title: Florianópolis

text: Florianópolis is also commonly known by the nicknames "Floripa" and "Ilha da Magia" (Magic Island). Most of the population lives on the mainland and on the island's central and northern parts. The southern half is less inhabited. Many small commercial fishermen populate the island. The fishing boats, the lacemakers, the folklore, the cuisine and the colonial architecture contribute to the growing tourism and attracts resources that compensate for the lack of any large industry. Villages immersed in tradition and history, such as Santo Antônio de Lisboa and Ribeirão da Ilha still resist the advances of modernity.


title: Florianópolis

text: The Hercílio Luz International Airport serves the city. Florianópolis is home to the Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (Federal University of Santa Catarina). There are also the Santa Catarina Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology (Instituto Federal de Santa Catarina), and two campuses of the Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina (State University of Santa Catarina), among other institutions of higher and professional education.


title: Florianópolis

text: The name Florianópolis was meant to be a tribute to Marshal Floriano Peixoto, the second President (1891–1894) of the Republic of the United States of Brazil and from Greek term "polis", meaning "city". Until 1893, the city was called Nossa Senhora do Desterro (Our Lady of Banishment) or simply Desterro.


title: Florianópolis

text: Florianópolis has a native Atlantic Forest-type vegetation. This vegetation has an extremely diverse and unique mix of vegetation and forest types. The main ecoregion is the coastal Atlantic forest, the narrow strip of about along the coast which covers about 20 percent of the region. This forest extends as far as inland and its range is as high as 2,000 meters above sea level. Altitude determines at least three vegetation types in the Atlantic Forest: the lowland forest of the coastal plain, montane forests, and the high-altitude grassland or "campo rupestre."


title: Florianópolis

text: The municipality contains part of the offshore Marinha do Arvoredo Biological Reserve, a fully protected conservation unit established in 1990.


title: Florianópolis

text: It also contains part of the Serra do Tabuleiro State Park, a mountainous area covered in lush forests.


title: Florianópolis

text: The park protects the sources of the Vargem do Braço, Cubatão and Una rivers, which supply most of the drinking water for greater Florianópolis and the south coast region.


title: Florianópolis

text: The municipality contains the Rio Vermelho State Park in the northeast of Santa Catarina Island, created in 2007.


title: Florianópolis

text: There is significant precipitation which is well distributed throughout the year. The annual normal precipitation for the period of 1961 through 1990 was . There is no dry season, and summer generally is the rainiest season. Increased rainfall occurs from January to March, with a median of per month, and from April to December there is somewhat less precipitation, averaging per month. The driest months are from June to August.


title: Florianópolis

text: Florianópolis experiences a warm humid subtropical climate (Koppen: Cfa), falling just short of a true tropical climate. The seasons of the year are distinct, with a well-defined summer and winter, and characteristic weather for autumn and spring. Due to the proximity of the sea, the relative humidity of the atmosphere is 80% on average.


title: Florianópolis

text: The maximum temperatures of the hottest month varies from and the minimum temperatures are from . The lowest temperature ever recorded was in September 1980 while the highest temperature ever recorded was in February 1973.


title: Florianópolis

text: Carijós Indians, a Tupi people, were the first inhabitants of the Florianópolis area. The traces of its presence are verified through archaeological sites and sambaquis dating up to 4000 years ago. The Indians called the place Meiembipe or "mountain along the channel".


title: Florianópolis

text: Around 1514 the Portuguese landed and gave the area the name Ilha dos Patos, but in 1526 it was renamed Ilha de Santa Catarina (Saint Catherine's Island). The area supplied the vessels that went to the River Plate (Río de la Plata) Basin.


title: Florianópolis

text: The official settlement of the island began in 1673 with the arrival of bandeirante Francisco Dias Velho's agricultural company and it continued in 1678 with the construction of a chapel consecrated to Nossa Senhora do Desterro. At this time a villa began to take form, slowly becoming a colonial settlement.


title: Florianópolis

text: To guarantee its domain the Portuguese Crown elevated Santa Catarina Island to the category of village in 1714 with the name of Nossa Senhora do Desterro and already in 1726 they promoted it again, now to the category of town.


title: Florianópolis

text: From this date on Vila do Desterro and mainly the port began to have a strategic function because it was situated halfway between Rio de Janeiro and Buenos Aires, possibly two of the largest seaside cities of South America at that time. For this reason in 1739 the Capitania da Ilha de Santa Catarina was created and Desterro became its capital. Soon the most expressive seaside defensive ring of Southern Brazil started to be built: Santa Cruz, São José da Ponta Grossa, Santo Antonio and Nossa Senhora da Conceição da Barra do Sul fortresses.


title: Florianópolis

text: With the coming of the Captaincy the population began to grow, but the great population growth happened between 1747 and 1756 with the arrival of about 6,000 settlers coming from the Archipelago of Azores and from Madeira Island. The development of the agriculture, the cotton and linen industry and the commerce followed the Azorean occupation.


title: Florianópolis

text: In 1823, during the monarchy which ended in 1889, Desterro became the Capital of Santa Catarina Province opening a period of prosperity with many urban works and also intense political organization.


title: Florianópolis

text: Regional elites not happy with the government centralization staged the Federalist Revolt at the beginning of the Brazilian Republic. The movement that started in Rio Grande do Sul spread to Santa Catarina and turned Desterro into the Federalist Capital of the Republic. The then president of Brazil, marshal Floriano Peixoto, known as the Iron Marshal, suppressed the rebellion and ordered the shooting of many people who were considered enemies of the state, in the Anhatomirim Island Fortress. Possibly to show loyalty to the marshal, 1893 saw the change of the state capital's name: from Desterro to Florianópolis, that is to say, city of Floriano.


title: Florianópolis

text: According to the IBGE of 2007, there were 406,564 people residing in the city (in 2010 IBGE reports a population of 421,240). The population density was . The last PNAD (National Research for Sample of Domiciles) census revealed the following numbers: 356,142 White people (84.55%), 41,009 Pardo (Multiracial) people (9.74%), 20,839 Black people (4.95%), 2,196 Asian people (0.52%) and 1,028 Amerindian people (0.24%).


title: Florianópolis

text: Florianópolis has a population mostly composed of Brazilians of European descent. The numbers of immigrants started to increase in the mid-18th century, mostly with the arrival of Portuguese colonists from the Azores Islands. The population of Florianópolis was composed mainly of Portuguese/Azoreans, Germans, and Italians. Further south, some neighborhoods preserve their rural village identity. The cultural heritage left by their Azorean ancestors is noticeable in their dialect, in handicrafts, and traditional festivities.


title: Florianópolis

text: The small village of Santo António de Lisboa (Saint Anthony of Lisbon) is an example of colonial period architecture and in Ribeirão da Ilha, the oldest part of the capital, the inhabitants speak in an accent closer to the Azorean dialect of the first settlers. In Ribeirão da Ilha is the church of Our Lady of Lapa do Ribeirão, built in 1806. Lagoa da Conceição, with its many sand dunes, restaurants and seaside night life and where women make lace to sell in the street, has also managed to retain many traces of its colonial architecture.


title: Florianópolis

text: The city is densely populated, with a population distribution of 623.68 inhab./km², the 6th highest in the state of Santa Catarina. The vast majority of Florianopólis residents live in the urban area of the municipality, corresponding to 96.2% of its inhabitants, while 3.78% live in the rural area of Florianópolis.


title: Florianópolis

text: On the other side, the city has taken on a cosmopolitan air with the arrival of Brazilians from other states and foreigners who chose to live there. The island, which at the beginning of the colonization period, was an important whale hunting centre, is today a technological pole of the IT industry. A State Capital of interest to tourism, Florianópolis population in 2020 was estimated to be around 508,826 people in the city proper and 1,111,702 people in the metropolitan area.


title: Florianópolis

text: According to the 2010 Brazilian Census, most of the population (63.68%) is Roman Catholic, other religious groups include Protestants and evangelicals (12.81%), Spiritists (7.48%), Umbandists (0.66%), No religion (11.76%), and people with other religions (3.39%).


title: Florianópolis

text: According to 2002 Sefaz statistics, agricultural activities represented 0.05%, manufacturing represented 3.41% and the commerce and service sector 96.54%.


title: Florianópolis

text: Tourism is one of the staples of Florianópolis' economy, and relates to not only Floripa's Azorean culture but also the fact that it is situated on the coastline. Its environmental restrictions on building and commercial development have been more or less strictly enforced, helping it to keep its original character.


title: Florianópolis

text: The city has invested heavily in infrastructure, from roads to schools, and Florianópolis ranks high on development measures such as literacy (97 percent) and electrification (near 100 percent). By the late 1990s, private companies were flocking to the island, or emerging from a technology "incubator" at the federal university. (Among the innovations it hatched: the computerized voting machines that have reduced fraud and increased efficiency in Brazilian elections.) Local officials now say their aim is to be the Silicon Valley of Brazil, with beaches.


title: Florianópolis

text: In addition to its white sand beaches, Florianópolis offers many historical attractions, including the sites of the original Azorean colonists, the Lagoa da Conceição lagoon, and Santo Antônio de Lisboa. Tourism in Florianópolis has grown significantly over the past 10 years, with increasing numbers of visitors coming from other large cities in Brazil (particularly Porto Alegre, Curitiba, São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro) as well as other South American countries (particularly Argentina, with direct flights offered daily from Buenos Aires).


title: Florianópolis

text: During the past decade technology and software development firms also experienced strong growth, and today Information Technology services are one of the top revenue generators in Florianópolis. Several technology centers are spread around Florianópolis, making the city an important pole in this economic sector.


title: Florianópolis

text: The Florianópolis high schools that obtained the best results on the 2007 Exame Nacional do Ensino Médio (National High School Exam) are Escola Autonomia, Colégio da Lagoa, Colégio Energia, Colégio Tendência, Colégio Expoente, Colégio Adventista de Florianópolis, Colégio Geração, Colégio de Aplicação UFSC, EEB Feliciano Nunes Pires, IFSC, Colégio Decisão, EEB Professor AníbalNunes Pires, Instituto Estadual de Educação, EEB Osmar Cunha, EEb Getúlio Vargas, EEB Presidente Roosevelt, EEB Professor Henrique Stodieck.


title: Florianópolis

text: Florianópolis is one of the most visited places in Brazil as it is an island with 42 beaches, lagoons and waterfalls.


title: Florianópolis

text: Lagoa da Conceição (Lagoon of Conceição) is the largest lagoon on the island of Florianopolis and one of the most visited area of the island by foreign travelers and backpackers. The area has the highest concentration of restaurants, bars, organic markets and shops. Many expats and Brazilian people from other cities choose to live by the lagoon because of its views, safety, nature and quality of life.


title: Florianópolis

text: The lagoon is surrounded by mountains and has a canal linking to the ocean. The history of the region around the lagoon is a plus with all the folklore, netting tradition, old Portuguese architecture, graffiti, and an 18th-century church on the top of the hill. See panoramic view below.


title: Florianópolis

text: The Holy Spirit Feast ("Festa do Divino") is a festival that takes place 40 days after Easter. The celebration dates to the colonial era and includes a parade, music, and street food.


title: Florianópolis

text: is one of the best known beaches close to the Lagoon of Conceição and is noted for its rolling green hills and rock formations on either side. The beach is mostly known for surfing, eco-friendly lounges and LGBTQ scene during the summer. The beach is one of the locations for the ASP World Tour of the Association of Surfing Professionals, which classifies 50 competitors, among professionals and amateurs. The state of Santa Caterina is the only location in South America for this surfing event. Santa Catarina Art Museum is located in the city.


title: Florianópolis

text: Became well-known in the 1970s, when surfers from around the world discovered its waves. Joaquina Beach is accessible from the Lagoon of Conceição. Many surf cups began to emerge, and great Catarinense surfing personalities. It is one of the beaches that offers the best tourist facilities, receiving a large number of tourists from around Brazil and the world on the warm days in spring and summer. The rock complex situated to the left of the beach, the night lighting and the public showers are some of the trademarks at Joaquina. There is a big paid parking lot, toilets, tourist coach parking lot, lifeguards, police station, handicraft shop, bars, restaurant and hotels. Sand boards can be rented on the spot.


title: Florianópolis

text: Barra da Lagoa is a quaint fisherman's village. The physical characteristics of the beach makes it an ideal place to learn to surf. It is a cove on the Eastern part of the island and stretches into Moçambique beach for . It is in a natural setting as there are no huge hotels on the beach and the Southern headquarters of Projeto TAMAR (Save the Turtles) is located here. Penguins swim into the canal and near the beach of Barra da Lagoa during the colder winter months of June, July and August. The canal at Barra da Lagoa connects the Lagoa da Conceição with the open sea. It is not uncommon to see fishermen during the night tossing their nets in the lagoa to catch shrimp they sell to the fresh fish restaurants in this community.


title: Florianópolis

text: Even though it is a beach preferred by tourists, Ingleses still keeps to the traditions of the Azorian colonizers. In the summer, it is one of the top beach destinations of Argentine tourists, second only to Canasveiras. In the winter, mullet fishing, religious celebrations and regional festivities are demonstrations of the local culture. The dunes separating the Ingleses Beach (English Beach) from the Santinho Beach are the main natural attractions. The practice of sandboarding is quite common there, with vendors renting sand boards by the dunes. Those looking for a different outing can go on a trek of over the dunes.


title: Florianópolis

text: The Sant'Anna Church, built by the Armação fishing company, is part of the beach's history. It was from there that whale harpooners and crewmen confessed and attended the mass before going fishing. Next, the priest would go down to the beach to bless the boats that would sail out to sea. Today, the boats leave there for Ilha do Campeche, one of the most visited islands around Florianópolis. It is also in Armação that one finds one of the most important archaeological sites of the State of Santa Catarina. In the winter of 2010 a significant portion of the beach disappeared due to erosion. With financial aid from the Brazilian federal government, tons of large rocks were dumped on the beach to prevent houses from destruction.


title: Florianópolis

text: With of white sands and a turbulent waters, Campeche is considered the Jeffreys Bay of the Santa Catarina Island for the quality of its waves. For those who are not interested in surfing, the beach offers other attractions. At night, Campeche is also an attraction. The huge reflector illuminates part of the large sand strip in front of the bars. The illumination favours the fishermen with the production in this area.


title: Florianópolis

text: Santinho Beach ("") is mainly sought by tourists who look for nature, and the location's tranquility. Surfers are the main visitors and consider Santinho to be the best beach in the North of the Santa Catarina Island. It is in the left hand corner, where bathers do not venture, that surfers practice their sport, sharing the space with fishermen. away from the centre of Florianópolis, another attraction of this beach are the primitive inscriptions made by hunters, fishermen and collectors inhabiting the Island five thousand years ago. The name Santinho (little saint) comes from a human figure engraved (a petroglyph) on an isolated block of rock, the "Costão do Santinho".


title: Florianópolis

text: Outdoor sports, including diving, hang gliding, rowing, paragliding, and mountain biking, as well as surfing, are common on the island.


title: Florianópolis

text: The island is connected to the Continent by three bridges. The Hercílio Luz Bridge that was built in 1926, this bridge is 11 years older than Golden Gate Bridge, but is now closed to traffic; it is a symbol of the island and often appears on postcard images. The Colombo Sales Bridge and Pedro Ivo Bridge are the ones open to traffic.


title: Florianópolis

text: Santo Amaro da Imperatriz was the first thermal water facility in Brazil. Hotels with thermal bath facilities are located in the district of Caldas da Imperatriz and in the city of Águas Mornas. The Fonte Caldas da Imperatriz city baths are an additional source of thermal waters, which can reach the temperature of , where there are immersion baths and hydromassage. It is located on the Estrada Geral Highway, km 4, Caldas da Imperatriz district.


title: Florianópolis

text: The centre of Florianópolis, with its alleys, rows of typical houses, churches and museums, includes many examples of colonial architecture. Among these are the Palacio Cruz e Sousa, formerly the Governor's residence, now restored to house the Santa Catarina Museum, renamed in honour of João da Cruz e Sousa, homegrown poet, journalist and founder of Brazil's Symbolist movement; the Mercado Público de Florianópolis (Public Market since 1898), a colourful nexus of food vendors and local handicrafts in the shade of hundred-year-old fig trees. Close to the centre is the house where Victor Meirelles was born, one of the authors who devised the first Catholic mass spoken in Brazil. The building is registered by the Institute of Historical and Artistic Heritage and houses the Victor Meirelles Museum.


title: Florianópolis

text: Roughly speaking, the island can be divided in a northern and a southern region: the north is most visited by tourists and consequently, it bustles with the best services and visitor infrastructure. In some quarters notice a strong influence in the population architecture and customs. Lifelong residents of Florianópolis, especially the older generation, retain the heritage left by immigrants from Portuguese islands from Azores, in the way they speak, in their artistry and craftwork and in a busy calendar of festivals. The south of the island is less busy but nonetheless preserves the intensely Azorean customs that arrived in Santa Catalina throughout the 18th century.


title: Florianópolis

text: The Carijós Ecological Station was established by decree of 20 July 1987, covering an area of in the municipality. It preserves a significant area of mangroves on the Ilha de Santa Catarina.


title: Florianópolis

text: The Pirajubaé Marine Extractive Reserve in the south bay of the Ilha de Santa Catarina protects people engaged in traditional harvesting of marine resources, mainly shellfish, from the sandbanks of the bay.


title: Florianópolis

text: Florianópolis is served by Hercílio Luz International Airport for both domestic and international flights.


title: Florianópolis

text: It is one of the leading airports in Brazil for charter flights, especially during the summer months and from destinations such as Santiago, Montevideo, Buenos Aires and Córdoba, besides domestic routes. The traffic has grown significantly at the airport and therefore the city plans to upgrade and expand the airport so that 2.7 million passengers can be accommodated annually.


title: Florianópolis

text: The architectural design of the expansion was chosen by a public competition held by Infraero in partnership with the Brazilian Architects Institute (IAB).


title: Florianópolis

text: Among the over 150 original entries, the proposal of São Paulo architect Mário Bizelli was chosen. Normally the projects for expansion and modernization of the 66 airports administered by Infraero are done by public tender based on the needs, criteria and conditions presented by the company's engineering area.


title: Florianópolis

text: The privatization of Hercílio Luz International Airport resulted in the inauguration of the new passenger terminal in October 2019, which replaced the previous terminal from the 1970s, which was deactivated. As a result, the airport capacity grew from 1 million passengers to 3.5 million passengers a year, in the new and modern passenger terminal.


title: Florianópolis

text: Florianópolis Air Force Base - BAFL, a base of the Brazilian Air Force, is located in Florianópolis. The Air Base also hosts the Florianópolis Airspace Control Detachment and the Florianópolis Health Squadron. The Florianópolis Air Space Control Detachment is responsible for controlling the aircraft that cross, arrive or leave the capital of the state of Santa Catarina, as well as for the production and dissemination of meteorological and aeronautical information, using a wide range of equipment. detection and communications, in addition to specialized and qualified personnel. The Florianópolis Health Squadron has the mission of providing health care with excellence, carrying out preventive, assistance, forensic actions and supporting the operational activities carried out at the Florianópolis Air Force Garrison.


title: Florianópolis

text: Rita Maria is the city's main bus terminal, located by the Pedro Ivo Campos Bridge, on the island, serving ten thousand people daily, which can reach up to fifteen thousand during the summer season. The bus terminal connects Florianópolis to most cities, towns and villages of Santa Catarina, and to the main cities in the South, Southeast and Central-West regions of Brazil. As an international bus terminal, residents and tourists alike use Rita Maria also to reach Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay and Chile.


title: Florianópolis

text: Pedala Floripa project is a university pro bicycle program developed by CICLOBRASIL group in the State University of Santa Catarina. The project aims to provide bicycle infra-structure projects and promote bicycle use for leisure and transport in the city.


title: Florianópolis

text: There are two professional football teams in the city. The derby between them is known as "O Clássico da Capital" (""The Capital's Derby""), or simply "O Clássico" (The Derby).


title: Florianópolis

text: Avaí FC – blue and white. It is also known as Leão da Ilha ("Lion of the Island"). Its stadium is the Aderbal Ramos da Silva, popularly known as Ressacada, located in the Carianos neighborhood, in the southern part of the island. Avaí plays in Campeonato Brasileiro Série A, Brazil's national first division and holds 18 State Championship titles.


title: Florianópolis

text: Figueirense FC – black and white. Its nickname is "Figueira" and it is also known as "O Furacão do Estreito". Its stadium is the Orlando Scarpelli, located in the Estreito neighborhood, in the continental part of the city. Figueirense plays in Campeonato Brasileiro Série C, the Brazilian national third division. The team has won Santa Catarina State Championship 18 times.


title: Florianópolis

text: Florianópolis, is the home of Desterro Rugby Clube. Desterro has male and female rugby teams competing in the Brasil Super 10 (Men's 15s) competition and the Super 7s (women's 7s).


title: Florianópolis

text: Florianópolis, since the beginning of the 20th century has a tradition in rowing. By the middle of that century the sport was growing in Brazil and the city had a big influence on it. But, with the decline of the sport in the country by the late 1980s, the investment slowed and by today is almost none. But is still served with three schools, Riachuelo Remo, Martinelli Remo and Aldo Luz Remo, with all three being placed between Hercílio Luz Bridge, Colombo Salles Bridge and Pedro Ivo Campos Bridge. Since the beginning of 2008 the sport is watching a rapid growing in the number of rowers, even with people flocking from other cities to experience Floripa's rowing.


title: Florianópolis

text: Florianópolis is the hometown of tennis player Gustavo Kuerten. There are various opportunities to practice yoga in Florianopolis with studios that host international yoga retreats and provide teacher-training courses. Sandboarding is possible in the sand dunes near Joaquina beach. Kitesurfing and Windsurfing are possible in the Lagoa da Conceição lagoon.


title: Florianópolis

text: The island is generally considered to be blessed with the best and most consistent Surfing waves in Brazil, and in early November of each year hosts what is South America's only Association of Surfing Professionals World Championship Tour professional surfing competition. Brazil has played host to many an ASP tour event over the past 30 years. Former contest sites include Rio de Janeiro, Barra de Tijuca and Saquarema, but the past four years have seen the tour set up shop in Florianópolis.


title: Florianópolis

text: Falling towards the end of the tour, the past few years have seen several ASP world champions crowned in Brazil. In 2004 it was Andy Irons, and in 2005 it was Kelly Slater (who had his 2006 ASP World Title already stitched up by Brazil).


title: Formula One tyres

text: Formula One tyres play a significant role in the performance of a Formula One car. The tyres have undergone major changes throughout the history of Formula One with different manufacturers and specifications used in the sport.


title: Formula One tyres

text: Formula One tyres bear only a superficial resemblance to a normal road tyre. Whereas the latter has a useful life of up to , the tyres used in Formula One are built to last less than one race distance. The purpose of the tyre determines the compound of the rubber to be used. In extremely wet weather, such as that seen in the 2007 European Grand Prix, the F1 cars are unable to keep up with the safety car in deep standing water due to the risk of aquaplaning. In very wet races, such as the 2011 Canadian Grand Prix, the tyres are unable to provide a safe race due to the amount of water, and so the race can be red flagged. The race is either then stopped permanently or suspended for any period of time until the cars can race safely again. Both the latter - and successively the former - situations occurred at the 2021 Belgian Grand Prix.


title: Formula One tyres

text: During the 1950s and 1960s, Formula One tyres were supplied by Dunlop, Englebert, Firestone, Continental and Goodyear. In 1958, Dunlop introduced its R5 racing tyre, replacing the cotton fabric of the earlier R1 to R4 tyres with nylon fabric, allowing for a reported 12 lb reduction in tyre weight. During the 1960s, Dunlop introduced improved nylon casings, reduced aspect ratio, significantly increased tyre width, and the use of synthetic rubber.


title: Formula One tyres

text: Slick tyres were introduced to Formula One by Firestone at the 1971 Spanish Grand Prix. 1975's Ferrari 312T used a Goodyear 26.0"×16.2"-13" slick tyre (overall diameter × width) in the rear on a 13"×18" rim, with a Goodyear 20.0"×9.2"-13" slick tyre in the front on a 13×10" rim.


title: Formula One tyres

text: For the 1981 season the maximum diameter of the rear tyre was limited to 26.0", while the diameter of the front tyres was increased. Therefore, from 1981 until 1992, Goodyear supplied white sidewall marked Eagle tyres with the sizes of 25.0"×10.0"-13" in the front and 26.0"×15.0"-13" in the rear. For the 1993 season, the complete wheel width of the rear was reduced from 18" to 15". This prompted Goodyear to change to yellow sidewall markings to correspond to the new, narrower rear tyres which were approximately 12.8" wide, down from the previous 15.0".


title: Formula One tyres

text: For the 1997 F1 season, Bridgestone joined Goodyear in supplying tyres to F1 competitors, creating a tyre war between the two manufacturers. Goodyear would leave the sport following the 1998 season, leaving Bridgestone as the sole tyre provider for the next two seasons.


title: Formula One tyres

text: In 1998, grooved tyres were introduced with three groove lines in the front tyres and four groove lines in the rear tyres. Between and , regulations required the tyres to feature a minimum of four grooves in them, with the intention of slowing the cars down. This is because a slick tyre, with no indentations, provides the most grip in dry conditions. They could be no wider than at the front and at the rear, and the maximum diameter was , or for wet tyres.


title: Formula One tyres

text: In , Michelin entered Formula One, once again creating a tyre war after Bridgestone had been the sole tyre provider for the preceding two seasons.


title: Formula One tyres

text: In , tyre changes were disallowed in Formula One, therefore the compounds were harder as the tyres had to last the full race distance of around . Tyre changes were re-instated in , following the dramatic and highly political 2005 United States Grand Prix, which saw Michelin tyres fail on two separate cars at the same turn, resulting in all Michelin runners pulling out of the Grand Prix, leaving just the three teams using Bridgestone tyres to race.


title: Formula One tyres

text: For , Bridgestone again became the sole tyre partner and supplier in Formula One with the withdrawal of Michelin, and introduced four compounds of tyre, two of which are made available at each race. The harder tyre (referred to as the "prime" tyre) is more durable but gives less grip, and the softer tyre (referred to as the "option" tyre) gives more grip but is less durable. Both compounds have to be used by each car during a race and the softer tyre had a painted white stripe in the second groove to distinguish between compounds. This was introduced after the first race of the season when confusion occurred because a small dot was put on the sidewall of the tyre, instead of the white stripe. Upon the reintroduction of slicks in 2009, the sidewalls of the softer tyres were painted green to indicate the difference in compound, as there were no longer any grooves in tyres. Each team must use each specification during the race, unless wet or intermediate tyres are used during the race, in which case this rule no longer applies.


title: Formula One tyres

text: Slick tyres were reintroduced at the beginning of , along with aerodynamic changes intended to shift the balance towards mechanical grip in an attempt to increase overtaking.


title: Formula One tyres

text: On 2 November 2009, Bridgestone announced their withdrawal from Formula One at the end of the season. Michelin, Cooper Avon and Pirelli showed interest in taking over the role of tyre partner and supplier. On 24 June 2010, it was announced that Pirelli would be the sole tyre partner and supplier for and would receive a three-year contract. They thus ended their programmes for both the Grand-Am Rolex Sports Car Series and FIA World Rally Championship after spending three years as an official tyre partner and supplier (as the Grand-Am Rolex Sports Car Series switched to Continental and the FIA World Rally Championship switched to Michelin tyres in 2011). During August 2010, Pirelli commenced its test programme with the Toyota TF109 at the Mugello Circuit with Nick Heidfeld as the test driver. From 2011, the feeder GP2 Series used identical Pirelli tyres as in F1.


title: Formula One tyres

text: In 2009 with the removal of the four grooves the front tyres gained proportionally larger contact patch. In 2010, the front tyres were narrowed from to , in order to improve the balance of grip between the front and rear. In 2011, with the sole tyre supplier having been changed from Bridgestone to Pirelli, the rules were the same as the 2010 season rules concerning the tyres. All teams still were required to use each type of dry tyre compound supplied in the race, and drivers that made it through to Q3 still had to use the same tyres they used to set their fastest qualifying time with to start the race. However, the way of denoting different tyre specifications was changed. Rather than a green stripe denoting a softer compound, for each tyre specification, the lettering on the tyre would have a specific colour. The hard compound would have silver lettering, the medium compound would have white lettering, the soft tyres would have yellow lettering and the super-soft tyres would have red lettering. For the wet tyres, the intermediate tyres would have light blue lettering and the full wet tyres would have orange lettering.


title: Formula One tyres

text: At the 2011 Malaysian Grand Prix, Pirelli introduced a coloured band around the outside of the tyre on the softer of the two dry compounds. This was due to confusion during the first round of the season. This measure was said to be a stopgap, with a permanent solution due to be implemented at the first European race of the season. The coloured line featured at the Chinese Grand Prix too. From the Turkish Grand Prix, the permanent solution was implemented; the option compound had a new marking. The option tyre had two thick coloured lines between the Pirelli and P Zero logos of each tyre, which made it easier to see the colour of the marking when the tyre rotates. The prime tyre remained the same markings as previously, though later in the season had the sidewall updated with the new markings.


title: Formula One tyres

text: In 2016, new tyre rules were introduced. Pirelli nominated 3 different compounds of slick tyres to bring to each race. Each team had 13 sets of dry tyres for the race weekend. Of the 13 sets, two sets of tyres were chosen by Pirelli to be reserved for the race. Additionally, one set of the softest compound were set aside for Q3. Teams were free to choose what they liked for their ten remaining sets from the three chosen compounds. Each driver must have used at least two different dry weather compounds during the race (including one set of the mandatory race tyres), and drivers who made it to Q3 must start the race with the tyres they set their fastest Q2 lap on. Teams were mandated to inform the FIA about their tyre choices eight weeks before the start of a European event and 14 weeks before a non-European race.


title: Formula One tyres

text: For the 2017 F1 season, significantly wider Pirelli tyres were introduced at both the front and rear axles, while the overall diameter of the tyres was increased by 10mm (). Front tyre size increased to 305/670-R13 up from the previous 245/660-R13, while rear-tyre size increased to 405/670-R13 up from the previous 325/660-R13. In 2017 and 2018, the FIA Formula 2 Championship continued to use the pre-2017 size Pirelli F1 tyres.


title: Formula One tyres

text: Pirelli introduced two new tyre compounds for the 2018 F1 season - hypersoft (pink) and extra-hard/superhard (orange). The hard tyre became ice blue.


title: Formula One tyres

text: Heading into the season, Pirelli reduced the tyre range from seven to five dry weather compounds. They also scrapped the tyre naming system such that the tyres will denoted at each grand prix independently as hard, medium and soft with white, yellow and red sidewalls respectively rather than having a separate name and colour for each of the five tyres. The change was implemented so that casual fans could better understand the tyre system.


title: Formula One tyres

text: As Formula One wheel rim diameter size will switch from , the tyre diameter of 2022-spec Pirelli Formula One tyres will also be altered, from , while the tread width of 2022-spec Pirelli Formula One tyres are expected to be unchanged.


title: Formula One tyres

text: On Friday, 17 June 2005, during the afternoon's practice session, Ralf Schumacher, who was driving for Toyota, crashed heavily in Turn 13 of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway road course, as a result of a left-rear tyre failure. Turn 13 on the Indianapolis Motor Speedway road course is a high-speed banked turn, unique in Formula One racing, that causes a greater than usual lateral load. This pressure can cause the side walls of the tyre to bow and wear in abnormal places.


title: Formula One tyres

text: The following day, Michelin reported that the tyres it had provided for its seven customer teams—BAR, McLaren, Red Bull, Renault, Toyota, Sauber, and Williams—were unsafe for extended high-speed use on this turn, and announced its intention to fly in another set of tyres from its Clermont-Ferrand headquarters. However, the replacement tyres flown in, which were of the type used in the Spanish Grand Prix earlier that year, turned out to have the same problem when tested.


title: Formula One tyres

text: In a letter to FIA Race Director Charlie Whiting, Michelin representatives Pierre Dupasquier and Nick Shorrock revealed that they did not know the cause of Schumacher's tyre failure, and unless the cars could be slowed down in Turn 13, Michelin's tyres would be unsafe and unsuitable for use during the race. Whiting replied, expressing his surprise that Michelin had not brought along a second set of tyres. Instead, he suggested that the teams be informed of the maximum safe speed in Turn 13, and offered to monitor the turn by penalising any excess speed on the Michelin cars. He also addressed several solutions which had been proposed by the teams, insisting that use of the tyres flown in overnight would result in penalties, and the placement of a chicane in the turn was "out of the question"—the race would not be sanctioned by the FIA (making it a non-championship race) if the track layout was changed. He deemed the Michelin teams' proposals to be "grossly unfair" to the Bridgestone teams. In a second letter, Dupasquier and Shorrock announced that they would not permit their teams to race on Michelin's tyres. The race then took place with only the three Bridgestone teams (Ferrari, Jordan and Minardi) taking part. The race was won by Michael Schumacher.


title: Formula One tyres

text: At the 2008 Japanese Grand Prix, the tyres had the grooves painted green, as part of a promotion by the FIA to reduce the impact of motoring on the environment called Make Cars Green. The softer of the two types of tyre still had the second innermost groove painted white, as per normal.


title: Formula One tyres

text: Upon the return of slicks at the beginning of the 2009 season, the white stripe to indicate differences between the tyres was no longer possible due to the lack of grooves on the tyres. Subsequently, in a continuation of the Make Cars Green tyres in Japan, Bridgestone painted the sidewalls of the option tyre green instead.


title: Formula One tyres

text: There are seven tyre compounds available for the season. Two of these are for wet weather driving, the intermediate (indicated by a green sidewall) for light standing water conditions, and the full wet (indicated by a blue sidewall) for heavy standing water. These are available to all the teams at every Grand Prix. The remaining five tyre compounds are for dry running and are denoted C1 to C5, with C1 being the hardest tyre, meaning it provides the least grip but is the most durable, and C5 being the softest, having the most grip but being the least durable. The five tyre compounds form a sliding scale of durability and grip levels.


title: Formula One tyres

text: Pirelli nominates three of the compounds to be run at each race. Of these three, the hardest compound is named the hard tyre for the weekend and is denoted by a white sidewall, while the softest compound is named the soft and is denoted by a red sidewall, with the third of the nominated tyres named the medium tyre which is denoted by a yellow side wall. Drivers have to use at least two of the dry weather compound tyres during a race, unless the race is affected by wet weather.


title: Formula One tyres

text: The exception to this is at testing, where all five compounds are available and a different colouring system is used. C2, C3, and C4 are coloured the same as the hard, medium and soft tyres respectively, and C1 and C5 have the white and red Pirelli logo respectively with no coloured sidewall.


title: Formula One tyres

text: From 2011 onwards, the Italian manufacturer Pirelli is the sole tyre supplier. The deal is currently set to last until the 2024 season.


title: Formula One tyres

text: The manufacturer that is competing in is shown in bold. These results are correct as of the 2022 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix.


title: Formula One tyres

text: Ordered by number of races won. The manufacturer that is competing in is shown in bold. These results are correct as of the 2022 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix.


title: Alfreda Frances Bikowsky

text: Alfreda Frances Bikowsky (born 1965) is a Central Intelligence Agency officer who has headed the Bin Laden Issue Station and the Global Jihad unit. Bikowsky's identity is not publicly acknowledged by the Agency but was deduced by independent investigative journalists in 2011. In January 2014, the "Washington Post" named her and tied her to a pre-9/11 intelligence failure and the extraordinary rendition of Khalid El-Masri. The Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture, released in December 2014, showed that Bikowsky was not only a key part of the torture program but also one of its chief apologists, resulting in the media's giving her the moniker "The Unidentified Queen of Torture."


title: Alfreda Frances Bikowsky

text: Bikowsky started her CIA career in the 1990s as a Soviet analyst. She was brought into the Bin Laden Issue Station when it was created in 1996 by its first chief, Michael Scheuer. Sometime after the USS "Cole" bombing in October 2000, she was promoted to Deputy Chief of the Bin Laden Issue Station. By March 2003, she had been appointed Chief of the station. The station was closed in late 2005.


title: Alfreda Frances Bikowsky

text: Ken Silverstein reported that Bikowsky was a top candidate to be CIA Deputy Chief of Station in Baghdad in 2007. However, a CIA spokesman later wrote to Silverstein to say Bikowsky was not considered for the position and to dispute the characterization of her in the post.


title: Alfreda Frances Bikowsky

text: In 2008, Jane Mayer reported that Bikowsky held "a top post handling sensitive matters in the Middle East." It was reported in 2011 that Bikowsky had been promoted to the head of the CIA's Global Jihad unit. She was characterized as a "top CIA official," equivalent to a general in the military.


title: Alfreda Frances Bikowsky

text: According to the Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture, Bikowsky was at the center of the CIA's effort to justify its use of "enhanced interrogation" techniques. She testified to the Senate Intelligence Committee in February 2007 that enhanced interrogation saved at least hundreds of American lives. The report listed three other claims Bikowsky made in that hearing, calling them all inaccurate. Bikowsky's pseudonym was redacted at least three dozen times in the report.


title: Alfreda Frances Bikowsky

text: Bikowsky was a senior staff member at the Bin Laden Issue Station in January 2000. She was the direct supervisor of Michael Anne Casey, a CIA staff operations officer who was assigned to track future 9/11 hijacker Khalid al-Mihdhar at an al-Qaeda operatives' meeting in Malaysia in early January 2000. Casey blocked a draft cable written by Doug Miller, an FBI agent detailed to the Bin Laden Issue Station, to the FBI warning that al-Mihdhar had a multiple-entry visa for travel to the U.S. Mark Rossini, another FBI agent first assigned to the Bin Laden Issue Station in 1999, testified that Casey also verbally ordered him to not share information with FBI headquarters about al-Mihdhar or Nawaf al-Hazmi, who was traveling with al-Mihdhar. Rossini further stated that Bikowsky told congressional investigators in 2002 that she hand-delivered al-Mihdhar's visa information to FBI headquarters. This was later proven false by FBI log books. The CIA shared some details about al-Mihdhar with the FBI at that time, but not that he had a valid visa to enter the U.S.


title: Alfreda Frances Bikowsky

text: Former CIA officer John Kiriakou was interviewed about the arrest and extraordinary rendition of Canadian citizen Maher Arar, which occurred in September 2002 at John F. Kennedy International Airport. Kiriakou said a "senior female CIA counter-terrorism officer" (presumably Bikowsky) ordered the rendition over the objections of her subordinates. Arar was sent to Syria, where he was tortured and held for almost one year. In reference to the episode, he referred to the film "Zero Dark Thirty".


title: Alfreda Frances Bikowsky

text: Bikowsky has been identified as "the redheaded former Soviet analyst who had been in the Bin Laden Unit during Michael Scheuer's supervision" in Jane Mayer's book, "The Dark Side". After Khalid Sheikh Mohammed was captured in March 2003, Mayer writes of Bikowsky:


title: Alfreda Frances Bikowsky

text: Despite the CIA's insistence on the professionalism of its interrogation program, according to two well-informed Agency sources, one particularly overzealous female officer had to be reprimanded for her role. After Mohammed was captured, the woman, who headed the Al Qaeda unit in the CTC, was so excited she flew at government expense to the black site where Mohammed was held so that she could personally watch him being waterboarded. ... Coworkers said she had no legitimate reason to be present during Mohammed's interrogation. She was not an interrogator. "She thought it would be cool to be in the room," a former colleague said. (p. 273)


title: Alfreda Frances Bikowsky

text: The Senate torture report claims Bikowsky participated in the interrogation and that claims she made about the results were "almost entirely inaccurate."


title: Alfreda Frances Bikowsky

text: In late January 2004, Bikowsky, as head of the Bin Laden Issue Station, made the decision to extraordinarily render Khalid El-Masri to Afghanistan for four months without any evidence in hand. El-Masri's name was a different transliteration of Khalid al-Masri, the name of a person who had supposedly met Ramzi bin al-Shibh and Marwan al-Shehhi on a train in Germany. Even after El-Masri's passport was checked and his identity as a different person was confirmed in March, Bikowsky still wanted him held in detention in Afghanistan. El-Masri was eventually released in late May on a country road in Albania. The CIA Inspector General determined that there was no legal justification for rendering El-Masri. Bikowsky received no reprimand for the incident, because then-CIA Director Michael Hayden said he didn't want to deter the initiative of counter-terrorism employees.


title: Alfreda Frances Bikowsky

text: In 2015, the European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights, a German non-profit human rights organization, filed a criminal complaint in Germany asking for a federal criminal investigation of Bikowsky for the rendition and torture of El-Masri. Germany's Code of Crimes against International Law does not require the accused to be in Germany or the crime to have been committed there. The complaint cited the U.S. Senate Intelligence Committee report on torture as proof of Bikowsky's involvement.


title: Alfreda Frances Bikowsky

text: In 2011, independent journalists Ray Nowosielski and John Duffy planned to release an audio documentary entitled "Who is Rich Blee?" The documentary focused on the CIA's Bin Laden Issue Station before 9/11 and how certain CIA officials blocked information on future 9/11 hijackers from reaching the FBI. They planned to be the first to reveal the identity of two CIA agents, including Bikowsky, who had previously only been identified as "Frances" in an AP news story from 2011 or as a red-headed CIA agent in Jane Mayer's "The Dark Side". However, after receiving threats of prosecution from the CIA under the Intelligence Identities Protection Act, Duffy and Nowosielski decided to release the documentary with the names redacted. They claim that their webmaster later posted an email containing the identities by accident. The identities then spread to the wider Internet.


title: Alfreda Frances Bikowsky

text: Bikowsky's career and personality were the main models for the character Maya (portrayed by actress Jessica Chastain) in the film "Zero Dark Thirty" (2012), although Maya is a composite character of several women involved in finding Osama Bin Laden. The film attracted controversy for its depiction of the use of torture to elicit information from terrorist suspects.


title: Alfreda Frances Bikowsky

text: She is also a basis for the character Diane Marsh (portrayed by Wrenn Schmidt) in the Hulu miniseries "The Looming Tower" (2018). In the dramatization, she is depicted as being one of the two people primarily responsible for the lack of intelligence sharing between the FBI and CIA in the lead up to 9/11.


title: Alfreda Frances Bikowsky

text: In "The Report", a film adaptation of the Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture, a character played by Maura Tierney appears to be based on Bikowsky.


title: Alfreda Frances Bikowsky

text: Bikowsky married fellow CIA and former Chief of the Bin Laden Issue Station, Michael Scheuer, in 2014. Under her married name Alfreda Scheuer, she owns and operates her own business, YBeU Beauty. As a life coach she "helps women look good, feel good, and do good." This re-emergence ignited further criticism and discussion, with some online calling for her to be incriminated on war crimes charges.


title: Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z...

text: Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z... is the second studio album by American rapper 2Pac, released on February 16, 1993, by Interscope and Jive Records. N.I.G.G.A. in the title is punctuated to refer to 2Pac's backronym "Never Ignorant in Getting Goals Accomplished". The album features guest appearances from the group Live Squad, 2Pac's stepbrother the Wycked (later known as "Mopreme", later a member of 2Pac's groups Thug Life and the Outlawz), Ice-T, Ice Cube, Treach, Apache, Poppi, Deadly Threat, R&B singer Dave Hollister and Digital Underground.


title: Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z...

text: Similar to his debut, "2Pacalypse Now", the album contains many tracks emphasizing 2Pac's political and social views. The original album was going to be named "Troublesome 21" and released in September 1992, but it was scrapped due to being rejected by Time Warner. Many of these tracks still remained unreleased while "Keep Ya Head Up", "I Get Around", "Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z.", "The Streetz R Deathrow" and "Souljah's Revenge" were utilized for the new track listing. Debuting at number 24 on the "Billboard" 200, this album saw more commercial success than its predecessor, and there are many noticeable differences in production.


title: Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z...

text: While 2Pac's first effort included a more underground or indie rap-oriented sound, this album was considered his "breakout" album. It spawned the hits "Keep Ya Head Up" and "I Get Around". As of 2011, "Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z..." has sold 1,639,584 units in the United States. In commemoration of its twenty-fifth anniversary, it was released on vinyl on February 16, 2018.


title: Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z...

text: "Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z..." received generally positive reviews from critics. "Melody Maker" called the album "an adventure into life on the streets of America", delivered through raps that "drip with the sweat of hardcore funk". "The Source" said: "A combination of '60s black political thought and '90s urban reality, 2Pac is not afraid to speak his mind ... [balancing] the gangsta tendencies of street life with insightful revelations". "Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z...", wrote Ian McCann in "Q", "found 2Pac feted by Hollywood and Ice Cube no longer an influence but a guest. Bitter, more distant, it offers the legendary 5 Deadly Venomz, Keep Ya Head Up and, ominously, Something 2 Die 4, on which 2Pac's ma warns him if he can't find something to live for, he should find something worth dying for. Gulp."


title: Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z...

text: In a less enthusiastic review for the "Los Angeles Times", Jonathan Gold found the production accomplished and 2Pac's raps "sort of entertaining" but regarded him as "a gifted mimic" with "no discernible style of his own" and "not an especially deep thinker". Robert Christgau singled out "Keep Ya Head Up" as the record's only worthy track.


title: Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z...

text: "Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z." debuted at number 24 on the US "Billboard" 200 and number four on the US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, selling 38,000 units in its first week. On April 19, 1995, the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for sales of over one million copies in the United States. As of September 2011, the album has sold 1,639,584 copies in the United States.


title: Milkor MGL

text: The Milkor MGL (Multiple Grenade Launcher) is a lightweight 40 mm six-shot revolver-type grenade launcher (variations also fire 37/38mm) developed and manufactured in South Africa by Milkor (Pty) Ltd. The MGL was demonstrated as a concept to the South African Defence Force (SADF) in 1981. The MGL was then officially accepted into service with the SADF as the Y2. After its introduction in 1983, the MGL was gradually adopted by the armed forces and law enforcement organizations of over 50 countries. Total production since 1983 has been more than 50,000 units.


title: Milkor MGL

text: The MGL is a multiple-shot weapon, intended to significantly increase a small squad's firepower when compared to traditional single-shot grenade launchers like the M203. The MGL is designed to be simple, rugged, and reliable. It uses the well-proven revolver principle to achieve a high rate of accurate fire which can be rapidly brought to bear on a target.


title: Milkor MGL

text: A variety of rounds such as HE, HEAT, anti-riot baton, irritant, and pyrotechnic can be loaded, then fired as fast as the trigger can be pulled. The cylinder can be loaded or unloaded rapidly to maintain a high rate of fire. Although intended primarily for offensive and defensive use with high-explosive rounds, with appropriate ammunition the launcher is suitable for anti-riot and other security operations. A newly patented modification allows the MGL to fire less lethal (very low pressure) rounds.


title: Milkor MGL

text: The MGL is a low-velocity, shoulder-fired 40 mm grenade launcher with a six-round spring-driven revolver-style magazine capable of accepting most 40×46mm grenades. The spring-driven cylinder rotates automatically while firing, but it must be wound back up after every reloading.


title: Milkor MGL

text: The MGL grenade launcher consists of a lightweight, progressively rifled steel barrel, sight assembly, frame with firing mechanism, spring-actuated revolving cylinder magazine, and a folding stock. The weapon has a fire selector safety switch just above the rear pistol grip which can be operated from either side. The launcher cannot be accidentally discharged if dropped.


title: Milkor MGL

text: The launcher is loaded by releasing the cylinder axis pin and swinging the steel frame away from the cylinder.


title: Milkor MGL

text: The rear of the cylinder (including the pistol grip) is unlatched and pivoted counter-clockwise to expose the chambers during reloading. By inserting the fingers into the empty chambers and rotating the aluminium cylinder it is then wound against its driving spring. The grenades are then inserted into the chambers, one-by-one (because the cylinder cannot be removed), the frame closed, and the axis pin re-engaged to lock.


title: Milkor MGL

text: When the trigger is pressed a double-action takes place and the firing pin is cocked and released to fire the grenade. Gas pressure on a piston unlocks the cylinder and allows the spring to rotate it until the next chamber is aligned with the firing pin, whereupon the next round can be fired. If a misfire occurs the trigger can be pulled repeatedly.


title: Milkor MGL

text: The Y2, amongst other models, is equipped with the Armson Occluded Eye Gunsight (OEG), a collimator sight which provides a single aiming post. The shooter aims with both eyes open and the post is superimposed onto the target, both being in focus. The OEG on the Y2 is designed as an aid to range estimation, the post being equal to the height of a man at 200 metres. It is also fitted with tritium illumination for low light operation which has a life of at least ten years. The range quadrant is graduated in 25 m increments.


title: Milkor MGL

text: Several upgrades were made to the original design in the last decade. After over 12 years of production, and more than a decade of user feedback from different countries around the world, it became evident that a redesign of some component groups would make the weapon even more user-friendly and reliable while also simplifying maintenance. This development, known as the MGL Mk-1 was introduced to the market in 1996. All weapons previously supplied can be upgraded to the Mk 1 configuration. Parts, such as the steel barrel, are interchangeable with a minimum of workshop modifications involving a few special tools and cutting dies.


title: Milkor MGL

text: Two "product improved" variants were introduced in 2004. The first is the Mk 1S, which replaces the aluminum frame of the Mk 1 with a stronger stainless steel body, a conventional trigger unit, and Picatinny rail support at the top, sides and bottom of the forend. The second variant is the Mk 1L, with the same features as the Mk 1S, but with a long cylinder to fit special-purpose grenades such as tear gas canisters and less-lethal impact rounds that are too long to fit in the other models' shorter cylinder. The Mk 1L also features a sliding buttstock.


title: Milkor MGL

text: In 2006 the Milkor 37/38mm Multiple Anti-Riot (MAR) replaced the 40mm less-lethal Yima. The MAR is largely identical to other MGL models, but is adapted to fire standard 37/38mm less-lethal riot control rounds available today.


title: Milkor MGL

text: The Milkor SuperSix MRGL (Multi-range Grenade Launcher) was developed in 2012 and features a new recoil reduction system, redesigned stock, strengthened construction and new optics. The SuperSix MRGL is capable of firing a wide range of standard (low velocity, LV) and medium velocity (MV) munitions, which enables the user to engage a wider range of targets than possible with previous launchers, with a maximum range of 800 to 1200 metres. Rounds can be fired in rapid succession of six rounds in less than 3 seconds (operator dependent) and has a standard six-shot area coverage of at least 20m × 60m.


title: Milkor MGL

text: Milkor USA, Inc. is an American company that produces copies of the Milkor MGL. Milkor (Pty) Ltd has no affiliation or working relationship with Milkor USA.


title: Milkor MGL

text: Milkor USA previously produced the Mk 1S as the MGL-105, and the Mk 1L as the MGL-140, both referring to their respective chamber lengths.


title: Milkor MGL

text: In 2005 the United States Marine Corps procured 200 MGL-140s, designated as the "M32 Multi-shot Grenade Launcher" (M32 MGL or M32 MSGL). They were initially field tested in 2006. The M32 is equipped with the M2A1 reflex sight, a AAA battery–powered sight with infrared settings for night operations. Its elevation adjusts in 25 meter increments and compensates for drift, and its casing features a Picatinny rail on top.


title: Milkor MGL

text: In 2014, Milkor USA dropped the MGL-105 and MGL-140, and introduced a shorter-barreled variant, the M32A1. Despite the shorter barrel (8 inches instead of 12), it weighs the same as the M32, because its receiver, stock and other parts of the weapon were strengthened, in anticipation of higher pressure medium velocity rounds sought by United States Special Operations Command. The M32A1 has been adopted by the U.S. Marine Corps as the M32A1 Multi-shot Grenade Launcher, and by USSOCOM as the Mk 14 Mod 0.


title: Partridge

text: A partridge is a medium-sized galliform bird in any of several genera, with a wide native distribution throughout parts of Europe, Asia and Africa. Several species have been introduced to the Americas. They are sometimes grouped in the Perdicinae subfamily of the Phasianidae (pheasants, quail, etc.). However, molecular research suggests that partridges are not a distinct taxon within the family Phasianidae, but that some species are closer to the pheasants, while others are closer to the junglefowl.


title: Partridge

text: Partridges are medium-sized game birds, generally intermediate in size between the larger pheasants, smaller quail; they're ground-dwelling birds that feature variable plumage colouration across species, with most tending to grey and brown.


title: Partridge

text: Partridges are native to Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. Some species are found nesting on steppes or agricultural land, while other species prefer more forested areas. They nest on the ground and have a diet consisting of seeds and insects.


title: Partridge

text: Species such as the grey partridge and the red-legged partridge are popular as game birds, and are often reared in captivity and released for the purpose of hunting. For the same reason, they have been introduced into large areas of North America.


title: Partridge

text: According to Greek legend, the first partridge appeared when Daedalus threw his nephew, Perdix, off the sacred hill of Athena in a fit of jealous rage. Supposedly mindful of his fall, the bird does not build its nest in the trees, nor take lofty flights and avoids high places.


title: Partridge

text: As described by medieval scholar Madeleine Pelner Cosman, medical practitioners in the Middle Ages recommended partridge as a food of love: They suggested that "Partridge was superior in arousing dulled passions and increasing the powers of engendering. Gentle to the human stomach, partridge stimulated bodily fluids, raised the spirits, and firmed the muscles."


title: Partridge

text: Probably the most famous reference to the partridge is in the Christmas carol, "The Twelve Days of Christmas". The first gift listed is "a partridge in a pear tree", and these words end each verse. Since partridges are unlikely to be seen in pear-trees (they are ground-nesting birds) it has been suggested that the text "a pear tree" is a corruption of the French ""une perdrix"" (a partridge).


title: Partridge

text: The partridge has also been used as a symbol that represents Kurdish nationalism. It is called "Kew". Sherko Kurmanj discusses the paradox of symbols in Iraq as an attempt to make a distinction between the Kurds and the Arabs. He says that while Iraqis generally regards the palm tree, falcon, and sword as their national symbols, the Kurds consider the oak, partridge, and dagger as theirs.


title: Creator deity

text: A creator deity or creator god (often called the Creator) is a deity responsible for the creation of the Earth, world, and universe in human religion and mythology. In monotheism, the single God is often also the creator. A number of monolatristic traditions separate a secondary creator from a primary transcendent being, identified as a primary creator.


title: Creator deity

text: Initiated by Pharaoh Akhenaten and Queen Nefertiti around 1330 BCE, during the New Kingdom period in ancient Egyptian history. They built an entirely new capital city (Akhetaten) for themselves and worshippers of their sole creator god on a wilderness. His father used to worship Aten alongside other gods of their polytheistic religion. Aten, for a long time before his father's time, was revered as a god among the many gods and goddesses in Egypt. Atenism faded away after the death of the pharaoh. Despite different views, Atenism is considered by some scholars to be one of the frontiers of monotheism in human history.


title: Creator deity

text: The Genesis creation narrative is the creation myth of both Judaism and Christianity. The narrative is made up of two stories, roughly equivalent to the first two chapters of the Book of Genesis. In the first, Elohim (the Hebrew generic word for God) creates the heavens and the Earth, the animals, and mankind in six days, then rests on, blesses and sanctifies the seventh (i.e. the Biblical Sabbath). In the second story, God, now referred to by the personal name Yahweh, creates Adam, the first man, from dust and places him in the Garden of Eden, where he is given dominion over the animals. Eve, the first woman, is created from Adam and as his companion.


title: Creator deity

text: It expounds themes parallel to those in Mesopotamian mythology, emphasizing the Israelite people's belief in one God. The first major comprehensive draft of the Pentateuch (the series of five books which begins with Genesis and ends with Deuteronomy) was composed in the late 7th or the 6th century BCE (the Jahwist source) and was later expanded by other authors (the Priestly source) into a work very similar to Genesis as known today. The two sources can be identified in the creation narrative: Priestly and Jahwistic. The combined narrative is a critique of the Mesopotamian theology of creation: Genesis affirms monotheism and denies polytheism. Robert Alter described the combined narrative as "compelling in its archetypal character, its adaptation of myth to monotheistic ends".


title: Creator deity

text: The Abrahamic creation narrative is made up of two stories, roughly equivalent to the two first chapters of the Book of Genesis. The first account (1:1 through 2:3) employs a repetitious structure of divine fiat and fulfillment, then the statement "And there was evening and there was morning, the ["x"] day," for each of the six days of creation. In each of the first three days there is an act of division: day one divides the darkness from light, day two the "waters above" from the "waters below", and day three the sea from the land. In each of the next three days these divisions are populated: day four populates the darkness and light with sun, moon, and stars; day five populates seas and skies with fish and fowl; and finally, land-based creatures and mankind populate the land.


title: Creator deity

text: The first (the Priestly story) was concerned with the cosmic plan of creation, while the second (the Yahwist story) focuses on man as cultivator of his environment and as a moral agent. The second account, in contrast to the regimented seven-day scheme of Genesis 1, uses a simple flowing narrative style that proceeds from God's forming the first man through the Garden of Eden to the creation of the first woman and the institution of marriage. In contrast to the omnipotent God of Genesis 1 creating a god-like humanity, the God of Genesis 2 can fail as well as succeed. The humanity he creates is not god-like, but is punished for acts which would lead to their becoming god-like (Genesis 3:1-24) and the order and method of creation itself differs. "Together, this combination of parallel character and contrasting profile point to the different origin of materials in Genesis 1:1 and Gen 2:4, however elegantly they have now been combined."


title: Creator deity

text: An early conflation of Greek philosophy with the narratives in the Hebrew Bible came from Philo of Alexandria (d. AD 50), writing in the context of Hellenistic Judaism. Philo equated the Hebrew creator-deity Yahweh with Aristotle's unmoved mover (First Cause) in an attempt to prove that the Jews had held monotheistic views even before the Greeks.


title: Creator deity

text: A similar theoretical proposition was demonstrated by Thomas Aquinas, who linked Aristotelian philosophy with the Christian faith, followed by the statement that God is the First Being, the First Mover, and is Pure Act.


title: Creator deity

text: The deuterocanonical 2 Maccabees has two relevant passages. At chapter 7, it narrows about the mother of a Jewish proto-martyr telling to her son: "I beseech thee, my son, look upon heaven and earth, and all that is in them: and consider that God made them out of nothing, and mankind also"; at chapter 1, it refers a solemn prayer hymned by Jonathan, Nehemiah and the Priest of Israel, while making sacrifices in honour of God: "O Lord, Lord God, Creator of all things, who art fearefull, and strong, and righteous, and mercifull, and the onely, and gracious king".


title: Creator deity

text: The begins with: "In the beginning was the Word, & the Word was with God, and the Word was God. / 2 The same was in the beginning with God. / 3 All things were made by him, and without him was not any thing made that was made.".


title: Creator deity

text: Christianity affirms the creation by God since its early time in the Apostles' Creed ("I believe in God, the Father almighty, creator of heaven and earth.", 1st century AD), that is symmetrical to the Nicene Creed (4th century AD).


title: Creator deity

text: Nowadays, theologians debate whether the Bible itself teaches if this creation by God is a creation "ex nihilo". Traditional interpreters argue on grammatical and syntactical grounds that this is the meaning of Genesis 1:1, which is commonly rendered: "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth." However, other interpreters understand creation "ex nihilo" as a 2nd-century theological development. According to this view, church fathers opposed notions appearing in "pre"-Christian creation myths and in Gnosticism—notions of creation by a demiurge out of a primordial state of matter (known in religious studies as "chaos" after the Greek term used by Hesiod in his "Theogony").


title: Creator deity

text: According to Islam, the creator deity, God, known in Arabic as Allah, is the all-powerful and all-knowing Creator, Sustainer, Ordainer, and Judge of the universe. Creation is seen as an act of divine choice and mercy, one with a grand purpose: "And We did not create the heaven and earth and that between them in play." Rather, the purpose of humanity is to be tested: "Who has created death and life, that He may test you which of you is best in deed. And He is the All-Mighty, the Oft-Forgiving;" Those who pass the test are rewarded with Paradise: "Verily for the Righteous there will be a fulfilment of (the heart's) desires;"


title: Creator deity

text: According to the Islamic teachings, God exists above the heavens and the creation itself. The Quran mentions, "He it is Who created for you all that is on earth. Then He Istawa (rose over) towards the heaven and made them seven heavens and He is the All-Knower of everything." At the same time, God is unlike anything in creation: "There is nothing like unto Him, and He is the Hearing, the Seeing." and nobody can perceive God in totality: "Vision perceives Him not, but He perceives [all] vision; and He is the Subtle, the Acquainted." God in Islam is not only majestic and sovereign, but also a personal God: "And indeed We have created man, and We know what his ownself whispers to him. And We are nearer to him than his jugular vein (by Our Knowledge)." Allah commands the believers to constantly remember Him ("O you who have believed, remember Allah with much remembrance") and to invoke Him alone ("And whoever invokes besides Allah another deity for which he has no proof—then his account is only with his Lord. Indeed, the disbelievers will not succeed.").


title: Creator deity

text: Islam teaches that God as referenced in the Quran is the only god and the same God worshipped by members of other Abrahamic religions such as Christianity and Judaism.


title: Creator deity

text: One of the biggest responsibilities in the faith of Sikhism is to worship God as "The Creator", termed "Waheguru", who is shapeless, timeless, and sightless, i.e., Nirankar, Akal, and Alakh Niranjan. The religion only takes after the belief in "One God for All" or Ik Onkar.


title: Creator deity

text: In the Baháʼí Faith God is the imperishable, uncreated being who is the source of all existence. He is described as "a personal God, unknowable, inaccessible, the source of all Revelation, eternal, omniscient, omnipresent and almighty". Although transcendent and inaccessible directly, his image is reflected in his creation. The purpose of creation is for the created to have the capacity to know and love its creator.


title: Creator deity

text: In Mandaeism, "Hayyi Rabbi" (lit=The Great Life), or 'The Great Living God', is the supreme God from which all things emanate. He is also known as 'The First Life', since during the creation of the material world, Yushamin emanated from Hayyi Rabbi as the "Second Life." "The principles of the Mandaean doctrine: the belief of the only one great God, Hayyi Rabbi, to whom all absolute properties belong; He created all the worlds, formed the soul through his power, and placed it by means of angels into the human body. So He created Adam and Eve, the first man and woman." Mandaeans recognize God to be the eternal, creator of all, the one and only in domination who has no partner.


title: Creator deity

text: Monolatristic traditions would separate a secondary creator from the primary transcendent being, identified as a primary creator. According to Gaudiya Vaishnavas, Brahma is the secondary creator and not the supreme. Vishnu is the primary creator. According to Vaishnava belief Vishnu creates the basic universal shell and provides all the raw materials and also places the living entities within the material world, fulfilling their own independent will. Brahma works with the materials provided by Vishnu to actually create what are believed to be planets in Puranic terminology, and he supervises the population of them.


title: Creator deity

text: Monism is the philosophy that asserts oneness as its fundamental premise, and it contradicts the dualism-based theistic premise that there is a creator God that is eternal and separate from the rest of existence. There are two types of monism, namely spiritual monism which holds that all spiritual reality is one, and material monism which holds that everything including all material reality is one and the same thing.


title: Creator deity

text: Buddhism denies a creator deity and posits that mundane deities such as Mahabrahma are misperceived to be a creator.


title: Creator deity

text: Jainism does not support belief in a creator deity. According to Jain doctrine, the universe and its constituents—soul, matter, space, time, and principles of motion have always existed (a static universe similar to that of Epicureanism and steady state cosmological model). All the constituents and actions are governed by universal natural laws. It is not possible to create matter out of nothing and hence the sum total of matter in the universe remains the same (similar to law of conservation of mass). Similarly, the soul of each living being is unique and uncreated and has existed since beginningless time.


title: Creator deity

text: The Jain theory of causation holds that a cause and its effect are always identical in nature and therefore a conscious and immaterial entity like God cannot create a material entity like the universe. Furthermore, according to the Jain concept of divinity, any soul who destroys its karmas and desires achieves liberation. A soul who destroys all its passions and desires has no desire to interfere in the working of the universe. Moral rewards and sufferings are not the work of a divine being, but a result of an innate moral order in the cosmos; a self-regulating mechanism whereby the individual reaps the fruits of his own actions through the workings of the karmas.


title: Creator deity

text: Through the ages, Jain philosophers have adamantly rejected and opposed the concept of creator and omnipotent God and this has resulted in Jainism being labeled as "nāstika darsana" or atheist philosophy by the rival religious philosophies. The theme of non-creationism and absence of omnipotent God and divine grace runs strongly in all the philosophical dimensions of Jainism, including its cosmology, karma, moksa and its moral code of conduct. Jainism asserts a religious and virtuous life is possible without the idea of a creator god.


title: Creator deity

text: In polytheistic creation, the world often comes into being organically, e.g. sprouting from a primal seed, sexually, by miraculous birth (sometimes by parthenogenesis), by hieros gamos, violently, by the slaying of a primeval monster, or artificially, by a divine demiurge or "craftsman". Sometimes, a god is involved, wittingly or unwittingly, in bringing about creation. Examples include:


title: Creator deity

text: Plato, in his dialogue "Timaeus", describes a creation myth involving a being called the demiurge ( "craftsman"). Neoplatonism and Gnosticism continued and developed this concept. In Neoplatonism, the demiurge represents the second cause or dyad, after the monad. In Gnostic dualism, the demiurge is an imperfect spirit and possibly an evil being, transcended by divine Fullness (Pleroma). Unlike the Abrahamic God, Plato's demiurge is unable to create ex-nihilo.


title: Creator deity

text: Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, pandeism, monism, and atheism among others; and its concept of creator deity is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and philosophy followed. Hinduism is sometimes referred to as henotheistic (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralization.


title: Creator deity

text: The "Nasadiya Sukta" ("Creation Hymn") of the "Rig Veda" is one of the earliest texts which "demonstrates a sense of metaphysical speculation" about what created the universe, the concept of god(s) and The One, and whether even The One knows how the universe came into being. The "Rig Veda" praises various deities, none superior nor inferior, in a henotheistic manner. The hymns repeatedly refer to One Truth and Reality. The "One Truth" of Vedic literature, in modern era scholarship, has been interpreted as monotheism, monism, as well as a deified Hidden Principles behind the great happenings and processes of nature.


title: Creator deity

text: The post-Vedic texts of Hinduism offer multiple theories of cosmogony, many involving Brahma. These include "Sarga" (primary creation of universe) and "Visarga" (secondary creation), ideas related to the Indian thought that there are two levels of reality, one primary that is unchanging (metaphysical) and other secondary that is always changing (empirical), and that all observed reality of the latter is in an endless repeating cycle of existence, that cosmos and life we experience is continually created, evolved, dissolved and then re-created. The primary creator is extensively discussed in Vedic cosmogonies with "Brahman" or "Purusha" or "Devi" among the terms used for the primary creator, while the Vedic and post-Vedic texts name different gods and goddesses as secondary creators (often Brahma in post-Vedic texts), and in some cases a different god or goddess is the secondary creator at the start of each cosmic cycle ("kalpa", aeon).


title: Creator deity

text: Brahma is a "secondary creator" as described in the "Mahabharata" and Puranas, and among the most studied and described. Born from a lotus emerging from the navel of Vishnu, Brahma creates all the forms in the universe, but not the primordial universe itself. In contrast, the Shiva-focused Puranas describe Brahma and Vishnu to have been created by Ardhanarishvara, that is half Shiva and half Parvati; or alternatively, Brahma was born from Rudra, or Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma creating each other cyclically in different aeons (kalpa). Thus in most Puranic texts, Brahma's creative activity depends on the presence and power of a higher god.


title: Creator deity

text: In other versions of creation, the creator deity is the one who is equivalent to the Brahman, the metaphysical reality in Hinduism. In Vaishnavism, Vishnu creates Brahma and orders him to order the rest of universe. In Shaivism, Shiva may be treated as the creator. In Shaktism, the Great Goddess creates the Trimurti.


title: Creator deity

text: Pangu can be interpreted as another creator deity. In the beginning there was nothing in the universe except a formless chaos. However this chaos began to coalesce into a cosmic egg for eighteen thousand years. Within it, the perfectly opposed principles of yin and yang became balanced and Pangu emerged (or woke up) from the egg. Pangu is usually depicted as a primitive, hairy giant with horns on his head and clad in furs. Pangu set about the task of creating the world: he separated Yin from Yang with a swing of his giant axe, creating the Earth (murky "Yin") and the Sky (clear "Yang"). To keep them separated, Pangu stood between them and pushed up the Sky. This task took eighteen thousand years, with each day the sky grew ten feet higher, the Earth ten feet wider, and Pangu ten feet taller. In some versions of the story, Pangu is aided in this task by the four most prominent beasts, namely the Turtle, the Qilin, the Phoenix, and the Dragon.


title: Creator deity

text: After eighteen thousand years had elapsed, Pangu was laid to rest. His breath became the wind; his voice the thunder; left eye the sun and right eye the moon; his body became the mountains and extremes of the world; his blood formed rivers; his muscles the fertile lands; his facial hair the stars and milky way; his fur the bushes and forests; his bones the valuable minerals; his bone marrows sacred diamonds; his sweat fell as rain; and the fleas on his fur carried by the wind became human beings all over the world.


title: Creator deity

text: Shangdi is another creator deity, possibly prior to Pangu; sharing concepts similar to Abrahamic faiths.


title: Toyota Corolla (E100)

text: The Corolla E100 was the seventh generation of cars sold by Toyota under the Corolla nameplate. This generation of Corolla was larger, heavier, and visually more aerodynamic than the model it replaced. With its wheelbase, the Corolla had moved into the compact size class once occupied by the Corona and Camry. The Corolla again had an equivalent model Sprinter, with the Sprinter Trueno being equivalent to the Corolla Levin and both exclusive to "Toyota Vista Store" Japanese dealerships.


title: Toyota Corolla (E100)

text: The development of the seventh-generation Corolla was led by chief engineer Akihiko Saito. Not only was the wheelbase increased, but the new Corolla also received a wider track than did the 90-series. The chunky, solid design reflected the desire of development chief Dr. Akihiko Saito to make a 'mini-Lexus', to build on the recent successes of Toyota's new flagship range. The sedan and hatchback have , the liftback is , and the wagon/van are . The 100-series models used fewer body panels than their predecessors, for increased strength, lower cost, and fewer panel gaps (providing a cleaner appearance and lower wind resistance). The headlights were now from polycarbonate rather than glass, and almost 90 percent of the bodyshell was made from galvanized steel - compared to about 60 percent in the preceding generation.


title: Toyota Corolla (E100)

text: The standard Corolla model range included the three-door hatchback Corolla FX, four-door sedan and five-door station wagon (and light van) models. Also returning in this generation was the two-door coupé Corolla Levin. A 4WD variant of the sedan and station wagon was also available with a 1.6 liter petrol or 2.0 liter diesel engine.


title: Toyota Corolla (E100)

text: The four -door "pillared hardtop" Corolla Ceres and Sprinter Marino were introduced in 1992. They bore no real exterior resemblance but feature the chassis and most of the engine range of the standard Corollas, and used the Levin/Trueno dashboard. Minor facelift changes were introduced in May 1993. These included a new grille, a reconfiguration of the rear lamps and various other bits of trim and garnish.


title: Toyota Corolla (E100)

text: The E100 sedan and hatchbacks introduced in 1991 lasted until the introduction of the E110 in May 1995, while the E100 wagons and the related van continued in the Japanese market alongside the newer Corolla and Sprinter Carib models. Passenger wagons were available in 'G-Touring', 'L-Touring' and high-performance 'BZ-Touring' guises, while "Van" and "Business Wagon" models were basically stripped out wagons with leaf-sprung solid axle rear suspensions. Business Wagons typically had slightly higher equipment levels than simpler vans. Toyota also offered a High-Roof version of the Corolla (and Sprinter) Van. The Corolla Touring Wagon continued until 2000, while both commercial versions continued to serve the Japanese market until July 2002, long outliving the mainstream E110 models in Japan. It was succeeded by the Probox.


title: Toyota Corolla (E100)

text: In October 1994, Toyota Racing Development launched a special edition of the Corolla for the Japanese market, known as the TRD2000. These cars were based on the GT sedan and converted to replicate the 1994 Corolla JTCC race car specifications. The engine was swapped to a naturally-aspirated 2.0 L 3S-GE with , new 5-speed S54 manual gearbox, heavy duty clutch, mechanical LSD, quickshifter, 15-inch TRD Type-FT wheels with Yokohama Grandprix M5 tires, TRD brakes, new suspension (20 mm lower), small spoiler on the trunk, stainless steel dual exhaust, König Prinz P200 bucket seats, TRD steering wheel and only available in white. Initially, 99 cars were planned to be built, but only 10 cars were sold because of the high price, even more than the Celica GT-Four ST205.


title: Toyota Corolla (E100)

text: In the Philippines, the E100 Corolla is nicknamed "Big Body". Three variants of the E100 Corolla were sold there; XL, XE, and GLi. The XL and XE both offered the 1.3-liter, carbureted 2E engine, with the latter enjoying extra features like power steering, alloy wheels, digital clock and tachometer. The GLi received a 1.6 liter fuel-injected motor (4A-FE). The top model was offered in both 5-speed manual and automatic transmissions, while the XL and XE both only came with the manual. This generation of the Corolla was the first 1.6 liter car to introduce alloy wheels to the country in 1992. Other pioneer features that followed were rear seatbelts, front cup holders (late 1994) and a driver's airbag (late 1995). ABS followed during its later years.


title: Toyota Corolla (E100)

text: The E100 Corolla sedan is nicknamed as the "Great Corolla" in Indonesia and nicknamed "Corolla SEG 100" in Malaysia. Initially the trim levels were 1.3 SE and 1.6 SE-G. The smaller engined model was replaced by a 1.6 SE in 1994.


title: Toyota Corolla (E100)

text: In North America, the Corolla was new for the 1993 model year. It had different headlights (independent high/low beams), grille, bumpers (extended) and trunk garnish for the Base and DX Sedans. The base model came with the 1.6 liter 4A-FE 2nd-generation engine with straighter intake-tracts in the head. The DX, LE and wagon came with the 1.8 liter 7A-FE. The 1993 and 1994 versions of the 7A-FE engine were rated at , later versions were rated at mainly due to differences of the intake shape. Every model has fully independent suspension, front disk brakes and rear drum brakes. The LE (Luxury Edition) has sporty front seats and was available in the US with A/T only or available in Canada with either A/T or M/T. Sporty Corollas and 4WD Corollas were no longer offered or imported in this generation, with the Corolla Sport being replaced by the smaller Paseo. Some 1993 Corolla sedans sold were also produced in Japan, due to factory delays. All of the wagons were produced at the Takaoka plant in Japan.


title: Toyota Corolla (E100)

text: Minor changes occurred for the 1996 model year. Among these changes, the DX received bright red/clear tail lights and rear garnish, and new wheel covers. The Base model (and later the CE) came with restyled gray plastic trunk garnish.


title: Toyota Corolla (E100)

text: In 1997, the DX wagon was dropped, but a special CE (Classic Edition) sedan was offered and it incorporated a number of popular features in one value-priced package. Among the standard equipment were the options for power windows and locks, A/C, power steering, a four-speaker stereo, manual remote mirrors and special floor mats and exterior badging. All models received additional side-impact protection to meet new federal standards. And for the first time, during 1997, all the Corollas sold in the United States were built in North America at the NUMMI plant in Fremont, California and the TMMC plant in Canada. By the end of the 1997 model year, the Corolla had become the best-selling nameplate in automotive history, overtaking the VW Beetle. Official Toyota accessories available as either factory upgrades or dealer-/port-installed options include: power sunroof (DX only), aluminum alloy wheels (DX only), front end mask, rear spoiler, mudguards, V.I.P. keyless entry system (CE "Classic Edition" and DX Sedan only. Requires Power Package.), V.I.P RS3000 remote keyless security system, V.I.P. S1000 passive alarm system, floor mats, wood dash accents, and a Gold emblem package (DX only).


title: Toyota Corolla (E100)

text: The five-door Sprinter was sold as the Corolla Sprinter in some markets in Europe, and simply the Corolla liftback in others. The three and five-door Corolla hatchback was also sold in Europe, where it took the lion's share of Corolla sales. It was available mostly in normal (non-sports) specs unlike the three-door-only FX range available in Japan, although some mildly hot models were also marketed.


title: Toyota Corolla (E100)

text: In Europe, the hatchback sold better than the sedan and estate. The typical trim levels are Base, XLi and GLi. A few select, rare models featured the 1.8L 7A-FE engine, including the 1.8 GXi 3-door hatchback in the UK, and the 1.8 XLi 4WD estate in certain markets. The sedan has its rear license plate mounted on the trunklid as opposed to the bumper on other region models. In Germany and some other markets, the 1331 cc 4E engine was referred to as a 1.4 since it displaced over 1300 cc.


title: Toyota Corolla (E100)

text: British sales began a bit later than elsewhere in the world, in August 1992. Originally only the 1.3 and 1.6 petrol engines were on offer, the 2.0 Diesel and the faintly sporting 1.8 GXi were added in March 1992. The GXi has a claimed , an incremental boost over the 1.8 4WD. In August 1995 the lineup was revised; the new models in the UK market were Sportif, GS, CD, Si, and CDX. The GS featured a fully color-coded exterior and with full electrics and a tilt/slide steel sunroof, as well as an upgraded interior with white dials and a rev counter.


title: Toyota Corolla (E100)

text: In Germany, Europe's largest national automobile market, the E100 sustained the Corolla's reputation for reliability and economy. In 1995, it topped the small family car class in a reliability survey of 4-6 year old cars undertaken by the German Automobile Association (ADAC), with 5.3 recorded breakdowns per 1000 cars for four-year-old cars and 10.1 for six-year-old cars: this compared with 12.0 breakdowns per 1,000 cars for four-year-old Volkswagen Golfs and 21.8 for six-year-old Golfs. (The class loser was the Fiat Tipo with 38.3 breakdowns per 1,000 for four-year-old cars and 44.0 for six-year-old Tipos.)


title: Toyota Corolla (E100)

text: In late 1992, New Zealand-assembled E100 Corollas were introduced to the New Zealand market. These vehicles were assembled at Toyota's Thames factory. Trim levels consisted of 1.3L XL, 1.6L GL, 1.6L GS, and 1.6L GLX. Available bodystyles were sedan, five-door hatchback, five-door liftback, and five-door wagon. There was also a van version of the 1.3-liter hatchback; this model was a strict two-seater. The 1.3 is carburetted while the 1.6 is fuel injected, providing . The 1.6's lack of low-end power was mentioned by period road testers and later the torquier 1.8-liter engine was also made available. The entire Corolla range now received power steering as standard equipment. As with most other New Zealand-assembled Toyotas of the eighties and nineties, ex-racer Chris Amon had been allowed to adjust the suspension settings of the E100 Corolla.


title: Toyota Corolla (E100)

text: During 1994, the E100 Corolla became the first Toyota model to be built at the new Altona plant (production of the Corolla from 1968-1993 was at the Port Melbourne facility). This model came in hatchback (Seca) and sedan variants. The trim levels consisted of 1.6L CSi (base model), 1.6L and 1.8L CSX, 1.8L Conquest, sporty 1.8L RV (hatchback only) and the top of the range 1.8L Ultima (sedan only). Special edition models were included in the model lineup, and between 1994 and 1996 Toyota also imported the five-door liftback Sprinter model. In 1999, production of the E100 Corolla in Australia was terminated and Toyota Australia returned to Japanese imports, this time model AE112R.


title: Toyota Corolla (E100)

text: In May 2017, ANCAP performed a head-on crash test between a 1998 E100 Seca and a 2017 E180 Auris/Corolla. The E100 scored 0.40 out of a possible 16 points, highlighting the safety improvement of newer cars.


title: Calluna

text: Calluna vulgaris, common heather, ling, or simply heather, is the sole species in the genus Calluna in the flowering plant family Ericaceae. It is a low-growing evergreen shrub growing to tall, or rarely to and taller, and is found widely in Europe and Asia Minor on acidic soils in open sunny situations and in moderate shade. It is the dominant plant in most heathland and moorland in Europe, and in some bog vegetation and acidic pine and oak woodland. It is tolerant of grazing and regenerates following occasional burning, and is often managed in nature reserves and grouse moors by sheep or cattle grazing, and also by light burning.


title: Calluna

text: "Calluna" was separated from the closely related genus "Erica" by Richard Anthony Salisbury, who devised the generic name "Calluna" probably from the Ancient Greek (), "beautify, sweep clean", in reference to its traditional use in besoms. The specific epithet "vulgaris" is Latin for 'common'. "Calluna" is differentiated from "Erica" by its corolla and calyx each being in four parts instead of five.


title: Calluna

text: "Calluna" has small scale-leaves (less than 2–3 mm long) borne in opposite and decussate pairs, whereas those of "Erica" are generally larger and in whorls of 3–4, sometimes 5. It flowers from July to September. In wild plants these are normally mauve, but white-flowered plants also occur occasionally. They are terminal in racemes with sepal-like bracts at the base with a superior ovary, the fruit a capsule. Unlike "Erica", "Calluna" sometimes sports double flowers. "Calluna" is sometimes referred to as Summer (or Autumn) heather to distinguish it from winter or spring flowering species of "Erica".


title: Calluna

text: "Calluna vulgaris" is extremely cold-hardy, surviving severe exposure and freezing conditions well below . It is native to Europe, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and the Azores. It has been introduced into many other places worldwide with suitable climates, including North America, Australia, New Zealand and the Falkland Islands.


title: Calluna

text: Despised until the 19th century for its associations with the most rugged rural poverty, heather's growth in popularity may be paralleled with the vogue for alpine plants. It is a very popular ornamental plant in gardens and for landscaping, in lime-free areas where it will thrive, but it is very hard to grow in less acidic soil.


title: Calluna

text: There are many named cultivars, selected for variation in flower colour and for different foliage colour and growing habits.


title: Calluna

text: Different cultivars have flower colours ranging from white, through pink and a wide range of purples, and including reds. The flowering season with different cultivars extends from late July to November in the northern hemisphere. The flowers may turn brown but still remain on the plants over winter, and this can lead to interesting decorative effects. Cultivars with ornamental foliage are usually selected for reddish and golden leaf colour. A few forms can be silvery grey. Many of the ornamental foliage forms change colour with the onset of winter weather, usually increasing in intensity of colour. Some forms are grown for distinctive young spring foliage.


title: Calluna

text: Heather is an important food source for various sheep and deer which can graze the tips of the plants when snow covers low-growing vegetation. Willow grouse and red grouse feed on the young shoots and seeds of this plant. Both adult and larva of the heather beetle ("Lochmaea suturalis") feed on it, and can cause extensive mortality in some instances. The larvae of a number of Lepidoptera species also feed on the plant, notably the small emperor moth "Saturnia pavonia".