title: Big Brother and the Holding Company

text: The "Pop Chronicles" criticized the record as difficult to find and "technically disappointing". "Down On Me" had a long gestation in the marketplace and finally debuted on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart on August 31, 1968, peaking at No. 43. It stayed on the charts for 8 weeks. Other singles from the album were released through the end of 1967 and in 1968. "Coo Coo" b/w "The Last Time", was released in January, 1968. These last songs were from the original 1966 album sessions, but were not included on the LP until Columbia acquired all of the band's Mainstream recordings and reissued the album in the 1970s.


title: Big Brother and the Holding Company

text: In the summer of 1966, the band members moved to Lagunitas, in Marin County, California, to a house that had been originally built by the ethnologist Clinton Hart Merriam. They lived in there until the beginning of 1967 at which time they put an ad in the "San Francisco Oracle" with the apparent intention of moving back to the "City". The ad read: "Big Brother is returning to the city. Need rehearsal hall and a place to live. Write to B.B.& the H.C. at Box 94 Lagunitas."


title: Big Brother and the Holding Company

text: One of the band's earliest major performances in 1967 was the Mantra-Rock Dance—a musical event held on January 29, 1967, at the Avalon Ballroom by the San Francisco Hare Krishna temple. Big Brother and Janis Joplin performed there along with Hare Krishna founder Bhaktivedanta Swami, Allen Ginsberg, Moby Grape, and Grateful Dead, donating proceeds to the Krishna temple.


title: Big Brother and the Holding Company

text: The band's historic performance at the Monterey Pop Festival in June 1967 attracted national and international attention. The band was scheduled to play on Saturday afternoon, with a set which included "Down on Me", "Combination of The Two", "Harry", "Roadblock" and "Ball and Chain". However, the band's manager decided not to allow Pennebaker's film crew to film and record them without paying them, and ordered the crew to turn its cameras off. The festival promoters thought the band performance was great, and asked them to play again the next evening in order to record it on film, but they played only two songs: "Combination of The Two" and "Ball and Chain". "I remember being amazed that this white woman was singing like Bessie Smith," said Michelle Phillips once. "I was astounded". They signed a contract with Columbia Records, which was able to buy out their contract from Mainstream. In late November, Albert Grossman, who was then managing Bob Dylan, Peter Paul and Mary and several other acts became their manager.


title: Big Brother and the Holding Company

text: Having received national recognition after the Monterey Pop Festival, Big Brother was booked by Grossman for engagements around the country. One of those engagements was for opening night at Chet Helm's The Family Dog Denver on September 8 & 9, 1967 along with Blue Cheer. A well-known band on the West Coast (especially in San Francisco), Big Brother played their first East Coast concert in New York City on February 17, 1968, at the Anderson Theater, 66 Second Avenue. Columbia's marketing department featured Janis Joplin as the star; before that time, some of the band's audience regarded James Gurley as of equal or more importance. In New York the press criticized the band for playing out of tune and for amplifiers set at maximum volume. "The Village Voice", while noting that “ears came out ringing” after the Saturday night performance, cited Joplin as ranking in sex appeal with Jim Morrison and Jimi Hendrix, and praised “her belting, groovy style,” mixing Bessie Smith, Aretha Franklin and James Brown. “At times she seemed to be singing harmony with herself.” Big Brother was the first band to play in the legendary Fillmore East, in New York City, on March 8, 1968. The other acts that night were Albert King and Tim Buckley.


title: Big Brother and the Holding Company

text: The band's first album for Columbia was due to be recorded during the spring and summer of 1968, and released in August of that year. It was eagerly anticipated after the first LP had been largely ignored. Initially planned as a live album, the band recorded two concerts at Grande Ballroom in Detroit, but the results did not satisfy the producer John Simon nor the manager Albert Grossman.


title: Big Brother and the Holding Company

text: The live album was scrapped and Columbia decided to re-record most of the songs in the studio ("Down on Me" and "Piece of My Heart", taken from the Grande Ballroom concerts, were later released as part of Joplin's live album "In Concert" in 1972). However, it was difficult adapting their raw sound and unorthodox work habits with the realities of a professional studio. The progress was slow, and the pressure from Grossman, Columbia, and the press increased. A few of the band members believed that John Simon should not be the producer, believing that he came from a different musical style and did not understand the band's psychedelic, guitar based sound.


title: Big Brother and the Holding Company

text: The album was initially named "Sex, Dope and Cheap Thrills", but Columbia asked them to shorten it to just "Cheap Thrills". For the album cover the band was photographed by Richard Avedon but the pictures were not used. Also rejected was a photo of the band naked in a hotel room bed. Dave Getz suggested that the band hire underground comic-book artist R. Crumb whom he knew through a mutual friend. What was originally meant to be the back cover art became the classic cover of the album. For the back cover, Columbia chose a black and white photo of Joplin.


title: Big Brother and the Holding Company

text: "Ball and Chain" is the only song on the album recorded entirely live, and even though the cover credits assert that the live material was recorded at Bill Graham's Fillmore Auditorium, it was actually taken from a concert in Winterland Ballroom in 1968, the same version that appears on the album "Live at Winterland '68", released in 1998. (The performance of "Ball and Chain" as released on the "Winterland" album features a different opening guitar solo by Gurley, indicating that he had dubbed a different intro for the "Cheap Thrills" issue.)


title: Big Brother and the Holding Company

text: The LP was released in August 1968, one year after their debut album, and reached number one on the Billboard charts in its eighth week in October. It held the number one spot for eight (nonconsecutive) weeks, and the single "Piece of My Heart" also became a huge hit. By the end of the year it was one of the most successful albums of 1968. It was certified gold by the R.I.A.A. on October 15 that year for $1 million worth of sales, with subsequent sales pushing the total over a million units. Even though the album was released with only seven songs, the other eight songs which were not included were released on subsequent albums. "Catch Me Daddy" and "Farewell Song" were among their most popular songs. These plus "Magic of Love", a medley of "Amazing Grace" and "Hi-Heel Sneakers", and an outtake of "Harry" first appeared on "Farewell Song", a posthumous Joplin release in 1981; they also appeared on the three-CD set "Janis" in 1993. "It's a Deal" and "Easy Once you Know How" were released in "Box of Pearls" in 1999. "Flower in The Sun" and "Roadblock" were released on the "Cheap Thrills" reissue CD as bonus tracks. "Piece of My Heart" would be reissued on a single in the Columbia Hall of Fame oldies series - backed by the title cut from Joplin's first 1969 solo album, "I Got Dem Ol' Kozmic Blues Again Mama!".


title: Big Brother and the Holding Company

text: At the end of the summer of 1968, just after the release of Cheap Thrills, Joplin announced that she was leaving Big Brother in the fall of that year. The official reason given was her desire to go solo and form a soul music band. Andrew also planned to leave the band to join Joplin in her new project. Joplin played with Big Brother on a nationwide tour throughout October and November 1968. It included an October 20 concert at a roller rink in Alexandria, Virginia. Their final concert was in San Francisco on December 1, 1968. It was a benefit for the production company known as the Family Dog whose members included Chet Helms, the band's manager from two years earlier. Three weeks after this benefit concert, Joplin and Andrew played in Memphis for the first time with her new band, later called Kozmic Blues Band.


title: Big Brother and the Holding Company

text: After Joplin and Sam Andrew left Big Brother, Dave Getz and Peter Albin joined Country Joe and the Fish and toured the U.S. and Europe and played on the Country Joe album "Here We Are Again" (Vanguard Records 1969). Getz and Albin left Country Joe in May 1969 with the intention of re-forming Big Brother with guitarist David Nelson. They auditioned several singers including Eddie Money, Kathi McDonald and John Herald, but the band finally came back together when Sam Andrew left the Kozmic Blues Band in the fall of 1969 with nearly the same line-up (except Joplin): Albin, Andrew, Getz and Gurley were joined by Nick Gravenites (vocals), Dave Schallock (guitar) and Kathi McDonald (vocals). They released "Be a Brother" in 1970. Gurley moved to bass guitar while Albin played rhythm, Sam Andrew sang more lead vocals with Kathi McDonald (a white blues singer who had been with the Ike and Tina Turner review), David Schallock (from Freedom Highway and Sons of Champlin) on lead guitar, Dave Getz on drums and occasional keyboards. Nick Gravenites would also produce the album, write and sing on a number of the tracks. They released their last studio album, "How Hard It Is", in 1971. They retained the same lineup: Kathi and Sam and Nick on vocals joined by organist Mike Finnigan. The band remained with this line-up until 1972, but they gradually fell apart and disbanded amidst drug use, loss of management, lack of gigs and internal squabbles. They re-united once to play "The Tribal Stomp" in 1978 at the Greek Theatre in Berkeley.


title: Big Brother and the Holding Company

text: The latest incarnation began in 1987, and has been touring part-time ever since with most of its classic line-up; including Sam Andrew, Peter Albin, Dave Getz, and James Gurley. Gurley left in 1997 because he did not support his colleagues' idea to hire a female singer to replace Joplin. He was replaced by Tom Finch. Big Brother did not have a fixed lead singer until 2011; Michel Bastian, Lisa Battle, Halley DeVestern, Lisa Mills, Jane Kitto (Aus), Andra Mitrovich, Kacee Clanton, Sophia Ramos, Mary Bridget Davies, Duffy Bishop, Lana Spence, Chloe Lowery, Jane Myrenget, Lynn Asher, Kate Russo Thompson, Darby Gould, Maria Stanford, Jeri Verdi, and Superfly's Shiho Ochi were among the singers that have played in concerts with them. Cathy Richardson became the band's official lead singer in 2011, with Ben Nieves having replaced Finch as guitarist in 2008. Other guitarists performed and toured with Big Brother including Chad Quist, Joel Hoekstra, and even Kate Russo Thompson on electric violin as 2nd guitarist. In 1999 the band released the album "Do What You Love", with Lisa Battle as the lead singer. The album contains some new versions of songs like "Women is Loser". They recorded the live album "Hold Me", with Sophia Ramos on lead vocals and Chad Quist on guitar, in Germany in 2005, and released it in 2006. In 2008 they released the two-CD set "The Lost Tapes", with songs recorded at concerts between 1966 and 1967 in San Francisco, and featuring Janis Joplin as lead singer. Some songs had already been unofficial releases, but there are 12 never-before-released songs.


title: Big Brother and the Holding Company

text: Former guitarist James Gurley died on December 20, 2009, of a heart attack, just two days before his 70th birthday. Sam Andrew died on February 12, 2015, following complications from open-heart surgery due to a heart attack suffered ten weeks prior.


title: Big Brother and the Holding Company

text: In October 2016, the band went to Europe for a short tour in the Netherlands, with the following line-up: Dave Getz on drums, Peter Albin on bass, Tom Finch on guitar, Kate Russo on electric violin, keyboards and vocals, and Eileen Humphreys on lead vocals. Venues included the North Sea Jazz Club in Amsterdam, De Bosuil in Weert, Het Paard in The Hague and Luxor Live in Arnhem. "Big Brother And The Holding Co Live In The Lowlands" was released in 2017 on DVD and CD by Marista Records featuring this lineup in Weert.


title: Big Brother and the Holding Company

text: In 2007, following the induction of "Cheap Thrills" to the Grammy Hall of Fame, former guitar player James Gurley described Big Brother as the most maligned band ever, since they never received appreciation for the arrangements they did and all the engineering tricks he came up with. Gurley also believed that Clive Davis told Joplin to leave the band and record her songs with studio musicians, who could play better. In the documentary "Nine Hundred Nights", Peter Albin said that the manager Albert Grossman told Joplin to leave Big Brother and form her own band, with studio musicians, in order to spend less money on recording sessions. Sam Andrew said later that Joplin left due to artistic and financial reasons: Joplin usually asked the band to have some keyboard or horns on at least some songs, but they said, "No! You are going to change the Big Brother sound!" The band was also doing the same songs a lot, sometimes three times a day, so she started feeling trapped. The band was splitting the money in five equal ways, while by leaving she could have all the money and just pay some employees and have a new band.


title: Big Brother and the Holding Company

text: In 1982, Columbia released the Janis Joplin album "Farewell Song". The release displeased Big Brother's living members, since their original instruments were all replaced by studio musicians without consulting the band. James Gurley spoke about that in 1987, before the band's reunion: "It’s just a total bullshit record...some producer's dream at CBS."


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: The Statute of Westminster 1931 is an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that sets the basis for the relationship between the Commonwealth realms and the Crown.


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: Passed on 11 December 1931, the statute increased the sovereignty of the self-governing Dominions of the British Empire from the United Kingdom. It also bound them all to seek each other's approval for changes to monarchical titles and the common line of succession. The statute was effective either immediately or upon ratification. It thus became a statutory embodiment of the principles of equality and common allegiance to the Crown set out in the Balfour Declaration of 1926. As the statute removed nearly all of the British parliament's authority to legislate for the Dominions, it had the effect of making the Dominions largely sovereign nations in their own right. It was a crucial step in the development of the Dominions as separate states.


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: Its modified versions are now domestic law within Australia and Canada; it has been repealed in New Zealand and implicitly in former Dominions that are no longer Commonwealth realms.


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: The Statute of Westminster gave effect to certain political resolutions passed by the Imperial Conferences of 1926 and 1930; in particular, the Balfour Declaration of 1926. The main effect was the removal of the ability of the British parliament to legislate for the Dominions, part of which also required the repeal of the Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865 in its application to the Dominions. King George V expressed his desire that the laws of royal succession be exempt from the statute's provisions, but it was determined that this would be contrary to the principles of equality set out in the Balfour Declaration. Both Canada and the Irish Free State pushed for the ability to amend the succession laws themselves and section 2(2) (allowing a Dominion to amend or repeal laws of paramount force, such as the succession laws, insofar as they are part of the law of that Dominion) was included in the Statute of Westminster at Canada's insistence. After the statute was passed, the British parliament could no longer make laws for the Dominions, other than with the request and consent of the government of that Dominion.


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: The whole Statute applied to the Dominion of Canada, the Irish Free State, and the Union of South Africa without the need for any acts of ratification; the governments of those countries gave their consent to the application of the law to their respective jurisdictions. Section 10 of the statute provided that sections 2 to 6 would apply in the other three Dominions—Australia, New Zealand, and Newfoundland – only after the Parliament of that Dominion had legislated to adopt them.


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: Since 1931, over a dozen new Commonwealth realms have been created, all of which now hold the same powers as the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand over matters of change to the monarchy, though the Statute of Westminster is not part of their laws. Ireland and South Africa are now republics and Newfoundland is now part of Canada as a province.


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: Australia adopted sections 2 to 6 of the Statute of Westminster with the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, in order to clarify the validity of certain Australian legislation relating to the Second World War; the adoption was backdated to 3 September 1939, the date that Britain and Australia joined the war.


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: Adopting section 2 of the statute clarified that the Parliament of Australia was able to legislate inconsistently with British legislation, adopting section 3 clarified that it could legislate with extraterritorial effect. Adopting section 4 clarified that Britain could legislate with effect on Australia as a whole only with Australia's request and consent.


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: Nonetheless, under section 9 of the statute, on matters not within Commonwealth power Britain could still legislate with effect in all or any of the Australian states, without the agreement of the Commonwealth although only to the extent of "the constitutional practice existing before the commencement" of the statute. However, this capacity had never been used. In particular, it was not used to implement the result of the 1933 Western Australian secession referendum, as it did not have the support of the Australian government.


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: All British power to legislate with effect in Australia ended with the Australia Act 1986, the British version of which says that it was passed with the request and consent of the Australian Parliament, which had obtained the concurrence of the Parliaments of the Australian states.


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: This Statute limited the legislative authority of the British parliament over Canada, effectively giving the country legal autonomy as a self-governing Dominion, though the British Parliament retained the power to amend Canada's constitution at the request of Canada. That authority remained in effect until the Constitution Act, 1982, which transferred it to Canada, the final step to achieving full sovereignty.


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: The British North America Acts—the written elements (in 1931) of the Canadian constitution—were excluded from the application of the statute because of disagreements between the Canadian provinces and the federal government over how the British North America Acts could be otherwise amended. These disagreements were resolved only in time for the passage of the Canada Act 1982, thus completing the patriation of the Canadian constitution to Canada. At that time, the Canadian parliament also repealed sections 4 and 7(1) of the Statute of Westminster. The Statute of Westminster remains a part of the constitution of Canada by virtue of section 52(2)(b) of the Constitution Act, 1982.


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: As a consequence of the statute's adoption, the Parliament of Canada gained the ability to abolish appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Criminal appeals were abolished in 1933, while civil appeals continued until 1949. The passage of the Statute of Westminster meant that changes in British legislation governing the succession to the throne no longer automatically applied to Canada.


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: The Irish Free State never formally adopted the Statute of Westminster, its Executive Council (cabinet) taking the view that the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 had already ended Westminster's right to legislate for the Irish Free State. The Free State's constitution gave the Oireachtas "sole and exclusive power of making laws". Hence, even before 1931, the Irish Free State did not arrest British Army and Royal Air Force deserters on its territory, even though the UK believed post-1922 British laws gave the Free State's Garda Síochána the power to do so. The UK's Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922 said, however, " in the [Free State] Constitution shall be construed as prejudicing the power of [the British] Parliament to make laws affecting the Irish Free State in any case where, in accordance with constitutional practice, Parliament would make laws affecting other self-governing Dominions".


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: Motions of approval of the Report of the Commonwealth Conference had been passed by the Dáil and Seanad in May 1931 and the final form of the Statute of Westminster included the Irish Free State among the Dominions the British Parliament could not legislate for without the Dominion's request and consent. Originally, the UK government had wanted to exclude from the Statute of Westminster the legislation underpinning the 1921 treaty, from which the Free State's constitution had emerged. Executive Council President (Prime Minister) W. T. Cosgrave objected, although he promised that the Executive Council would not amend the legislation unilaterally. The other Dominions backed Cosgrave and, when an amendment to similar effect was proposed at Westminster by John Gretton, parliament duly voted it down. When the statute became law in the UK, Patrick McGilligan, the Free State Minister for External Affairs, stated: "It is a solemn declaration by the British people through their representatives in Parliament that the powers inherent in the Treaty position are what we have proclaimed them to be for the last ten years." He went on to present the statute as largely the fruit of the Free State's efforts to secure for the other Dominions the same benefits it already enjoyed under the treaty. The Statute of Westminster had the effect of granting the Irish Free State internationally recognised independence.


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: Éamon de Valera led Fianna Fáil to victory in the Free State election of 1932 on a platform of republicanising the Free State from within. Upon taking office, De Valera began removing the monarchical elements of the Constitution, beginning with the Oath of Allegiance. De Valera initially considered invoking the Statute of Westminster in making these changes, but John J. Hearne advised him not to. Abolishing the Oath of Allegiance in effect abrogated the 1921 treaty. Generally, the British thought that this was morally objectionable but legally permitted by the Statute of Westminster. Robert Lyon Moore, a Southern Unionist from County Donegal, challenged the legality of the abolition in the Irish Free State's courts and then appealed to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) in London. However, the Free State had also abolished the right of appeal to the JCPC. In 1935, the JCPC ruled that both abolitions were valid under the Statute of Westminster. The Free State, which in 1937 was renamed "Ireland", left the Commonwealth in 1949 upon the coming into force of its Republic of Ireland Act.


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: The Parliament of New Zealand adopted the Statute of Westminster by passing its Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947 in November 1947. The New Zealand Constitution Amendment Act, passed the same year, empowered the New Zealand Parliament to change the constitution, but did not remove the ability of the British Parliament to legislate regarding the New Zealand constitution. The remaining role of the British Parliament was removed by the New Zealand Constitution Act 1986 and the Statute of Westminster was repealed in its entirety.


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: The Dominion of Newfoundland never adopted the Statute of Westminster, especially because of financial troubles and corruption there. By request of the Dominion's government, the United Kingdom established the Commission of Government in 1934, resuming direct rule of Newfoundland. That arrangement remained until Newfoundland became a province of Canada in 1949 following referendums on the issue in 1948.


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: Although the Union of South Africa was not among the Dominions that needed to adopt the Statute of Westminster for it to take effect, two laws—the Status of the Union Act, 1934, and the Royal Executive Functions and Seals Act of 1934—were passed to confirm South Africa's status as a fully sovereign state.


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: The preamble to the Statute of Westminster sets out conventions which affect attempts to change the rules of succession to the Crown. The second paragraph of the preamble to the statute reads:


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: This means, for example, that any change in any realm to the Act of Settlement's provisions barring Roman Catholics from the throne would require the unanimous assent of the parliaments of all the other Commonwealth realms if the shared aspect of the Crown is to be retained. The preamble does not itself contain enforceable provisions, it merely expresses a constitutional convention, albeit one fundamental to the basis of the relationship between the Commonwealth realms. (As sovereign nations, each is free to withdraw from the arrangement, using their respective process for constitutional amendment.) Additionally, per section 4, if a realm wished for a British act amending the Act of Settlement in the UK to become part of that realm's laws, thereby amending the Act of Settlement in that realm, it would have to request and consent to the British act and the British act would have to state that such request and consent had been given. Section 4 of the Statute of Westminster has been repealed in a number of realms, however, and replaced by other constitutional clauses absolutely disallowing the British parliament from legislating for those realms.


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: This has raised some logistical concerns, as it would mean multiple parliaments would all have to assent to any future changes in any realm to its line of succession, as with the Perth Agreement's proposals to abolish male-preference primogeniture.


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: During the abdication crisis in 1936, British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin consulted the Commonwealth prime ministers at the request of King Edward VIII. The King wanted to marry Wallis Simpson, whom Baldwin and other British politicians considered unacceptable as Queen, as she was an American divorcée. Baldwin was able to get the then five Dominion prime ministers to agree with this and thus register their official disapproval at the King's planned marriage. The King later requested the Commonwealth prime ministers be consulted on a compromise plan, in which he would wed Simpson under a morganatic marriage pursuant to which she would not become queen. Under Baldwin's pressure, this plan was also rejected by the Dominions. All of these negotiations occurred at a diplomatic level and never went to the Commonwealth parliaments. However, the enabling legislation that allowed for the actual abdication (His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936) did require the assent of each Dominion parliament to be passed and the request and consent of the Dominion governments so as to allow it to be part of the law of each Dominion. For expediency and to avoid embarrassment, the British government had suggested the Dominion governments regard whoever is monarch of the UK to automatically be their monarch. However, the Dominions rejected this; Prime Minister of Canada William Lyon Mackenzie King pointed out that the Statute of Westminster required Canada's request and consent to any legislation passed by the British Parliament before it could become part of Canada's laws and affect the line of succession in Canada. The text of the British act states that Canada requested and consented (the only Dominion to formally do both) to the act applying in Canada under the Statute of Westminster, while Australia, New Zealand, and the Union of South Africa simply assented.


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: In February 1937, the South African Parliament formally gave its assent by passing His Majesty King Edward the Eighth's Abdication Act, 1937, which declared that Edward VIII had abdicated on 10 December 1936; that he and his descendants, if any, would have no right of succession to the throne; and that the Royal Marriages Act 1772 would not apply to him or his descendants, if any. The move was largely done for symbolic purposes, in an attempt by Prime Minister J. B. M. Hertzog to assert South Africa's independence from Britain. In Canada, the federal parliament passed the Succession to the Throne Act 1937, to assent to His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act and ratify the government's request and consent to it. In the Irish Free State, Prime Minister Éamon de Valera used the departure of Edward VIII as an opportunity to remove all explicit mention of the monarch from the Constitution of the Irish Free State, through the Constitution (Amendment No. 27) Act 1936, passed on 11 December 1936. The following day, the External Relations Act provided for the king to carry out certain diplomatic functions, if authorised by law; the same Act also brought Edward VIII's Instrument of Abdication into effect for the purposes of Irish law (s. 3(2)). A new Constitution of Ireland, with a president, was approved by Irish voters in 1937, with the Irish Free State becoming simply "Ireland", or, in the Irish language, "". However, the head of state of Ireland remained unclear until 1949, when Ireland unambiguously became a republic outside the Commonwealth of Nations by enacting The Republic of Ireland Act 1948.


title: Statute of Westminster 1931

text: In some countries where the Statute of Westminster forms a part of the constitution, the anniversary of the date of the passage of the original British statute is commemorated as Statute of Westminster Day. In Canada, it is mandated that, on 11 December, the Royal Union Flag (as the Union Jack is called by law in Canada) is to be flown at properties owned by the federal Crown, where the requisite second flag pole is available.


title: Creed

text: A creed, also known as a confession of faith, a symbol, or a statement of faith, is a statement of the shared beliefs of a community (often a religious community) in a form which is structured by subjects which summarize its core tenets.


title: Creed

text: The earliest known creed in Christianity, "Jesus is Lord", originated in the writings of Paul the Apostle. One of the most widely used Christian creeds is the Nicene Creed, first formulated in AD 325 at the First Council of Nicaea. It was based on Christian understanding of the canonical gospels, the letters of the New Testament and, to a lesser extent, the Old Testament. Affirmation of this creed, which describes the Trinity, is generally taken as a fundamental test of orthodoxy for most Christian denominations, and was historically purposed against Arianism. A shorter version of the creed, called the Apostles' Creed, is nowadays the most used version in Christian services.


title: Creed

text: Although some say Judaism is non-creedal in nature, others say it recognizes a single creed, the "Shema Yisrael", which begins: "Hear, O Israel: the our God, the is one."


title: Creed

text: The word "creed" is particularly used for a concise statement which is recited as part of liturgy. The term is anglicized from Latin "credo" "I believe", the incipit of the Latin texts of the Apostles' Creed and the Nicene Creed. A creed is sometimes referred to as a "symbol" in a specialized meaning of that word (which was first introduced to Late Middle English in this sense), after Latin "symbolum" "creed" (as in "Symbolum Apostolorum" = the "Apostles' Creed", a shorter version of the traditional Nicene Creed), after Greek "symbolon" "token, watchword".


title: Creed

text: Some longer statements of faith in the Protestant tradition are instead called "confessions of faith", or simply "confession" (as in e.g. Helvetic Confession). Within Evangelical Protestantism, the terms "doctrinal statement" or "doctrinal basis" tend to be preferred. Doctrinal statements may include positions on lectionary and translations of the Bible, particularly in fundamentalist churches of the King James Only movement.


title: Creed

text: The term "creed" is sometimes extended to comparable concepts in non-Christian theologies; thus the Islamic concept of "ʿaqīdah" (literally "bond, tie") is often rendered as "creed".


title: Creed

text: Whether Judaism is creedal in character or not is a question that has generated controversies. Rabbi Milton Steinberg wrote that "By its nature Judaism is averse to formal creeds which of necessity limit and restrain thought" and asserted in his book "Basic Judaism" (1947) that "Judaism has never arrived at a creed." The 1976 Centenary Platform of the Central Conference of American Rabbis, an organization of Reform rabbis, agrees that "Judaism emphasizes action rather than creed as the primary expression of a religious life."


title: Creed

text: Others, however, characterize the Shema Yisrael as a creedal statement in strict monotheism embodied in a single prayer: "Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One" (; transliterated "Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai Echad").


title: Creed

text: A notable statement of Jewish principles of faith was drawn up by Maimonides as his 13 Principles of Faith.


title: Creed

text: The first confession of faith established within Christianity was the Nicene Creed by the Early Church in 325. It was established to summarize the foundations of the Christian faith and to protect believers from false doctrines. Various Christian denominations from Protestantism and Evangelical Christianity have published confession of faith as a basis for fellowship among churches of the same denomination.


title: Creed

text: Many Christian denominations did not try to be too exhaustive in their confessions of faith and thus allow different opinions on some secondary topics.In addition, some churches are open to revising their confession of faith when necessary. Moreover, Baptist "confessions of faith" have often had a clause such as this from the First London Baptist Confession (Revised edition, 1646):


title: Creed

text: Excommunication is a practice of the Bible to exclude members who do not respect the Church's confession of faith and do not want to repent. It is practiced by all Christian denominations and is intended to protect against the consequences of heretics' teachings and apostasy.


title: Creed

text: Some Christian denominations do not profess a creed. This stance is often referred to as "non-creedalism". The Religious Society of Friends, also known as the Quakers, consider that they have no need for creedal formulations of faith.


title: Creed

text: Jehovah's Witnesses contrast "memorizing or repeating creeds" with acting to "do what Jesus said". Unitarian Universalists do not share a creed.


title: Creed

text: Similar reservations about the use of creeds can be found in the Restoration Movement and its descendants, the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), the Churches of Christ, and the Christian churches and churches of Christ. Restorationists profess "no creed but Christ".


title: Creed

text: Protestant denominations are usually associated with confessions of faith, which are similar to creeds but usually longer.


title: Creed

text: Within the sects of the Latter Day Saint movement, the "Articles of Faith" are contained in a list which was composed by Joseph Smith as part of an 1842 letter which he sent to "Long" John Wentworth, editor of the "Chicago Democrat". It is canonized along with the King James Version of the Bible, the "Book of Mormon", the "Doctrine & Covenants" and the "Pearl of Great Price", as a part of the standard works of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.


title: Creed

text: In the Swiss Reformed Churches, there was a quarrel about the Apostles' Creed in the mid-19th century. As a result, most cantonal reformed churches stopped prescribing any particular creed.


title: Creed

text: In 2005, Bishop John Shelby Spong, retired Episcopal Bishop of Newark, has written that dogmas and creeds were merely "a stage in our development" and "part of our religious childhood." In his book, "Sins of the Scripture", Spong wrote that "Jesus seemed to understand that no one can finally fit the holy God into his or her creeds or doctrines. That is idolatry."


title: Creed

text: In Islamic theology, the term most closely corresponding to "creed" is "ʿaqīdah" (). The first such creed was written as "a short answer to the pressing heresies of the time" is known as "Al-Fiqh Al-Akbar" and ascribed to Abū Ḥanīfa. Two well known creeds were the "Fiqh Akbar II" "representative" of the al-Ash'ari, and "Fiqh Akbar III", "representative" of the Ash-Shafi'i.


title: Creed

text: "Iman" () in Islamic theology denotes a believer's religious faith. Its most simple definition is the belief in the six articles of faith, known as "arkān al-īmān".


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Deborah Wasserman Schultz (née Wasserman; born September 27, 1966) is an American politician serving as the U.S. representative from , first elected to Congress in 2004. A member of the Democratic Party, she is a former chair of the Democratic National Committee.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Wasserman Schultz served in the Florida House of Representatives and the Florida Senate and was a national co-chair of Hillary Clinton's 2008 campaign for president. Her district covers much of southern Broward County, including a large part of Fort Lauderdale. It also covers much of northern Miami-Dade County.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Wasserman Schultz was elected chair of the Democratic National Committee in May 2011, replacing Tim Kaine. On July 28, 2016, she resigned from that position after WikiLeaks released a collection of stolen emails indicating that she and other members of the DNC staff had favored Hillary Clinton over Bernie Sanders in the 2016 Democratic primaries.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Born in Forest Hills, Queens, New York, to a Jewish family, she is the daughter of Ann and Larry Wasserman. Her father is a Certified Public Accountant, and her brother Steven Wasserman is an Assistant United States Attorney for the District of Columbia.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: From 1968 to 1978, the family lived in Lido Beach on Long Island. In 1978, her family moved to Melville, also on Long Island, where she graduated from Half Hollow Hills High School East in 1984. She received a Bachelor of Arts in 1988 and a Master of Arts with a certificate in political campaigning in 1990, both in political science, from the University of Florida.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: At the University of Florida, Wasserman Schultz was active in student government, serving as president of the Student Senate and the founder and president of the Rawlings Area Council Government. She was also a member of the Omicron Delta Kappa honor society, the James C. Grimm chapter of the National Residence Hall Honorary, and the union Graduate Assistants United. She served as president of the Graduate Student Council and vice president of the UF College Democrats. She has credited her experience in student politics with developing her "love for politics and the political process."


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Wasserman Schultz lives in Weston, near Fort Lauderdale. She is married to Steve Schultz; they have three children. She is an active member of the National Jewish Democratic Council, Planned Parenthood, and Hadassah.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: In March 2009, she revealed that she had undergone seven surgeries related to breast cancer in 2008 while maintaining her responsibilities as a member of the House. That year, she promoted efforts for early screening for breast cancer.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: In 1988, Wasserman Schultz became an aide to Peter Deutsch at the beginning of his state legislative career. In 1992, Deutsch successfully ran for United States Representative of Florida's 20th congressional district, and suggested to Wasserman Schultz that she run for his vacated seat in the Florida House of Representatives. Wasserman Schultz won 53% of the vote in a six-way Democratic primary, avoiding a runoff, and won the general election. At 26, she became the youngest female legislator in the state's history.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: She served four terms in the Florida State House of Representatives, for eight years, leaving due to state term limits. She became an adjunct instructor of political science at Broward Community College, as well as a public policy curriculum specialist at Nova Southeastern University.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Wasserman Schultz was elected to the Florida State Senate in 2000. She supported several bills, including the Florida Residential Swimming Pool Safety Act and one creating a Children's Services Council for Broward County. She received an award from the Save The Manatee Club for her commitment as a state senator in the 2002 legislative session to manatee protection.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Wasserman Schultz was appointed to the Democratic Steering and Policy Committee in her first term. During the 2006 elections, she raised over $17 million in campaign contributions for her Democratic colleagues (third-most after Nancy Pelosi and Rahm Emanuel), was chosen as Chief Deputy Whip, and was appointed to the Appropriations Committee, a plum assignment for a sophomore representative.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Wasserman Schultz chairs the committee's Subcommittee on Military Construction, Veterans Affairs, and Related Agencies. Shortly after joining the Appropriations Committee, she received a waiver necessary to sit on an additional committee (Appropriations is typically an exclusive committee), and she is now a member of the Committee on Oversight and Reform. Aside from her committee and leadership roles, she was a member of Nancy Pelosi's "30 Something" Working Group, which consists of congressional Democrats mostly under age 40. The group concentrates on issues affecting young people, including Social Security. She joined the bipartisan Congressional Cuba Democracy Caucus. According to the "Congress.org" 2008 Power Rankings, she was the 24th-most powerful member of the House, the 22nd-most powerful Democratic representative, and the most powerful Florida representative.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Wasserman Schultz supports gun control legislation and the LGBT community. She initiated the 2007 Virginia Graeme Baker Pool and Spa Safety Act. In 2011, Wasserman Schultz was one of the 23 co-sponsors of H.R. 3261, the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA).


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: On April 25, 2018, 57 members of the House of Representatives, including Wasserman Schultz, released a condemnation of Holocaust distortion in Ukraine and Poland. They criticized Poland's new Holocaust law, which would criminalize accusing Poles of complicity in the Holocaust, and Ukraine's 2015 memory laws glorifying Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) and its pro-Nazi leaders, such as Roman Shukhevych.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: In December 2015, Wasserman Schultz was one of 24 co-sponsors of H.R. 4018, authored by Representative Dennis A. Ross, which would delay the implementation of CFPB regulations. She was among a dozen Florida representatives who cosponsored the legislation that would delay the CFPB's payday lending rules by two years and void a "deferred presentment transaction" in states with laws similar to Florida's. She has drawn criticism for trying to delay those regulations.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: The Terri Schiavo case concerned the fate of a young Florida woman who had suffered brain damage after a heart attack in 1990 and was in a coma on life support. Her husband, who was her legal guardian while engaged to another woman, and the medical team wanted to remove her feeding tube, as she was in a "persistent vegetative state" with no hope of improvement. Her parents opposed this decision for years, appealing to courts, Congress, and ultimately to President George W. Bush to intervene. Wasserman Schultz was one of the strongest opponents of congressional intervention in what she believed should be a private family decision. The feeding tube was removed in 2005, resulting in Schiavo's death.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Wasserman Schultz publicly accused Bush of hypocrisy for having signed a 1999 bill as governor of Texas that allows health care workers to remove life support for terminally ill patients if the patient or family is unable to pay the medical bills. During the debate, she pointed out that a Texas law Bush signed allowed caregivers to withhold treatment "at the point that futility has been reached and there is no longer any hope of survival or of additional health care measures being used to sustain life. ... [this] seems to conflict with his position today." Cox News Service reported, "The Texas law was intended to control in cases in which medical teams and patients' representatives disagree on treatment. In the Schiavo case, the medical team and Schiavo's husband agreed that there was no hope of improvement in her condition, determined by lower courts to be a 'persistent vegetative state'." Wasserman Schultz also cited the case of .


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: While her predecessor and mentor Peter Deutsch was "among the most hawkish congressional Democrats on Middle East issues", Wasserman Schultz, who took over his seat for Florida's 20th district, "a heavily Jewish swath of Broward County", has taken a more centrist approach. In 2005 she spoke in approval of President Bush's proposals to give financial aid to the Palestinian Authority in both the proposed supplemental and in the 2006 budgets. She said:


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: We want to continue to focus on making sure that ... the policy coming from Washington continues to encourage and support and nurture the peace process. In [Bush's] first four years, there was a lack of leadership coming from the administration. I know many people in the Jewish community were happy with the president's position on Israel, but the way I thought, there was an absence of leadership. ... So I'm glad to see there's a little more engagement and involvement from the administration.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Wasserman Schultz is a supporter of Israel. She defended her party against suggestions that the Democrats are anti-Israel, saying:


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: I would stack up the Democratic caucus's position on the support for Israel against the Republican caucus's any day of the week and be much more confident—and the Jewish community should be much more confident—in the Democrats' stewardship of Israel than the Republicans, especially if you compare the underlying reasons for both groups' support for Israel. The very far-right group of Republicans' interest in Israel is not because they are so supportive of there being a Jewish state and making sure that Jews have a place that we can call home. It has references to Armageddon and biblical references that are more their interest. So I would encourage members of the Jewish community to put their faith in Democrats, because our support for Israel is generally for the right reasons.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Wasserman Schultz supported Israel in the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict and criticized MSNBC's coverage of it, saying: "Clearly [MSNBC was] highlighting what Israel had done to Gaza and the plight of Palestinians. My first thought was, where is the balance? Where is the spotlight on what Jewish children in Israel go through from being victims of rocket attacks?"


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Wasserman Schultz supported President Trump's decision to recognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital, saying: "We must work toward a day where the entire world recognizes Jerusalem as the capital of Israel, and that can be achieved through final status negotiations. I remain as committed as ever to safeguarding Israel's future as a Jewish and democratic state, at peace with its neighbors, with Jerusalem as its undisputed capital."


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Wasserman Schultz supports the use of appropriations for future control of presidential signing statements as revealed during questions in a July 26, 2008, House Judiciary Committee hearing on the constitutional limits of executive power.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: She and Senator Arlen Specter were the driving forces behind the resolution that declared May Jewish American Heritage Month. The annual observance was created to recognize "the accomplishments of American Jews and the important role that members of the Jewish community have played in the development of American culture". The observance is modeled after Black History Month, Hispanic Heritage Month and Women's History Month. Wasserman Schultz envisioned "classroom instruction, public ceremonies and broadcast announcements", saying, "There's a generation of children growing up with a fading memory of what happened during World War II or even an understanding of anyone who is Jewish or their culture and traditions. Through education comes tolerance." The bill introducing the observance passed unanimously in both the House and the Senate and was signed by President Bush. Wasserman Schultz said of the proclamation, "This is an historic occasion. Generations to come will have the chance to live without antisemitism through greater understanding and awareness of the significant role that American Jews have played in U.S. history. Jewish American Heritage Month is a reality because of the people gathered today in this room."


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: The measure was criticized by Gary Cass, executive director of the now-defunct Center for Reclaiming America for Christ, a conservative Christian organization based in Fort Lauderdale, who objected to "teaching Jewish history without talk of religious practices and values", saying, "We cannot seem to have an honest discussion about the Christian roots of America". He added, "How much tolerance would [Wasserman Schultz] have for a Christian Heritage month?" She replied that the situation is different, that "Judaism is unique, because it is both a culture and a religion," and that she was not in favor of "teaching any religion in public schools." Her father, Larry Wasserman, said that while she had not been particularly active in the Jewish community before entering politics, she has "forged ties with Jewish groups as a lawmaker. She helped to form the National Jewish Democratic Council and served on the regional board of the American Jewish Congress."


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: On September 29, 2008, Wasserman Schultz voted for the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008, and on October 3, 2008, for the revised version of that act.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: During an April 2009 House Judiciary Committee hearing on the Hate Crimes Prevention Act of 2009, Representative Tom Rooney, a former active duty U.S. Army JAG Corps officer, introduced an amendment that would make attacks against military veterans a hate crime. Wasserman Schultz remarked on the amendment:


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Wasserman Schultz became a vocal advocate for the family of Daniel Wultz, constituents of hers who were engaged in legal action against the Bank of China. They alleged it had a role in financing the terrorist attack that killed the 16-year-old from Weston, Florida, in 2006.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: In August 2013, Wasserman Schultz told the "Miami Herald": "In South Florida, we all know too well of the tragic circumstances surrounding the cowardly terrorist attack that took Daniel Wultz's innocent life. I have been working hand in hand with the Wultz family and the state of Israel to ensure any and all of those involved in this terrorist activity, including the Bank of China, pay for their crimes so that justice can be served."


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: On May 1, 2014, together with then-House Majority Leader Eric Cantor, Wasserman Schultz hosted the Wultz family at the U.S. Capitol in a National Prayer Day event.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: On February 15, 2013, Wasserman Schultz introduced the Stopping Tax Offenders and Prosecuting Identity Theft Act of 2013 (H.R. 744; 113th Congress) into the House. The bill would increase the penalties on identity thieves and change the definition of identity theft to include businesses and organizations instead of just individuals.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Wasserman Schultz opposed a 2014 medical marijuana amendment in Florida that narrowly failed to receive the 60% of votes needed to amend the Constitution of Florida. She angered medical marijuana activists and major Democratic donors over this and her comparisons of medical marijuana dispensaries to "pill mills", which overprescribe and overdispense painkillers to patients with dubious symptoms. After Wasserman Schultz expressed interest in running for the United States Senate in 2016, medical marijuana activists vowed to thwart her ambition. Attorney and donor John Morgan said that her position on medical marijuana "disqualifies her from the [Democratic Senate] nomination... Her position denies terminally ill and chronically ill people compassion."


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: In response, in February 2015, Wasserman Schultz's staff emailed Morgan, offering to change her position on medical marijuana if Morgan would stop criticizing her. Morgan declined her offer and released the emails to "Politico", calling her a "bully". Wasserman Schultz at first declined to comment, then denied that her office had sent the emails. Morgan responded: "What Debbie leaves out in her pushback was the crystal clear message that her potential support of the new amendment [that has been proposed for the ballot in 2016] was predicated upon me withdrawing my comments to "Politico". I don't know how to view that as anything but an offer of a quid pro quo."


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: In 2018, Wasserman Schultz co-sponsored a bill to "strengthen school safety and security", which required a two-thirds vote for passage, given it was brought up under an expedited process. The House voted 407–10 to approve the bill, which would "provide $50 million a year for a new federal grant program to train students, teachers and law enforcement on how to spot and report signs of gun violence". Named the STOP (Students, Teachers, and Officers Preventing) School Violence Act, it would "develop anonymous telephone and online systems where people could report threats of violence." At the same time, it would authorize $25 million for schools to improve and harden their security, such as installing new locks, lights, metal detectors and panic buttons." A separate spending bill would be required to provide money for the grant program.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: In 2004, Wasserman Schultz's mentor Peter Deutsch resigned his Congressional seat to make an unsuccessful run for the Senate seat of fellow Democrat Bob Graham. Wasserman Schultz was unopposed in the Democratic primary election held to fill Deutsch's seat. Her Republican opponent was Margaret Hostetter, a realtor who had never held public office. The 20th is so heavily Democratic that Hostetter faced nearly impossible odds in November, but she gained notoriety for her attacks on Wasserman Schultz. For example, Hostetter's campaign site criticized Wasserman Schultz for protesting an American flag photograph with a Christian cross on it that was on display in the workstation of a secretary in a government building. Hostetter wrote, "Elect Margaret Hostetter to Congress November 2 and send the clear message that Americans respect and support... the foundational role Christianity has had in the formation of our great nation. Our rights come from God, not the state."


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Wasserman Schultz won with 70.2% of the vote to Hostetter's 29.8%. When she was sworn in on January 4, 2005, she chose to use the Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh. Because Speaker of the House Dennis Hastert only had a Christian bible, his staff borrowed a copy of the Tanakh from Representative Gary Ackerman for this purpose. (This was brought up two years later during the Qur'an oath controversy of the 110th United States Congress.)


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: In 2008 Wasserman Schultz defeated Independent Margaret Hostetter and Socialist write-in candidate Marc Luzietti.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: She supported Hillary Clinton for her party's 2008 presidential nomination, and in June 2007 was named one of Clinton's national campaign co-chairs. Once Senator Barack Obama became the presumptive Democratic nominee, she endorsed him and joined Senator Ken Salazar and Representative Artur Davis to second his nomination at the 2008 Democratic National Convention.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: On CBS's "Face the Nation", she called Sarah Palin unready for the Vice Presidency. "She knows nothing...Quite honestly, the interview I saw and that Americans saw on Thursday and Friday was similar to when I didn't read a book in high school and had to read the CliffsNotes and phone in my report", Wasserman Schultz said of Palin's interview with ABC's Charlie Gibson the previous week. "She's Cliff-noted her performance so far." Wasserman Schultz was also named a co-chair of the Democratic Party's Red to Blue congressional campaign group. Controversy arose in March 2008 when she felt unable to campaign against South Florida Republican representatives Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, Mario Díaz-Balart, and the now-retired Lincoln Díaz-Balart because of her good friendship with them. Wasserman Schultz and Ros-Lehtinen are both on the LGBT Equality Caucus of which Wasserman Schultz was a vice chair. Ros-Lehtinen has been the sole Republican on the 112-member caucus since 2013.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Wasserman Schultz defeated Republican nominee Karen Harrington, Independents Stanley Blumenthal and Bob Kunst, and Florida Whig Party candidate Clayton Schock with 60.1% of the vote.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: After the 2010 census, Wasserman Schultz's district was renumbered the 23rd and pushed further into Miami-Dade County, taking in most of Miami Beach and a portion of Miami itself. Harrington ran again. Wasserman Schultz won with 63.2% of the vote to Harrington's 35.6%. When she was sworn in, she became the first white Democrat to represent a significant portion of Miami since 1993.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: After a court-ordered redistricting in 2015, Wasserman Schultz lost much of her share of Miami-Dade County, including her portions of Miami and Miami Beach.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Economist and law professor Tim Canova challenged Wasserman Schultz in the August 30, 2016, Democratic primary. He was endorsed by Senator Bernie Sanders. Wasserman Schultz won the primary with 57% of the vote.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: On August 8, 2016, in the wake of the WikiLeaks Democratic National Committee email disclosures, Canova filed a Federal Election Commission (FEC) violations of regulations complaint against Wasserman Schultz, alleging "interference" with his campaign, contending that on her behalf "the DNC paid a team of national, senior communications and political professionals significant sums of money for their consulting services and the Wasserman Schultz for Congress Campaign utilized these services free of charge." A spokesman for Wasserman Schultz said that the complaint was without merit and that it was "based on stolen, cherry-picked information".


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: In the general election, Wasserman Schultz defeated Republican nominee Joe Kaufman with 56.7% of the vote.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Wasserman Schultz ran unopposed in the Democratic primary and was challenged by Kaufman and Independent candidates Tim Canova and Don Endriss. She won the general election with 58.48% of the vote.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Wasserman Schultz was challenged by Florida attorney Jen Perelman in the August 2020 Democratic primary.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: On August 16, 2020, Martina Velasquez, a 16-year-old volunteer for Perelman's campaign, filed a police report alleging that Wasserman Schultz had shoved her more than once when both were talking to voters. Velasquez declined to press charges but asked for a public apology. In the August 18 primary Perelman won 28% of the vote to Wasserman Schultz's 72%.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: On April 5, 2011, President Barack Obama chose Wasserman Schultz to succeed Tim Kaine as the 52nd chair of the Democratic National Committee. Until she assumed office, Donna Brazile served as interim DNC chair. Wasserman Schultz was confirmed at a May 4 DNC meeting in Washington, D.C.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: During an appearance on "Face the Nation", Wasserman Schultz said, "The Republicans have a plan to end Medicare as we know it. What they would do is they would take the people who are younger than 55 years old today and tell them, 'You know what? You're on your own. Go and find private health insurance in the health-care insurance market.'" Four nonpartisan fact-checkers called her claim false. She then came under criticism for saying on "Washington Watch with Roland Martin", "You have the Republicans, who want to literally drag us all the way back to Jim Crow laws and literally—and very transparently—block access to the polls to voters who are more likely to vote for Democratic candidates than Republican candidates". The next day, she said that "Jim Crow was the wrong analogy to use".


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: In 2012, many of Obama's advisers questioned the move to select Wasserman Schultz as DNC chair, feeling she came across as too partisan on television. An internal focus study of the popularity of top Obama campaign surrogates ranked Wasserman Schultz at the bottom. In February 2015, "Politico", citing unnamed sources, reported that Wasserman Schultz had lined up supporters in 2013 to portray any decision by Obama to replace her as DNC chair as "anti-woman and anti-Semitic".


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Clinton's opponents Martin O'Malley and Bernie Sanders both criticized Wasserman Schultz's decision to schedule only six debates in the 2016 presidential primary, fewer than in previous election cycles, as well as the timing of the debates.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Ultimately, there were nine debates that both Clinton and Sanders participated in during the primaries, as well as a number of town halls.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Some of Wasserman Schultz's actions that the news covered during the primaries were reducing the debate schedule; uninviting former DNC Vice Chair Tulsi Gabbard to the first primary debate; halting the Sanders campaign's access to DNC databases after a staffer from his campaign attempted to exploit a security breach; defending the superdelegate system used in the Democratic primaries; rescinding a prior ban on corporate donations; and accusing Sanders supporters of violence at the Nevada Convention.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: After WikiLeaks published DNC emails that showed that some DNC staffers had actively supported Clinton against Sanders in the primary, Wasserman Schultz tendered her resignation as head of the DNC, to become effective as of the close of the nominating convention in Philadelphia. According to reports in "The Washington Post", Wasserman Schultz strongly resisted suggestions she resign until a phone call from Obama persuaded her.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: After a speech at the convention before the Florida delegation during which Wasserman Schultz was "booed off stage" by Sanders supporters, the DNC decided that she would not open the convention.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: In February 2017 "Politico" and "BuzzFeed" reported Capitol Police accused five IT staffers (who worked for more than 30 House Democrats including Wasserman Schultz) of trying to steal House computer equipment and violating House security policies.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: As of February 6, 2017, "Politico" noted that Wasserman Schultz was one of several House members who did not terminate the suspected staffers after the criminal complaints. In July 2017, one of the accused staffers, Imran Awan, was arrested for making a false statement on a bank loan application. After his arrest, Wasserman Schultz's office fired Awan. Wasserman Schultz later defended her decision not to fire Awan earlier, saying, "I believe that I did the right thing, and I would do it again."


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: Federal prosecutors concluded an 18-month investigation into a former congressional technology staffer on Tuesday by publicly debunking allegations — promoted by conservative media and President Trump — suggesting he was a Pakistani operative who stole government secrets with cover from House Democrats. As part of an agreement with prosecutors, Imran Awan pleaded guilty to a relatively minor offense unrelated to his work on Capitol Hill: making a false statement on a bank loan application. U.S. prosecutors said they would not recommend jail time.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: According to "The New York Times":In the plea agreement, federal prosecutors debunked conspiracy theories about the case that had circulated online. They said that the government had interviewed about 40 witnesses, examined the House Democratic Caucus server and other data and devices, reviewed electronic communications and interviewed Mr. Awan on numerous occasions. They found no evidence that Mr. Awan had engaged in illegal conduct involving House computer systems.


title: Debbie Wasserman Schultz

text: On October 24, 2018, a pipe bomb device sent to former U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder, which had the wrong address, was instead delivered to the Florida office of Wasserman Schultz, whose name and address was on the return labels of all the packages. During this time, similar pipe bomb devices had been sent to various influential Democratic politicians. The packages containing the devices, as well as envelopes containing mysterious white powder, also labeled Schultz's office in Sunrise, Florida, as the sender, but the person who sent these devices and envelopes misspelled her name as "Shultz." The same day, a similar device was found at Wasserman Schultz's office in Aventura, Florida, as well. Fingerprint DNA helped identify the suspect as Florida resident and right-wing conspiracist Cesar Sayoc, who, was arrested in a parking lot in Plantation, Florida, on October 26, 2018.


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: 1 is a compilation album of the English rock band the Beatles, originally released on 13 November 2000. The album features virtually every number-one single the band achieved in the United Kingdom or United States from 1962 to 1970. Issued on the 30th anniversary of the band's break-up, it was their first compilation available on only one CD. "1" was a commercial success and topped charts worldwide. It has sold over 31 million copies.


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: Since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking US album sales in January 1991, "1" is the fourth best-selling album in the US, the best-selling album of the 2000s decade in the US, as well as the best-selling album of the decade worldwide.


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: "1" was remastered and reissued in September 2011. It was remixed and reissued again in several different deluxe editions in November 2015, the most comprehensive of which is a three-disc set entitled "1+", which includes video discs of Beatles promotional films.


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: As of June 2015, "1" was the sixth best-selling album of the 21st century in the UK, having sold over 3.1 million copies.


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: "1" was compiled by producer George Martin and former band members Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr. The album contains the 27 Beatles songs that went to number one in the United Kingdom on the "Record Retailer" Top 50 chart or in the United States on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. Despite Harrison's "For You Blue" charting at number 1 on "Billboard", along with the A-side "The Long and Winding Road", Capitol Records treated "For You Blue" as strictly a B-side and did not promote it as an A-side. "Day Tripper" was included on "1" since it charted at number 1 in the UK as a double A-side with "We Can Work It Out", while in the US, only "We Can Work It Out" was number 1. Two singles written by John Lennon and released in both the UK and US were omitted as they did not top either the "Record Retailer" chart or the "Billboard" Hot 100: "Please Please Me" and "Strawberry Fields Forever". The former was the Beatles' first UK number one single in all British charts except "Record Retailer", reaching the top spot in the music magazines "New Musical Express", "Melody Maker" and "Disc". "Strawberry Fields Forever" was part of a double A-side single with "Penny Lane", which reached the top spot in "Melody Maker" and peaked at number 2 in the other UK charts, behind Engelbert Humperdinck's "Release Me".


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: The album is a combination of both the US and UK versions of the 1982 compilation "20 Greatest Hits", with the addition of "Something" (which was left off "20 Greatest Hits" because of time constraints). On "1", "Hey Jude" was included in its original full-length version (slightly over seven minutes), whereas the American version of "20 Greatest Hits" contained a shortened version.


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: Before "1", all 27 songs were mainly available on two remastered CD releases: firstly on the respective Beatles studio albums released in 1987 (as well as "Past Masters, Volume One" and "Past Masters, Volume Two", released in 1988). The second remastering was made available on the CD versions for "1962–1966" and "1967–1970", released in 1993.


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: The songs on "1" were remastered specifically for the release in 2000. According to the liner notes of the album, the original analogue masters were "digitally remastered at 24 bits resolution, processed using Sonic Solutions NoNoise technology and mastered to 16-bit using Prism SNS Noise Shaping". The remastering was overseen by Peter Mew of Abbey Road Studios and took place there. In 2011, "1" was remastered and reissued on CD. In 2015 it was remastered again and remixed by Giles Martin; when Martin began to assist with fixing up the audio tracks for the "1+" video clips, he realised that his goal of making them "more immersive" should also apply to "1". For the remixing project, Martin commented: "The remasters went back to these final mix tapes and remastered them. They cleaned them up and then they EQ-ed them and released them. What we're doing is remixing. We're going not to the final mix, we're creating our own mixes." About his remixing approach, Martin said: "My approach was to be respectful of everything, I had sessions and sessions where I flipped between previously remastered stereos, the mono remasters, and the remixes we've done. I flip between everything and make sure I prefer what we've done."


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: The package of "1" was intended to be simplistic and ambitious at the same time. Its cover was designed by Rick Ward, and consists of a pop art-style yellow number one on a red background. The emphasis on the "1" digit was used on many of the compilations of number-one hits by different artists that followed this album; for example, "ELV1S" by Elvis Presley and "Number Ones" by the Bee Gees. The album's back cover features the famous photos of the Beatles taken by Richard Avedon and copyrighted on 17 August 1967. The design exclusively uses variations of the Helvetica typeface.


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: "1" was released worldwide in CD and cassette. The vinyl format was released only in the United Kingdom. The CD includes a 32-page booklet with a coloured page with international picture covers (a total of 163 covers are displayed on the whole booklet) and details (recording date, location, release date, chart stats) for each of the singles. It also includes on its first two pages a collage with 27 1s in different colours (all of them following the same art as the cover) with the sentence "27 No. 1 singles = "1"" (which was used as a catch phrase for the promo ads for the album), and a foreword by George Martin.


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: The LP and cassette keep the main art of the CD version, but in a different form. The double vinyl record version was not released in the US, but the imported British edition was available. The vinyl version features a large full-colour fold-out poster showing 126 picture sleeves (37 fewer than on the CD), and reproductions of the four Richard Avedon photos. The Avedon portraits also appear on the inside of the gate-fold cover. The records have custom labels featuring the same graphics as the front cover and are packaged in custom inner sleeves. The deluxe packaging of the vinyl album, with its four portraits and poster, is reminiscent to that of their titular 1968 album. The cassette included a 20-page insert, including the collage, the George Martin commentary and paged Avedon's portraits on its inlay and the whole description for the tracks as a total of 36 covers on its inlay reverse.


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: On 6 November 2015, Apple Records released a deluxe version of the original album, titled "1+". Most of the tracks on "1" have been remixed from the original multi-track masters by Giles Martin, except the first three tracks, which are the original mono mixes. In addition to the new mixes, there are surround sound 5.1 mixes presented as Dolby TrueHD and DTS-HD Master Audio in the Blu-ray version and Dolby Digital and DTS in the DVD version.


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: "1+" also includes 50 promotional films/performances, plus commentary and introductions from Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr. All the videos have been digitally restored and enhanced. They are available on DVD and Blu-ray.


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: Variations of "1"/"1+" include standard CD, CD/DVD, CD/Blu-ray, CD/2DVD, CD/2Blu-ray. The double-disc video editions also feature a 124-page hard-bound book with illustrations. The DVD/Blu-ray video editions are also available as a stand-alone package.


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: "1" received universal acclaim. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave the album five stars out of five. He stated that there is "no question that this is all great music", although to him "there's really no reason for anyone who owns all the records to get this too".


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: "1" went on to inspire the release of a wave of compilation albums, in particular three other "number ones" albums: Elvis Presley's "ELV1S" (2002), Michael Jackson's "Number Ones" (2003) and the Bee Gees' "Number Ones" (2004). Other compilations inspired by "1" issued included Nirvana's "Nirvana" (2002), the Rolling Stones' "Forty Licks" (2002), Pink Floyd's "" (2001), The Who's "The Ultimate Collection" (2002) and Dean Martin's "" (2004).


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: The reception of "1" surpassed all critical and commercial expectations. It reached number 1 in over 35 countries, achieving the record for the album debuting at the top of the most national charts ever. It became the highest-selling of 2000 and, some time later, of the entire decade. This achievement made the Beatles the first and only artist to have the best-selling albums of two different decades: they also released the best-selling album of the 1960s, "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band". No tracks from "Sgt. Pepper" appear on this album. With this album, the Beatles also achieved having an album hit the number 1 position in the US in four non-consecutive decades (1960s, 1970s, 1990s and 2000s).


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: In the United Kingdom, "1" became the Beatles' 15th number 1 album with sales of 319,126 copies (achieving record sales for only one week in 2000). On 18 December 2000, Ananova.com reported that the album has "become 2000's biggest-selling album—in only five weeks." "1" was the first album to stay at the top spot for nine weeks in almost ten years (the last being the Eurythmics's "Greatest Hits"), the best-selling album of 2000, and the fourth best-selling album of the 2000s so far in the UK. In its eleventh week, "1" sold a total of two million copies in the UK. It spent a total of 46 weeks inside the Top 75. In July 2013 it was certified 10× platinum by the BPI, for over 3 million copies sold in the UK. It is the 21st best-selling album in the UK, according to an assessment by the Official Charts Company and the British Phonographic Industry that counted album sales in the UK from 28 July 1956 to the present day, and the second best-selling Beatles album in that country (only beaten by "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band", which is the UK's third best-selling album). As of July 2016, the album has sold over 3,230,000 copies in the UK.


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: In the United States, the response was similar. "1" debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200 during the week of 2 December 2000 with sales totaling over 595,500 copies.


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: In its second week, sales increased to 662,000 but it was knocked off the top spot by Backstreet Boys' "Black & Blue" which sold 1.59 million units, therefore, "1" fell off to number two on its week on chart. The following week it stayed at number two selling 607,000 units, by doing so, the album became the sixth to debut at the top of the "Billboard" 200 and post a SoundScan increase in its second week and the first to do so after opening with a sum of more than half a million copies. During the week of 23 December 2000, its fourth week on chart, "1" moved 671,000 copies and returned to the top of the "Billboard" 200. The next week, on 30 December 2000 it stayed at the top of the chart selling 823,500 copies. On 10 February 2001, after being the number one album for eight non-consecutive weeks, "1" fell off to number four on the "Billboard" 200 with 173,500 units sold, a 19.5% dip in sales, by the time this happened the album had sold almost six million units. The album spent a total of eight weeks at number 1 and sold 1,258,667 copies during the week before Christmas of 2000. With this number, the Beatles achieved a new record: it was the seventh highest one-week sales in Soundscan history, the highest for an album not in its first week of sales, and the highest for an album comprising previously released music. The album spent 309 weeks inside the "Billboard" 200 and was the sixth best-selling album in the United States in 2000 with 5,100,000 copies sold according to Nielsen SoundScan. On 30 August 2011 the band announced through their Facebook account that the album was available to pre-order from iTunes and that it was digitally remastered. On 24 September 2011, after the album made its digital debut in the iTunes Store it re-entered on the "Billboard" 200 at number four selling 60,000 units, it also topped the iTunes album charts in the US, Canada, Japan, the Netherlands, Mexico, Switzerland, Spain, New Zealand and Greece according to a Capitol/EMI press release. Its digital launch on the iTunes Store was accompanied with a price of $9.99 and a Twitter campaign with the hashtag #MyBeatles1 asking their fans: What is your favorite "1" track? Resulting in many celebrities and stars posting their favorites, too. In 2015, after it was remastered again and remixed by Giles Martin, "1" re-entered on the "Billboard" 200 at number six selling 40,000 units. It was certified eleven times platinum by the RIAA on 8 March 2010 denoting shipments of eleven million units, and "1" is included on the list of the Top 100 Albums by the Recording Industry Association of America. The album is the best-selling album of the 21st century in the US and the fourth best-selling album in the Soundscan era (1991–present). As of October 2019, the album has had sold 13 million copies in the US. In the US, the album secured the Beatles a fourth decade in which they placed an album at number 1 on the "Billboard" chart.


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: In Canada, "1" debuted at number 1 on the Canadian Albums Chart, selling 54,668 copies in its first week. The album was certified Diamond (1,000,000 units) by the CRIA in February 2001, just four months after its release. As of 2009, "1" has sold 1,103,000 units in Canada, making it the fifth best-selling album ever in Canada of the Nielsen SoundScan era.


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: In Germany, "1" debuted at number 1 and stayed there for nine non-consecutive weeks. It stayed seventeen weeks in the top ten of the German Albums Chart and fifty weeks in the total chart. By selling 1,650,000 copies and reaching 11× Gold, it is the third best-selling album of the decade 2000–2009 and the best-selling non-German language album.


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: In 2009, Apple Corps, the Beatles' company, stated that worldwide sales of "1" had exceeded 31 million copies. Worldwide in 2000 the album sold 13.8 million copies, with 2 million or more copies sold during 2 consecutive weeks, and was the fourth best-selling album behind Eminem's "The Marshall Mathers LP", Britney Spears' "Oops!... I Did It Again", and Santana's "Supernatural".


title: 1 (Beatles album)

text: All songs written by Lennon–McCartney, except "Something" by George Harrison, and those others as noted on the second DVD. All tracks produced by George Martin except "The Long and Winding Road" re-produced for disc by Phil Spector. CD tracks 1–3 are in mono; all others on CD are in stereo.


title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: The historical ties between France and the United Kingdom, and the countries preceding them, are long and complex, including conquest, wars, and alliances at various points in history. The Roman era saw both areas largely conquered by Rome, whose fortifications largely remain in both countries to this day. The Norman conquest of England in 1066 decisively shaped English history, as well as the English language; English’s vocabulary is 45% derived from French, with the vast majority of large and complex words being of French origin and very similar in writing, but different in pronunciation and sometimes with a slightly different meaning. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the Early Modern Period, France and England were often bitter rivals, with both nations' monarchs claiming control over France and France routinely allying against England with their other rival Scotland until the Union of the Crowns. Some of the noteworthy conflicts include the Hundred Years' War and the French Revolutionary Wars which ended in French victories, as well as the Seven Years' War and Napoleonic Wars, from which Great Britain emerged victorious.


title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: The rivalry between the two nations was seeded when the Angevin House of Plantagenet gained control over England and additional French territories and engaged in a struggle with the French ruling House of Capet to retain their French holdings; this culminated in the Hundred Years' War, which began when the final Plantagenet holdings in France were confiscated and Edward III made his formal claim to the French throne. This decisive conflict resulted in a French victory, after which England would never again establish a foothold in French territory. The rivalry continued into the early modern period, with the fighting often spilling over to both countries' overseas colonies. Major conflicts from this period include the Italian wars, the French wars of religion, the Nine Years' War, the War of the Spanish Succession, the War of the Austrian Succession, the Seven Years' War and the American Revolutionary War.


title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: The last major conflict between the two was the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1793–1815), in which coalitions of European powers, financed and usually led by London, fought a series of wars against the French First Republic, the First French Empire and its client states, culminating in the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. Although the last war between the two sides, fears of further escalations arose around a possible French invasion in 1859 and during the later rivalry for African colonies. Nevertheless, peace has generally prevailed since Napoleon, and friendly ties between the two were formally established with the 1904 Entente Cordiale, and the British and French were allied against Germany in both World War I and World War II; in the latter conflict, British armies helped to liberate occupied France from the Nazis.


title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: Both France and the UK were key partners in the West during the Cold War, with governments of both countries consistently supporting liberal democracy and capitalism. France and the UK were founding members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) defence alliance and are both permanent members of the UN Security Council. France has been a member of the European Union (EU), and its predecessors, since creation as the European Economic Community in 1957. The UK joined in 1973. In the 1960s, relations deteriorated due to French President Charles de Gaulle's concerns over the special relationship between the UK and the United States, which is often cited as a reason for de Gaulle continuously vetoing British entry into the European Communities, the predecessor organisation to the EU; de Gaulle also withdrew France from NATO integrated command, arguing the alliance was too heavily dominated by the United States.


title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: Following de Gaulle's death, the UK entered the European Communities, and France returned to an active role in NATO. Since then, the two countries have experienced a close relationship, especially on defence and foreign policy issues; however the two countries disagreed on a range of other matters, most notably the direction of the European Union. The United Kingdom left the European Union on 31 January 2020, following a referendum held on 23 June 2016, commonly known as Brexit. Relations have since deteriorated, with disagreements surrounding Brexit and the English Channel migrant crisis. France and Britain are often still referred to as "historic rivals", or with emphasis on the perceived ever-lasting competition between the two countries. French author José-Alain Fralon characterised the relationship between the countries by describing the British as "our most dear enemies".


title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: It is estimated that about 350,000 French people live in the UK, with approximately 200,000 Britons living in France.


title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: When Julius Caesar invaded Gaul, he encountered allies of the Gauls and Belgae from southeastern Britain offering assistance, some of whom even acknowledged the king of the Belgae as their sovereign.


title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: Although all the peoples concerned were Celts (as the Germanic Angles and Franks had not yet invaded either country that would later bear their names), this could arguably be seen as the first major example of Anglo-French co-operation in recorded history. As a consequence, Caesar felt compelled to invade, in an attempt to subdue Britain. Rome was reasonably successful at conquering Gaul, Britain and Belgica; and all three areas became provinces of the Roman Empire.


title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: For the next five hundred years, there was much interaction between the two regions, as both Britain and France were under Roman rule. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, this was followed by another five hundred years with very little interaction between the two, as both were invaded by different Germanic tribes. Anglo-Saxonism rose from a mixture of Brythonism and Scandinavian immigration in Britain to conquer the Picts and Gaels. France saw intermixture with and partial conquest by Germanic tribes such as the Salian Franks to create the Frankish kingdoms. Christianity as a religion spread through all areas involved during this period, replacing the Germanic, Celtic and pre-Celtic forms of worship. The deeds of chieftains in this period would produce the legendaria around King Arthur and Camelot – now believed to be a legend based on the deeds of many early medieval British chieftains – and the more historically verifiable Charlemagne, the Frankish king who founded the Holy Roman Empire throughout much of Western Europe. At the turn of the second millennium, the British Isles were primarily involved with the Scandinavian world, while France's main foreign relationship was with the Holy Roman Empire.


title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: Prior to the Norman Conquest of 1066, there were no armed conflicts between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France. France and England were subject to repeated Viking invasions, and their foreign preoccupations were primarily directed toward Scandinavia.


title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: Such cross-Channel relations as England had were directed toward Normandy, a quasi-independent fief owing homage to the French king; Emma, daughter of Normandy's Duke Richard, became queen to two English kings in succession; two of her sons, Harthacnut and Edward the Confessor later became kings of England. Edward spent much of his early life (1013–1041) in Normandy and, as king, favoured certain Normans with high office, such as Robert of Jumièges, who became Archbishop of Canterbury.


title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: This gradual Normanization of the realm set the stage for the Norman Conquest, in which Emma's brother's grandson, William, Duke of Normandy, gained the kingdom in the first successful cross-Channel invasion since Roman times. Together with its new ruler, England acquired the foreign policy of the Norman dukes, which was based on protecting and expanding Norman interests at the expense of the French kings. Although William's rule over Normandy had initially had the backing of King Henry I of France, William's success had soon created hostility, and in 1054 and 1057, King Henry had twice attacked Normandy.


title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: However, in the mid-eleventh century, there was a dispute over the English throne, and the French-speaking Normans, who were of Viking, Frankish, and Gallo-Roman stock, invaded England under their duke William the Conqueror and took over following the Battle of Hastings in 1066, and crowned themselves Kings of England. The Normans took control of the land and the political system. Feudal culture took root in England, and for the next 150 years England was generally considered of secondary importance to the dynasty's Continental territories, notably in Normandy and other western French provinces. The language of the aristocracy was French for several hundred years after the Norman Conquest. Many French words were adopted into the English language as a result. About one third of the English language is derived from or through various forms of French. The first Norman kings were also the Dukes of Normandy, so relations were somewhat complicated between the countries. Though they were dukes ostensibly under the king of France, their higher level of organisation in Normandy gave them more de facto power. In addition, they were kings of England in their own right; England was not officially a province of France, nor a province of Normandy.


title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: In 1087, following the monastic retirement of its last count, William and Philip partitioned between themselves the Vexin, a small but strategically important county on the middle Seine that controlled the traffic between Paris and Rouen, the French and Norman capitals. With this buffer state eliminated, Normandy and the king's royal demesne (the Île-de-France) now directly bordered on each other, and the region would be the flashpoint for several future wars. In 1087, William responded to border raids conducted by Philip's soldiers by attacking the town of Mantes, during the sack of which he received an accidental injury that turned fatal.


title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: With William's death, his realms were parted between his two sons (England to William Rufus, Normandy to Robert Curthose) and the Norman-French border war concluded. Factional strains between the Norman barons, faced with a double loyalty to William's two sons, created a brief civil war in which an attempt was made to force Rufus off the English throne. With the failure of the rebellion, England and Normandy were clearly divided for the first time since 1066.


title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: Robert Curthose left on crusade in 1096, and for the duration of his absence Rufus took over the administration of Normandy. Soon afterwards (1097) he attacked the Vexin and the next year the County of Maine. Rufus succeeded in defeating Maine, but the war in the Vexin ended inconclusively with a truce in 1098.


title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: In August 1100, William Rufus was killed by an arrow shot while hunting. His younger brother, Henry Beauclerc immediately took the throne. It had been expected to go to Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy, but Robert was away on a crusade and did not return until a month after Rufus' death, by which time Henry was firmly in control of England, and his accession had been recognised by France's King Philip. Robert was, however, able to reassert his control over Normandy, though only after giving up the County of Maine.


title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: England and Normandy were now in the hands of the two brothers, Henry and Robert. In July 1101, Robert launched an attack on England from Normandy. He landed successfully at Portsmouth, and advanced inland to Alton in Hampshire. There he and Henry came to an agreement to accept the "status quo" of the territorial division. Henry was freed from his homage to Robert, and agreed to pay the Duke an annual sum (which, however, he only paid until 1103).


title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: Following increasing tensions between the brothers, and evidence of the weakness of Robert's rule, Henry I invaded Normandy in the spring of 1105, landing at Barfleur. The ensuing Anglo-Norman war was longer and more destructive, involving sieges of Bayeux and Caen; but Henry had to return to England in the late summer, and it was not until the following summer that he was able to resume the conquest of Normandy. In the interim, Duke Robert took the opportunity to appeal to his liege lord, King Philip, but could obtain no aid from him. The fate of Robert and the duchy was sealed at the Battle of Tinchebray on 28 or 29 September 1106: Robert was captured and imprisoned for the rest of his life. Henry was now, like his father, both King of England and Duke of Normandy, and the stage was set for a new round of conflict between England and France.


title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: In 1108, Philip I, who had been king of France since before the Norman Conquest, died and was succeeded by his son Louis VI, who had already been conducting the administration of the realm in his father's name for several years.


title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: Louis had initially been hostile to Robert Curthose, and friendly to Henry I; but with Henry's acquisition of Normandy, the old Norman-French rivalries re-emerged. From 1109 to 1113, clashes erupted in the Vexin; and in 1117 Louis made a pact with Baldwin VII of Flanders, Fulk V of Anjou, and various rebellious Norman barons to overthrow Henry's rule in Normandy and replace him with William Clito, Curthose's son. By luck and diplomacy, however, Henry eliminated the Flemings and Angevins from the war, and on 20 August 1119 at the Battle of Bremule he defeated the French. Louis was obliged to accept Henry's rule in Normandy, and accepted his son William Adelin's homage for the fief in 1120.


title: France–United Kingdom relations

text: During the reign of the closely related Plantagenet dynasty, which was based in its Angevin Empire, and at the height of the empires size, 1/3 of France was under Angevin control as well as all of England. However, almost all of the Angevin empire was lost to Philip II of France under Richard the Lionheart, John and Henry III of England. This finally gave the English a separate identity as an Anglo-Saxon people under a Francophone, but not French, crown.