title: West Papua (province)

text: United States fearing more Indonesian shift toward the Soviet block, formulated a plan to resolve the Western New Guinea dispute. Indonesian delegation include several Indonesian nationalists from West Papua Who managed to flee and made contact during earlier incursions, such as: Marthen Indey and Silas Papare. It was agreed through the New York Agreement in 1962 that the administration of Western New Guinea would be temporarily transferred from the Netherlands to Indonesia and that by 1969 the United Nations should oversee a referendum of the Papuan people, in which they would be given two options: to remain part of Indonesia or to become an independent nation. This vote was referred to as the Act of Free Choice. However, the vote was reportedly conducted by consensus of government-selected delegates, numbering slightly over 1,000, which represent the elite Of Papuan society, mostly Papuan tribal elders and local kings such as Machmud Singgirei Rumagesan kings of Sekar, and the few local Papuans luckily to receive education during the earlier period of Dutch East Indies. The referendum was recognised by the international community and the region became the Indonesian province of Irian Jaya (renamed Papua in 1999). The result of the compromised vote was rejected by West Papuan nationalists, who are mostly from the newer generation of Dutch New Guinea educated elites, who established the Free Papua Movement (OPM) which have roots in the earlier Dutch-formed Papuan Council. The independence movement for West Papua has continued, primarily through peaceful protest and international pressure, but also guerrilla warfare against the Indonesian administration.


title: West Papua (province)

text: The province of West Papua was established out of the western portion of the province of Papua in February 2003, initially under the name of West Irian Jaya ("Irian Jaya Barat"). In November 2004, an Indonesian court agreed that the split violated Papua's autonomy laws. However, the court ruled that because the new province had already been established, it should remain separate from Papua. The ruling also prohibited the creation of another proposed province, Central Irian Jaya, as that division had not yet been formalised. The split is in line with the general trend of provincial splits that is occurring in all parts of Indonesia in the post-Suharto era.


title: West Papua (province)

text: The name of the province was changed to "Papua Barat" in 2007. The new name applies from that date, but a plenary session of the provincial legislative council is required to legalise the change of name, and the government needs to issue an implementing regulation. Since April 18, 2007 the government has issued the implementing regulation.


title: West Papua (province)

text: In November 2022, Sorong City and West Papua's westernmost regencies form the province of Southwest Papua despite their location on the northwestern part of the island.


title: West Papua (province)

text: This provincial area includes the Bird's Head Peninsula and Bomberai Peninsula, along with nearby islands of which the largest are the Raja Ampat Islands. In the north, the province is bordered by the Pacific Ocean, the west is bordered by North Maluku province and Maluku province, the eastern part is bordered by Cenderawasih Bay, south with the Ceram Sea and southeast bordering Papua province. The boundary of West Papua is almost the same as the Afdeling boundary ("part") West Nieuw-Guinea ("West New Guinea") in the Dutch East Indies. The province is divided into several districts and cities.


title: West Papua (province)

text: West Papua is located between 0–4 degrees South Latitude and 124–132 degrees East Longitude, just below the equator with an altitude of above sea level. The area of West Papua is .


title: West Papua (province)

text: The climate in West Papua also tends to be the same as the climate in the Papua Province, which is tropical with rainfall varying in each region.


title: West Papua (province)

text: The land condition in West Papua is almost the same as the Papua Province where the land surface is in the form of cliffs and slopes. The types of soil in West Papua are latosol, resina, red and yellow medeteren, podsol, red yellow podsolic, gray red podsolic, litosol, alluvia, gray hydromorph.


title: West Papua (province)

text: The mountains in West Papua include the Arfak Mountains () in Arfak Mountains Regency, the Fak-Fak Mountains in Fak-Fak Regency, Mount Fudi () in Fak-Fak Regency, Kumafa Mountains in Fak-Fak Regency, Mount Kwoko () in Sorong Regency, Tamarau Mountains, in Sorong Regency, Mount Togwomeri () in Manokwari Regency, Mount Wasada () in Manokwari Regency, Mount Wiwi () in Manokwari Regency.


title: West Papua (province)

text: Lakes in West Papua include Lake Ayamaru in Maybrat Regency, Anggi Giji Lake in Manokwari Regency, Anggi Gita Lake in Manokwari Regency, Lake Yamur in Manokwari Regency, Lake Yawasi in Sorong Regency.


title: West Papua (province)

text: The province is rich in karst areas. Many of these areas remain unexplored from a speleological point of view. Among the most important caves explored, there are the Lomo Longmot e Lomo Iono Besar (−360 e −315 meter deep), second and fourth cave for depth of Indonesia. This cave was explored in the 1990s by a French speleology expedition team in the Lina Mountains region, Irameba Village, Anggi District, Manokwari Regency. Recently the karst system of the Aouk-Kladuk river has been explored. At present, it is the largest underground river explored on the planet.


title: West Papua (province)

text: Before 1999, the areas now forming (since 2003) West Papua province consisted of three regencies ("kabupaten") – Manokwari, Sorong and Fakfak. The City of Sorong was separated from Sorong Regency on 4 October 1999 and established as a regency-level administration. Five new regencies were created on 11 December 2002 - Kaimara from part of Fakfak Regency, Raja Ampat (the Raja Ampat Islands off the west coast of Papua) and South Sorong ("Sorong Selatan") from further parts of Sorong Regency, and Teluk Bintuni and Telek Wondama from parts of Manokwari Regency. In late 2008 two new regencies were created from other arts of Sorong Regency - Tambrauw on 29 October, and Maybrat on 19 December. Thus by 2009 the province was administratively divided into ten regencies ("kabupaten") and the autonomous city ("kota"), which together were subdivided into 155 districts ("kecamatan") at the 2010 Census. Two further new regencies were created on 25 October 2012 – South Manokwari ("Manokwari Selatan") and Arfak Mountains ("Pegunungan Arfak") – both from districts which were formerly parts of the Manokwari Regency, while four further districts of Manokwari Regency were added to Tambrauw Regency.


title: West Papua (province)

text: All the existing regencies and the city, as existing prior to the Government approval for the creation of Southwest Papua Province in November 2022, are listed below with their areas and their populations at the 2010 Census and the 2020 Census, together with the official estimates as at mid 2021. The number of districts has been increased to 218, comprising 1,986 villages in 2019.


title: West Papua (province)

text: On 25 October 2013 the People's Representative Council began reviewing draft laws on the establishment of 57 prospective regencies/cities (and 8 new provinces). This included a new province of Southwest Papua to be created out of the existing West Papua province, together with eight new regencies and one city to be formed within the existing West Papua Province – Malamoy and Maibratsau (both taken from Sorong Regency), North Raja Ampat and South Raja Ampat (both from Raja Ampat Regency), Raja Maskona (from Teluk Bintuni Regency), Okas (from Fakfak Regency), West Manokwari (from Manokwari Regency) and Imeo (from South Sorong Regency), while the new city is Manokwari (from Manokwari Regency). These projected changes have not yet (by 2021) been implemented.


title: West Papua (province)

text: This province has tremendous potential, both agriculture, mining, forest products and tourism. Pearls and seaweed are produced in Raja Ampat Regency while the only traditional weaving industry called Timor fabric is produced in South Sorong Regency. Fragrant nutmeg syrup can be obtained in Fak-Fak Regency as well as various other potentials. Besides that nature tourism is also one of the mainstays of West Papua, such as the Cenderawasih Bay National Park located in Teluk Wondama Regency. This National Park stretches from the east of the Kwatisore Peninsula to the north of Rumberpon Island with a coastline of 500 km, the land area reaches 68,200 ha, sea area 1,385,300 ha with details of 80,000 ha of coral reefs and 12,400 ha of ocean.


title: West Papua (province)

text: 51.48% of the total population in West Papua are the native Papuan people. They are several tribes in West Papua. The tribes that inhabit West Papua Province are Abun, Ambel, Arfak, Awe, Ayamaru, Ayfat, Aytino, Batanta, Biak, Biga, Bira, Borai, Butlih, Domu, Doreri, Emeyode, Fiawat, Hatam, Irarutu, Irires, Iwaro, Kais, Kawe, Koiwai, Kuri, Langanyan, Madekwana, Mairasi, Maniwak, Matbat, Mbaham, Matta, Meiah, Meybrat, Miere, Miyay, Moi, Moire, Moru, Moskona, Mpur, Napiti, Oburauw, Roon, Roswar, Sebyar, Sougb, Soviar, Sumuri, Tehit, Tepin, Wamesa, Warumba, Waruri, Wawiyai, Wondama, Yaben Nerigo, Yabin Konda.


title: West Papua (province)

text: When viewed from cultural characteristics, livelihoods and patterns of life, indigenous Papuans can be divided into two major groups, namely mountainous Papua or inland, highlands and lowland and coastal Papua. The belief pattern of traditional Papuan religions unites and absorbs all aspects of life, they have an integral worldview that is closely related to one another between material and spiritual worlds, which are secular and sacred and both function together.


title: West Papua (province)

text: The remaining population are mostly migrants from other parts of Indonesia, such as the Javanese, Buginese, Makassarese, Minahasan, Torajan, Butonese, and Moluccans.


title: West Papua (province)

text: The population of West Papua Province embraces different religions. Data in 2021 showed that the largest percentage of religious believers were Protestant Christians (54.17%), then Islam (36.74%), Catholic Christians (8.71%), Hinduism (0.19%), and Buddhism (0.19%). Islam had been present in the coastal region of Papua because of its past relationship with Tidore and Ternate sultanates. Based on family account of Abdullah Arfan, the dynasty of Salawati Kingdom, mentioned in the 16th century the first Papuan Muslim was Kalewan who married Siti Hawa Farouk, a "muballighah" from Cirebon, and changed his name to Bayajid who became the ancestor of Arfan clan. In the province, the city of Manokwari has come to be known as the "Gospel City", as it is directly inland from Mansinam Island where the first European missionaries settled on 5 February 1855. The date has become a significant local Christian holiday known as "Gospel Day", celebrated annually across West Papua and Papua.


title: West Papua (province)

text: Indonesian is the official language in the Papua Barat province, just like other provinces in Indonesia. All road signs and documents released by the provincial government are written in Indonesian. However, Papuan Malay is used as the lingua franca of the province, both as a trade language and in inter-ethnic communication. Papuan Malay is considered to be similar to Ambonese Malay and Manado Malay language, and is mutually intelligible with Indonesian though it has been highly influenced by local languages. Nevertheless, its usage is currently diminishing as people that are more fluent in Standard Indonesian are increasing.


title: West Papua (province)

text: The number of local languages used by the native peoples of the Papua Barat province reaches 263 consisting of 5 Austronesian languages and 210 Papuan languages.


title: West Papua (province)

text: Regional languages in the Papua Barat province are threatened with extinction, because there are fewer and fewer users. At least 10 regional languages spread across 14 major tribes in the province are threatened with extinction, if not immediately documented and preserved. The threat of extinction is due to economic, educational and political problems. The indigenous Papuans who transact on the market will use Indonesian, because the buyers or sellers are migrants or they speak a different Papuan language. The need for children to use Indonesian daily and the lack of education in schools about regional languages largely contributes to their disuse and extinction.


title: West Papua (province)

text: An exhibition house called "Rumah Kaki Seribu" (Thousand Legs House) was recently built to exhibit musical instruments, traditional clothing, and handicrafts from the Papua Barat province. The architecture of this building is inspired from that of the region around Manokwari. This traditional house is a stilt house with many pillars. The traditional house whose original roof was made of straw or sago leaves and wood as its pillars. The poles that are made are short and some are high, the pillars are useful for protecting themselves from enemies and the threat of people with evil intentions or black magic.


title: West Papua (province)

text: The traditional clothes in the West Papua region are named "Serui". Not much different from traditional clothing in Papua, the form of clothing is almost the same for both men and women. They wear clothes and lower body coverings in the same shape. They also wear ornaments on the chest and head in the form of necklaces, bracelets, ornaments of birds of paradise on the other parts of the head. Equipment worn by men at weddings usually have the groom holding a shield such as an arrow or tombah to fulfill the Papuan custom.


title: West Papua (province)

text: Another West Papuan traditional clothing is called "Ewer". This garment is purely made from natural ingredients, namely dried straw. With the progress and influence of modernization, these traditional clothes were then equipped with cloth for their superiors. The following is a picture of the traditional Ewer clothing typical of West Papuans. At present, natural materials such as straw or dry fiber are only used as skirts for women. The skirt is made by taking plant fibers and arranging them using a rope at the top. This skirt is made with two layers, the inner layer is knee-length, and the outer layer is shorter. To strengthen skirt ties, belts made of bark are used in such a way. Usually the carving motif is not complicated, namely the gingham with a geometric arrangement.


title: West Papua (province)

text: As for the shirt tops, they use baju kurung made of velvet fabric with knotted tufts on the edges of the arms, neck or waist. This article is derived from outside culture and is usually only used for West Papuans who live around the city of Manokwari. Apart from clothes and skirts, West Papuan traditional clothing for women is also equipped with a variety of accessories such as bracelets, necklaces and headgear. Bracelets and necklaces are usually made from hard grains which are arranged using a piece of yarn, while the head cover is made of cassowary feathers.


title: West Papua (province)

text: For men, the West Papuan traditional clothing worn in ancient times is very different from the traditional clothes worn and introduced today. In the past, men in general only used tassel skirts, the way and materials made were the same as those worn by women. The use of tassel skirts by men is not equipped with a boss so they will only be bare-chested. Today, custom Ewer clothing for men is made of velvet fabric with a more polite model. Knee-length shorts complete with a cloth covering dangling on the front are used as subordinates, while for superiors are used vest shirts made with fabric. Each edge of a piece of men's ewer shirt, both for pants, vests, and cloth covers is usually decorated with bright colored fabric borders. In addition, the indigenous men of West Papua also wear several other accessories to support their appearance. Necklaces and headgear, and war equipment in the form of shields, spears, chopsticks and arrows are some of what usually must be present.


title: West Papua (province)

text: As West Papua consists of many tribes, there are many traditional dances from each tribe. The most common type of traditional dance is the war dance. This type of dance symbolizes heroism and valor for Papuans. It is usually danced by men with traditional clothings with bows and arrows as weapons. Historically this dance was perform by soldiers before tribal warfare. As tribal warfare largely been eliminated, but this dance was performed as a show or welcome reception. Usually this dance is performed by seven or more people. The music comes from shells, tifas and drums. The dancing is quite energetic and featured some war movements, including archery, jumping, and scouting enemies, among others.


title: West Papua (province)

text: Yospan dance is another dance originating from West Papua, this dance is an amalgamation of two traditional dances namely Yosim dances originating from the bay of Sairei (Serul, Waropen) and Pancar dances originating from Biak, Numfor and Manokwari. The musical instruments used for Yosim usually used are cuku lele (Ukulele), and guitars which shows foreign influences as these were not instruments from Papua. Included was also local bass made from three strings, with the strings made from Pandan leaves. As well as Kalabasa, a dried Calabash, which was then filled with beads. In Yosim dance, the women are dressed with weavings to cover the chest, and headress made from bird feathers. While the men are bare-chested and wearing the same headress. The dance movement are more energetic though simple. In Pancar dance, the music are from Tifa drums which is the universal instruments for coastal Papuans. The drum skin is usually made from soa-soa (lizards). The movements are more stiff following the Tifa beats.


title: West Papua (province)

text: Movements include Seka, this dance movement are usually from southern coast with famous version from Kaimana, Fakfak, and Timika. In Pacul Tiga, or Pancar Meneru the dancer swing forward three steps, and throw both arms and one leg to the left and right, which was then repeated fir the other leg. Jef movements are influenced by rock and roll dance from 1969 to 1971, Gale-Gale movements are from Wondama Bay and Mor-Mambor islands. Pancar movements are performed by the dancers move in a circle. These movements was inspired by animals, and have four variations.


title: West Papua (province)

text: Suanggi dance is from the region around Cendrawasih Bay the northern coast of New Guinea. This dance is basically an exorcism ritual by a bereaved husband after his wife become victim of possession by mythical creatures (angi-angi). Suanggi is an evil spirit which wander the earth because it cannot find peace and will take possession of a woman. The dance is usually only performed when death victims were found, which prompts the tribal leaders to initiate the ritual before the tribe members starting the dance.


title: West Papua (province)

text: The bow and arrow is one of the main weapons typical of the tribes in Papua. These traditional weapons of bows and arrows are used for hunting and fighting. The bow is made of bamboo or wood, while the bowstring is made of rattan. The arrows are made of bamboo, wood, or kangaroo bones. Because of bow and arrow materials made from nature, special expertise is needed to use these traditional weapons. Spears are one of the traditional tribal weapons in Papua and West Papua. Traditional tribal spears in Papua are made from natural materials such as wood and stone. Each tribe has a different form of spear, including those with one spear and two spears.


title: West Papua (province)

text: In addition to bows, arrows and spears, indigenous tribes in Papua have traditional daggers made of cassowary bones or bamboo. This knife can be made from the bones of a cassowary or bamboo foot with a tapered tip, while the handle is decorated with cassowary feathers. Traditional weapons from Papua and West Papua made from the bones of cassowary birds are used as a tool in hunting and extracting forest products.


title: West Papua (province)

text: Stone axes are traditional tribal traditional weapons in Papua and West Papua. This stone ax is made of natural stone which is smashed and formed by the eyes of an ax, given a woven frame from a twist of wood fiber and forest orchids, used for cutting, picking and scraping.


title: West Papua (province)

text: In the West Papua Province, the largest airport is Dominique Edward Osok Airport, located in Sorong. In addition, there are also Fakfak Airport, Rendani Airport in Manokwari and Utarom Airport in Kaimana. Major flights to the West Papua area from Jakarta, Surabaya and Makassar are usually via the airport in Sorong or Biak, then continue with smaller aircraft.


title: West Papua (province)

text: In Doreri Bay there are three small islands: Mansinan Island, Lemon Island and Raimuti Island. These islands have a collection of coral reefs. It is estimated that this place has more than 20 former World War II wrecks. But what can be seen clearly is that there are around 6 ships such as Pasir Putih Wreck, a type of Navy patrol boat with a length of 12–22 meters. Pillbox Wreck, a type of commercial cargo carrier carrying around 9–16 meters of ammunition, Cross Wreck is a kind of patrol boat, Mupi Wreck and Shinwa Maru, a cargo ship.


title: West Papua (province)

text: The Cendrawasih Bay National Park have a unique geological structure and very important oceanographic history. This marine national park has extensive coral reefs of the highest quality in the world. Cendrawasih Bay National Park is in five regions and two provinces, namely Teluk Wondana Regency and Manokwari Regency in West Papua Province and Nabire Regency, Yapen Island Regency and Waropen Regency in Papua Province. Local communities living around national parks use marine resources as a source of life. Cendrawasih Bay National Park is a bay surrounded by several islands, including Biak Island, Yapen Island, and the mainland New Guinea. Administratively, the area is in two Regency, namely Teluk Wondama Regency, West Papua Province and Nabire Regency, Papua Province.


title: West Papua (province)

text: Raja Ampat is an archipelago that is administratively located in the Raja Ampat Regency, West Papua Province. This island is a destination for divers who are interested in the underwater scenery. Raja Ampat Islands is one of the 10 best waters for diving in the whole world, so it has the potential to be a tourist location, especially diving tours. In this place it is also home to 75% of the world's coral species, in the village of Saindarek, when the tides are lowest, we can see coral reefs without diving. Some unique species that can be found while diving in Raja Ampat are several types of pygmy seahorses, wobbegongs, and Manta rays.


title: West Papua (province)

text: Sawinggrai Tourism Village is a village located in Meos Mansar Subdistrict, Raja Ampat Regency, West Papua. It is one of the place in the province to see Bird of Paradise which is still maintained today. Sawinggrai Village Tourism Sites are currently inhabited by around 36 families and some of them have the expertise to make handicrafts typical of sculpture. There are four species of Bird of Paradise that are preserved here, namely the Red bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea Rubra), Magnificent bird-of-paradise (Cicinnurus Magnificus), Lesser bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea Minor) and Greater bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea Apoda). One of the four species, the Red bird of paradise, is a typical icon of Sawinggrai Village.


title: Oberkommando der Wehrmacht

text: The (; ; abbreviated OKW; ) was the High Command of the armed forces of Nazi Germany. Created in 1938, the OKW replaced the Reich War Ministry and had oversight over the individual High Commands of the country's armed forces: the Army (), the Navy (), and the Air force ().


title: Oberkommando der Wehrmacht

text: Rivalry with the different services' commands, mainly with the Army High Command (the OKH), prevented the OKW from becoming a unified German General Staff in an effective chain of command. It did help coordinate operations between the three services. During the war, the OKW acquired more and more operational powers. By 1942, OKW had responsibility for all theatres except for the Eastern Front against the Soviet Union. However, Hitler manipulated the system in order to prevent any one command from taking a dominant role in decision making. This "divide and conquer" method helped put most military decisions in Hitler's own hands, which at times included even those affecting engagements at the battalion level, a practice which, due to bureaucratic delays and Hitler's worsening indecision as the war progressed, would eventually contribute to Germany's defeat.


title: Oberkommando der Wehrmacht

text: The OKW was established by executive decree on 4 February 1938, in the aftermath of the Blomberg-Fritsch Affair, which had led to the dismissal of the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces and head of the Reich War Ministry, Werner von Blomberg, as well as the Commander-in-chief of the Army, Werner von Fritsch.


title: Oberkommando der Wehrmacht

text: Hitler, who had been waiting for an opportunity to gain personal control over Germany's military, quickly took advantage of the scandal, using the powers granted to him by the Enabling Act to do so. The decree dissolved the ministry and replaced it with the High Command of the Armed Forces. OKW was directly subordinate to Hitler in his position as (Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces), to the detriment of the existing military structure.


title: Oberkommando der Wehrmacht

text: OKW was led by Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel as Chief of OKW with the rank of a Reich Minister, which essentially made him the second most powerful person in the Armed Forces' hierarchy after Hitler. The next officer after Keitel was Lieutenant-General Alfred Jodl, who served as OKW's Chief of the Operations Staff. However, despite this seemingly powerful hierarchy, the German military's officers mostly disregarded Keitel's position, deeming him nothing more than Hitler's lackey. Other officers often had direct access to the "Führer," such as officers with the "Field Marshal" rank, while other officers even outranked Keitel, an example being the Commander-in-chief of the Air Force"," Hermann Göring. This position ideally meant Göring was subordinate to Keitel, but his alternate rank of "Reichsmarschall" made him the second most powerful person in Germany after Hitler"," and he used this alternate power to circumvent Keitel and access Hitler directly whenever he wished.


title: Oberkommando der Wehrmacht

text: The WFA replaced the (Armed Forces Office) which had existed between 1935 and 1938 within the Reich War Ministry, headed by General Wilhelm Keitel. Hitler promoted Keitel to Chief of the "OKW" (), i.e. Chief of the Armed Forces High Command. As head of the WFA, Keitel appointed although after two months he was removed from command, and this post was not refilled until the promotion of Alfred Jodl. To replace Jodl at (WFA/L), Walther Warlimont was appointed. In December 1941 further changes took place with (WFA/L) being merged into the and losing its role as a subordinate organization. These changes were largely cosmetic however as key staff remained in post and continued to fulfill the same duties.


title: Oberkommando der Wehrmacht

text: Officially, the OKW served as the military general staff for the Third Reich, coordinating the efforts of the Army, Navy, and Air Force. In practice, however, Hitler used OKW as his personal military staff, translating his ideas into military orders, such as the Fuhrer Directives, and issuing them to the three services while having little control over them. However, as the war progressed, the OKW found itself exercising increasing amounts of direct command authority over military units, particularly in the West. This created a situation such that by 1942, the OKW held the "de facto" command of Western forces while the Army High Command directly controlled the Eastern Front. It was not until 28 April 1945 (two days before his suicide) that Hitler placed OKH directly under OKW, finally giving OKW full command of the country's Armed Forces.


title: Oberkommando der Wehrmacht

text: True to his strategy of setting different parts of the Nazi bureaucracy to compete for his favor in areas where their administration overlapped, Hitler ensured there was a rivalry between the OKW and the OKH. Since most German operations during World War II were Army-controlled (with support), the OKH demanded control over German military forces. Nevertheless, Hitler decided against the OKH in favor of the OKW overseeing operations in many land theaters, despite being the head of OKH. As the war progressed, more and more influence moved from the OKH to the OKW, with Norway being the first "OKW war theater". More and more areas came under complete control of the OKW. Finally, only the Eastern Front remained the domain of the OKH. However, as the Eastern Front was by far the primary battlefield of the German military, the OKH was still influential.


title: Oberkommando der Wehrmacht

text: The OKW ran military operations on the Western front, in North Africa, and in Italy. In the west, operations were further split between the OKW and (OBW, Commander in Chief West), who was Gerd von Rundstedt (succeeded by Field Marshal Günther von Kluge).


title: Oberkommando der Wehrmacht

text: There was even more fragmentation since the and operations had their own commands ( (OKM) and (OKL)) which, while theoretically subordinate, were largely independent from the OKW or the OBW. Further complications in OKW operations also arose in circumstances such as when, on 19 December 1941, Hitler dismissed Walther von Brauchitsch as Commander-in-chief of the Army, after the failure of the Battle of Moscow, and assumed von Brauchitsch's former position, in essence reporting directly to himself, since the Commander-in-Chief of the Army reported to the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces.


title: Oberkommando der Wehrmacht

text: During the Nuremberg Trials, the OKW was indicted but acquitted of being a criminal organization because of Article 9 of the charter of the international military tribunal.


title: Oberkommando der Wehrmacht

text: During the subsequent High Command Trial in 1947-48, fourteen Wehrmacht officers were charged with war crimes, especially for the Commissar Order to shoot Red Army political commissars in occupied territories in the East, the killing of POWs and participation in the Holocaust. Eleven defendants received prison sentences ranging from three years, including time served, to lifetime imprisonment; two were acquitted on all counts and one committed suicide during the trial.


title: Flag of Serbia

text: The flag of Serbia (), also known as the Tricolour (), is a tricolour consisting of three equal horizontal bands, red on the top, blue in the middle, and white on the bottom. The same tricolour, in altering variations, has been used since the 19th century as the flag of the state of Serbia and the Serbian nation. The current form of the flag was adopted in 2004 and slightly redesigned in 2010.


title: Flag of Serbia

text: The complete design and symbols and lettering were taken from the Byzantine flag (last Roman, Greek speaking, dynasty)


title: Flag of Serbia

text: The state flag bears the lesser coat of arms, centred vertically and shifted to the hoist side by one-seventh of the flag's length. The flag ratio is 2 to 3 (height/width), with three equal horizontal bands of red, blue and white, each taking one third of the height. Recommended colors (white and black are not documented in Pantone) are:


title: Flag of Serbia

text: The son of King Stefan Vladislav (reigned 1233–1243), "župan" Desa, sent delegates from Kotor to Ragusa (Dubrovnik) to bring back part of the king's treasury held at Ragusa, which they did on 3 July 1281; the inventory list included, among other things, "a flag of red and blue color". It is described as "vexillum unum de zendato rubeo et blavo"—"a flag of fabric red and blue"; "zendato" () being a type of light, silky fabric. This is the oldest known attestation of colours of a Serbian flag; the oldest known Serbian flag was red and blue. But already in 1271 the flag colors of župan Desa were red and white. Although the color order is not known, the version with horizontal red and blue is sometimes used in medieval-themed events in modern Serbia.


title: Flag of Serbia

text: Hungarian King Bela IV mentioned in his charter dated 8 April 1268, that his army had defeated King Stefan Uroš I (reigned 1243–1276), and that when he hosted some foreign rulers, his magnates brought captured Serbs and "in the sign of triumph, the flag of King Uroš before the court of Bela IV, and erected it there".


title: Flag of Serbia

text: In 1326, king Stefan Dečanski sent a delegate to the Mamluk Sultanate in Alexandria and sought a flag in yellow colour, to be used as a war flag. The Byzantines mention that there were several war flags hoisted by the Serbs at the Battle of Velbazhd (1330), and the yellow one was likely one of those.


title: Flag of Serbia

text: The oldest known drawing of a Serbian flag is from the 1339 map made by Angelino Dulcert; Serbia, at the time ruled by King Stefan Dušan, is represented by a white flag of a red double-headed eagle placed above the capital Skopje ("Scopi"). Stefan Dušan was crowned Emperor in 1346; Dušan also adopted the Byzantine "tetragramme" with four fire-steels, which afterwards became an element of the Serbian flag until today (the Serbian cross). A flag in Hilandar, seen by Dimitrije Avramović, was alleged by the brotherhood to have been a flag of Emperor Dušan; it was a triband of red at the top and bottom and white in the centre. Emperor Dušan also adopted the Imperial "divelion", which was purple and had a golden cross in the centre. Another of Dušan's flags was the Imperial cavalry flag, kept at the Hilandar monastery on Mount Athos; a triangular bicolor flag, of red and yellow.


title: Flag of Serbia

text: During the First Serbian Uprising, various flags were used. Among the early flags, the one described by Mateja Nenadović could be connected with today's flag and the first Serbian flag: it was red-blue-red with three white crosses. Similar flags bearing only one Serbian cross could also be found. Regular armies of the uprising usually had light yellow flags with various symbols, while voivode flags were often red-white, and with a superimposed black two-headed eagle. There were also flags of other colors, including red-yellow, red-white-blue and red-blue. This variety of colors was followed by variety of symbols on the flags, most often taken from Hristofor Zhefarovich's book "Stemmatographia" of 1741. The most common symbol on the flags were the Serbian cross, followed by coat of arms of the Timok Valley (Tribalia) and various other crosses. Most of the flags were made in Sremski Karlovci, designed by Serbian painters Stefan Gavrilović, Ilija Gavrilović and Nikola Apostolović. These would carry over to the Second Serbian Uprising as well, alongside its own flags, the most well known of which being the Takovo flag, a white flag with a large red Greek cross in the center.


title: Flag of Serbia

text: The 1835 Sretenje Constitution described the colors of the Serbian flag as bright red, white and "čelikasto-ugasita" (that could be translated as "steelish-dark"). The constitution was criticized, especially by Russia, and the flag was specifically singled out as being similar to the revolutionary flag of France. Soon afterwards, Miloš Obrenović was requesting to the Porte that the new constitution should contain an article about the flag and coat of arms, and subsequent ferman (1835) allowed Serbs to use their own maritime flag, which will have "upper part of red, middle of blue, and lower of white", which is the first appearance of the colors that are used today.


title: Flag of Serbia

text: The colors are the reverse of those on the flag of Russia, and various popular stories exist in Serbia which seek to explain why. An example:


title: Flag of Serbia

text: Serbia used the red, blue and white tricolor as a national flag continuously from 1835 until 1918, when Serbia ceased to be a sovereign state after it joined the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later known as Yugoslavia, the tricolor was a used as a Serbian civil flag, from 1918 to 1945. Also in 1918, a Serbian flag was flown over the White House in Washington, D.C. as a show of solidarity by the U.S. towards Serbia during World War I.


title: Flag of Serbia

text: After World War II, Yugoslavia was reformed into a socialist federal republic, composed of six republics, one of which was Serbia. Each republic was entitled to its own flag on the condition that it contained the socialist red star. The standardization of the flags of the Yugoslav Republics meant that the flag of SR Serbia was identical to that of SR Montenegro, as they continued the use of the tricolours of the Kingdom of Serbia and the Kingdom of Montenegro respectively. Following the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia initially continued using the flag of Serbia as a Yugoslav republic; the 1990 Constitution of Serbia stated that flag and coat of arms of Serbia can only be changed by the same procedure used to change the constitution itself, which required an absolute majority of voters to support it. The 1992 Serbian constitutional referendum asked the voters to choose between the flag with and without the star, with red star gaining the majority of votes, however not the absolute majority of voters. The red star was nonetheless removed from the flag in 1992 by a recommendation by the Serbian parliament; however, the coat of arms remained unchanged. In 2004, however, the government of Serbia issued a recommendation on flag and coat of arms use, that preferred using different symbols from the ones in the constitution. The 2006 Constitution of Serbia stated that state emblems would be regulated by law; the recommendation remained in use until 11 May 2009, when the actual flag law was enacted. On 11 November 2010, a visual redesign of the coat of arms was enacted, which is currently used on the state flag.


title: Flag of Serbia

text: The Serbian flag is also popular with Serbs in the Republika Srpska, who usually prefer to fly it instead of the national flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina.


title: Flag of Serbia

text: The state flag (de facto national flag) is constantly flown on the entrances of state buildings. The National Assembly flies it only when in session and during national holidays. Institutions of provinces, Vojvodina and Kosovo and Metohija, fly it only on national holidays.


title: Flag of Serbia

text: It can also be flown during celebrations and other solemn manifestations which mark events of importance for Serbia, and on other occasions. During state mourning, it is flown at half mast, including by the organs of provinces, local organs, and public services. The flag must be displayed in an election room during an election for state bodies and in the room of civil registry dedicated for marriage (the officiant has to carry a sash with flag colours as well).


title: Flag of Serbia

text: The civil flag of Serbia is constantly flown on the entrance of the National Assembly and organs of provinces and public services. It must be displayed in an election room during an election for provincial or local organs.


title: Flag of Serbia

text: Also, it can be hoisted during celebrations and other cultural or sport manifestations, and on other occasions.


title: Flag of Serbia

text: The President of Serbia and the President (Speaker) of the National Assembly of Serbia use their official respective standards. The Serbian River Flotilla also uses its own naval ensign.


title: Flag of Serbia

text: Neither the state flag nor the civil flag can be hoisted so that they touch the ground, nor be used as rests, tablecloths, carpets or curtains, nor to cover vehicles or other objects, nor to attire speaker platforms or tables, except as table flags. They must not be used if damaged or otherwise look unsuitable for use.


title: Flag of Serbia

text: The flag is not flown in bad weather conditions. Also, it is flown only in daylight, unless it is illuminated.


title: Flag of Serbia

text: If the flag is flown vertically on tables or otherwise, its top field is on the left side of the viewer. If it is flown vertically across a street or square, its top field should be on the northern side if the street has east–west orientation, and eastern side if it has north–south orientation or on a circular square.


title: Flag of Serbia

text: The law defines how the flag of Serbia is displayed along with other flags, making no difference between state flags and other kinds of flags. If the flag is hoisted with another flag, it is always on the viewer's left, except during an official visit of a representative of another country or an international organization, when the flag of the visitor is on the viewer's left. If the flag is hoisted with another on crossed staffs, its staff must be the front one.


title: Flag of Serbia

text: Montenegro used to have a flag similar to the Serbian tricolor with varying shades of blue. It originated from Montenegrin national costume. During the second Yugoslavia, the republics of Serbia and Montenegro had flags of the same design and colors. Montenegro changed its flag in 1993 by altering the proportion and shade of blue in its flag and used this flag until 2004.


title: Flag of Serbia

text: The Serbian tricolor was also the basis for the breakaway territories of Republic of Serbian Krajina and Republika Srpska during the Yugoslav Wars. The flag of Republika Srpska is still the Serbian tricolor as well as Flag of Serbs of Croatia.


title: Flag of Serbia

text: The Serbian tricolor defaced with a Serbian cross is used as the flag of the Serbian Orthodox Church. A number of other unofficial variant flags, some with variations of the cross, coat of arms, or both, exist.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted (alternatively known as Five Nights at Freddy's 8) is a 2019 virtual reality survival horror video game developed by Steel Wool Studios and published by ScottGames. It is the eighth main game in the "Five Nights at Freddy's" series and the ninth installment overall, following "Ultimate Custom Night". It presents itself as "The Freddy Fazbear Virtual Experience", produced for the fictitious corporative entity Fazbear Entertainment to help improve its public image after a series of debilitating lawsuits, following several incidents and disasters that allegedly occurred at their various locations.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: Gameplay is presented from the first-person perspective and focuses on a series of minigames based on previous games in the series, in which the player must evade attacks from sentient animatronics. The game's canon establishes that Fazbear Entertainment hired an unnamed indie developer to create a video game series based on the events of the previous seven games, before cutting ties with him, and commissioned a virtual reality game meant to make light of the rumors and convince players that those events were completely fictitious.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: Development of "Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted", the first licensed game by Steel Wool Studios, began in 2018 and took less than a year. The game's design took inspiration from the history of "Five Nights at Freddy's" across all media. First announced in August 2018, the game was released on May 28, 2019, for HTC Vive and Oculus Rift headsets on Microsoft Windows, and PlayStation VR headsets on PlayStation 4. A non-VR version of the game was released for Microsoft Windows and PlayStation 4 on December 17, 2019. A Nintendo Switch port was released on May 21, 2020. An Oculus Quest port was released on July 16, 2020. An Android port was released on October 26, 2020, and an iOS port was released the following day. An Xbox One port was then released three days later. The game received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised it for its narrative, content, voice performance and original soundtrack. and is among the top selling virtual reality games on Steam. Downloadable content, "Curse of Dreadbear", was released on October 23, 2019. A spin-off set after the events of the game, "", was released on November 25, 2019, for Android and iOS, while a main game sequel, "", was released on December 16, 2021.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: The game contains forty playable minigames, which can be accessed from the game's hub. Many of these minigames recreate the mechanics of the previous games in the series, with their controls adapted to be better suited for a 3D virtual environment. The minigames are divided into groups by game of origin, and sorted by increasing difficulty. In all minigames, losing results in a jumpscare.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: The original "Five Nights at Freddy's" inspires five minigames that recreate each of the game's five nights (levels). Situated in a security guard's office, the player must survive a full night shift by conserving power and avoiding attacks from four animatronics, which can be observed through security cameras. All visuals of the game are updated from 2D renders to 3D models, and all buttons and controls are laid out around the 3D office for the player to physically interact with. For example, the camera feed, which previously obscured the player's entire screen, is displayed on a monitor on the player's desk. "Five Nights at Freddy's 2" and "Five Nights at Freddy's 3" are adapted in a similar manner, with updated visuals and concrete UI.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: "Five Nights at Freddy's 4" inspires six minigames. The "Night Terrors" minigames adapt the gameplay of its main levels, in which the player must ward off animatronics from entering their bedroom by strategically opening and closing the doors. Some of these minigames allow the player to move by "teleporting" to different locations within view, a common VR locomotion method. The first level features Funtime Freddy, the second level features Nightmarionne, the third level features Circus Baby, and the fourth level features Nightmare Fredbear. The original game's "Fun with Plushtrap" and "Fun with Balloon Boy" minigames are adapted as "Dark Rooms" minigames, in which the player must use a flashlight to locate the animatronic around an unlit area.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: "" inspires nine minigames. The "Parts & Service" minigames require the player to perform maintenance on animatronics by opening compartments and swapping parts around their bodies, this time around done on Bonnie, Chica, Freddy, and Foxy. "Vent Repair" takes place in a maintenance shaft, in which the player must solve puzzles by flipping levers and pressing buttons while repelling animatronics with a headlamp, mainly Mangle and Ennard. One "Dark Rooms" game, featuring Funtime Foxy, is also adapted from "Sister Location."


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: Winning each minigame in normal difficulty unlocks its counterpart in Blacklight Mode, an advanced difficulty mode that adds visual and/or auditory distractions to each game (e.g. balloons floating around the room, loud music playing, et cetera). Winning all minigames in both difficulty modes unlocks one final minigame, "Pizza Party". Unlike the other minigames, "Pizza Party" is a maze which utilizes teleporting movement, similar to "Night Terrors" and featuring items from various levels along with many of the animatronics in the game in some rooms.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: Collectible coins and cassette tapes are hidden throughout the various minigames. Collecting coins unlocks virtual toys that can be played with at the in-game Prize Counter, while collecting tapes unlocks audio logs that the player can listen to.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: Fazbear Entertainment has become very unpopular due to several incidents and disasters that allegedly occurred at their various locations over the years, which have been established as urban legends. This problem is aggravated by a horror video game series based on the legends, created by an unnamed indie developer. In an attempt to overturn the bad reputation these rumors gave the company, Fazbear Entertainment commissioned the "Freddy Fazbear Virtual Experience", a virtual reality game meant to make light of the rumors and convince players that those events were completely fictitious. However, this narrative is contradicted by sixteen cassette tapes hidden throughout the game, which contain logs recorded by one of the game's developers.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: Meant as a warning for future players, the tapes expose a lawsuit happening during the game's development, involving an incident with a past employee, Jeremy, that put the game's completion in jeopardy. In addition, the tapes reveal that Fazbear Entertainment hired the unnamed indie developer to create the video game series based on the alleged legends, before cutting ties with him; the games were part of an elaborate ploy to discredit the rumors surrounding the company. Most importantly, the tapes warn of a malicious code that was uploaded to the game from an old animatronic's circuit board. This code takes the form of a sinister character known as Glitchtrap, who appears as a humanoid in a rabbit costume. Glitchtrap is ultimately revealed to be the digital ghost of William Afton, Fazbear's serial killer co-founder, who is attempting to escape from the game by merging with the player. It is implied that the circuit board containing the code was acquired from the remains of "Scraptrap", who was possessed by Afton.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: After the non-VR version was released, there was a door in a level that leads to a snowy Christmas tree farm. In the distance, there is a silhouette of , with a nearby billboard showing that they are now hiring.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: On August 19, 2018, "Five Nights at Freddy's" creator Scott Cawthon confirmed on his Steam thread that he would be making a "Five Nights at Freddy's" virtual reality game in collaboration with an unspecified studio. On March 25, 2019, during Sony Interactive Entertainment's State of Play live stream, announcing several new games coming to the PlayStation 4, a trailer announcing the game was shown, and the developer was confirmed to be Steel Wool Studios. The game debuted publicly at PAX East from March 28 to March 31, 2019, and was available at subsequent PSVR demonstrations before its release.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: "Five Nights at Freddy's" creator Scott Cawthon initially approached Steel Wool Studios with the idea of recreating the original "Five Nights at Freddy's" in virtual reality. He liked the studio's first proof-of-concept so much that he expanded his initial plan to cover all of the previous "Five Nights" games. Many aspects of Cawthon's character designs had to be updated to look convincing and remain scary in a 3D environment, including their movements and finer details.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: Leon Riskin returned to compose the musical score for "Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted" after composing "Five Nights at Freddy's: Sister Location", "Freddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulator", and "Ultimate Custom Night". Additionally, composer Allen Simpson wrote the music cue "Twisted Birthday" and created the unused song "Freddy Fazbear's Pizza Theme Song" (also known as "Showtime"). In a news release, Cawthon said that "Showtime" could possibly be used in the future, but it "was left out of the game because it didn't feel right. It's not that it was unfinished, necessarily."


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: First announced in August 2018, the game was released on May 28, 2019, for Oculus Rift and HTC Vive headsets on Microsoft Windows, and PlayStation VR headsets on PlayStation 4. A non-VR version of the game was released for Microsoft Windows and PlayStation 4 on December 17, 2019. A Nintendo Switch port was released on May 21, 2020. An Oculus Quest port was released on July 16, 2020. An Android port was released on October 26, 2020, and an iOS port was released the following day. An Xbox One port was then released three days later. The game is also among the top selling virtual reality games on Steam.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: Prior to the release of "Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted", Funko released a wave of merchandise for the Blacklight animatronics, including pen toppers, mystery minis, keychain plushies, action figures, mini-figures, vinyl figures, and cereal boxes. Three McFarlane construction sets based on Parts and Services, Upper Vent Repair, and Corn Maze are set to release in 2021. Three Funko action figures based on Glitchtrap, Dreadbear, and Grimm Foxy are also set to release in the same year.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: "Curse of Dreadbear" is a Halloween-themed downloadable content pack for "Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted". The DLC was released in three parts, with several "waves" of new minigames released on October 23, October 29, and October 31, 2019, for a total of 10 new minigames. The DLC pack includes new animatronic characters, returning animatronics from previous games, and a Halloween-themed hub. Some of the new stages are re-skinned versions of existent minigames, such as a version of the "FNAF 1" minigames called "Danger! Keep Out!" Notable new game modes include a shooting gallery similar to Walt Disney World's "Buzz Lightyear's Space Ranger Spin", a free-roaming corn maze, and an assembly line in which the player must construct an animatronic. "Curse of Dreadbear" was released on all platforms except for the mobile, and Xbox One ports. The DLC was later released on the Oculus Quest version of the game in December 2020.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: The next game in the series was "", a spin-off for the Android and iOS mobile operating systems, released on November 25, 2019. The game, which utilizes AR instead of VR, follows a similar premise to "Help Wanted", presenting itself as a consumer product (in this case, an animatronic rental service) created by Fazbear Entertainment. The story is told mostly through e-mails that, in-universe, were accidentally sent to the player; these e-mails establish that the game takes place after the events of "Help Wanted", because they mention events such as William Afton's possession of Vanny.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: On August 8, 2019, on the first game's fifth anniversary, Cawthon posted a new image on his website, teasing the eighth main installment for the series. It shows a "Mega Pizza Plex" containing a laser tag arena, an arcade, a large cinema and a Freddy Fazbear's Pizza restaurant; in the main square, '80s-style versions of Freddy, Chica, and four completely new animatronics can be seen playing for an excited crowd. On September 29, 2019, Cawthon's website was updated with a new teaser featuring "Glamrock Freddy" and was followed by an updated teaser featuring the character Vanny from "Help Wanted" as a shadow. On March 24, 2020, another teaser featuring a brand new alligator-like character was posted, later revealed to be called Montgomery Gator. On June 12, 2020, another teaser was released, featuring the game's antagonist, Vanessa, a female security guard. On August 7, 2020, a teaser of Vanny was released. One day later, Scott revealed the characters Glamrock Chica and Roxanne Wolf via Reddit. On October 27, 2021, a trailer from Sony's State of Play Presentation containing gameplay footage and a release date dropped online, with the game releasing on December 16, 2021.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: "Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted" received "generally favorable" reviews from critics for the PlayStation 4 version according to review aggregator Metacritic, assigning a score of 80 out of 100; the Nintendo Switch version received "mixed or average" reviews, with Metacritic assigning a score of 53 out of 100. Reviewers praised the game for its effective use of virtual reality and its success in introducing new mechanics while preserving the series' feel and atmosphere, while being accessible for players new to the series. However, the game's frequent use of jump scares could make it less scary and more obnoxious over time for some players.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: Stuart Gipp at "Nintendo Life" criticized the Nintendo Switch version of the game and gave it a score of 3 out of 10. The main criticism being that the game had become pointless for having removed the VR mode making it a "sub-par minigame collection" with "limited gameplay" since previous main games were available already for the console, and speculated that the only reason for releasing it for the console were to capitalize on the console's market share.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: The game is listed as one of PlayStation's "Favorite Horror Games of 2019" on their website and is one of the top 30 best selling VR games on Steam.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's: Help Wanted

text: The game was nominated for the Coney Island Dreamland Award for Best AR/VR Game at the New York Game Awards in 2020.


title: Lockheed T-33

text: The Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star (or T-Bird) is an American subsonic jet trainer. It was produced by Lockheed and made its first flight in 1948. The T-33 was developed from the Lockheed P-80/F-80 starting as TP-80C/TF-80C in development, then designated T-33A. It was used by the U.S. Navy initially as TO-2, then TV-2, and after 1962, T-33B. The last operator of the T-33, the Bolivian Air Force, retired the type in July 2017, after 44 years of service.


title: Lockheed T-33

text: The T-33 was developed from the Lockheed P-80/F-80 by lengthening the fuselage by slightly more than 3 feet (1 m) and adding a second seat, instrumentation, and flight controls. It was initially designated as a variant of the P-80/F-80, the TP-80C/TF-80C.


title: Lockheed T-33

text: Design work on the Lockheed P-80 began in 1943, with the first flight on 8 January 1944. Following on the Bell P-59, the P-80 became the first jet fighter to enter full squadron service in the United States Army Air Forces. As more advanced jets entered service, the F-80 took on another role—training jet pilots. The two-place T-33 jet was designed for training pilots already qualified to fly propeller-driven aircraft.


title: Lockheed T-33

text: Originally designated the TF-80C, the T-33 made its first flight on 22 March 1948 with Lockheed test pilot Tony LeVier at the controls. Production at Lockheed ran from 1948 to 1959. The US Navy used the T-33 as a land-based trainer starting in 1949. It was designated the TV-2, but was redesignated the T-33B in 1962. The Navy operated some ex-USAF P-80Cs as the TO-1, changed to the TV-1 about a year later. A carrier-capable version of the P-80/T-33 family was subsequently developed by Lockheed, eventually leading to the late 1950s to 1970s T2V-1/T-1A SeaStar. The two TF-80C prototypes were modified as prototypes for an all-weather two-seater fighter variant, which became the F-94 Starfire. A total of 6,557 T-33s were produced: 5,691 of them by Lockheed, 210 by Kawasaki, and 656 by Canadair.


title: Lockheed T-33

text: The two-place T-33 proved suitable as an advanced trainer, and it has been used for such tasks as drone director and target towing. The U.S. Air Force began phasing the T-33 out of front-line pilot training duties in the Air Training Command in the early 1960s, as the Cessna T-37 Tweet and Northrop T-38 Talon aircraft began replacing it for the Undergraduate Pilot Training (UPT) program. The T-33 was used to train cadets from the Air Force Academy at Peterson Field (now Peterson Air Force Base in Colorado Springs). The T-37 replaced the T-33 for Academy training in 1975. The final T-33 used in advanced training was replaced 8 February 1967 at Craig AFB, Alabama. Similar replacement also occurred in the U.S. Navy with the TV-1 (also renamed T-33 in 1962), as more advanced aircraft such as the North American T-2 Buckeye and Douglas TA-4 Skyhawk II came on line. USAF and USN versions of the T-33 soldiered on into the 1970s and 1980s with USAF and USN as utility aircraft and proficiency trainers, with some of the former USN aircraft being expended as full-scale aerial targets for air-to-air missile tests from naval aircraft and surface-to-air missile tests from naval vessels. Several T-33s were assigned to USAF McDonnell F-101 Voodoo, Convair F-102 Delta Dagger, and Convair F-106 Delta Dart units, to include similarly equipped Air National Guard units, of the Aerospace Defense Command as proficiency trainers and practice "bogey" aircraft. Others later went to Tactical Air Command, and TAC gained Air National Guard F-106 and McDonnell-Douglas F-4 Phantom II units in a similar role until they were finally retired, with the last being an NT-33 variant retired in April 1997.


title: Lockheed T-33

text: Some T-33s retained two machine guns for gunnery training, and in some countries, the T-33 was even used in combat: the Cuban Air Force used them during the Bay of Pigs Invasion, scoring several kills including sinking two transport ships. The RT-33A version, reconnaissance aircraft produced primarily for use by foreign countries, had a camera installed in the nose and additional equipment in the rear cockpit. T-33s continued to fly as currency trainers, drone towing, combat and tactical simulation training, "hack" aircraft, electronic countermeasures, and warfare training and test platforms right into the 1980s.


title: Lockheed T-33

text: The T-33 has served with over 30 nations and continues to operate as a trainer in smaller air forces. Canadair built 656 T-33s on licence for service in the RCAF—Canadian Forces as the CT-133 Silver Star, while Kawasaki manufactured 210 in Japan. Other operators included Brazil, Turkey, and Thailand, which used the T-33 extensively.


title: Lockheed T-33

text: In the 1980s, an attempt was made to modify and modernize the T-33 as the Boeing Skyfox, but a lack of orders led to the project's cancellation. About 70% of the T-33's airframe was retained in the Skyfox, but it was powered by two Garrett AiResearch TFE731-3A turbofan engines.


title: Lockheed T-33

text: In the late 1990s, 18 T-33 Mk-III and T-33 SF-SC from the Bolivian Air Force went to Canada to be modernized at Kelowna Flightcraft. New avionics were installed, and detailed inspection and renewal of the fuselage and wings were performed. Most of the aircraft returned in early 2001 and remained operational until the type was officially retired on 31 July 2017.


title: Lockheed T-33

text: On 21 June 1996, 1 T-33A-5-LO (trainer TR-602) from the Hellenic Air Force piloted by Squadron Leader Ioannis Kouratzoglou successfully intercepted a Turkish F-16C violating Athens FIR by engaging in low-altitude high-G maneuvers.


title: Lockheed T-33

text: A limited number of T-33s have been owned privately, with two used by Boeing as chase aircraft. In 2010, one T-33 owned by Boeing was used as a chase aircraft during the maiden flight of the Boeing 787. The maiden flight of the Boeing 737 MAX-7 on 16 March 2018 also featured a T-33 chase plane. The maiden flight of the Boeing 777-9 on January 25, 2020 also featured a T-33 chase plane, taking off from KBFI and meeting the 777-9 at KPAE, it stopped at KMWH and it took off again to chase the 777-9 on its way back to KBFI, flying around Mount Rainier before their landing. On December 4, 2020, Boeing retired their T-33 Chase Planes after 66 years of service. Both T-33s operated by Boeing were replaced by a single T-38 Talon. Actor and pilot Michael Dorn owned a T-33.


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke () is a 2001 Indian Hindi-language romantic drama film directed by Abbas–Mustan, with screenplay and story from Javed Siddiqui and Neeraj Vora respectively. Starring Salman Khan, Rani Mukerji and Preity Zinta, the film's music is composed by Anu Malik and lyrics are penned by Sameer. Telling the story of a married couple hiring a young prostitute as a surrogate mother, the film generated controversy during its release for dealing with the taboo issue of surrogate childbirth in India.


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: "Chori Chori Chupke Chupke" was to premiere in December 2000 but was delayed several months when producer Nazim Rizvi and financier Bharat Shah were arrested and the Central Bureau of Investigation seized the film's prints on the suspicion that the production had been funded by Chhota Shakeel of the Mumbai underworld. The film was released in March 2001 to a wide audience and emerged a commercial success, becoming one of the highest-grossing films of 2001 in India. Critical praise was directed at Zinta's performance as a prostitute-turned-surrogate mother. At the 47th Filmfare Awards, Zinta received the film's only nomination, in the Best Supporting Actress category. The film has often been associated with surrogacy in Indian popular culture.


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: Raj and Priya, who come from well-to-do Indian families, meet at a wedding and fall in love. Soon after they marry, Priya becomes pregnant. Early in the pregnancy, Priya miscarries and becomes permanently infertile. On Dr. Balraj Chopra's advice, they decide to look for a surrogate mother to bear Raj's child and hide Priya's infertility from his conservative family. Since the process of artificial insemination could be revealed in the Indian media due to the family's renown and position in society, the couple agree that pregnancy should be achieved by means of sexual relations between Raj and the surrogate mother. Raj meets Madhubala "Madhu", a prostitute, who agrees to carry Raj's baby in exchange for money. After some much-needed behavioral grooming and a makeover, Madhu meets Priya—who is unaware of Madhu's background—and the three depart for Switzerland in order to carry out their plan secretly.


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: Soon Madhu is pregnant with Raj's child, and he happily tells his family that Priya is expecting. Meanwhile, Raj's business partner Ajay Sharma begins to sexually harass Madhu and she decides to leave Switzerland, mistakenly believing that Raj told his friend that she is a prostitute. Eventually, Priya finds out about Madhu's past, but still believes that Madhu should carry their child and begs her to stay. When Madhu is at home by herself, Raj's friend assaults her but Raj arrives in time to save her. Overwhelmed by Raj's kindness, Madhu falls in love with him.


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: Raj's family suddenly arrives in Switzerland. While Priya reaches for pregnancy-simulating pillows, the family meets the heavily pregnant Madhu who is introduced to them as a friend staying with them while her husband is travelling for business. Raj's grandfather Kailashnath and father Ranjit arrange a Godbharaai, a religious baby shower ceremony. They ask Raj, Priya, and Madhu to return with them to India, where the ritual must be held as formally required by tradition.


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: The ceremony is very important so Priya sends Madhu as herself. An emotional Madhu becomes conflicted about giving up her child. Finding Madhu's room empty and the money dumped on the bed, a frantic Priya pursues her to the train station and slaps Madhu when she confesses that she loves Raj. By the time Raj arrives, Madhu has gone into premature labour. The doctor announces that either Madhu or the child can be saved, and Priya asks him to save Madhu. However, both mother and baby survive. Madhu gives the baby to Priya, who quickly settles into a hospital bed with "her" baby. Dr. Balraj Chopra falsely tells Raj's family that while Priya gave birth, Madhu's child was stillborn.


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: When Madhu is ready to leave, she promises Raj that she will not go back to prostitution. When he takes her to the airport, he realizes that she loves him and kisses her forehead. Madhu leaves happily.


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: Director duo Abbas–Mustan had almost completed "Ajnabee" by October 1999 when they declared "Chori Chori Chupke Chupke" as their next project. The three leads, Salman Khan, Rani Mukerji, and Preity Zinta, previously starred together in the romantic comedy "Har Dil Jo Pyar Karega" (2000). Producer Nazim Rizvi clarified that the casting of the three actors happened before they signed for the latter film. Khan, Mukerji and Zinta were paid , , and for their roles, respectively (all sums unadjusted for inflation). Zinta was initially reluctant to play her role, as she was unsure she was suited to play a prostitute, but she eventually accepted it at the directors' persuasion. To prepare for it, she visited several bars and nightclubs in Mumbai's red-light areas to study the lingo and mannerisms of sex-workers.


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: "Chori Chori Chupke Chupke" was made on a budget of . Principal photography started in early 2000 and lasted two months. Location filming, performed by Thomas A. Xavier, took place in both Mahabaleshwar and Switzerland. The film was edited by Hussain A. Burmawala, and Surendra Sodhi composed the background score.


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: The film generated some controversy before and during its release for being one of the only Hindi-language films dealing with the taboo issue of surrogate childbirth in India, in addition to prostitution in India. Surrogacy in the film is not achieved through artificial insemination but sexual intercourse, and author Aditya Bharadwaj argued that the film draws an analogy between surrogacy to prostitution. Anindita Majumdar, author of the book "Surrogacy" (2018), wrote, "In popular Indian culture, surrogacy has come to be associated with the 2001 Hindi language film "Chori Chori Chupke Chupke"". According to author Daniel Grey, that Madhubala was a prostitute before becoming a surrogate "reinforces a stereotyped and erroneous popular association between the two roles that has contributed to considerable prejudice on the Subcontinent against women who act as surrogates".


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: According to "The Hindu", some of film's scenes were said to have been borrowed from "Pretty Woman" (1990) and the storyline inspired by "Doosri Dulhan" (1983). According to Krämer, the similarities between "Pretty Woman" and "Chori Chori Chupke Chupke" are limited to replicated scenes in "merely one plot strand among many", in an otherwise different story. In another book by Majumdar, "Transnational Commercial Surrogacy and the (Un)Making of Kin in India" (2017), she discusses the similarity between "Chori Chori Chupke Chupke" and "Doosri Dulhan". Majumdar describes the surrogate mothers as "fallen women" who are first portrayed as aberrant women with no interest in motherhood, who gradually develop a sense of maternal instinct during the process of pregnancy.


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: Anupama Chopra of "India Today" described Zinta's character of Madhubala as hooker with a heart of gold, as did academic Lucia Krämer. Sociologist Steve Derné wrote in his book "Globalization on the Ground: New Media and the Transformation of Culture, Class, and Gender in India" that through the character of Madhubala, "Chori Chori Chupke Chupke" becomes one of the films which portray "excessively sexual, greedy women who are redeemed by being remade as consumers". Derné further credited the film with melding the stereotypical "heroine" and "vamp" roles of Hindi heroines in contrast to how they were portrayed in previous decades, describing Zinta as a "legitimate heroine" in the film. S. Banaji spoke of a "transformation in the 'moral' consciousness of the prostitute". Bhawana Somaaya, while critical of the film's "regular packaging of commercial clichés", commended it for the unique portrayal of the wife, played by Mukerji, who is the sole decision-maker in the family throughout the entire process of surrogacy.


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: The soundtrack for "Chori Chori Chupke Chupke" was composed by Anu Malik and the lyrics were written by Sameer. It was released in 2000 by Universal Music India. According to the Indian trade website Box Office India, with around two million units sold, the soundtrack became the sixth highest-selling music album of the year.


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: The film's initial release date of 22 December 2000 was delayed when producer Nazim Rizvi was arrested in December and film financier Bharat Shah was arrested in January; both were charged with receiving funding from Chhota Shakeel of the Mumbai underworld and pressuring leading Bollywood actors—specifically, Khan—to appear in the film and for the profits to be shared with Shakeel. Rizvi had reportedly been under telephone surveillance by the Mumbai Police for a number of months. The Central Bureau of Investigation seized the film's prints and delivered them to the court receiver. The negatives were released on 12 February 2001 on a judicial order. In its ruling, the court ordered all profits from the film to go to the Maharashtra state government. Rivzi and Shah were still incarcerated when "Chori Chori Chupke Chupke" opened to the public on 9 March 2001. The film was released with an opening credit thanking the Special Court, MCOCA, the Crime Branch, the Mumbai Police, and the court receiver, "without whose untiring efforts and good office this picture would never have been made".


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: The film's release took place amid protests due to its alleged funding by the underworld. Due to the controversy surrounding its delayed release—and the recurrent publicity around it—the film was expected to be a big success, with 325 prints sold before release. The director duo held a special screening of the film two days prior to its release for the senior brass of the Mumbai Police, to fulfill a promise made earlier in order to prove that no objectionable content appeared in the film, as could have been projected.


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: Certified U (suitable for all age groups) by the Central Board of Film Certification, "Chori Chori Chupke Chupke" opened to a wide audience and emerged a commercial success and one of the highest-grossing films of 2001. Still, despite a strong opening, the film gradually lost public interest; it eventually grossed against its budget, with additional $1.4 million earned overseas, leaving its worldwide gross in 2001 at . "Box Office India" concluded the film's final commercial performance with the verdict "semi hit".


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: Critics praised the uniqueness of the film for dealing with the rarely touched subject of surrogacy, but disliked the execution. Preity Zinta's performance in what was seen as an unconventional role was especially noted by a number of critics, with particular praise for her portrayal of the gradual change her character goes through over the course of the story. Film critic Sukanya Verma, who was left with "mixed emotions" after seeing the film, noted Zinta's role as "the meatiest part of all", finding her transformation throughout the film "amazingly believable". Padmaraj Nair of "Screen" called Zinta the film's "real scene-stealer" for having delivered "a stunning performance". Vinayak Chakravorty of "Hindustan Times" hailed Zinta's "admirable zest" as the "trumpcard of the film". Dinesh Raheja of "India Today" credited Zinta with giving the film "its electric charge". Likewise, Nikhat Kazmi of "The Times of India" noted Zinta for keeping "the adrenalin gushing" and wrote of "riveting moments" where she "shows flashes of a fine performance". Ziya Us Salam of "The Hindu", though similarly fond of Zinta for putting "life into her character of Madhubala", found the actress less convincing in "mouthing the inanities used by the women of the street". M. Shamim, writing for the same publication, believed Zinta had "put her body and soul into the streetwalker's flaming-red dress".


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: The duo of Salman Khan and Rani Mukerji faced some criticism from Sukanya Verma, who lamented their underdeveloped roles. She considered Mukerji to be "handicapped with a role that doesn't give her much scope besides weeping and sobbing" and stated that Khan's performance lacked substance. Raheja described Khan as "overtly subdued" as opposed to his recent comic roles, but wrote of Mukerji, "The emotions that drive Rani Mukherji's character are not given either a layered detailing or an adequate exposition so she comes across as pale as the pastel-coloured dresses she favours". Chakravorty similarly noted Khan for playing against type. Kazmi similarly disliked their characters in contrast to Zinta's: "From a street-walker to sensitive young girl and then a jealous lover - stray vignettes of flesh and blood form from Preity which come as a respite in a terrain dominated by an ever-say-cheese and forever understanding Rani and an unruffled, mumbling Salman who plays the perfect gentleman with the zeal of a zombie." Padmaraj Nair, however, praised the actors in addition to Zinta, noting Khan for his "understated" performance, and arguing that Mukerji is "at her best".


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: "Chori Chori Chupke Chupke" was reviewed positively by a number of critics. Taran Adarsh from the entertainment portal Bollywood Hungama was positive of the film, concluding it "lives up to the towering expectations thanks to the solid drama". Several reviewers appreciated the film for its portrayal of the big family and its overall positive atmosphere, including Kazmi, who found it to be a "modern ode to the ancient Indian family" and admired its "overwhelming feel-goodness". Likewise, Us Salam noted the film's "loads of good music, beautiful locales, sweet smiles and lovely feel", and Shamim shared similar sentiments, appreciating the directors for not allowing "any moral issue to cloud the narrative" and filling "the screen with mesmerising charm and beauty of the lifestyle of a well-knit family".


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: Less positive views were expressed in relation to the film's stereotypical approach and poor execution of the story. Verma found the presentation of the story to be "absurd". Nair was ambivalent towards the film in this regard: "On the one hand, the film stands by family values and desi culture while, on the other, it goes in for cheap gimmicks like hiring a cabaret dancer as a solution for bearing a child just to lure the front benchers and the masses". Still, he ultimately noted an "engrossing" second half and commended the directors for having "done their best to bring a fair amount of conviction while putting it across on the screen".


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: Vinayak Chakravorty, who gave the film a three-star rating, noted its resemblance to "Doosri Dulhan" and criticised it for occasionally coming across as "a veritable rerun of the stereotypes". Raheja was critical of the film's lack of subtlety but believed the directors are "masters of pace and don't allow your attention to wander". Suman Tarafdar of "Filmfare" was particularly critical of the film, calling it "saccarine" and "a film for anyone gullible enough to believe in fairy lands", and noting that Zinta gave "the only slightly noteworthy performance".


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: Khan was named the Most Sensational Actor at the Bollywood Movie Awards. At the 46th Filmfare Awards, Zinta was nominated in the Best Supporting Actress category, the only nomination for the film.


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: "Chori Chori Chupke Chupke" has often been associated with surrogacy in Indian popular culture. It has been screened at a number of events since its release. In 2002, it was one of 30 films screened at a three-month-long Bollywood event organised by the Swiss Government in Zürich. It was later screened at the 2005 Independent South Asian Film Festival and the 2012 Fiji Film Festival.


title: Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

text: Zinta's role has been noted as one of her notable works. In a column about Zinta, published in an August 2001 issue of "Screen" magazine, Roshmila Bhattacharya asserted, "If "Chori Chori Chupke Chupke" found a following in conventional circles, it's thanks to Preity’s handling of yet another 'brave' role". In a 2003 column for Sify about the portrayal of sex-workers in Hindi films, Subhash K. Jha wrote of Zinta that in spite of being "uncomfortable about using all the foul language ... Once she entered the zone of the rented womb Preity had a ball. This remains her best performance yet". Published in the same year, a column analysing Zinta's career by "Stardust" found her to be "manifested [her]self most prominently ... in [the film]", adding, "Here was Preity essaying a character with tremendous scope for performance, but the scenes in which she excelled was when she did her bubbly act in the initial stages of the film".


title: Sabotage

text: Sabotage is a deliberate action aimed at weakening a polity, effort, or organization through subversion, obstruction, disruption, or destruction. One who engages in sabotage is a "saboteur". Saboteurs typically try to conceal their identities because of the consequences of their actions and to avoid invoking legal and organizational requirements for addressing sabotage.


title: Sabotage

text: The English word derives from the French word , meaning to "bungle, botch, wreck or sabotage"; it was originally used to refer to labour disputes, in which workers wearing wooden shoes called interrupted production through different means. A popular but incorrect account of the origin of the term's present meaning is the story that poor workers in the Belgian city of Liège would throw a wooden into the machines to disrupt production.


title: Sabotage

text: One of the first appearances of and in French literature is in the of d'Hautel, edited in 1808. In it the literal definition is to 'make noise with sabots' as well as 'bungle, jostle, hustle, haste'. The word appears only later.


title: Sabotage

text: The word is found in 1873–1874 in the of Émile Littré. Here it is defined mainly as 'making sabots, sabot maker'. It is at the end of the 19th century that it really began to be used with the meaning of 'deliberately and maliciously destroying property' or 'working slower'. In 1897, Émile Pouget, a famous syndicalist and anarchist wrote "" ('action of sabotaging or bungling a work') in and in 1911 he also wrote a book entitled .


title: Sabotage

text: At the inception of the Industrial Revolution, skilled workers such as the Luddites (1811–1812) used sabotage as a means of negotiation in labor disputes.


title: Sabotage

text: Labor unions such as the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) have advocated sabotage as a means of self-defense and direct action against unfair working conditions.


title: Sabotage

text: The IWW was shaped in part by the industrial unionism philosophy of Big Bill Haywood, and in 1910 Haywood was exposed to sabotage while touring Europe:


title: Sabotage

text: The experience that had the most lasting impact on Haywood was witnessing a general strike on the French railroads. Tired of waiting for parliament to act on their demands, railroad workers walked off their jobs all across the country. The French government responded by drafting the strikers into the army and then ordering them back to work. Undaunted, the workers carried their strike to the job. Suddenly, they could not seem to do anything right. Perishables sat for weeks, sidetracked and forgotten. Freight bound for Paris was misdirected to Lyon or Marseille instead. This tactic – the French called it "sabotage" – won the strikers their demands and impressed Bill Haywood.


title: Sabotage

text: For the IWW, sabotage's meaning expanded to include the original use of the term: any withdrawal of efficiency, including the slowdown, the strike, working to rule, or creative bungling of job assignments.


title: Sabotage

text: One of the most severe examples was at the construction site of the Robert-Bourassa Generating Station in 1974, in Québec, Canada, when workers used bulldozers to topple electric generators, damaged fuel tanks, and set buildings on fire. The project was delayed a year, and the direct cost of the damage estimated at $2 million CAD. The causes were not clear, but three possible factors have been cited: inter-union rivalry, poor working conditions, and the perceived arrogance of American executives of the contractor, Bechtel Corporation.


title: Sabotage

text: Certain groups turn to the destruction of property to stop environmental destruction or to make visible arguments against forms of modern technology they consider detrimental to the environment. The U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and other law enforcement agencies use the term eco-terrorist when applied to damage of property. Proponents argue that since property cannot feel terror, damage to property is more accurately described as sabotage. Opponents, by contrast, point out that property owners and operators can indeed feel terror. The image of the monkey wrench thrown into the moving parts of a machine to stop it from working was popularized by Edward Abbey in the novel "The Monkey Wrench Gang" and has been adopted by eco-activists to describe the destruction of earth damaging machinery.


title: Sabotage

text: From 1992 to late 2007 a radical environmental activist movement known as ELF or Earth Liberation Front engaged in a near-constant campaign of decentralized sabotage of any construction projects near wildlands and extractive industries such as logging and even the burning down of a ski resort of Vail Colorado. ELF used sabotage tactics often in loose coordination with other environmental activist movements to physically delay or destroy threats to wildlands as the political will developed to protect the targeted wild areas that ELF engaged.


title: Sabotage

text: In war, the word is used to describe the activity of an individual or group not associated with the military of the parties at war, such as a foreign agent or an indigenous supporter, in particular when actions result in the destruction or damaging of a productive or vital facility, such as equipment, factories, dams, public services, storage plants or logistic routes. Prime examples of such sabotage are the events of Black Tom and the Kingsland Explosion. Like spies, saboteurs who conduct a military operation in civilian clothes or enemy uniforms behind enemy lines are subject to prosecution and criminal penalties instead of detention as prisoners of war. It is common for a government in power during war or supporters of the war policy to use the term loosely against opponents of the war. Similarly, German nationalists spoke of a stab in the back having cost them the loss of World War I.


title: Sabotage

text: A modern form of sabotage is the distribution of software intended to damage specific industrial systems. For example, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is alleged to have sabotaged a Siberian pipeline during the Cold War, using information from the Farewell Dossier. A more recent case may be the Stuxnet computer worm, which was designed to subtly infect and damage specific types of industrial equipment. Based on the equipment targeted and the location of infected machines, security experts believe it was an attack on the Iranian nuclear program by the United States or Israel.


title: Sabotage

text: Sabotage, done well, is inherently difficult to detect and difficult to trace to its origin. During World War II, the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) investigated 19,649 cases of sabotage and concluded the enemy had not caused any of them.


title: Sabotage

text: Sabotage in warfare, according to the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) manual, varies from highly technical "coup de main" acts that require detailed planning and specially trained operatives, to innumerable simple acts that ordinary citizen-saboteurs can perform. Simple sabotage is carried out in such a way as to involve a minimum danger of injury, detection, and reprisal. There are two main methods of sabotage; physical destruction and the "human element". While physical destruction as a method is self-explanatory, its targets are nuanced, reflecting objects to which the saboteur has normal and inconspicuous access in everyday life. The "human element" is based on universal opportunities to make faulty decisions, to adopt a non-cooperative attitude, and to induce others to follow suit.


title: Sabotage

text: There are many examples of physical sabotage in wartime. However, one of the most effective uses of sabotage is against organizations. The OSS manual provides numerous techniques under the title "General Interference with Organizations and Production":


title: Sabotage

text: From the section entitled, "General Devices for Lowering Morale and Creating Confusion" comes the following quintessential simple sabotage advice: "Act stupid."


title: Sabotage

text: The United States Office of Strategic Services, later renamed the CIA, noted the specific value in committing simple sabotage against the enemy during wartime: "... slashing tires, draining fuel tanks, starting fires, starting arguments, acting stupidly, short-circuiting electric systems, abrading machine parts will waste materials, manpower, and time." To underline the importance of simple sabotage on a widespread scale, they wrote, "Widespread practice of simple sabotage will harass and demoralize enemy administrators and police." The OSS was also focused on the battle for hearts and minds during wartime; "the very practice of simple sabotage by natives in enemy or occupied territory may make these individuals identify themselves actively with the United Nations War effort, and encourage them to assist openly in periods of Allied invasion and occupation."


title: Sabotage

text: On 30 July 1916, the Black Tom explosion occurred when German agents set fire to a complex of warehouses and ships in Jersey City, New Jersey that held munitions, fuel, and explosives bound to aid the Allies in their fight.


title: Sabotage

text: On 11 January 1917, Fiodore Wozniak, using a rag saturated with phosphorus or an incendiary pencil supplied by German sabotage agents, set fire to his workbench at an ammunition assembly plant near Lyndhurst, New Jersey, causing a four-hour fire that destroyed half a million 3-inch explosive shells and destroyed the plant for an estimated at $17 million in damages. Wozniak's involvement was not discovered until 1927.


title: Sabotage

text: On 12 February 1917, Bedouins allied with the British destroyed a Turkish railroad near the port of Wajh, derailing a Turkish locomotive. The Bedouins traveled by camel and used explosives to demolish a portion of track.


title: Sabotage

text: In Ireland, the Irish Republican Army (IRA) used sabotage against the British following the Easter 1916 uprising. The IRA compromised communication lines and lines of transportation and fuel supplies. The IRA also employed passive sabotage, with dock and railroad workers refusing to work on ships and rail cars used by the government. In 1920, agents of the IRA committed arson against at least fifteen British warehouses in Liverpool. The following year, the IRA set fire to numerous British targets again, including the Dublin Customs House, this time sabotaging most of Liverpool's firetrucks in the firehouses before lighting the matches.


title: Sabotage

text: Lieutenant Colonel George T. Rheam was a British soldier, who ran Brickendonbury Manor from October 1941 to June 1945 during World War II, which was Station XVII of the Special Operations Executive (SOE), which trained specialists for the SOE. Rheam innovated many sabotage techniques, and is considered by M. R. D. Foot the "founder of modern industrial sabotage."


title: Sabotage

text: Sabotage training for the Allies consisted of teaching would-be saboteurs key components of working machinery to destroy.


title: Sabotage

text: "Saboteurs learned hundreds of small tricks to cause the Germans big trouble. The cables in a telephone junction box ... could be jumbled to make the wrong connections when numbers were dialed. A few ounces of plastique, properly placed, could bring down a bridge, cave in a mine shaft, or collapse the roof of a railroad tunnel."


title: Sabotage

text: The Polish Home Army Armia Krajowa, which commanded the majority of resistance organizations in Poland (even the National Forces, except the Military Organization Lizard Union; the Home Army also included the Polish Socialist Party – Freedom, Equality, Independence) and coordinated and aided the Jewish Military Union as well as more reluctantly helping the Jewish Combat Organization, was responsible for the greatest number of acts of sabotage in German-occupied Europe. The Home Army's sabotage operations Operation Garland and Operation Ribbon are just two examples. In all, the Home Army damaged 6,930 locomotives, set 443 rail transports on fire, damaged over 19,000 rail cars, and blew up 38 rail bridges, not to mention the attacks against the railroads. The Home Army was also responsible for 4,710 built-in flaws in parts for aircraft engines and 92,000 built-in flaws in artillery projectiles, among other examples of significant sabotage. In addition, over 25,000 acts of more minor sabotage were committed. It continued to fight against both the Germans and the Soviets; however, it did aid the Western Allies by collecting constant and detailed information on the German rail, wheeled, and horse transports. As for Stalin's proxies, their actions led to a great number of the Polish and Jewish hostages, mostly civilians, being murdered in reprisal by the Germans. The Gwardia Ludowa destroyed around 200 German trains during the war, and indiscriminately threw hand grenades into places frequented by Germans.


title: Sabotage

text: The French Resistance ran an extremely effective sabotage campaign against the Germans during World War II. Receiving their sabotage orders through messages over the BBC radio or by aircraft, the French used both passive and active forms of sabotage. Passive forms included losing German shipments and allowing poor quality material to pass factory inspections. Many active sabotage attempts were against critical rail lines of transportation. German records count 1,429 instances of sabotage from French Resistance forces between January 1942 and February 1943. From January through March 1944, sabotage accounted for three times the number of locomotives damaged by Allied air power. See also Normandy landings for more information about sabotage on D-Day.


title: Sabotage

text: During World War II, the Allies committed sabotage against the Peugeot truck factory. After repeated failures in Allied bombing attempts to hit the factory, a team of French Resistance fighters and Special Operations Executive (SOE) agents distracted the German guards with a game of soccer while part of their team entered the plant and destroyed machinery.


title: Sabotage

text: In December 1944, the Germans ran a false flag sabotage infiltration, Operation Greif, which was commanded by Waffen-SS commando Otto Skorzeny during the Battle of the Bulge. German commandos, wearing US Army uniforms, carrying US Army weapons, and using US Army vehicles, penetrated US lines to spread panic and confusion among US troops and to blow up bridges, ammunition dumps, and fuel stores and to disrupt the lines of communication. Many of the commandos were captured by the Americans. Because they were wearing US uniforms, a number of the Germans were executed as spies, either summarily or after military commissions.


title: Sabotage

text: From 1948 to 1960, the Malayan Communists committed numerous effective acts of sabotage against the British Colonial authorities, first targeting railway bridges, then hitting larger targets such as military camps. Most of their efforts were intended to weaken Malaysia's colonial economy and involved sabotage against trains, rubber trees, water pipes, and electric lines. The Communists' sabotage efforts were so successful that they caused backlash among the Malaysian population, who gradually withdrew support for the Communist movement as their livelihoods became threatened.


title: Sabotage

text: In Mandatory Palestine from 1945 to 1948, Jewish groups opposed British control. Though that control was to end according to the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine in 1948, the groups used sabotage as an opposition tactic. The Haganah focused their efforts on camps used by the British to hold refugees, and radar installations that could be used to detect illegal immigrant ships. The Stern Gang and the Irgun used terrorism and sabotage against the British government and against lines of communications. In November 1946, the Irgun and Stern Gang attacked a railroad twenty-one times in a three-week period, eventually causing shell-shocked Arab railway workers to strike. The 6th Airborne Division was called in to provide security as a means of ending the strike.


title: Sabotage

text: The Viet Cong used swimmer saboteurs often and effectively during the Vietnam War. Between 1969 and 1970, swimmer saboteurs sunk, destroyed, or damaged 77 assets of the U.S. and its allies. Viet Cong swimmers were poorly equipped but well-trained and resourceful. The swimmers provided a low-cost/low-risk option with high payoff; possible loss to the country for failure compared to the possible gains from a successful mission led to the obvious conclusion the swimmer saboteurs were a good idea.