title: Friend of Dorothy

text: In LGBT slang, a "friend of Dorothy" (FOD) is a gay man; and more broadly, any LGBTQ person. Stating that, or asking if, someone was a "friend of Dorothy" was a furtive shibboleth used for discussing sexual orientation while avoiding hostility. The term was likely based on the character Dorothy Gale of the "Oz" series of novels, which have been interpreted as including much queer subtext. Actress Judy Garland, who portrayed Dorothy in the 1939 "Wizard of Oz" film, is considered a gay icon. Writer and critic Dorothy Parker is thought to be another potential origin of the term. The shibboleth "friend of Dorothy" was commonly used throughout the 20th century, but its use has declined in recent decades as LGBT acceptance has advanced.


title: Friend of Dorothy

text: The precise origin of the term is unknown. Some believe that it is derived from "The Road to Oz" (1909), a sequel to the first novel, "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz" (1900). The book introduces readers to Polychrome who, upon meeting Dorothy's travelling companions, exclaims, "You have some queer friends, Dorothy", and she replies, "The queerness doesn't matter, so long as they're friends." There are numerous references to LGBTQ characters and relationships, including a possible innuendo about bisexuality – when Dorothy asks Scarecrow which way to go on the yellow-brick road he says, "Of course some people go both ways" – although it is unknown whether they were intentionally included. For instance, in a case that may be seen as changing gender identity, or being transgender, Ozma, while still an infant, the baby daughter of the former King Pastoria of Oz, was given to the witch Mombi of the North by the Wizard of Oz. Mombi transformed Ozma into a boy and called him "Tip" (short for Tippetarius) in order to prevent the rightful ruler of Oz from ascending to the throne. Thus, Ozma spent her entire childhood with Mombi in the form of the boy Tip, and had no memory of ever having been a girl. Later, Princess Ozma would be the ruler of the fictional land of Oz. Princess Ozma is "one of the first transgender characters in literature." This storyline was revived in "Emerald City" (2017).


title: Friend of Dorothy

text: More commonly, it is stated that "friend of Dorothy" refers to the derivative 1939 film "The Wizard of Oz" because Judy Garland, who starred as the main character Dorothy, is a gay icon. In the film, Dorothy is accepting of those who are different. For example, the "gentle lion" giving the line, "I'm afraid there's no denyin', I'm just a dandy lion." "The Wizard of Oz" has a "particular resonance in the culture of the queer community". The struggles faced by Dorothy, Toto, and friends, especially against the Wicked Witch of the West and her flying monkeys can metaphorically mirror the difficulties of coming out. How the group of outcasts worked together likewise mirrors LGBTQ people who create new chosen families. Researchers also note there is an absence of a heteronormative male–female romance, and Dorothy and her friends "do not need to change themselves to become who they want to be". Many see Garland's portrayal as a "queer journey, an escape from the puritanical, morally rigid, black-and-white small-town life to Technicolor city existence with fabulous friends".


title: Friend of Dorothy

text: Additionally relevant is the classic song "(Somewhere) Over the Rainbow" that Dorothy (Judy Garland) sings, which was possibly "the most memorable performance" of Garland's career, and the song "contributed to the evolution of the rainbow flag as a gay icon". The song "act[ed] as a cultural catalyst, propelling the eventual embrace of the rainbow symbol by the world's LGBTQ communities". "Time" magazine, in its August 18, 1967, review of Garland's final engagement at New York's Palace Theatre, observed: "A disproportionate part of her nightly claque seems to be homosexual. The boys in the tight trousers roll their eyes, tear at their hair and practically levitate from their seats, particularly when Judy sings ['Over the Rainbow']."


title: Friend of Dorothy

text: LGBTQ people could also empathize with the personal struggles of Judy Garland, as a persecuted people they identified with suffering. Garland's problems, "the drinking and divorcing, all the pills and all the men, all the poundage come and gone", were documented in the media. She was among the first stars to have her "dirty laundry" aired publicly. She was the "archetype of the triumphant/tragic diva, paving the way for the stormy trajectories of superstars Elizabeth Taylor, Whitney Houston, Amy Winehouse, and Lindsay Lohan". Biographer Gerald Clarke thinks she was likely bipolar, "explaining her many suicide attempts and use of alcohol and pills to self-medicate." Her mental health problems were likely related to childhood trauma, possibly untreated complex PTSD, a common shared experience with LGBTQ+ people. In the face of these challenges she pressed forward, "explaining her enduring popularity among LGBTQ fans". She also endured "self-doubts about her capabilities, suffered crippling stage fright", yet beamed on stage. Onstage "she 'came out', expressing through her skills the real person she was meant to be". LGBTQ people notice this, "admiring her courage and resilience, adopting it as their own". One psychiatrist's explanation: "Judy was beaten up by life, embattled and ultimately had to become more masculine. She has the power that homosexuals would like to have, and they attempt to attain it by idolizing her."


title: Friend of Dorothy

text: According to United Press International's Marilyn Malara, "In the 1950s and 1960s, Garland acted as an unofficial mascot for a generation of gay men, who flocked to Garland's many performances, referring to themselves as 'friends of Dorothy.'"


title: Friend of Dorothy

text: In September 2019, in reporting on the resurgence of interest in Garland due to the biopic "Judy" starring Renée Zellweger, Louis Staples analyzed Garland’s story, to "understand how and why some gay men look to famous women to help them navigate the world." Both Dorothy and Garland are taken from ordinary lives into the spectacular, LGBTQ people perceiving themselves as abnormal, different, or "other" could relate to not being ordinary. Once in the Hollywood movie business, Garland’s body was a battleground for never being sexy enough, or slim enough; LGBTQ people can relate to dealing with "body dysmorphia, harm[ing] their bodies, attempt[ing] suicide and suffer from eating disorders." Richard Dyer argues that, after her artistic success in, but commercial failure of "A Star Is Born" (1954) "Garland’s work and life tells a story of survival, and of someone trying to assert some form of control in a world that was set up to destroy her."


title: Friend of Dorothy

text: Garland also had a number of gay men in her life including her father Frank Gumm who "preferred the company of very young men". Her second husband Vincente Minnelli had speculation for years in the entertainment community that he was gay or bisexual. A biography, "Vincente Minnelli: Hollywood's Dark Dreamer", claims he lived as an openly gay man in New York prior to his arrival in Hollywood, where the town pressured him back into the closet. According to the biographer: "He was openly gay in New York – we were able to document names of companions and stories from Dorothy Parker. But when he came to Hollywood, I think he made the decision to repress that part of himself or to become bisexual." Garland's fourth husband, Mark Herron, was gay and in a long-lasting relationship with fellow actor Henry Brandon, which was only briefly interrupted by his marriage to Garland. The two men remained together until Brandon's death in 1990. Garland's daughter Liza Minnelli's first husband, Peter Allen, was discovered by Herron while Allen was performing in Hong Kong. Garland took the act, the Allen Brothers, under her care becoming manager and booking agent, and had them open her concerts in Britain and the United States. Garland also introduced Allen to her daughter, but Allen was having affairs with men before the marriage, he later came out as gay.


title: Friend of Dorothy

text: Garland's death (June 22, 1969), and funeral held in New York City, happened days before the Stonewall Riots, the spark that started the modern LGBTQ rights movement, took place, although reports are that the riots were spontaneous and not related to her passing.


title: Friend of Dorothy

text: Predating "The Wizard of Oz" origins of the phrase (although not connected to the L. Frank Baum novels) is New York City's celebrated humorist, critic and "defender of human and civil rights" Dorothy Parker, whose social circles in the 1920s and 1930s included gay men. The two origin stories are not mutually exclusive, both could be somewhat true depending on how one learned of the phrase, or even separately where it derived. The socialite would throw "famous parties at Garden of Allah's lavish celebrity villas", gay men would use the phrase for entry. The Prohibition in the United States from 1920-1933, when social alcohol consumption was generally illegal, prompted all forms of illegal activities to circumvent the ban, including the speakeasies during the Roaring Twenties, also known as the Jazz Age. Parker would invite gay men, who would in turn invite other gay men to her gatherings using the code phrase to gain entry. Parker had many gay fans, and was well known for her quick wit and use of sarcasm as well as social activism. Official bans on gays serving in the military first surfaced in the early 20th century. The U.S. introduced a ban in a revision of the Articles of War of 1916 and the UK first prohibited homosexuality in the Army and Air Force Acts in 1955. During World War II (1940s) many U.S. and British servicemen started meeting and forming friendships while serving in Europe. Living in fear of discovery and persecution, many began using the code language that Parker used commonly in her writings as a form of social networking including "friend of Dorothy". In conversation and in letter writing, phrases like "simply divine", "fabulous" and "nelly" began to be used by men, who later brought its use back to the United States. By the 1960s and onward the social stigma of being gay was slowly lifting, including the Stonewall Riots in 1969 which launched the modern LGBTQ rights movement, the phrase wasn't needed as much.


title: Friend of Dorothy

text: In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Naval Investigative Service (NIS) was investigating homosexuality in the Chicago area. Agents discovered that gay men sometimes referred to themselves as "friends of Dorothy". Unaware of the historical meaning of the term, the NIS believed that there actually "was" a woman named Dorothy at the center of a massive ring of homosexual military personnel, so they launched an enormous and futile hunt for the elusive "Dorothy", hoping to find her and convince her to reveal the names of gay service members.


title: Friend of Dorothy

text: Starting in the late 1980s, on several cruise lines, gay and lesbian passengers began approaching ship staff, asking them to publicise gatherings in the daily cruise activity list. As the cruise lines were hesitant to announce such things so blatantly in their daily publications, they would list the gathering as a "Meeting of the Friends of Dorothy". The use of this phrase likely comes from the cruise directors who were also familiar with and using the "Friends of Bill W." phrase in their programs to tell members of Alcoholics Anonymous that there were support group meetings on the trip.


title: Friend of Dorothy

text: Such meetings have expanded in popularity and frequency over the years. Now, many cruise lines will have multiple FOD events, sometimes as many as one each night. Despite this, many FOD meetings have low turnout rates.


title: Friend of Dorothy

text: Similar to "friend of Dorothy" is "friend of Mrs. King" (i.e. Queen, in the meaning of "gay man"). This was used in England, mostly in the first half of the 20th century.


title: Great chain of being

text: The great chain of being is a hierarchical structure of all matter and life, thought by medieval Christianity to have been decreed by God. The chain begins with God and descends through angels, humans, animals and plants to minerals.


title: Great chain of being

text: The great chain of being (, "Ladder of Being") is a concept derived from Plato, Aristotle (in his "Historia Animalium"), Plotinus and Proclus. Further developed during the Middle Ages, it reached full expression in early modern Neoplatonism.


title: Great chain of being

text: The chain of being hierarchy has God at the top, above angels, which like him are entirely spirit, without material bodies, and hence unchangeable. Beneath them are humans, consisting both of spirit and matter; they change and die, and are thus essentially impermanent. Lower are animals and plants. At the bottom are the mineral materials of the earth itself; they consist only of matter. Thus, the higher the being is in the chain, the more attributes it has, including all the attributes of the beings below it. The minerals are, in the medieval mind, a possible exception to the immutability of the material beings in the chain, as alchemy promised to turn lower elements like lead into those higher up the chain, like silver or gold.


title: Great chain of being

text: The chain of being links God, angels, humans, animals, plants, and minerals. The links of the chain are:


title: Great chain of being

text: God has created all other beings and is therefore outside creation, time, and space. He has all the spiritual attributes found in humans and angels, and uniquely has his own attributes of omnipotence, omniscience, and omnipresence. He is the model of perfection for all lower beings.


title: Great chain of being

text: In Christian angelology, angels are immortal beings of pure spirit without physical bodies, so they require temporary bodies made of earthly materials to be able to do anything in the material world. They were thought to have spiritual attributes such as reason, love, and imagination. Based on mentions of types of angel in the Bible, Pseudo-Dionysios devised a hierarchy of angelic beings, which other theologians like St. Thomas Aquinas adopted:


title: Great chain of being

text: Humans uniquely shared spiritual attributes with God and the angels above them, love and language, and physical attributes with the animals below them, like having material bodies that experienced emotions and sensations like lust and pain, and physical needs such as hunger and thirst.


title: Great chain of being

text: Animals have senses, are able to move, and have physical appetites. The highest animals like the lion, the king of beasts, could move vigorously, and had powerful senses such as excellent eyesight and the ability to smell their prey, while lower animals might wriggle or crawl, and the lowest like oysters were sessile, attached to the sea-bed. All, however, had the senses of touch and taste.


title: Great chain of being

text: Plants lacked sense organs and the ability to move, but they could grow and reproduce. The highest plants had attractive attributes like leaves and flowers, while the lowest plants, like mushrooms and moss, did not, and stayed low on the ground, close to the mineral earth. All the same, many plants had useful properties serving for food or medicine.


title: Great chain of being

text: At the bottom of the chain, minerals were unable to move, sense, grow, or reproduce. Their attributes were being solid and strong, while the gemstones possessed magic. The king of gems was the diamond.


title: Great chain of being

text: The basic idea of a ranking of the world's organisms goes back to Aristotle's biology. In his "History of Animals", where he ranked animals over plants based on their ability to move and sense, and graded the animals by their reproductive mode, live birth being "higher" than laying cold eggs, and possession of blood, warm-blooded mammals and birds again being "higher" than "bloodless" invertebrates.


title: Great chain of being

text: Aristotle's non-religious concept of higher and lower organisms was taken up by natural philosophers during the Scholastic period to form the basis of the "Scala Naturae". The "scala" allowed for an ordering of beings, thus forming a basis for classification where each kind of mineral, plant and animal could be slotted into place. In medieval times, the great chain was seen as a God-given and unchangeable ordering. In the Northern Renaissance, the scientific focus shifted to biology; the threefold division of the chain below humans formed the basis for Carl Linnaeus's "Systema Naturæ" from 1737, where he divided the physical components of the world into the three familiar kingdoms of minerals, plants and animals.


title: Great chain of being

text: Alchemy used the great chain as the basis for its cosmology. Since all beings were linked into a chain, so that there was a fundamental unity of all matter, the transformation from one place in the chain to the next might, according to alchemical reasoning, be possible. In turn, the unit of the matter enabled alchemy to make another key assumption, the philosopher's stone, which somehow gathered and concentrated the universal spirit found in all matter along the chain, and which "ex hypothesi" might enable the alchemical transformation of one substance to another, such as the base metal lead to the noble metal gold.


title: Great chain of being

text: The set nature of species, and thus the absoluteness of creatures' places in the great chain, came into question during the 18th century. The dual nature of the chain, divided yet united, had always allowed for seeing creation as essentially one continuous whole, with the potential for overlap between the links. Radical thinkers like Jean-Baptiste Lamarck saw a progression of life forms from the simplest creatures striving towards complexity and perfection, a schema accepted by zoologists like Henri de Blainville. The very idea of an ordering of organisms, even if supposedly fixed, laid the basis for the idea of transmutation of species, whether progressive goal-directed orthogenesis or Charles Darwin's undirected theory of evolution.


title: Great chain of being

text: The chain of being continued to be part of metaphysics in 19th-century education, and the concept was well known. The geologist Charles Lyell used it as a metaphor in his 1851 "Elements of Geology" description of the geological column, where he used the term "missing links" about missing parts of the continuum. The term "missing link" later came to signify transitional fossils, particularly those bridging the gulf between man and beasts.


title: Great chain of being

text: The idea of the great chain, as well as the derived "missing link", was abandoned in early 20th-century science, as the notion of modern animals representing ancestors of other modern animals was abandoned in biology. The idea of a certain sequence from "lower" to "higher" however lingers on, as does the idea of progress in biology.


title: Great chain of being

text: Allenby and Garreau propose that the Catholic Church's narrative of the great chain of being kept the peace in Europe for centuries. The very concept of rebellion simply lay outside the reality within which most people lived, for to defy the King was to defy God. King James I himself wrote, "The state of monarchy is the most supreme thing upon earth: for kings are not only God's Lieutenants upon earth, and sit upon God's throne, but even by God himself they are called Gods." The Enlightenment broke this supposed divine plan, and fought the last vestiges of feudal hierarchy, by creating secular governmental structures that vested power into the hands of ordinary citizens, rather than in those of divinely ordained monarchs.


title: Great chain of being

text: The American philosopher Ken Wilber described a "Great Nest of Being" which he claims to belong to a culture-independent "perennial philosophy" traceable across 3000 years of mystical and esoteric writings. Wilber's system corresponds with other concepts of transpersonal psychology. In his 1977 book "A Guide for the Perplexed", the economist E. F. Schumacher described a hierarchy of beings, with humans at the top able mindfully to perceive the "eternal now".


title: The Shining Girls

text: The Shining Girls is a novel by South African author Lauren Beukes. The book centers on a mysterious drifter who murders the titular "shining girls" and one victim's attempts to expose him.


title: The Shining Girls

text: "The Shining Girls" was published on 15 April 2013 by the Umuzi imprint of Random House Struik in South Africa, on 25 April 2013 by HarperCollins in the United Kingdom, and on 4 June 2013 by Mulholland Books in the United States. HarperCollins had won the international rights to the book in a bidding war with several other publishers.


title: The Shining Girls

text: Unlike her previous novels, which are set in South Africa, "The Shining Girls" takes place in Chicago. Beukes said that because the story steps back and forth through history, she felt South Africa would not be a suitable setting because "then it would become an Apartheid story". Beukes added that race issues appear frequently in her work, but "Apartheid would have overwhelmed everything else I wanted to do with the novel".


title: The Shining Girls

text: In 2013, "The Shining Girls" was short-listed for UK based Crime Writers' Association 2013 Goldsboro Gold Dagger award. In 2014 the book won the British Fantasy Society's August Derleth Award for Best Horror Novel


title: The Shining Girls

text: "The Shining Girls" follows Harper Curtis, a killer from Depression-era Chicago, who finds a key on the person of his latest victim, and uses it to unlock the door to a strange house. Inside, Harper discovers a room covered in seemingly random objects, each with a woman’s name attached. He quickly figures out that the house wants him to kill these women — the titular Shining Girls — who live at various times across the next 60 years. All Harper has to do is step out of the room with the house key and a copy of one of the objects — the originals remain inside the house — and he can visit any year between 1929 and 1993.


title: The Shining Girls

text: So begins Harper Curtis’ killing spree. He visits each of the Shining Girls when she is little and gives her a token item from the room, such as a baseball card or toy. Then, he leaps forward in time by a decade or more, murders the Shining Girl, and leaves a different woman’s token at the scene.


title: The Shining Girls

text: His luck changes when he brutally stabs Kirby Mizrachi in 1989 and leaves her for dead. Unbeknownst to Harper, Kirby survives the attempt on her life. And four years later, with her would-be killer still unidentified, she decides to go after him on her own.


title: The Shining Girls

text: Kirby takes a job working for Dan Velazquez, the journalist who covered her story for the "Chicago Sun-Times". She’s upfront about wanting to track down her attacker, and she has an impossible theory — that the man who tried to kill her has been murdering women in Chicago for the last 60 years. Because Harper’s modus operandi (M.O.) includes leaving another woman’s token with each Shining Girl he kills, Kirby’s search uncovers anachronisms at the scenes of several Chicago murders, and she realizes that her own token — the 1985 My Little Pony figurine a strange man gave her in 1976 — is similarly displaced in time. Armed with this information, she enlists Dan’s help to research the pony’s history.


title: The Shining Girls

text: Meanwhile, Harper is hunting Kirby once again, having read one of her articles from 1993. When someone tips her off that a man is looking for her, Kirby turns the tables on Harper and pursues him all the way to the house. After seeing the token room, she tries reporting Harper and the house to the police, but they find nothing amiss inside.


title: The Shining Girls

text: Kirby approaches Dan once more and convinces him to break into the house with her. While Dan fends off Harper in 1929, Kirby gathers the tokens and prepares to burn them. Harper critically injures Dan and returns to the house, arriving just in time to see Kirby set the items ablaze. The novel ends with Kirby shooting Harper and leaving him to die in the burning house while she and Dan escape.


title: The Shining Girls

text: Writing for NPR, American writer and critic Alan Cheuse called "The Shining Girls" "a triumph" and "a marvelous narrative feat that spans the history of Chicago from the 1930s to the 1990s". He complimented Beukes on her in-depth research into Chicago's history, and described the plot as a "well-made, though extremely complex temporal creation". A reviewer in the "National Post" described "The Shining Girls" as "a thoroughly satisfying thriller" and said that Kirby's charm is "irresistible and irrepressible", while Harper reminds one of the 1890s Chicago serial killer H. H. Holmes.


title: The Shining Girls

text: American writer Julia Keller wrote in a review of the book in the "Chicago Tribune" that she was pleased that "The Shining Girls" deviates from traditional serial-killer fiction in that it does not glorify the killer. Beukes presents Harper as "greedy and seedy and opportunistic", rather than "scintillatingly brilliant and alluringly damaged". While the book's time-travel theme "stretches scientific plausibility", Keller said that the book's strength comes from Beukes's "audacious imaginative vision", and that she has made "delicate and redemptive magic" out of "something horrific and inexplicable".


title: The Shining Girls

text: Simmy Richman wrote in "The Independent" that while the book has good ideas, it is "ultimately another high-concept novel that suffers in the execution". He said that the back-and-forth time travel results in the story "feel[ing] all over the place". Richman added that Beukes's characterization of Harper's victims was good, but felt that she does not give the killer the same attention. American author Charles Finch writing in a review in "USA Today" also felt that "The Shining Girls" is "not entirely successful in its execution", but added that because Beukes is "so profusely talented – capable of wit, darkness, and emotion on a single page", the book should still be a "blockbuster". Finch said that while Beukes "successfully defines and limits her story's magical elements", the magic "come[s] apart at the seams" during the final showdown between Kirby and Harper.


title: The Shining Girls

text: In a review in "The New York Times", American journalist and critic Janet Maslin wrote that Beukes has made "The Shining Girls" more than "a standard serial-killer story" by "load[ing] it with acrobatic twists", and said it is a "strong contender for the role of this summer's universal beach read". Maslin added that a strong point of the book is "the emotional effect of the victims' unusual virtue" that Beukes creates, but complained about the book's lack of information about Harper. Maslin also criticized the fact that all the story's "occult power" rests in the House, which "has a mind of its own, but we never find out how it works". Alison Flood wrote in a review in "The Guardian" that if you accept Beukes's "time-travel conceit", "The Shining Girls" is a page-turner that will "take some beating this summer". Flood defended Beukes's decision not to explain how the House works, saying that "The [H]ouse just is", and that Harper's underdeveloped character is what makes him an enigma. She complimented Beukes on her victims, calling them "vivid, glowing characters", and described Kirby as "one of the sarkiest, most resilient heroines you're likely to meet this year".


title: The Shining Girls

text: In May 2013, it was announced that MRC and Appian Way, Leonardo DiCaprio's production company, have bought the television rights to "The Shining Girls". In July 2020, Apple announced that it green lit a straight-to-series order for "Shining Girls", launching exclusively on Apple TV+, with Elisabeth Moss set to star and executive produce. In February 2021, Wagner Moura was cast to lead opposite Moss. Production on the series began in Chicago in May 2021. It premiered on April 29, 2022.


title: Batla House

text: Batla House is a 2019 Indian Hindi-language action thriller film written by Ritesh Shah, and directed by Nikkhil Advani. Inspired by the Batla House encounter case that took place on 19 September 2008, the film stars John Abraham as the protagonist, based on the life of Sanjeev Kumar Yadav, the police officer who played an important role in the encounter, leading to the demise of his colleague Mohan Chand Sharma. The film showcases the encounter, and in its aftermath, Sanjeev's struggle to catch the fugitives and prove the authenticity of the encounter, while dealing with nationwide hatred and post-traumatic stress disorder.


title: Batla House

text: The film was theatrically released in India on 15 August 2019, coinciding with Independence Day. It became commercially successful at the box office.


title: Batla House

text: Deputy Commissioner of Police Sanjeev Kumar Yadav is informed that his team has cornered 5 university students in L-18, Batla House, who might have been involved in the 13 September 2008 Delhi bombings, the responsibility for which was claimed by the terrorist organization "Indian Mujahideen" (IM). Sanjeev orders not to engage until he arrives, but a relentless inspector, Mohan Chand Sharma alias M. C., proceeds with some officers. Sanjeev arrives and, upon hearing the gunshots, decides to engage. The building is cleared, and M. C. is found shot down. Sanjeev enters the room, and there's more shooting, as a result of which two students, Adil Ameen & Sadiq Khan, end up dead, and Tufail Khan is arrested alive. Dilshad Ahmed and Jawed Ali escape and Sanjeev now starts facing the heat from media and politicians, who start billing the encounter as a fake one. They're joined by the whole nation in condemning the Delhi Police, and everyone starts demanding justice for the students who were supposedly killed to account for the bombings. Sanjeev's wife, Shobhna Yadav, a news anchor, is however unwilling to accept this and decides to stay with Sanjeev, who soon becomes diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder, frequently hallucinating about getting shot by the terrorists. Shobhna somehow stops him whenever he becomes suicidal.


title: Batla House

text: Sanjeev now starts looking for the missing Dilshad and Jawed and finds one of them to be hiding in Nizampur, Uttar Pradesh. He is informed by the police commissioner that he would be awarded for the encounter and that he must celebrate. Realizing he's not been told where to celebrate, he heads to Nizampur, where he manages to find Dilshad, one of the fugitives. Everyone tries to stop Sanjeev, who chases, beats up, and almost arrests Dilshad, only for him to be cornered by the politicians and the public who let him escape but without Dilshad.


title: Batla House

text: After being awarded the President Medal, Sanjeev begins his hunt again and this time, through Dilshad's girlfriend Victoria alias "Huma", tricks him into coming to Nepal. He teams up with his officers once again and sends a van to pick up Dilshad, as a part of his plan. The latter, however, sends someone else to check for anything suspicious. Sanjeev runs to stop his officers from engaging upon realizing Dilshad's not in the van and lets it flee. Learning of nothing suspicious, Dilshad informs the van driver he'd depart the next day, and upon landing in Nepal, is stopped, thrashed, and arrested by Sanjeev and his team.


title: Batla House

text: The court proceedings begin, where the opposing lawyer, Shailesh Arya, brings up arguments to counter Sanjay's truth and a parallel story of fake encounters, as per which K. K. and his men brought the students in L-18 tortured, and decided to kill them when they were ordered not to do so, following which K. K. was shot by one of his officers. Sanjay, however, brings out the truth that actually, his officers had been closely watching the students and realized they belonged to the IM. The real shootout then plays out, showcasing K. K. and his team engaging during the students' fire, and the very fact that K. K. died while giving Sanjay's argument strong support when he tells everyone that no officer has ever died in a fake encounter. His arguments convince the court to sentence the 2 terrorists to life imprisonment, while the last one somehow escapes the country.


title: Batla House

text: While sections of the media still oppose the ruling and believe the police to be culprits, a video clip that surfaced in 2016 featured a confession from the terrorist Jawed who had escaped the encounter, about how he managed to do so and later join the ISIS, further confirming the credibility of the encounter.


title: Batla House

text: In May 2018, Nikkhil Advani announced the film with John Abraham, to be based on Operation Batla House of 2008. The film was to be shot in Delhi, Lucknow, Mussoorie, Mumbai, Jaipur and Nepal starting in September 2018 in a span of 50 days. Ravi Kishan and Nora Fatehi joined the cast of "Batla House" in November 2018. The film was wrapped up in the second week of February in 2019.


title: Batla House

text: The film was released on 15 August 2019, coinciding with Independence Day and clashing with Akshay Kumar's "Mission Mangal".


title: Batla House

text: The songs are composed by Rochak Kohli, Tanishk Bagchi, Taz and Ankit Tiwari. Lyrics are written by Tanishk Bagchi, Gautam Sharma, Gurpreet Saini, and Prince Dubey. The first song, "O Saki Saki," is a version of the song "of the same name" from the 2004 film "Musafir". The song "O Saki Saki" was launched on 15 July 2019. "O Saki Saki" has become a TikTok trend as of June 2020 with users doing the dance, and had also become the namesake for a character in the Japanese manga and anime series "Girlfriend, Girlfriend".


title: Batla House

text: One of the songs, "Gallan Goriyan", was removed from the film's final cut and was instead released as a separate single due to thematic inconsistency at the time of the film's release. The song, a recreated version of an eponymous original from the 2000 album "Oh Laila", was released on 11 June 2020 by T-Series. The song tells the prequel of this movie.


title: Batla House

text: The film received mixed reviews from critics. "Bollywood Hungama" gave the film 4.5 stars out of 5 and called it "one of the finest films of the year" while praising the performances of John Abraham and Ravi Kishan, the action sequences and the screenplay. "The Times of India" gave it 3.5 stars out of 5 and felt that Abraham delivered "the best of his career" performance, while also praising the action sequences but criticizing the pacing of the second half. Prasanna D Zore writing for "Rediff.com" gave it 2 stars out of 5 and noted that only second half had gripping moments.


title: Batla House

text: "Batla House" earned a decent 14 crore nett in India on its opening day. It dropped 50 percent to earn 7.5 crore nett on the second day. On Saturday, the third day, the film's business grew by 30 percent to 10 crore nett, for a three-day total of 31.5 crore nett.


title: Batla House

text: , with a gross of 102.61 crore in India and 10.77 crore overseas, the film has grossed 113.38  crore worldwide.


title: O-ring

text: An O-ring, also known as a packing or a toric joint, is a mechanical gasket in the shape of a torus; it is a loop of elastomer with a round cross-section, designed to be seated in a groove and compressed during assembly between two or more parts, forming a seal at the interface.


title: O-ring

text: The O-ring may be used in static applications or in dynamic applications where there is relative motion between the parts and the O-ring. Dynamic examples include rotating pump shafts and hydraulic cylinder pistons. Static applications of O-rings may include fluid or gas sealing applications in which: (1) the O-ring is compressed resulting in zero clearance, (2) the O-ring material is vulcanized solid such that it is impermeable to the fluid or gas, and (3) the O-ring material is resistant to degradation by the fluid or gas. The wide range of potential liquids and gases that need to be sealed has necessitated the development of a wide range of materials.


title: O-ring

text: O-rings are one of the most common seals used in machine design because they are inexpensive, easy to make, reliable and have simple mounting requirements. They have been tested to seal up to of pressure. The maximum recommended pressure of an O-ring seal depends on the seal hardness and gland clearance.


title: O-ring

text: The first patent for the O-ring is dated May 12, 1896, as a Swedish patent. J. O. Lundberg, the inventor of the O-ring, received the patent. The US patent for the O-ring was filed in 1937 by a then 72-year-old Danish-born machinist, Niels Christensen. In his previously filed application in 1933, resulting in Patent  2115383, he opens by saying, "This invention relates to new and useful improvements in hydraulic brakes and more particularly to an improved seal for the pistons of power conveying cylinders."  He describes "a circular section ring... made of solid rubber or rubber composition", and explains, "this sliding or partial rolling of the ring... kneads or works the material of the ring to keep it alive and pliable without deleterious effects of scuffing which are caused by purely static sliding of rubber upon a surface. By this slight turning or kneading action, the life of the ring is prolonged."  His application filed in 1937 says that it "is a continuation-in-part of my copending application Serial No. 704,463 for Hydraulic brakes, filed December 29, 1933, now U. S. Patent No. 2,115,383 granted April 26, 1938".


title: O-ring

text: Soon after migrating to the United States in 1891, he patented an air brake system for streetcars (trams). Despite his legal efforts, the patents were passed from company to company until they ended up at Westinghouse. During World War II, the US government commandeered the O-ring patent as a critical war-related item and gave the right to manufacture to other organizations. Christensen received a lump sum payment of US$75,000 for his efforts. Litigation resulted in a $100,000 payment to his heirs in 1971, 19 years after his death.


title: O-ring

text: O-rings are available in various metric and inch standard sizes. Sizes are specified by the inside diameter and the cross section diameter (thickness). In the US the most common standard inch sizes are per SAE AS568C specification (e.g. AS568-214). ISO 3601-1:2012 contains the most commonly used standard sizes, both inch and metric, worldwide. The UK also has standards sizes known as BS sizes, typically ranging from BS001 to BS932. Several other size specifications also exist.


title: O-ring

text: Successful O-ring joint design requires a rigid mechanical mounting that applies a predictable deformation to the O-ring. This introduces a calculated mechanical stress at the O-ring contacting surfaces. As long as the pressure of the fluid being contained does not exceed the contact stress of the O-ring, leaking cannot occur. The pressure of the contained fluid transfers through the essentially incompressible O-ring material, and the contact stress rises with increasing pressure. For this reason, an O-ring can easily seal high pressure as long as it does not fail mechanically. The most common failure is extrusion through the mating parts.


title: O-ring

text: The seal is designed to have a point contact between the O-ring and sealing faces. This allows a high local stress, able to contain high pressure, without exceeding the yield stress of the O-ring body. The flexible nature of O-ring materials accommodates imperfections in the mounting parts. But it is still important to maintain good surface finish of those mating parts, especially at low temperatures where the seal rubber reaches its glass transition temperature and becomes increasingly inflexible and glassy. Surface finish is also especially important in dynamic applications. A surface finish that is too rough will abrade the surface of the O-ring, and a surface that is too smooth will not allow the seal to be adequately lubricated by a fluid film.


title: O-ring

text: In vacuum applications, the permeability of the material renders the point contacts unusable. Instead, higher mounting forces are used and the ring fills the whole groove. Also, round back-up rings are used to save the ring from excessive deformation.


title: O-ring

text: Because the ring feels the ambient pressure and the partial pressure of gases only at the seal, their gradients will be steep near the seal and shallow in the bulk (opposite to the gradient of the contact stress ("See Vacuum flange#KF.2FQF.") High-vacuum systems below 10 Torr use copper or nickel O-rings. Also, vacuum systems that have to be immersed in liquid nitrogen use indium O-rings, because rubber becomes hard and brittle at low temperatures.


title: O-ring

text: In some high-temperature applications, O-rings may need to be mounted in a tangentially compressed state, to compensate for the Gow-Joule effect.


title: O-ring

text: O-rings come in a variety of sizes. Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Aerospace Standard 568 (AS568) specifies the inside diameters, cross-sections, tolerances, and size identification codes (dash numbers) for O-rings used in sealing applications and for straight thread tube fitting boss gaskets. British Standard (BS) which are imperial sizes or metric sizes.


title: O-ring

text: Typical dimensions of an O-ring are internal dimension (id), outer dimension (od) and thickness / cross section (cs)


title: O-ring

text: Metric O-rings are usually defined by the internal dimension x the cross section. Typical part number for a metric O-ring - ID x CS [material & shore hardness] 2x1N70 = defines this O-ring as 2mm id with 1mm cross section made from Nitrile rubber which is 70Sh. BS O-rings are defined by a standard reference.


title: O-ring

text: The World's Largest O-ring was produced in a successful Guinness World Record attempt by Trelleborg Sealing Solutions Tewkesbury partnered with a group of 20 students from Tewkesbury School. The O-ring once finished and placed around the Medieval Tewkesbury Abbey had a circumference, an approximately inner diameter, and a cross section of .


title: O-ring

text: O-ring selection is based on chemical compatibility, application temperature, sealing pressure, lubrication requirements, durometer, size and cost.


title: O-ring

text: Although the O-ring was originally so named because of its circular cross section, there are now variations in cross-section design. The shape can have different profiles, such as an x-shaped profile, commonly called the X-ring, Q-ring, or by the trademarked name Quad Ring. When squeezed upon installation, they seal with 4 contact surfaces—2 small contact surfaces on the top and bottom. This contrasts with the standard O-ring's comparatively larger single contact surfaces top and bottom. X-rings are most commonly used in reciprocating applications, where they provide reduced running and breakout friction and reduced risk of spiraling when compared to O-rings.


title: O-ring

text: There are also rings with a square profile, commonly called square-cuts, lathe cuts, tabular cut or Square rings. When O-rings were selling at a premium because of the novelty, lack of efficient manufacturing processes and high labor content, Square rings were introduced as an economical substitution for O-rings. The square ring is typically manufactured by molding an elastomer sleeve which is then lathe-cut. This style of seal is sometimes less expensive to manufacture with certain materials and molding technologies (compression molding, transfer molding, injection molding), especially in low volumes. The physical sealing performance of square rings in static applications is superior to that of O-rings, however in dynamic applications it is inferior to that of O-rings. Square rings are usually used only in dynamic applications as energizers in cap seal assemblies. Square rings can also be more difficult to install than O-rings.


title: O-ring

text: Similar devices with a non-round cross-sections are called seals, packings or gaskets. See also washers.


title: O-ring

text: O-ring materials may be subjected to high or low temperatures, chemical attack, vibration, abrasion, and movement. Elastomers are selected according to the situation.


title: O-ring

text: There are O-ring materials which can tolerate temperatures as low as or as high as . At the low end, nearly all engineering materials become rigid and fail to seal; at the high end, the materials often burn or decompose. Chemical attack can degrade the material, start brittle cracks or cause it to swell. For example, NBR seals can crack when exposed to ozone gas at very low concentrations, unless protected. Swelling by contact with a low viscosity fluid causes an increase in dimensions, and also lowers the tensile strength of the rubber. Other failures can be caused by using the wrong size of ring for a specific recess, which may cause extrusion of the rubber.


title: O-ring

text: Elastomers are sensitive to ionizing radiation. In typical applications, O-rings are well-protected from less-penetrating radiation such as ultraviolet and soft X-rays, but more-penetrating radiation such as neutrons may cause rapid deterioration. In such environments, soft metal seals are used.


title: O-ring

text: The failure of an O-ring seal was determined to be the cause of the Space Shuttle "Challenger" disaster on January 28, 1986. A crucial factor was cold weather prior to the launch. This was famously demonstrated on television by Caltech physics professor Richard Feynman, when he placed a small O-ring into ice-cold water, and subsequently showed its loss of flexibility before an investigative committee.


title: O-ring

text: The material of the failed O-ring was FKM, which was specified by the shuttle motor contractor, Morton-Thiokol. When an O-ring is cooled below its glass transition temperature T, it loses its elasticity and becomes brittle. More importantly, when an O-ring is cooled near (but not beyond) its T, the cold O-ring, once compressed, will take longer than normal to return to its original shape. O-rings (and all other seals) work by producing positive pressure against a surface, thereby preventing leaks. On the night before the launch, exceedingly low air temperatures were recorded. Due to this, NASA technicians performed an inspection; the ambient temperature was within launch parameters, and the launch sequence was allowed to proceed. However, the temperature of the rubber O-rings remained significantly lower than that of the surrounding air. During his investigation of the launch footage, Feynman observed a small out-gassing event from the Solid Rocket Booster at the joint between two segments in the moments immediately preceding the disaster. This was blamed on a failed O-ring seal. The escaping high-temperature gas impinged upon the external tank, and the entire vehicle was destroyed as a result.


title: O-ring

text: Since the accident, rubber production companies have enacted changes. Many O-rings now come with batch and cure date coding, as is done in medicine production, to precisely track and control distribution. For aerospace and military applications, O-rings are usually individually packaged and labeled with the material, cure date, and batch information. O-rings can, if needed, be recalled off the shelf. Furthermore, O-rings and other seals are routinely batch-tested for quality control by the manufacturers, and often undergo quality assurance testing several more times by the distributor and ultimate end-users.


title: O-ring

text: As for the boosters themselves, NASA and Morton-Thiokol redesigned them with a new joint design, which now incorporated three O-rings instead of two, with the joints themselves having onboard heaters that can be turned on when temperatures drop below . No O-ring issues have occurred since "Challenger", and they did not play a role in the Space Shuttle "Columbia" disaster of 2003.


title: O-ring

text: An O-ring is one of the simplest, yet highly critical, precision mechanical components ever developed. However, there are new advances that may take some of the burden of critical sealing away from the O-ring. There are cottage industries of elastomer consultants assisting in designing O-ring-less pressure vessels. Nano-technology-rubber is one such new frontier. Presently, these advancements are increasing the importance of O-rings. Since O-rings encompass the areas of chemistry and material science, any advancement in nano-rubber will affect O-ring production companies.


title: O-ring

text: Already, there are elastomers filled with nano-carbon and nano-PTFE and molded into O-rings used in high-performance applications. For example, carbon nanotubes are used in electrostatic dissipative applications and nano-PTFE is used in ultra pure semiconductor applications. The use of nano-PTFE in fluoroelastomers and perfluoroelastomers improves abrasion resistance, lowers friction, lowers permeation, and can act as clean filler.


title: O-ring

text: Using conductive carbon black or other fillers can exhibit the useful properties of conductive rubber, namely preventing electrical arcing, static sparks, and the overall build-up of charge within rubber that may cause it to behave like a capacitor (electrostatic dissipative). By dissipating these charges, these materials, which include doped carbon-black and rubber with metal filling additives, reduce the risk of ignition, which can be useful for fuel lines.


title: Adolfo Constanzo

text: Adolfo de Jesús Constanzo (November 1, 1962 – May 6, 1989) was an American serial killer, drug dealer and alleged cult leader who led an infamous drug-trafficking and occult gang in Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico, that was dubbed the Narcosatanists (Spanish: "Los Narcosatánicos") by the media. His cult members nicknamed him The Godfather ("El Padrino"). Constanzo led the cult with Sara Aldrete, whom followers nicknamed "The Godmother" ("La Madrina"). The cult was involved in multiple ritualistic killings in Matamoros, including the murder of Mark Kilroy, an American student abducted, tortured and killed in the area in 1989.


title: Adolfo Constanzo

text: Adolfo Constanzo was born in Miami, Florida, to Delia Aurora González, a Cuban immigrant in 1962. She gave birth to Adolfo at the age of 15 and eventually had three children, by different fathers. Delia moved to San Juan, Puerto Rico, after her first husband died and remarried there. Constanzo was baptized Catholic and served as an altar boy, but also accompanied his mother on trips to Haiti to learn about Vodou.


title: Adolfo Constanzo

text: Constanzo's family returned to Miami in 1972 and his stepfather died soon after, leaving the family with some money. As a teenager, he became apprenticed to a local sorcerer and began to practice a religion called Palo Mayombe, which involves animal sacrifice. Delia remarried and his new stepfather was involved in both the religion and drug dealing. Constanzo and his mother were arrested numerous times for theft, vandalism and shoplifting. He graduated from high school, but was expelled from prep school.


title: Adolfo Constanzo

text: As an adult, Constanzo moved to Mexico City and met the men who were to become his followers: Martín Quintana, Jorge Montes and Omar Orea. They began to run a profitable business casting spells to bring good luck, which involved expensive ritual sacrifices of chickens, goats, snakes, zebras and even lion cubs. Many of his clients were rich drug dealers and hitmen who enjoyed the violence of Constanzo's "magical" displays. He also attracted other rich members of Mexican society, including several high-ranking corrupt policemen who introduced him to the city's powerful drug cartels. His cult was said to be associated with the notable Gulf Cartel.


title: Adolfo Constanzo

text: Constanzo started to raid graveyards for human bones to put in his "nganga", or cauldron. Before long, his cult decided that the spirits of the dead that resided in the "nganga" would be stronger (providing the cult more powerful protection) with live human sacrifices instead of old bones. The resulting killings soon totaled more than twenty victims, whose mutilated bodies were found in and around Mexico City. This process escalated until Constanzo eventually decided that the gang needed the power of a brain from an American student, culminating with the 1989 murder of Mark Kilroy.


title: Adolfo Constanzo

text: Constanzo began to believe that his magic, much of which he took from Palo Mayombe, was responsible for the success of the cartels and demanded to become a full business partner with one of the most powerful families he knew, the Calzadas. When his demand was rejected, seven family members disappeared. Their bodies turned up later with fingers, toes, ears, brains and even (in one case) the spine missing. Constanzo soon made friends with a new cartel, the Hernandez brothers. He also took up with a young woman named Sara Aldrete, who became the high priestess of the cult. Constanzo made Aldrete second-in-command of his cult and directed her to supervise his followers while he was shipping marijuana over the border into the US.


title: Adolfo Constanzo

text: In 1988, Constanzo moved to Rancho Santa Elena, a house in the desert. It is there where he carried out more sadistic ritual murders, sometimes of strangers and other times of rival drug dealers. He also used the ranch to store huge shipments of cocaine and marijuana.


title: Adolfo Constanzo

text: On March 13, 1989, Constanzo's henchmen abducted a pre-med student, Mark Kilroy, from outside a Mexican bar and took him back to the ranch. Kilroy was a US citizen who had been in Mexico on spring break. When Kilroy was brought to the ranch, Constanzo murdered him. Under pressure from Texan politicians, Mexican police initially picked up four of Constanzo's followers, including two of the Hernandez brothers. Police quickly discovered the cult and that Constanzo had been responsible for Kilroy's death; he sought a "good"/superior brain for one of his ritual spells. Officers raided the ranch and discovered Constanzo's cauldron, which contained various items such as a dead black cat and a human brain. Fifteen mutilated corpses were dug up at the ranch, one of them Kilroy's. Officials said Kilroy was killed by Constanzo with a machete chop to the back of the neck when Kilroy tried to escape about 12 hours after being taken to the ranch.


title: Adolfo Constanzo

text: Constanzo fled to Mexico City with four of his followers. They were only discovered when police were called to the apartment because of an unrelated dispute taking place there. As the officers approached, Constanzo, mistakenly believing they had located him, opened fire with a machine gun. This brought in police reinforcements. Determined not to go to prison, he handed the gun to follower Álvaro de León and ordered him to open fire on him and Martín Quintana. By the time police reached the apartment, both Constanzo and Quintana were dead. De León, known as "El Duby", and Sara Aldrete were immediately arrested.


title: Adolfo Constanzo

text: A total of 14 cult members were charged with a range of crimes, from murder and drug-running to obstructing the course of justice. Sara Aldrete, Elio Hernández and Serafín Hernández were convicted of multiple murders and were ordered to serve prison sentences of over 60 years each. De León was given a 30-year term. If co-leader Aldrete is ever released from prison, American authorities plan to prosecute her for the murder of Mark Kilroy.


title: Adolfo Constanzo

text: The Discovery Channel series "Most Evil", by Dr. Michael Stone, profiled Constanzo in the 10th episode ("Cult Leaders") of the second season. Constanzo's "evil level" was 22, the highest.


title: Adolfo Constanzo

text: Constanzo was also profiled in the documentary "Instinto Asesino", which aired on Discovery en Español in 2010. The episode was entitled "El Padrino".


title: Adolfo Constanzo

text: On July 13, 2013, the Investigation Discovery Channel profiled this crime in its "Poisoned Passions" series. The episode is titled "Sacrificial Evil". Constanzo was portrayed by actor Aldo Uribe.


title: Adolfo Constanzo

text: On March 1, 2018, the ID Channel series "Pandora's Box: Unleashing Evil" portrayed the crimes in an episode entitled "The Devil's Ranch".


title: Adobo

text: ' or ' (Spanish: marinade, sauce, or seasoning) is the immersion of cooked food in a stock (or sauce) composed variously of paprika, oregano, salt, garlic, and vinegar to preserve and enhance its flavor. The Portuguese variant is known as . The practice, native to Iberia (Spanish cuisine and Portuguese cuisine), was widely adopted in Latin America, as well as Spanish and Portuguese colonies in Africa and Asia.


title: Adobo

text: In the Philippines, the name was given by colonial-era Spaniards on the islands to a different indigenous cooking method that also uses vinegar. Although similar, this developed independently of Spanish influence.


title: Adobo

text: In the years following the arrival of Europeans to the Americas, meat and fish began to be preserved by new methods. Low temperatures facilitate food preservation, but in higher temperatures, other techniques, such as "adobo", became necessary. Animals were usually slaughtered in the coldest months of winter, but surplus meat had to be preserved in the warmer months. This was facilitated through the use of "adobos" (marinades) along with paprika (a substance that may have antimicrobial properties due to the capsaicin content). Paprika gives a reddish color to "adobos", and the capsaicins in paprika dissolve in fats, allowing its penetration beyond the tissue surface.


title: Adobo

text: "Adobo" was employed initially as a method of food preservation, but in time—with the advent of refrigeration methods—it came to be used primarily as a method of flavoring foods before cooking. Traditional preparations were created with the intent of flavoring, such as "cazón en adobo" (dogfish in adobo, made from school shark and originating from Cadiz, a city in the Cádiz province of Spain); "berenjenas de Almagro" (Almagro aubergine, a pickled aubergine characteristic of "Manchega" cuisine from the Castile-La Mancha region of Spain, specifically from Almagro, a city in the Ciudad Real province of Spain); and "lomo en adobo" (tenderloin of beef or pork in adobo).


title: Adobo

text: The noun form of "adobo" describes a marinade or seasoning mix. Recipes vary widely by region: Puerto Rican "adobo", a rub used principally on meats, differs greatly from the Mexican variety. Meat marinated or seasoned with an "adobo" is referred to as "adobado" or "adobada".


title: Adobo

text: In Mexico "adobo" refers to a condiment or cooking sauce with a base containing chillies, particularly Chipotle and Ancho peppers. An Ancho pepper is a Poblano chili that is dried after it turns red. These sauces are used as a marinade and to add a smoky, spicy flavor.


title: Adobo

text: "Adobo" relates to marinated dishes such as "chipotles en adobo" in which chipotles (smoked ripe jalapeño peppers) are stewed in a sauce with tomatoes, garlic, vinegar, salt, and spices. The spices vary, but generally include several types of peppers (in addition to the chipotle and most likely those on hand), ground cumin and dried oregano. Some recipes include orange juice and lemon or lime juices. They often include a pinch of brown sugar just to offset any bitter taste.


title: Adobo

text: Puerto Rican-style "adobo" is a seasoned salt that is generously sprinkled or rubbed on meats and seafood prior to grilling, sautéing, or frying. Supermarkets sell prepared blends. There are two types of "adobo" on the island. The wet rub, "adobo mojado", consists of crushed garlic, olive oil, salt, black pepper, dry or fresh orégano brujo, citrus juice or vinegar or a mix of both citrus and vinegar. More widely used on the island is a dry mix, "adobo seco". It is easier to prepare and has a long shelf life. "Adobo seco" consists of garlic powder, onion powder, salt, black pepper, dry "orégano brujo", and sometimes dried citrus zest.


title: Adobo

text: Adobo is a typical dish of Peruvian cuisine, specifically in the area of Arequipa. This is a dish of pork marinated in spices and vegetables, which are cooked in a clay pot until it becomes tender. Bread is served alongside for dipping in the sauce.


title: Adobo

text: In Filipino cuisine, "adobo" refers to a common cooking process indigenous to the Philippines. When the Spanish first explored the Philippines in the late 16th century, they encountered a cooking process that involved stewing with vinegar. The Spanish referred to it as "adobo" due to its superficial similarity to the Spanish "adobo". The Filipino "adobo" is an entirely separate method of preparing food and is distinct from the Spanish marinade.


title: Adobo

text: Unlike the Spanish and Latin American "adobo", the main ingredients of Philippine "adobo" are ingredients native to Southeast Asia, namely vinegar, soy sauce or patis (fish sauce), black peppercorns, and bay leaves. It does not traditionally use chilis, paprika, oregano, or tomatoes. There are other noted versions of Philippine "adobo," namely "Adobong Puti" (White Adobo, prepared with salt instead of soy sauce) and "Adobong Tuyo" (Dry Adobo).


title: Adobo

text: The dish is normally cooked with pork or chicken and sometimes with only vegetables like kangkong (water spinach) or sitaw (green beans).


title: Adobo

text: Its only similarity to Spanish and Latin American "adobo" is the primary use of vinegar and garlic. Philippine "adobo" has a characteristically salty and sour (and often sweet) taste, in contrast to Spanish and Mexican "adobos" which are spicier or infused with oregano.


title: Adobo

text: In Uruguay, adobo is a spice mix of the same spices of the Spanish marinade. Also "adobar" is the act of using this mix as a condiment. A sauce made of adobo, salt and water is called "mojo".


title: Adobo

text: One of the earliest references to adobo is found in the "Manual del Cocinero, Repostero, Pastelero, Confitero Y Botillero" by Mariano de Rementeria y Fica in 1850.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) is a large strepsirrhine primate and the most recognized lemur due to its long, black and white ringed tail. It belongs to Lemuridae, one of five lemur families, and is the only member of the Lemur genus. Like all lemurs it is endemic to the island of Madagascar and endangered. Known locally in Malagasy as ' (, spelled ' in French) or "", it inhabits gallery forests to spiny scrub in the southern regions of the island. It is omnivorous and the most terrestrial of extant lemurs. The animal is diurnal, being active exclusively in daylight hours.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The ring-tailed lemur is highly social, living in groups of up to 30 individuals. It is also female dominant, a trait common among lemurs. To keep warm and reaffirm social bonds, groups will huddle together. The ring-tailed lemur will also sunbathe, sitting upright facing its underside, with its thinner white fur towards the sun. Like other lemurs, this species relies strongly on its sense of smell and marks its territory with scent glands. The males perform a unique scent marking behavior called "spur marking" and will participate in "stink fights" by marking their tail with their scent and wafting it at opponents.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: As one of the most vocal primates, the ring-tailed lemur uses numerous vocalizations including group cohesion and alarm calls. Experiments have shown that the ring-tailed lemur, despite the lack of a large brain (relative to simiiform primates), can organize sequences, understand basic arithmetic operations and preferentially select tools based on functional qualities.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Despite reproducing readily in captivity and being the most populous lemur in zoos worldwide, numbering more than 2,000 individuals, the ring-tailed lemur is listed as endangered by the IUCN Red List due to habitat destruction and hunting for bushmeat and the exotic pet trade. As of early 2017, the population in the wild is believed to have crashed as low as 2,000 individuals due to habitat loss, poaching and hunting, making them far more critically endangered.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Although the term "lemur" was first intended for slender lorises, it was soon limited to the endemic Malagasy primates, which have been known as "lemurs" ever since. The name derives from the Latin term "lemures", which refers to specters or ghosts that were exorcised during the Lemuria festival of ancient Rome. According to Carl Linnaeus's own explanation, the name was selected because of the nocturnal activity and slow movements of the slender loris. Being familiar with the works of Virgil and Ovid and seeing an analogy that fit with his naming scheme, Linnaeus adapted the term "lemur" for these nocturnal primates. However, it has been commonly and falsely assumed that Linnaeus was referring to the ghost-like appearance, reflective eyes, and ghostly cries of lemurs. It has also been speculated that Linnaeus may also have known that some Malagasy people have held legends that lemurs are the souls of their ancestors, but this is unlikely given that the name was selected for slender lorises from India. The species name, "catta", refers to the ring-tailed lemur's cat-like appearance. Its purring vocalization is similar to that of the domestic cat.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Following Linnaeus's species description, the common name "ring-tailed maucauco" was first penned in 1771 by Welsh naturalist Thomas Pennant, who made note of its characteristic long, banded tail. (The term "maucauco" was a very common term for lemurs at this time.) The now universal English name "ring-tailed lemur" was first used by George Shaw in his illustrated scientific publication covering the Leverian collection, which was published between 1792 and 1796.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: All mammalian fossils from Madagascar come from recent times. Thus, little is known about the evolution of the ring-tailed lemur, let alone the rest of the lemur clade, which comprises the entire endemic primate population of the island. However, chromosomal and molecular evidence suggest that lemurs are more closely related to each other than to other strepsirrhine primates. For this to have happened, it is thought that a very small ancestral population came to Madagascar via a single rafting event between 50 and 80 million years ago. Subsequent evolutionary radiation and speciation has created the diversity of Malagasy lemurs seen today.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: According to analysis of amino acid sequences, the branching of the family Lemuridae has been dated to 26.1 ±3.3 mya while rRNA sequences of mtDNA place the split at 24.9 ±3.6 mya. The ruffed lemurs are the first genus to split away (most basal) in the family, a view that is further supported by analysis of DNA sequences and karyotypes. Additionally, Molecular data suggests a deep genetic divergence and sister group relationship between the true lemurs ("Eulemur") and the other two genera: "Lemur" and "Hapalemur".


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The ring-tailed lemur is thought to share closer affinities to the bamboo lemurs of the genus "Hapalemur" than to the other two genera in its family. This has been supported by comparisons in communication, chromosomes, genetics, and several morphological traits, such as scent gland similarities. However, other data concerning immunology and other morphological traits fail to support this close relationship. For example, "Hapalemur" species have short snouts, while the ring-tailed lemur and the rest of Lemuridae have long snouts. However, differences in the relationship between the orbit (eye socket) and the muzzle suggest that the ring-tailed lemur and the true lemurs evolved their elongated faces independently.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The relationship between the ring-tailed lemur and bamboo lemurs is the least understood. Molecular analysis suggests that either the bamboo lemurs diverged from the ring-tailed lemur, making the group monophyletic and supporting the current two-genera taxonomy, or that the ring-tailed lemur is nested in with the bamboo lemurs, requiring "Hapalemur simus" to be split off into its own genus, "Prolemur".


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The karyotype of the ring-tailed lemur has 56 chromosomes, of which four are metacentric (arms of nearly equal length), four are submetacentric (arms of unequal length), and 46 are acrocentric (the short arm is hardly observable). The X chromosome is metacentric and the Y chromosome is acrocentric.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Linnaeus first used the genus name "Lemur" to describe ""Lemur tardigradus"" (the red slender loris, now known as "Loris tardigradus") in his 1754 catalog of the Museum of King Adolf Frederick. In 1758, his 10th edition of "Systema Naturae" listed the genus "Lemur" with three included species, only one of which is still considered to be a lemur while another is no longer considered to be a primate. These species include: "Lemur tardigradus", "Lemur catta" (the ring-tailed lemur), and "Lemur volans" (the Philippine colugo, now known as "Cynocephalus volans"). In 1911, Oldfield Thomas made "Lemur catta" the type species for the genus, despite the term initially being used to describe lorises. On January 10, 1929, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) formalized this decision in its publication of Opinion 122.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The ring-tailed lemur shares many similarities with ruffed lemurs (genus "Varecia") and true lemurs (genus "Eulemur"), and its skeleton is nearly indistinguishable from that of the true lemurs. Consequently, the three genera were once grouped together in the genus "Lemur" and more recently are sometimes referred to as subfamily Lemurinae (within family Lemuridae). However, ruffed lemurs were reassigned to the genus "Varecia" in 1962, and due to similarities between the ring-tailed lemur and the bamboo lemurs, particularly in regards to molecular evidence and scent glands similarities, the true lemurs were moved to the genus "Eulemur" by Yves Rumpler and Elwyn L. Simons (1988) as well as Colin Groves and Robert H. Eaglen (1988). In 1991, Ian Tattersall and Jeffrey H. Schwartz reviewed the evidence and came to a different conclusion, instead favoring to return the members of "Eulemur" and "Varecia" to the genus "Lemur". However, this view was not widely accepted and the genus "Lemur" remained monotypic, containing only the ring-tailed lemur. Because the differences in molecular data are so minute between the ring-tailed lemur and both genera of bamboo lemurs, it has been suggested that all three genera be merged.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Because of the difficulty in discerning the relationships within family Lemuridae, not all authorities agree on the taxonomy, although the majority of the primatological community favors the current classification.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: In 1996, researchers Steven Goodman and Olivier Langrand suggested that the ring-tailed lemur may demonstrate regional variations, particularly a high mountain population at Andringitra Massif that has a thicker coat, lighter coloration, and variations in its tail rings. In 2001, primatologist Colin Groves concluded that this does not represent a locally occurring subspecies. This decision was later supported by further fieldwork that showed that the differences fell within the normal range of variation for the species. The thicker coat was considered a local adaptation to extreme low temperatures in the region, and the fading of the fur was attributed to increased exposure to solar radiation. Additional genetic studies in 2000 further supported the conclusion that population did not vary significantly from the other ring-tailed lemur populations on the island.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The ring-tailed lemur is a relatively large lemur. Its average weight is . Its head–body length ranges between , its tail length is , and its total length is . Other measurements include a hind foot length of , ear length of , and cranium length of .


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The species has a slender frame and narrow face, fox-like muzzle. The ring-tailed lemur's trademark—a long, bushy tail—is ringed in alternating black and white transverse bands, numbering 12 or 13 white rings and 13 or 14 black rings, and always ending in a black tip. The total number of rings nearly matches the approximate number of caudal vertebrae (~25). Its tail is longer than its body and is not prehensile. Instead, it is only used for balance, communication, and group cohesion.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The pelage (fur) is so dense that it can clog electric clippers. The ventral (chest) coat and throat are white or cream. The dorsal (back) coat varies from gray to rosy-brown, sometimes with a brown pygal patch around the tail region, where the fur grades to pale gray or grayish brown. The dorsal coloration is slightly darker around the neck and crown. The hair on the throat, cheeks, and ears is white or off-white and also less dense, allowing the dark skin underneath to show through. The muzzle is dark grayish and the nose is black, and the eyes are encompassed by black triangular patches. Facial vibrissae (whiskers) are developed and found above the lips (mystacal), on the cheeks (genal), and on the eyebrow (superciliary). Vibrissae are also found slightly above the wrist on the underside of the forearm. The ears are relatively large compared to other lemurs and are covered in hair, which has only small tufts if any. Although slight pattern variations in the facial region may be seen between individuals, there are no obvious differences between the sexes.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Unlike most diurnal primates, but like all strepsirrhine primates, the ring-tailed lemur has a tapetum lucidum, or reflective layer behind the retina of the eye, that enhances night vision. The tapetum is highly visible in this species because the pigmentation of the ocular fundus (back surface of the eye), which is present in—but varies between—all lemurs, is very spotty. The ring-tailed lemur also has a rudimentary foveal depression on the retina. Another shared characteristic with the other strepsirrhine primates is the rhinarium, a moist, naked, glandular nose supported by the upper jaw and protruding beyond the chin. The rhinarium continues down where it divides the upper lip. The upper lip is attached to the premaxilla, preventing the lip from protruding and thus requiring the lemur to lap water rather than using suction.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The skin of the ring-tailed lemur is dark gray or black in color, even in places where the fur is white. It is exposed on the nose, palms, soles, eyelids, lips, and genitalia. The skin is smooth, but the leathery texture of the hands and feet facilitate terrestrial movement. The anus, located at the joint of the tail, is covered when the tail is lowered. The area around the anus (circumanal area) and the perineum are covered in fur. In males, the scrotum lacks fur, is covered in small, horny spines, and the two sacs of the scrotum are divided. The penis is nearly cylindrical in shape and is covered in small spines, as well as having two pairs of larger spines on both sides. Males have a relatively small baculum (penis bone) compared to their size. The scrotum, penis, and prepuce are usually coated with a foul-smelling secretion. Females have a thick, elongated clitoris that protrudes from the labia of the vulva. The opening of the urethra is closer to the clitoris than the vagina, forming a "drip tip".


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Females have two pairs of mammary glands (four nipples), but only one pair is functional. The anterior pair (closest to the head) are very close to the axillae (armpit). Furless scent glands are present on both males and females. Both sexes have small, dark antebrachial (forearm) glands measuring 1 cm long and located on the inner surface of the forearm nearly above the wrist joint. (This trait is shared between the "Lemur" and "Hapalemur" genera.) The gland is soft and compressible, bears fine dermal ridges (like fingerprints), and is connected to the palm by a fine, 2 mm–high, hairless strip. However, only the male has a horny spur that overlays this scent gland. The spur develops with age through the accumulation of secretions from an underlying gland that may connect through the skin through as many as a thousand minuscule ducts. The males also have brachial (arm) glands on the axillary surface of their shoulders (near the armpit). The brachial gland is larger than the antebrachial gland, covered in short hair around the periphery, and has a naked crescent-shaped orifice near the center. The gland secretes a foul-smelling, brown, sticky substance. The brachial gland is barely developed if present at all in females. Both genders also have apocrine and sebaceous glands in their genital or perianal regions, which are covered in fur.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Its fingers are slender, padded, mostly lacking webbing, and semi-dexterous with flat, human-like nails. The thumb is both short and widely separated from the other fingers. Despite being set at a right angle to the palm, the thumb is not opposable since the ball of the joint is fixed in place. As with all strepsirrhines, the hand is ectaxonic (the axis passes through the fourth digit) rather than mesaxonic (the axis passing through the third digit) as seen in monkeys and apes. The fourth digit is the longest, and only slightly longer than the second digit. Likewise, the fifth digit is only slightly longer than the second. The palms are long and leathery, and like other primates, they have dermal ridges to improve grip. The feet are semi-digitigrade and more specialized than the hands. The big toe is opposable and is smaller than the big toe of other lemurs, which are more arboreal. The second toe is short, has a small terminal pad, and has a toilet-claw (sometimes referred to as a "grooming claw") specialized for personal grooming, specifically to rake through fur that is unreachable by the mouth. The toilet-claw is a trait shared among nearly all living strepsirrhine primates. Unlike other lemurs, the ring-tailed lemur's heel is not covered by fur.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The ring-tailed lemur has a dentition of , meaning that on each side of the jaw it has two incisors, one canine tooth, three premolars, and three molar teeth. Its deciduous dentition is . The permanent teeth erupt in the following order: m 1/1 (first molars), i 2/2 (first incisors), i 3/3 (second incisors), C1 (upper canines), m 2/2 (second molars), c1 (lower canines), m 3/3 (third molars), p 4/4 (third premolars), p 3/3 (second premolars), p 2/2 (first premolars).


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Its lower incisors (i1 and i2) are long, narrow, and finely spaced while pointing almost straight forward in the mouth (procumbent). Together with the incisor-shaped (incisiform) lower canines (c1), which are slightly larger and also procumbent, form a structure called a toothcomb, a trait unique to nearly all strepsirrhine primates. The toothcomb is used during oral grooming, which involves licking and tooth-scraping. It may also be used for grasping small fruits, removing leaves from the stem when eating, and possibly scraping sap and gum from tree bark. The toothcomb is kept clean using a sublingual organ—a thin, flat, fibrous plate that covers a large part of the base of the tongue. The first lower premolar (p2) following the toothcomb is shaped like a canine (caniniform) and occludes the upper canine, essentially filling the role of the incisiform lower canine. There is also a diastema (gap) between the second and third premolars (p2 and p3).


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The upper incisors are small, with the first incisors (I1) space widely from each other, yet closely to the second incisors (I2). Both are compressed buccolingually (between the cheek and the tongue). The upper canines (C1) are long, have a broad base, and curve down and back (recurved). The upper canines exhibit slight sexual dimorphism, with males exhibiting slightly larger canines than females. Both sexes use them in combat by slashing with them. There is a small diastema between the upper canine and the first premolar (P2), which is smaller and more caniniform than the other premolars. Unlike other lemurs, the first two upper molars (M1 and M2) have prominent lingual cingulae, yet do not have a protostyle.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The ring-tailed lemur is diurnal and semi-terrestrial. It is the most terrestrial of lemur species, spending as much as 33% of its time on the ground. However it is still considerably arboreal, spending 23% of its time in the mid-level canopy, 25% in the upper-level canopy, 6% in the emergent layer and 13% in small bushes. Troop travel is 70% terrestrial.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Troop size, home range, and population density vary by region and food availability. Troops typically range in size from 6 to 25, although troops with over 30 individuals have been recorded. The average troop contains 13 to 15 individuals. Home range size varies between . Troops of the ring-tailed lemur will maintain a territory, but overlap is often high. When encounters occur, they are agonistic, or hostile in nature. A troop will usually occupy the same part of its range for three or four days before moving. When it does move, the average traveling distance is . Population density ranges from 100 individuals per in dry forests to 250–600 individuals per km in gallery and secondary forests.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The ring-tailed lemur has both native and introduced predators. Native predators include the fossa ("Cryptoprocta ferox"), the Madagascar harrier-hawk ("Polyboroides radiatus"), the Madagascar buzzard ("Buteo brachypterus") and the Madagascar ground boa ("Acrantophis madagascariensis"). Introduced predators include the small Indian civet ("Viverricula indica"), the domestic cat and the domestic dog.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Endemic to southern and southwestern Madagascar, the ring-tailed lemur ranges further into highland areas than other lemurs. It inhabits deciduous forests, dry scrub, montane humid forests, and gallery forests (forests along riverbanks). It strongly favors gallery forests, but such forests have now been cleared from much of Madagascar in order to create pasture for livestock. Depending on location, temperatures within its geographic range can vary from at Andringitra Massif to in the spiny forests of Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: This species is found as far east as Tôlanaro, inland towards the mountains of Andringitra on the southeastern plateau, among the spiny forests of the southern part of the island, and north along the west coast to the town of Belo sur Mer. Historically, the northern limits of its range in the west extended to the Morondava River near Morondava. It can still be found in Kirindy Mitea National Park, just south of Morondava, though at very low densities. It does not occur in Kirindy Forest Reserve, north of Morondava. Its distribution throughout the rest of its range is very spotty, with population densities varying widely.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The ring-tailed lemur can be easily seen in five national parks in Madagascar: Andohahela National Park, Andringitra National Park, Isalo National Park, Tsimanampetsotse National Park, and Zombitse-Vohibasia National Park. It can also be found in Beza-Mahafaly Special Reserve, Kalambatritra Special Reserve, Pic d'Ivohibe Special Reserve, Amboasary Sud, Berenty Private Reserve, Anja Community Reserve, and marginally at Kirindy Mitea National Park. Unprotected forests that the species has been reported in include Ankoba, Ankodida, Anjatsikolo, Anbatotsilongolongo, Mahazoarivo, Masiabiby, and Mikea.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Within the protected regions it is known to inhabit, the ring-tailed lemur is sympatric (shares its range) with as many as 24 species of lemur, covering every living genus except "Allocebus", "Indri", and "Varecia". Historically, the species used to be sympatric with the critically endangered southern black-and-white ruffed lemur ("Varecia variegata editorum"), which was once found at Andringitra National Park; however, no sightings of the ruffed lemur have been reported in recent years.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: In western Madagascar, sympatric ring-tailed lemurs and red-fronted lemurs ("Eulemur rufifrons") have been studied together. Little interaction takes place between the two species. While the diets of the two species overlap, they eat in different proportions since the ring-tailed lemur has a more varied diet and spends more time on the ground.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The ring-tailed lemur is an opportunistic omnivore primarily eating fruits and leaves, particularly those of the tamarind tree ("Tamarindus indica"), known natively as "kily". When available, tamarind makes up as much as 50% of the diet, especially during the dry, winter season. The ring-tailed lemur eats from as many as three dozen different plant species, and its diet includes flowers, herbs, bark and sap. It has been observed eating decayed wood, earth, spider webs, insect cocoons, arthropods (spiders, caterpillars, cicadas and grasshoppers) and small vertebrates (birds and chameleons). During the dry season it becomes increasingly opportunistic.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Troops are classified as multi-male groups, with a matriline as the core group. As with most lemurs, females socially dominate males in all circumstances, including feeding priority. Dominance is enforced by lunging, chasing, cuffing, grabbing and biting. Young females do not always inherit their mother's rank and young males leave the troop between three and five years of age. Both sexes have separate dominance hierarchies; females have a distinct hierarchy while male rank is correlated with age. Each troop has one to three central, high-ranking adult males who interact with females more than other group males and lead the troop procession with high-ranking females. Recently transferred males, old males or young adult males that have not yet left their natal group are often lower ranking. Staying at the periphery of the group they tend to be marginalized from group activity.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: For males, social structure changes can be seasonal. During the six-month period between December and May a few males immigrate between groups. Established males transfer on average every 3.5 years, although young males may transfer approximately every 1.4 years. Group fission occurs when groups get too large and resources become scarce.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: In the mornings the ring-tailed lemur sunbathes to warm itself. It faces the sun sitting in what is frequently described as a "sun-worshipping" posture or lotus position. However, it sits with its legs extended outward, not cross-legged, and will often support itself on nearby branches. Sunning is often a group activity, particularly during the cold mornings. At night, troops will split into sleeping parties huddling closely together to keep warm.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Despite being quadrupedal the ring-tailed lemur can rear up and balance on its hind legs, usually for aggressive displays. When threatened the ring-tailed lemur may jump in the air and strike out with its short nails and sharp upper canine teeth in a behaviour termed "jump fighting". This is extremely rare outside of the breeding season when tensions are high and competition for mates is intense. Other aggressive behaviours include a "threat-stare", used to intimidate or start a fight, and a submissive gesture known as "pulled-back lips".


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Border disputes with rival troops occur occasionally and it is the dominant female's responsibility to defend the troop's home range. Agonistic encounters include staring, lunging approaches and occasional physical aggression, and conclude with troop members retreating toward the center of the home range.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Olfactory communication is critically important for strepsirrhines like the ring-tailed lemur. Males and females scent mark both vertical and horizontal surfaces at the overlaps in their home ranges using their anogenital scent glands. The ring-tailed lemur will perform a handstand to mark vertical surfaces, grasping the highest point with its feet while it applies its scent. Use of scent marking varies by age, sex and social status. Male lemurs use their antebrachial and brachial glands to demarcate territories and maintain intragroup dominance hierarchies. The thorny spur that overlays the antebrachial gland on each wrist is scraped against tree trunks to create grooves anointed with their scent. This is known as "spur-marking".


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: In displays of aggression, males engage in a social display behaviour called "stink fighting", which involves impregnating their tails with secretions from the antebrachial and brachial glands and waving the scented tail at male rivals.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Ring-tailed lemurs have also been shown to mark using urine. Behaviorally, there is a difference between regular urination, where the tail is slightly raised and a stream of urine is produced, and the urine marking behavior, where the tail is held up in display and only a few drops of urine are used. The urine-marking behavior is typically used by females to mark territory, and has been observed primarily at the edges of the troop's territory and in areas where other troops may frequent. The urine marking behavior also is most frequent during the mating season, and may play a role in reproductive communication between groups.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The ring-tailed lemur is one of the most vocal primates and has a complex array of distinct vocalizations used to maintain group cohesion during foraging and alert group members to the presence of a predator. Calls range from simple to complex. An example of a simple call is the purr (), which expresses contentment. A complex call is the sequence of clicks, close-mouth click series (CMCS), open-mouth click series (OMCS) and yaps () used during predator mobbing. Some calls have variants and undergo transitions between variants, such as an infant "whit" (distress call) transitioning from one variant to another ().


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The most commonly heard vocalizations are the moan () (low-to-moderate arousal, group cohesion), early-high wail () (moderate-to-high arousal, group cohesion), and clicks () ("location marker" to draw attention).


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The ring-tailed lemur is polygynandrous, although the dominant male in the troop typically breeds with more females than other males. Fighting is most common during the breeding season. A receptive female may initiate mating by presenting her backside, lifting her tail and looking at the desired male over her shoulder. Males may inspect the female's genitals to determine receptiveness. Females typically mate within their troop, but may seek outside males.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The breeding season runs from mid-April to mid-May. Estrus lasts 4 to 6 hours, and females mate with multiple males during this period. Within a troop, females stagger their receptivity so that each female comes into season on a different day during the breeding season, reducing competition for male attention. Females lactate during the wet season, from December through April, when resources are readily available. Females gestate during the dry season, from May through September, when resources are low. Females give birth during seasons where resources, such as flowers, are in peak. Gestation lasts for about 135 days, and parturition occurs in September or occasionally October. In the wild, one offspring is the norm, although twins may occur. Ring-tailed lemur infants have a birth weight of and are carried ventrally (on the chest) for the first 1 to 2 weeks, then dorsally (on the back).


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The young lemurs begin to eat solid food after two months and are fully weaned after five months. Sexual maturity is reached between 2.5 and 3 years. Male involvement in infant rearing is limited, although the entire troop, regardless of age or sex, can be seen caring for the young. Alloparenting between troop females has been reported. Kidnapping by females and infanticide by males also occur occasionally. Due to harsh environmental conditions, predation and accidents such as falls, infant mortality can be as high as 50% within the first year and as few as 30% may reach adulthood. The longest-lived ring-tailed lemur in the wild was a female at the Berenty Reserve who lived for 20 years. In the wild, females rarely live past the age of 16, whereas the life expectancy of males is not known due to their social structure. The longest-lived male was reported to be 15 years old. The maximum lifespan reported in captivity was 27 years.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Historically, the studies of learning and cognition in non-human primates have focused on simians (monkeys and apes), while strepsirrhine primates, such as the ring-tailed lemur and its allies, have been overlooked and popularly dismissed as unintelligent. A couple of factors stemming from early experiments have played a role in the development of this assumption. First, the experimental design of older tests may have favored the natural behavior and ecology of simians over that of strepsirrhines, making the experimental tasks inappropriate for lemurs. For example, simians are known for their manipulative play with non-food objects, whereas lemurs are only known to manipulate non-food objects in captivity. This behaviour is usually connected with food association. Also, lemurs are known to displace objects with their nose or mouth more so than with their hands. Therefore, an experiment requiring a lemur to manipulate an object without prior training would favor simians over strepsirrhines. Second, individual ring-tailed lemurs accustomed to living in a troop may not respond well to isolation for laboratory testing. Past studies have reported hysterical behaviour in such scenarios.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The notion that lemurs are unintelligent has been perpetuated by the view that the neocortex ratio (as a measure of brain size) indicates intelligence. In fact, primatologist Alison Jolly noted early in her academic career that some lemur species, such as the ring-tailed lemur, have evolved a social complexity similar to that of cercopithecine monkeys, but not the corresponding intelligence. After years of observations of wild ring-tailed lemur populations at the Berenty Reserve in Madagascar and as well as baboons in Africa, she more recently concluded that this highly social lemur species does not demonstrate the equivalent social complexity of cercopithecine monkeys, despite general appearances.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Regardless, research has continued to illuminate the complexity of the lemur mind, with emphasis on the cognitive abilities of the ring-tailed lemur. As early as the mid-1970s, studies had demonstrated that they could be trained through operant conditioning using standard schedules of reinforcement. The species has been shown to be capable of learning pattern, brightness, and object discrimination, skills common among vertebrates. The ring-tailed lemur has also been shown to learn a variety of complex tasks often equaling, if not exceeding, the performance of simians.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: More recently, research at the Duke Lemur Center has shown that the ring-tailed lemur can organize sequences in memory and retrieve ordered sequences without language. The experimental design demonstrated that the lemurs were using internal representation of the sequence to guide their responses and not simply following a trained sequence, where one item in the sequence cues the selection of the next. But this is not the limit of the ring-tailed lemur's reasoning skills. Another study, performed at the Myakka City Lemur Reserve, suggests that this species along with several other closely related lemur species understand simple arithmetic operations.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Since tool use is considered to be a key feature of primate intelligence, the apparent lack of this behavior in wild lemurs, as well as the lack of non-food object play, has helped reinforce the perception that lemurs are less intelligent than their simian cousins. However, another study at the Myakka City Lemur Reserve examined the representation of tool functionality in both the ring-tailed lemur and the common brown lemur and discovered that, like monkeys, they used tools with functional properties (e.g., tool orientation or ease of use) instead of tools with nonfunctional features (e.g., color or texture). Although the ring-tailed lemur may not use tools in the wild, it can not only be trained to use a tool, but will preferentially select tools based on their functional qualities. Therefore, the conceptual competence to use a tool may have been present in the common primate ancestor, even though the use of tools may not have appeared until much later.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: In addition to being listed as "endangered" in 2014 by the IUCN, the ring-tailed lemur has been listed since 1977 by CITES under Appendix I, which makes trade of wild-caught specimens illegal. Although there are more endangered species of lemur, the ring-tailed lemur is considered a flagship species due to its recognizability. As of 2017, only about 2,000 ring-tailed lemurs are estimated to be left in the wild, making the threat of extinction far more serious for them than previously believed.