title: American Enterprise Institute

text: AEI denies that the organization is skeptical about global warming. Criticizing the story as part of a "climate inquisition" published in "the left-wing press", the AEI's Steven Hayward and Kenneth Green wrote in "The Weekly Standard":


title: American Enterprise Institute

text: Former scholar Steven Hayward has described efforts to reduce global warming as being "based on exaggerations and conjecture rather than science". He has stated that "even though the leading scientific journals are thoroughly imbued with environmental correctness and reject out of hand many articles that don't conform to the party line, a study that confounds the conventional wisdom is published almost every week".


title: American Enterprise Institute

text: Likewise, former AEI scholar Kenneth Green has referred to efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions as "the positively silly idea of establishing global-weather control by actively managing the atmosphere's greenhouse-gas emissions", and endorsed Michael Crichton's novel "State of Fear" for having "educated millions of readers about climate science".


title: American Enterprise Institute

text: Christopher DeMuth, former AEI president, accepted that the earth has warmed in recent decades, but he stated that "it's not clear why this happened" and charged as well that the IPCC "has tended to ignore many distinguished physicists and meteorologists whose work casts doubt on the influence of greenhouse gases on global temperature trends". Fellow James Glassman also disputes the prevailing scientific opinion on climate change, having written numerous articles criticizing the Kyoto accords and climate science more generally for Tech Central Station. He supported the views of U.S. Senator Jim Inhofe (R-OK), who claims that "global warming is 'the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people,'" and, like Green, cites Crichton's novel "State of Fear", which "casts serious doubt on global warming and extremists who espouse it".


title: American Enterprise Institute

text: Joel Schwartz, an AEI visiting fellow, stated: "The Earth has indeed warmed during the last few decades and may warm further in the future. But the pattern of climate change is not consistent with the greenhouse effect being the main cause."


title: American Enterprise Institute

text: After Energy Secretary Steven Chu recommended painting roofs and roads white in order to reflect sunlight back into space and therefore reduce global warming, AEI's magazine "The American" endorsed the idea. It also stated that "ultimately we need to look more broadly at creative ways of reducing the harmful effects of climate change in the long run." "The American" editor-in-chief and fellow Nick Schulz endorsed a carbon tax over a cap and trade program in "The Christian Science Monitor" on February 13, 2009. He stated that it "would create a market price for carbon emissions and lead to emissions reductions or new technologies that cut greenhouse gases."


title: American Enterprise Institute

text: In October 2007, resident scholar and executive director of the AEI-Brookings Joint Center for Regulatory Studies Robert W. Hahn commented:


title: American Enterprise Institute

text: AEI visiting scholar N. Gregory Mankiw wrote in "The New York Times" in support of a carbon tax on September 16, 2007. He remarked that "there is a broad consensus. The scientists tell us that world temperatures are rising because humans are emitting carbon into the atmosphere. Basic economics tells us that when you tax something, you normally get less of it."


title: Drew Seeley

text: Andrew Michael Edgar Seeley (born April 30, 1982) is a Canadian actor, singer, songwriter and dancer. He has recorded many songs for the Walt Disney Company. He danced as a child in Ontario until he was about preteen age and then moved to Florida.


title: Drew Seeley

text: Seeley grew up in Toronto and fell in love with performing. He was once part of a boy band called Nu Ground. He was cast in Hal Prince's revival of Showboat and stayed with the production for a year. In 2005, Seeley started working with Ray Cham, an established producer and together they wrote "Get'cha Head in the Game", a song that was a nominee in the Creative Arts Primetime Emmy category, Best Original Music and Lyrics.


title: Drew Seeley

text: Seeley is married to actress/comedian Amy Paffrath. The couple has one child, a daughter, who was born in 2019.


title: Drew Seeley

text: In 2005, Seeley began working with founded producer Ray Cham and together they wrote "Get'cha Head in the Game" for Disney's quadruple platinum High School Musical soundtrack. This garnered them an Emmy nomination in the Best Original Music and Lyrics category. He also auditioned alongside Zac Efron for the role of Troy Bolton in the first "High School Musical" film, to which Efron won the part while Seeley acted as the character's singing voice, which was blended with Efron's voice in post-production. In addition, Seeley filled in for Efron (who could not join the tour due to a scheduling conflict with the shooting of the 2007 film adaptation of the Broadway musical "Hairspray") on the North America and Latin America tours of "", playing in 60,000 seat arenas and he can be heard on both soundtracks and "High School Musical on Stage!".


title: Drew Seeley

text: Seeley's association with Disney continued and he can be heard as a featured artist on several Disney soundtracks/compilation albums including "Disneymania 5", "Disneymania 6", "Disney Channel Holiday", "Radio Disney Jams, Vol. 9", and "Byou". Drew's duet with Spanish-born Mexican singer Belinda "Dance with Me", from the platinum "Cheetah Girls 2" soundtrack, was played on the Disney Channel and on Radio Disney. Drew appeared in Belinda's video of "Ni Freud ni tu mamá". Drew also made a guest appearance on the 2008 Chipmunks CD "Undeniable", singing an updated take on "Shake Your Groove Thing" with Alvin and the gang. Seeley appeared in the Hallmark Channel Movie "Claire" opposite Valerie Bertinelli, and in the film "Fly Kidz", for which he co-wrote and produced the soundtrack. He also wrote and performed music for the Disney Channel Original Movie "Jump In!" starring Corbin Bleu and Keke Palmer.


title: Drew Seeley

text: Seeley starred opposite Selena Gomez and Jane Lynch in "Another Cinderella Story", playing the pop star Joey Parker. Drew wrote and performed four songs in the film, and shot music videos for both versions of his hit song, "New Classic". Seeley also appeared in the Disney Channel Original Movie "Stuck in the Suburbs" as a hotel employee.


title: Drew Seeley

text: In the summer of 2009 he starred as Prince Eric in the Disney Broadway Musical "The Little Mermaid", and had a leading role in the horror movie "The Shortcut". In June 2010, Seeley starred in the Hallmark Channel television movie "Freshman Father".


title: Drew Seeley

text: Seeley's album "The Resolution" was released on April 5, 2011. In support of the album, Drew went on a national tour where he performed his own original music. He also sang a song for the Disney Channel original series "Shake It Up". A duet with Adam Hicks, "Dance for Life," premiered in the episode "Vatalihoosit It Up", backed by a routine performed by dance crew the Jabbawockeez. "Dance for Life" was featured on the soundtrack for the show, "". Seeley's song "It's Always Been You" was used as the theme of "Crown for Christmas", a 2011 Hallmark Channel movie.


title: Drew Seeley

text: On June 12, 2011, Seeley was reported to have joined the CW's hit teen drama series "90210", but "Entertainment Weekly" later reported that he dropped the role due to a conflict with his schedule. In March 2012, "I Kissed a Vampire" was released, in which Seeley stars alongside Lucas Grabeel and Adrian Slade. In June 2012, he co-starred in the Lifetime movie, "Talhotblond", playing young "Tommy". Seeley has also released music videos for his song "Beautiful", and most recently "Into The Fire". Drew recorded a song for the third "Shake It Up" soundtrack "", called "I Do". It featured on Walmart-exclusive editions as a bonus track. The song was also featured in the "Shake It Up" season 3 episode, "I Do It Up".


title: Drew Seeley

text: In 2013, Seeley began filming his role in a new film, "Elixir", which was renamed "" on ABC Family. Seeley played the role of "Young Ryan". He played opposite Chelsea Kane (Young Harper), Jane Seymour (Harper), Sara Paxton (Mirabella), Tom Wopat (Ryan), and Alexander DiPersia (Marco). He is featured singing his rendition of Usher's "DJ's Got Us Fallin’ in Love". In conjunction with the new movie, Seeley co-wrote and performed "Here & Now," the theme song to ABC Family's spring promotional campaign. The song was featured on Seeley's dance-pop EP released in April 2013. In 2014, Seeley performed as "Bob Gaudio" in Jersey Boys for the US tour.


title: 2020–21 Chelsea F.C. season

text: The 2020–21 season was Chelsea's 107th competitive season, 32nd consecutive season in the top flight of English football, 29th consecutive season in the Premier League, and 115th year in existence as a football club. The season covered the period from 1 July 2020 to 30 June 2021.


title: 2020–21 Chelsea F.C. season

text: Prior to the 2020–21 season, Chelsea made numerous high-profile signings in the transfer market, bringing in the likes of Timo Werner, Kai Havertz, Ben Chilwell, Hakim Ziyech, and Thiago Silva in the off-season, as well as Édouard Mendy shortly after the season began. The Blues began this season under the management of former Chelsea player Frank Lampard, in his second season at the club. However, Lampard was sacked in January and replaced by the German manager Thomas Tuchel. The season culminated in the club's second European Cup victory, as on 29 May 2021, Chelsea defeated fellow English side Manchester City in the Champions League final to be crowned champions of Europe.


title: 2020–21 Chelsea F.C. season

text: On 25 January 2021, manager Frank Lampard was sacked after a poor run of form that included only two wins from their past eight league matches. The following day, he was replaced by former Borussia Dortmund and Paris Saint-Germain manager Thomas Tuchel. With Chelsea's victory over Atlético Madrid on 17 March, Tuchel became the first manager to go unbeaten in his first 13 matches in charge of the club, surpassing the previous record of 12 held by Luiz Felipe Scolari.


title: 2020–21 Chelsea F.C. season

text: On 2 April, Tuchel was honoured with the Premier League Manager of the Month award for March. His unbeaten streak ended on 3 April, when Chelsea unexpectedly lost to West Bromwich Albion 2–5 at home. On 17 April, Chelsea beat Manchester City 1–0 to advance to the FA Cup Final.


title: 2020–21 Chelsea F.C. season

text: On 18 April, it was announced that Chelsea would be a founding member of the newly formed European Super League, a proposed annual club football competition to be contested by twenty of Europe's most elite football clubs. On 20 April, after two days of widespread backlash from the United Kingdom government including Prime Minister Boris Johnson, FIFA, UEFA, the FA, other Premier League clubs, supporters, players, and broadcasters, and after Chairman Bruce Buck met with players, Chelsea announced their intention to withdraw from the competition. This led to the five other English clubs all pulling out later that night. By 21 April, the Super League announced it was suspending its operations.


title: 2020–21 Chelsea F.C. season

text: On 5 May, Chelsea defeated Real Madrid in the second leg of their Champions League semi-final clash to book a place in the final to be held on 29 May in Istanbul. Their win set up an all-English affair after Manchester City had secured their maiden appearance in the final the day before.


title: 2020–21 Chelsea F.C. season

text: Despite a loss on the final day of the league season against Aston Villa, Chelsea secured a place in next season's UEFA Champions League as Leicester City also lost at home to Tottenham Hotspur.


title: 2020–21 Chelsea F.C. season

text: On 29 May, Chelsea defeated fellow English club Manchester City 1–0 in the Champions League Final to win the competition for the second time in club history. This was Chelsea's third appearance in a European Cup/Champions League final, after their defeat to Manchester United in 2008 and their victory against Bayern Munich in 2012.


title: 2020–21 Chelsea F.C. season

text: Chelsea got the right to enter the 2020–21 FA Cup in the Third Round Proper along with the other Premier League and Championship clubs. The third round draw was made on 30 November, and Chelsea were drawn against League Two side Morecambe. The draw for the fourth and fifth round were made on 11 January, conducted by Peter Crouch. In the fourth round, Chelsea overcame Championship club Luton Town by a score of 3–1, with Tammy Abraham scoring all three goals for his side. In doing so, Abraham became the first Englishman to a score a hat-trick for Chelsea in the FA Cup since manager Frank Lampard in 2007, and he became the first Chelsea youth team product to score ten or more goals in back-to-back seasons since Mike Fillery in 1982–83. The match against Luton Town was Lampard's last in charge as he was sacked the following day. The draw for the quarter-finals was made, live on BT Sport by Karen Carney on 11 February. The draw for the semi-finals was made, live on BBC One by Dion Dublin on 21 March. Chelsea reached the 2021 FA Cup Final after defeating Manchester City 1–0 in the semi-final with a goal from Hakim Ziyech. However, Chelsea would end up losing the final 1–0 to Leicester City following a controversial a goal from Youri Tielemans.


title: 2020–21 Chelsea F.C. season

text: The draw for both the second and third round were confirmed on September 6, live on Sky Sports by Phil Babb. In the third round, Chelsea were drawn at home against Championship side Barnsley. Tammy Abraham opened the scoring in the 19th minute, slotting past former Blues keeper Brad Collins. New signing, Kai Havertz, then latched on to Mason Mount's pass after a clever Abraham dummy and slid left-footed effort into the bottom corner to open his Chelsea account. Ross Barkley made it three after the break before Abraham's neat flick teed Havertz up for a simple finish inside the area. Abraham then found Havertz for his hat-trick goal in the 65th minute and Olivier Giroud finished the scoring to make it 6–0 with seven minutes to go.


title: 2020–21 Chelsea F.C. season

text: The fourth round draw was conducted on 17 September 2020 by Laura Woods and Lee Hendrie live on Sky Sports; Chelsea were handed an away game against Tottenham Hotspur, led by former manager José Mourinho. Chelsea went in front against Spurs with new signing Timo Werner netting his first goal for the club in the 19th minute. However, Erik Lamela would equalize for Tottenham with six minutes to go and the hosts would go on to win in the penalty shoot-out after a solitary miss from Chelsea midfielder Mason Mount.


title: 2020–21 Chelsea F.C. season

text: The group stage draw was held on 1 October 2020 with Chelsea being placed in Group E along with Europa League holders Sevilla and two competition debutants in Krasnodar of Russia and Stade Rennes of France. Chelsea progressed as group winners having won four matches and drawing the other two. This included a convincing 4–0 away win versus Sevilla with Olivier Giroud scoring all four. In the draw for the round of 16, Chelsea were pitted against Spanish side Atlético Madrid, setting up the eighth and ninth matches between the clubs in just over a decade, following group stage clashes in 2009–10, a solitary matchup in the 2012 UEFA Super Cup, a semi-final tie in 2013–14, and another group stage meeting in the Champions League in 2017–18. Chelsea would go on to win the first leg 1–0 after a goal from Olivier Giroud. Chelsea moved on to the quarter-finals after a 2–0 second-leg win, with a goal in each half from Hakim Ziyech and Emerson, and were drawn against FC Porto. It was the ninth meeting between the two clubs, the most recent being a 2–0 Chelsea victory in the group stage of the 2015–16 UEFA Champions League. Chelsea defeated Porto 2–0 in the first match. They advanced 2–1 on aggregate despite losing 1–0 in the second leg to Porto. By doing this, Chelsea reached the Semi-finals, a feat they had not accomplished since 2013–14 campaign. Chelsea were drawn against Real Madrid in the Semi-finals. The first leg was played in the Alfredo Di Stéfano. Christian Pulisic gave Chelsea the lead before Karim Benzema equalized for the home side, the match ended in a 1–1 draw. In the second leg at Stamford Bridge, Timo Werner and Mason Mount gave Chelsea a 2–0 win (3–1 on aggregate). This meant that Chelsea would be in the final, the first time Chelsea had reached the final since the 2011–12 campaign. In the final at the Estádio do Dragão, Chelsea would emerge victorious against Manchester City 1–0 with a goal from Kai Havertz sealing their first Champions League title since the 2011–12 campaign.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: Following the discovery of the planet Neptune in 1846, there was considerable speculation that another planet might exist beyond its orbit. The search began in the mid-19th century and continued at the start of the 20th with Percival Lowell's quest for Planet X. Lowell proposed the Planet X hypothesis to explain apparent discrepancies in the orbits of the giant planets, particularly Uranus and Neptune, speculating that the gravity of a large unseen ninth planet could have perturbed Uranus enough to account for the irregularities.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: Clyde Tombaugh's discovery of Pluto in 1930 appeared to validate Lowell's hypothesis, and Pluto was officially named the ninth planet. In 1978, Pluto was conclusively determined to be too small for its gravity to affect the giant planets, resulting in a brief search for a tenth planet. The search was largely abandoned in the early 1990s, when a study of measurements made by the "Voyager 2" spacecraft found that the irregularities observed in Uranus's orbit were due to a slight overestimation of Neptune's mass. After 1992, the discovery of numerous small icy objects with similar or even wider orbits than Pluto led to a debate over whether Pluto should remain a planet, or whether it and its neighbours should, like the asteroids, be given their own separate classification. Although a number of the larger members of this group were initially described as planets, in 2006 the International Astronomical Union (IAU) reclassified Pluto and its largest neighbours as dwarf planets, leaving Neptune the farthest known planet in the Solar System.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: While the astronomical community widely agrees that Planet X, as originally envisioned, does not exist, the concept of an as-yet-unobserved planet has been revived by a number of astronomers to explain other anomalies observed in the outer Solar System. As of March 2014, observations with the WISE telescope have ruled out the possibility of a Saturn-sized object (95 Earth masses) out to 10,000 AU, and a Jupiter-sized (≈318 Earth masses) or larger object out to 26,000 AU.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: In 2014, based on similarities of the orbits of a group of recently discovered extreme trans-Neptunian objects, astronomers hypothesized the existence of a super-Earth or ice giant planet, 2 to 15 times the mass of the Earth and beyond 200 AU with possibly a high inclined orbit at some 1,500 AU. In 2016, further work showed this unknown distant planet is likely on an inclined, eccentric orbit that goes no closer than about 200 AU and no farther than about 1,200 AU from the Sun. The orbit is predicted to be anti-aligned to the clustered extreme trans-Neptunian objects. Because Pluto is no longer considered a planet by the IAU, this new hypothetical object has become known as Planet Nine.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: In the 1840s, the French mathematician Urbain Le Verrier used Newtonian mechanics to analyse perturbations in the orbit of Uranus, and hypothesised that they were caused by the gravitational pull of a yet-undiscovered planet. Le Verrier predicted the position of this new planet and sent his calculations to German astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle. On 23 September 1846, the night following his receipt of the letter, Galle and his student Heinrich d'Arrest discovered Neptune, exactly where Le Verrier had predicted. There remained some slight discrepancies in the giant planets' orbits. These were taken to indicate the existence of yet another planet orbiting beyond Neptune.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: Even before Neptune's discovery, some speculated that one planet alone was not enough to explain the discrepancy. On 17 November 1834, the British amateur astronomer the Reverend Thomas John Hussey reported a conversation he had had with French astronomer Alexis Bouvard to George Biddell Airy, the British Astronomer Royal. Hussey reported that when he suggested to Bouvard that the unusual motion of Uranus might be due to the gravitational influence of an undiscovered planet, Bouvard replied that the idea had occurred to him, and that he had corresponded with Peter Andreas Hansen, director of the Seeberg Observatory in Gotha, about the subject. Hansen's opinion was that a single body could not adequately explain the motion of Uranus, and postulated that two planets lay beyond Uranus.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: In 1848, Jacques Babinet raised an objection to Le Verrier's calculations, claiming that Neptune's observed mass was smaller and its orbit larger than Le Verrier had initially predicted. He postulated, based largely on simple subtraction from Le Verrier's calculations, that another planet of roughly 12 Earth masses, which he named "Hyperion", must exist beyond Neptune. Le Verrier denounced Babinet's hypothesis, saying, "[There is] absolutely nothing by which one could determine the position of another planet, barring hypotheses in which imagination played too large a part."


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: In 1850 James Ferguson, Assistant Astronomer at the United States Naval Observatory, noted that he had "lost" a star he had observed, GR1719k, which Lt. Matthew Maury, the superintendent of the Observatory, claimed was evidence that it must be a new planet. Subsequent searches failed to recover the "planet" in a different position, and in 1878, CHF Peters, director of the Hamilton College Observatory in New York, showed that the star had not in fact vanished, and that the previous results had been due to human error.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: In 1879, Camille Flammarion noted that the comets 1862 III and 1889 III had aphelia of 47 and 49 AU, respectively, suggesting that they might mark the orbital radius of an unknown planet that had dragged them into an elliptical orbit. Astronomer George Forbes concluded on the basis of this evidence that two planets must exist beyond Neptune. He calculated, based on the fact that four comets possessed aphelia at around 100 AU and a further six with aphelia clustered at around 300 AU, the orbital elements of a pair of hypothetical trans-Neptunian planets. These elements accorded suggestively with those made independently by another astronomer named David Peck Todd, suggesting to many that they might be valid. However, sceptics argued that the orbits of the comets involved were still too uncertain to produce meaningful results. Some have considered Forbes's hypothesis a precursor to Planet Nine.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: In 1900 and 1901, Harvard College Observatory director William Henry Pickering led two searches for trans-Neptunian planets. The first was begun by Danish astronomer Hans Emil Lau who, after studying the data on the orbit of Uranus from 1690 to 1895, concluded that one trans-Neptunian planet alone could not account for the discrepancies in its orbit, and postulated the positions of two planets he believed were responsible. The second was launched when Gabriel Dallet suggested that a single trans-Neptunian planet lying at 47 AU could account for the motion of Uranus. Pickering agreed to examine plates for any suspected planets. In neither case were any found.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: In 1902, after observing the orbits of comets with aphelia beyond Neptune, Theodor Grigull of Münster, Germany proclaimed the existence of a Uranus-sized planet at 50 AU with a 360-year period, which he named Hades, cross-checking with the deviations in the orbit of Uranus. In 1921, Grigull revised his orbital period to 310–330 years, to better fit the observed deviations.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: In 1909, Thomas Jefferson Jackson See, an astronomer with a reputation as an egocentric contrarian, opined "there is certainly one, most likely two and possibly three planets beyond Neptune". Tentatively naming the first planet "Oceanus", he placed their respective distances at 42, 56 and 72 AU from the Sun. He gave no indication as to how he determined their existence, and no known searches were mounted to locate them.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: In 1911, Indian astronomer Venkatesh P. Ketakar suggested the existence of two trans-Neptunian planets, which he named after the Hindu gods Brahma and Vishnu, by reworking the patterns observed by Pierre-Simon Laplace in the planetary satellites of Jupiter and applying them to the outer planets. The three inner Galilean moons of Jupiter, Io, Europa and Ganymede, are locked in a complicated 1:2:4 resonance called a Laplace resonance. Ketakar suggested that Uranus, Neptune and his hypothetical trans-Neptunian planets were also locked in Laplace-like resonances. His calculations predicted a mean distance for Brahma of 38.95 AU and an orbital period of 242.28 Earth years (3:4 resonance with Neptune). When Pluto was discovered 19 years later, its mean distance of 39.48 AU and orbital period of 248 Earth years were close to Ketakar's prediction (Pluto in fact has a 2:3 resonance with Neptune). Ketakar made no predictions for the orbital elements other than mean distance and period. It is not clear how Ketakar arrived at these figures, and his second planet, Vishnu, was never located.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: In 1894, with the help of William Pickering, Percival Lowell (a wealthy Bostonian) founded the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona. In 1906, convinced he could resolve the conundrum of Uranus's orbit, he began an extensive project to search for a trans-Neptunian planet, which he named "Planet X", a name previously used by Gabriel Dallet. The "X" in the name represents an unknown and is pronounced as the letter, as opposed to the Roman numeral for 10 (at the time, Planet X would have been the ninth planet). Lowell's hope in tracking down Planet X was to establish his scientific credibility, which had eluded him due to his widely derided belief that channel-like features visible on the surface of Mars were canals constructed by an intelligent civilization.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: Lowell's first search focused on the ecliptic, the plane encompassed by the zodiac where the other planets in the Solar System lie. Using a 5-inch photographic camera, he manually examined over 200 three-hour exposures with a magnifying glass, and found no planets. At that time Pluto was too far above the ecliptic to be imaged by the survey. After revising his predicted possible locations, Lowell conducted a second search from 1914 to 1916. In 1915, he published his "Memoir of a Trans-Neptunian Planet", in which he concluded that Planet X had a mass roughly seven times that of Earth—about half that of Neptune—and a mean distance from the Sun of 43 AU. He assumed Planet X would be a large, low-density object with a high albedo, like the giant planets. As a result, it would show a disc with diameter of about one arcsecond and an apparent magnitude between 12 and 13—bright enough to be spotted.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: Separately, in 1908, Pickering announced that, by analysing irregularities in Uranus's orbit, he had found evidence for a ninth planet. His hypothetical planet, which he termed "Planet O" (because it came after "N", i.e. Neptune), possessed a mean orbital radius of 51.9 AU and an orbital period of 373.5 years. Plates taken at his observatory in Arequipa, Peru, showed no evidence for the predicted planet, and British astronomer P. H. Cowell showed that the irregularities observed in Uranus's orbit virtually disappeared once the planet's displacement of longitude was taken into account. Lowell himself, despite his close association with Pickering, dismissed Planet O out of hand, saying, "This planet is very properly designated "O", [for it] is nothing at all." Unbeknownst to Pickering, four of the photographic plates taken in the search for "Planet O" by astronomers at the Mount Wilson Observatory in 1919 captured images of Pluto, though this was only recognised years later. Pickering went on to suggest many other possible trans-Neptunian planets up to the year 1932, which he named "P", "Q", "R", "S", "T", and "U"; none were ever detected.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: Lowell's sudden death in 1916 temporarily halted the search for Planet X. Failing to find the planet, according to one friend, "virtually killed him". Lowell's widow, Constance, engaged in a legal battle with the observatory over Lowell's legacy which halted the search for Planet X for several years. In 1925, the observatory obtained glass discs for a new wide-field telescope to continue the search, constructed with funds from Abbott Lawrence Lowell, Percival's brother. In 1929 the observatory's director, Vesto Melvin Slipher, summarily handed the job of locating the planet to Clyde Tombaugh, a 22-year-old Kansas farm boy who had only just arrived at the Lowell Observatory after Slipher had been impressed by a sample of his astronomical drawings.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: Tombaugh's task was to systematically capture sections of the night sky in pairs of images. Each image in a pair was taken two weeks apart. He then placed both images of each section in a machine called a blink comparator, which by exchanging images quickly created a time lapse illusion of the movement of any planetary body. To reduce the chances that a faster-moving (and thus closer) object be mistaken for the new planet, Tombaugh imaged each region near its opposition point, 180 degrees from the Sun, where the apparent retrograde motion for objects beyond Earth's orbit is at its strongest. He also took a third image as a control to eliminate any false results caused by defects in an individual plate. Tombaugh decided to image the entire zodiac, rather than focus on those regions suggested by Lowell.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: By the beginning of 1930, Tombaugh's search had reached the constellation of Gemini. On 18 February 1930, after searching for nearly a year and examining nearly 2 million stars, Tombaugh discovered a moving object on photographic plates taken on 23 January and 29 January of that year. A lesser-quality photograph taken on January 21 confirmed the movement. Upon confirmation, Tombaugh walked into Slipher's office and declared, "Doctor Slipher, I have found your Planet X." The object lay just six degrees from one of two locations for Planet X Lowell had suggested; thus it seemed he had at last been vindicated. After the observatory obtained further confirmatory photographs, news of the discovery was telegraphed to the Harvard College Observatory on March 13, 1930. The new object was later precovered on photographs dating back to 19 March 1915. The decision to name the object "Pluto" was intended in part to honour Percival Lowell, as his initials made up the word's first two letters. After discovering Pluto, Tombaugh continued to search the ecliptic for other distant objects. He found hundreds of variable stars and asteroids, as well as two comets, but no further planets.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: To the observatory's disappointment and surprise, Pluto showed no visible disc; it appeared as a point, no different from a star, and, at only 15th magnitude, was six times dimmer than Lowell had predicted, which meant it was either very small, or very dark. Because Lowell astronomers thought Pluto was massive enough to perturb planets, they assumed that its albedo could be no less than 0.07 (meaning that it reflected only 7% of the light that hit it); about as dark as asphalt and similar to that of Mercury, the least reflective planet known. This would give Pluto an estimated mass of no more than 70% that of Earth. Observations also revealed that Pluto's orbit was very elliptical, far more than that of any other planet.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: Almost immediately, some astronomers questioned Pluto's status as a planet. Barely a month after its discovery was announced, on April 14, 1930, in an article in "The New York Times", Armin O. Leuschner suggested that Pluto's dimness and high orbital eccentricity made it more similar to an asteroid or comet: "The Lowell result confirms the possible high eccentricity announced by us on April 5. Among the possibilities are a large asteroid greatly disturbed in its orbit by close approach to a major planet such as Jupiter, or it may be one of many long-period planetary objects yet to be discovered, or a bright cometary object." In that same article, Harvard Observatory director Harlow Shapley wrote that Pluto was a "member of the Solar System not comparable with known asteroids and comets, and perhaps of greater importance to cosmogony than would be another major planet beyond Neptune." In 1931, using a mathematical formula, Ernest W. Brown asserted (in agreement with E. C. Bower) that the presumed irregularities in the orbit of Uranus could not be due to the gravitational effect of a more distant planet, and thus that Lowell's supposed prediction was "purely accidental".


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: Throughout the mid-20th century, estimates of Pluto's mass were revised downward. In 1931, Nicholson and Mayall calculated its mass, based on its supposed effect on the giant planets, as roughly that of Earth; a value somewhat in accord with the 0.91 Earth mass calculated in 1942 by Lloyd R. Wylie at the US Naval Observatory, using the same assumptions. In 1949, Gerard Kuiper's measurements of Pluto's diameter with the 200-inch telescope at Mount Palomar Observatory led him to the conclusion that it was midway in size between Mercury and Mars and that its mass was most probably about 0.1 Earth mass.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: In 1973, based on the similarities in the periodicity and amplitude of brightness variation with Triton, Dennis Rawlins conjectured Pluto's mass must be similar to Triton's. In retrospect, the conjecture turns out to have been correct; it had been argued by astronomers Walter Baade and E.C. Bower as early as 1934. However, because Triton's mass was then believed to be roughly 2.5% of the Earth–Moon system (more than ten times its actual value), Rawlins's determination for Pluto's mass was similarly incorrect. It was nonetheless a meagre enough value for him to conclude Pluto was not Planet X. In 1976, Dale Cruikshank, Carl Pilcher, and David Morrison of the University of Hawaii analysed spectra from Pluto's surface and determined that it must contain methane ice, which is highly reflective. This meant that Pluto, far from being dark, was in fact exceptionally bright, and thus was probably no more than  Earth mass.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: Pluto's size was finally determined conclusively in 1978, when American astronomer James W. Christy discovered its moon Charon. This enabled him, together with Robert Sutton Harrington of the U.S. Naval Observatory, to measure the mass of the Pluto–Charon system directly by observing the moon's orbital motion around Pluto. They determined Pluto's mass to be 1.31×10 kg; roughly one five-hundredth that of Earth or one-sixth that of the Moon, and far too small to account for the observed discrepancies in the orbits of the outer planets. Lowell's prediction had been a coincidence: If there was a Planet X, it was not Pluto.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: After 1978, a number of astronomers kept up the search for Lowell's Planet X, convinced that, because Pluto was no longer a viable candidate, an unseen tenth planet must have been perturbing the outer planets.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: In the 1980s and 1990s, Robert Harrington led a search to determine the real cause of the apparent irregularities. He calculated that any Planet X would be at roughly three times the distance of Neptune from the Sun; its orbit would be highly eccentric, and strongly inclined to the ecliptic—the planet's orbit would be at roughly a 32-degree angle from the orbital plane of the other known planets. This hypothesis was met with a mixed reception. Noted Planet X sceptic Brian G. Marsden of the Minor Planet Center pointed out that these discrepancies were a hundredth the size of those noticed by Le Verrier, and could easily be due to observational error.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: In 1972, Joseph Brady of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory studied irregularities in the motion of Halley's Comet. Brady claimed that they could have been caused by a Jupiter-sized planet beyond Neptune at 59 AU that is in a retrograde orbit around the Sun. However, both Marsden and Planet X proponent P. Kenneth Seidelmann attacked the hypothesis, showing that Halley's Comet randomly and irregularly ejects jets of material, causing changes to its own orbital trajectory, and that such a massive object as Brady's Planet X would have severely affected the orbits of known outer planets.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: Although its mission did not involve a search for Planet X, the IRAS space observatory made headlines briefly in 1983 due to an "unknown object" that was at first described as "possibly as large as the giant planet Jupiter and possibly so close to Earth that it would be part of this Solar System". Further analysis revealed that of several unidentified objects, nine were distant galaxies and the tenth was "interstellar cirrus"; none were found to be Solar System bodies.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: In 1988, A. A. Jackson and R. M. Killen studied the stability of Pluto's resonance with Neptune by placing test "Planet X-es" with various masses and at various distances from Pluto. Pluto and Neptune's orbits are in a 3:2 resonance, which prevents their collision or even any close approaches, regardless of their separation in the z axis. It was found that the hypothetical object's mass had to exceed 5 Earth masses to break the resonance, and the parameter space is quite large and a large variety of objects could have existed beyond Pluto without disturbing the resonance. Four test orbits of a trans-Plutonian planet have been integrated forward for four million years in order to determine the effects of such a body on the stability of the Neptune–Pluto 3:2 resonance. Planets beyond Pluto with masses of 0.1 and 1.0 Earth masses in orbits at 48.3 and 75.5 AU, respectively, do not disturb the 3:2 resonance. Test planets of 5 Earth masses with semi-major axes of 52.5 and 62.5 AU disrupt the four-million-year libration of Pluto's argument of perihelion.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: Harrington died in January 1993, without having found Planet X. Six months before, E. Myles Standish had used data from "Voyager 2"'s 1989 flyby of Neptune, which had revised the planet's total mass downward by 0.5%—an amount comparable to the mass of Mars—to recalculate its gravitational effect on Uranus. When Neptune's newly determined mass was used in the Jet Propulsion Laboratory Developmental Ephemeris (JPL DE), the supposed discrepancies in the Uranian orbit, and with them the need for a Planet X, vanished. There are no discrepancies in the trajectories of any space probes such as "Pioneer 10", "Pioneer 11", "Voyager 1", and "Voyager 2" that can be attributed to the gravitational pull of a large undiscovered object in the outer Solar System. Today, most astronomers agree that Planet X, as Lowell defined it, does not exist.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: After the discovery of Pluto and Charon, no more trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs) were found until 15760 Albion in 1992. Since then, thousands of such objects have been discovered. Most are now recognized as part of the Kuiper belt, a swarm of icy bodies left over from the Solar System's formation that orbit near the ecliptic plane just beyond Neptune. Though none were as large as Pluto, some of these distant trans-Neptunian objects, such as Sedna, were initially described in the media as "new planets".


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: In 2005, astronomer Mike Brown and his team announced the discovery of (later named after the Greek goddess of discord and strife), a trans-Neptunian object then thought to be just barely larger than Pluto. Soon afterwards, a NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory press release described the object as the "tenth planet".


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: Eris was never officially classified as a planet, and the 2006 definition of planet defined both Eris and Pluto not as planets but as dwarf planets because they have not cleared their neighbourhoods. They do not orbit the Sun alone, but as part of a population of similarly sized objects. Pluto itself is now recognized as being a member of the Kuiper belt and the largest dwarf planet, larger than the more-massive Eris.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: A number of astronomers, most notably Alan Stern, the head of NASA's "New Horizons" mission to Pluto, contend that the IAU's definition is flawed, and that Pluto and Eris, and all large trans-Neptunian objects, such as , , , and , should be considered planets in their own right. However, the discovery of Eris did not rehabilitate the Planet X theory because it is far too small to have significant effects on the outer planets' orbits.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: Although most astronomers accept that Lowell's Planet X does not exist, a number have revived the idea that a large unseen planet could create observable gravitational effects in the outer Solar System. These hypothetical objects are often referred to as "Planet X", although the conception of these objects may differ considerably from that proposed by Lowell.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: When Sedna was discovered, its extreme orbit raised questions about its origin. Its perihelion is so distant (approximately ) that no currently observed mechanism can explain Sedna's eccentric distant orbit. It is too far from the planets to have been affected by the gravity of Neptune or the other giant planets and too bound to the Sun to be affected by outside forces such as the galactic tides. Hypotheses to explain its orbit include that it was affected by a passing star, that it was captured from another planetary system, or that it was tugged into its current position by a trans-Neptunian planet. The most obvious solution to determining Sedna's peculiar orbit would be to locate a number of objects in a similar region, whose various orbital configurations would provide an indication as to their history. If Sedna had been pulled into its orbit by a trans-Neptunian planet, any other objects found in its region would have a similar perihelion to Sedna (around ).


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: In 2008, Tadashi Mukai and Patryk Sofia Lykawka suggested a distant Mars- or Earth-sized planet, currently in a highly eccentric orbit between 100 and and orbital period of 1000 years with an inclination of 20° to 40°, was responsible for the structure of the Kuiper belt. They proposed that the perturbations of this planet excited the eccentricities and inclinations of the trans-Neptunian objects, truncated the planetesimal disk at 48 AU, and detached the orbits of objects like Sedna from Neptune. During Neptune's migration this planet is posited to have been captured in an outer resonance of Neptune and to have evolved into a higher perihelion orbit due to the Kozai mechanism leaving the remaining trans-Neptunian objects on stable orbits.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: In 2012, Rodney Gomes modelled the orbits of 92 Kuiper belt objects and found that six of those orbits were far more elongated than the model predicted. He concluded that the simplest explanation was the gravitational pull of a distant planetary companion, such as a Neptune-sized object at 1,500 AU. This Neptune-sized object would cause the perihelia of objects with semi-major axes greater than 300 AU to oscillate, delivering them into planet-crossing orbits like those of and or detached orbits like Sedna's.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: In 2014, astronomers announced the discovery of , a large object with a Sedna-like 4,200-year orbit and a perihelion of roughly 80 AU, which led them to suggest that it offered evidence of a potential trans-Neptunian planet. Trujillo and Sheppard argued that the orbital clustering of arguments of perihelia for and other extremely distant TNOs suggests the existence of a "super-Earth" of between 2 and 15 Earth masses beyond 200 AU and possibly on an inclined orbit at 1,500 AU.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: In 2014 astronomers at the Universidad Complutense in Madrid suggested that the available data actually indicates more than one trans-Neptunian planet; subsequent work further suggests that the evidence is robust enough but rather than connected with Ω and ω, semi-major axes and nodal distances could be the signposts. Additional work based on improved orbits of 39 objects still indicates that more than one perturber could be present and that one of them could orbit the Sun at 300-400 AU.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: On January 20, 2016, Brown and Konstantin Batygin published an article corroborating Trujillo and Sheppard's initial findings; proposing a super-Earth (dubbed Planet Nine) based on a statistical clustering of the arguments of perihelia (noted before) near zero and also ascending nodes near 113° of six distant trans-Neptunian objects. They estimated it to be ten times the mass of Earth (about 60% the mass of Neptune) with a semimajor axis of approximately 400–1500 AU.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: Even without gravitational evidence, Mike Brown, the discoverer of Sedna, has argued that Sedna's 12,000-year orbit means that probability alone suggests that an Earth-sized object exists beyond Neptune. Sedna's orbit is so eccentric that it spends only a small fraction of its orbital period near the Sun, where it can be easily observed. This means that unless its discovery was a freak accident, there is probably a substantial population of objects roughly Sedna's diameter yet to be observed in its orbital region. Mike Brown noted that


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: However, Brown notes that even though it might approach or exceed Earth in size, should such an object be found it would still be a "dwarf planet" by the current definition, because it would not have cleared its neighbourhood sufficiently.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: Additionally, speculation of a possible trans-Neptunian planet has revolved around the so-called "Kuiper cliff". The Kuiper belt terminates suddenly at a distance of from the Sun. Brunini and Melita have speculated that this sudden drop-off may be attributed to the presence of an object with a mass between those of Mars and Earth located beyond 48 AU.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: The presence of an object with a mass similar to that of Mars in a circular orbit at leads to a trans-Neptunian object population incompatible with observations. For instance, it would severely deplete the plutino population. Astronomers have not excluded the possibility of an object with a mass similar to that of Earth located farther than with an eccentric and inclined orbit. Computer simulations by Patryk Lykawka of Kobe University have suggested that an object with a mass between , ejected outward by Neptune early in the Solar System's formation and currently in an elongated orbit between from the Sun, could explain the Kuiper cliff and the peculiar detached objects such as Sedna and .


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: Although some astronomers, such as Renu Malhotra and David Jewitt, have cautiously supported these claims, others, such as Alessandro Morbidelli, have dismissed them as "contrived". Malhotra & Volk (2017) argued that an unexpected variance in inclination for KBOs farther than the cliff at provided evidence of a possible Mars-sized planet, possibly up to , residing at the edge of the Solar System, which many news sources began referring to as "Planet Ten". Shortly after it was proposed, Lorenzo Iorio showed that the hypothetical planet's existence cannot be ruled out by Cassini ranging data.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: Tyche was a hypothetical gas giant proposed to be located in the Solar System's Oort cloud. It was first proposed in 1999 by astrophysicists John Matese, Patrick Whitman and Daniel Whitmire of the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. They argued that evidence of Tyche's existence could be seen in a supposed bias in the points of origin for long-period comets. In 2013, Matese and Whitmire re-evaluated the comet data and noted that Tyche, if it existed, would be detectable in the archive of data that was collected by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) telescope. In 2014, NASA announced that the WISE survey had ruled out any object with Tyche's characteristics, indicating that Tyche as hypothesized by Matese, Whitman, and Whitmire does not exist.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: The oligarch theory of planet formation states that there were hundreds of planet-sized objects, known as oligarchs, in the early stages of the Solar System's evolution. In 2005, astronomer Eugene Chiang speculated that although some of these oligarchs became the planets we know today, most would have been flung outward by gravitational interactions. Some may have escaped the Solar System altogether to become free-floating planets, whereas others would be orbiting in a halo around the Solar System, with orbital periods of millions of years. This halo would lie at between from the Sun, or between a third and a thirtieth the distance to the Oort cloud.


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: In December 2015, astronomers at the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) detected a brief series of 350 GHz pulses that they concluded must either be a series of independent sources, or a single, fast moving source. Deciding that the latter was the most likely, they calculated based on its speed that, were it bound to the Sun, the object, which they named "Gna" after a fast-moving messenger goddess in Norse mythology, would be about 12–25 AU distant and have a dwarf planet-sized diameter of 220 to 880 km. However, if it were a rogue planet not gravitationally bound to the Sun, and as far away as 4000 AU, it could be much larger. The paper was never formally accepted, and has been withdrawn until the detection is confirmed. Scientists' reactions to the notice were largely sceptical; Mike Brown commented that, "If it is true that ALMA accidentally discovered a massive outer Solar System object in its tiny, tiny, tiny, field of view, that would suggest that there are something like 200,000 Earth-sized planets in the outer Solar System ... Even better, I just realized that this many Earth-sized planets existing would destabilize the entire Solar System and we would all die."


title: Planets beyond Neptune

text: As of 2022 the following observations severely constrain the mass and distance of any possible additional Solar System planet:


title: The Amazing Race 31

text: The Amazing Race 31 (also promoted as The Amazing Race: Reality Showdown) is the thirty-first season of the American reality television show "The Amazing Race". It featured eleven teams of two, each consisting of former contestants from CBS's flagship reality shows, "Big Brother", "Survivor", and "The Amazing Race", competing in a race around the world.


title: The Amazing Race 31

text: All three of the final teams consisted of returning players from previous seasons of "The Amazing Race". Life partners Colin Guinn and Christie Woods, who had competed on "The Amazing Race 5," were the winners of this season. Best friends Tyler Oakley and Korey Kuhl, who had competed on "The Amazing Race 28", finished in second place; and cousins Leo Temory and Jamal Zadran, who had competed on "The Amazing Race 23" and "The Amazing Race 24", finished in third.


title: The Amazing Race 31

text: On June 10, 2018, Phil Keoghan announced on the show's social media accounts that the season had begun filming and that the teams would be composed of contestants from CBS's reality competition programs. On July 3, filming concluded in Detroit, which featured a performance of The White Stripes' single "Seven Nation Army" that was originally planned to be set in Belle Isle Park. However, the permit was denied as the Michigan Department of Natural Resources had not been informed about the large gathering of musicians needed for filming.


title: The Amazing Race 31

text: In the lead-in to the 2018-19 television programming season, CBS had scheduled "The Amazing Race 31" to begin airing on May 22, 2019. However, in early April 2019, CBS opted to bring the premiere forward to April 17, 2019, slotting the show in Wednesdays after "Survivor" and replacing the low-rated "Million Dollar Mile".


title: The Amazing Race 31

text: "The Amazing Race 31" traveled over 25,000 miles across four continents and ten countries, including first-time visits to Uganda and Laos.


title: The Amazing Race 31

text: The Head-to-Head returned this season after it was introduced in the previous season. This season is also the first to utilize the U-Turn Vote, which has been previously utilized by the Israeli, Chinese, Australian, and Filipino versions of "The Amazing Race".


title: The Amazing Race 31

text: On May 4, 2018, a TMZ article reported that former "Big Brother" HouseGuests had been asked to compete on the upcoming season of "The Amazing Race". Later that day, Andy Dehnart posted that former "Amazing Race" contestants had also been contacted for the same season. Martin Holmes from "Inside Survivor" then posted that former "Survivor" contestants were also in the mix.


title: The Amazing Race 31

text: This season involved eleven teams, three of whom previously competed on "Big Brother", three of whom previously competed on "Survivor", and five of whom previously competed on "The Amazing Race".


title: The Amazing Race 31

text: Janelle Pierzina and Nicole Franzel returned to "Big Brother" to compete on the show's second All-Stars season. On September 3, 2020, Bret LaBelle appeared on "Revenge Prank". In 2022, Leo Temory competed on "". Janelle and Rachel Reilly competed on the USA Network reality competition series, "Snake in the Grass".


title: The Amazing Race 31

text: The following teams are listed with their placements in each leg. Placements are listed in finishing order.


title: The Amazing Race 31

text: "The Amazing Race 31" received mostly positive reviews. Andy Dehnart of "reality blurred" called this season dull, writing that "TAR can still deliver beautiful cinematography and entertaining moments, like Rupert talking to an elephant, but the structure of the legs constantly undercuts any actual racing by evening up the teams." Jodi Walker of "Entertainment Weekly" wrote that "more reality TV competition cultures in the mix made for a little more drama than usual." The "Purple Rock Podcast" praised the cast, strong racing, and overall story saying that "this experiment paid off accordingly." In 2022, Rhenn Taguiam of Game Rant ranked this season as the second-best season.


title: The Amazing Race 31

text: Critics were also positive towards the growth of Colin & Christie compared to their previous appearance. Tamara Grant of CheatSheat called it "a true redemption arc because of their behavior on Season 5." Dalton Ross of "Entertainment Weekly" called it the "most radical reality show transformation ever."


title: Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009

text: The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act or Right to Education Act (RTE) is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted on 4 August 2009, which describes the modalities of the importance of free and compulsory education for children between the age of 6 to 14 years in India under Article 21A of the Indian Constitution. India became one of 135 countries to make education a fundamental right of every child when the act came into force on 1 April 2010. The title of the RTE Act incorporates the words ‘free and compulsory’. ‘Free education’ means that no child, other than a child who has been admitted by his or her parents to a school which is not supported by the appropriate Government, shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which may prevent him or her from pursuing and completing elementary education. ‘Compulsory education’ casts an obligation on the appropriate Government and local authorities to provide and ensure admission, attendance and completion of elementary education by all children in the 6-14 age group. With this, India has moved forward to a rights based framework that casts a legal obligation on the Central and State Governments to implement this fundamental child right as enshrined in the Article 21A of the Constitution, in accordance with the provisions of the RTE Act.17.


text: Present Act has its history in the drafting of the Indian constitution at the time of Independence but is more specifically to the Constitutional Amendment of 2002 that included the Article 21A in the Indian constitution making Education a fundamental Right. This amendment, however, specified the need for a legislation to describe the mode of implementation of the same which necessitated the drafting of a separate Education Bill. It is the 86th amendment in the Indian Constitution.


text: A rough draft of the bill was prepared in year 2005. It caused considerable controversy due to its mandatory provision to provide 25% reservation for disadvantaged children in private schools. The sub-committee of the Central Advisory Board of Education which prepared the draft Bill held this provision as a significant prerequisite for creating a democratic and egalitarian society. Indian Law commission had initially proposed 50% reservation for disadvantaged students in private schools.


text: On 7 May 2014, The Supreme Court of India ruled that Right to Education Act is not applicable to Minority institutions.


text: The bill was approved by the cabinet on 2 July 2009. Rajya Sabha passed the bill on 20 July 2009 and the Lok Sabha on 4 August 2009. It received Presidential assent and was notified as law on 26 August 2009 as The Children's Right to Free and Compulsory Education Act. The law came into effect in the whole of India except the state of Jammu and Kashmir from 1 April 2010, the first time in the history of India a law was brought into force by a speech by the then Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. In his speech, Dr. Singh stated, "We are committed to ensuring that all children, irrespective of gender and social category, have access to education. An education that enables them to acquire the skills, knowledge, values and attitudes necessary to become responsible and active citizens of India." It has now come into force in Jammu and Kashmir after its reorganisation into a Union Territory of India in 2019.


text: The RTE Act provides for the right of children to free and compulsory education till completion of elementary education in a neighbourhood school. It clarifies that ‘compulsory education’ means obligation of the appropriate government to provide free elementary education and ensure compulsory admission, attendance and completion of elementary education to every child in the six to fourteen age group. ‘Free’ means that no child shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which may prevent him or her from pursuing and completing elementary education.


text: It specifies the duties and responsibilities of appropriate Governments, local authority and parents in providing free and compulsory education, and sharing of financial and other responsibilities between the Central and State Governments.


text: It lays down the norms and standards relating inter alia to pupil-teacher ratios (PTRs), buildings and infrastructure, school-working days, teacher-working hours.


text: It provides for rational deployment of teachers by ensuring that the specified pupil-teacher ratio is maintained for each school, rather than just as an average for the State or District or Block, thus ensuring that there is no urban-rural imbalance in teacher postings. It also provides for prohibition of deployment of teachers for non-educational work, other than decennial census, elections to local authority, state legislatures and parliament, and disaster relief.


text: It provides for appointment of appropriately trained teachers, i.e. teachers with the requisite entry and academic qualifications.


text: It prohibits (a) physical punishment and mental harassment; (b) screening procedures for admission of children; (c) capitation fee; (d) private tuition by teachers and (e) running of schools without recognition.


text: It provides for development of curriculum in consonance with the values enshrined in the Constitution, and which would ensure the all-round development of the child, building on the child's knowledge, potentiality and talent and making the child free of fear, trauma and anxiety through a system of child friendly and child centered learning.


text: The RTE act requires surveys that will monitor all neighbourhoods, identify children requiring education, and set up facilities for providing it.


text: The Right to Education of persons with disabilities until 18 years of age is laid down under a separate legislation- the Persons with Disabilities Act. A number of other provisions regarding improvement of school infrastructure, teacher-student ratio and faculty are made in the Act.


text: Education in the Indian constitution is a concurrent issue and both centre and states can legislate on the issue. The Act lays down specific responsibilities for the centre, state and local bodies for its implementation. The states have been clamouring that they lack financial capacity to deliver education of appropriate standard in all the schools needed for universal education. Thus it is clear that the central government (which collects most of the revenue) will be required to subsidise the states.


text: A committee set up to study the funds requirement and funding initially estimated that Rs 1710 billion or 1.71 trillion (US$38.2 billion) across five years was required to implement the Act, and in April 2010 the central government agreed to sharing the funding for implementing the law in the ratio of 65 to 35 between the centre and the states, and a ratio of 90 to 10 for the north-eastern states. However, in mid 2010, this figure was upgraded to Rs. 2310 billion, and the center agreed to raise its share to 68%.


text: There is some confusion on this, with other media reports stating that the centre's share of the implementation expenses would now be 70%. At that rate, most states may not need to increase their education budgets substantially.


text: A critical development in 2011 has been the decision taken in principle to extend the right to education till Class X (age 16) and into the preschool age range. The CABE committee is in the process of looking into the implications of making these changes.


text: The Ministry of HRD set up a high-level, 14-member National Advisory Council (NAC) for implementation of the Act. The members include:


text: A report on the status of implementation of the Act was released by the Ministry of Human Resource Development on the one-year anniversary of the Act, and again till 2015. The report admits that 1.7 million children in the age group 6-14 remain out of school and there's a shortage of 508,000 teachers country-wide. A shadow report by the RTE Forum, representing the leading education networks in the country led by Ambarish Rai (a prominent activist), however, challenging the findings pointing out that several key legal commitments are falling behind schedule. The Supreme Court of India has also intervened to demand implementation of the Act in the Northeast. It has also provided the legal basis for ensuring pay parity between teachers in government and government aided schools


text: Haryana Government has assigned the duties and responsibilities to Block Elementary Education Officers–cum–Block Resource Coordinators (BEEOs-cum-BRCs) for effective implementation and continuous monitoring of implementation of Right to Education Act in the State.


text: It has been pointed out that the RTE act is not new. Universal adult franchise in the act was opposed since most of the population was illiterate.


text: In the 1990s, the World Bank funded a number of measures to set up schools within easy reach of rural communities. This effort was consolidated in the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan model in the 1990s. RTE takes the process further, and makes the enrolment of children in schools a state prerogative.


text: The act has been criticised for being hastily drafted, not consulting many groups active in education, not considering the quality of education, infringing on the rights of private and religious minority schools to administer their system, and for excluding children under six years of age. Many of the ideas are seen as continuing the policies of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan of the 2000s, and the World Bank funded District Primary Education Programme DPEP of the '90s, both of which, while having set up a number of schools in rural areas, have been criticised for being ineffective and corruption-ridden.


text: The quality of education provided by the government school system is not good. While it remains the largest provider of elementary education in the country, forming 80% of all recognised schools, it suffers from shortage of teachers and infrastructural gaps. Several habitations lack schools altogether. There are also frequent allegations of government schools being riddled with absenteeism and mismanagement and of appointments made on political convenience. Despite the allure of free lunch in the government schools, many parents send their children to private schools. Average schoolteacher salaries in private rural schools in some States (about Rs. 4,000 per month) are considerably lower than those in government schools. As a result, the proponents of low-cost private schools critique the government schools as being poor value for money.


text: Children attending the private schools are seen to be at an advantage, forming a discrimination against the weakest sections who are forced to go to government schools. Furthermore, the system has been criticised as catering to the rural elites who are able to afford school fees in a country where a large number of families live in absolute poverty.


text: The act has been criticised as discriminatory for not addressing these issues. Well-known educationist Anil Sadgopal said of the hurriedly drafted act:


text: Entrepreneur Gurcharan Das noted that 54% of urban children attend private schools, and this rate is growing at 3% per year. "Even the poor children are abandoning the government schools. They are leaving because the teachers are not showing up." However, other researchers have countered the argument by saying that the evidence for higher standard of quality in private schools often disappears when other factors (like family income and parental literacy) are accounted for.


text: To address these quality issues, the Act has provisions for compensating private schools for admission of children under the 25% quota which has been compared to school vouchers, whereby parents may "send" their children in any school, private or public. This measure, along with the increase in PPP (Public Private Partnership) has been viewed by some organisations such as the All-India Forum for Right to Education (AIF-RTE), as the state abdicating its "constitutional obligation towards providing elementary education".


text: The "Society for Un-aided Private Schools", Rajasthan (in "Writ Petition (Civil) No. 95 of 2010") and as many as 31 others petitioned the Supreme Court of India claiming that the act violates the constitutional right of private managements to run their institutions without governmental interference. The parties claimed that providing 25 percent reservation for disadvantaged children in government and private unaided schools is "unconstitutional".


text: Forcing unaided schools to admit 25% disadvantaged students has also been criticized on the grounds that the government has partly transferred its constitutional obligation to provide free and compulsory elementary education to children on “non-state actors,” like private schools but collected a 2% of the total tax payable for primary education.


text: On 12 April 2012, a three judge bench of the Supreme Court delivered its 2-1 judgement. Chief Justice SH Kapadia and Justice Swatanter Kumar held that providing the reservation is not unconstitutional but stated that the Act will not be applicable to private minority schools and boarding schools. However, Justice K. S. Panicker Radhakrishnan dissented with the majority view and held that the Act cannot apply to minority and non-minority private schools that do not receive aid from the government.


text: In May 2016, the Chetpet-based CBSE school Maharishi Vidya Mandir became embroiled in a scandal over its circumvention of the 25% quota rule. During its admissions cycle, the school told economically weaker parents "the RTE does not exist' and "we do not take these [government RTE] applications." The senior principal also informed the Tamil Nadu Regional Director of the CBSE that he intended to "reject applicants without an email address" and so excluded technically-illiterate parents from seeking admissions. In addition, school officials falsified the distance figures of several poorer candidates to attempt to disqualify them from availing of the scheme.


text: The Act provides for admission of children without any certification. However, several states have continued pre-existing procedures insisting that children produce income and caste certificates, BPL cards and birth certificates. Orphan children are often unable to produce such documents, even though they are willing to do so. As a result, schools are not admitting them, as they require the documents as a condition to admission.


title: Rachel Dawes

text: Rachel Dawes is a fictional character who first appeared in Christopher Nolan's 2005 feature film "Batman Begins". She was portrayed in that film by Katie Holmes, with Emma Lockhart as a younger version of the character in early scenes. Holmes also voiced the character in the video game adaptation. Maggie Gyllenhaal replaced Holmes in the 2008 sequel "The Dark Knight" after Holmes chose not to reprise the role. Gyllenhaal also appeared as Dawes on the viral marketing website "I Believe in Harvey Dent", giving Harvey Dent her endorsement in the District Attorney election.


title: Rachel Dawes

text: In the "Dark Knight Trilogy", Rachel is Bruce Wayne's (Christian Bale) childhood sweetheart and one of the few people who truly knows him. The conflict between Bruce's love for her and his secret life as Batman is one of the main themes of the first two films in the trilogy, while her death in "The Dark Knight" partly motivates his actions in the final film, "The Dark Knight Rises".


title: Rachel Dawes

text: The writers of "Batman Begins" originally considered to have Harvey Dent appearing in the film, but the character of Rachel Dawes was created when they realized that they "couldn't do the character justice". Dent ultimately appeared in the sequel "The Dark Knight", portrayed by Aaron Eckhart.


title: Rachel Dawes

text: Katie Holmes was to reprise as Rachel in "The Dark Knight", but turned it down in order to star in "Mad Money" instead. Before Maggie Gyllenhaal was cast, Emily Blunt and Rachel McAdams were considered to replace Holmes as Rachel. Gyllenhaal has acknowledged that Rachel is a damsel in distress to an extent, but says Nolan sought ways to empower the character, so "Rachel's really clear about what's important to her and unwilling to compromise her morals, which made a nice change" from the many conflicted characters whom she has previously portrayed.


title: Rachel Dawes

text: Rachel is Bruce Wayne's closest childhood friend. Rachel's mother worked as a domestic servant at Wayne Manor, and the two would often play together on the grounds. After Bruce's parents are murdered by Joe Chill (Richard Brake), Rachel's mother seeks other employment and leaves Wayne Manor with Rachel.


title: Rachel Dawes

text: Rachel enrolls in law school and gets an internship at the Gotham City District Attorney's office during her first year. After Chill is murdered for testifying against Mafia boss Carmine Falcone (Tom Wilkinson), Bruce reveals to Rachel that he intended to murder Chill himself, and is angry that he was deprived of revenge. Rachel is horrified and slaps Bruce telling him that his late parents would be ashamed of him. She also takes Bruce down to the slums and shows him that Falcone's criminal empire has worsened the poverty created by Gotham's economic depression, and states that every day more people just like Chill turn to crime out of desperation. Soon afterward, Bruce leaves the United States and Rachel continues her studies in law school. Years later, she becomes an assistant district attorney working for District Attorney Carl Finch (Larry Holden).


title: Rachel Dawes

text: Rachel dedicates her life and career to eliminating crime in Gotham, in the process making enemies of Falcone and later Dr. Jonathan Crane (Cillian Murphy), Arkham Asylum's corrupt chief psychiatrist. When Bruce returns to Gotham, Rachel is surprised that he did not contact her, and later feels disappointed in him, taking his playboy façade at face value. Around the same time, a costumed vigilante calling himself Batman appears in Gotham, and saves Rachel from Falcone's assassins. Rachel is intrigued by the masked crime-fighter, unaware that he is her old friend Bruce.


title: Rachel Dawes

text: After Finch is murdered by Crane's thugs, Rachel takes over his job until a replacement can be found. Shortly afterward, Falcone has a psychotic break in police custody, and Rachel believes he is faking it to avoid trial, unaware that Crane drugged him with his fear toxin. When she goes to Arkham to evaluate the situation, Crane drugs her with fear toxin as well. Batman rescues her again, administers an antidote and tells her that Crane is working with the League of Shadows, a terrorist organization led by Ra's al Ghul (Liam Neeson). He gives her instructions for a plan to save the city from the League's attack. He then sedates her and has his butler, Alfred Pennyworth (Michael Caine), take her home. She wakes up in her bed and delivers samples of an anti-toxin to Gotham City Police Department sergeant James Gordon (Gary Oldman).


title: Rachel Dawes

text: The League starts a riot in the Narrows, one of Gotham City's slums, and Rachel is trapped. Crane, who has now assumed the criminal alter ego of "The Scarecrow", attacks her again. She defends herself and a boy caught in the riot by firing a taser at Crane's face, driving him away. Soon, the city is overrun by Arkham's inmates, whom the League has released, and Rachel and the boy are surrounded by lunatics led by Falcone's henchman, Victor Zsasz (Tim Booth). Batman saves them at the last minute and gives Rachel a hint as to his secret identity.


title: Rachel Dawes

text: Towards the end of the film, Rachel visits the remains of Wayne Manor, finding Bruce and Alfred sorting through the wreckage. She and Bruce share a kiss, but she tells him that they cannot be together until Gotham no longer needs Batman, now fully aware of his secret. At the end of the movie's novelization, she is named interim District Attorney.


title: Rachel Dawes

text: By the start of the second film, Rachel is in a relationship with newly selected District Attorney Harvey Dent (Aaron Eckhart), creating a love triangle between him, herself, and Bruce Wayne. Dent soon asks Rachel to marry him, but she does not have a clear answer, being torn between her love for both men.


title: Rachel Dawes

text: At one point, the Joker (Heath Ledger) attacks Rachel at Dent's fundraiser, holding her at knifepoint. Batman arrives and fights off the men, but the Joker grabs Rachel and throws her from the skyscraper window. Batman jumps out the window after her, breaking their fall on a car below.


title: Rachel Dawes

text: Rachel is next seen at the funeral of police commissioner Gillian Loeb (Colin MacFarlane), who was murdered by the Joker. At the funeral, the Joker attempts to assassinate Mayor Anthony Garcia (Nestor Carbonell), and leaves behind evidence indicating that Rachel will be next. Rachel takes shelter in Bruce's penthouse at Dent's insistence, and she and Bruce briefly rekindle their romance. He admits that he desires to turn himself in as Batman and hopes they could eventually be together, which Rachel says cannot happen if he goes to prison. Dent holds a press conference and claims to be Batman. Rachel is disappointed that Bruce would let Dent take the fall for him, and gives Alfred a letter to be delivered to Bruce "when the time is right." She promptly leaves the penthouse.


title: Rachel Dawes

text: After Batman and Gordon capture the Joker, Rachel and Dent are kidnapped by police officers on mob boss Sal Maroni's (Eric Roberts) payroll, who are working under the Joker's orders. Batman interrogates the Joker and learns that the lives of both Dent and Rachel are at stake. The Joker tells Batman that he must choose which one of them to save and gives him both locations. However, the Joker has switched the addresses, with the intention of psychologically tormenting Batman and orchestrating Dent's downfall. Batman speeds off, believing that he is traveling to Rachel's destination, while Gordon and several GCPD officers head to what they think is Dent's location. Both Rachel and Dent are tied up in rooms surrounded with gasoline drums and remote-controlled explosives, with phones attached so they can talk to each other. Rachel tells Dent that she wants to marry him. Batman arrives at Dent's location in time to save him, but Gordon arrives at the other too late, and Rachel dies when the building explodes. The loss of Rachel, in addition to his own disfigurement, drives Dent insane and after the Joker's convincing, he becomes the murderous vigilante Two-Face, seeking revenge on those he holds responsible for her death.


title: Rachel Dawes

text: Upon Rachel's death, Alfred reads her note (which she deliberately left unsealed) in which she reveals that she intends to marry Dent. She explains that while Gotham may come to no longer need Batman, she now knows that the day when Bruce no longer does will never come. She urges Bruce not to give up faith in other people, even if she has disappointed him. When Bruce relates to Alfred that his only solace is the knowledge that she would have waited for him, Alfred decides to burn the note, sparing Bruce the pain of the truth.


title: Rachel Dawes

text: Rachel is mentioned several times throughout "The Dark Knight Rises". Additionally, a picture of her appears in Wayne Manor (Maggie Gyllenhaal’s archival portrayal of the character in "The Dark Knight" only). Bruce, having retired from being Batman after taking the blame for Dent's crimes to ensure he is remembered as a hero, is portrayed as still mourning Rachel eight years after her death, rarely leaving Wayne Manor, and not trying to pursue relationships for fear of not being faithful to Rachel. Despite being dejected over his loss, Bruce meets and attracts to two women who resemble Rachel: Wayne Enterprises CEO Miranda Tate (Marion Cotillard) and cat-burglar Selina Kyle (Anne Hathaway). When Bane (Tom Hardy) attacks Gotham, Bruce decides to become Batman once more to save the city. In an attempt to stop him, Alfred finally confesses to Bruce that Rachel chose Dent and that he burned the letter in order to spare Bruce of the pain. This revelation puts a severe strain on Bruce's relationship with Alfred, who then leaves Wayne Manor. Despite this, Bruce makes efforts to move on from Rachel when he and Tate spend the night together, but is heartbroken yet again when she is revealed to be Ra's al Ghul's daughter, Talia al Ghul, who manipulated his emotions to avenge her father's death. Bruce also shares a flirtatious relationship with Kyle throughout the film that develops into love. By the end of the film, Bruce and Selina, who faked their deaths to leave Gotham, have begun a relationship, and Bruce has passed his legacy as Gotham's protector to John Blake (Joseph Gordon-Levitt), also proving Rachel wrong in her belief that he wouldn't give up being Batman.


title: Humsafar

text: Humsafar () is a 2011 Pakistani drama telenovela based on the novel of the same name by Farhat Ishtiaq (who also wrote the screenplay), and directed by Sarmad Sultan Khoosat. It stars Fawad Khan, Mahira Khan, Naveen Waqar along with Atiqa Odho, and Hina Khawaja Bayat in supporting roles.


title: Humsafar

text: "Humsafar" become the most successful program of the channel to date, earning it widespread acclaim and international recognition. Due to its success, critics referred to this era of Pakistani television as a "Golden Age". It was claimed highest rated serial at that time in Pakistan with the TRPs of 9.71, peaking at 11.9 trps.


title: Humsafar

text: Khirad Ahsaan belongs to a small middle-class community in Hyderabad and lives with her widowed mother, Maimoona, in a small apartment. As the series opens, she has recently completed her Bachelor of Science degree, and (as her late father was a math teacher) is very strong in mathematics. Maimoona's brother, Baseerat Hussain, is a self-made millionaire who lives in Karachi. He is married to Farida, a social worker who runs a human rights NGO. They have one son, Ashar, who received his MBA from Yale University, and runs the family's high-powered firm with his father.


title: Humsafar

text: After Maimoona receives a cancer diagnosis, Baseerat then brings her and Khirad to his large home in Karachi for treatment. When she realizes that there is no cure, Maimoona asks Baseerat to arrange a marriage for Khirad. Feeling guilty for not taking better care of Maimoona, Baseerat compensates by promising that Ashar will marry Khirad, unbeknownst to Farida, Khirad, or Ashar. Farida is opposed to the match until Baseerat threatens to throw her out of the house if she does not accept it. While initially opposed, Ashar is then manipulated by his father to accept the marriage, as is Khirad by her mother. Meanwhile, Sara (who is in love with Ashar) attempts suicide after both learning about the match and hearing from Ashar that he only sees her as a friend. After he rescues her, she promises to move on. Despite being against the idea, Ashar and Khirad get married in a home ceremony. Within a short period of time, Maimoona dies, and Farida appears to have had a change in heart, treating Khirad as a daughter.


title: Humsafar

text: After an initial period of complications, Ashar and Khirad eventually find themselves deeply in love with each other. After Baseerat's sudden death, and encouraged by Ashar to follow her dreams, Khirad enrols in a master's program in applied mathematics. Shortly after joining the program, she discovers that one of her classmates (Khizer) is Sara's paternal first cousin. Ashar becomes secretly jealous of both this friendship and of Khirad's involvement with the school, and her success there. She and Farida also learn that Khirad is pregnant, but decide to keep it as a surprise for Ashar.


title: Humsafar

text: However, Khirad never has the opportunity to tell him the news, because she is framed by Khizar, Farida, and Zarina. Khirad learns that the love and attention from Farida, Zarina, and Khizar was a facade that hid a complex conspiracy. Farida feels that because Khirad had a middle-class upbringing she is beneath Ashar. Zarina hopes that Sara will stop obsessing over Ashar's marriage to Khirad. Farida made a deal with Khizar to pay for his graduate studies in the United States and a marriage to Sara, unbeknownst to Sara and Zarina. With Baseerat gone, Farida (who never forgave him for threatening to throw her out) can convince Ashar that Khirad and Khizar were having an affair, despite her pleas of innocence. Unable to bear the idea (and not willing to hear Khirad's side of the story), Ashar disappears. Farida uses his absence as an opportunity to further develop the fabrication and throw Khirad out of the house (as an act of revenge against Baseerat) in the middle of the night. Khirad is able to quickly write a note to Ashar proclaiming her innocence and leaves it with a member of the house staff. She is then taken to Hyderabad by a good samaritan, and finds a home with her former neighbour, Batool Bano. As Farida told Ashar that Khirad ran away with Khizar, Ashar refused Khirad's multiple calls. Thus, she realizes that she will never be able to convince him of her innocence, and gives up on their marriage. She gives birth alone to a premature baby and decides that she will raise Hareem on her own, working as a math teacher.


title: Humsafar

text: Four years later, driven by Hareem's need for open heart surgery, Khirad confronts Ashar. Her youthful innocence and fear of the world have now been both replaced by a firm and courageous persona that allows her to stand up to Ashar. She has also learned how to protect herself with documentation, evidence that forces Ashar to accept the reality that Hareem (whom he did not know existed) is his daughter. He brings them both back home during the medical procedures. Khirad is then forced to confront both Sara and Farida, but the strength, independence, and confidence born of her hardships prevent them from bullying her.


title: Humsafar

text: Sara confesses her love to Ashar once again, but he informs her that he cannot love anyone and that she should stop pursuing him. Khizar also returns from America and starts to blackmail Farida by threatening to reveal Khirad's innocence to Ashar if Sara does not marry him. Under pressure, Farida visits Sara and urges her to marry Khizar, but Sara and her mother Zarina refuse. Distraught, Sara attempts suicide again, and this time she succeeds.


title: Humsafar

text: After Hareem's successful operation, Khirad secretly returns to Hyderabad and leaves Hareem with Ashar (telling him through a letter that he has full custody because she is not financially capable of taking care of her). However, the period with Khirad had rekindled Asher's feelings for her. While looking through a box of albums, Ashar finds Khirad's letter from four years earlier and finally reads it for the first time. The truth of the letter overwhelms him as he realizes he committed a terrible mistake in believing the scene from four years before. He then overhears a phone call between Farida and Khizar, which confirms that what he saw was a fabrication and that Farida deliberately threw Khirad out to disavow the unborn child.


title: Humsafar

text: Horrified by the reality of his unintentional complicity with the conspiracy against Khirad, he flees to Hyderabad to beg her forgiveness. He manages to convince Khirad to return home, where they face Farida. In his absence, Farida had found the letter, and thus upon seeing them both, begins to repeat her series of lies. However, this time, Ashar stands up to her, perhaps for the first time in his life. He rejects Farida's narrative, proclaims Khirad's innocence, and states that she belongs in this home with his daughter (whom Farida also attempted to disavow). Farida becomes so frightened by Ashar's decision to support Khirad that she has a nervous breakdown, and loses all connection with reality. Ashar then takes full responsibility for all of the events and begs Khirad to stay in the home. Khirad is hesitant, stating that she is a different person now and that she isn't certain she can love him as she used to. She also wonders how Ashar could have imagined she was capable of the narrative fabricated about her, and how he could have abandoned her if he genuinely loved her. Deeply ashamed, Ashar agrees, and states that it was entirely his fault and that he has no right to expect she can ever forgive him. However, he hopes that she will stay so that they can raise Hareem together. Khirad reluctantly consents to the arrangement, and a few months later, the three are shown as a real family unit.


title: Humsafar

text: Although author Farhat Ishtiaq adapted the screenplay from her novel, "Humsafar", there are differences between the two. While the novel is written from Hareem's perspective, the serial focuses on Khirad and Asher. In the novel, Ashar is the brother of two sisters, while in the drama he has no siblings. In the novel, Sara is a minor character who is never close to Asher, becomes mentally ill and is hospitalized. In the serial, Sara is a main character who loves Ashar, is the love interest of Khizar, and dies at the end. In the novel, Khizar loves a girl named Mehreen and never returns from America.


title: Humsafar

text: While the drama ends with the Farida's nervous breakdown and Ashar and Khirad's slow reconciliation, the novel ends with Asher begging Khirad to take him back, and Khirad falling into his arms.


title: Humsafar

text: The show's theme song "Woh Humsafar Tha" was composed by Waqar Ali and sung by Qurat-ul-Ain Balouch. Naseer Turabi wrote the poem to express his sorrow after the fall of Dhaka (marking the end of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971). It serves as both the song for the title sequence, as well as background music during each episode.


title: Humsafar

text: "Humsafar’"s producer Momina Duraid, notes that its development was somewhat serendipitous. Duraid was working with author Farhat Ishtiaq on another of her works, when she suggested "Humsafar" as a potential project (due to the fact that Duraid had just read “and thoroughly enjoyed” the novel). Ishtiaq then told her that "Humsafar" “had already been declined by two production houses,” to which Duraid responded: “If I can feel it," then the "public can feel it as well.”


title: Humsafar

text: Ishtiaq states that when she first started working on the novel, she "wanted to understand if the idea of love is complete without trust." Although she wrote the screenplay for "Humsafar", she notes that the novel is different from the television series, as "the former is more about the child, while the show concentrates on the parents as lovers."


title: Humsafar

text: "Humsafar" had a large impact on Pakistan's television industry (which had previously been dominated by Indian Television). It was an enormously popular show during its national television run, was extensively discussed in social media, and by 2014 was the highest-rated Pakistani series to date. The series also had a large global audience. Star reported that the "Humsafar" page on Facebook had thousands of Pakistani origin European and North American fans and viewers. Many said that although they had never watched a Pakistani drama before, they are now completely hooked on "Humsafar".


title: Humsafar

text: Many stated that the series led to a new phase in Urdu drama. Others argued that the series upheld misogyny and was regressive in its tendency to fall into stereotype. Finally, some critics offered a middle ground, suggesting that the popularity of the series was due to a narrative that was both entrenched in patriarchy, but also a critical response to it, offering characters and plot lines that reflected a degree of reality.


title: Humsafar

text: Human rights activist Abira Ashfaq criticized the plot for being overly simplistic and reliant on patriarchal cliches, with the primary female character lacking complexity and agency. On the other hand, less passive female characters were cast as the villains. Ashfaq notes that “the terrible appeal of "Humsafar," is that it confirms characters and stories set in deeply patriarchal frameworks. It is sexist justice that soothes the hearts of patriarchal vigilantes, and keeps us on because we want to see the mother-in-law shamed, humiliated and thrust out, and moral purity rise to the top in the reunion of Khirad and Ashar.” Kanika Rajani of "The Indian Express" argues that the series is unique in its decision to portray its protagonists as flawed, particularly "Asher’s frustration at his initial failed attempts to communicate with his wife." Amna Ali, meanwhile, criticized the plot for its use of cliches, such as casting the mother-in-law as the villain and portraying Sara, a westernized girl who wore jeans, in a negative light in contrast to the more traditional Khirad.


title: Humsafar

text: Mahira Khan's portrayal of "Khirad" received positive feedback from critics and was popular with viewers when the serial debuted. To those who called Khirad a "downtrodden woman," Khan argued, "no she was not. Go back and look at it, and there is a reason why she was not, because the slap was removed from it, there were things that were removed and there were things that were brought in just to show that she had a spine." Khan further states that, "Khirad is closest to my heart. We have a lot of crying women in serials. But despite going through so much hardship, Khirad is so dignified." Later, in September 2020, Khan reflected on "Humsafar," stating that "Khirad is by far my most special character. She loved fiercely, she gave whole heartedly and when it came to her self respect she held that closest to her heart. What a woman."


title: Brad Johnson (actor, born 1959)

text: Brad William Johnson (October 24, 1959 – February 18, 2022) was an American actor, model, real estate agent, and Marlboro Man.


title: Brad Johnson (actor, born 1959)

text: Johnson was born in Tucson, Arizona, the son of Grove and Virginia Johnson. The family moved to Grants Pass, Oregon, and later, Dallas, Texas, where Brad graduated high school in 1977. After competing in rodeos as a youth, he began his professional rodeo career in 1984 and was discovered by a movie scout looking for cowboys to star in a beer commercial. This led to his stint as the Marlboro Man and modeling gigs for Calvin Klein before he started acting. His first role was in a 1986 episode of the CBS soap opera "Dallas".


title: Brad Johnson (actor, born 1959)

text: His first film credit was in the low-budget biker film "Nam Angels" (1989), and shortly after he had his first co-starring role, in Steven Spielberg's 1989 film "Always". Other films included "Flight of the Intruder", "Philadelphia Experiment II", "", "Copperhead" and "Supergator". He played Rayford Steele in the "Left Behind" film series and played Dr. Dominick O'Malley on "Melrose Place".


title: Brad Johnson (actor, born 1959)

text: His work as an actor and as a Marlboro Man — one of a succession used by the brand — brought Johnson and his wife, Laurie, to California. They eventually moved their family to a ranch in New Mexico and the Colorado mountains before settling in North Texas.


title: Brad Johnson (actor, born 1959)

text: Johnson retired from acting and became a real estate agent. In 2014, he established Johnson Land and Home, LLC, a family owned business with over 25 years of experience in investment, acquisition, marketing, and development of luxury and destination properties, as well as ranch, hunting, and recreational land.


title: Brad Johnson (actor, born 1959)

text: Johnson's was married to his wife Laurie, a former model, for 35 years. They had eight children : Shane, Bellamy, Rachel, Eliana, Eden, Rebekah, Annabeth and William. Johnson restored old Winchester Model 1886 rifles before turning to selling ranch real estate in North Texas.


title: Brad Johnson (actor, born 1959)

text: Johnson died on February 18, 2022, at age 62, of COVID-19 complications. His death was publicly announced four months later by his former agent Linda McAlister.


title: Archimedes' screw

text: The Archimedes screw, also known as the Archimedean screw, hydrodynamic screw, water screw or Egyptian screw, is one of the earliest hydraulic machines. Using Archimedes screws as water pumps (Archimedes screw pump (ASP) or screw pump) dates back many centuries. As a machine used for transferring water from a low-lying body of water into irrigation ditches, water is pumped by turning a screw-shaped surface inside a pipe. In the modern world, Archimedes screw pumps are widely used in wastewater treatment plants and for dewatering low-lying regions. Archimedes Screws Turbines (ASTs) are a new form of small hydroelectric powerplant that can be applied even in low head sites. Archimedes screw generators operate in a wide range of flows (0.01 formula_1 to 14.5 formula_1) and heads (0.1 m to 10 m), including low heads and moderate flow rates that is not ideal for traditional turbines and not occupied by high performance technologies. The Archimedes screw is a reversible hydraulic machine, and there are several examples of Archimedes screw installations where the screw can operate at different times as either pump or generator, depending on needs for power and watercourse flow.


title: Archimedes' screw

text: Archimedes screw is named after Greek mathematician Archimedes who first described it around 234 BC, although there is evidence that the device had been used in Ancient Egypt long before his time. A screw conveyor is a similar device which transports bulk materials such as powders and grains.


title: Archimedes' screw

text: The screw pump is the oldest positive displacement pump. The first records of a water screw, or screw pump, date back to Hellenistic Egypt before the 3rd century BC. The Egyptian screw, used to lift water from the Nile, was composed of tubes wound round a cylinder; as the entire unit rotates, water is lifted within the spiral tube to the higher elevation. A later screw pump design from Egypt had a spiral groove cut on the outside of a solid wooden cylinder and then the cylinder was covered by boards or sheets of metal closely covering the surfaces between the grooves.