutionary potential.' Armed with godlike powers, Rick froze both Kree and Skrull forces, allowing the Intelligence to re-establish control over his people and bring the war to a halt.


title: Kree

text: At several points in the years after the end of the first Kree–Skrull war, hostilities were said to have broken out again between the two empires.


title: Kree

text: The most significant of these instances came when the Skrulls lost their ability to shapeshift, and a Skrull Warlord provoked new hostilities. During this war, the Supreme Intelligence was incapacitated by the Silver Surfer. Afterwards, Nenora, a Skrull spy in the guise of a high ranking Kree official, took command of the Kree empire. The war ended with Nenora's death at the hands of S'ybill, the Skrull Empress. Rulership of the Kree was assumed by an alien named Clumsy Foulup, who was soon assassinated by Kree military officers.


title: Kree

text: The machinations of Thanos led to the sudden elimination of half the universe's life-forms. Unaware of Thanos' role in the disappearance, the Kree and the Skrull blamed each other and temporarily renewed fighting.


title: Kree

text: Not long after the conflicts with the Skrull ended, the Kree again found themselves embroiled in a war, this time with the Shi'ar Empire. This war was much shorter, and was engineered by the Skrulls and the Supreme Intelligence.


title: Kree

text: The Avengers of Earth became involved in the conflict when the Shi'ar opened a wormhole in Earth's solar system to gain rapid access to Kree territory, unconcerned about the damage that would be caused to Earth's Sun as a result. Their involvement inadvertently set off a chain of events which led to a powerful artifact known as Nega-bomb being detonated in Kree space, causing an explosive and radioactive reaction that devastated the Kree empire with ninety percent of the Kree perishing in the process and led to its surrender to the Sh'iar. It was later revealed that the Supreme Intelligence was ultimately responsible for the bomb's detonation as part of an attempt to kick-start the Kree race's genetic development. Appalled by this callous disregard for the life of its people, a group of Avengers executed the living supercomputer. The Kree territory was then annexed by the Sh'iar, with Majestrix Lilandra naming her sister Deathbird as the territory's administrator. Deathbird has since abandoned this post.


title: Kree

text: Due to the large amount of radiation of the Nega-bomb, the remaining Kree slowly began evolving which was sped up through the machinations of the Supreme Intelligence and the Forever Crystal until they transformed and renamed themselves into a new species: the Ruul. As the Ruul, they resembled grey skin humanoid, with tendrils on the back and side of the head and an overall reptilian appearance. The most notable ability of the Ruul was their ability to evolve their forms spontaneously to suit whatever situation was required. Under the ruse of being a "new" spacefaring species from beyond charted space, the race orchestrated the events of "Maximum Security" that temporarily turned Earth into a prison. While their plans for Earth was prevented when their Kree origin and behind-the-scenes manipulations were revealed, they were able to launch their fleet in secret and reclaiming Hala and numerous other Kree worlds from their Shi’ar masters and commenced a campaign of aggressive expansion. The machinations of the Supreme Intelligence were undone when a cosmically empowered Genis-Vell, son of Mar-Vell, restored the Kree race to its original form when he destroyed and recreated the universe.


title: Kree

text: Kree soldiers also appeared during Avengers Disassembled, when they attacked the Earth and were driven off by the Avengers.


title: Kree

text: In "Annihilation" #2, it is revealed that many Kree soldiers, commanded by the merchant House of Fiyero, joined the United Front to fight the Annihilation Wave. After mercy killing the Supreme Intelligence and wiping out the House of Fiyero, Ronan the Accuser assumes control of the Kree Empire.


title: Kree

text: During "", the Kree Empire is assimilated by the Phalanx and Ultron, and isolate Kree space from the rest of the universe, but are stopped by the Guardians of the Galaxy, Nova, Warlock, and Warlock's adopted son, Tyro.


title: Kree

text: The Kree have an agent on Earth that learns about the Skrull "Secret Invasion" but he is supposedly killed before he can summon help.


title: Kree

text: Noh-Varr proclaims the planet under Kree protection and takes part in the final battle. He is deemed a hero by the planet's population and by the Kree that learn of his bravery during the attack. He serves on Osborn's Avengers until he learns of their true nature. While on the run, he manages to communicate with the Supreme Intelligence who grants him the title and position of Protector of Earth and bestows a pair of custom Negabands to him.


title: Kree

text: Shortly after the Invasion of Earth occurs, the Inhumans begin their personal assault on the Skrull Empire. After destroying a Skrull warship that has fled into Shi'ar Space, as well as three Shi'ar Warbirds, the Inhumans next travel to Kree-lar and claim dominion over the Kree Empire.


title: Kree

text: Emperor Vulcan, leader of the Shi'ar, declares war against the Kree and launches a surprise attack during the wedding of Ronan and Crystal. The Kree retaliate and through the actions of the various royal family members they endear themselves to the Kree.


title: Kree

text: After the assassination of former Empress Lilandra, the Kree launch a T-Bomb powered by Black Bolt's voice, intended to end the war swiftly and decisively. Black Bolt is attacked by Vulcan and the two are presumed dead when the bomb explodes in Shi'ar territory. The Kree claim victory and control of the Shi'ar empire.


title: Kree

text: Medusa briefly struggles as sole ruler of the Kree Empire until Black Bolt returned to Attilan shortly after his supposed death. He led the Kree and Inhumans into battle during the War of Four Cities.


title: Kree

text: In "Avengers vs. X-Men," in the wake of the Phoenix Force's advent, making its way towards earth in search for its latest host. Noh-Varr is contacted by the Supreme Intelligence demanding that he capture its power for the Kree Empire. Once after initial failure, earth's mightiest are eventually successful in the acquisition of its essence, however, Protector betrays the team and hands it to the Supremor as per his mission directive.


title: Kree

text: But then realizing the Kree had no intention of saving Earth from the Phoenix, Noh quickly turns on them and returns the Phoenix essence to the enraged Avengers who leave him behind on Hala as they return to earth. Noh on the other hand is hunted mercilessly for his betrayal. Before they manage to find him, however, he plants a bomb that eviscerates his assailants along with the Supremor's main housing.


title: Kree

text: A secret group working around the Kree hierarchy through Plex like mind control would later use the power of the cosmic force in conjunction with the M'Kraan Crystal to revitalize the original Captain Mar-Vell. With a now resurrected Kree hero at their command, the Kree designate heroes Carol Danvers and Noh-Varr would soon fall under command of Mar-Vell and the gene-based manipulatory broadcast used to manipulate the Kree into their service. Causing them to turn on the Secret Avengers and order a public execution for some of them as the Phoenix arrives.


title: Kree

text: As it was later revealed, disgraced descendants of Mar-Vell would act to draw the Phoenix away from Earth and towards Hala in a suicidal attempt to kick-start the races transcendence. This plan failed as the Vision emitted a counter broadcast to said grand nephew's unique telepathic abilities controlling everyone on Hala, as the father committed suicide before killing his own son, The Kree homeworld was spared when Captain Marvel sacrificed his own life and the Phoenix energies sustaining him as the entity came to take it back.


title: Kree

text: During the "Infinity" storyline, Ronan the Accuser and the Supreme Intelligence appear as members of the Galactic Council where they represent the Kree Empire. In the aftermath of the fight with the Builders and the fight against Thanos, the Supreme Intelligence was able to pardon Ronan the Accuser and the Kree Army.


title: Kree

text: During "The Black Vortex" storyline, Ronan the Accuser steals The Black Vortex from the cosmically-powered X-Men, who then rampage on Hala. They eventually leave, but Mister Knife uses the opportunity to steal The Black Vortex and then destroys Hala and the Supreme Intelligence out of petty revenge. Ronan and the Imperial Fleet survive and the last remaining seed of the Supreme Intelligence was stolen from Collector by Star-Lord's half-sister Captain Victoria.


title: Kree

text: As the Inhuman royal family, aided by Noh-Varr, make their way to the ruins of Hala in search of the Primagen. They are encountered by the still cosmically empowered Ronan the Accuser, who traps them all in a prison tailored to torment each of its detainees.


title: Kree

text: Marvel Boy works around it with his own battlefield device. Moving to free the Inhumans with the help of Maximus while soothing the accuser with simulations of a thriving Kree Emperium.


title: Kree

text: Having helped sow the seeds to reestablish the reformation of the fallen Kree, The Royals depart. Leaving the last accuser to pick up the pieces and hopefully mend itself with the help of the steadily regrowing Plex Intelligence, with Crystal coming along.


title: Kree

text: It is revealed that at some point the Supreme Intelligence had sent a Kree contingency away to explore and chart the Universe in order to find purchase and grow the name of Hala throughout the stars. The mission took generations and currently those among the contingency had never seen or set foot on their home planet, only able to dream of it. Eventually they finally returned to Hala, only to find it in ruins. They eliminated Ronan, exiled those loyal to him and decided to use the Inhumans as part of their plans to rebuild Hala and bring a new dawn to the Kree Empire. To that effect, they designed Vox, a new kind of Inhuman which have all the powers of an Inhuman but none of the humanity, initiating in the process a campaign of terror that killed thousands of Inhumans. It was later revealed that the Kree soldiers behind Vox had actually captured Ronan the Accuser and those loyal to him to be experimented on. After breaking free and killing some Kree soldiers, Black Bolt finds where Ronan, now a cyborg, is being held and kills him out of mercy. During the Inhuman Royal Family's final assault on the Kree, Vox sent an army of brainwashed Inhumans to confront Black Bolt as he entered the location responsible for maintaining the Kree's control over the brainwashed Inhumans. Black Bolt was forced to use his powerful voice to wipe out everyone there in order to stop the Kree's plans. Vox and his Kree masters were eventually forced to retreat.


title: Kree

text: The resurrected Plex Intelligence, now calling itself the Extreme Intelligence sought the acquisition of the Infinity Stones to rebirth its Empire.


title: Kree

text: In the "Road to Empyre," Teddy Altman is made a mysterious offer at the cost of leaving Billy Kaplan. He accepts the offer which was to become the new ruler of the Kree-Skrull Alliance, adopting the mantle of "Dorrek VIII," and beginning the preparations of invading the Earth for "the final war."


title: Kree

text: General G'iah and her daughters named Alice, Ivy, and Madison obtain a sample of Cotati from a lab while explaining the history of the Kree and the Skrull's feud. At their motel, they are ambushed by a Kree operative. General G'iah leads her daughters track the assailant to a Kree family. After G'iah's daughters prevent her from retaliating against them, the patriarch of the Kree family that blew up their motel room suddenly receives a message on his Kree-tech cellphone by Dorrek VIII stating to all Kree and Skrull soldiers in the field that the Kree and Skrull armadas have united to face a common enemy. They are coming to Earth to destroy them as he speaks. The enemy is eventually revealed to be the Cotati who are returning as well as the Celestial Messiah. In the Kree/Skrull Alliance, Dorekk VIII has gained Captain Glory, Mur-G'nn, Tanalth the Pursuer, and Super-Skrull as his inner circle. When the Avengers learned about the Cotati's true motives, they decided to work together to fight the Cotati and prevent them from eliminating all animal life.


title: Kree

text: In the "House of M" reality, Genis-Vell is a Kree ambassador who was a guest to the House of Magnus on Genosha.


title: Kree

text: The Kree were introduced to the Ultimate Marvel reality by the miniseries "Ultimate Secret". The Ultimate Kree are brownish ichthyoid humanoids with green glowing eyes. They breathe an earthlike atmosphere, and their throats are unable to speak English without surgical modification. Ultimate Kree have referred to a Supreme Intelligence, but it has not yet been shown. Some of them worship, or follow the teachings of, a being called Hala, a historic figure comparable to Buddha who preached on the preservation of life while claiming not to be a god.


title: Kree

text: The Ultimate Captain Marvel (Mahr Vehl) is a Kree spy on Earth, surgically altered to appear human, as well as having an arsenal of defensive cybernetically implanted weapons, and belongs to a family said to have descended from Hala. After deciding to protect Earth, Mahr Vehl comes into conflict with Yahn Rgg and Ro-Nan.


title: Kree

text: The reality from which The 18th Diplomatic Gestalt Envoy that crashed on the prime Marvel Universe hailed from. The Reality which Noh-Varr, the dimensional lost hero and rogue of said universe hails from. In his own words and the We Plex unit's historical account, it is a utopian parallel helmed by an intergalactic as well as inter-dimensional spanning Kree Empire. Where travel and interaction with parallel worlds across the quasiverse is par the course for the Kree Diplomatic Gestalt Naval fleet of their continuum.


title: Kree

text: In the one shot "", an alien robot tells an elderly Bruce Banner, the last human on the planet, that the death of the human race was widely celebrated throughout the Universe, so much so that the Skrulls and Kree had settled their differences in celebration.


title: Kree

text: In "Ruins", set in a universe where everything went wrong, when a Kree fleet led by Mar-Vell were going to invade Earth, they discovered the body of Silver Surfer, whose Power Cosmic was released negating the ships' cloaking. Then a nuclear assault was launched from Earth towards them, making them crash land on Earth. The surviving Kree were captured by the government and sent to a concentration camp set on nuclear test site, getting cancer and slowly dying.


title: Kree

text: In an alternate timeline set thirty years into the future, the Kree Empire was united with the Skrull Empire under the rulership of Emperor Dorrek VIII and they were successful in eliminating all life on Earth.


title: Cheoljong of Joseon

text: Cheoljong of Joseon (25 July 1831 – 16 January 1864) was the 25th king of the Joseon, reigning from 1849 to 1864. After Heonjong of Joseon died without male heir in 1849, Queen Sunwon chose Cheoljong, aged 19, to be the next king, as the heir to late Sunjo of Joseon.


title: Cheoljong of Joseon

text: Cheoljong was a great-great-grandson of Yeongjo of Joseon. Before ascending the throne, he lived in poverty; even after becoming the king, he had little political influence, and political power was held mainly by the Andong Kim clan, the family of Queen Sunwon. The monopoly of the Andong Kim clan's power caused nationwide corruption, resulting in a mass series of peasant revolts in southern Joseon in 1862. He died in 1864 without an heir, and was succeeded by a distant relative, Gojong.


title: Cheoljong of Joseon

text: Cheoljong was born Yi Won-beom (이원범), the 3rd and youngest son of Yi Gwang (Jeongye Daewongun), a great-grandson of King Yeongjo of Joseon. His mother was a concubine, and she was a daughter of Yeom Seong-hwa (염성화), a commoner, descended from the Yongdam Yeom clan (용담 염씨).


title: Cheoljong of Joseon

text: Prince Euneon, was Cheoljong's grandfather and a younger half-brother of Jeongjo of Joseon; in 1786, accused of treason, he and his family was exiled to Ganghwa Island. Prince Euneon was killed during the Catholic Persecution of 1801, as his wife and daughter-in-law became Catholic, which was illegal in Joseon by the time; his children remained in confinement on the island until King Sunjo decided to pardon them in 1822. One of Prince Euneon's sons, Yi Gwang, was in his thirties, thus married a daughter of Choi Su-chang and had a son, Yi Won-gyeong (이원경); he had another two sons, respectively born to different concubines. The family eventually returned to the capital, Hanseong. When Cheoljong was young, he had little education. At the age of four, he studied the "Thousand Character Classic"; later, he also read some beginning volumes of the "Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance" and "", but he couldn't remember much content from them, and he stopped studying in following years.


title: Cheoljong of Joseon

text: In 1836, Nam Eung-jung (남응중) attempted to enthrone one of the grandsons of Prince Euneon; the plot was exposed and he was executed. During the death of Queen Hyohyeon (consort of King Heonjong) in 1844, a conspiracy by Min Jin-yong (민진용) to enthrone Yi Won-gyeong, Cheoljong's oldest half-brother, was exposed and led to Yi Won-gyeong's execution. Yi Won-gyeong's family, guilty by association, was again exiled to Ganghwa Island.


title: Cheoljong of Joseon

text: King Heonjong died in 1849, and he had no issue; thus, the lineage of Jeongjo died out. Some officials suggested that a distant royalty, Yi Ha-jeon (이하전), could succeed the throne. But he was eight years old, as well as a descendant of Deokheung Daewongun and an 11th cousin once removed to Heonjong. However, the grandmother of the late king, Queen Sunwon (King Sunjo's widow), preferred to choose the next king herself, from closer relatives. She selected Yi Won-Beom, one of few living descendants of King Yeongjo and a second cousin once removed to Heonjong. She decided to adopt him as the heir and she sent officials to ask his family to return from Ganghwa Island. Yi Won-Beom lived in the countryside as a poor peasant. When he and his family saw the royal messenger coming, they were horrified. The Queen sent the "yeonguijeong" (Prime Minister) Jeong Won-yong (정원용) to present the order of the Queen Dowager and persuaded them to move to the Capital. According to the legend, as they were about to across Han River, there were flocks of sheep kneeling down as if they were waiting for a monarch. The future king regarded this as a good omen. When they were about to enter the capital, they were warmly welcomed by the citizens with deafening cheer.


title: Cheoljong of Joseon

text: When Yi Won-beom arrived in the palace, he was first made "Prince Deokwan" (덕완군), and descendants of Prince Euneon were again regarded as royalty. During their lifetime, Cheoljong's parents had no royal titles, so they were respectively honored as Jeongye Daewongun and Yongseong Budaebuin. Some other relatives of Cheoljong also received titles, including Prince Hoepyeong (his eldest half-brother), Prince Yeongpyeong (his second half-brother), Prince Punggye (his 4th uncle and half-brother of Jeongye Daewongun) as well as Prince Ikpyeong, the son of Prince Punggye; Han Gak-sin (한각신), an uncle of Cheoljong and the son-in-law of Prince Euneon, was appointed to be the officer-in-charge of Ikreung, the royal tomb of Queen Ingyeong in Gyeonggi Province.


title: Cheoljong of Joseon

text: On July 28, 1849, Cheoljong ascended the throne in Changdeok Palace, and Queen Sunwon served as regent for two years. In following years, Cheoljong resumed his studies. As a monarch, he at first changed his name from "Won-Beom" to "Yeop" (엽). But officials found out the name was too close in pronunciation to that of a Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty in China. To respect the naming taboo tradition, he was renamed again to Byeon (변). Cheoljong married the daughter of Kim Mun-geun (a third cousin of Queen Sunwon) in 1851, and she was later known as Queen Cheorin. Queen Cheorin had their only son in 1858, named Yung-jun, but the infant died less than a year in 1859.


title: Cheoljong of Joseon

text: Following the wedding of Cheoljong in 1851, Queen Sunwon ended her regency. However, the politics was still controlled by Queen Sunwon's family, the Andong Kim clan. Throughout the 14-year reign, Cheoljong became a puppet monarch vulnerable to their control; Queen Cheorin was also from the Andong Kim clan, allowing them to tighten the manipulation, with many Kim family members becoming prominent officials in the government. In 1856, as the national examination was full of bribery and fraud, Cheoljong criticized the situation and ordered to rectify the chaos, but it was in vain. Meanwhile, the nationwide corruption deteriorated in the field of military and agricultural taxes. A rebel started in Jinju of the Gyeongsang Province in 1862, and it was repressed, with 13 people executed and 19 exiled. However, the rebel continued to spread across three southern provinces, as well as Jeju Island. It was discovered the rebel was resulted by corruption mentioned above, so Cheoljong set an office to carry out a financial reorganization, but the reformation turned out to be ineffective.


title: Cheoljong of Joseon

text: Joseon implemented isolation policy when it comes to foreign countries for centuries, and Cheoljong remained the same. However, during his reign, vessels from Europe, the United States and Russian Empire, often appear in the territorial sea, and at least 20 of them were recorded. In 1850, a foreign boat (nationality unknown) appeared in Uljin County of Gangwon Province, and some Joseon officials were killed by its bombardment before it left. In 1851, a French merchant ship with people from the Qing dynasty visited Jeju Island. In 1852, an American whaler stopped by Dongnae District in Gyeongsang Province; at first, the locals couldn't communicate with Americans, and then they found out there were also some Japanese aboard, who were rescued after a shipwreck. In 1854, Russian frigate Pallada entered Tumen River for prospecting, naming Wonsan as "Port Lazarev"; during the process, it was reported that some local residents were shot as the crowd watching the foreign vessel. In 1855, the French sailed a frigate named "Virginie" prospected the east Joseon coast from Busan to Tumen River and named some of the islands; another English boat named "Sylvia" also arrived in Busan in the same year. In 1856, there were hundreds of French army not returning to France after the Crimean War; instead, they sacked some coastal cities in Chungcheong Province and Hwanghae Province. In the Second Opium War of 1860, Beijing, the capital of the Qing dynasty was invaded by Anglo-French force, and the Old Summer Palace was sacked and burnt down. Beijing was close to Joseon, and as the news spread, it caused disturbance in Joseon. Some nobles and officials fled from Hanseong, and people often wore Christian crosses so as to protect themselves from foreigners. To get to know further news from China, Cheoljong sent several envoys to visit Xianfeng Emperor, who fled to Chengde Mountain Resort by the time. After the battle, European countries gained several privileges in China; as Joseon was in the tributary system of China, these countries demanded that they should have a same right in Joseon, only to be rejected. Since then, the United Kingdom, France, the United States and Russian Empire started to pressure Joseon through terrestrial and naval forces.


title: Cheoljong of Joseon

text: Since the beginning of the 19th century, Catholicism was illegal in Joseon, but during Cheoljong's reign, the persecution was relatively light and the ban was loose. Around 1857, there were about 16.5 thousands of Christians in Joseon. As of 1863, there were twelve Catholic missionaries from France living in Joseon, and within few years, there were over a hundred thousand of Christians around the capital, and some of the court officials became followers. The mother of future Gojong of Korea became a Christian as well. As reaction of such rapid propagation of Catholicism and the chaotic society, Choe Je-u founded a new religion Donghak to counter the foreign influence and gained many followers. Despite that Choe was eventually captured and executed, Donghak continued to spread within Joseon in the remaining century.


title: Cheoljong of Joseon

text: As Cheoljong failed to have a male heir for years, other than repressing the revolts, the Andong Kim clan started to persecute royalties. In 1851, Chae Hui-jae (채희재) was executed for attempting enthrone Yi Myeong-seop (이명섭), a descendant of Crown Prince Sohyeon who was exiled to Chodo (an island now locates near Nampo in North Korea). In 1860, Prince Gyeongpyeong (the heir of Prince Punggye) offended some members of the Andong Kim clan, losing royal titles and was exiled to Sinjido, almost caused his death for many times. In 1862, Kim Sun-seong (김순성) was executed for enthroning Yi Ha-jeon, a distant royalty; Yi Hae-jeon was also


title: Cheoljong of Joseon

text: implicated, and he was also exiled to Jeju Island and was eventually executed. Yi Ha-jeon was a potential successor to King Heonjong back in 1849, and he showed dissatisfaction toward the imperiousness of the Andong Kim clan, causing the later decided to eliminate him. On the other hand, Prince Heungseon (later Heungseon Daewongun, father of Gojong of Korea) was in poverty like many other royalties, and he was one of the close relatives to Yi Ha-jeon (first cousin-in-law through his wife). Afraid of being persecuted, Prince Heungseon befriended with people from lower classes and often visit kisaengs, acting frivolously and fawning over the authority; this caused the Kim clan despising and less cautious about him.


title: Cheoljong of Joseon

text: Cheoljong's mother was from the Yongdam Yeom clan, a cadet branch of Paju Yeom clan. A man named Yeom Jong-su (염종수) was from the Paju branch, and he forged his genealogy as well as tampered the tombstone of Cheoljong's maternal grandfather, Yeom Seong-hwa. As there was no other known descendants of Yeom Seong-hwa, based on the counterfeit, Yeom Jong-su became the heir of Yeom Seong-hwa in 1851, becoming an uncle of Cheoljong and official in the government. As of 1861, a member of Yongdam Yeom clan, named Yeom Bo-gil (염보길), was Cheoljong's fourth cousin and living in Ganghwa Island, and he appealed the scam in grievance. As the result, Cheoljong interrogated Yeom Jong-su and had him executed.


title: Cheoljong of Joseon

text: According to "Ilseongnok" ("Diary of Self-examination"), since Cheoljong ascended to the throne, he had a weak digestive system, causing a series of chronic disease throughout his life; Cheoljong also had symptoms of asthma and caught cold quite easily. In order to tone up the body, he took a large amount of herbal medicine for years; on the other hand, some other common treatments by the time, such as acupuncture and moxibustion, rarely appear in the documents. Cheoljong died at the age of 32 on January 16, 1864, without any surviving male heirs; he became the last king being a descendant of King Hyojong. The cause of his death is ambiguous, as there was no clear official record about it. Some suggested that the death of cause of Cheoljong could be liver disease or tuberculosis; according to existing documents, however, it's still hard to give a certain conclusion to date.


title: Cheoljong of Joseon

text: It once again became necessary to search far back in the Jeonju Yi clan to find a candidate for accession, which became a dispute within the court. Cheoljong himself favored Yi Jae-hwang, the second son of Prince Heungseon (his seventh cousin) and his wife Lady Min, to succeed the throne. Claiming that Prince Heungseon was still alive and it's thus inappropriate, most members of the Andong Kim clan disapproved this succession, but Kim Byeong-hak (김병학), a cousin of Queen Cheorin, strongly agreed this instead, because he previously supported Prince Heungseon a lot. Queen Sinjeong, wife of late Ikjong (Crown Prince Hyomyeong) and the mother of King Heonjong, was the most supreme royal family member by the time, and she took way the national seal of Joseon; she decided to adopt Yi Jae-hwang herself and was supported by her family, the Pungyang Jo clan. On the other hand, Queen Cheorin, the widow of Cheoljong, believed that she could adopt the royal heir because of her family's power, so she delivered a royal order, asking Yi Jae-hwang to succeed the throne. Once Yi Jae-hwang arrived in palace, Queen Sinjeong was overjoyed and she came out to welcome him in person, despite that it was inappropriate in court manners; she immediately announced that the new king was the heir of Ikjong, instead of Cheoljong. Yi Jae-hwang thus became the new king of Joseon, known as Gojong of Korea. Upon the accession of Gojong, the father of Gojong was honored as Heungseon Daewongun, who repressed the power of the Andong Kim clan and becoming a dictator himself in the next decade.


title: Cheoljong of Joseon

text: Cheoljong was buried in the Yereung Royal Tomb in 1864, part of the royal tomb Seosamneung Cluster located in Goyang, Gyeonggi Province. Queen Cheorin was also buried in Yereung after her death in 1878. According to the epitaph, there were once that some silverware used in the palace and the shrine of Jeongye Daewongun were stolen; both Cheoljong and Queen Cheorin decided not to pursue who did this, fearing that people may confess under false charges. Cheoljong had 11 children - five sons and six daughters - from his various consorts, but all of them died young. Among them, only the fourth daughter outlived him. She received the title Princess Yeonghye in 1866; as the only living child of Cheoljong, she received much affection from Queen Cheorin. Princess Yeonghye married Park Yung-hyo in 1872 but died in the same year, aged 13 and had no issue.


title: Cheoljong of Joseon

text: Upon the death of Cheoljong, there were only two living royalties that were descendants of King Hyojong. One of them was Cheoljong's half-brother, Prince Yeongpyeong (b. 1828); the other one was Yi Jae-seong (이재성, b. 1860), son of Cheoljong's first cousin, Prince Ikpyeong, with his concubine. Because of Queen Sinjeong's decision, both of them couldn't succeed the throne after Cheoljong. Prince Yeongpyeong also had chronic diseases like his sibling, so Gojong chose a distant relative (10th cousin to Gojong) to be his heir in 1864. Prince Yeongpyeong had a daughter in 1866, who married Hwang Yeon-su (황연수) and had issue; the prince himself lived for another decades and died in 1902. Yi Jae-seong, on the other hand, became Prince Gyeongeun (경은군) in 1900, but he lost the royal title in 1907, for accused of working together with the anti-Japanese righteous army; he was later missing in 1910. Prince Gyeongeun was the last recorded royalty to be a descendant of Hyojong; while he married twice, he had no known descendants in official records.


title: Paramedic

text: A paramedic is a registered healthcare professional who works autonomously across a range of health and care settings and may specialise in clinical practice, as well as in education, leadership, and research.


title: Paramedic

text: Not all ambulance personnel are paramedics. In some English-speaking countries, there is an official distinction between paramedics and emergency medical technicians (or emergency care assistants), in which paramedics have additional educational requirements and scope of practice.


title: Paramedic

text: The paramedic role is closely related to other healthcare positions, especially the emergency medical technician, with paramedics often being at a higher grade with more responsibility and autonomy following substantially greater education and training. The primary role of a paramedic is to stabilize people with life-threatening injuries and transport these patients to a higher level of care (typically an emergency department). Due to the nature of their job, paramedics work in many environments, including roadways, people's homes, and depending on their qualifications, wilderness environments, hospitals, aircraft, and with SWAT teams during police operations. Paramedics also work in non-emergency situations, such as transporting chronically ill patients to and from treatment centers and in some areas, address social determinants of health and provide in-home care to ill patients at risk of hospitalization (a practice known as community paramedicine).


title: Paramedic

text: The role of a paramedic varies widely across the world, as EMS providers operate with many different models of care. In the Anglo-American model, paramedics are autonomous decision-makers. In some countries such as the United Kingdom and South Africa, the paramedic role has developed into an autonomous health profession. In the Franco-German model, ambulance care is led by physicians. In some versions of this model, such as France, there is no direct equivalent to a paramedic. Ambulance staff have either the more advanced qualifications of a physician or less advanced training in first aid. In other versions of the Franco-German model, such as Germany, paramedics do exist. Their role is to support a physician in the field, in a role more akin to a hospital nurse, rather than operating with clinical autonomy.


title: Paramedic

text: The development of the profession has been a gradual move from simply transporting patients to hospital, to more advanced treatments in the field. In some countries, the paramedic may take on the role as part of a system to prevent hospitalisation entirely and, through practitioners, are able to prescribe certain medications, or undertaking 'see and refer' visits, where the paramedic directly refers a patient to specialist services without taking them to hospital.


title: Paramedic

text: Paramedics are exposed to a variety of hazards such as lifting patients and equipment, treating those with infectious disease, handling hazardous substances, and transportation via ground or air vehicles. Employers can prevent occupational illness or injury by providing safe patient handling equipment, implementing a training program to educate paramedics on job hazards, and supplying PPE such as respirators, gloves, and isolation gowns when dealing with biological hazards.


title: Paramedic

text: Infectious disease has become a major concern, in light of the COVID-19 pandemic. In response, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and other agencies and organizations have issued guidance regarding workplace hazard controls for COVID-19. Some specific recommendations include modified call queries, symptom screening, universal PPE use, hand hygiene, physical distancing, and stringent disinfection protocols. Research on ambulance ventilation systems found that aerosols often recirculate throughout the compartment, creating a health hazard for paramedics when transporting sick patients capable of airborne transmission. Unidirectional airflow design can better protect workers.


title: Paramedic

text: Throughout the evolution of pre-hospitalisation care, there has been an ongoing association with military conflict. One of the first indications of a formal process for managing injured people dates from the Imperial Legions of Rome, where aging Centurions, no longer able to fight, were given the task of organizing the removal of the wounded from the battlefield and providing some form of care. Such individuals, although not physicians, were probably among the world's earliest surgeons by default, being required to suture wounds and complete amputations. A similar situation existed in the Crusades, with the Knights Hospitaller of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem filling a similar function; this organisation continued, and evolved into what is now known throughout the Commonwealth of Nations as the St. John Ambulance and as the Order of Malta Ambulance Corps in the Republic of Ireland and various countries.


title: Paramedic

text: While civilian communities had organized ways to deal with prehospitalisation care and transportation of the sick and dying as far back as the bubonic plague in London between 1598 and 1665, such arrangements were typically "ad hoc" and temporary. In time, however, these arrangements began to formalize and become permanent. During the American Civil War, Jonathan Letterman devised a system of mobile field hospitals employing the first uses of the principles of triage. After returning home, some veterans began to attempt to apply what had they had seen on the battlefield to their own communities, and commenced the creation of volunteer life-saving squads and ambulance corps.


title: Paramedic

text: These early developments in formalized ambulance services were decided at local levels, and this led to services being provided by diverse operators such as the local hospital, police, fire brigade, or even funeral directors who often possessed the only local transport allowing a passenger to lie down. In most cases these ambulances were operated by drivers and attendants with little or no medical training, and it was some time before formal training began to appear in some units. An early example was the members of the Toronto Police Ambulance Service receiving a mandatory five days of training from St. John as early as 1889.


title: Paramedic

text: Prior to World War I motorized ambulances started to be developed, but once they proved their effectiveness on the battlefield during the war the concept spread rapidly to civilian systems. In terms of advanced skills, once again the military led the way. During World War II and the Korean War battlefield medics administered painkilling narcotics by injection in emergency situations, and pharmacists' mates on warships were permitted to do even more without the guidance of a physician. The Korean War also marked the first widespread use of helicopters to evacuate the wounded from forward positions to medical units, leading to the rise of the term "medevac". These innovations would not find their way into the civilian sphere for nearly twenty more years.


title: Paramedic

text: By the early 1960s experiments in improving medical care had begun in some civilian centres. One early experiment involved the provision of pre-hospital cardiac care by physicians in Belfast, Northern Ireland, in 1966. This was repeated in Toronto, Canada in 1968 using a single ambulance called "Cardiac One", which was staffed by a regular ambulance crew, along with a hospital intern to perform the advanced procedures. While both of these experiments had certain levels of success, the technology had not yet reached a sufficiently advanced level to be fully effective; for example, the Toronto portable defibrillator and heart monitor was powered by lead-acid car batteries, and weighed around .


title: Paramedic

text: In 1966, a report called "Accidental Death and Disability: The Neglected Disease of Modern Society"—commonly known as "The White Paper"—was published in the United States. This paper presented data showing that soldiers who were seriously wounded on the battlefields during the Vietnam War had a better survival rate than individuals who were seriously injured in motor vehicle accidents on California's freeways. Key factors contributing to victim survival in transport to definitive care such as a hospital were identified as comprehensive trauma care, rapid transport to designated trauma facilities, and the presence of medical corpsmen who were trained to perform certain critical advanced medical procedures such as fluid replacement and airway management.


title: Paramedic

text: As a result of "The White Paper", the US government moved to develop minimum standards for ambulance training, ambulance equipment and vehicle design. These new standards were incorporated into Federal Highway Safety legislation and the states were advised to either adopt these standards into state laws or risk a reduction in Federal highway safety funding. The "White Paper" also prompted the inception of a number of emergency medical service (EMS) pilot units across the US including paramedic programs. The success of these units led to a rapid transition to make them fully operational.


title: Paramedic

text: Freedom House Ambulance Service was the first civilian emergency medical service in the United States to be staffed by paramedics, most of whom were black.


title: Paramedic

text: New York City's Saint Vincent's Hospital developed the United States' first Mobile Coronary Care Unit (MCCU) under the medical direction of William Grace, MD, and based on Frank Pantridge's MCCU project in Belfast, Northern Ireland. In 1967, Eugene Nagle, MD and Jim Hirschmann, MD helped pioneer the United States' first EKG telemetry transmission to a hospital and then in 1968, a functional paramedic program in conjunction with the City of Miami Fire Department. In 1969, the City of Columbus Fire Services joined with the Ohio State University Medical Center to develop the "HEARTMOBILE" paramedic program under the medical direction of James Warren, MD and Richard Lewis, MD. In 1969, the Haywood County (NC) Volunteer Rescue Squad developed a paramedic program (then called Mobile Intensive Care Technicians) under the medical direction of Ralph Feichter, MD. In 1969, the initial Los Angeles paramedic training program was instituted in conjunction with Harbor General Hospital, now Harbor–UCLA Medical Center, under the medical direction of J. Michael Criley, MD and James Lewis, MD. In 1969, the Seattle "Medic 1" paramedic program was developed in conjunction with the Harborview Medical Center under the medical direction of Leonard Cobb, MD. The Marietta (GA) initial paramedic project was instituted in the Fall of 1970 in conjunction with Kennestone Hospital and Metro Ambulance Service, Inc. under the medical direction of Luther Fortson, MD. The Los Angeles County and City established paramedic programs following the passage of "The Wedsworth-Townsend Act" in 1970. Other cities and states passed their own paramedic bills, leading to the formation of services across the US. Many other countries also followed suit, and paramedic units formed around the world.


title: Paramedic

text: In the military, however, the required telemetry and miniaturization technologies were more advanced, particularly due to initiatives such as the space program. It would take several more years before these technologies drifted through to civilian applications. In North America, physicians were judged to be too expensive to be used in the pre-hospital setting, although such initiatives were implemented, and sometimes still operate, in European countries and Latin America.


title: Paramedic

text: While doing background research at Los Angeles' UCLA Harbor Medical Center for a proposed new show about doctors, television producer Robert A. Cinader, working for Jack Webb, happened to encounter "firemen who spoke like doctors and worked with them". This concept developed into the television series "Emergency!", which ran from 1972 to 1977, portraying the exploits of this new profession called paramedics. The show gained popularity with emergency services personnel, the medical community, and the general public. When the show first aired in 1972, there were just six paramedic units operating in three pilot programs in the whole of the US, and the term paramedic was essentially unknown. By the time the program ended in 1977, there were paramedics operating in all fifty states. The show's technical advisor, James O. Page, was a pioneer of paramedicine and responsible for the UCLA paramedic program; he would go on to help establish paramedic programs throughout the US, and was the founding publisher of the "Journal of Emergency Medical Services" ("JEMS"). The "JEMS" magazine creation resulted from Page's previous purchase of the "PARAMEDICS International" magazine. Ron Stewart, the show's medical director, was instrumental in organizing emergency health services in southern California earlier in his career during the 1970s, in the paramedic program in Pittsburgh, and had a substantial role in the founding of the paramedic programs in Toronto and Nova Scotia, Canada.


title: Paramedic

text: Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the paramedic field continued to evolve, with a shift in emphasis from patient transport to treatment both on scene and en route to hospitals. This led to some services changing their descriptions from "ambulance services" to "emergency medical services".


title: Paramedic

text: The training, knowledge-base, and skill sets of both paramedics and emergency medical technicians (EMTs) were typically determined by local medical directors based primarily on the perceived needs of the community along with affordability. There were also large differences between localities in the amount and type of training required, and how it would be provided. This ranged from in-service training in local systems, through community colleges, and up to university level education. This emphasis on increasing qualifications has followed the progression of other health professions such as nursing, which also progressed from on the job training to university level qualifications.


title: Paramedic

text: The variations in educational approaches and standards required for paramedics has led to large differences in the required qualifications between locations—both within individual countries and from country to country. Within the UK training is a three-year course equivalent to a bachelor's degree. Comparisons have been made between Paramedics and nurses; with nurses now requiring degree entry (BSc) the knowledge deficit is large between the two fields. This has led to many countries passing laws to protect the title of "paramedic" (or its local equivalent) from use by anyone except those qualified and experienced to a defined standard. This usually means that paramedics must be registered with the appropriate body in their country; for example all paramedics in the United Kingdom must by registered with the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) in order to call themselves a paramedic. In the United States, a similar system is operated by the National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians (NREMT), although this is only accepted by forty of the fifty states.


title: Paramedic

text: As paramedicine has evolved, a great deal of both the curriculum and skill set has existed in a state of flux. Requirements often originated and evolved at the local level, and were based upon the preferences of physician advisers and medical directors. Recommended treatments would change regularly, often changing more like a fashion than a scientific discipline. Associated technologies also rapidly evolved and changed, with medical equipment manufacturers having to adapt equipment that worked inadequately outside of hospitals, to be able to cope with the less controlled pre-hospital environment.


title: Paramedic

text: Physicians began to take more interest in paramedics from a research perspective as well. By about 1990, the fluctuating trends began to diminish, being replaced by outcomes-based research. This research then drove further evolution of the practice of both paramedics and the emergency physicians who oversaw their work, with changes to procedures and protocols occurring only after significant research demonstrated their need and effectiveness (an example being ALS). Such changes affected everything from simple procedures such as CPR, to changes in drug protocols. As the profession grew, some paramedics went on to become not just research participants, but researchers in their own right, with their own projects and journal publications. In 2010, the American Board of Emergency Medicine created a medical subspecialty for physicians who work in emergency medical services.


title: Paramedic

text: Changes in procedures also included the manner in which the work of paramedics was overseen and managed. In the early days medical control and oversight was direct and immediate, with paramedics calling into a local hospital and receiving orders for every individual procedure or drug. While this still occurs in some jurisdictions, it has become increasingly rare. Day-to-day operations largely moved from direct and immediate medical control to pre-written protocols or standing orders, with the paramedic typically seeking advice after the options in the standing orders had been exhausted.


title: Paramedic

text: While the evolution of paramedicine described above is focused largely on the US, many other countries followed a similar pattern, although often with significant variations. Canada, for example, attempted a pilot paramedic training program at Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, in 1972. The program, which intended to upgrade the then mandatory 160 hours of training for ambulance attendants, was found to be too costly and premature. The program was abandoned after two years, and it was more than a decade before the legislative authority for its graduates to practice was put into place. An alternative program which provided 1,400 hours of training at the community college level prior to commencing employment was then tried, and made mandatory in 1977, with formal certification examinations being introduced in 1978. Similar programs occurred at roughly the same time in Alberta and British Columbia, with other Canadian provinces gradually following, but with their own education and certification requirements. Advanced Care Paramedics were not introduced until 1984, when Toronto trained its first group internally, before the process spread across the country. By 2010 the Ontario system involved a two-year community college based program, including both hospital and field clinical components, prior to designation as a Primary Care Paramedic, although it is starting to head towards a university degree-based program. The province of Ontario announced that by September 2021, the entry level primary care paramedic post-secondary program would be enhanced from a two-year diploma to a three-year advanced diploma in primary care paramedicine. Resultantly, advanced care paramedics in Ontario will require a minimum of four years of post-secondary education and critical care paramedics will require five years of post-secondary education.


title: Paramedic

text: In Israel, paramedics are trained in either of the following ways: a three-year degree in Emergency Medicine (B.EMS), a year and three months IDF training, or MADA training. Paramedics manage and provide medical guidelines in mass casualty incidents. They operate in MED evac and ambulances. They are legalized under the 1976 Doctors Ordinance (Decree). In a 2016 study at the Ben Gurion University of the Negev it was found that 73% of trained paramedics stop working within a five-year period, and 93% stop treating within 10 years.


title: Paramedic

text: In the United Kingdom, ambulances were originally municipal services after the end of World War II. Training was frequently conducted internally, although national levels of coordination led to more standardization of staff training. Ambulance services were merged into county-level agencies in 1974, and then into regional agencies in 2006. The regional ambulance services, most often trusts, are under the authority of the National Health Service and there is now a significant standardization of training and skills.


title: Paramedic

text: The UK model has three levels of ambulance staff. In increasing order of clinical skill these are: emergency care assistants, ambulance technicians and paramedics.


title: Paramedic

text: The original route to becoming a paramedic was to join an NHS ambulance service and work towards the position from non-emergency patient transport roles through to the emergency division as a Qualified Ambulance Man/Woman and after qualifying those who wanted to increase their knowledge and skills joined the Association of Emergency Medical Technicians. This was an organisation run by members to promote and train Paramedics. The AEMT was supported by BASICS and large numbers of hospital doctors. Training took place at various locations in members off duty time and at their expense. Trainees followed a wide academic curriculum which led to a written exam. If successful they became Associates and entered the clinical phase of training. Attending hospitals they were trained in all the practical skills. The final examination was designed to put as much pressure on the candidate as possible. The hospital consultant would sign to say that he was happy for a passing candidate to treat their family.


title: Paramedic

text: In the 1970s some ambulance service training departments started offering advanced skill training under the direction of Peter Baskett (Consultant Anaesthetist at Frenchay Hospital, Bristol) and Douglas Chamberlain (Consultant Cardiologist in Brighton). This was the inception of the paramedic service in the UK, and subsequently was developed across Europe. In 1986 the NHSTA introduced the certificate in Extended Ambulance Aid. Existing AEMT Paramedics were forced to sit a conversion examination. The curriculum for the new qualification was substantially smaller cutting out a lot of anatomy and physiology as well as pharmacology and obstetrics. In November 1986 the examinations took place with the first certificates issued alphabetically. The candidate with highest score received certificate 177 and was the only Paramedic at Huntingdon. Training was introduced the following year but due to costs the time was kept to a minimum. The AEMT folded in the 1990s as the training offered was no longer recognised by the ambulance services. Equipment owned by the branches was given to hospitals.


title: Paramedic

text: The NHS Training Authority, NHSTA, (which became the NHS Training Directorate and then the NHS Training Division, which in turn became the Institute of Health and Care Development. The institute was acquired by the Edexcel examination board in 1998, and Edexcel was acquired by Pearson in 2004. Pearson continued to operate the IHCD 'brand' until 2016. This 'in-house' paramedic training was a modular programme, usually between 10 and 12 weeks, followed by time spent in a hospital emergency department, coronary care centre and operating theatre, assisting the anaesthetist and performing airway management techniques such as endotracheal intubation. Completion of the course allowed the paramedic to register with the Council for Professions Supplementary to Medicine (CPSM), which was superseded by the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC), a regulatory body. It is worth noting that this route also took around 3 years if undertaken as quickly as possible. After the non emergency training, initially an 8-week clinical technician course was undertaken, with 750 mentored hours. Staff usually had to be a qualified technician for 2 years before applying for paramedic training noted above, a further 750 hours mentored had to be undertaken to complete the paramedic course to practice and demonstrate the skills learnt during the hospital placements and residential course.


title: Paramedic

text: Prior to regulation and closure of the title, the term "paramedic" was used by a variety of people with varying levels of ability. Paramedics could apply to register via a grandfather scheme which ended in 2002.


title: Paramedic

text: However, university qualifications are expected for paramedics, with the entry level being an Honours Bachelor of Science degree in Pre-Hospital Care or Paramedic Science. As the title "Paramedic" is legally protected, those utilising must be registered with the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC), and in order to qualify for registration you must meet the standards for registration, which include having a degree obtained through an approved course.


title: Paramedic

text: It is common for paramedics to have master's degrees in Advanced practice or Paramedic practice and is indeed a requisite for paramedic prescribing.


title: Paramedic

text: Paramedics work in various settings including NHS and Independent Ambulance Providers, Air Ambulances, Emergency Departments and other alternative settings. Some paramedics have gone on to become "Paramedic Practitioners", a role that practices independently in the pre-hospital environment in a capacity similar to that of a nurse practitioner. This is a fully autonomous role, and such senior paramedics are now working in hospitals, community teams such as rapid response teams, and also in increasing numbers in general practice, where their role includes acute presentations, complex chronic care and end of life management. They work as part of the allied health professional team including Doctors, Nurses, physician Associates, Physiotherapists, Associate Physicians, Health Care Assistant and Clinical Pharmacists. Paramedic Practitioners also undertake examinations modelled upon the MRCGP (a combination of applied knowledge exams, clinical skills and work place based assessment) in order to use the title "specialist". There are also now a growing number of these advanced paramedics who are independent and supplementary prescribers. There are also 'Critical Care Paramedics' who specialise in acute emergency incidents. In 2018, the UK government changed legislation allowing Paramedics to independently prescribe, which will open new pathways to Paramedics to progress into. This came into force on 1 April 2018, but did not immediately affect practice as guidance was still being written.


title: Paramedic

text: In the United States, the minimum standards for paramedic training is considered vocational, but many colleges offer paramedic associate degree or bachelor's degree options. Paramedic education programs typically follow the U.S. NHTSA EMS Curriculum, DOT or National Registry of EMTs. While many regionally accredited community colleges offer paramedic programs and two-year associate degrees, a handful of universities also offer a four-year bachelor's degree component. The national standard course minimum requires didactic and clinical hours for a paramedic program of 1,500 or more hours of classroom training and 500+ clinical hours to be accredited and nationally recognized. Calendar length typically varies from 12 months to upwards of two years, excluding degree options, EMT training, work experience, and prerequisites. It is required to be a certified Emergency Medical Technician prior to starting paramedic training. Entry requirements vary, but many paramedic programs also have prerequisites such as one year required work experience as an emergency medical technician, or anatomy and physiology courses from an accredited college or university. Paramedics in some states must attend up to 50+ hours of ongoing education, plus maintain Pediatric Advanced Life Support and Advanced Cardiac Life Support. National Registry requires 70 + hours to maintain its certification or one may re-certify through completing the written computer based adaptive testing again (between 90 and 120 questions) every two years.


title: Paramedic

text: Paramedicine continues to grow and evolve into a formal profession in its own right, complete with its own standards and body of knowledge, and in many locations paramedics have formed their own professional bodies. The early technicians with limited training, performing a small and specific set of procedures, has become a role beginning to require a foundation degree in countries such as Australia, South Africa, the UK, and increasingly in Canada and parts of the U.S. such as Oregon, where a degree is required for entry level practice.


title: Paramedic

text: As a part of Emergency Medicine Reform in 2017 Ministry of Healthcare introduced two specialties — "paramedic" and "emergency medical technician". A paramedic is a person with at least junior bachelor degree in "Healthcare" field. For a person with basic nine-year school education, the term of training is four years (junior bachelor's degree equivalent); with 11 years of schooling - two years for junior bachelor or 3–4 years for bachelor's degrees.


title: Paramedic

text: In Venezuela, paramedic is a specific denomination for the assistance function of health professionals, with titles registered in the Autonomous Service of Registries and Notaries (SAREN) and/or Autonomous Service of Sanitary Comptrollership (SACS) of the Ministry of People's Power for Health (MPPS), Graduates (Lcdos) or Higher University Technicians (TSU) in Prehospital Emergencies (EPH) or Lcdos and/or TSU in Sub Area Endogenous Development (DESA) or mention in Prehospital Emergencies (EPH), Lcdos and/or TSU Firefighter in Prehospital Emergency, usually a member of an Emergency Medical Service (EMS or SEM), with its main objective "to provide primary and immediate care to people who are victims of accidents or sudden illness" in the Prehospital setting, sometimes following the doctor's guidelines specialist in emergency by biomedical transmission and telemedicine or by applying national and international protocols reviewed and accepted.


title: Paramedic

text: Paramedics are people specialized in critical situations5 who have Higher University Technician (TSU) and/or Bachelor of Prehospital Emergencies (EPH), or Sub Area Endogenous Development (DESA) Prehospital Emergencies, advanced studies of: (Higher Technician) Specialist (TSE) in Prehospital Medical Emergencies (EMPH), Master's Degree in Prehospital Emergencies, Master in Prehospital Medical Emergencies (Project being created by the Latin American and Caribbean University), granted by Higher Education Institutions (IES) such as the University Institutes of Technology (IUT) and Autonomous, Experimental or Private Universities approved for this purpose.[citation needed]


title: Paramedic

text: Its function, according to the provisions of spuesto en la normativa correspondiente, es "proporcionar atención primaria e inmediata a personas víctimas de accidentes o enfermedad repentina".


title: Paramedic

text: Paramedics are employed by a variety of different organizations, and the services they provide may occur under differing organizational structures, depending on the part of the world. A new and evolving role for paramedics involves the expansion of their practice into the provision of relatively basic primary health care and assessment services.


title: Paramedic

text: Some paramedics have begun to specialize their practice, frequently in association with the environment in which they will work. Some early examples of this involved aviation medicine and the use of helicopters, and the transfer of critical care patients between facilities. While some jurisdictions still use physicians, nurses, and technicians for transporting patients, increasingly this role falls to specialized senior and experienced paramedics. Other areas of specialization include such roles as tactical paramedics working in police units, marine paramedics, hazardous materials (Hazmat) teams, Heavy Urban Search and Rescue, and paramedics on offshore oil platforms, oil and mineral exploration teams, and in the military.


title: Paramedic

text: The majority of paramedics are employed by the emergency medical service for their area, although this employer could itself be working under a number of models, including a specific autonomous public ambulance service, a fire department, a hospital based service, or a private company working under contract. In Washington, firefighters have been offered free paramedic training. There are also many paramedics who volunteer for backcountry or wilderness rescue teams, and small town rescue squads. In the specific case of an ambulance service being maintained by a fire department, paramedics and EMTs may be required to maintain firefighting and rescue skills as well as medical skills, and vice versa. In some instances, such as Los Angeles County, a fire department may provide emergency medical services, but as a rapid response or rescue unit rather than a transport ambulance.


title: Paramedic

text: The provision of municipal ambulance services and paramedics, can vary by area, even within the same country or state. For instance, in Canada, the province of British Columbia operates a province-wide service (the British Columbia Ambulance Service) whereas in Ontario, the service is provided by each municipality, either as a distinct service, linked to the fire service, or contracted out to a third party.


title: Paramedic

text: While there are varying degrees of training and expectations around the world, a set of skills practiced by paramedics in the pre-hospital setting commonly includes:


title: Paramedic

text: Paramedics carry and administer a wide array of emergency medications. The specific medications they are permitted to administer vary widely, based on local standards of care and protocols. For an accurate description of permitted drugs or procedures in a given location, it is necessary to contact that jurisdiction directly. A representative list of medications may commonly include:


title: Paramedic

text: As described above, many jurisdictions have different levels of paramedic training, leading to variations in what procedures different paramedics may perform depending upon their qualifications. Three common general divisions of paramedic training are the basic technician, general paramedic or advanced technician, and advanced paramedic. Common skills that these three certification levels may practice are summarized in the table below. The skills for the higher levels automatically also assume those listed for lower levels.


title: Paramedic

text: The medicolegal framework for paramedics is highly dependent on the overall structure of emergency medical services in the territory where they are working.


title: Paramedic

text: In many localities, paramedics operate as a direct extension of a physician medical director and practice as an extension of the medical director's license. In the United States, a physician delegates authority under an individual state's Medical Practice Act. This gives a paramedic the ability to practice within limited scope of practice in law, along with state DOH guidelines and medical control oversight. The authority to practice in this manner is granted in the form of standing orders (protocols) (off-line medical control) and direct physician consultation via phone or radio (on-line medical control). Under this paradigm, paramedics effectively assume the role of out-of-hospital field agents to regional emergency physicians, with independent clinical decision.


title: Paramedic

text: In places where paramedics are recognised health care professionals registered with an appropriate body, they can conduct all procedures authorised for their profession, including the administration of prescription medication, and are personally answerable to a regulator. For example, in the United Kingdom, the Health and Care Professions Council regulates paramedics and can censure or strike a paramedic from the register.


title: Paramedic

text: In some cases paramedics may gain further qualifications to extend their status to that of a paramedic practitioner or advanced paramedic, which may allow them to administer a wider range of drugs and use a wider range of clinical skills.


title: Paramedic

text: In some areas, paramedics are only permitted to practice many advanced skills while assisting a physician who is physically present, except for immediately life-threatening emergencies.


title: Foster care

text: Foster care is a system in which a minor has been placed into a ward, group home (residential child care community, treatment center, etc.), or private home of a state-certified caregiver, referred to as a "foster parent" or with a family member approved by the state. The placement of the child is normally arranged through the government or a social service agency. The institution, group home, or foster parent is compensated for expenses unless with a family member. In some states, relative or "Kinship" caregivers of children who are wards of the state are provided with a financial stipend.


title: Foster care

text: The state, via the family court and child protective services agency, stand "in loco parentis" to the minor, making all legal decisions while the foster parent is responsible for the day-to-day care of the minor.


title: Foster care

text: Scholars and activists are concerned about the efficacy of the foster care services provided by NGOs. Specifically, this pertains to poor retention rates of social workers. Poor retention rates are attributed to being overworked in an emotionally draining field that offers minimal monetary compensation. The lack of professionals pursuing a degree in social work coupled with poor retention rates in the field has led to a shortage of social workers and created large caseloads for those who choose to work and stay in the field. The efficacy of caseworker retention also affects the overall ability to care for clients. Low staffing leads to data limitations that infringe on caseworkers' ability to adequately serve clients and their families.


title: Foster care

text: Foster care is correlated with a range of negative outcomes compared to the general population. Children in foster care have a high rate of ill health, particularly psychiatric conditions such as anxiety, depression, and eating disorders. One third of foster children in a US study reported abuse from a foster parent or other adult in the foster home. Nearly half of foster children in the US become homeless when they reach the age of 18, and the poverty rate is three times higher among foster care alumni than in the general population.


title: Foster care

text: In Australia foster care was known as "boarding-out". Foster care had its early stages in South Australia in 1867 and stretched to the second half of the 19th century. It is said that the system was mostly run by women until the early 20th century. Then the control was centered in many state children's departments. "Although boarding-out was also implemented by non-government[al] child rescue organizations, many large institutions remained. These institutions assumed an increasing importance from the late 1920s when the system went into decline." The system was re-energized in the postwar era, and in the 1970s. The system is still the main structure for "out-of-home care." The system took care of both local and foreign children. "The first adoption legislation was passed in Western Australia in 1896, but the remaining states did not act until the 1920s, introducing the beginnings of the closed adoption that reached it peak in the period 1940–1975. New baby adoption dropped dramatically from the mid-1970s, with the greater tolerance of and support for single mothers".


title: Foster care

text: Foster care in Cambodia is relatively new as an official practice within the government. However, despite a later start, the practice is currently making great strides within the country. Left with a large number of official and unofficial orphanages from the 1990s, the Cambodian government conducted several research projects in 2006 and 2008, pointing to the overuse of orphanages as a solution for caring for vulnerable children within the country. Most notably, the studies found that the percentage of children within orphanages that had parents approached 80%. At the same time, local NGOs like "Children In Families" began offering limited foster care services within the country. In the subsequent years, the Cambodian government began implementing policies that required the closure of some orphanages and the implementation of minimum standards for residential care institutions. These actions lead to an increase in the number of NGOs providing foster care placements and helped to set the course for care reform around the country. As of 2015, the Cambodian government is working with UNICEF, USAID, several governments, and many local NGOs in continuing to build the capacity for child protection and foster care within the Kingdom.


title: Foster care

text: Foster children in Canada are known as permanent wards, (crown wards in Ontario). A ward is someone, in this case a child, placed under protection of a legal guardian and are the legal responsibility of the government. Census data from 2011 counted children in foster care for the first time, counting 47,885 children in care. The majority of foster children – 29,590, or about 62 per cent – were aged 14 and under. The wards remain under the care of the government until they "age out of care." All ties are severed from the government and there is no longer any legal responsibility toward the youth. This age is different depending on the province.


title: Foster care

text: In December 2013, the Israeli Knesset approved a bill co-drafted by the Israel National Council for the Child to regulate the rights and obligations of participants in the foster care system in Israel.


title: Foster care

text: The idea of foster care or taking in abandoned children actually came about around 1392-1490s in Japan. The foster care system in Japan is similar to the Orphan Trains because Brace thought the children would be better off on farms. The people in Japan thought the children would do better on farms rather than living in the "dusty city." The families would often send their children to a farm family outside the village and only keep their oldest son. The farm families served as the foster parents and they were financially rewarded for taking in the younger siblings. "It was considered an honor to be chosen as foster parents, and selection greatly depended on the family's reputation and status within the village". Around 1895 the foster care program became more like the system used in the United States because the Tokyo Metropolitan Police sent children to a hospital where they would be "settled". Problems emerged in this system, such as child abuse, so the government started phasing it out and "began increasing institutional facilities". In 1948 the Child Welfare Law was passed, increasing official oversight, and creating better conditions for the children to grow up in.


title: Foster care

text: In the United Kingdom, foster care and adoption has always been an option, "in the sense of taking other people's children into their homes and looking after them on a permanent or temporary basis." Although, nothing about it had a legal foundation, until the 20th century. The UK had "wardship," the family taking in the child had custody by the Chancery Court. Wardship was not used very often because it did not give the guardian "parental rights." In the 19th century came a "series of baby farming scandals." At the end of the 19th century they started calling it "boarding-out" like they did in Australia. They started placing the children in orphanages and workhouses as well. "The First World War saw an increase in organized adoption through adoption societies and child rescue organizations, and pressure grew for adoption to be given legal status." The first laws based on adoption and foster care were passed in 1926. "The peak number of adoptions was in 1968, since then there has been an enormous decline in adoption in the United Kingdom. The main reasons for children being adopted in the United Kingdom had been unmarried mothers giving up their children for adoption and stepparents adopting their new partner's children".


title: Foster care

text: In the United States, foster care started as a result of the efforts of Charles Loring Brace. "In the mid 19th Century, some 30,000 homeless or neglected children lived in the New York City streets and slums." Brace took these children off the streets and placed them with families in most states in the country. Brace believed the children would do best with a Christian farm family. He did this to save them from "a lifetime of suffering" He sent these children to families by train, which gave the name The Orphan Train Movement. "This lasted from 1853 to the early 1890s and transported more than 120,000 250,000? children to new lives." When Brace died in 1890, his sons took over his work of the Children's Aid Society until they retired. The Children's Aid Society created "a foster care approach that became the basis for the federal Adoption and Safe Families Act of 1997" called Concurrent Planning. This greatly impacted the foster care system.


title: Foster care

text: From August 1999 - August 2019, 9,073,607 American children have been removed from their families and placed in foster homes according to the federal government Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System.


title: Foster care

text: As last reported in August 2019, 437,238 children nationally were removed from their families and placed in foster homes according to the federal government Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System.


title: Foster care

text: In France, foster families are called "familles d'accueil" (literally "welcome families"). Foster homes must obtain an official approval from the government in order to welcome a minor or an elderly person. In order to receive this approval they must follow a training and their home is inspected to be sure it is safe and healthy. In 2017, 344 000 minors and 15000 elderly persons were welcomed in foster homes.


title: Foster care

text: Family-based foster care is generally preferred to other forms of out of home care. Foster care is intended to be a short-term solution until a permanent placement can be made. In most states, the primary objective is to reconcile children with the biological parents. However, if the parents are unable or unwilling to care for the child, or if the child is an orphan, then the first choice of adoptive parents is a relative such as an aunt, uncle or grandparent, known as kinship care. Most kinship care is done informally, without the involvement of a court or public organization. However, in the United States, formal kinship care is increasingly common. In 2012, a quarter of all children in formal foster care were placed with relatives instead of being placed into the system.


title: Foster care

text: If no related family member is willing or able to adopt, the next preference is for the child to be adopted by the foster parents or by someone else involved in the child's life (such as a teacher or coach). This is to maintain continuity in the child's life. If neither above option are available, the child may be adopted by someone who is a stranger to the child.


title: Foster care

text: If none of these options are viable, the plan for the minor may be to enter OPPLA (Other Planned Permanent Living Arrangement). This option allows the child to stay in custody of the state and the child can stay placed in a foster home, with a relative or a long-term care facility, such as a residential child care community or, for children with development disabilities, physical disabilities or mental disabilities, a treatment center.


title: Foster care

text: 671,000 children were served by the foster care system in the United States in 2015. "After declining more than 20 percent between FY 2006 and FY 2012 to a low of 397,000, the number of children in foster care on the last day of the fiscal year increased to 428,000 in FY 2015, with a slightly higher percent change from 2014 to 2015 (3.3%) than observed from 2013 to 2014 (3.2%)." Since FY 2012, the number of children in foster care at the end of each FY has steadily increased.


title: Foster care

text: The median amount of time a child spent in foster care in the U.S. in 2015 was 13.5 months. That year, 74% of children spent less than two years in foster care, while 13% were in care for three or more years. Of the estimated 427,910 children in foster care on September 30, 2015: 43 percent were White, 24 percent were African-American, 21 percent were Hispanic (of any race), 10 percent were other races or multiracial, and 2 percent were unknown or unable to be determined.


title: Foster care

text: Children may enter foster care voluntarily or involuntarily. Voluntary placement may occur when a biological parent or lawful guardian is unable to care for a child. Involuntary placement occurs when a child is removed from their biological parent or lawful guardian due to the risk or actual occurrence of physical or psychological harm, or if the child has been orphaned. In the US, most children enter foster care due to neglect. If a biological parent or legal guardian is unwilling to care for a child, the child is deemed to be dependent and is placed under the care of the child protection agency. The policies regarding foster care as well as the criteria to be met in order to become a foster parent vary according to legal jurisdiction.


title: Foster care

text: Especially egregious failures of child protective services often serve as a catalyst for increased removal of children from the homes of biological parents. An example is the brutal torture and murder of 17-month-old Peter Connelly, a British toddler who died in London Borough of Haringey, North London after suffering more than 50 severe injuries over an eight-month period, including eight broken ribs and a broken back. Throughout the period of time in which he was being tortured, he was repeatedly seen by Haringey Children's services and NHS health professionals. Haringey Children's services already failed ten years earlier in the case of Victoria Climbié. In the time since his death, in 2007, cases have reached a record rate in England surpassing 10,000 in the reporting year ending in March 2012.


title: Foster care

text: From 1993 through 2002 there were 107 recorded deaths; there are approximately 400,000 children in out-of-home care, in the United States. Almost 10% of children in foster care have stayed in foster care for five or more years. Nearly half of all children in foster care have chronic medical problems. 8% of all children in foster care have serious emotional problems, 11% of children exiting foster care aged out of the system, in 2011. Children in foster care experience high rates of child abuse, emotional deprivation, and physical neglect. In one study in the United Kingdom "foster children were 7–8 times, and children in residential care 6 times more likely to be assessed by a pediatrician for abuse than a child in the general population". A study of foster children in Oregon and Washington State found that nearly one third reported being abused by a foster parent or another adult in a foster home. The "Parent Trauma Response Questionnaire" states that parental overprotection can be just as harmful psychologically as neglect.


title: Foster care

text: As of 2019, the majority of children in the foster care system were under 8 years of age. These early years are quite important for the physical and mental development of children. More specifically, these early years are most important for brain development. Stressful and traumatic experiences have been found to have long-term negative consequences for the brain development in children whereas talking, singing, and playing can help encourage brain growth. Since the majority of children are removed from their homes due to neglect, this means that many of these children did not experience stable and stimulating environments to help promote this necessary growth. In a research study conducted at the University of Minnesota, researchers found that children placed in non-parental homes, such as foster homes, showed significant behavior problems and higher levels of internalizing problems in comparison to children in traditional families and even children who were mistreated by caregivers. According to an article written by Elizabeth Curry titled 'The five things you should know about how orphanage life affects children' they state that a child who has lived in an orphanage or a home for multiple children, they will have learned survival skills but lack family skills due to them never understanding permanency.


title: Foster care

text: A higher prevalence of physical, psychological, cognitive and epigenetic disorders for children in foster care has been established in studies in various countries. The Casey Family Programs Northwest Foster Care Alumni Study was a fairly extensive study of various aspects of children who had been in foster care.


title: Foster care

text: Individuals who were in foster care experience higher rates of physical and psychiatric morbidity than the general population and suffer from not being able to trust and that can lead to placements breaking down.


title: Foster care

text: In the Casey study of foster children in Oregon and Washington state, they were found to have double the incidence of depression, 20% as compared to 10% and were found to have a higher rate of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) than combat veterans with 25% of those studied having PTSD. Children in foster care have a higher probability of having attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and deficits in executive functioning, anxiety as well as other developmental problems.


title: Foster care

text: These children experience higher degrees of incarceration, poverty, homelessness, and suicide. Studies in the U.S. have suggested that some foster care placements may be more detrimental to children than remaining in a troubled home, but a more recent study suggested that these findings may have been affected by selection bias, and that foster care has little effect on behavioral problems.


title: Foster care

text: Foster children have elevated levels of cortisol, a stress hormone, in comparison to children raised by their biological parents. Elevated cortisol levels can compromise the immune system. (Harden BJ, 2004). Most of the processes involved in typical neurodevelopment are predicated upon the establishment of close nurturing relationships and environmental stimulation. Negative environmental influences during this critical period of brain development can have lifelong consequences.


title: Foster care

text: Children in foster care have a higher incidence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In one study, 60% of children in foster care who had experienced sexual abuse had PTSD, and 42% of those who had been physically abused met the PTSD criteria. PTSD was also found in 18% of the children who were not abused. These children may have developed PTSD due to witnessing violence in the home. (Marsenich, 2002).


title: Foster care

text: In order to figure out if a child is going through PTSD, there is a PTSD module, the 'anxiety disorder interview'. This is considered a reliable resource for establishing if a child is going through post traumatic stress disorder due to physical, sexual, or mental abuse.


title: Foster care

text: In a study conducted in Oregon and Washington state, the rate of PTSD in adults who were in foster care for one year between the ages of 14–18 was found to be higher than that of combat veterans, with 25 percent of those in the study meeting the diagnostic criteria as compared to 12–13 percent of Iraq war veterans and 15 percent of Vietnam war veterans, and a rate of 4% in the general population. The recovery rate for foster home alumni was 28.2% as opposed to 47% in the general population.


title: Foster care

text: "More than half the study participants reported clinical levels of mental illness, compared to less than a quarter of the general population".


title: Foster care

text: Foster children are at increased risk for a variety of eating disorders in comparison to the general population. In a study done in the United Kingdom, 35% of foster children experienced an increase in Body Mass Index (BMI) once in care. Food Maintenance Syndrome is characterized by a set of aberrant eating behaviors of children in foster care. It is "a pattern of excessive eating and food acquisition and maintenance behaviors without concurrent obesity"; it resembles "the behavioral correlates of Hyperphagic Short Stature". It is hypothesized that this syndrome is triggered by the stress and maltreatment foster children are subjected to, it was prevalent amongst 25 percent of the study group in New Zealand. Bulimia nervosa is seven times more prevalent among former foster children than in the general population.


title: Foster care

text: Nearly half of foster children in the U.S. become homeless when they turn 18. One of every 10 foster children stays in foster care longer than seven years, and each year about 15,000 reach the age of majority and leave foster care without a permanent family—many to join the ranks of the homeless or to commit crimes and be imprisoned.


title: Foster care

text: Three out of 10 of the United States homeless are former foster children. According to the results of the Casey Family Study of Foster Care Alumni, up to 80 percent are doing poorly—with a quarter to a third of former foster children at or below the poverty line, three times the national poverty rate. Very frequently, people who are homeless had multiple placements as children: some were in foster care, but others experienced "unofficial" placements in the homes of family or friends.


title: Foster care

text: Individuals with a history of foster care tend to become homeless at an earlier age than those who were not in foster care. The length of time a person remains homeless is longer in individuals who were in foster care.


title: Foster care

text: Children in foster care are at a greater risk of suicide. The increased risk of suicide is still prevalent after leaving foster care. In a small study of twenty-two Texan youths who aged out of the system, 23 percent had a history of suicide attempts.


title: Foster care

text: A Swedish study utilizing the data of almost one million people including 22,305 former foster children who had been in care prior to their teens, concluded:


title: Foster care

text: Children in foster care have an overall higher mortality rate than children in the general population. A study conducted in Finland among current and former foster children up to age 24 found a higher mortality rate due to substance abuse, accidents, suicide and illness. The deaths due to illness were attributed to an increased incidence of acute and


title: Foster care

text: Georgia Senator Nancy Schaefer published a report "The Corrupt Business of Child Protective Services" stating:


title: Foster care

text: The study reviewed case records for 659 foster care alumni in Northwest USA, and interviewed 479 of them


title: Foster care

text: Approximately 10% of foster youth make it to college and of those 10%, only about 3% actually graduate and obtain a 4-year degree. Although the number of foster youth who are starting at a 4-year university after high school has increased over the years, the number of youth who graduate from college continues to remain stable. A study of 712 youth in California, the results revealed that foster care youth are fives times less likely to attend college than youth who do not go through foster care. There are different resources that offer both financial and emotional support for foster youth to continue their education. Simultaneously, there are also many barriers that make getting to a college or university difficult.


title: Foster care

text: Borton describes some of the barriers youth face in her article, "Barriers to Post-Secondary Enrollment for Former Foster Youth". A few of those barriers include financial hurdles, navigating through the application process with little to no support, and lack of housing.


title: Foster care

text: Many studies have shown that there are a few factors that have seemingly played a role in the success of foster youth making it to and graduating from a college or university. While having financial resources for foster youth is a huge help, there are other components to look at. Beginning with having support for these youth at the high school level. In order for foster youth to obtain a college degree, they must enroll at a university first.


title: Foster care

text: Out of the different factors that play in increasing college enrollment such as youth participating in extended foster care, reading ability, etc., youth who received assistance or had supportive relationships from adults, were more likely than youth who did not have supportive relationships, to enroll at a university.


title: Foster care

text: At colleges across the nation, there are programs that are specifically put in place to help youth who have aged out of the foster care system and continued into higher education. These programs often help youth financially by giving them supplemental funds and providing support through peer mentor programs or academic counseling services. While funding is an important key in helping get through college, it hasn't been found as the only crucial component in aiding a youth's success.


title: Foster care

text: A study done by Jay and colleagues provides insight on what youth view as important in helping them thrive on a college campus. The study, which had a sample of 51 foster youth, used Conceptual Mapping to break down the different components of support that may be important for youth to receive on a college campus. It is important to take in the different factors that can be helpful for youth at a university and to look beyond providing financial support.


title: Foster care

text: Studies have revealed that youth in foster care covered by Medicaid insurance receive psychotropic medication at a rate that was 3 times higher than that of Medicaid-insured youth who qualify by low family income. In a review (September 2003 to August 2004) of the medical records of 32,135 Texas foster care 0–19 years old, 12,189 were prescribed psychotropic medication, resulting in an annual prevalence of 37.9% of these children being prescribed medication. 41.3% received 3 different classes of these drugs during July 2004, and 15.9% received 4 different classes. The most frequently used medications were antidepressants (56.8%), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder drugs (55.9%), and antipsychotic agents (53.2%). The study also showed that youth in foster care are frequently treated with concomitant psychotropic medication, for which sufficient evidence regarding safety and effectiveness is not available.


title: Foster care

text: The use of expensive, brand name, patent protected medication was prevalent. In the case of SSRIs the use of the most expensive medications was noted to be 74%; in the general market only 28% are for brand name SSRI's vs generics. The average out-of-pocket expense per prescription was $34.75 for generics and $90.17 for branded products, a $55.42, difference.


title: Foster care

text: Children in the child welfare system have often experienced significant and repeated traumas and having a background in foster homes—especially in instances of sexual abuse—can be the precipitating factor in a wide variety of psychological and cognitive deficits it may also serve to obfuscate the true cause of underlying issues. The foster care experience may have nothing to do with the symptoms, or on the other hand, a disorder may be exacerbated by having a history of foster care and attendant abuses. The human brain however has been shown to have a fair degree of neuroplasticity. and adult neurogenesis has been shown to be an ongoing process.