title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: In November 2007, libelous accusations were made against two politicians from southwestern France, Jean-Pierre Grand and Hélène Mandroux-Colas, on their Wikipedia biographies. Jean-Pierre Grand asked the president of the French National Assembly and the prime minister of France to reinforce the legislation on the penal responsibility of Internet sites and of authors who peddle false information in order to cause harm. Senator Jean Louis Masson then requested the Minister of Justice to tell him whether it would be possible to increase the criminal responsibilities of hosting providers, site operators, and authors of libelous content; the minister declined to do so, recalling the existing rules in the law.


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: In 2009, Wikipedia banned the Church of Scientology from editing any articles on its site. The Wikipedia articles concerning Scientology were edited by members of the group to improve its portrayal.


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: On August 25, 2010, the "Toronto Star" reported that the Canadian "government is now conducting two investigations into federal employees who have taken to Wikipedia to express their opinion on federal policies and bitter political debates."


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: In 2010, Al Jazeera's Teymoor Nabili suggested that the article "Cyrus Cylinder" had been edited for political purposes by "an apparent tussle of opinions in the shadowy world of hard drives and 'independent' editors that comprise the Wikipedia industry." He suggested that after the Iranian presidential election, 2009 and the ensuing "anti-Iranian activities" a "strenuous attempt to portray the cylinder as nothing more than the propaganda tool of an aggressive invader" was visible. The edits following his analysis of the edits during 2009 and 2010, represented "a complete dismissal of the suggestion that the cylinder, or Cyrus' actions, represent concern for human rights or any kind of enlightened intent," in stark contrast to Cyrus' own reputation (among the people of Babylon) as written in the Old Testament.


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: In April 2008, the Boston-based Committee for Accuracy in Middle East Reporting in America (CAMERA) organized an e-mail campaign to encourage readers to correct perceived Israel-related biases and inconsistencies in Wikipedia. Excerpts of some of the e-mails were published in the July 2008 issue of "Harper's Magazine" under the title of "Candid camera".


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: CAMERA argued the excerpts were unrepresentative and that it had explicitly campaigned merely "toward encouraging people to learn about and edit the online encyclopedia for accuracy". According to some defenders of CAMERA, serious misrepresentations of CAMERA's role emanated from the competing Electronic Intifada group; moreover, it is said, some other Palestinian advocacy groups have been guilty of systematic misrepresentations and manipulative behaviors but have not suffered bans of editors amongst their staff or volunteers.


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: Five editors involved in the campaign were sanctioned by Wikipedia administrators. Israeli diplomat David Saranga said that Wikipedia is generally fair in regard to Israel. When confronted with the fact that the entry on Israel mentioned the word "occupation" nine times, whereas the entry on the Palestinian people mentioned "terror" only once, he replied: "It means only one thing: Israelis should be more active on Wikipedia. Instead of blaming it, they should go on the site much more, and try and change it."


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: Political commentator Haviv Rettig Gur, reviewing widespread perceptions in Israel of systemic bias in the English-language Wikipedia articles, has argued that there are deeper structural problems creating this bias: anonymous editing favors biased results, especially if those Gur calls "pro-Palestinian activists" organize concerted campaigns as has been putatively done in articles dealing with Arab-Israeli issues, and current Wikipedia policies, while well-meant, have proven ineffective in handling this.


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: On August 3, 2010, it was reported that the Yesha Council together with Israel Sheli (My Israel), a network of online pro-Israel activists committed to spreading Zionism online, were organizing people at a workshop in Jerusalem to teach them how to edit Wikipedia articles in a pro-Israeli way. Around 50 people took part in the course.


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: The project organiser, Ayelet Shaked, who has since been elected to Israel's parliament, was interviewed on Arutz Sheva Radio. She emphasized that the information has to be reliable and meet Wikipedia rules. She cited some examples such as the use of the term "occupation" in Wikipedia entries, as well as in the editing of entries that link Israel with Judea and Samaria and Jewish history".


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: "We don't want to change Wikipedia or turn it into a propaganda arm," commented Naftali Bennett, director of the Yesha Council. "We just want to show the other side. People think that Israelis are mean, evil people who only want to hurt Arabs all day." "The idea is not to make Wikipedia rightist but for it to include our point of view," he said in another interview.


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: A course participant explained that the course is not a "Zionist conspiracy to take over Wikipedia"; rather, it is an attempt to balance information about disputed issues presented in the online encyclopedia.


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: [T]he goal of this workshop was to train a number of pro-Israelis how to edit Wikipedia so that more people could present the Israeli side of things, and thus the content would be more balanced... Wikipedia is meant to be a fair and balanced source, and it is that way by having people from all across the spectrum contributing to the content.


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: Following the course announcement, Abdul Nasser An-Najar, the head of Palestinian Journalists Syndicate said there were plans to set up a counter group to ensure the Palestinian view is presented online as the "next regional war will be [a] media war."


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: In 2011, Wikipedia founder Jimmy Wales stated in retrospect about the course organized by Israel Sheli, "we saw absolutely no impact from that effort whatsoever. I don't think it ever—it was in the press but we never saw any impact."


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: In January 2012, members of the public relations industry created the Corporate Representatives for Ethical Wikipedia Engagement (CREWE) Facebook group with the stated goal of maintaining accurate articles about corporations.


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: In an October 2012 "Salon" story, Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales stated that he was against the practice of paid editing of Wikipedia, as are a number long-time members of Wikipedia's community. Nonetheless, a number of organizations do pay employees to edit Wikipedia articles, with one writer, Soraya Field Fiorio, stating that she writes commissioned Wikipedia articles for writers and musicians for $30 an hour. According to Fiorio, her clients control the article's content in the same way that they control press releases, which function as part of publicity strategies. In January 2007, Rick Jelliffe claimed in a story carried by CBS and IDG News Service that Microsoft had offered him compensation in exchange for his future editorial services on OOXML. A Microsoft spokesperson, quoted by CBS, commented that "Microsoft and the writer, Rick Jelliffe, had not determined a price and no money had changed hands, but they had agreed that the company would not be allowed to review his writing before submission". CBS also quoted Jimmy Wales as having expressed his disapproval of Microsoft's involvement: "We were very disappointed to hear that Microsoft was taking that approach."


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: In a story covered by the BBC, Jeffrey Merkey claimed that in exchange for a donation his Wikipedia entry was edited in his favor. Jay Walsh, a spokesman for Wikipedia, flatly denied the allegations in an interview given to the "Daily Telegraph".


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: In a story covered by "InformationWeek", Eric Goldman, assistant law professor at Santa Clara University in California argued that "eventually, marketers will build scripts to edit Wikipedia pages to insert links and conduct automated attacks on Wikipedia", thus putting the encyclopedia beyond the ability of its editors to provide countermeasures against the attackers, particularly because of a vicious circle where the strain of responding to these attacks drives core contributors away, increasing the strain on those who remain.


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: In February 2008, British technology news and opinion website "The Register" stated that a prominent administrator of Wikipedia had edited a topic area where he had a conflict of interest to keep criticism to a bare minimum, as well as altering the Wikipedia policies regarding "personal biography" and "conflict of interest" to favour his editing.


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: Some of the most scathing criticism of Wikipedia's claimed neutrality came in "The Register", which in turn was allegedly criticized by founding members of the project. According to "The Register": "In short, Wikipedia is a cult. Or at least, the inner circle is a cult. We aren't the first to make this observation. On the inside, they reinforce each other's beliefs. And if anyone on the outside questions those beliefs, they circle the wagons. They deny the facts. They attack the attacker. After our Jossi Fresco story, Fresco didn't refute our reporting. He simply accused us of 'yellow journalism'. After our Overstock.com article, Wales called us 'trash'."


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: Charles Arthur in "The Guardian" said that "Wikipedia, and so many other online activities, show all the outward characteristics of a cult."


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: In February 2015, a longstanding Wikipedia administrator was site-banned after Wikipedia's Arbitration Committee found that he or she had, over a period of several years, manipulated the content of Wikipedia articles to add positive content and remove negative content about the controversial Indian Institute of Planning and Management and its dean, Arindam Chaudhuri. An Indian journalist commented in "Newsweek" on the importance of the Wikipedia article to the institute's PR campaign and voiced the opinion that "by letting this go on for so long, Wikipedia has messed up perhaps 15,000 students' lives".


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: The 2005 "Nature" study also gave two brief examples of challenges that Wikipedian science writers purportedly faced on Wikipedia. The first concerned the addition of a section on violence to the schizophrenia article, which exhibited the view of one of the article's regular editors, neuropsychologist Vaughan Bell, that it was little more than a "rant" about the need to lock people up, and that editing it stimulated him to look up the literature on the topic.


title: Reliability of Wikipedia

text: The second dispute reported by "Nature" involved the climatologist William Connolley related to protracted disputes between editors of climate change topics, in which Connolley was placed on parole and several opponents banned from editing climate related articles for six months; a separate paper commented that this was more about etiquette than bias and that Connolley did "not suffer fools gladly".


title: Hasselblad

text: Victor Hasselblad AB is a Swedish manufacturer of medium format cameras, photographic equipment and image scanners based in Gothenburg, Sweden. The company originally became known for its classic analog medium-format cameras that used a waist-level viewfinder. Perhaps the most famous use of the Hasselblad camera was during the Apollo program missions when the first humans landed on the Moon. Almost all of the still photographs taken during these missions used modified Hasselblad cameras. In 2016, Hasselblad introduced the world's first digital compact mirrorless medium-format camera, the X1D-50c, changing the portability of medium-format photography. Hasselblad produces about 10,000 cameras a year from a small three-storey building.


title: Hasselblad

text: The company was established in 1841 in Gothenburg, Sweden, by Fritz Wiktor Hasselblad, as a trading company, F. W. Hasselblad and Co. The founder's son, Arvid Viktor Hasselblad, was interested in photography and started the photographic division of the company. Hasselblad's corporate website quotes him as saying, "I certainly don't think that we will earn much money on this, but at least it will allow us to take pictures for free."


title: Hasselblad

text: In 1877, Arvid Hasselblad commissioned the construction of Hasselblad's long-time headquarters building, in use until 2002. While on honeymoon, Arvid Hasselblad met George Eastman, founder of Eastman Kodak. In 1888, Hasselblad became the sole Swedish distributor of Eastman's products. The business was so successful that in 1908, the photographic operations were spun off into their own corporation, Fotografiska AB. Operations included a nationwide network of shops and photo labs. Management of the company eventually passed to Karl Erik Hasselblad, Arvid's son (grandson of founder F. W.). Karl Erik wanted his son, Victor Hasselblad, to have a wide understanding of the camera business, and sent him to Dresden, Germany, then the world center of the optics industry, at age 18 (c. 1924).


title: Hasselblad

text: Victor spent the next several years studying and working in various photography related endeavors in Europe and the US, including Rochester, New York, with George Eastman, before returning to work at the family business. Due to disputes within the family, particularly with his father, Victor left the business and in 1937 started his own photo store and lab in Gothenburg, Victor Foto.


title: Hasselblad

text: During World War II, the Swedish military captured a fully functioning German aerial surveillance camera from a downed German plane. This was probably a Handkammer HK 12.5 cm/7x9, which bore the codename GXN and the military account number Fl.38510.


title: Hasselblad

text: The Swedish government realised the strategic advantage of developing an aerial camera for their own use, and in the spring of 1940 approached Victor Hasselblad to help create one. In April 1940, Victor Hasselblad established a camera workshop in Gothenburg called Ross AB in a shed at an automobile shop, working in the evenings in cooperation with a mechanic from the shop and his brother, and began designing the HK7 camera.


title: Hasselblad

text: By late 1941, the operation had over 20 employees and the Swedish Air Force asked for another camera, one which would have a larger negative and could be permanently mounted to an aircraft. This model was the SKa4. Between 1941 and 1945, Hasselblad delivered 342 cameras to the Swedish military.


title: Hasselblad

text: In 1942, Karl Erik Hasselblad died and Victor took control of the family business. During the war, in addition to the military cameras, Hasselblad produced watch and clock parts, over 95,000 by the war's end.


title: Hasselblad

text: After the war, watch and clock production continued, and other machine work was also carried out, including producing a slide projector and supplying parts for Saab automobiles.


title: Hasselblad

text: Victor Hasselblad's real ambition was to make high-quality civilian cameras. In 1945–1946, the first design drawings and wooden models were made for a camera to be called the Rossex. An internal design competition was held for elements of the camera; one of the winners was Sixten Sason, the designer of the original Saab bodywork.


title: Hasselblad

text: In 1948, the camera later known as the 1600 F was released. The new design was complex, and many small improvements were needed to create a reliable product; the watchmaking background of many of the designers produced a design which was sophisticated, but more delicate than what was permissible for a camera. Only around 50 units were produced in 1949, and perhaps 220 in 1950, of what collectors have now designated the Series One camera. The Series Two versions of the 1600 F, perhaps as many as 3300 made from 1950 to 1953, were more reliable but still subject to frequent repairs, with many units having been cannibalized or modified by the factory. The biggest problem was its shutter, a focal-plane shutter that was hard to keep accurate. Using 120 size film it was formatted to a square cm or × inches, which meant there was no more need to turn the camera on its side.


title: Hasselblad

text: In 1954, they mated the groundbreaking new 38 mm Biogon lens designed by Ludwig Bertele of Zeiss to a shallow non-reflex body to produce the SWA (supreme wide angle, later changed to super wide angle). Though a specialty product not intended to sell in large numbers, the SWA was an impressive achievement, and derivatives were sold for decades. Hasselblad took their two products to the 1954 photokina trade show in Germany, and word began to spread.


title: Hasselblad

text: In 1953, a much-improved camera, the 1000 F was released. It too had a focal-plane shutter which led to its final replacement by the 500 C but nonetheless provided a big leg up in the medium format. It had a very fine 250 mm f4 Sonnar sport lens that made it a great wildlife camera. Lenses ranged from a 60 mm Distagon, standard 80 mm Planar, and on up to the 250 mm.


title: Hasselblad

text: In December 1954, the 1000 F camera received a rave review from the influential American photography magazine, "Modern Photography". They put over 500 rolls of film through their test unit, and intentionally dropped it twice, and it continued to function. But the 1000 F also had shutter problems and finally gave way to the lens-mounted, tried-and-true Compur shutter, retaining its focal-plane shutter/curtain only to mask the film until the Compur shutter closed, then opened to expose the film. This was a far more dependable system, even though it meant having a shutter in each lens.


title: Hasselblad

text: The real turning point for the company occurred in 1957. The 1000 F was replaced by the 500 C. The landmark 500 C design formed the basis for Hasselblad's product line for the next sixty years, with variants being produced until 2013. It was not until 1960, though, that Hasselblad's cameras became profitable; prior to this point, the company was still being entirely supported by sales of imported photographic supplies, including their distribution of Kodak products.


title: Hasselblad

text: In 1962, NASA began to use Hasselblad cameras on space flights, and to request design modifications. The first motor-driven camera, the 500 EL, appeared in 1965 as a result of NASA requests. While Hasselblad had enjoyed a slowly but steadily growing reputation among professional photographers through the 1950s, the publicity created by NASA's use of Hasselblad products dramatically increased name recognition for the brand.


title: Hasselblad

text: In 1966, with the increasing success of the camera division, Hasselblad exited the photographic supply and retailing industry, selling Hasselblad Fotografiska AB to Kodak.


title: Hasselblad

text: In 1976, Victor Hasselblad sold Hasselblad AB to a Swedish investment company, Säfveån AB. When he died in 1978, he left much of his fortune to the Hasselblad Foundation.


title: Hasselblad

text: In 1977, the 2000 series of focal plane shutter equipped models was introduced. The 2000-series cameras had been intended to provide full exposure automation. The 2000 FC however was rushed and introduced without the automated features, partly because of a rethink about the way the automation should be accomplished (electronic vs. electro-mechanical). It was the last new camera produced during Victor Hasselblad's lifetime.


title: Hasselblad

text: In 1984, Victor Hasselblad AB went public, with 42.5% of the company being sold on the Swedish stock exchange. The next year, Swedish corporation Incentive AB bought 58.1% of Hasselblad, and in 1991, they acquired the remainder of the shares, taking VHAB back to being a private corporation.


title: Hasselblad

text: In 1985 Hasselblad established the subsidiary, Hasselblad Electronic Imaging AB, to focus on digital imaging and transmission systems.


title: Hasselblad

text: In 1991, the 200 series of automated focal plane shutter equipped models was introduced. This was the last major technical development in the course of the classic (now known as "V-System", after Victor) Hasselblad camera.


title: Hasselblad

text: In 2002, they introduced the H-System, retroactively renaming their original camera line the V-System. The H-System marked an essential transition for the company. It dropped the traditional Hasselblad square negative format, instead using  cm film and a new series of lenses. The then owners had no confidence in Hasselblad's already advanced digital project returning a profit, and, seeing the relative success in the market of the modern (i.e. fully automated) 645 cameras made by manufacturers like Pentax and Mamiya, closed down Hasselblad's digital department and directed all effort towards making this 645 film camera. The H-System is largely designed and manufactured by Hasselblad, with Fuji's involvement being limited to finalizing Hasselblad's lens designs and producing the glass for the lenses and viewfinders. Fuji was allowed under the agreement to sell the H1 under their name in Japan only.


title: Hasselblad

text: In January 2003, the Shriro Group acquired a majority shareholding in Hasselblad. The group had been the distributors for Hasselblad in Japan, Hong Kong, China, Taiwan ROC, Singapore, and Malaysia for over 45 years.


title: Hasselblad

text: The following year, in August 2004, Shriro Sweden, the holding company of Victor Hasselblad AB, and Swedish subsidiary of Shriro Group, announced the acquisition of high-end scanner and digital cameraback manufacturer, Imacon. The intent of the move was to correct the mistake the previous owners made when they thought there was no money to be made selling digital products and put a stop to Hasselblad's own advanced digital project, and to renew Hasselblad's ambitions in the professional digital photographic sector.


title: Hasselblad

text: The move was perceived as part of an industry-wide move to respond to the trend away from film to digital. Christian Poulsen, chief executive of Hasselblad after the merger, said, "They finally realized there was no future. It was impossible to keep Hasselblad alive without digital".


title: Hasselblad

text: This has secured their market position, with nearly all of their previous medium format camera competition going through sale (Mamiya), closure (Contax, Bronica, Exakta 66, Kiev), or greatly reduced market presence (Rollei, Pentax—which was also sold to Hoya), and other medium format digital back makers being faced with accordingly restricted markets. Despite this Hasselblad has struggled to turn a profit relative to the market share leader Phase One.


title: Hasselblad

text: On 30 June 2011, A German private equity firm Ventizz announced it had acquired a 100% stake in Hasselblad.


title: Hasselblad

text: In late 2015, Chinese aerial photography and drone manufacturer DJI acquired a minority interest in Hasselblad. In early January 2017 DJI acquired the majority stake.


title: Hasselblad

text: In July 2018, DJI's Mavic 2 PRO drone was advertised by UK based retail shopping company Argos. This drone was the first to carry a camera featuring the Hasselblad branding.


title: Hasselblad

text: Several different models of Hasselblad cameras were taken into space, all specially modified for the task.


title: Hasselblad

text: The Hasselblad cameras were selected by NASA because of their interchangeable lenses and magazines. Modifications were made to permit ease of use in cramped conditions while wearing spacesuits, such as the replacement of the reflex mirror with an eye-level finder.


title: Hasselblad

text: Modifications by NASA technicians were further refined and incorporated into new models by Hasselblad. For example, development of a 70 mm magazine was accelerated to meet the space program.


title: Hasselblad

text: The first modified (in fact simplified) Hasselblad 500 C cameras were used on the last two Project Mercury missions in 1962 and 1963. They continued to be used throughout the Gemini spaceflights in 1965 and 1966.


title: Hasselblad

text: A general program of reliability and safety was implemented following the Apollo 1 fire in 1967, addressing such issues as reliability and safe operation of electrical equipment in a high-oxygen environment.


title: Hasselblad

text: EL electric cameras were used for the first time on Apollo 8. A heavily modified 500 EL, the so-called Hasselblad Electric Camera (HEC) was used from Apollo 8 on board the spacecraft. Three 500 EL cameras were carried on Apollo 11. An even more extensively modified Hasselblad EL data camera (HDC), equipped with a special Zeiss 5.6/60 mm Biogon lens and film magazines for 150–200 exposures, was used on the Moon surface on the Apollo 11 mission. This command module camera, carried on Apollo 11, was a simplified version of the commercial Hasselblad 500 EL motorized film advance camera. Used for color still photography, it could operate in the command module or in the vacuum of space.


title: Hasselblad

text: All following NASA missions also had Hasselblad cameras on board. The photographic equipment and films used on the five subsequent flights were similar to that taken on Apollo 11. On Apollo 15, the 500 mm telelens was added. During the Space Shuttle period cameras based on the 500 EL/M, 553 ELX, 205 TCC and 203 FE have been used.


title: Hasselblad

text: There are 11 Hasselblad cameras currently sitting on the lunar surface, where only the film magazines were brought back to Earth.


title: Hasselblad

text: The HK-7 put a 7 cm tall by 9 cm wide image on 80 mm film. It has interchangeable lenses, generally a 135 mm Zeiss Biotessar, with the second being either a 240 mm f/4 Meyer Tele-Megor or a 250 mm f/5 Schneider Tele-Xenar.


title: Hasselblad

text: Hasselblad's first civilian camera was launched in 1948. Born from the idea of Victor Hasselblad to create the "ideal camera", it was a 6 × 6 cm format focal-plane shutter SLR camera that was six inches long. First simply known as the "Hasselblad Camera" it was later named "1600F" after its highest shutter speed of 1/1600 s and "F" for "focal plane". The camera was revolutionary for the time with its modular design that allowed exchanging lenses, viewfinders and film magazines. The shutter was made of thin stainless steel which was light and durable enough to withstand the high acceleration forces of this fast shutter.


title: Hasselblad

text: The 1600F cameras did show a couple of problems (especially the first series) so a number of changes were introduced during the production period that lasted from 1949 to 1953. The 1600F was initially released with the Kodak Ektar 2.8/80 mm and the Ektar 3.5/135 mm lenses. Only prototypes were made of the Ektar 6.3/55 mm and the 5.6/254 mm lenses.


title: Hasselblad

text: The successor of the 1600F was the 1000F (1953–1957). The 1000F was named after its reduced shortest shutter speed of 1/1000 s. The 1000F has a different shutter mechanism and proved to be more reliable and robust than its predecessor. During production of the 1600F, Carl Zeiss in Oberkochen had become a supplier of lenses for the 1600F/1000F cameras. Zeiss supplied the lenses Distagon 5.6/60 mm, Tessar 2.8/80 mm, Sonnar 3.5/135, Sonnar 4.0/250 and Sonnar 5.6/250 mm. Towards the end of the 1000 F production period a Dallmeyer 5.6/508 mm lens made by Cook and Perkins, England, was also available, but did not fully cover the full film format.


title: Hasselblad

text: Hasselblad 1000F and especially 1600F cameras are very rare on the secondhand market and usually not in working condition because of age, neglect, and a lack of spare parts and qualified repairmen. Many cameras suffer from corrosion of the chrome rims. A lot of lenses suffer from scratches, fungus, discoloration and separation. Cameras in good condition can therefore fetch fairly high prices.


title: Hasselblad

text: The 500C was produced to replace the F-series cameras. It changed the troublesome focal plane shutter for a leaf shutter in each C lens. The camera has continued for over 40 years with only minor improvements. A variation of the 500C was used by NASA for all their Gemini and Apollo missions. Most lenses were made by Zeiss in Germany but the very early 1600F lenses were made by Kodak.


title: Hasselblad

text: The name "V System" was not created until the development of the "H System"; with a new system premiering, Hasselblad needed a designation to differentiate the older product line.


title: Hasselblad

text: The Hasselblad V-System evolved out of Victor Hasselblad's desire to develop a small camera with fast lenses and shutters, that was as easily hand-holdable as a Leica, but with a larger film format. The Rolleiflex's format was deemed ideal: large enough to provide high image quality, but small enough to fit inside a compact camera. The Rolleiflex's leaf shutter lacked the fast shutter speeds focal plane shutters could provide, and neither Leica rangefinder nor Rolleiflex TLR provided the(TTL) through the (taking) lens viewing that the slow to use, big Graflex SLR provided.


title: Hasselblad

text: These considerations led to the 1600 F and a flexible camera system that includes interchangeable bodies, lenses, viewfinders, winders, film magazines and holders, and other accessories. Problems with the focal plane shutters in the 1600 F and 1000 F cameras and especially the increasing importance of electronic flash led to the development of the manual leaf shutter-based medium-format ( cm or inches) 500 C SLR camera in 1957 which offered flash synchronization at all shutter speeds. The 500 C was joined by the motor-driven 500 EL SLR camera in 1964. Apart from the housing that incorporates the motor drive and the NiCd batteries, this camera is similar in appearance and operation to the Hasselblad 500 C and uses the same magazines, lenses and viewfinders. These two cameras, together with the Superwide Camera (SWC) which was introduced in 1954 as a wide angle camera using the Carl Zeiss Biogon 38 mm f/4.5 lens and built-in levels for exacting architecture photography, formed the core of the V-system and shared most accessories (with a few exceptions).


title: Hasselblad

text: Throughout the life of the V Series, Hasselblad incrementally updated the cameras. The 500C gave way to the 500C/M, the 503CX and 503CXi, the 501C and 501CM, and finally the 503CW as the basic manual. The SWC was replaced by the SWC/M, the 903 SWC, and finally by the 905 SWC. The 500 EL's replacements included the 500EL/M, 500ELX, 553 ELX, and the 555ELD. First introduced in the 500ELX, TTL/OTF (through the lens/off the film) flash metering was also a feature of the 503CX, which was replaced by the 503CXi and finally the 503CW. The 503CWD was the very last iteration of the V-series line and was a limited edition variant produced in 2006 to commemorate the centenary of the birth of Victor Hasselblad (born 1906). The 503CWD was supplied with a match-numbered CFV-16 digital back. The entire production run was limited to only 500 units, all numbered.


title: Hasselblad

text: Alongside the 500-series cameras, a series of focal plane shutter cameras was introduced. This 2000-series started with the 2000 FC, and progressed to the 2000 FC/M, 2000 FCW and 2003 FCW. Though much of the 20 years between the discontinuation of the 1000F and the introduction of the 2000 FC was spent designing an improved focal plane shutter, the 2000-series again used corrugated metal foil as material for the shutter curtains, though now titanium replaced the original stainless steel. As before, the metal shutter curtains proved to be quite easily damaged by clumsy fingers, which is why all 2000-series cameras except the 2000FC have a safety feature that retracts the shutter curtains as soon as the magazine is taken off. The 2000-series cameras were replaced by the 200-series cameras (with rubberized cloth shutter curtains), which included the 201 F, 202 FA, 203 FE, and 205 TCC/205 FCC. While the 201 F was a manual control camera, the other three 200-series models added a level of metering and exposure automation to the V series.


title: Hasselblad

text: There were also two series of medium format view cameras developed related to the V series: the FlexBody and the ArcBody.


title: Hasselblad

text: 500EL and its successors have been and still are used mainly as workhorses in photo studios. This camera's heavily modified version was used in the U.S. Apollo lunar exploration program. In 1968 it was used by astronaut William Anders to take the image known as "Earthrise". As an outgrowth of the experience with NASA cameras, a photogrammetric version of the Hasselblad 500 EL/M, the Hasselblad MK 70, was constructed with specially calibrated components.


title: Hasselblad

text: The dual-format XPan and XPan II were Hasselblad's first cameras to use 35mm film. Built with a rubber-covered titanium and aluminium body, they were designed as a coupled rangefinder camera with interchangeable, compact lenses.


title: Hasselblad

text: The XPan cameras are re-branded versions of the Fuji TX-1 and TX-2. The XPan II has every feature of the original, but grants the user the ability to record thirty-minute exposures compared to the old limit of three minutes. Electronic exposure information in the viewfinder is another additional feature of the XPan II.


title: Hasselblad

text: The XPan reverted to the focal plane shutter, offering 8–1/1000 s, and flash sync from B (max. 270 s) – 1/125 s.


title: Hasselblad

text: The intent in releasing the XPan was to provide medium format image quality on 35mm film. The XPan utilised the entire area of the 35mm film for either panorama or 35mm format, providing a panorama effect without masking the film or reducing image quality. This technique produced a panorama negative almost three times larger than traditional masking and over five times larger than that of APS cameras.


title: Hasselblad

text: The H1 departed from previous Hasselblad cameras in several respects. Hasselblad moved away from the traditional format to  cm, and included autofocus lenses.


title: Hasselblad

text: The camera used Fujinon manufactured lenses and prisms, thus departing from Hasselblad's long association with Carl Zeiss when it comes to lens manufacturing.


title: Hasselblad

text: The shutter in the lenses was still manufactured by Hasselblad as well as the body. Hasselblad initially invited both PhaseOne and Kodak to develop digital backs for the H-System.


title: Hasselblad

text: Identical to the H1, but sold bundled with a Hasselblad-branded Imacon 22Mp iXpress back which coupled with a 40GB Image Bank allowed shooting of up to 850 images in one session.


title: Hasselblad

text: The camera could only be used with the included digital back. This was Hasselblad's first integrated DSLR.


title: Hasselblad

text: Hasselblad has built into the H2 cross-platform camera a new single-battery operation of the camera with the new Ixpress CFH digital back, offering one on/off switch and one operating system, facilitating streamlined, integrated operation. With existing digital backs already in the market, the H2 delivers the exact functionality of the H1.


title: Hasselblad

text: 2nd generation integrated DSLR. First Hasselblad camera to shoot to new Raw format called the 3FR. Conversions to 3F files could be done in Flexcolor or Phocus.


title: Hasselblad

text: Can utilize a CF card. No longer necessary to shoot to an Image Bank via link cable. Firewire 800 capable.


title: Hasselblad

text: New metering patterns to match the larger sensors. A new lithium ion 1,850 mAh battery was introduced that would power both the H2D body and digital back.


title: Hasselblad

text: The H2F can be used either as a film camera or as a digital camera when mated with a Hasselblad CF31, CF22, CF22 MS, CF39, or CF39 MS back. It is completely identical to the H2, but this camera was created to "lock out" other digital back providers from the H-series platform. The H2F is compatible with all of the H lenses, including the HCD 24mm, HCD 28mm, and the new HCD 35-90mm zoom lens.


title: Hasselblad

text: 3rd generation integrated DSLR. The H3D offered software functionality that provided better integration between camera, viewfinder and back than the earlier H1 or H2 could provide. These two early H-System cameras, after all, were not primarily designed as digital cameras, with the H2 carrying the 'legacy' of the H1. Hasselblad's official position on the move was:


title: Hasselblad

text: "In truth, [the H1] was a great film camera to which a digital back could be fitted, and...Hasselblad started to look at ways that image quality and functionality could be enhanced even more through better integration...The H2 camera has not, in any way, been diminished by Hasselblad's separate development of functions specifically for the integrated H3D. However, lacking the necessary integration of the new camera engine and Hasselblad Flexcolor software, these functions cannot work on the H2."


title: Hasselblad

text: 4th generation integrated DSLR. Introduced in 2007, the H3DII systems have a higher level of integration between the camera and the image sensor than stand-alone digital camera backs, but a disadvantage is that film backs are not usable in the H3DII. Improvements of the HD3DII line were:


title: Hasselblad

text: 5th generation integrated DSLR. Introduced in 2009, the current H4D products include H4D-31, H4D-40, H4D-50, H4D-50MS, H4D-60 and H4D-200MS.


title: Hasselblad

text: 6th generation integrated DSLR. Introduced in 2012, the current H5D products include H5D-40, H5D-50, H5D-50MS, H5D-60 and H5D-200MS.


title: Hasselblad

text: On September 9, 2014, Hasselblad introduced the H5X as a replacement H1, H2, H2F and H4X. Improvements of the H5X were:


title: Hasselblad

text: In April 2016, Hasselblad introduced the H6D product line. The current H6D products include H6D-50c, H6D-100c, and H6D-400c MS.


title: Hasselblad

text: This camera is a variant of the H6D-100c with the ability to shift the sensor by a sequence of full and half pixel movements in sync with multiple captures to improve both colour rendition and to extrapolate a higher resolution. This method, designated by the suffix MS, i.e. "Multi-shot", is commonly known as "pixel shifting"). However it is not a true 400 megapixel camera as the name might suggest.


title: Hasselblad

text: The X System is a new line of relatively small mirrorless cameras built around a 43.8 by 32.9 mm medium format sensor. It was announced in June 2016. Along with the cameras, Hasselblad released a new "XCD" lens mount which is specifically designed for a smaller flange distance compared to the larger "HCD" lens mount. The company sells an additional adapter to mount HCD lenses onto XCD lens mounts while retaining autofocus capabilities. At the time of launch two lenses were available, a 45mm and a 90mm option. there are eight lenses available ranging from a 21mm focal length wide angle lens to a 135mm focal length short telephoto lens. Hasselblad also announced a zoom lens with an focal length range of 35 to 75mm.


title: Hasselblad

text: In June 2016, Hasselblad announced the X1D-50c, the first of a new line of medium format mirrorless cameras. The X1D is comparable in size to current full-frame digital SLRs, but is equipped with a 43.8 x 32.9 mm CMOS sensor. The camera uses a new XCD mount, with two lenses initially available for sale. At the same time, an H Mount adapter was announced, allowing H System Lenses to be used with full autofocus. Currently, there are nine XCD Lenses available. Hasselblad announced the X1D II 50c in June 2019, an upgraded variant of the original camera with the exact same sensor but faster electronics and a lower price point. Hasselblad launches the 100 megapixel X2D 100C in September 2022, with better AF, IBIS, a revised design and three new X system lenses.


title: Hasselblad

text: When Hasselblad merged with Imacon in 2004, it acquired Imacon's existing range of Flextight scanners. In 2006, Hasselblad launched two additional Flextight models, the X1 and the X5.


title: Hasselblad

text: Hasselblad also produces its own advanced image processing software called "Phocus". The latest version of Phocus is available on Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X, and by taking advantage of the operating system's raw image format library, the Mac OS X version of Phocus supports raw image formats from other DSLR manufacturers. Phocus is available as a free download from the Hasselblad homepage.


title: Hasselblad

text: In 2010, Hasselblad announced that future Windows versions of Phocus will not provide raw file support for 3rd-party cameras.


title: Hasselblad

text: In June 2019, Hasselblad announced the new Phocus Mobile 2, enabling a more portable workflow via USB-C and Wi-Fi connection for the traveling photographer. With Phocus Mobile 2, users can import, edit and rate RAW images and import and rate full quality JPEG images directly on their iPad Pro or iPad Air 2019 model. In addition, Phocus Mobile 2 supports full quality image export, tethered shooting and direct camera control.


title: Hasselblad

text: At the 2012 photokina trade show in Germany, Hasselblad announced it would release a new mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera (MILC) using the Sony E-mount. The camera, called the Lunar, is based on the Sony NEX-7, including its 24.3 MP APS-C sensor, processing engine and user interface. The Lunar, which is marketed as an "ultimate luxury" model, was released in summer 2013.


title: Hasselblad

text: On 23 July 2013 Hasselblad announced the Stellar, a "luxury" compact digital camera based on the Sony Cyber-shot DSC-RX100.


title: Hasselblad

text: On 3 February 2014, Hasselblad introduced a restyled Sony α99 as the Hasselblad HV. According to the company's press-release, their version of the α99 is "tough as nails", featuring more robust construction than the original.


title: Hasselblad

text: On 26 November 2014, Hasselblad announced the Stellar II based on the DSC-RX100M2. No further rebranded Sony products have been released by Hasselblad.


title: Hasselblad

text: Unlike Leica in a similar partnership with Panasonic, Hasselblad did not make claims of reprogrammed image processing. The company, however, used the same marketing strategy, selling the OEM cameras under their brand at the prices two or three times higher than those of the original Sony cameras.


title: Hasselblad

text: On 8 March 2021, OnePlus announced a $150 million deal with Hasselblad to develop camera technology for OnePlus. The OnePlus 9 series are the first smartphones that included improved cameras made in partnership with Hasselblad.


title: Hasselblad

text: In February 2022, OPPO announced a three-year partnership with Hasselblad, to co-develop industry-leading camera technologies for OPPO’s flagship Find X series. The triple-camera 5G handset


title: Hasselblad

text: Hasselblad published the "Hasselblad Forum" until 2007, and it was replaced by the new large-format journal, "Victor". "Victor" is available online as PDF, but registration is required.


title: Fictional universe

text: A fictional universe, or fictional world, is a self-consistent setting with events, and often other elements, that differ from the real world. It may also be called an imagined, constructed, or fictional realm (or world). Fictional universes may appear in novels, comics, films, television shows, video games, and other creative works.


title: Fictional universe

text: The subject is most commonly addressed in reference to fictional universes that differ markedly from the real world, such as those that introduce entire fictional cities, countries, or even planets, or those that contradict commonly known facts about the world and its history, or those that feature fantasy or science fiction concepts such as magic or faster than light travel—and especially those in which the deliberate development of the setting is a substantial focus of the work. When a large franchise of related works has two or more somewhat different fictional universes that are each internally consistent but not consistent with each other (such as a distinct plotline and set of characters in a comics version versus a television adaptation), each universe is often referred to as a continuity, though the term "continuity" as a mass noun usually has a broader meaning in fiction.


title: Fictional universe

text: What distinguishes a fictional universe from a simple setting is the level of detail and internal consistency. A fictional universe has an established continuity and internal logic that must be adhered to throughout the work and even across separate works. So, for instance, many books may be set in conflicting fictional versions of Victorian London, but all the stories of Sherlock Holmes are set in "the same" Victorian London. However, the various film series based on Sherlock Holmes follow their own separate continuities, thus not taking place in the same fictional universe.


title: Fictional universe

text: The history and geography of a fictional universe are well defined, and maps and timelines are often included in works set within them. Even new languages may be constructed. When subsequent works are written within the same universe, care is usually taken to ensure that established facts of the canon are not violated. Even if the fictional universe involves concepts such as elements of magic that don't exist in the real world, these must adhere to a set of rules established by the author.


title: Fictional universe

text: A famous example of a detailed fictional universe is Arda (more popularly known as Middle-earth), of J. R. R. Tolkien's books "The Lord of the Rings", "The Hobbit", and "The Silmarillion". He created first its languages and then the world itself, which he states was "primarily linguistic in inspiration and was begun in order to provide the necessary 'history' for the Elvish tongues."


title: Fictional universe

text: A modern example of a fictional universe is that of the "Avatar" film series, as James Cameron invented an entire ecosystem, with a team of scientists to test whether it was viable. Additionally, he commissioned a linguistics expert to invent the Na'vi language.


title: Fictional universe

text: Virtually every successful fictional TV series or comic book develops its own "universe" to keep track of the various episodes or issues. Writers for that series must follow its story bible, which often becomes the series canon.


title: Fictional universe

text: Frequently, when a series is perceived by its creators as too complicated or too self-inconsistent (because of, for example, too many writers), the producers or publishers may introduce retroactive continuity (retcon) to make future editions easier to write and more consistent. This creates an alternate universe that future authors can write about. These stories about the universe or universes that existed before the retcon are usually not canonical, unless the franchise-holder gives permission. "Crisis on Infinite Earths" was an especially sweeping example.


title: Fictional universe

text: Some writers choose to introduce elements or characters from one work into another, to present the idea that both works are set in the same universe. For example, the character of Ursula Buffay from American sitcom "Mad About You" was also a recurring guest star in "Friends", despite the two series having little else in common. Fellow NBC series "Seinfeld" also contained crossover references to "Mad About You". L. Frank Baum introduced the characters of Cap'n Bill and Trot (from "The Sea Fairies") into the Oz series in "The Scarecrow of Oz", and they made a number of appearances in later Oz books. In science fiction, A. Bertram Chandler introduced into his future Galactic civilization the character Dominic Flandry from Poul Anderson's quite different Galactic future (he had Anderson's consent)—on the assumption that these were two alternate history timelines and that people could on some occasions cross from one to the other.


title: Fictional universe

text: Sir Thomas More's "Utopia" is one of the earliest examples of a cohesive fictional world with its own rules and functional concepts, but it comprises only one small island. Later fictional universes, like Robert E. Howard's "Conan the Cimmerian" stories or Lev Grossman's Fillory, are global in scope and some, like "Star Wars", "Honorverse", "BattleTech", or the Lensman series, are galactic or even intergalactic.


title: Fictional universe

text: A fictional universe may even concern itself with more than one interconnected universe through fictional devices such as dreams, "time travel" or "parallel worlds". Such a series of interconnected universes is often called a multiverse. Such multiverses have been featured prominently in science fiction since at least the mid-20th century.


title: Fictional universe

text: The "" episode "" introduced the Mirror Universe, in which the crew members of the Starship "Enterprise" were brutal rather than compassionate. The 2009 movie "Star Trek" created an "alternate reality" and freed the "Star Trek" franchise from continuity issues. In the mid-1980s, DC Comics "Crisis on Infinite Earths" streamlined its fictional continuity by destroying most of its alternate universes.


title: Fictional universe

text: A fictional universe can be contained in a single work, as in George Orwell's "Nineteen Eighty-Four" or Aldous Huxley's "Brave New World", or in serialized, series-based, open-ended or round robin-style fiction.


title: Fictional universe

text: In most small-scale fictional universes, general properties and timeline events fit into a consistently organized continuity. However, in the case of universes that are rewritten or revised by different writers, editors, or producers, this continuity may be violated, by accident or by design.


title: Fictional universe

text: The occasional publishing use of retroactive continuity (retcon) often occurs due to this kind of revision or oversight. Members of fandom often create a kind of fan-made canon (fanon) to patch up such errors; "fanon" that becomes generally accepted sometimes becomes actual canon. Other fan-made additions to a universe (fan fiction, alternate universe, pastiche, parody) are usually not considered canonical unless they get authorized.


title: Fictional universe

text: Shared universes often come about when a fictional universe achieves great commercial success and attracts other media. For example, a successful movie may catch the attention of various book authors, who wish to write stories based on that movie. Under U.S. law, the copyright-holder retains control of all other derivative works, including those written by other authors, but they might not feel comfortable in those other mediums or may feel that other individuals will do a better job; therefore, they may open up the copyright on a shared-universe basis. The degree to which the copyright-holder or franchise retains control is often one of the points in the license agreement.


title: Fictional universe

text: For example, the comic book "Superman" was so popular that it spawned over 30 different radio, television, and movie series and a similar number of video games, as well as theme park rides, books, and songs. In the other direction, both "Star Trek" and "Star Wars" are responsible for hundreds of books and games of varying levels of canonicity.


title: Fictional universe

text: Fictional universes are sometimes shared by multiple prose authors, with each author's works in that universe being granted approximately equal canonical status. For example, Larry Niven's fictional universe Known Space has an approximately 135-year period in which Niven allows other authors to write stories about the Man-Kzin Wars. Other fictional universes, like the "Ring of Fire" series, actively court canonical stimulus from fans, but gate and control the changes through a formalized process and the final say of the editor and universe creator.


title: Fictional universe

text: Other universes are created by one or several authors but are intended to be used non-canonically by others, such as the fictional settings for games, particularly role-playing games and video games. Settings for the role-playing game "Dungeons & Dragons" are called campaign settings; other games have also incorporated this term on occasion. Virtual worlds are fictional worlds in which online computer games, notably MMORPGs and MUDs, take place. A fictional crossover occurs when two or more fictional characters, series or universes cross over with one another, usually in the context of a character created by one author or owned by one company meeting a character created or owned by another. In the case where two fictional universes covering entire "actual" universes cross over, physical travel from one universe to another may actually occur in the course of the story. Such crossovers are usually, but not always, considered non-canonical by their creators or by those in charge of the properties involved.


title: Atrophy

text: Atrophy is the partial or complete wasting away of a part of the body. Causes of atrophy include mutations (which can destroy the gene to build up the organ), poor nourishment, poor circulation, loss of hormonal support, loss of nerve supply to the target organ, excessive amount of apoptosis of cells, and disuse or lack of exercise or disease intrinsic to the tissue itself. In medical practice, hormonal and nerve inputs that maintain an organ or body part are said to have "trophic" effects. A diminished muscular trophic condition is designated as "atrophy". Atrophy is reduction in size of cell, organ or tissue, after attaining its normal mature growth. In contrast, hypoplasia is the reduction in the cellular numbers of an organ, or tissue that has not attained normal maturity.


title: Atrophy

text: Atrophy is the general physiological process of reabsorption and breakdown of tissues, involving apoptosis. When it occurs as a result of disease or loss of trophic support because of other diseases, it is termed "pathological atrophy", although it can be a part of normal body development and homeostasis as well.


title: Atrophy

text: Examples of atrophy as part of normal development include shrinking and the involution of the thymus in early childhood, and the tonsils in adolescence. In old age, effects include, but are not limited to, loss of teeth, hair, thinning of skin that creates wrinkles, weakening of muscles, loss of weight in organs and sluggish mental activity.


title: Atrophy

text: "Disuse atrophy" of muscles and bones, with loss of mass and strength, can occur after prolonged immobility, such as extended bedrest, or having a body part in a cast (living in darkness for the eye, bedridden for the legs etc.). This type of atrophy can usually be reversed with exercise unless severe.


title: Atrophy

text: There are many diseases and conditions which cause atrophy of muscle mass. For example, diseases such as cancer and AIDS induce a body wasting syndrome called "cachexia", which is notable for the severe muscle atrophy seen. Other syndromes or conditions which can induce skeletal muscle atrophy are congestive heart failure and liver disease.


title: Atrophy

text: During aging, there is a gradual decrease in the ability to maintain skeletal muscle function and mass. This condition is called "sarcopenia", and may be distinct from atrophy in its pathophysiology. While the exact cause of sarcopenia is unknown, it may be induced by a combination of a gradual failure in the satellite cells which help to regenerate skeletal muscle fibers, and a decrease in sensitivity to or the availability of critical secreted growth factors which are necessary to maintain muscle mass and satellite cell survival.


title: Atrophy

text: Pathologic atrophy of muscles can occur with diseases of the motor nerves or diseases of the muscle tissue itself. Examples of atrophying nerve diseases include Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, poliomyelitis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS or Lou Gehrig's disease), and Guillain–Barré syndrome. Examples of atrophying muscle diseases include muscular dystrophy, myotonia congenita, and myotonic dystrophy.


title: Atrophy

text: Changes in Na+ channel isoform expression and spontaneous activity in muscle called fibrillation can also result in muscle atrophy.


title: Atrophy

text: A flail limb is a medical term which refers to an extremity in which the primary nerve has been severed, resulting in complete lack of mobility and sensation. The muscles soon wither away from atrophy.


title: Atrophy

text: The adrenal glands atrophy during prolonged use of exogenous glucocorticoids like prednisone. Atrophy of the breasts can occur with prolonged estrogen reduction, as with anorexia nervosa or menopause. Testicular atrophy can occur with prolonged use of enough exogenous sex steroids (either androgen or estrogen) to reduce gonadotropin secretion.


title: Atrophy

text: In post-menopausal women, the walls of the vagina become thinner (atrophic vaginitis). The mechanism for the age-related condition is not yet clear, though there are theories that the effect is caused by decreases in estrogen levels. This atrophy, and that of the breasts concurrently, is consistent with the homeostatic (normal development) role of atrophy in general, as after menopause the body has no further functional biological need to maintain the reproductive system which it has permanently shut down.


title: Atrophy

text: One drug in test seemed to prevent the type of muscle loss that occurs in immobile, bedridden patients.


title: Atrophy

text: Testing on mice showed that it blocked the activity of a protein present in the muscle that is involved in muscle atrophy. However, the drug's long-term effect on the heart precludes its routine use in humans, and other drugs are being sought.


title: The Real Housewives of Cheshire

text: The Real Housewives of Cheshire (abbreviated RHOCheshire) is a British reality television series that premiered on ITVBe on 12 January 2015. Developed as the first British installment in "The Real Housewives" franchise, it has aired fifteen seasons and focuses on the personal and professional lives of several women living in or around Cheshire, England.


title: The Real Housewives of Cheshire

text: The current cast consists of Lauren Simon, Seema Malhotra, Rachel Lugo, Hanna Kinsella, Nicole Sealey, Lystra Adams, Sheena Lynch and Katie Alex.


title: The Real Housewives of Cheshire

text: On 22 September 2014, ITV announced the cast for Britain's first Real Housewives installment "The Real Housewives of Cheshire". Starring Ampika Pickston, Dawn Ward, Lauren Simon, Leanne Brown, Magali Gorré and Tanya Bardsley, the series follows the cast's intertwining and fast lives in the rich communities of Cheshire and Greater Manchester. ITV had planned to profile the glamorous denizens of London's Knightsbridge in the series, but ITV bosses said "their homes weren’t quite big enough..", and so Cheshire was chosen. After the success of the first series, with the premiere becoming ITVBe's second highest rated programme ever behind The Only Way is Essex, on 27 April 2015, it was announced that a second series had been commissioned, with filming to begin in May 2015. The second series aired from 7 September 2015 to 9 November 2015, with the cast from the first series all returning.


title: The Real Housewives of Cheshire

text: On 1 March 2016, it was announced that Gorré would be departing the series, although a return in future wasn’t ruled out. Three days later, the network announced that Ward, Simon, Pickston, Brown and Bardsley would all be returning for a third series along with three new wives, Missé Beqiri, Seema Malhotra and Stacey Forsey. The third series premiered on 4 April 2016. Three weeks later, Bardsley confirmed that the third series would have a reunion show, a first since the show's inception. On 19 May 2016, it was announced that Irish television presenter, Brian Dowling, would be hosting the reunion show. The reunion was filmed at Peckforton Castle in Cheshire in late May and aired on 13 June 2016, concluding the third series.


title: The Real Housewives of Cheshire

text: On 8 June 2016, a week before the airing of the reunion for the third series, it was announced that the show would be returning for a fourth series. It was also revealed that all the housewives from the third series would be returning. Filming for the fourth series commenced on 1 July 2016 and the following month, a small teaser was broadcast on ITVBe that revealed the fourth series would premiere on 5 September 2016. The fourth series' reunion was filmed at the same location as the third series’ reunion, at Peckforton Castle in Cheshire. The reunion aired on 8 November 2016.


title: The Real Housewives of Cheshire

text: On 3 January 2017, it was announced that the show had been renewed for both a fifth and sixth series, with both set to air in 2017. Filming for the fifth series began in late January. On 13 February 2017, it was revealed that the fifth series would premiere on 27 March 2017. It was also announced that Beqiri would not be returning in a main housewife role, in order to allow her to take a step back and focus on her relationship but would appear in a smaller capacity. Former housewife, Gorré commented on the upcoming series, stating "I have heard there is a new cast member and she is more Geordie Shore than Golden Triangle." On 21 March 2017, Ester Dohnalová was announced to be the new housewife for the fifth series. Subsequently, on 28 April 2017, Beqiri announced the fifth series would be her last. The fifth series didn’t have a reunion show and instead featured host, Dowling, visiting the housewives' homes in a special titled 'At Home with the Real Housewives of Cheshire'.


title: The Real Housewives of Cheshire

text: On 9 July 2017, Simon exclusively revealed that filming for the sixth series had begun. Later that month, original housewife, Pickston, announced her departure from the series after six seasons. It was exclusively announced on an ITVBe advert that two new housewives would be joining the show, alongside the returning seven housewives. The sixth series premiered on 11 September 2017, with Rachel Lugo and Nermina Pieters-Mekic joining the cast. Lugo's identical twin sister, Katie Kane appeared in a recurring capacity, whilst the cast filmed in Gibraltar.


title: The Real Housewives of Cheshire

text: On 10 February 2018, Brown confirmed her exit from the show, ahead of the seventh season, due to her ongoing legal battle with former friend and co-star, Ward. She stated her intention to never appear on the show again, something she later retracted and ended up going back on, as she appeared in fourteenth season of the show, in a guest appearance. Brown’s departure marked the third of six housewives to leave the show from the original line-up, leaving Bardsley, Simon and Ward remaining. The first clip for the seventh series was revealed on ITV stating that the show will be back in March, confirming the return of the remaining housewives as well as a guest appearance from Kane. On 28 February 2018, it was revealed that Christine McGuinness, the wife of Paddy McGuinness would be joining the show for the seventh series. Upon the series premiere, it was announced that her appearance would be in a recurring capacity. The seventh series concluded with a reunion show which took place at Manchester Hall, the first to be filmed in a new location in the show's history.


title: The Real Housewives of Cheshire

text: At the end of the seventh seasons’ reunion, host Dowling confirmed that the show would return for an eighth series. On 27 July 2018, it was revealed that both Forsey and Pieters-Mekic would not be returning as main housewives for the eighth season but would feature as guests.


title: The Real Housewives of Cheshire

text: On 19 March 2019, a ninth series was confirmed to be premiering the following week, with all the housewives returning from the previous series, with the exception of original housewife, Simon, citing her intention to focus on her two girls amid her ongoing divorce, from husband, Paul Simon. On 2 August 2019, the cast of the tenth series was confirmed, with all housewives returning from the previous series, with the addition of Leilani Dowding while McGuiness and Pieters-Mekic would return as guests. The tenth series also moved from the regular ten o’clock timeslot, to the peak time position of nine o’clock. There was a special episode to mark a milestone one hundredth episode, which included all current housewives as well as features from former housewives Brown, Gorré, Simon, and Forsey.


title: The Real Housewives of Cheshire

text: On 13 January 2020, Dowding confirmed she would not be returning to the series after one season on Instagram.


title: The Real Housewives of Cheshire

text: On 26 January 2020, it was announced that Simon would be returning to the series, following a two-season break. On 4 March 2020, it was announced that the eleventh series would premiere in March, with Navia announcing her departure from the series after three seasons. The eleventh series was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic but on 7 April 2020, it was announced that the upcoming series would premiere on 20 April 2020 with Nicole Sealey joining the cast but that the series would feature only eight episodes, rather than the traditional eleven. A virtual reunion was held to review the season. In August 2020, Dohnalová announced her departure from the series after filming the first two episodes of the twelfth season. That same month, longtime friend of the housewives Christine McGuinness also announced that she had quit the series. On 30 September 2020, it was announced that twelfth season would begin airing on the 12 October with new housewife, Lystra Adams, joining the group, during the third episode of the series.


title: The Real Housewives of Cheshire

text: On 11 December 2020, original housewife, Ward, announced her departure from the series and confirming the series will continue with another season. She cited that she wished to spend more time with her family and said that the pandemic had offered her time to reflect on this decision.


title: The Real Housewives of Cheshire

text: Filming for thirteenth season commenced on 1 March 2021. On 28 April 2021, it was announced that all of the wives from the twelfth season, with the exception of Ward, would be returning, alongside new housewife and psychic, Deborah Davies. Dohnalova was announced to make guest appearances during this season. Season 13 premiered on 10 May 2021. Filming for the fourteenth instalment commenced on 4 August 2021. Two weeks later, it was announced that original cast member, Brown, would be returning as a friend of for the first time since leaving the show following the sixth season. On 27 September 2021, it was confirmed that all the housewives would be returning for the fourteenth season, along with the addition of Sheena Lynch and the series premiered on 11 October 2021.


title: The Real Housewives of Cheshire

text: On 11 November 2021, following little appearance on the fourteenth season, Bardsley announced she had quit the show after almost seven years. In January 2022, Davies announced on her Instagram, that she was to leave the show to pursue upcoming projects. The fifteenth season premiered in August 2022, on a delayed schedule, in comparison to previous years. Katie Alex was introduced as a series regular with Karen Loderick and Ashley Stobart joining as “friends of the housewives”. Pieters-Mekic and Kane made guest appearances throughout the season. Within the season, in the finale episode of the first season of "The Real Housewives of Dubai", Adams made a guest appearance. During the reunion special, the sixteenth season was confirmed to have been ordered.


title: The Real Housewives of Cheshire

text: In Australia, the series premiered on Arena on 24 May 2015. In the United States, the series debuted on 14 November 2015, on Bravo, the same network that initiated "The Real Housewives" franchise. In Spain the series airs on Ten.


title: Steve Backshall

text: Stephen James Backshall (born 21 April 1973) is an English naturalist, explorer, presenter and writer, best known for BBC TV's "Deadly 60".


title: Steve Backshall

text: His other BBC work includes being part of the expedition teams in "Lost Land of the Tiger", "Lost Land of the Volcano", "Deadly Dinosaurs" and "Lost Land of the Jaguar", as well as "Expedition with Steve Backshall" for the TV channel Dave. He has worked for the National Geographic Channel and the Discovery Channel. He has published a series of four novels for children called "The Falcon Chronicles", three adult non-fiction works and numerous other children's non-fiction books.


title: Steve Backshall

text: Backshall's parents worked for British Airways, and he was brought up in a smallholding in Bagshot surrounded by rescue animals.


title: Steve Backshall

text: Backshall attended Collingwood College in Camberley and Brooklands College, Surrey in the sixth form. He backpacked solo around Asia, India and Africa. After this he studied English and theatre studies at the University of Exeter. In 2020, he received his MSc in bioscience from Canterbury Christ Church University.


title: Steve Backshall

text: Backshall's first job after returning from Japan was as an author in the Rough Guides to Indonesia and South East Asia.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In 1997, Backshall attempted to walk solo across the western half of New Guinea, then known as Irian Jaya; he was in the rainforest for three months, but was ultimately unsuccessful. He then had an idea for a series, bought a video camera, and went to the jungles of Colombia, where he made a pilot which he sold to the National Geographic Channel, which employed him in 1998 as its 'Adventurer in Residence' and he spent five years as a producer and presenter. For National Geographic International, Backshall presented the expedition series "Game For It" and the environmental series "EarthPulse".


title: Steve Backshall

text: On "A Walk in The Desert" he walked across Israel's Negev Desert. For "Bootcamp", he completed the Israeli special forces selection course, running 60 miles overnight to gain their red beret. "Cracking the Canyon" was nominated for Best Adventure Film at the Banff Mountain Film Festival.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In 2003, he moved to BBC's "The Really Wild Show". In his first series, he travelled up Australia's east coast from Tasmania to Cape Tribulation. In the next series, he travelled around Central America, the Galapagos, and then Southern Africa for the final series in 2006. He competed with fellow naturalist Nick Baker in a series of wildlife challenges. After four years, "The Really Wild Show" was axed so he joined the BBC Natural History Unit's expedition team.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In "Expedition Borneo", BBC 2005, the team went in search of new species. With other cavers he made the first exploration of the passages below the mighty 'Solo' sinkhole in the Mulu mountains of Borneo, and also made the first ascent of the north side of Mount Kuli.


title: Steve Backshall

text: He co-presented "Springwatch Trackers" (BBC Two) with Kirsten O'Brien which was broadcast live from the "Springwatch" farm in Devon between 28 May and 15 June 2007. Teams of boys and girls were set a series of tracker challenges.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In 2008, his "Deadly 60" was commissioned, followed by the "Live n Deadly" offshoot, the aim of which was to inspire children to get outside and interested in wildlife and adventure; his live wildlife question and answer appearances attracted up to 14,000 people per event. In the ""Deadly"" programmes he searched for predators that were "Not just deadly to me, but deadly in their own world". He dived outside of the cage with great white, bull, great hammerhead, mako and tiger sharks, caught king cobras, black mambas and lanceheads, had a redback spider crawl across his hand and was bitten on the leg by a caiman while searching for anaconda in an Argentinian swamp. The programmes were transmitted on Nat Geo Wild, Animal Planet and BBC to 157 countries worldwide. The fourth season of the series, "Deadly Pole to Pole" was filmed in 2013–2014 from the Arctic circle to Antarctica, journeying south through the Americas. The scenarios included being hunted by a polar bear whilst kayaking in Svalbard, filming feeding sharks and eagles (using timeslice technology), exploring flooded caves and the insides of a glacier, and catching dozens of species of snake and crocodile. He was bitten by a shark but was saved by a chain-mail shark suit. The finale was diving underneath Antarctic icebergs alongside predatory leopard seal.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In "Lost Land of the Jaguar", BBC One 2008, he led the first expedition to successfully climb Mount Upuigma. On the summit, they discovered an endemic species of frog and mouse, and also footprints of an unidentified mammal. Lead climber John Arran named the route "Spiders in the Mist" and gave it a British grade of E7.


title: Steve Backshall

text: He filmed "Ultimate Caving", BBC One 2008, with Kate Humble, "Secret Wilderness Japan", BBC Two 2008, and also presented Nature Reports for the BBC's "The One Show".


title: Steve Backshall

text: In "Lost Land of the Volcano", BBC One 2009, he led the first western expedition into the crater of the extinct volcano, Mount Bosavi, in Papua New Guinea, where they discovered, among other things, one of the largest species of rats known anywhere in the world, provisionally called the Bosavi woolly rat while its scientific name is determined. They also uncovered miles of undiscovered passages in the Mageni cave system in New Britain.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In "Lost Land of the Tiger", BBC One 2010, the expedition team travelled to Bhutan and filmed, via remote cameras, the Bengal tigers above the tree-line in the Himalayas, categorically higher than had ever been filmed before. Their presence at these altitudes has been previously reported from reports from India, Nepal and Bhutan.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In "Supergiants", BBC One 2013, he sought to explain why species grow very large. It included diving with Nile crocodiles in Botswana, sperm whales in the Caribbean, and avoiding 2-ton elephant seals in California.


title: Steve Backshall

text: He was a contestant on the twelfth series of "Strictly Come Dancing" from September 2014 on BBC One. He was partnered with former champion Ola Jordan. The couple left the series in week nine after dancing a jive to "Little Bitty Pretty One" by Frankie Lymon.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In August 2015, along with Matt Baker and Liz Bonnin, Backshall co-presented "Big Blue Live", a series of three programmes for BBC1, featuring marine life in Monterey Bay, California. The series won a BAFTA for best live series.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In 2016, the BBC aired a series called "Steve Backshall's Extreme Mountain Challenge", in which the explorer attempted another first ascent by climbing one of Venezuela's remote and forbidding "tepuis" - sheer-sided flat-top mountains. In episode 1 Backshall and his team tackle Amaurai Tepui in south Venezuela's Canaima National Park. The expedition nearly ended in tragedy when a storm hit the mountain, and rockfall nearly hit his climbing partner, Aldo Kane.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In 2017, the BBC premiered another two-part documentary following Backshall's expedition to New Guinea called "Down the Mighty River with Steve Backshall". The team of whitewater kayakers attempted to make the first ever descent of the 500 mile long Baliem River in Papua; an expedition Backshall had been planning since 1997. Over the course of six weeks, they battled against some of the hardest whitewater on earth, capsizes, illness and local politics. Eventually they made it from source to sea, although were open that they had not kayaked the entire length of the journey. A two-part series "Japan's Northern Wilderness" was presented by Backshall and his wife Helen Glover. A three-part series, "Wild Alaska Live", co-presented by Liz Bonnin and Matt Baker, aired in July 2017.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In January 2018, Backshall participated in "And They're Off!" in aid of Sport Relief. Later in the year, he appeared in the first five episodes of "Springwatch" for 2018 and also presented an hour-long documentary "Steve Backshall Vs The Monster Mountain" on CBBC. In summer 2018, he presented a ten-part series entitled "Deadly Dinosaurs", also for CBBC.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In March 2019, Backshall, along with Liz Bonnin and Chris Packham, presented a four-part series "Blue Planet Live" on BBC One. Backshall was seen diving live with great hammerhead sharks, tiger sharks, bull sharks and reef sharks from the shark sanctuary of Bimini.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In 2018-19, Backshall launched the project "Expedition", which was televised by BBC2, UKTV, SBS, PBS and Discovery Asia. This involved ten expeditions to parts of the globe that had never been explored before. The team uncovered many miles of sunken cave passages in the cenotes of the Yucatan. They made the first descents of rivers in Suriname and discovered a waterfall that had no record of ever being seen before. At over 100 m high, it was the second highest in the nation. In Bhutan on the first descent of the Chamkhar Chhu river, Backshall was caught in a rapid for five minutes and nearly drowned. His life was saved by rescue kayaker Sal Montgomery. They also made an ascent of Jebel Samnhan in Oman, and the first exploration of a desert canyon with a local explorer.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In "Venom Hunter", Discovery Channel TV, 2008, he travelled South America aiming to find out as much as possible about venom, including taking part in the bullet ant ritual where he was stung hundreds of times by the world's most painful stinging insect.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In "Swimming with Monsters", Discovery TV 2013, he swam with large animals, including anaconda, hippopotamus, Humboldt squid, and great white sharks without the safety of a cage.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In 2017, Channel 5 aired one-hour documentary called "Meet the Hedgehogs" presented by Backshall and Brian May.


title: Steve Backshall

text: Backshall began working as a writer for publisher Rough Guides, and is an author on their Indonesia guide. He continues to contribute to British newspapers.


title: Steve Backshall

text: Backshall stated "I was a big reader when I was a kid ... Fiction was a massive, massive part of my formative years, far more so than television ever was, and I always hoped that my future would lie with writing. When I was given the opportunity I absolutely leapt at it. It's an idea that I've had in mind for a long time, of these two youngsters on the run who become almost wildlife vigilantes, and it's one that I've had tremendous fun writing."


title: Steve Backshall

text: Backshall stated, "First and foremost I hope that the reader will be entertained," but added "I hope that some of the readers – and if it's a very small percentage that's fine – will come away and want to learn more and will want to go out and find out for themselves what they can do."


title: Steve Backshall

text: Backshall is a rock climber and mountaineer, and does adventure races, fell runs and endurance sports.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In 2014, he summitted the highly technical granite Mount Asgard in Arctic Baffin Island, in one single 27-hour summit push. Ice and alpine climbing are described as being among his great passions, and he has climbed such peaks as Cho Oyu, the sixth highest mountain in the world at 8201 m, and Cholatse in the Himalayan Khumbu. He qualified as an advanced Himalayan Expedition leader from India's Nehru Institute of Mountaineering. He partnered John Arran and Ivan Calderon up the first ascent of Upuigma-tepui in Venezuela, and led the first ascent of the North face of Mount Kuli in Borneo.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In 2005, he ran the Marathon des Sables 243 km across the Sahara desert to raise money for the Wolftrust.


title: Steve Backshall

text: He is an experienced BCU four star sea and whitewater and has three times completed the 125-mile, 24-hour, canoe race from Devizes to Westminster on the river Thames. He has competed in numerous triathlons, adventure races and fell running events. His best finishes include winning the 'Extreme' and 'Last Man Standing' events at UK Tough Guy, finishing 9th overall at Tough Guy and 4th in the Welsh 1000m peak marathon.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In July 2008, while attempting to climb a wet cliff face in the Wye Valley in the Forest of Dean, he fell onto rocks. The impact sent his heel bone through the bottom of his foot, dislocated his ankle, and fractured two vertebrae in his back. He required twelve operations and several years of rehab to get back to fitness.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In 2009 and 2013, he was nominated for a BAFTA for Best Children's Television Presenter. "Deadly 60" was nominated for Best Children's series. "Lost Land of the Jaguar" was nominated for Best Factual series.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In 2017, Backshall and Glover were awarded Charity fundraisers of the year, after raising £360,000 for the World Land Trust. They also won the mixed category of the celebrated Devizes to Westminster kayak race.


title: Steve Backshall

text: Backshall was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2020 New Year Honours for services to charity and wildlife conservation.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In 2015, Backshall and Olympic champion rower Helen Glover announced their engagement. The couple married at Prussia Cove, Cornwall, on 10 September 2016.


title: Steve Backshall

text: In March 2018, it was announced that Backshall and Glover were expecting twins. In April, Glover stated that one of the twins had died, but that she and Backshall were "hopeful for the remaining baby to arrive this summer".


title: Steve Backshall

text: On 20 January 2020, Backshall and Glover announced the birth of their twins. All their children's names had Cornish connections as Glover was born in Cornwall.


The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, PANYNJ; stylized, in logo since 2020, as Port Authority NY NJ, is a joint venture between the U.S. states of New York and New Jersey, established in 1921 through an interstate compact authorized by the United States Congress. The Port Authority oversees much of the regional transportation infrastructure, including bridges, tunnels, airports, and seaports, within the geographical jurisdiction of the Port of New York and New Jersey. This port district is generally encompassed within a radius of the Statue of Liberty National Monument. The Port Authority is headquartered at 4 World Trade Center.


title: Port Authority of New York and New Jersey

text: The Port Authority operates the Port Newark–Elizabeth Marine Terminal, which handled the third-largest volume of shipping among all ports in the United States in 2004, and the largest on the Eastern Seaboard. The Port Authority also operates six bi-state crossings: three connecting New Jersey with Manhattan, and three connecting New Jersey with Staten Island. The Port Authority Bus Terminal and the PATH rail system are also run by the Port Authority, as well as LaGuardia Airport, John F. Kennedy International Airport, Newark Liberty International Airport, Teterboro Airport and Stewart International Airport. The agency has its own 2,232-member Port Authority Police Department.


text: The Port of New York and New Jersey comprised the main point of embarkation for U.S. troops and supplies sent to Europe during World War I, via the New York Port of Embarkation. The congestion at the port led experts to realize the need for a port authority to supervise the extremely complex system of bridges, highways, subways, and port facilities in the New York-New Jersey area. The solution was the 1921 creation of the Port Authority under the supervision of the governors of the two states. By issuing its own bonds, it was financially independent of either state; the bonds were paid off from tolls and fees, not from taxes. It became one of the major agencies of the metropolitan area for large-scale projects. Early bond issues were tied to specific projects, but this changed in 1935 when the Authority issued General and Refunding bonds with a claim on its general revenues.


text: In the early years of the 20th century, there were disputes between the states of New Jersey and New York over rail freights and boundaries. At the time, rail lines terminated on the New Jersey side of the harbor, while ocean shipping was centered on Manhattan and Brooklyn. Freight had to be shipped across the Hudson River in barges. In 1916, New Jersey launched a lawsuit against New York over issues of rail freight, with the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) issuing an order that the two states work together, subordinating their own interests to the public interest. The Harbor Development Commission, a joint advisory board set-up in 1917, recommended that a bi-state authority be established to oversee efficient economic development of the port district. The Port of New York Authority was established on April 30, 1921, through an interstate compact between the states of New Jersey and New York. This was the first such agency in the United States, created under a provision in the Constitution of the United States permitting interstate compacts. The idea for the Port Authority was conceived during the Progressive Era, which aimed at the reduction of political corruption and at increasing the efficiency of government. With the Port Authority at a distance from political pressures, it was able to carry longer-term infrastructure projects irrespective of the election cycles and in a more efficient manner. In 1972 it was renamed the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey to better reflect its status as a partnership between the two states.


text: Throughout its history, there have been concerns about democratic accountability, or lack thereof at the Port Authority. The Port District is irregularly shaped but comprises a area roughly within a radius of the Statue of Liberty.


text: At the beginning of the 20th century, there were no road bridge or tunnel crossings between the two states. The initial tunnel crossings were completed privately by the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad in 1908 and 1909 ("Hudson Tubes"), followed by the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1910 ("North River Tunnels"). Under an independent agency, the Holland Tunnel was opened in 1927, with some planning and construction pre-dating the Port Authority. With the rise in automobile traffic, there was demand for more Hudson River crossings. Using its ability to issue bonds and collect revenue, the Port Authority has built and managed major infrastructure projects. Early projects included bridges across the Arthur Kill, which separates Staten Island from New Jersey. The Goethals Bridge, named after chief engineer of the Panama Canal Commission General George Washington Goethals, connected Elizabeth, New Jersey and Howland Hook, Staten Island. At the south end of Arthur Kill, the Outerbridge Crossing was built and named after the Port Authority's first chairman, Eugenius Harvey Outerbridge. Construction of both bridges was completed in 1928. The Bayonne Bridge, opened in 1931, was built across the Kill van Kull, connecting Staten Island with Bayonne, New Jersey.


text: Construction began in 1927 on the George Washington Bridge, linking the northern part of Manhattan with Fort Lee, New Jersey, with Port Authority chief engineer, Othmar Ammann, overseeing the project. The bridge was completed in October 1931, ahead of schedule and well under the estimated costs. This efficiency exhibited by the Port Authority impressed President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who used this as a model in creating the Tennessee Valley Authority and other such entities.


text: In 1930, the Holland Tunnel was placed under the control of the Port Authority, providing significant toll revenues. During the late 1930s and early 1940s, the Lincoln Tunnel was built, connecting New Jersey and Midtown Manhattan.


text: In 1962, the bankrupt Hudson & Manhattan Railroad was absorbed by the Port Authority, who reorganized it as Port Authority Trans-Hudson (PATH). As part of the deal, the Port Authority acquired the rights to build the original World Trade Center on the site of the old Hudson Terminal, one of two terminals in Manhattan for H&M/PATH.


text: In 1942, Austin J. Tobin became the executive director of the Port Authority. In the post-World War II period, the Port Authority expanded its operations to include airports, and marine terminals, with projects including Newark Liberty International Airport and Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminals. Meanwhile, the city-owned La Guardia Field was nearing capacity in 1939 and needed expensive upgrades and expansion. At the time, airports were operated as loss leaders, and the city was having difficulties maintaining the status quo, losing money and unable to undertake needed expansions. The city was looking to hand the airports over to a public authority, possibly to Robert Moses' Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority. After long negotiations with the City of New York, a 50-year lease, commencing on May 31, 1947, went to the Port Authority of New York to rehabilitate, develop, and operate La Guardia Airport (La Guardia Field), John F. Kennedy International Airport (Idlewild Airport), and Floyd Bennett Field. The Port Authority transformed the airports into fee-generating facilities, adding stores and restaurants.


text: David Rockefeller, president of Chase Manhattan Bank, envisioned a World Trade Center for lower Manhattan. Realizing that he needed public funding in order to construct the massive project, he approached Tobin. Although many questioned the Port Authority's entry into the real estate market, Tobin saw the project as a way to enhance the agency's power and prestige, and agreed to the project. The Port Authority was the overseer of the World Trade Center, hiring the architect Minoru Yamasaki and engineer Leslie Robertson.


text: Yamasaki ultimately settled on the idea of twin towers. To meet the Port Authority's requirement to build of office space, the towers would each be 110 stories tall. The size of the project raised ire from the owner of the Empire State Building, which would lose its title of tallest building in the world. Other critics objected to the idea of this much "subsidized" office space going on the open market, competing with the private sector. Others questioned the cost of the project, which in 1966 had risen to $575million. Final negotiations between The City of New York and the Port Authority centered on tax issues. A final agreement was made that the Port Authority would make annual payments in lieu of taxes, for the 40% of the World Trade Center leased to private tenants. The remaining space was to be occupied by state and federal government agencies. In 1962, the Port Authority signed the United States Customs Service as a tenant, and in 1964 they signed a deal with the State of New York to locate government offices at the World Trade Center.


text: In August 1968, construction on the World Trade Center's north tower started, with construction on the south tower beginning in January 1969. When the World Trade Center twin towers were completed, the total cost to the Port Authority had reached $900million. The buildings were dedicated on April 4, 1973, with Tobin, who had retired the year before, absent from the ceremonies.


text: In 1986, the Port Authority sold rights to the World Trade Center name for $10 to an organization run by an outgoing executive, Guy F. Tozzoli. He in turn made millions of dollars selling the use of the name in up to 28 different states.


text: After the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, the Port Authority was sued by survivors of the attack for negligence in not making security upgrades to known flaws that could have prevented the attack. The Port Authority was ruled to be negligent.


text: The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and the subsequent collapse of the World Trade Center buildings impacted the Port Authority. With the Port Authority's headquarters located in 1 World Trade Center, it became deprived of a base of operations and sustained a great number of casualties. An estimated 1,400 Port Authority employees worked in the World Trade Center. Eighty-four employees, including 37 Port Authority police officers, its executive director, Neil D. Levin, and police superintendent, Fred V. Morrone, died. In rescue efforts following the collapse, two Port Authority police officers, John McLoughlin and Will Jimeno, were pulled out alive after spending nearly 24 hours beneath of rubble. Their rescue was later portrayed in the 2006 Oliver Stone film "World Trade Center". Future Executive Director Christopher O. Ward was at the World Trade Center on 9/11, and is a survivor of the attack. Ward was Chief of External Affairs & Director of Port Development under Neil Levin at the time. As the executive director from 2008 to 2011, he is credited with turning around Ground Zero construction and having the memorial ready for the 10th anniversary. A former attorney for the PANYNJ who worked on 9/11 related issues is now on the federal bench, Angel Kelley.


text: The Fort Lee lane closure scandal was a US political scandal that concerns New Jersey Governor Chris Christie's staff and his Port Authority political appointees conspiring to create a traffic jam in Fort Lee, New Jersey as political retribution, and their attempts to cover up these actions and suppress internal and public disclosures. Dedicated toll lanes for one of the Fort Lee entrances (used by local traffic from Fort Lee and surrounding communities) to the upper level on the George Washington Bridge, which connects to Manhattan, were reduced from three to one from September 9–13, 2013. The toll lane closures caused massive Fort Lee traffic back-ups, which affected public safety due to extensive delays by police and emergency service providers and disrupted schools due to the delayed arrivals of students and teachers. Two Port Authority officials (who were appointed by Christie and would later resign) claimed that reallocating two of the toll lanes from the local Fort Lee entrance to the major highways was due to a traffic study evaluating "traffic safety patterns" at the bridge, but the executive director of the Port Authority was unaware of a traffic study.


text: , the repercussions and controversy surrounding these actions continue to be under investigation by the Port Authority, federal prosecutors, and a New Jersey legislature committee. The Port Authority's chairman, David Samson, who was appointed by Governor Christie, resigned on March 28, 2014, amid allegations of his involvement in the scandal and other controversies.


text: In April 2018, Caren Turner resigned from the Board of Commissioners after an ethics investigation revealed that her attempt to intervene in a traffic stop for her daughter included what the Port Authority described as "profoundly disturbing" conduct. New Jersey police released a videotape of her attempting to leverage her position at the Port Authority to intimidate police officers, following a routine traffic stop of a vehicle in which her adult daughter was a passenger. Her case was referred to New Jersey's Ethics Commission.


text: The Port Authority is jointly controlled by the governors of New York and New Jersey, who appoint the members of the agency's Board of Commissioners and retain the right to veto the actions of the commissioners from their own state. Each governor appoints six members to the Board of Commissioners, who are subject to state senate confirmation and serve overlapping six-year terms without pay. An executive director is appointed by the board of commissioners to deal with day-to-day operations and to execute the Port Authority's policies. Under an informal power-sharing agreement, the governor of New Jersey chooses the chairman of the board and the deputy executive director, while the governor of New York selects the vice chairman and executive director.


text: The Port Authority is headquartered at 4 World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan. The agency was headquartered at 1 World Trade Center in the first World Trade Center complex, where it occupied of space. It had been headquartered in the WTC complex beginning in 1973. After the previous headquarters were destroyed in the September 11, 2001 attacks, the Port Authority moved into 225 Park Avenue South in Midtown Manhattan, with employees divided between offices in New York and New Jersey, before returning to the World Trade Center in 2015.


text: After the September 11 attacks, a Security Committee was established with Commissioner David Mack as chairman and Commissioner Bruce Blakeman as Vice Chairman to oversee the Port Authority Police Department, infrastructure security and Homeland Security for all Port Authority assets most of which are high terrorist targets.


text: Financially, the Port Authority has no power to tax and does not receive tax money from any local or state governments. Instead, it operates on the revenues it makes from its rents, tolls, fees, and facilities.


text: Meetings of the Board of Commissioners are public. Members of the public may address the Board at these meetings, subject to a prior registration process via email. Public records of the Port Authority may be requested via the Office of the Secretary according to an internal Freedom of Information policy which is intended to be consistent with and similar to the state Freedom of Information policies of both New York and New Jersey.