title: Ferguson unrest

text: In the early morning hours of March 12, two police officers were shot outside the Ferguson police station. Though approximately 100 protesters remained on the other side of South Florissant Road adjacent to the police line, witnesses believed the shooter was on the top of a hill approximately 220 yards from the police station. A 41-year-old officer from the St. Louis County Police Department was hit in the shoulder, and a 32-year-old officer from the Webster Groves Police Department was hit in the cheek. The St. Louis County police chief said that at least three shots were fired parallel to the ground rather than up into the air (not "skip shots") and therefore assumed his officers were the target. An "intense manhunt" was launched for the person or persons responsible for the shooting.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: On March 14, 20-year-old black male Jeffrey L. Williams was arrested in connection with the shooting.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: On April 29, protests resumed in the wake of the death of Freddie Gray in Baltimore, Maryland. Two people were shot in the neck and a third was shot in the leg, with all three victims being in stable condition. Six people were arrested, one for shooting one of the victims and five for looting a Mobil gas station. Four police cars were damaged after rocks were thrown at them. Several items were also set on fire.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: On August 9, the anniversary of Brown's fatal shooting, peaceful demonstrations occurred and attendants observed four-and-a-half minutes of silence, signifying the four-and-a-half hours during which Brown's body was left on the street.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: Later on in the night, two groups of suspected looters began firing at each other during a demonstration. Four plain-clothed officers in an unmarked sports utility vehicle responded to the scene. There, they shot a man who allegedly opened fire on them with a stolen 9mm SIG Sauer handgun. The suspect, identified as Tyrone Harris Jr., was hospitalized in "critical and unstable" condition. Three hours after the shooting, two teenagers were wounded in an apparent drive-by shooting as they were walking near a memorial dedicated to Brown. A journalist was also attacked and robbed in a parking lot, while three police officers were injured by protesters.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: Following the violence, officials placed St. Louis County under a state of emergency on August 10, which was lifted three days later. Protests continued that day and into the night, with one such event shutting down Interstate 70. More than 100 protesters were arrested during the demonstrations. Early in the morning of August 11, more than 20 additional protesters were arrested. Later that day, police released video footage of Harris' shooting.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: On the second anniversary of Michael Brown's death, mourners decided to hold a protest by blocking a road way. A vehicle later drove through the protesters hitting one and knocking them into the air. Protesters then began to shoot at the fleeing vehicle. The injured protester was later brought to a hospital and the driver cooperated with police.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: Ray Albers of the St. Ann Police Department was suspended indefinitely from his duties after an incident at a protest in Ferguson that was captured on video. According to St. Louis County police, he pointed a semi-automatic service rifle at peaceful protesters while using profanity and threatening to kill them.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: Albers was recorded on video saying, "I will fucking kill you." When asked to identify himself, Albers replied, "Go fuck yourself." This led the ACLU to write to law enforcement demanding action. A repercussion of his actions was that while his identification was pending, Albers was widely referred to on social media as "Officer Go Fuck Yourself".


title: Ferguson unrest

text: Four miles from Ferguson, 25-year-old Kajieme Powell was killed by police gunfire in the early afternoon of August 19, 2014. It had been reported to the St Louis Police Department that Powell was behaving in an erratic manner, carrying a knife. Upon arriving at the scene police officers shot Powell dead within a matter of seconds. Demonstrators were ready to engage in protest and the event was given due immediate coverage by the media. Kajieme Powell was born in 1990.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: On August 22, St. Louis County Police officer Dan Page, who was filmed pushing CNN's Don Lemon, was relieved of duty after a video emerged of an inflammatory speech Page had given to the St. Louis and St. Charles chapter of the Oath Keepers. He retired three days later.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: Glendale police officer Matthew Pappert, who had patrolled in Ferguson during the protests, was suspended for controversial postings to Facebook, such as "[t]hese protesters should have been put down like a rabid dog the first night" and "[w]here is a Muslim with a backpack when you need him?" (referring to the Boston Marathon bombings). Journalists in Ferguson claimed Pappert had threatened them. Pappert was ultimately fired from the department after the conclusion of an internal investigation.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: A $40 million federal lawsuit was filed on August 28 by five protesters who were arrested between August 11–13. It alleges that police officers used unnecessary force and made unjustified arrests. Four more protesters were added as plaintiffs in October. The lawsuit lists various police officials, officers, the Ferguson city government and the St. Louis county government as defendants.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: On October 8, 2014, Vonderrit Myers Jr. was shot and killed by an off-duty police officer in St. Louis. Police said he had a gun and shot at them. Doug Hollis of St. Louis, a relative of both Myers and Michael Brown, did not witness the shooting but told "USA Today" that Myers was unarmed, with only a sandwich in his hands, and suggested that the gun found at the scene might have been planted by police. Following the shooting, there were multiple nights of protests. Forensic evidence later confirmed that Myers had gunshot residue on his right hand, shirt, and pants, indicating that he had fired a gun. Three bullets fired at police matched Myers's gun. The family's attorney noticed that police versions differ about the weapon Myers allegedly used: first, police mentioned a 9mm Ruger, and later a 9mm Smith & Wesson. Although later determined that Myers did have a gun and it matched the same gun he was seen in various photos posted to social media. An independent autopsy by Dr. Cyril H. Wecht found that six of the eight wounds were at the back of the body. Police investigators served Wecht with a subpoena for his results. The funeral was held on October 26.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: On May 19, 2015, it was announced that no charges would be filed against the off-duty police officer. St. Louis Circuit Attorney Jennifer Joyce's report says the officer shot and killed Myers in self-defense after Myers fired a gun at him, and thus a criminal violation could not be proven beyond a reasonable doubt in the resulting death.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: On December 23, 2014, 18-year-old Antonio Martin was shot and killed in Berkeley, Missouri after pulling a gun on a St. Louis County police officer who was questioning him. The incident provoked additional violent protests in the area.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: On March 14, 2015, Jeffrey L. Williams, age 20, was arrested in connection with the shooting of two police officers two days earlier (see above). Williams, who is black and was on probation for possession of stolen property, had admitted to firing the shots but said that he was not aiming at police. According to Williams' attorney, he intended to retaliate against a person who had robbed him earlier that day. Police recovered a .40-caliber handgun that matched the spent cartridges found at the crime scene. On April 1, the Associated Press reported that during phone conversations, Williams confessed to firing back at an unidentified person who was shooting at him during the March 12 protest. His attorney had previously claimed Williams never discharged a firearm during the shooting. Arraigned on June 3, Williams pleaded not guilty to all charges. In December 2016, a jury found Williams guilty of two counts of first-degree assault, three counts of armed criminal action and one count of unlawful use of a weapon. He was sentenced to 25 years in prison on March 17, 2017.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: On August 9, 2015, the anniversary of Brown's shooting, Tyrone Harris Jr., age 18, was shot by four plain-clothed police officers during a gunfight between looters (see above). He was hospitalized in critical condition. Police charged him with four counts of first-degree assault on law enforcement, five counts of armed criminal action, and one count of discharging a firearm at a motor vehicle. Harris was held on a $250,000 cash-only bond. According to Harris' father, he graduated from the same high school as Brown and was a close friend of his. Two days after the shooting, police released surveillance video of Harris firing a gun at an unmarked police car. Harris was out on bond for felony charges related to the theft of a vehicle and a gun at the time of the incident. Despite video evidence, Harris' father denied that his son had a gun. Others in Ferguson said that Harris might not have known he was firing at an unmarked police car.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: On the night that Harris was shot, a free benefit concert to raise money for the family of Brown was sponsored by Activist/Rapper Talib Kweli. Kweli along with Academy Award winner Common, and other members of the Black Lives Matter movement were present. Harris was shot while the concert took place. The event and subsequent protest were filmed and organized into an award-winning short documentary entitled #Bars4Justice directed by multi-media activists Queen Muhammad Ali and Hakeem Khaaliq. The film won best short film at the 24th annual Pan African Film Festival in 2016.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: , Ferguson protesters have continued to receive threats to their lives or wellbeing. A number have died under circumstances viewed as suspicious by the community. Continuing mistrust between the police and the community may have resulted in the police failing to adequately investigate these deaths.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: On September 6, 2016, Darren Seals, a leader in the Ferguson protests was found shot and killed inside a burning car, similarly to DeAndre Joshua; he was 29-years old. Edward Crawford, known for the iconic photograph of him throwing a tear gas canister during the protests, also died in 2017 after, according to police, committing suicide.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: In order to develop a dialogue between authorities and residents, a series of five town meetings in October and November were set up by City leaders. The DOJ's Community Relations Service was involved, and the meetings were closed to the media and non-residents.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: It was reported that 3,200 inhabitants (out of 21,000) had registered to vote in Ferguson since Michael Brown's death. Later, the election board stated that the released numbers were inaccurate and only 128 new voter registrations occurred. The larger number was the total number of interactions with Ferguson voters, including address changes or other alterations.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: Devin James, a minority PR person hired shortly before the unrest began, was fired by the St. Louis Economic Development Partnership after his prior record came to light. James worked directly with the Ferguson Police Chief and seems to be the one who suggested the video apology, among other things. The Partnership was informed that James served a 90-day work farm sentence in 2009 for reckless homicide. As a victim of an armed robbery in 2004, he shot 8 times and killed one of his two assailants. Earlier in 2004, he was shot in the shoulder as a victim of another armed robbery. After a troubled youth, James managed to attend university, but the two robberies prevented him from obtaining a degree. James kept his position on a "pro bono" basis.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: On September 29, 2014, the ACLU asked a federal court to order police to stop using the "keep moving" rule during protests in Ferguson, which prevented people from standing still under threat of arrest. St. Louis County Police Chief Jon Belmar testified that the rule was meant to be used for the most volatile night protests during curfew and was mistakenly used by some officers at calm protests during the day. On October 6, Chief Judge Catherine D. Perry, of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri, ruled that "The practice of requiring peaceful demonstrators and others to walk, rather than stand still, violates the constitution," and issued an injunction against the practice for peaceful, law-abiding protesters in Ferguson.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: The QuikTrip that was looted and burned during the first night of unrest will be rebuilt as a job training center as part of the Urban League of Metropolitan St. Louis's "empowering communities" effort. The center, when complete, will house the new Save Our Sons program. St. Louis area companies have contributed $1.2 million toward the effort, meant to give young jobless or underemployed men a month's training before matching them with area jobs.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: Wanting to aid the healing process of the wounded city, an anonymous couple called the Greater Saint Louis Community Foundation and set up a $100,000 fund. But the generous couple didn't know which programs or initiatives would best help Ferguson, so they requested that a racially balanced group of Ferguson residents make the decision on how to distribute the money.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: The Come Together Ferguson grant committee—made up of pairs of black and white teachers, police officers, pastors, and residents—decided to award the first round of grants to Ferguson summer youth programs. On Saturday, May 23, 2015, the committee announced it would distribute $39,000 to eleven organizations, selected out of 42 applications.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: Delrish Moss, a seasoned Miami police officer with decades of experience related to public relations and community outreach, was appointed police chief in April 2016. Major Moss, who is black, will be leading the primarily white police force in protecting a community where over half of residents are African American.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: "The Washington Post" noted that racial disparities had already existed between the Ferguson Police Department and its citizenry, which had experienced significant demographic changes since 2000. Protests, vandalism, and other forms of social unrest continued for more than a week, and the violence escalated despite the imposition of a night curfew. Several of the stores looted during the unrest are Asian American-owned, with "The Daily Beast" writing that Asian-Americans tend to be "left out" of the race relations discussion.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: Also according to "The Washington Post", the Ferguson Police Department "bears little demographic resemblance" to the mostly African-American community, which already harbored "suspicions of the law enforcement agency" preceding Brown's shooting, with 48 of the police force's 53 officers being white, while the population is only one-third white and about two-thirds black. The community had experienced rapid demographic change in recent years; in 2000, just over half of the population was black. An annual report last year by the office of Missouri's attorney general concluded that Ferguson police were "twice as likely to arrest African Americans during traffic stops as they were whites."


title: Ferguson unrest

text: The "Los Angeles Times" argued that the situation that exploded in Ferguson "has been building for decades," stating that the protesters initially came from the town as well as from neighboring towns that have pockets of poverty, the poorest towns in St. Louis, and it also argued that "the growing challenge of the suburbanization of poverty" was the catalyst of the unrest.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: "Time magazine" argued that "Blacks in this country are more apt to riot because they are one of the populations here which still needs to riot. In the case of the 1992 riots, 30 years of black people trying to talk about their struggles against racial profiling are muted, but their reaction to still vastly unfair, treatment, came to a boil. Sometimes, enough is simply too much. And after that catalyst event, the landscape of southern California changed, and nationally, police forces took note."


title: Ferguson unrest

text: Another aspect of this situation might stem from a system that burdens the poor and black in Ferguson. Minor traffic offenses are the starting point, and the costs spiral up rapidly if the offenders do not pay the fines on time or do not appear in court. The income from court fines represented the second-largest source of revenue for Ferguson in 2013. On October 1, 2014, the city of St. Louis canceled 220,000 arrest warrants and gave a three-month delay to the offenders to get a new court date before the warrants would be reissued.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg said in an August 22 interview with "The National Law Journal" that the events at Ferguson and the stop-and-frisk policies in New York City, point to a "real racial problem" in the U.S. Additionally, Justice Sonia Sotomayor cited the Department of Justice's "Ferguson Report" extensively in her dissent in the 2016 Fourth-Amendment case "Utah v. Strieff" as evidence of systemic racial bias in police practice.


title: Ferguson unrest

text: A Pew Research poll conducted August 14–17 among 1,000 adults, found stark racial and political divisions in reactions to the shooting. By about four-to-one, African Americans (80% to 18%) said the shooting raised important issues about race, while whites, by 47% to 37%, said the issue of race is getting more attention than it deserves. The divide in public opinion was also observed across partisan lines, with 68% of Democrats (including 62% of white Democrats) believing the incident raises important issues about race that merit discussion, compared with 40% of Independents and 22% of Republicans. Republicans were also more likely than Democrats to view the police response as appropriate (43%), compared with 21% of Democrats; 65% of Republicans expressed confidence in the investigations into the incident, compared with 38% of Democrats.


title: Telephone numbers in Pakistan

text: Telephone numbers in Pakistan are ten digits long. Landline numbers and mobile numbers have different structures. Geographically fixed landline are prefixed by an area code which varies in length depending on the significance of the place. Mobile numbers are prefixed (03) followed by a code indicating the telephone operator. The international country code for Pakistan is '+92'.


title: Telephone numbers in Pakistan

text: Area codes in Pakistan are from two to five digits long; the smaller the city, the longer the prefix. All the large cities have two-digit codes.


title: Telephone numbers in Pakistan

text: Smaller towns have a six digit number. Large cities have seven digit numbers. Azad Jammu and Kashmir has five digit numbers. On 1 July 2009, telephone numbers in Karachi and Lahore were changed from seven digits to eight digits. This was accomplished by adding the digit codice_1 to the beginning of any phone number that started with a codice_1 (government and semi-government connexions), and adding the digit codice_3 to any phone numbers that did not start with the number codice_1.


title: Telephone numbers in Pakistan

text: It is common to write phone numbers as (0xx) yyyyyyy, where xx is the area code. The 0 prefix is for trunk (long-distance) dialling from within the country. International callers should dial +92xxyyyyyyy


title: Telephone numbers in Pakistan

text: All mobile phone codes are four digits long and start with 03. All mobile numbers are seven digits long, and denote the mobile provider on a nationwide basis and not geographic location. Thus all Telenor numbers (for example) nationwide carry mobile code 0345 etc.


title: Telephone numbers in Pakistan

text: Mobile telephone numbers in Pakistan are of the following format 03XZ-YYYYYYY where X is the single letter code assigned to a specific mobile telephone operator and Z-YYYYYYY is the local telephone number from any mobile phone or Land Line.


title: Telephone numbers in Pakistan

text: International callers must dial +92-3XZ-YYYYYYY to reach a mobile number in Pakistan from outside Pakistan, where '+92' is the Country Code, '3XZ' is Mobile Access Code as per the above list and 'YYYYYYY' is personal number.


title: Telephone numbers in Pakistan

text: Within Pakistan the same number can be reached by dialing either 03XZ-YYYYYYY or '0092-3XZ-YYYYYYY' or '+92-3XZ-YYYYYYY' from any mobile device or land line.


title: Telephone numbers in Pakistan

text: In order to dial a land line number from a mobile phone in Pakistan, city code is required in all cases. However, city code is not required between land line calls within the same city. For instance, to call a land line number 'YYYYYYY' from another land line in the same city, dial only 'YYYYYYY'. However, to call this number from another land line in another city or from a mobile phone anywhere (same city or another city), dial '(0XX)-YYYYYYY'.


title: Telephone numbers in Pakistan

text: Z can be any value between 0 and 9, assigned by the operator itself, except in case of SCOM where Z=5 only


title: Potato pancake

text: Potato pancakes are shallow-fried pancakes of grated or ground potato, matzo meal or flour and a binding ingredient such as egg or applesauce, often flavored with grated garlic or onion and seasoning. They may be topped with a variety of condiments, ranging from the savory (such as sour cream or cottage cheese), to the sweet (such as apple sauce or sugar), or they may be served plain. The dish is sometimes made from mashed potatoes to make pancake-shaped croquettes. Some variations are made with sweet potatoes.


title: Potato pancake

text: Potato pancakes are associated with various European cuisines, including Irish (as Boxty) German and Austrian (as ', ', ', ' and '), Dutch (as ', ', '), Belarusian (as '), Bulgarian (as '), Czech (as "," ' or "vošouch"), Hungarian (as ', and other names), Jewish (as ', , ', plural '), Latvian (as '), Lithuanian (as '), Luxembourg ('), Polish (as '), Romanian (as "tocini" or "tocinei"), Russian (as '), Slovak (as '), Ukrainian (as ') and any cuisine that has adopted similar dishes.


title: Potato pancake

text: It is the national dish of Belarus and Slovakia. In Germany, potato pancakes are eaten either salty (as a side dish) or sweet with apple sauce, or blueberries, sugar and cinnamon; they are a very common menu item during outdoor markets and festivals in colder seasons. In Swiss cuisine, is a variation that never contains egg or flour. American hash browns are also without eggs and flour. Potato pancake is a traditional favorite in the southern parts of Indiana during holiday festivities.


title: Potato pancake

text: Potato cakes are common in the United Kingdom. In the North-East of England (particularly County Durham), there is a dish known as "tattie fish", because the pancake resembles a deep fried piece of fish. The pancake consists of flour, eggs, shredded potatoes and onions. Some people add tomato or cheese to the mix, depending on taste.


title: Potato pancake

text: The British also brought the potato pancake to former colonies such as Zimbabwe. They are still eaten today, where they are an affordable dish.


title: Potato pancake

text: A form of potato pancake known as "boxty" () is a popular traditional dish in most of Ireland, particularly north Connacht and southern Ulster. It is made similarly to the British type, with more starch and often with buttermilk and baking soda. It has a smooth, grained consistency.


title: Potato pancake

text: Latkes (, sometimes spelled "latka") are potato pancakes that Ashkenazi Jews have prepared as part of the Hanukkah festival since the mid-1800s, when a series of crop failures in Poland and Ukraine led to mass planting of potatoes, which were easy and cheap to grow. The potato dish is based on an older variant made with cheese instead of potatoes that goes back to at least the Middle Ages.


title: Potato pancake

text: Latkes need not necessarily be made from potatoes. Prior to the introduction of the potato to the Old World, latkes were and in some places still are made from a variety of other vegetables, cheeses, legumes, or starches, depending on the available local ingredients and foods of the various places where Jews lived. Numerous modern recipes call for the addition of ingredients such as onions and carrots. Daily variations on a simple potato latka might include zucchini, sweet onion and gruyere (for French onion flavor) and some variations made with sweet potatoes.


title: Potato pancake

text: The word itself is derived (via Yiddish) from the East Slavic word , , a diminutive from (), "small pancake". The word (), the Hebrew name for latke, refers in the Book of Samuel to a dumpling made from kneaded dough, as part of the story of Amnon and Tamar.


title: Potato pancake

text: Some interpreters have noted that the homonym () means "heart", and the verbal form of l-v-v occurs in the Song of Songs as well. In the lexicon of Ashkenazi Jews from Udmurtia and Tatarstan there are recorded versions of the kosher-style appellation of latkes ("draniki", "dranki", "krezliki", "kremzliki", "kakorki", etc.) during the eight-day Hanukkah holiday.


title: Potato pancake

text: "Gamja-jeon" () is a Korean pancake made by pan-frying in oil the mixture of grated potato and potato starch. It can be made without additional ingredients, but is sometimes mixed with onion, chilli and perilla leaf. Generally, it is seasoned with a small amount of salt and served with soy sauce.


title: Potato pancake

text: Potato pancakes, literally translated in Polish as "", are often served in Poland topped with meat sauce, pork crisps or goulash, as well as sour cream, apple sauce, mushroom sauce, and cottage or sheep's cheese or even fruit syrup. "Placki ziemniaczane" was a food staple at the 17th-century Polish monasteries according to written recipe from Stoczek Warmiński with one onion, two eggs and a spoonful of wheat flour per each kilogram of potatoes, served only with salt and pepper. In the 19th century, especially in times of economic difficulty during the foreign partitions, potato pancakes often replaced missing bread among the peasants. The lower-quality crops given to field laborers were sometimes turned by them quickly into pancakes to improve taste and prolong freshness. Also, their popularity is closely associated with the historic presence of one of the largest Jewish communities in the world flourishing in Poland.


title: Potato pancake

text: The largest potato pancake (possibly in the world), measuring 2 meters and 2 centimeters, was made during the annual two-day celebrations of "" (Plinza Dawn festival) in Rzechta, Poland ("see photo"). The tongue-in-cheek games in Rzechta include the throwing of bad potato pancake, with the record of 29 meters.


title: Potato pancake

text: A derived dish consists of thick goulash laid on a potato pancake. It has origins in or near Tatra mountains, on either Polish or Slovak side. The dish bears a variety of names:


title: Potato pancake

text: A Czech potato pancake is called ' (from ', potato) and it is made of grated potatoes with egg, breadcrumbs or flour and seasoning (salt, pepper, most importantly garlic and marjoram; sometimes ground, cracked or whole caraway seeds) and is served as it is (see recipe). Some regional versions blend in dough, sauerkraut or sliced smoked meat. The same potato dough is used also as coating of fried pork chop called ". It is sometimes deep fried.


title: Potato pancake

text: In Iranian cuisine, (, 'potato ') is made with shredded potatoes, eggs, onion, saffron, sometimes garlic chives and sometimes cinnamon. Frequently, potato kuku is cooked as smaller patties, but it is also cooked in a larger pancake-style or baked. This dish has been compared to the , and (Spanish omelette).


title: Tessa Ferrer

text: Tessa Rosiola Ferrer (born March 30, 1986) is an American actress. She is known for playing Dr. Leah Murphy, a surgical intern then resident, in "Grey's Anatomy".


title: Tessa Ferrer

text: In 2012, Shonda Rhimes cast Ferrer in a recurring role as Dr. Leah Murphy in season nine of the ABC drama series "Grey's Anatomy". In June 2013, she was promoted to series regular for season ten; however, in , it was announced that she would be exiting the show at the end of the season. In 2016, Ferrer returned to her role as Dr. Leah Murphy in episode six of season 13.


title: Tessa Ferrer

text: In 2014, Ferrer had a recurring role in the CBS series "Extant". In 2015, she had recurring role in season two of the FXX comedy series, "You're the Worst".


title: Archer (season 12)

text: This is the last season to feature Jessica Walter in her role as Malory Archer. Walter died after recording her voice parts for the season.


title: Jerry Mouse

text: Gerald Jinx "Jerry" Mouse is a fictional character and one of the two titular characters in Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's series of "Tom and Jerry" theatrical animated short films and other animated media, usually acting as the protagonist opposite his rival Tom Cat. Created by William Hanna and Joseph Barbera, Jerry is a cute young brown mute anthropomorphic house mouse, who first appeared as a mouse named Jinx in the 1940 MGM animated short "Puss Gets the Boot". Hanna gave the mouse's original name as "Jinx", while Barbera claimed the mouse went unnamed in his first appearance.


title: Jerry Mouse

text: The name "Jerry" was chosen by Geraint Rowlands, who submitted "Tom and Jerry" as potential names for the duo after an important Loews Inc. distributor in Texas asked for follow-ups to "Puss Gets the Boot". While the idea of a cat-and-mouse duo was considered shopworn by the 1940s, Hanna and Barbera decided to expand upon the standard expected cat and mouse relationship. Instead of being a "cowering victim" of Tom, he took delight in besting, and even torturing, his feline frenemy (even if Tom is just following orders or is even just minding his own business and is antagonized by Jerry). Hanna and Barbera considered Tom and Jerry "the best of enemies", whose rivalry hid an unspoken amount of mutual caring and respect for one another. Jerry is also mute, along with Tom.


title: Jerry Mouse

text: In later "Tom and Jerry" cartoons, Jerry acquired a young ward: a small grey mouse called "Tuffy" or "Nibbles" depending upon the cartoon, who was left on Jerry's doorstep as a foundling baby in the 1946 short "The Milky Waif". Jerry and Tuffy were also featured together in a sub-series of "Tom and Jerry" cartoons set in 17th century France which featured the characters as musketeers. The first of these shorts, "The Two Mouseketeers", won the 1951 Academy Award for Best Short Subject: Cartoons.


title: Jerry Mouse

text: Hanna and Barbera served as writer/directors of the "Tom and Jerry" cartoons until 1956, when they also became the producers. Fourteen "Tom and Jerry" cartoons between 1940 and 1954 were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Short Subject: Cartoons, with seven of the shorts winning that award. MGM shut down its animation department in 1957, but new "Tom and Jerry" cartoons were produced by Gene Deitch and later Chuck Jones during the 1960s. Jerry would also appear in later "Tom and Jerry" productions made for television, a series of direct-to-video features, and "", a 1992 theatrical film. Later productions eschewed much of the violence the 1940s and 1950s shorts were known for, and in several of the television shows Jerry was given a red bowtie and a kinder disposition in "Tom & Jerry Kids".


title: Jerry Mouse

text: Tom and Jerry aren't always enemies; they have been known to team up on occasion. The first Tom and Jerry short/film that Jerry was in is "Puss Gets the Boot", and the last is "The Karate Guard", the 163rd Tom and Jerry film. Jerry has been on the Tom and Jerry film series from 1940 to the present.


title: Jerry Mouse

text: On his own, Jerry Mouse appears in a fantasy sequence in the 1945 Gene Kelly MGM musical film "Anchors Aweigh". Jerry appears as the young ruler of a kingdom where music is banned because he feels he lacks talent, and Kelly persuades the mouse into performing a song-and-dance number with him. Kelly and MGM had originally wanted Walt Disney's Mickey Mouse as Kelly's dance partner for the sequence, but Disney was unwilling to license the character.


title: Jerry Mouse

text: Hanna and Barbera achieved the effect of Kelly dancing with Jerry by rotoscoping: live-action plates of Kelly dancing alone were shot first, and the action traced frame by frame so that Jerry's movements would match. The success of the animated segment of "Anchors Aweigh", which was mentioned as "stealing the show" in contemporary trade reviews, led to two more live-action/animated projects for Hanna and Barbera and MGM: an underwater ballet sequence featuring both Tom and Jerry in the 1953 film "Dangerous When Wet", with Esther Williams, and the "Sinbad the Sailor" sequence of Kelly's 1956 film "Invitation to the Dance".


title: Jerry Mouse

text: In 1990, this version of Jerry wears a red bowtie (just like what he used to have in the 1975 "Tom and Jerry Show") and has a tuft of hair on his head. He often taunts Tom (as a kitten) any chance he gets. Sometimes, in a few episodes, he is friends with/allies of Tom.


title: Jerry Mouse

text: Jerry has had a number of voice actors over the years. Ever since his debut in "Puss Gets the Boot" his vocal effects were provided by co-creator William Hanna during the Hanna-Barbera era. Harry E. Lang did Jerry's vocal effects and speaking voice in the shorts "The Lonesome Mouse" (1943) and "Mouse in Manhattan" (1945). Sara Berner also did vocal effects for Jerry in the short "Baby Puss" (1943) and voiced him in the short "The Zoot Cat" (1944), as well as "Anchors Aweigh" (1945) in a dance sequence with him and Gene Kelly. A sequence in the short "The Milky Waif" (1946) features Jerry and Nibbles disguising themselves as a pair of black people, in which the former is voiced by Lillian Randolph (same voice as Mammy Two Shoes). Paul Frees did Jerry's speaking voice in the shorts "His Mouse Friday" (1951) and "Blue Cat Blues" (1956). Manuel Paris did Jerry's voice in the short "Mucho Mouse" (1957). When the MGM cartoon studio shut down in 1957 and Gene Deitch and European animation studio Rembrandt Studio took over, he and Allen Swift did Jerry's voice during the 1961–62 era. During the Chuck Jones era in 1963–1967, his voice was provided by Mel Blanc, June Foray, Chuck Jones, and Abe Levitow. Terence Monk did his voice in the short "The Cat Above and the Mouse Below" (1964) and Dale McKennon did Jerry's singing voice in "Cat and Dupli-cat" (1967). In "The Tom and Jerry Show" (1975), Jerry was voiced by John Stephenson. Lou Scheimer voiced him in "The Tom and Jerry Comedy Show" (1980–1982). Frank Welker voiced him in "Tom and Jerry Kids" (1990–1993) and "Tom and Jerry: The Magic Ring" (2002). Dana Hill voiced Jerry's speaking voice in "Tom and Jerry: The Movie" (1992).


title: Jerry Mouse

text: Other voice actors include Jeff Bergman in a Cartoon Network Latin America bumper, Alan Marriott in "Tom and Jerry in Fists of Furry" (2000) and "Tom and Jerry in War of the Whiskers" (2002), Marc Silk in "Tom and Jerry in War of the Whiskers" (2002; as Monster Jerry), Dee Bradley Baker in "Tom and Jerry: Blast Off to Mars" (2005) and "Tom and Jerry: The Fast and the Furry" (2005), Spike Brandt in "The Karate Guard" (2005), "Tom and Jerry: A Nutcracker Tale" (2007), "Tom and Jerry Meet Sherlock Holmes" (2010), "Tom and Jerry and the Wizard of Oz" (2011), "Tom and Jerry: Robin Hood and His Merry Mouse" (2012), "Tom and Jerry's Giant Adventure" (2013), "Tom and Jerry: The Lost Dragon" (2014), "Tom and Jerry: Spy Quest" (2015), "Tom and Jerry Back to Oz" (2016), and "Tom and Jerry: Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory" (2017), Sam Vincent in "Tom and Jerry Tales" (2006-2008). In "The Tom and Jerry Show (2014 TV series)", Jerry's vocal effects are provided by the show's sound designer Rich Danhakl and archival recordings of William Hanna from the original theatrical shorts. In "Tom & Jerry (2021 film)", his voice was provided by André Sogliuzzo and archived recordings of William Hanna.


title: Jerry Mouse

text: On November 18, 2021, it was confirmed that Eric Bauza would be voicing the character on the 2022 fighting game, "MultiVersus", which establishes Jerry's original given name "Jinx" to be his middle name.


title: Jerry Mouse

text: Tom and Jerry were planned to appear as a cameo in the deleted scene "Acme's Funeral" from the 1988 film "Who Framed Roger Rabbit".


title: Jerry Mouse

text: Jerry has been variously credited as "Gerald "Jerry" Mouse" in the video game "Multiversus", and "Jerome A. Mouse" in the credits to their 2020 feature film. Neither of these conflicting names is considered canon, according to leading animation historian Jerry Beck.


title: Louis Ashbourne Serkis

text: Louis George Ashbourne Serkis (born 19 June 2004) is an English actor. He is best known for his role as Alex in the 2019 fantasy adventure film "The Kid Who Would Be King".


title: Louis Ashbourne Serkis

text: Ashbourne Serkis was born on 19 June 2004 in Haringey, North London. He is the youngest son of actor and director Andy Serkis and actress Lorraine Ashbourne with an older sister, Ruby, and an older brother, Sonny. He attends Highgate School and has a tutor when he is filming.


title: Louis Ashbourne Serkis

text: Ashbourne Serkis began acting on television. In May 2016, he made his film debut portraying Young Hatter in "Alice Through the Looking Glass". In July 2017, he portrayed Peter in the English version of "Mary and the Witch's Flower", and also appeared in "The Current War". In November 2018, he appeared as the wolf cub Bhoot in "", directed by and co-starring his father. In February 2019, he starred as Alex in "The Kid Who Would Be King".


title: Star Wars: Squadrons

text: Star Wars: Squadrons is a space combat game set in the "Star Wars" universe developed by Motive Studio and published by Electronic Arts. It was released for Microsoft Windows, Xbox One, and PlayStation 4 on October 2, 2020 and for Xbox Series X/S on December 3, 2020. The game features both multiplayer game modes and a single-player campaign. Set after "Return of the Jedi", the campaign alternates between the New Republic's Vanguard Squadron and the Galactic Empire's Titan Squadron, both of which become involved with the Republic's Project Starhawk; Vanguard Squadron wants to ensure its completion, while Titan Squadron attempts to destroy it.


title: Star Wars: Squadrons

text: The game received generally positive reviews upon release, gaining praise for its immersive gameplay, visuals and multiplayer component, while facing some criticism over its story and lack of content.


title: Star Wars: Squadrons

text: "Star Wars: Squadrons" is a space combat game, played from a first-person perspective. Players take control of starfighters from either the Galactic Empire or the New Republic navy. In these ships, they can utilise the movement of power between the ship's functions of weaponry, shields and engines to defeat their opponents in combat. Imperial starfighters do not have shields, resulting in other additions to their class so that the two teams would be balanced. As players earn more experience, they can unlock new weapons, shields, upgrades and various cosmetic items for the pilot and their ship. Completing Daily Challenges and Operation Challenges will also give players Glory, which can be spent on purchasing cosmetic unlocks. Players can check the ship's status, shields and powers by viewing the instruments in the ship's cockpit.


title: Star Wars: Squadrons

text: Gameplay is class-based, with both the New Republic and the Empire having four starfighter classes that the player can choose from: Fighter (TIE Fighter for the Empire and X-Wing for the Republic), Interceptor (TIE Interceptor and A-Wing), Bomber (TIE Bomber and Y-Wing), and Support (TIE Reaper and U-Wing). An update added the B-Wing to the bomber class for the New Republic and the TIE Defender for the fighter class of the Galactic Empire.


title: Star Wars: Squadrons

text: The game features two multiplayer modes, and a single-player mode: The story mode is set after the Battle of Endor and the destruction of the second Death Star. The narrative alternates between two customizable pilots from the New Republic's Vanguard Squadron and the Empire's Titan Squadron. The game offers two online modes: Dogfight, which is a team deathmatch mode that supports 10 players, and Fleet Battles, in which two teams of up to 5 players compete to destroy each other's Capital Ships.


title: Star Wars: Squadrons

text: Following the destruction of Alderaan, Darth Vader orders all Imperial forces to hunt down any refugees who escaped the planet's destruction. Captain Lindon Javes of the Imperial Navy is tasked by Commodore Rae Sloane to lead Helix Squadron in finding and eliminating a convoy of refugees at Fostar Haven. Despite locating the convoy, Javes turns on his wingmen and disables their ships to protect the refugees. The convoy sends a distress signal to the Rebel Alliance, who dispatches Echo Squadron to assist in the convoy’s escape. After the battle, Javes defects to the Alliance, offering his knowledge of Imperial Fleet protocols to earn their trust.


title: Star Wars: Squadrons

text: Four years later, after the Alliance's victory in the Battle of Endor, the newly promoted Commander Javes assumes command of the New Republic cruiser "Temperance" and its elite fighter squadron, Vanguard Squadron. Assigned to the secret project known as Starhawk, the squadron undertakes missions to ensure Project Starhawk’s completion. It is later revealed that the project is a massive battleship constructed from stolen Star Destroyers and has a powerful tractor beam.


title: Star Wars: Squadrons

text: Meanwhile, Imperial Captain Terisa Kerrill, Javes' former protégé and wingman from Fostar, is eager to take vengeance on him for his betrayal and is assigned to put an end to Project Starhawk before its completion. She assigns her own elite fighter squadron, Titan Squadron, to hinder the New Republic’s progress to complete the "Starhawk". While Titan Squadron's initial operations are a success, an impulsive Kerrill is baited into a trap by Javes which nearly destroys her Star Destroyer, the "Overseer". Unwilling to let Javes go, Kerrill has her ship resupplied with powerful warheads to damage the "Starhawk".


title: Star Wars: Squadrons

text: An Imperial assault at the Nadiri Dockyards badly damages the "Starhawk", although it manages to escape destruction. In an attempt to defend what’s left of the battleship, Javes personally takes command of Anvil Squadron but is later shot down and presumed dead. The "Starhawk" itself becomes damaged beyond repair by Titan Squadron, although Vanguard Squadron, now led by General Hera Syndulla, make a last stand and use the remains of "Starhawk" to destroy an Imperial fleet by ramming it into an unstable moon. The plan is a success and, with the help of a surviving Javes, Vanguard Squadron manages to escape the explosion. Both Titan and Vanguard Squadrons are commended for their actions, with the New Republic planning to construct more "Starhawk" battleships while the Empire makes plans to regain control of the galaxy.


title: Star Wars: Squadrons

text: Initially conceived and pitched by James Clement and Patrick Lalonde to Motive Studio leadership, they were soon joined by Steven Masters to help develop the presentation for what would become "Star Wars: Squadrons". As these 3 developers were still finalizing the single player campaign for "Star Wars Battlefront II", a small group led by Ian Frazier laid the groundwork to build the production team.


title: Star Wars: Squadrons

text: The game was revealed on June 15, 2020 with the release of a trailer. It released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on October 2, 2020 with cross-platform play enabled. The PC version can be played in virtual reality using various VR headsets, with the PlayStation 4 version supporting PlayStation VR. All versions of the game have HOTAS support, with the console editions receiving support in a day one patch. By September 10, 2020, development for the game had reached "gold" status, meaning that it was ready to begin production on the physical editions of the game.


title: Star Wars: Squadrons

text: The game received enhancements for the PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X and S, including improved lighting for the former and 4K support and high frame rate on the latter.


title: Star Wars: Squadrons

text: Following the June 15, 2020 trailer, a further gameplay trailer was released on July 18, 2020, and a trailer focusing on the single-player campaign was showcased at Gamescom 2020 on August 27, 2020.


title: Star Wars: Squadrons

text: On September 14, 2020, a CG short titled "Hunted" was unveiled on the "Star Wars" YouTube channel, being produced by Motive Studios in collaboration with Lucasfilm and Industrial Light & Magic. The short follows the Empire's retreat after a surprise attack by the New Republic, which marks yet another defeat for the Empire after the destruction of the second Death Star. Squadron Leader Varko Grey delayed his retreat in an attempt to defend a TIE Bomber pilot, yet the pilot's ship is destroyed and Grey is too late to escape with his Star Destroyer. Now the last TIE ship on the battlefield, he enters into a dogfight with an X-Wing and manages to destroy it before crashing onto the planet's surface. He states that the war is not yet over as he is retrieved by Imperial forces.


title: Star Wars: Squadrons

text: If pre-ordering the game, additional cosmetic skins for the game's pilots and ships were included. The first selection of these are themed around the New Republic Recruit or Imperial Ace sets, and include a skin for each ship, a skin each for both Imperial and New Republic pilots, and a decal for both sets.


title: Star Wars: Squadrons

text: Following the promotional short "Hunted", two additional skins for the X-Wing and TIE Interceptor respectively, titled the Var-Shaa set, were added to the pre-order bonuses and are based on the appearances of the two ships from the short.


title: Star Wars: Squadrons

text: "Star Wars: Squadrons" received "generally favorable" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic.


title: Star Wars: Squadrons

text: "PC Gamer" awarded the game a score of 83/100, praising the combat and flight mechanics but criticizing the lack of choices in the story and character development. "Game Informer" awarded it 8.25 out of 10, praising the multiplayer but saying the single-player "struggles to hit the target." "Push Square" awarded the game 6 out of 10, praising its flight mechanics, but criticizing the overall experience as lacking in excitement and content.


title: Star Wars: Squadrons

text: It was nominated for Best VR/AR at The Game Awards 2020. It won the Music of the Year award at The Game Audio Network Guild Awards


title: Star Wars: Squadrons

text: In Japan, the PlayStation 4 version of "Star Wars: Squadrons" sold 5,114 physical copies within its first week of release, making it the twelfth best-selling retail game of the week in the country. In the UK, "Star Wars: Squadrons" was the second bestselling retail game during its first week of release, and the bestselling digital game during the same week. It was the third best-selling game in Switzerland during its first week of release.


title: Formula racing

text: Formula racing (known as open-wheel racing in North America) is any of several forms of open-wheeled single-seater motorsport. The origin of the term lies in the nomenclature that was adopted by the FIA for all of its post-World War II single-seater regulations, or formulae. The best known of these formulae are Formula One, Formula E, Formula Two, Formula Three, regional Formula Three and Formula Four. Common usage of "formula racing" encompasses other single-seater series, including the GP2 Series, which replaced Formula 3000 (which had itself been the effective replacement for Formula Two).


title: Formula racing

text: Categories such as Formula Three and FIA Formula 2 Championship are described as feeder formulae, which refers to their position below Formula One on the career ladder of single-seater motor racing. There are two primary forms of racing formula: the open formula that allows a choice of chassis or engines and the control or "spec" formula that relies on a single supplier for chassis and engines. Formula Three is an example of an open formula, while Formula BMW is a control formula. There are also some exceptions on these two forms like Formula Ford where there is an open chassis formula but a restricted single brand engine formula.


title: Formula racing

text: In the process of reviving Grand Prix racing after the end of World War II, the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile's Commission Sportive Internationale was responsible for defining the standardised regulations of Formula One (F1) in 1946. The first race to be run to the early Formula One regulations was a non-championship Grand Prix in Turin in September 1946. The first officially recognised Formula One season was held in 1947 and the "World Championship for Drivers" was inaugurated in 1950. This was the first example of formula racing.


title: Formula racing

text: Formula E is the highest class of competition for single-seat, electrically-powered racing cars, which held its inaugural season in 2014–15. Conceived in 2012, the championship was intended by the FIA to serve as an R&D platform for the electric vehicle and promote interest in EVs and sustainability. The series races predominately on temporary circuits in cities such as New York, Hong Kong, Zürich, Berlin, Rome, and Paris in events known as "ePrix". In order to cap costs but maintain technological development, the series uses a spec chassis and battery that must be used by all entrants, with competing teams permitted to design and build their own motors, inverter and rear suspension. The series has gained significant traction in recent years.


title: Formula racing

text: The FIA Formula 2 Championship was introduced in by Bernie Ecclestone and Flavio Briatore following the rebranding of the long-term F1 feeder series – GP2 Series. Designed to make racing affordable and to make it the perfect training ground for life in F1, F2 has made it mandatory for all of the teams to use the same chassis, engine, and tyre supplier.


title: Formula racing

text: In 2019, the GP3 Series was replaced by international Formula 3, just in the same way that GP2 was rebranded as Formula 2 in 2017. The series' first drivers’ champion was Robert Shwartzman driving for Prema Racing, who also won the Constructors’ Championship for that year. At the end of the year, the FIA Formula 3 World Cup takes place during the Macau Grand Prix as a non-championship, season-ending event.


title: Formula racing

text: Formula Regional is the last category that takes place outside the F1 events format. Each championship corresponds to one specific region: Asia (under the F3 name), Americas, Europe, and Japan (under the FR name). Alongside official FIA championships, parallel series such as the Toyota Racing Series (New Zealand), and the W Series (worldwide) use the same technical regulations.


title: Formula racing

text: FIA Formula 4, also called FIA F4, is an open-wheel racing car category intended for junior drivers. There is no global championship, but rather individual nations or regions can host their own championships in compliance with a universal set of rules and specifications. The category was created by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA)—the International sanctioning and administrative body for motorsport—as an entry-level category for young drivers, bridging the gap between karting and Formula 3. The series is a part of the FIA Global Pathway.


title: Formula racing

text: The IndyCar Series is the premier level of formula racing in North America. The sport, in general, traces its roots as far back as 1905. The current series, founded by then-Indianapolis Motor Speedway CEO Tony George, began in 1996 as the "Indy Racing League" (IRL). In 2008, the series merged with the rival Champ Car World Series, formerly known as CART, to form the IndyCar Series. A typical IndyCar season contains races on a mixture of natural terrain road courses, temporary street circuits, short track ovals, and larger, high-speed ovals (also known as "Superspeedways"); including the historic Indianapolis 500.


title: Formula racing

text: Indy Lights is the top feeder series for the IndyCar Series, similar to F1's relationship with Formula 2. The original Indy Lights (known as "American Racing Series") acted as a developmental circuit for CART from 1986 to 2001. The current series was founded in 2002 by IndyCar.


title: Formula racing

text: The Indy Pro 2000 Championship has been an officially sanctioned development series since 2011, when it became governed by IndyCar, although the original series started in 1991 as the Star Mazda Championship. Drivers currently use Tatuus F4-T014 cars badged as PM-18 and use 2L Mazda MZR engines.


title: Formula racing

text: The U.S. F2000 National Championship is an American variation of the Formula Ford. The series was initially founded by Dan Andersen and Mike Foschi in 1990 and regularly fielded over 60 entries per race. In 2001, the series was sold to Jon Baytos who introduced a number of controversial rule changes that brought the series out of alignment with similar SCCA classes, which led to a reduction in participation and the end of the series in 2006. In 2010, the series returned under the leadership of Andersen with the intent to return F2000 to its status as a feeder formula for higher open wheel racing classes in the United States.


title: Formula racing

text: Super Formula, previously known as Formula Nippon, is the premier level of Japanese formula racing. It began as the Japanese Formula 2000 series in 1973 and continued to use Formula Two regulations after European Formula Two had ended in 1984. In 1987 the series switched to the Formula 3000 standard so that Japanese and European regulations paralleled one another again. However, in 1996, the International Formula 3000 series became a one-make format to reduce costs and the Japanese Formula broke away, changing the series' name to Formula Nippon. Formula Nippon featured chassis supplied by Lola, Reynard and G-Force until 2001 and 2002 when G-Force and Reynard withdrew, while Mugen-Honda supplied most engines. In 2006, the regulations were changed drastically – the chassis was replaced and engines were now provided by Toyota and Honda. The engines had the same specifications as those used in the 2005 IndyCar Series.


title: Formula racing

text: Formula series from the 21st century that could be categorised between Tier 1 and Tier 5 (see top of page), but are now defunct, are described below.


title: Formula racing

text: The Formula Two regulations were first defined in 1947 as a form of B-class below Formula One. It was not unusual for some Formula One events to include a number of F2 entries in the same field and the entries in the World Championship seasons of 1952–53 comprised exclusively F2 cars for reasons of cost. F2 had a patchy history until the inauguration of the European Formula Two Championship in 1967. F2 was an open formula that allowed the use of any chassis that met the prescribed regulations; it was well supported during the 1970s, with chassis from Tecno, March Engineering, Toleman, Ralt, Matra and others. The European championship ran continually until the creation of its successor, Formula 3000, in 1985. In 2008 it was announced by the FIA that Formula Two would return in 2009 in the form of the FIA Formula Two Championship. This series was discontinued after the 2012 season.


title: Formula racing

text: The Formula 3000 was created by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile in 1985 to become the final step for drivers before entering Formula One. Formula Two had become too expensive and was dominated by works-run cars with factory engines. Formula 3000 offered quicker, cheaper, more open racing. The series began as an open formula, but in 1986 tyres were standardized, followed by engines and chassis in 1996. The series ran until 2004 and was replaced in 2005 by the GP2 Series.


title: Formula racing

text: International Formula Master, a.k.a. Formula Super 2000, was conceived as a competitor for Formula Three. It started in 2005 as the 3000 Pro Series, organised by Peroni Promotion. MTC Organisation took over in 2006 and turned it into a support series for the WTCC. Drivers used second-hand Formula 2000 cars made by Tatuus that were powered by a 250 hp Honda K20A engine.


title: Formula racing

text: A1 Grand Prix (A1GP) was unique in its field in that competitors solely represented their nation as opposed to themselves or a team, the usual format in most formula racing series. As such, it was often promoted as the "World Cup of Motorsport". Also, the series attracted equal numbers of (former or future) Formula One drivers and IndyCar Series drivers. The concept was founded by Sheikh Al Maktoum of Dubai in 2004, but sold to the FIA in 2005. The races were held in the traditional Formula One off-season, the northern hemisphere winter. Between 2005 and 2009 29 countries from five continents participated.


title: Formula racing

text: Using 750 hp V12 engines, Superleague Formula introduced team sponsorship by association football clubs. In qualifying, the link with football was also present as the series employed a system based on a group stage to knock-out format used in some football tournaments. Another unique feature of Superleague Formula was the Super Final, a five-lap shootout between the six best drivers of a weekend. In 2010, the series offered the biggest prize fund in European motorsport with the champion set to earn €1 million. In theory, it would be possible for a driver to earn up to €2.2 million over the course of the season. This was all done to give drivers a chance to earn a living from motorsport. By 2011, the link with football was fading with more than half the teams no longer associated with football teams, The later races of the season did not take place, and no further seasons were organised.


title: Formula racing

text: Formula Asia V6 (Renault) was launched in 2006 to give Southeast Asian-based drivers a chance to progress from karting through junior single-seaters to international motorsport. Karun Chandhok, for example, won the 2006 championship and was rewarded with a test in a World Series by Renault car at Paul Ricard. Drivers ran with Tatuus chassis, a Renault 3.5L V6 engine and Michelin tyres.


title: Formula racing

text: The Auto GP World Series' roots can be traced back to 1999 and the Italian Formula 3000 series. At first, nearly all races were held in Italy, but the series expanded throughout Europe quickly. In 2001 the series became European Formula 3000 and in 2004 Superfund became the title sponsor, planning to set up the Formula Superfund series. However, the funding was pulled and the series was cancelled. Therefore, Coloni Motorsport re-established the Italian Formula 3000 and expanded this in 2006 to the Euroseries 3000. In 2010, the first-generation A1 Grand Prix cars replaced the Lola F3000 chassis and the Auto GP name was adopted.


title: Rootkit

text: A rootkit is a collection of computer software, typically malicious, designed to enable access to a computer or an area of its software that is not otherwise allowed (for example, to an unauthorized user) and often masks its existence or the existence of other software. The term "rootkit" is a compound of "root" (the traditional name of the privileged account on Unix-like operating systems) and the word "kit" (which refers to the software components that implement the tool). The term "rootkit" has negative connotations through its association with malware.


title: Rootkit

text: Rootkit installation can be automated, or an attacker can install it after having obtained root or administrator access. Obtaining this access is a result of direct attack on a system, i.e. exploiting a vulnerability (such as privilege escalation) or a password (obtained by cracking or social engineering tactics like "phishing"). Once installed, it becomes possible to hide the intrusion as well as to maintain privileged access. Full control over a system means that existing software can be modified, including software that might otherwise be used to detect or circumvent it.


title: Rootkit

text: Rootkit detection is difficult because a rootkit may be able to subvert the software that is intended to find it. Detection methods include using an alternative and trusted operating system, behavioral-based methods, signature scanning, difference scanning, and memory dump analysis. Removal can be complicated or practically impossible, especially in cases where the rootkit resides in the kernel; reinstallation of the operating system may be the only available solution to the problem. When dealing with firmware rootkits, removal may require hardware replacement, or specialized equipment.


title: Rootkit

text: The term "rootkit" or "root kit" originally referred to a maliciously modified set of administrative tools for a Unix-like operating system that granted "root" access. If an intruder could replace the standard administrative tools on a system with a rootkit, the intruder could obtain root access over the system whilst simultaneously concealing these activities from the legitimate system administrator. These first-generation rootkits were trivial to detect by using tools such as Tripwire that had not been compromised to access the same information. Lane Davis and Steven Dake wrote the earliest known rootkit in 1990 for Sun Microsystems' SunOS UNIX operating system. In the lecture he gave upon receiving the Turing award in 1983, Ken Thompson of Bell Labs, one of the creators of Unix, theorized about subverting the C compiler in a Unix distribution and discussed the exploit. The modified compiler would detect attempts to compile the Unix codice_1 command and generate altered code that would accept not only the user's correct password, but an additional "backdoor" password known to the attacker. Additionally, the compiler would detect attempts to compile a new version of the compiler, and would insert the same exploits into the new compiler. A review of the source code for the codice_1 command or the updated compiler would not reveal any malicious code. This exploit was equivalent to a rootkit.


title: Rootkit

text: The first documented computer virus to target the personal computer, discovered in 1986, used cloaking techniques to hide itself: the Brain virus intercepted attempts to read the boot sector, and redirected these to elsewhere on the disk, where a copy of the original boot sector was kept.


title: Rootkit

text: Over time, DOS-virus cloaking methods became more sophisticated. Advanced techniques included hooking low-level disk INT 13H BIOS interrupt calls to hide unauthorized modifications to files.


title: Rootkit

text: The first malicious rootkit for the Windows NT operating system appeared in 1999: a trojan called "NTRootkit" created by Greg Hoglund. It was followed by "HackerDefender" in 2003. The first rootkit targeting Mac OS X appeared in 2009, while the Stuxnet worm was the first to target programmable logic controllers (PLC).


title: Rootkit

text: In 2005, Sony BMG published CDs with copy protection and digital rights management software called Extended Copy Protection, created by software company First 4 Internet. The software included a music player but silently installed a rootkit which limited the user's ability to access the CD. Software engineer Mark Russinovich, who created the rootkit detection tool RootkitRevealer, discovered the rootkit on one of his computers. The ensuing scandal raised the public's awareness of rootkits. To cloak itself, the rootkit hide the user from any file starting with "$sys$". Soon after Russinovich's report, malware appeared which took advantage of that vulnerability of affected systems. One BBC analyst called it a "public relations nightmare." Sony BMG released patches to uninstall the rootkit, but it exposed users to an even more serious vulnerability. The company eventually recalled the CDs. In the United States, a class-action lawsuit was brought against Sony BMG.


title: Rootkit

text: The Greek wiretapping case 2004–05, also referred to as Greek Watergate, involved the illegal telephone tapping of more than 100 mobile phones on the Vodafone Greece network belonging mostly to members of the Greek government and top-ranking civil servants. The taps began sometime near the beginning of August 2004 and were removed in March 2005 without discovering the identity of the perpetrators. The intruders installed a rootkit targeting Ericsson's AXE telephone exchange. According to "IEEE Spectrum", this was "the first time a rootkit has been observed on a special-purpose system, in this case an Ericsson telephone switch." The rootkit was designed to patch the memory of the exchange while it was running, enable wiretapping while disabling audit logs, patch the commands that list active processes and active data blocks, and modify the data block checksum verification command. A "backdoor" allowed an operator with sysadmin status to deactivate the exchange's transaction log, alarms and access commands related to the surveillance capability. The rootkit was discovered after the intruders installed a faulty update, which caused SMS texts to be undelivered, leading to an automated failure report being generated. Ericsson engineers were called in to investigate the fault and discovered the hidden data blocks containing the list of phone numbers being monitored, along with the rootkit and illicit monitoring software.


title: Rootkit

text: Modern rootkits do not elevate access, but rather are used to make another software payload undetectable by adding stealth capabilities. Most rootkits are classified as malware, because the payloads they are bundled with are malicious. For example, a payload might covertly steal user passwords, credit card information, computing resources, or conduct other unauthorized activities. A small number of rootkits may be considered utility applications by their users: for example, a rootkit might cloak a CD-ROM-emulation driver, allowing video game users to defeat anti-piracy measures that require insertion of the original installation media into a physical optical drive to verify that the software was legitimately purchased.


title: Rootkit

text: In some instances, rootkits provide desired functionality, and may be installed intentionally on behalf of the computer user:


title: Rootkit

text: There are at least 69 types of rootkit, ranging from those at the lowest level in firmware (with the highest privileges), through to the least privileged user-based variants that operate in Ring 3. Hybrid combinations of these may occur spanning, for example, user mode and kernel mode.


title: Rootkit

text: User-mode rootkits run in Ring 3, along with other applications as user, rather than low-level system processes. They have a number of possible installation vectors to intercept and modify the standard behavior of application programming interfaces (APIs). Some inject a dynamically linked library (such as a .DLL file on Windows, or a .dylib file on Mac OS X) into other processes, and are thereby able to execute inside any target process to spoof it; others with sufficient privileges simply overwrite the memory of a target application. Injection mechanisms include:


title: Rootkit

text: Kernel-mode rootkits run with the highest operating system privileges (Ring 0) by adding code or replacing portions of the core operating system, including both the kernel and associated device drivers. Most operating systems support kernel-mode device drivers, which execute with the same privileges as the operating system itself. As such, many kernel-mode rootkits are developed as device drivers or loadable modules, such as loadable kernel modules in Linux or device drivers in Microsoft Windows. This class of rootkit has unrestricted security access, but is more difficult to write. The complexity makes bugs common, and any bugs in code operating at the kernel level may seriously impact system stability, leading to discovery of the rootkit. One of the first widely known kernel rootkits was developed for Windows NT 4.0 and released in Phrack magazine in 1999 by Greg Hoglund. Kernel rootkits can be especially difficult to detect and remove because they operate at the same security level as the operating system itself, and are thus able to intercept or subvert the most trusted operating system operations. Any software, such as antivirus software, running on the compromised system is equally vulnerable. In this situation, no part of the system can be trusted.


title: Rootkit

text: A rootkit can modify data structures in the Windows kernel using a method known as "direct kernel object manipulation" (DKOM). This method can be used to hide processes. A kernel mode rootkit can also hook the System Service Descriptor Table (SSDT), or modify the gates between user mode and kernel mode, in order to cloak itself. Similarly for the Linux operating system, a rootkit can modify the "system call table" to subvert kernel functionality. It is common that a rootkit creates a hidden, encrypted filesystem in which it can hide other malware or original copies of files it has infected. Operating systems are evolving to counter the threat of kernel-mode rootkits. For example, 64-bit editions of Microsoft Windows now implement mandatory signing of all kernel-level drivers in order to make it more difficult for untrusted code to execute with the highest privileges in a system.


title: Rootkit

text: A kernel-mode rootkit variant called a bootkit can infect startup code like the Master Boot Record (MBR), Volume Boot Record (VBR), or boot sector, and in this way can be used to attack full disk encryption systems.


title: Rootkit

text: An example of such an attack on disk encryption is the "evil maid attack", in which an attacker installs a bootkit on an unattended computer. The envisioned scenario is a maid sneaking into the hotel room where the victims left their hardware. The bootkit replaces the legitimate boot loader with one under their control. Typically the malware loader persists through the transition to protected mode when the kernel has loaded, and is thus able to subvert the kernel. For example, the "Stoned Bootkit" subverts the system by using a compromised boot loader to intercept encryption keys and passwords. In 2010, the Alureon rootkit has successfully subverted the requirement for 64-bit kernel-mode driver signing in Windows 7, by modifying the master boot record. Although not malware in the sense of doing something the user doesn't want, certain "Vista Loader" or "Windows Loader" software work in a similar way by injecting an ACPI SLIC (System Licensed Internal Code) table in the RAM-cached version of the BIOS during boot, in order to defeat the Windows Vista and Windows 7 activation process. This vector of attack was rendered useless in the (non-server) versions of Windows 8, which use a unique, machine-specific key for each system, that can only be used by that one machine. Many antivirus companies provide free utilities and programs to remove bootkits.


title: Rootkit

text: Rootkits have been created as Type II Hypervisors in academia as proofs of concept. By exploiting hardware virtualization features such as Intel VT or AMD-V, this type of rootkit runs in Ring -1 and hosts the target operating system as a virtual machine, thereby enabling the rootkit to intercept hardware calls made by the original operating system. Unlike normal hypervisors, they do not have to load before the operating system, but can load into an operating system before promoting it into a virtual machine. A hypervisor rootkit does not have to make any modifications to the kernel of the target to subvert it; however, that does not mean that it cannot be detected by the guest operating system. For example, timing differences may be detectable in CPU instructions. The "SubVirt" laboratory rootkit, developed jointly by Microsoft and University of Michigan researchers, is an academic example of a virtual-machine–based rootkit (VMBR),


title: Rootkit

text: while Blue Pill software is another. In 2009, researchers from Microsoft and North Carolina State University demonstrated a hypervisor-layer anti-rootkit called Hooksafe, which provides generic protection against kernel-mode rootkits. Windows 10 introduced a new feature called "Device Guard", that takes advantage of virtualization to provide independent external protection of an operating system against rootkit-type malware.


title: Rootkit

text: A firmware rootkit uses device or platform firmware to create a persistent malware image in hardware, such as a router, network card, hard drive, or the system BIOS. The rootkit hides in firmware, because firmware is not usually inspected for code integrity. John Heasman demonstrated the viability of firmware rootkits in both ACPI firmware routines and in a PCI expansion card ROM. In October 2008, criminals tampered with European credit-card-reading machines before they were installed. The devices intercepted and transmitted credit card details via a mobile phone network. In March 2009, researchers Alfredo Ortega and Anibal Sacco published details of a BIOS-level Windows rootkit that was able to survive disk replacement and operating system re-installation. A few months later they learned that some laptops are sold with a legitimate rootkit, known as Absolute CompuTrace or Absolute LoJack for Laptops, preinstalled in many BIOS images. This is an anti-theft technology system that researchers showed can be turned to malicious purposes.


title: Rootkit

text: Intel Active Management Technology, part of Intel vPro, implements out-of-band management, giving administrators remote administration, remote management, and remote control of PCs with no involvement of the host processor or BIOS, even when the system is powered off. Remote administration includes remote power-up and power-down, remote reset, redirected boot, console redirection, pre-boot access to BIOS settings, programmable filtering for inbound and outbound network traffic, agent presence checking, out-of-band policy-based alerting, access to system information, such as hardware asset information, persistent event logs, and other information that is stored in dedicated memory (not on the hard drive) where it is accessible even if the OS is down or the PC is powered off. Some of these functions require the deepest level of rootkit, a second non-removable spy computer built around the main computer. Sandy Bridge and future chipsets have "the ability to remotely kill and restore a lost or stolen PC via 3G". Hardware rootkits built into the chipset can help recover stolen computers, remove data, or render them useless, but they also present privacy and security concerns of undetectable spying and redirection by management or hackers who might gain control.


title: Rootkit

text: Rootkits employ a variety of techniques to gain control of a system; the type of rootkit influences the choice of attack vector. The most common technique leverages security vulnerabilities to achieve surreptitious privilege escalation. Another approach is to use a Trojan horse, deceiving a computer user into trusting the rootkit's installation program as benign—in this case, social engineering convinces a user that the rootkit is beneficial. The installation task is made easier if the principle of least privilege is not applied, since the rootkit then does not have to explicitly request elevated (administrator-level) privileges. Other classes of rootkits can be installed only by someone with physical access to the target system. Some rootkits may also be installed intentionally by the owner of the system or somebody authorized by the owner, e.g. for the purpose of employee monitoring, rendering such subversive techniques unnecessary. Some malicious rootkit installations are commercially driven, with a pay-per-install (PPI) compensation method typical for distribution.


title: Rootkit

text: Once installed, a rootkit takes active measures to obscure its presence within the host system through subversion or evasion of standard operating system security tools and application programming interface (APIs) used for diagnosis, scanning, and monitoring. Rootkits achieve this by modifying the behavior of core parts of an operating system through loading code into other processes, the installation or modification of drivers, or kernel modules. Obfuscation techniques include concealing running processes from system-monitoring mechanisms and hiding system files and other configuration data. It is not uncommon for a rootkit to disable the event logging capacity of an operating system, in an attempt to hide evidence of an attack. Rootkits can, in theory, subvert "any" operating system activities. The "perfect rootkit" can be thought of as similar to a "perfect crime": one that nobody realizes has taken place. Rootkits also take a number of measures to ensure their survival against detection and "cleaning" by antivirus software in addition to commonly installing into Ring 0 (kernel-mode), where they have complete access to a system. These include polymorphism (changing so their "signature" is hard to detect), stealth techniques, regeneration, disabling or turning off anti-malware software, and not installing on virtual machines where it may be easier for researchers to discover and analyze them.


title: Rootkit

text: The fundamental problem with rootkit detection is that if the operating system has been subverted, particularly by a kernel-level rootkit, it cannot be trusted to find unauthorized modifications to itself or its components. Actions such as requesting a list of running processes, or a list of files in a directory, cannot be trusted to behave as expected. In other words, rootkit detectors that work while running on infected systems are only effective against rootkits that have some defect in their camouflage, or that run with lower user-mode privileges than the detection software in the kernel. As with computer viruses, the detection and elimination of rootkits is an ongoing struggle between both sides of this conflict. Detection can take a number of different approaches, including looking for virus "signatures" (e.g. antivirus software), integrity checking (e.g. digital signatures), difference-based detection (comparison of expected vs. actual results), and behavioral detection (e.g. monitoring CPU usage or network traffic).


title: Rootkit

text: For kernel-mode rootkits, detection is considerably more complex, requiring careful scrutiny of the System Call Table to look for hooked functions where the malware may be subverting system behavior, as well as forensic scanning of memory for patterns that indicate hidden processes. Unix rootkit detection offerings include Zeppoo, chkrootkit, rkhunter and OSSEC. For Windows, detection tools include Microsoft Sysinternals RootkitRevealer, Avast Antivirus, Sophos Anti-Rootkit, F-Secure, Radix, GMER, and WindowsSCOPE. Any rootkit detectors that prove effective ultimately contribute to their own ineffectiveness, as malware authors adapt and test their code to escape detection by well-used tools. Detection by examining storage while the suspect operating system is not operational can miss rootkits not recognised by the checking software, as the rootkit is not active and suspicious behavior is suppressed; conventional anti-malware software running with the rootkit operational may fail if the rootkit hides itself effectively.


title: Rootkit

text: The best and most reliable method for operating-system-level rootkit detection is to shut down the computer suspected of infection, and then to check its storage by booting from an alternative trusted medium (e.g. a "rescue" CD-ROM or USB flash drive). The technique is effective because a rootkit cannot actively hide its presence if it is not running.


title: Rootkit

text: The behavioral-based approach to detecting rootkits attempts to infer the presence of a rootkit by looking for rootkit-like behavior. For example, by profiling a system, differences in the timing and frequency of API calls or in overall CPU utilization can be attributed to a rootkit. The method is complex and is hampered by a high incidence of false positives. Defective rootkits can sometimes introduce very obvious changes to a system: the Alureon rootkit crashed Windows systems after a security update exposed a design flaw in its code. Logs from a packet analyzer, firewall, or intrusion prevention system may present evidence of rootkit behaviour in a networked environment.


title: Rootkit

text: Antivirus products rarely catch all viruses in public tests (depending on what is used and to what extent), even though security software vendors incorporate rootkit detection into their products. Should a rootkit attempt to hide during an antivirus scan, a stealth detector may notice; if the rootkit attempts to temporarily unload itself from the system, signature detection (or "fingerprinting") can still find it. This combined approach forces attackers to implement counterattack mechanisms, or "retro" routines, that attempt to terminate antivirus programs. Signature-based detection methods can be effective against well-published rootkits, but less so against specially crafted, custom-root rootkits.


title: Rootkit

text: Another method that can detect rootkits compares "trusted" raw data with "tainted" content returned by an API. For example, binaries present on disk can be compared with their copies within operating memory (in some operating systems, the in-memory image should be identical to the on-disk image), or the results returned from file system or Windows Registry APIs can be checked against raw structures on the underlying physical disks—however, in the case of the former, some valid differences can be introduced by operating system mechanisms like memory relocation or shimming. A rootkit may detect the presence of such a difference-based scanner or virtual machine (the latter being commonly used to perform forensic analysis), and adjust its behaviour so that no differences can be detected. Difference-based detection was used by Russinovich's "RootkitRevealer" tool to find the Sony DRM rootkit.


title: Rootkit

text: Code signing uses public-key infrastructure to check if a file has been modified since being digitally signed by its publisher. Alternatively, a system owner or administrator can use a cryptographic hash function to compute a "fingerprint" at installation time that can help to detect subsequent unauthorized changes to on-disk code libraries. However, unsophisticated schemes check only whether the code has been modified since installation time; subversion prior to that time is not detectable. The fingerprint must be re-established each time changes are made to the system: for example, after installing security updates or a service pack. The hash function creates a "message digest", a relatively short code calculated from each bit in the file using an algorithm that creates large changes in the message digest with even smaller changes to the original file. By recalculating and comparing the message digest of the installed files at regular intervals against a trusted list of message digests, changes in the system can be detected and monitored—as long as the original baseline was created before the malware was added.


title: Rootkit

text: More-sophisticated rootkits are able to subvert the verification process by presenting an unmodified copy of the file for inspection, or by making code modifications only in memory, reconfiguration registers, which are later compared to a white list of expected values. The code that performs hash, compare, or extend operations must also be protected—in this context, the notion of an "immutable root-of-trust" holds that the very first code to measure security properties of a system must itself be trusted to ensure that a rootkit or bootkit does not compromise the system at its most fundamental level.


title: Rootkit

text: Forcing a complete dump of virtual memory will capture an active rootkit (or a kernel dump in the case of a kernel-mode rootkit), allowing offline forensic analysis to be performed with a debugger against the resulting dump file, without the rootkit being able to take any measures to cloak itself. This technique is highly specialized, and may require access to non-public source code or debugging symbols. Memory dumps initiated by the operating system cannot always be used to detect a hypervisor-based rootkit, which is able to intercept and subvert the lowest-level attempts to read memory—a hardware device, such as one that implements a non-maskable interrupt, may be required to dump memory in this scenario. Virtual machines also make it easier to analyze the memory of a compromised machine from the underlying hypervisor, so some rootkits will avoid infecting virtual machines for this reason.


title: Rootkit

text: Manual removal of a rootkit is often extremely difficult for a typical computer user, but a number of security-software vendors offer tools to automatically detect and remove some rootkits, typically as part of an antivirus suite. , Microsoft's monthly Windows Malicious Software Removal Tool is able to detect and remove some classes of rootkits. Also, Windows Defender Offline can remove rootkits, as it runs from a trusted environment before the operating system starts. Some antivirus scanners can bypass file system APIs, which are vulnerable to manipulation by a rootkit. Instead, they access raw file system structures directly, and use this information to validate the results from the system APIs to identify any differences that may be caused by a rootkit. There are experts who believe that the only reliable way to remove them is to re-install the operating system from trusted media. This is because antivirus and malware removal tools running on an untrusted system may be ineffective against well-written kernel-mode rootkits. Booting an alternative operating system from trusted media can allow an infected system volume to be mounted and potentially safely cleaned and critical data to be copied off—or, alternatively, a forensic examination performed. Lightweight operating systems such as Windows PE, Windows Recovery Console, Windows Recovery Environment, BartPE, or Live Distros can be used for this purpose, allowing the system to be "cleaned". Even if the type and nature of a rootkit is known, manual repair may be impractical, while re-installing the operating system and applications is safer, simpler and quicker.


title: Rootkit

text: System hardening represents one of the first layers of defence against a rootkit, to prevent it from being able to install. Applying security patches, implementing the principle of least privilege, reducing the attack surface and installing antivirus software are some standard security best practices that are effective against all classes of malware. New secure boot specifications like UEFI have been designed to address the threat of bootkits, but even these are vulnerable if the security features they offer are not utilized. For server systems, remote server attestation using technologies such as Intel Trusted Execution Technology (TXT) provide a way of verifying that servers remain in a known good state. For example, Microsoft Bitlocker's encryption of data-at-rest verifies that servers are in a known "good state" on bootup. PrivateCore vCage is a software offering that secures data-in-use (memory) to avoid bootkits and rootkits by verifying servers are in a known "good" state on bootup. The PrivateCore implementation works in concert with Intel TXT and locks down server system interfaces to avoid potential bootkits and rootkits.


title: Organelle

text: In cell biology, an organelle is a specialized subunit, usually within a cell, that has a specific function. The name "organelle" comes from the idea that these structures are parts of cells, as organs are to the body, hence "organelle," the suffix "-elle" being a diminutive. Organelles are either separately enclosed within their own lipid bilayers (also called membrane-bound organelles) or are spatially distinct functional units without a surrounding lipid bilayer (non-membrane bound organelles). Although most organelles are functional units within cells, some function units that extend outside of cells are often termed organelles, such as cilia, the flagellum and archaellum, and the trichocyst.


title: Organelle

text: Organelles are identified by microscopy, and can also be purified by cell fractionation. There are many types of organelles, particularly in eukaryotic cells. They include structures that make up the endomembrane system (such as the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus), and other structures such as mitochondria and plastids. While prokaryotes do not possess eukaryotic organelles, some do contain protein-shelled bacterial microcompartments, which are thought to act as primitive prokaryotic organelles; and there is also evidence of other membrane-bounded structures. Also, the prokaryotic flagellum which protrudes outside the cell, and its motor, as well as the largely extracellular pilus, are often spoken of as organelles.


title: Organelle

text: In biology "organs" are defined as confined functional units within an organism. The analogy of bodily organs to microscopic cellular substructures is obvious, as from even early works, authors of respective textbooks rarely elaborate on the distinction between the two.


title: Organelle

text: In the 1830s, Félix Dujardin refuted Ehrenberg theory which said that microorganisms have the same organs of multicellular animals, only minor.


title: Organelle

text: Credited as the first to use a diminutive of "organ" (i.e., little organ) for cellular structures was German zoologist Karl August Möbius (1884), who used the term "organula" (plural of "organulum", the diminutive of Latin "organum"). In a footnote, which was published as a correction in the next issue of the journal, he justified his suggestion to call organs of unicellular organisms "organella" since they are only differently formed parts of one cell, in contrast to multicellular organs of multicellular organisms.


title: Organelle

text: While most cell biologists consider the term "organelle" to be synonymous with cell compartment, a space often bound by one or two lipid bilayers, some cell biologists choose to limit the term to include only those cell compartments that contain deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), having originated from formerly autonomous microscopic organisms acquired via endosymbiosis.


title: Organelle

text: Under this definition, there would only be two broad classes of organelles (i.e. those that contain their own DNA, and have originated from endosymbiotic bacteria):


title: Organelle

text: Other organelles are also suggested to have endosymbiotic origins, but do not contain their own DNA (notably the flagellum – see evolution of flagella).


title: Organelle

text: A second, less restrictive definition of organelles is that they are membrane-bound structures. However, even by using this definition, some parts of the cell that have been shown to be distinct functional units do not qualify as organelles. Therefore, the use of organelle to also refer to non-membrane bound structures such as ribosomes is common and accepted. This has led many texts to delineate between membrane-bound and non-membrane bound organelles. The non-membrane bound organelles, also called large biomolecular complexes, are large assemblies of macromolecules that carry out particular and specialized functions, but they lack membrane boundaries. Many of these are referred to as "proteinaceous organelles" as their main structure is made of proteins. Such cell structures include:


title: Organelle

text: The mechanisms by which such non-membrane bound organelles form and retain their spatial integrity have been likened to liquid-liquid phase separation.


title: Organelle

text: Eukaryotic cells are structurally complex, and by definition are organized, in part, by interior compartments that are themselves enclosed by lipid membranes that resemble the outermost cell membrane. The larger organelles, such as the nucleus and vacuoles, are easily visible with the light microscope. They were among the first biological discoveries made after the invention of the microscope.


title: Organelle

text: Not all eukaryotic cells have each of the organelles listed below. Exceptional organisms have cells that do not include some organelles that might otherwise be considered universal to eukaryotes (such as mitochondria). There are also occasional exceptions to the number of membranes surrounding organelles, listed in the tables below (e.g., some that are listed as double-membrane are sometimes found with single or triple membranes). In addition, the number of individual organelles of each type found in a given cell varies depending upon the function of that cell.


title: Organelle

text: Mitochondria and plastids, including chloroplasts, have double membranes and their own DNA. According to the endosymbiotic theory, they are believed to have originated from incompletely consumed or invading prokaryotic organisms.


title: Organelle

text: Prokaryotes are not as structurally complex as eukaryotes, and were once thought as having little internal organization, and lack cellular compartments and internal membranes; but slowly, details are emerging about prokaryotic internal structures that overturn these assumptions. An early false turn was the idea developed in the 1970s that bacteria might contain cell membrane folds termed mesosomes, but these were later shown to be artifacts produced by the chemicals used to prepare the cells for electron microscopy.


title: Organelle

text: However, there is increasing evidence of compartmentalization in at least some prokaryotes. Recent research has revealed that at least some prokaryotes have microcompartments, such as carboxysomes. These subcellular compartments are 100–200 nm in diameter and are enclosed by a shell of proteins. Even more striking is the description of membrane-bound magnetosomes in bacteria, reported in 2006.


title: Organelle

text: The bacterial phylum Planctomycetota has revealed a number of compartmentalization features. The Planctomycetota cell plan includes intracytoplasmic membranes that separates the cytoplasm into paryphoplasm (an outer ribosome-free space) and pirellulosome (or riboplasm, an inner ribosome-containing space). Membrane-bound anammoxosomes have been discovered in five Planctomycetota "anammox" genera, which perform anaerobic ammonium oxidation. In the Planctomycetota species "Gemmata obscuriglobus", a nucleus-like structure surrounded by lipid membranes has been reported.


title: Organelle

text: Compartmentalization is a feature of prokaryotic photosynthetic structures. Purple bacteria have "chromatophores", which are reaction centers found in invaginations of the cell membrane. Green sulfur bacteria have chlorosomes, which are photosynthetic antenna complexes found bonded to cell membranes. Cyanobacteria have internal thylakoid membranes for light-dependent photosynthesis; studies have revealed that the cell membrane and the thylakoid membranes are not continuous with each other.


title: Ievan polkka

text: "Ievan polkka" (Finnish for "Ieva's Polka") is a popular Finnish song with lyrics printed in 1928 and written by Eino Kettunen to a traditional Finnish polka tune. The song is sung in an Eastern Savonian dialect spoken in North Karelia. It's sung from the point of view of a young man, about a woman called Ieva (dialectal for the name Eva or Eeva in standard Finnish) who sneaks out and dances the polka with him all night. The song is often mistaken for a traditional folk song, but the lyrics by Eino Kettunen are still under copyright. Later, a scat singing version of the song by the band Loituma was incorporated into the viral animation Loituma Girl, sung by Hatsune Miku, with Otomania arranged the music and providing Miku's voice manipulation, bringing the tune into worldwide popular culture.


title: Ievan polkka

text: In South Karelia, Ievan Polkka is also known as "Savitaipaleen polkka", due to its similarity to a tune of that name. The melody also resembles that of the Russian folk dance ("The Smolyanin Gosling").


title: Ievan polkka

text: The melody can be traced back to the 18th century and the Viipuri Province, when the border with the Kingdom of Sweden ran west of the province. The number of Russian soldiers stationed in the border area outnumbered the locals for many decades. At the beginning of the 19th century, collectors of Finnish folk dances and songs remarked that all the dances in the area of Luumäki-Savitaipale were Russian, and thus the collectors didn't record them. However, the polka genre is of a much later date. Polka was introduced into Northern Europe during the late 19th century, which implies that the actual tune, as it is known today, originates from this era.


title: Ievan polkka

text: Owing to its viral exposure in popular culture, Ievan Polkka has become one of the most famous Finnish songs in the world.