title: Love Again (Dua Lipa song)

text: "Love Again" was written by Lipa and her longtime collaborators Clarence Coffee Jr., Chelcee Grimes and Stephen Kozmeniuk, the latter of whom also handled the production. They began working on the song while Lipa was going through a rough patch with a breakup. She had been in a relationship with someone who was dishonest to her and realized it was no longer healthy for her. During the relationship, Lipa failed to recognize herself and felt as though she had lost her power, as she usually sees herself as a strong woman. The collaborators had been working together in the studio for a couple days, but had not written anything they liked. Lipa was running late to the studio that day, while Kozmeniuk came in early determined to make something cool. With her album "Future Nostalgia", Lipa wanted to create "old-styled" music with a modern twist, being inspired by artists that she grew up listening to. Having known that, Kozmeniuk played with some analog synths and came up with a rudimentary chord progression. He then added a guitar riff on top and a drum break throughout the song. Acoustic guitars were then added. When Lipa arrived at the studio, Grimes and Coffee were playing the guitar and singing "Hotdamn, you got me in love again". Lipa quickly rejected the line and changed it to "Goddamn, you got me in love again". She began expressing her feelings about the relationship to the writers, and Coffee suggested writing about that. They decided to begin the song with a concept of manifesting positive energy into one's life and realizing some things need to end. Lipa thought that if she wrote about this, she might feel better. They started writing "Love Again" on a guitar and the song was originally in a non-standard song structure, which Lipa was fine with. Lipa thought the version felt good.


title: Love Again (Dua Lipa song)

text: Following the session, Kozmeniuk was reading a Studio 54 book and he was picturing the work of Donna Summer where she had built up with a lot of a drums and string parts in an intro, before the song began. Inspired by this, he got his neighbour Drew Jurecka to play the violin and strings. Kozmeniuk quickly sent the string version to Lipa, which she admired for how dramatic it was. However, all the collaborators agreed that the song was still missing something. Later, two beats were added to the middle eight to build for a string part before exploding with the chorus. One night while they were all in a studio, Coffee began singing the riff of the 1932 track "My Woman" by Al Bowlly with Lew Stone and His Monseigneur Band over the top of what they had. Lipa thought the riff was from "Star Wars" (1977), while Grimes thought it was eerie and spooky. Lipa then suggested that they should incorporate it into "Love Again". Kozmeniuk spent a lot of time doing so with several different pitch corrections as "Love Again" and "My Woman" were in different keys. Due to this, Bing Crosby, Max Wartell and Irving Wallman were credited as writers. Coffee and Grimes questioned Lipa on including the line "I'll sink my teeth in disbelief" but Lipa fought really hard for it. She described the line as a visual one where you can almost taste how good something is, like the rush of adrenaline when she is about to get on stage. The singer later described this as her favourite line she has ever written. The line was originally "don't wake me up if it's a dream".


title: Love Again (Dua Lipa song)

text: Lipa's vocals were recorded at RAK Studios in London. She went to the studio with her vocal producer Lorna Blackwood. Blackwood told Lipa to sing the sad parts of the song with a smile. Lipa recorded the ad-libs last, nervously thinking she would go off pitch. However, the nerves went away as the booth is like a school bathroom with strong acoustics where anything sounds great. Other vocals were recorded at TaP Studio and Sleeper Sound, both in London. The song was recorded at the latter of the two studios as well as Windmill in Norfolk and Modulator Music in Toronto. Mixing was handled by Matty Green at Studio 55 in Los Angeles while Chris Gehringer mastered the song at Sterling Sound in Edgewater, New Jersey. Lipa described "Love Again" as "dance crying" as it is a dance song with the juxtaposition of both happy and sad feelings. As the song was written in parts instead of a complete track, there were several different versions of it. At one point Lipa suggested making the current middle eight the chorus, but quickly went with the demo version. After the song was finished, the collaborators spent a lot of time getting the structure right and playing with the arrangements, right up until the final mix. Lipa described "Love Again" as her favourite song on "Future Nostalgia".


title: Love Again (Dua Lipa song)

text: Musically, "Love Again" is a dance-pop, disco and electropop song with a classic sound. The song has a length of 4:18, and a structure of verse, bridge, chorus, verse, bridge, chorus, bridge, middle eight, bridge, chorus. It is composed in the time signature of time and the key of F minor, with a tempo of 116 beats per minute and a chord progression of Fm–D–Bm7–E. The song's melodramatic 21st-century nu-disco production matches its lyrics, and includes gloopy violins, orchestral sounds as well as disco beats and synths. Swooning, stirring and buzzing 1970s disco strings are also included, which add an emotional edge to the lyrics. The song samples "My Woman" (1932) by Al Bowlly with Lew Stone and His Monseigneur Band. These elements are featured in the intro and woven in and out throughout the song. This sample includes its strings, horn and trumpet, the latter of which was made popular by its sample in White Town's 1997 song "Your Woman". Acoustic guitar strums are included in the echoing bridge, before a repetitive hook and a thudding beat drop.


title: Love Again (Dua Lipa song)

text: Lipa uses her lower register husky vocals that encapsulate an undeniable sense of urgency, as if she is mimicking the rush of falling in love with hints of tension ever so often. Her vocals range from the low note of E to the high note of A. Lyrically, "Love Again" explores themes of heartbreak and personal growth with proclamations of rediscovered love and the hateful romantic rediscovering of the power of love. Lipa expresses her powerlessness in a new relationship and explains how terrifying it can be. Having fallen out with the belief in love, she navigates her feelings after being unexpectedly swept off her feet by a new partner following a rough split with a previous lover. She knows how a new love could end, but is faithful and open to what the future might bring. The song quotes the chorus melody of "Don't Cha" (2005) by the Pussycat Dolls. Lipa additionally described it as one manifesting good things into their life when things are not going their way.


title: Love Again (Dua Lipa song)

text: "Love Again" was released through Warner Records on 27 March 2020 as the eighth track on Lipa's second studio album "Future Nostalgia". A lyric video for it was released on 9 April 2020. A remix of the song by Horse Meat Disco is apart of Lipa and the Blessed Madonna's 28 August 2020-released, DJ Mix-crafted remix album "Club Future Nostalgia", while the original version of the remix was released for digital download and streaming on 11 September 2020. It is a 1980s-styled, percussion and synth-heavy remix that introduces simple melodies, funk-laced instrumentals and strutting beats with a retro charm; although, the "My Woman" sample is no longer heard. The song was the subject of a 15 December 2020-released "Song Exploder" volume 2 episode on Netflix in which Lipa and her collaborators talk about the making of the song.


title: Love Again (Dua Lipa song)

text: "Love Again" was promoted to radios in France on 11 March 2021 as the sixth single from "Future Nostalgia". The song was released for digital download and streaming globally on 4 June. Nina Braca of "Billboard" noted that this release, after 15 months following the release of the album, was "practically unheard of" in modern music era as "album cycles often come and go in as little as a few weeks". The song was sent for radio airplay in Italy on 11 June 2021. On 22 June 2021, it was promoted to contemporary hit, adult contemporary and dance radio stations in the United States as a promotional single. The song was officially sent as a single to contemporary hit radio stations in the country on 6 July and adult contemporary radio stations on 26 July 2021. It was promoted with two more remixes: the 1 October 2021-released Imanbek remix and the 15 October-released Garabatto remix.


title: Love Again (Dua Lipa song)

text: Elly Watson of "DIY" praised the use of the "My Woman" sample as "goosebump-inducing," while "musicOMH"s Nick Smith stated it has a "slapping effect." Smith went on to call the song a "highlight" and compared it to Madonna's "Confessions on a Dance Floor" (2005). "The Independent"s Helen Brown thought that the song has Lipa's best use of a sample with "My Woman". She also questioned if it is Lipa's "most romantic song" to date, while David Levesley's "GQ" review saw him calling the song her "most powerfully pro-love song to date". Jonathan Wright of "God Is in the TV" commended the "excellent" use of the "My Woman" sample, as well as complimenting the string arrangement and middle eight. Evan Sawdey of "PopMatters" commended the "clever" use of the "My Woman" sample, stating it makes the song "stand out." In a separate, negative review from the same publication, Nick Malone stated that the hook doesn't "pop" the way it needs to, Lipa's vocals are "non-committal" and the "My Woman" sample does not make it "soar".


title: Love Again (Dua Lipa song)

text: Writing for "Stereogum", Chris DeVille found the song to be reminiscent of Vicki Sue Robinson's "Turn the Beat Around" (1976), while Jeffrey Davies' review for "Spectrum Culture" saw him compare it to "I Feel Love" (1977) by Donna Summer. "Nylon" writer Steffanee Wang viewed the song as a "Western movie's take on the feverish emotion" of love. In her review for "The Guardian", Laura Snapes complimented Lipa for being awestruck in the song. Mike Nied of "Idolator" commended Lipa's "dulcet" vocals, stating they work well for this song. He continued by noting its contrast to her single "Don't Start Now" (2019) as well as viewing "Love Again" as a vulnerable moment. For "Business Insider", Callie Ahlgrim thought that Lipa's vocals "shine" on the track, while also calling it "cinematic."


title: Love Again (Dua Lipa song)

text: "Slant Magazine" ranked "Love Again" as 2020's 25th best song and writer Sal Cinquemani praised it for demonstrating "Lipa's knack for wringing pathos from everyday dating woes and pouring it into sublime dance-pop." He additionally viewed the song as "euphoric" and a "dizzying dance-floor filler." For "Crack", Michael Cragg thought that the song is a "sky-scraping ballad" that transforms into a "sophisticated, dancefloor-ready bop". From her review in "Billboard", Bianca Gracie saw that the use of strings adds a "jolt of nostalgia", while the lyrics see Lipa in an "out-of-body love experience". Overall, she named it "Future Nostalgia"s sixth best track and one of the album's sultrier moments. In April 2020, Christopher Rosa of "Glamour" ranked it as Lipa's sixth best song, viewing it as the album's most "overtly disco" track and "grandiose ode to falling in love against your better wishes".


title: Love Again (Dua Lipa song)

text: Upon "Future Nostalgia"s release, "Love Again" became a relatively successful album track across Europe. The song reached number 38 in Lithuania, 107 in Portugal, 86 in Romania, 62 in Slovakia and 90 in Spain. It additionally entered at number 61 on both the UK Singles Downloads Chart and UK Audio Streaming Chart. In April 2020, the Official Charts Company reported that the song was the most downloaded album track from the album in the United Kingdom. Following its release as a single, "Love Again" debuted at number 159 on the "Billboard" Global 200 chart dated 19 June 2021. In October of that year, the song spent its 20th week on the chart, reaching a peak position of number 59. The song spent a total of 35 weeks on the Global 200. On France's SNEP Singles Chart, the song debuted at number 198 on the issue dated 10 April 2021, before peaking at number 41 two months later and charting for 37 weeks.


title: Love Again (Dua Lipa song)

text: In the UK, "Love Again" debuted at number 96 on the UK Singles Chart dated 18 June 2021. It departed the chart the following week but re-entered at number 92 on the chart dated 23 July 2021. Four weeks later, the song peaked at number 51 on the UK Singles Chart, lasting for a total of nine weeks. In October 2021, it was awarded a silver certification from the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for selling 200,000 track-equivalent units in the United Kingdom. In Ireland, the song debuted at number 87 on the Irish Singles Chart dated 11 June 2021. Two months later, the song peaked at number 36 and spent a total of 23 weeks on the chart. In the Wallonia region of Belgium, the song debuted at number 34 in May 2021, before peaking at the runner-up position three months later. It was blocked from the summit by Ed Sheeran's "Bad Habits" (2021) and spent 27 weeks on the chart. In the country's Flanders region, the song also charted for 27 weeks, debuting at number 46 in June 2021 and peaking at number five the following month.


title: Love Again (Dua Lipa song)

text: In Germany, "Love Again" charted for 18 weeks and peaked at number 44. Elsewhere in Europe, the song reached the top 10 of charts in Bulgaria, Croatia, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia while reaching the summit in the Czech Republic. In 2022, the song was certified platinum by the Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana (FIMI) for selling 70,000 track-equivalent units in Italy. It received double platinum the same year in Poland by the Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry (ZPAV) for 100,000 track-equivalent unit sales. On the Canadian Hot 100, "Love Again" debuted at number 75 on the chart dated 17 July 2021. It spent 22 weeks on the chart, peaking at number 11 in the 14th week. It was awarded a double platinum certification in the country from Music Canada for selling 160,000 track-equivalent units in the country. In the US, the song spent two weeks on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart before entering the "Billboard" Hot 100 at number 89 in July 2021. In October 2021, it peaked at number 41 and spent 16 weeks charting. The song additionally peaked at number 60 on Australia's ARIA Singles Chart and number 3 on the NZ Hot Singles Chart.


title: Love Again (Dua Lipa song)

text: The music video for "Love Again" was directed by Lope Serrano of Spanish production team Canada. Lipa contacted the production company for another collaboration following the video for her 2020 single "Physical". They were briefed with information that Lipa pictured herself on a mechanical bull for the video, it was her favourite song on the album and that the song was about a personal resurgence, not necessarily just in a romantic context. When writing the video, Serrano attempted to gather real and predictable rodeo elements and combine them in unexpected ways. The production team found new meanings of the rodeo elements to communicate in the video, including using the clown makeup for abstract painting strains so classical paintings could be used to connect shots. They used paintings that depicted horses, romantic raptures, hugs, portraits and hyperdynamic group compositions. Serrano decided to add egg aspects to the video as he was looking for "an unexpected rhyme to the lasso routine". He thought that the wrist movement when one beats eggs is similar to a lasso movement. He also wanted to illustrate the song's romantic message, like the idea of a love coming up again that seems like a once in a lifetime experience that is pure, intense and unexpected, which he compared to "like these delicate flowers or animals that are just designed to blossom and intercourse just once and then they die" as well as the "tense connection between the humans and their recovered feelings".


title: Love Again (Dua Lipa song)

text: The visual was filmed at the Grosvenor House Hotel in London about three weeks before its release, during rehearsals for Lipa's performance at the 41st Brit Awards. Serrano liked the idea of shooting in one place as it adds to the video's cohesiveness and makes it as though the characters are real and belong to the setting. The video's team quarantined in the hotel for a week before they began filming due to restrictions associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. This gave the team time to work in the location. Lipa learned the video's choreography in 45 minutes and new outfits were added for her in the midst of filming. Serrano recalled she enjoyed being on the mechanical bull that was controlled. Steve Dent helped the team with the horse and production company Eighty4 helped with the VFX, making it so that when the horse went invisible, there was still a 3D aspect with the saddle and rider. These shots were the hardest to shoot so the team worked with the tension of the ropes attached to the horse's neck as well as adjusting its natural shadow.


title: Love Again (Dua Lipa song)

text: Lipa formally announced the video on 31 May 2021. It premiered via YouTube on 4 June 2021. A director's cut version of the video was released on 28 July 2021. This version opens with two rodeo clowns reading a script, which is the lyrics of "Love Again", more classical paintings in the editing, less dancing, more shots of the clowns, a chicken on the TV set, Lipa riding the lighting horse as well as final credits that feature a rodeo clown riding the horse which has a green suit on.


title: Love Again (Dua Lipa song)

text: The video opens with two title cards saying Lipa's name and the song title, "Love Again". Simultaneously, a Stetson cowboy hat floats from a coat room to a ballroom where Lipa catches it and puts it on her head. She wears a zebra print bikini top, belted black denim shorts, a suede vest, a cowboy hat, a bolo tie and chunky heeled boots while riding a mechanical bull; this bull later becomes invisible as a way to make things less emphatic and literal. Intercut scenes of Lipa riding the bull covered in miniature light bulbs and wearing a Phipps cowboy suit containing a green top, blue pants and a cowboy hat, also covered in miniature light bulbs, are also included, as well as her floating in slow motion while wearing Blumarine pink bandana crop top with a lacy trim, a lavender hat, a butterfly belt buckle with diamantés, blue denim pants and pink cowboy boots. She later waves a glowing lasso in the former scene. The singer is also seen cracking eggs with different coloured yolks to later whisk them in the same bowl while rodeo clowns crack them too and paint clown faces on each other with the coloured yolks as well as making omelettes. She wears a red-and-black denim set from a collaboration between Levi and Miu Miu with a leather jacket from the latter company's 2011 line.


title: Love Again (Dua Lipa song)

text: Back in the ballroom, Lipa square dances and line dances with rodeo clowns as the floor is covered in eggs. She wears Rick Owens grill kiss leather boots, camouflage green cargo pants, a longline brown cow print jacket and a cow-print bra; the latter three clothing items are from The Attico. Some of the rodeo clowns also appear on invisible horses. Further on, a giant egg floats in the middle of the ballroom and the rodeo clowns attempt to capture it with lassos. The egg is eventually too much for them as it pulls them onto the floor before also becoming invisible. A horse covered in LEDs then runs in around the hallways. The "wild" horse scene is a metaphor for the idea of love, not being completely clear, while the egg scene adds to the metaphor by enhancing the people in the relationship with the cowboys, ropes and horse. Also, the floating egg being captured, tensioning its delicacy, is a metaphor for the myth of female reproduction and how weak male human violence can be. The video closes with Lipa dressed as a rodeo clown, slow dancing with an anonymous person; they both wear all white. Lipa wears a red nose and wipes some of her lipstick of the same colour onto her partner's jacket.


title: Love Again (Dua Lipa song)

text: Maia Kedem of "Audacy" hypothesized that Lipa wearing the clown makeup at the end may be a metaphor for "the clownery of falling back in love after experiencing heartbreak", while calling the metaphor "deep". "Hot Press"s Ciaran Brennan viewed Lipa's style in the video as "cowboy chic". In "Refinery29", Eliza Huber said that although Western tropes in fashion have been popular for a while, Lipa makes the style "feel surprisingly fresh" in the video, while also comparing it to the clip for Madonna's "Don't Tell Me" (2000). Wang compared the hotel ballroom setting to "The Shining" (1980) while theorizing that the video documents the cast's "slow decent into insanity", "putting on clown makeup to also hoedown in the building’s empty ballroom". For "Grazia", Marisa Petrarca called the video "absolute gold" with Lipa embracing a "glamorous take on Western fashion" containing "epic" ensembles. "Business Insider" used the video as an example on how Stetson cowboy hats have changed demography in their "So Expensive" web series.


title: Love Again (Dua Lipa song)

text: For "Vulture", Devon Ivie labeled the music video a "surrealist country-inspired video" that "has us falling in love with [Lipa] all over again". The staff of "Wonderland" said their minds "are totally blown" with the video, while calling the fashion "gorgeous" and the choreography "a TikTok worthy dance routine". In "The A.V. Club", Gabrielle Sanchez noted science fiction elements in the video with the invisible mechanical bull. Similarly, Erica Gonzales of "Harper's Bazaar" thought these elements are more "surreal", while also stating that the clown makeup is the best part of the video and thought that it poked fun at the "clownery" of falling in love knowing it could end badly. In a review from "Billboard", Gil Kaufman said that Lipa gets her "urban cowgal on" in the visual and thought she took a "sensual, slow-mo ride" on the mechanical bull.


title: Love Again (Dua Lipa song)

text: Cinquemani thought that the main takeaway from the video was "keep falling for the wrong person and the yolk's on you" while noting its use of special effects and praising the surreality. He went on to note that Lipa's "disco-cowgirl getup and choreography" was similar to that of "Don't Tell Me" and Halsey's "You Should Be Sad" (2020). The staff of Contactmusic.com said that Lipa looks like a "super-sexy Jessie Cowgirl" and praised her "natural born" bull-riding skills. They also said that the video gives the song "a whole new lease of life". For "Consequence", Wren Graves named the video a "campy rodeo fantasy", while commending how Lipa waves her lasso, similarly to Wonder Woman. Josiah Hughes of "Exclaim!" stated that with the video, Lipa proves that "country and western dressup is a trend that will simply not die". "Love Again" won Best Pop Video at the 2021 UK Music Video Awards.


title: Love Again (Dua Lipa song)

text: Lipa performed "Love Again" during her NPR Tiny Desk Concert, released 4 December 2020. Lipa described the performance as a "special" rendition of the song and the concert was filmed in London instead of Washington, D.C. where the concerts normally take place due to the COVID-19 pandemic. She was accompanied by backup singers, a bassist, a guitarist and a drum machine. On 19 February 2021, the singer performed a stripped-down acoustic version of the track during the 2021 "Time" 100 event along with her 2020 single "Levitating". Lipa performed the soft piano rendition of the song as a duet with Elton John at his AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party on 25 April 2021. She performed the song at the 41st Brit Awards as part of her set list of a "Future Nostalgia" Medley on 11 May 2021. The singer performed it at the 2021 iHeartRadio Music Festival on 17 September. The song was included on the setlist of Lipa's 2022 Future Nostalgia Tour.


title: James Lovelock

text: James Ephraim Lovelock (26 July 1919 – 26 July 2022) was an English independent scientist, environmentalist and futurist. He is best known for proposing the Gaia hypothesis, which postulates that the Earth functions as a self-regulating system.


title: James Lovelock

text: With a PhD in medicine, Lovelock began his career performing cryopreservation experiments on rodents, including successfully thawing frozen specimens. His methods were influential in the theories of cryonics (the cryopreservation of humans). He invented the electron capture detector, and using it, became the first to detect the widespread presence of chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere. While designing scientific instruments for NASA, he developed the Gaia hypothesis.


title: James Lovelock

text: In the 2000s, he proposed a method of climate engineering to restore carbon dioxide–consuming algae. He was an outspoken member of Environmentalists for Nuclear Energy, asserting that fossil fuel interests have been behind opposition to nuclear energy, citing the effects of carbon dioxide as being harmful to the environment, and warning of global warming due to the greenhouse effect. He wrote several environmental science books based upon the Gaia hypothesis from the late 1970s.


title: James Lovelock

text: For decades he also worked for MI5, the British security service. Bryan Appleyard, writing in "The Sunday Times", described him as "basically Q in the James Bond films".


title: James Lovelock

text: James Lovelock was born in Letchworth Garden City to Tom Arthur Lovelock and his second wife Nellie. Nell, his mother, was born in Bermondsey and won a scholarship to a grammar school but was unable to take it up, and started work at thirteen in a pickle factory. She was described by Lovelock as a socialist and suffragist, who was also anti-vaccine, and did not allow Lovelock to receive his smallpox inoculation as a child. His father, Tom, was born in Fawley, Berkshire, had served six months' hard labour for poaching in his teens, and was illiterate until attending technical college, later running a bookshop. Lovelock was brought up a Quaker and indoctrinated with the notion that "God is a still, small voice within rather than some mysterious old gentleman way out in the universe", which he thought was a helpful way of thinking for inventors, but would eventually end up as being non-religious. The family moved to London, where his dislike of authority made him, by his own account, an unhappy pupil at Strand School in Tulse Hill, south London.


title: James Lovelock

text: Lovelock could not at first afford to go to university, something which he believed helped prevent him becoming overspecialised and aided the development of Gaia theory.


title: James Lovelock

text: After leaving school Lovelock worked at a photography firm, attending Birkbeck College during the evenings, before being accepted to study chemistry at the University of Manchester, where he was a student of the Nobel Prize laureate Professor Alexander Todd. Lovelock worked at a Quaker farm before a recommendation from his professor led to him taking up a Medical Research Council post, working on ways of shielding soldiers from burns. Lovelock refused to use the shaved and anaesthetised rabbits that were used as burn victims, and exposed his own skin to heat radiation instead, an experience he describes as "exquisitely painful". His student status enabled temporary deferment of military service during the Second World War, but he registered as a conscientious objector. He later abandoned his conscientious objection in the light of Nazi atrocities, and tried to enlist in the armed forces, but was told that his medical research was too valuable for the enlistment to be approved.


title: James Lovelock

text: In 1948, Lovelock received a PhD degree in medicine at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. He spent the next two decades working at London's National Institute for Medical Research. In the United States, he conducted research at Yale, Baylor College of Medicine, and Harvard University.


title: James Lovelock

text: In the mid-1950s, Lovelock experimented with the cryopreservation of rodents, determining that hamsters could be frozen and revived successfully. Hamsters were frozen with 60% of the water in the brain crystallised into ice with no adverse effects recorded. Other organs were shown to be susceptible to damage. The results were influential in the theories of cryonics. Lovelock's experiments were covered in an interview with YouTuber Tom Scott in May 2021, discussing the possibility that Lovelock may have accidentally invented the tabletop microwave oven when he discovered that a person could bake a potato in his magnetron-based emitter while conducting these experiments.


title: James Lovelock

text: A lifelong inventor, Lovelock created and developed many scientific instruments, some of which were designed for NASA in its planetary exploration program. It was while working as a consultant for NASA that Lovelock developed the Gaia hypothesis, for which he is most widely known.


title: James Lovelock

text: In early 1961, Lovelock was engaged by NASA to develop sensitive instruments for the analysis of extraterrestrial atmospheres and planetary surfaces. The Viking program, which visited Mars in the late 1970s, was motivated in part to determine whether Mars supported life, and some of the sensors and experiments that were ultimately deployed aimed to resolve this issue. During work on a precursor of this program, Lovelock became interested in the composition of the Martian atmosphere, reasoning that many life forms on Mars would be obliged to make use of it (and, thus, alter it). However, the atmosphere was found to be in a stable condition close to its chemical equilibrium, with very little oxygen, methane, or hydrogen, but with an overwhelming abundance of carbon dioxide. To Lovelock, the stark contrast between the Martian atmosphere and chemically dynamic mixture of the Earth's biosphere was strongly indicative of the absence of life on Mars. However, when they were finally launched to Mars, the Viking probes still searched (unsuccessfully) for extant life there. Further experiments to search for life on Mars have been carried out by further space probes, for instance by NASA's Perseverance rover which landed in 2021.


title: James Lovelock

text: Lovelock invented the electron capture detector, which ultimately assisted in discoveries about the persistence of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and their role in stratospheric ozone depletion. After studying the operation of the Earth's sulphur cycle, Lovelock and his colleagues, Robert Jay Charlson, Meinrat Andreae and Stephen G. Warren developed the CLAW hypothesis as a possible example of biological control of the Earth's climate.


title: James Lovelock

text: Lovelock was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1974. He served as the president of the Marine Biological Association (MBA) from 1986 to 1990, and was an Honorary Visiting Fellow of Green Templeton College, Oxford (formerly Green College, Oxford) from 1994.


title: James Lovelock

text: As an independent scientist, inventor, and author, Lovelock worked out of a barn-turned-laboratory he called his "experimental station" located in a wooded valley on the Devon–Cornwall border in South West England.


title: James Lovelock

text: In 1988 he made an extended appearance on the Channel 4 television programme "After Dark", alongside Heathcote Williams and Petra Kelly, among others.


title: James Lovelock

text: On 8 May 2012, he appeared on the Radio Four series "The Life Scientific", talking to Jim Al-Khalili about the Gaia hypothesis. On the programme, he mentioned how his ideas had been received by various people, including Jonathon Porritt. He also mentioned how he had a claim for inventing the microwave oven. He later explained this claim in an interview with "The Manchester Magazine". Lovelock said that he did create an instrument during his time studying causes of damage to living cells and tissue, which had, according to him, "almost everything you would expect in an ordinary microwave oven". He invented the instrument for the purpose of heating up frozen hamsters in a way that caused less suffering to the animals, as opposed to the traditional way which involved putting red hot spoons on the animals' chest to heat them up. He believed that at the time, nobody had gone that far and made an embodiment of an actual microwave oven. However, he did not claim to have been the first person to have the idea of using microwaves for cooking.


title: James Lovelock

text: After the development of his electron capture detector, in the late 1960s, Lovelock was the first to detect the widespread presence of CFCs in the atmosphere. He found a concentration of 60 parts per trillion of CFC-11 over Ireland and, in a partially self-funded research expedition in 1972, went on to measure the concentration of CFC-11 from the northern hemisphere to the Antarctic aboard the research vessel . He found the gas in each of the 50 air samples that he collected but, not realising that the breakdown of CFCs in the stratosphere would release chlorine that posed a threat to the ozone layer, concluded that the level of CFCs constituted "no conceivable hazard". He later stated that he meant "no conceivable toxic hazard".


title: James Lovelock

text: However, the experiment did provide the first useful data on the ubiquitous presence of CFCs in the atmosphere. The damage caused to the ozone layer by the photolysis of CFCs was later discovered by Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina. After hearing a lecture on the subject of Lovelock's results, they embarked on research that resulted in the first published paper that suggested a link between stratospheric CFCs and ozone depletion in 1974 (for which Sherwood and Molina later shared the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Paul Crutzen).


title: James Lovelock

text: Drawing from the research of Alfred C. Redfield and G. Evelyn Hutchinson, Lovelock first formulated the Gaia hypothesis in the 1960s resulting from his work for NASA concerned with detecting life on Mars and his work with Royal Dutch Shell. The hypothesis proposes that living and non-living parts of the Earth form a complex interacting system that can be thought of as a single organism. Named after the Greek goddess Gaia at the suggestion of novelist William Golding, the hypothesis postulates that the biosphere has a regulatory effect on the Earth's environment that acts to sustain life.


title: James Lovelock

text: While the hypothesis was readily accepted by many in the environmentalist community, it has not been widely accepted within the scientific community as a whole. Among its most prominent critics were the evolutionary biologists Richard Dawkins, Ford Doolittle, and Stephen Jay Gould, a convergence of opinion among a trio whose views on other scientific matters often diverged. These (and other) critics have questioned how natural selection operating on individual organisms can lead to the evolution of planetary-scale homeostasis.


title: James Lovelock

text: In response to this, Lovelock, together with Andrew Watson, published the computer model Daisyworld in 1983, that postulated a hypothetical planet orbiting a star whose radiant energy is slowly increasing or decreasing. In the non-biological case, the temperature of this planet simply tracks the energy received from the star. However, in the biological case, ecological competition between "daisy" species with different albedo values produces a homeostatic effect on global temperature. When energy received from the star is low, black daisies proliferate since they absorb a greater fraction of the heat, but when energy input is high, white daisies predominate since they reflect excess heat. As the white and black daisies have contrary effects on the planet's overall albedo and temperature, changes in their relative populations stabilise the planet's climate and to keep temperature within an optimal range despite fluctuations in energy from the star. Lovelock argued that Daisyworld, although a parable, illustrates how conventional natural selection operating on individual organisms can still produce planetary-scale homeostasis.


title: James Lovelock

text: In Lovelock's 2006 book, "The Revenge of Gaia", he argued that the lack of respect humans have had for Gaia, through the damage done to rainforests and the reduction in planetary biodiversity, is testing Gaia's capacity to minimise the effects of the addition of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. This eliminates the planet's negative feedbacks and increases the likelihood of homeostatic positive feedback potential associated with runaway global warming. Similarly the warming of the oceans is extending the oceanic thermocline layer of tropical oceans into the Arctic and Antarctic waters, preventing the rise of oceanic nutrients into the surface waters and eliminating the algal blooms of phytoplankton on which oceanic food chains depend. As phytoplankton and forests are the main ways in which Gaia draws down greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide, taking it out of the atmosphere, the elimination of this environmental buffering will see, according to Lovelock, most of the earth becoming uninhabitable for humans and other life-forms by the middle of this century, with a massive extension of tropical deserts. In 2012, Lovelock distanced himself from these conclusions, saying he had "gone too far" in describing the consequences of climate change over the next century in this book.


title: James Lovelock

text: In his 2009 book, "The Vanishing Face of Gaia", he rejected scientific models that disagree with the findings that sea levels are rising and Arctic ice is melting faster than the models predict. He suggested that we may already have passed the tipping point of terrestrial climate resilience into a permanently hot state. Given these conditions, Lovelock expected that human civilisation would be hard-pressed to survive. He expected the change to be similar to the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum when atmospheric concentration of was 450 ppm, and the temperature of the Arctic Ocean was 23 °C.


title: James Lovelock

text: Lovelock became concerned about the threat of global warming from the greenhouse effect. In 2004 he broke with many fellow environmentalists by stating that "only nuclear power can now halt global warming". In his view, nuclear energy is the only realistic alternative to fossil fuels that has the capacity to both fulfil the large scale energy needs of humankind while also reducing greenhouse emissions. He was an open member of Environmentalists for Nuclear Energy.


title: James Lovelock

text: In 2005, against the backdrop of renewed UK government interest in nuclear power, Lovelock again publicly announced his support for nuclear energy, stating, "I am a Green, and I entreat my friends in the movement to drop their wrongheaded objection to nuclear energy". Although those interventions in the public debate on nuclear power were in the 21st century, his views on it were longstanding. In his 1988 book "The Ages of Gaia" he stated:


title: James Lovelock

text: In "The Revenge of Gaia" (2006), where he put forward the concept of sustainable retreat, Lovelock wrote:


title: James Lovelock

text: In 2019 Lovelock said he thought difficulties in getting nuclear power going again were due to propaganda, that "the coal and oil business fight like mad to tell bad stories about nuclear", and that "the greens played along with it. There's bound to have been some corruption there – I'm sure that various green movements were paid some sums on the side to help with propaganda".


title: James Lovelock

text: Writing in the British newspaper "The Independent" in 2006, Lovelock argued that, as a result of global warming, "billions of us will die and the few breeding pairs of people that survive will be in the Arctic where the climate remains tolerable" by the end of the 21st century. The same year he suggested that "we have to keep in mind the awesome pace of change and realise how little time is left to act, and then each community and nation must find the best use of the resources they have to sustain civilisation for as long as they can." He further predicted in 2007 that the temperature increase would leave much of the world's land uninhabitable and unsuitable for farming, with northerly migrations and new cities created in the Arctic; furthermore that much of Europe will have turned to desert and Britain will have become Europe's "life-raft" due to its stable temperature caused by being surrounded by the ocean. He was quoted in "The Guardian" in 2008 that 80% of humans will perish by 2100, and this climate change will last 100,000 years.


title: James Lovelock

text: In a 2010 interview with "The Guardian" newspaper, he said that democracy might have to be "put on hold" to prevent climate change. He continued:


title: James Lovelock

text: Statements from 2012 portrayed Lovelock as continuing his concern over global warming while at the same time criticising extremism and suggesting alternatives to oil, coal and the green solutions he did not support.


title: James Lovelock

text: In a 2012 interview, aired on MSNBC, Lovelock stated that he had been "alarmist", using the words "All right, I made a mistake," about the timing of climate change and noted the documentary "An Inconvenient Truth" and the book "The Weather Makers" as examples of the same kind of alarmism. Lovelock still believed the climate to be warming although not at the rate of change that he once thought, he admitted that he had been "extrapolating too far." He believed that climate change is still happening, but it will be felt farther in the future. Of the claims "the science is settled" on global warming he stated: He criticised environmentalists for treating global warming like a religion.


title: James Lovelock

text: In this 2012 MSNBC article Lovelock is quoted as saying: In a follow up interview also in 2012 Lovelock stated his support for natural gas; he favoured fracking as a low-polluting alternative to coal. He opposed the concept of "sustainable development", where modern economies might be powered by wind turbines, calling it meaningless drivel. He kept a poster of a wind turbine to remind himself how much he detested them.


title: James Lovelock

text: In "Novacene" (2019) Lovelock proposed that benevolent superintelligence may take over and save the ecosystem, and stated that the machines will need to keep organic life around to keep the planet's temperature habitable for electronic life. On the other hand, if instead life becomes entirely electronic, "so be it: we played our part and newer, younger actors are already appearing on stage".


title: James Lovelock

text: In 2007, Lovelock and Chris Rapley proposed the construction of ocean pumps to pump water up from below the thermocline to "fertilize algae in the surface waters and encourage them to bloom". The basic idea was to accelerate the transfer of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to the ocean by increasing primary production and enhancing the export of organic carbon (as marine snow) to the deep ocean. A scheme similar to that proposed by Lovelock and Rapley was later developed independently by a commercial company.


title: James Lovelock

text: The proposal attracted widespread media attention and criticism. Commenting on the proposal, Corinne Le Quéré, a University of East Anglia researcher, said "It doesn't make sense. There is absolutely no evidence that climate engineering options work or even go in the right direction. I'm astonished that they published this. Before any geoengineering is put to work a massive amount of research is needed – research which will take 20 to 30 years". Other researchers claimed that "this scheme would bring water with high natural "p" levels (associated with the nutrients) back to the surface, potentially causing exhalation of ". Lovelock subsequently said that his proposal was intended to stimulate interest and research would be the next step.


title: James Lovelock

text: Sustainable retreat is a concept which was developed by Lovelock in order to define the necessary changes to human settlement and dwelling at the global scale with the purpose of adapting to global warming and preventing its expected negative consequences on humans.


title: James Lovelock

text: Lovelock thought the time is past for sustainable development, and that we had come to a time when development is no longer sustainable. Therefore, we needed to retreat. Lovelock stated the following in order to explain the concept:


title: James Lovelock

text: The concept of sustainable retreat emphasised a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs with lower levels and/or less environmentally harmful types of resources.


title: James Lovelock

text: Lovelock was awarded a number of prestigious prizes including the Tswett Medal for Chromatography (1975), the American Chemical Society Award in Chromatography (1980), the World Meteorological Organization Norbert Gerbier–MUMM Award (1988), the Dr A.H. Heineken Prize for Environmental Sciences (1990) and the Royal Geographical Society Discovery Lifetime award (2001). In 2006 he received the Wollaston Medal, the Geological Society of London's highest award, whose previous recipients include Charles Darwin. Lovelock was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) for services to the study of the Science and Atmosphere in the 1990 New Year Honours and a Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) for services to Global Environmental Science in the 2003 New Year Honours.


title: James Lovelock

text: Lovelock married Helen Hyslop in 1942. They had four children and remained married until her death in 1989 from multiple sclerosis. He first met his second wife, Sandy, at the age of 69. Lovelock stated of their relationship: "[Y]ou would find the life of me and my wife Sandy to be an unusually happy one in simple beautiful but unpretentious surroundings."


title: James Lovelock

text: Having turned 100 in July 2019, Lovelock died at his home in Abbotsbury, Dorset, on 26 July 2022his 103rd birthday<ref name="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/27/climate/james-lovelock-dead.html"></ref> of complications related to a fall.


title: James Lovelock

text: In March 2012, the National Portrait Gallery unveiled a new portrait of Lovelock by British artist Michael Gaskell, which was completed in 2011. The collection also has two photographic portraits by Nick Sinclair (1993) and Paul Tozer (1994). The archive of the Royal Society of Arts has a 2009 image taken by Anne-Katrin Purkiss. Lovelock agreed to sit for sculptor Jon Edgar in Devon during 2007, as part of the "Environment Triptych" (2008) along with heads of Mary Midgley and Richard Mabey. A bronze head is in the collection of the sitter and the terracotta is in the archive of the artist.


title: Naver Corporation

text: The Naver Corporation is a South Korean internet conglomerate headquartered in Seongnam that operates the search engine Naver. Naver established itself as an early pioneer in the use of user-generated content through the creation of the online Q&A platform Knowledge iN. Naver also manages the video messenger SNOW, and group communication service BAND.


title: Naver Corporation

text: On August 1, 2013, Naver decided to split with Hangame, a corporation which it had grown together with as NHN Corporation for 13 years. On October 1, 2013, the company adopted its current name Naver Corporation in order to reflect the change, restoring its pre-merger name. Hangame is now overseen by NHN Entertainment Corporation. Naver's current affiliates include Line Corporation, Snow, Naver Labs, Naver Webtoon, NAVER Cloud, and Works Mobile. The company is currently cooperating with IT startups in order to evolve into a tech-based platform.


title: Naver Corporation

text: Naver Corporation was first established in June 1999 under the name of Naver Comm. Along with its search engine Naver, the company also launched a service for children named Junior Naver. In July 2000, Naver merged with Hangame Communications Inc. and several other companies including Oneque and Search Solutions.


title: Naver Corporation

text: In August 2000, Naver began its 'comprehensive search' service, which allows users to get a variety of results from a search query on a single page, organized by type (for example blogs, webpages, images, cafes, etc.). In September 2000, Naver established Hangame Japan.


title: Naver Corporation

text: In 2001, NAVER Comm was renamed NHN Corporation (Next Human Network), although both divisions—Naver and Hangame—continued to operate under their original brand names. NHN also stood for (NAVER, Hangame, Network).


title: Naver Corporation

text: In 2002, NHN was registered on the KOSDAQ stock exchange, and launched the online Q&A service Naver Knowledge iN. In 2003, NHN merged all Japanese subsidiaries into NHN Japan. In 2005, Naver began the online donation service: Happy Bean. It also established its US branch under the name NHN USA. In 2007, it launched Naver Japan in order to pursue its search engine business in Japan. Meanwhile, NHN USA officially opened its American game service, ijji. However, it later sold away its 100% stake to Aeria Games.


title: Naver Corporation

text: In 2008, NHN appeared on the Forbes Global 2000 list for the first time. That same year, NHN had the largest market capitalization among KOSDAQ-listed companies before being transferred to the KOSPI market in November. In 2009, Kim Sang-Hun of NHN and Jing-Wan Kim of Samsung were the only South Korean CEOs to appear on "Forbes"' Asia's Fab 50 list.


title: Naver Corporation

text: In 2010 NHN bought Livedoor, a Japanese ISP and blog platform. In the same year, the company moved into its new headquarters now known as the Green Factory.


title: Naver Corporation

text: In June 2011, NHN Japan launched Line, a messaging application that quickly soared in usage. In 2012, NHN announced that it planned to invest in developing ten social media games. In the same year, NHN Japan, Naver Japan and Livedoor were all merged into one company: NHN Japan. In August, NHN also established its Singapore branch NHN Singapore.


title: Naver Corporation

text: In 2013, NHN launched its subsidiary companies Camp Mobile and Line Plus. NHN was split into Naver Corporation and NHN Entertainment, the latter being formerly known as Hangame. Similarly, NHN Japan separated into Line Corporation (web services) and Hangame Japan (game services). In June, Naver became the first web company in Korea to build and operate its own data center, Data Center GAK, which was built in Chuncheon, Gangwon Province.


title: Naver Corporation

text: In 2015, Naver launched Works Mobile for B2B collaboration businesses and merged with Entry Education Labs, which is a software education platform company. In the same year, global revenues began exceeding due to the growth of global affiliate services such as LINE.


title: Naver Corporation

text: Naver's annual revenue for 2016 was 4.02 trillion won. In 2016, Line Corporation was double listed on both the NYSE and the TSE. In August 2016, Naver spun off its app SNOW into a separate subsidiary company, Snow Corp. Naver also began Project Flower, a project which aims to support small businesses and creators by cooperating with them on various projects. In September 2016, Naver and its affiliate Line announced that they would invest a combined 100 million euros (US$112 million) into K-Fund 1. K-Fund 1 is a European startup accelerator fund operated by Korelya Capital, which is an investment firm established by Fleur Pellerin, the Korean-born former French minister overseeing small and medium enterprises in the digital economy.


title: Naver Corporation

text: In 2017, Naver established its subsidiary companies Snow, Naver Labs, and Naver Webtoon. Naver opened Space Green, which is a startup space inside Station F, a startup incubator space located in France. Naver also acquired Xerox Research Centre Europe, located in the French city Grenoble, rebranding it as Naver Labs Europe.


title: Naver Corporation

text: In March 2021 Line Corporation merged with Yahoo Japan, which has been operated by Z Holdings, a SoftBank Group subsidiary. Under the new structure, Naver and SoftBank Corp., which is the wireless carrier unit of SoftBank Group, each hold 50 percent stakes in a new company named A Holdings Corp., which holds a majority stake in Z Holdings, which will operate Line and Yahoo Japan. Upon integrating the two businesses and creating further platforms, the merged company aims to compete with the U.S. tech giants Google, Amazon, Facebook, and Apple and the Chinese tech giants Baidu, Alibaba, and Tencent, as well as the Japanese e-commerce giant Rakuten. The merger also gives Z Holdings three additional Asian markets where Line is popular: Taiwan, Thailand, and Indonesia.


title: Naver Corporation

text: In May 2021, Naver partnered with CJ Group’s CJ ENM to acquire Munpia Inc, the third largest web-novel platform in Korea.


title: Naver Corporation

text: Based on the influence of its core search engine service, Naver has also developed new business models in online advertisement, content, and deep-tech through research and development.


title: Naver Corporation

text: Naver was the first Korean web provider to develop its own search engine. It was also the first operator to introduce the comprehensive search service (which refers to optimized search results from various categories such as news, maps, images and so on, presented on a single page). The search engine has since grown to offer a variety of related services including e-mail, mapping, e-commerce, social media, wireless payments, and online streaming.


title: Naver Corporation

text: Junior Naver, also known as Juniver, is a children's search service that began in 1999 with the purpose of fostering a safe culture for children. Junior Naver provides various services for children of each age range, such as Pororo Play Time (educational content for aged 3~5), Pany's Room (decoration simulator using Pany Pang characters), Children's song world, and Children's story world—as well as a Disney Zone for Disney Channel shows and animations. The application and the mobile version were each launched in 2011 and 2012 in order to provide contents in streaming form rather than having to download them. Junior Naver also operates a parental monitoring system that blocks harmful or inappropriate information. Meanwhile, Junior Naver's "Gameland" service was officially terminated in February 2019.


title: Naver Corporation

text: In 2002, Naver set up one of the first Q&A webpages, Knowledge iN. The service allows users to post questions on any subject, and select from answers submitted by other users, points are awarded to users with the most helpful answers.


title: Naver Corporation

text: Knowledge iN also offers an Open Dictionary function, which is a database of informative articles generated by users. Users can create an article on their own, or enable other users to collaborate by creating a thread of articles on the same subject. There is also an 'Ask an Expert' category where licensed doctors, veterinarians, pharmacists, lawyers, tax accountants, and labor attorneys answer users' questions. As of May 2016, Knowledge iN had 100 million questions, 200 million answers, and 47 million accumulated users.


title: Naver Corporation

text: Naver Cafe and Blog are especially well-known user-generated content (UGC) platforms where users post specialized contents on various themes. Cafe allows users to create communities on various topics, and Blog gives any user the chance to manage their own personal blog. There were 10.5 million Naver Cafes running in May 2017, making Naver the most visited Cafe platform in the country. 800,000 new contents are generated every day in 23 million Blogs and 10 million Cafes.


title: Naver Corporation

text: Naver Dictionary supports 34 categories, including English, Korean, Chinese , Chinese characters, Japanese, Global Communication, Vietnamese, Uzbek, Indonesian, Thai, Arabic, Khmer, Tamil, Mongolian, Hindi, Persian, Nepali, Swahili, French, German, Spanish, Russian, Italian, Latin, Portuguese, Turkish, Georgian, Albanian, Ukrainian, Romanian, Dutch, Swedish, Hungarian, Polish, and Czech as of May 30, 2017. It has the most languages among Korean dictionaries. Handwriting recognition is supported in Japanese and Chinese characters. Naver is also investing 10 billion won for the development of language dictionaries for five years beginning from 2016.


title: Naver Corporation

text: Naver Encyclopedia functions consist of a professional database with over 3 million entries from many different encyclopedias.


title: Naver Corporation

text: V Live is a global live streaming platform with high-quality videos and contents ranging from concert broadcasts to V originals (for example, real-time private shows for celebrities). There is also a subtitle service called V FANSUB which allows users to insert their own foreign-language subtitles to the videos. The subtitle feature has attracted a large number of foreign viewers, as K-pop is gaining popularity in other countries. V Live has 35 million total downloads and 19 million monthly users. According to Alexa, as of May 2018 it is one of the 1000 most visited webpages globally.


title: Naver Corporation

text: On January 27, 2021, it was announced that they would invest ₩354.8 billion ($321 million) in Hybe's technology subsidiary, Weverse Company Inc., acquiring 49% of the company. In return, the corporation would transfer its V Live streaming service to Weverse Company.


title: Naver Corporation

text: In July 2017, Naver launched Papago, which is an AI-based mobile translator that uses a large neural network technology named N2MT (Naver Neural Machine Translation). It can translate text and phrases in 15 different languages (Korean, English, Japanese, Chinese (Simplified), Chinese (Traditional), Spanish, French, German, Russian, Portuguese, Italian, Vietnamese, Thai, Indonesian, Hindi) by analyzing context instead of statistical analysis.


title: Naver Corporation

text: In June 2015, Naver launched its own payment service, Naver Pay, which allows mobile payment service and online checkout.


title: Naver Corporation

text: Naver TV (Previously known as Naver TV Cast) is a web broadcast network which provides web dramas distributed by Naver as well as user created content with videos and live streams.


title: Naver Corporation

text: Naver NOW. is a streaming service available through Naver's app, that streams music and radio shows live 24-hours a day.


title: Naver Corporation

text: In 2004, Naver Corporation launched its online comic service Naver Webtoon, which is now one of the largest Korean webtoon platforms. The service promotes a distinct infinite canvas layout as well as a weekly update system, and has gained a large amount of traction beginning from the late 2000s. The service received more than 6 million hits per day from unique visitors and had accumulated more than 29 billion total visits as of June 1, 2014. In July 2014, Naver launched a global version of the service under the name of Line Webtoon. The userbase of Line Webtoon grew rapidly after the service was released globally, with 65 million users per month, 18 million among them being foreign users. Line Webtoon showcases approximately 870 works in seven languages: English, Mandarin, Cantonese, Taiwanese Indonesian, Thai, Spanish and French. Various movies, Korean dramas, animated series, and video games have been produced based on Naver webtoons. According to JunKoo Kim in 2014, "a total of 189 books, videos and games based on [Naver] webtoons ha[d] either been produced or [were] in the process of being made." Well-known works include "The Sound of Your Heart", which was developed into a web series of the same name, "Noblesse", and "Tower of God". "Fashion King" and "Cheese in the Trap" were also each adapted into a film and television series respectively. In 2017, Naver split off its webtoon business into the subsidiary Naver Webtoon, which is also known by its alternative name Line Webtoon in foreign markets.


title: Naver Corporation

text: In addition, Naver Webtoon also manages a web-novel section specializing in online genre-novels since 2013. One of its most famous novels is "Moonlight Drawn by Clouds", which was adapted into a successful television series of the same name starring Park Bo-gum and Kim Yoo-jung.


title: Naver Corporation

text: In October 2017, Naver officially released the PC version of Whale, its omni-tasking web browser supporting diverse features using AI technologies. Naver had been developing Whale for 5 years and had released a beta version in March. Some functions include: omni-tasking (split-screen feature that lets users browse two sites in the same tab, with an adjustable divider), quick search (users can simply drag a word and the browser will directly provide corresponding search results through Naver's search engine), and smart pop-up (the browser automatically prevents popups from cluttering the screen).


title: Naver Corporation

text: Clova is an AI platform integrating speech and image recognition and artificial neural network translation to provide an interactive engine. Clova is being integrated into Naver and Line services, Naver's smart speaker WAVE and Friends, smart display FACE, and other third-party devices.


title: Naver Corporation

text: BAND, CAMP Mobile's first app released in August 2012, is a closed type of social network where groups can be formed according to type and purpose. The app has more than 80 million downloads with global users accounting for 30% of the user base, and currently supports 10 languages in over 168 countries. Band Game was also released in May 2014 to provide a competitive platform for both users and game companies. According to a survey conducted by the app data analysis firm Wiseapp in September 2017, Naver BAND is the second most-used social media service app for South Korean users, after Facebook. Its total usage time was 29 million hours, which was a 32 percent increase from the previous year. Naver Café came in third place, outperforming Instagram, Daum Café, Twitter, and Kakao Story.


title: Naver Corporation

text: Grafolio is a creative community space where artists can share their artworks. Grafolio supports active creators and connects them with people with the hope that they will be able to meet more fans and make profits.


title: Naver Corporation

text: Me2day was a microblog platform that allowed users to share messages of 150 characters in length. However, it shut down in June 2014, due to poor performance against global competitors such as Twitter and Facebook.


title: Naver Corporation

text: CAMP Mobile was established in March 2013 and focuses on developing mobile services. While it originally began as a small venture project, Camp Mobile launched over 10 different apps in areas such as utilities, social networking, and e-commerce within four months of its establishment.


title: Naver Corporation

text: In 2015, the company also presented Watchmaster, an app that allows users to select their own smart watch home screen.


title: Naver Corporation

text: In November 2017, it was announced that Camp Mobile would be merged back into Naver Corporation in February 2018.


title: Naver Corporation

text: SNOW Corporation develops a photo and video application called SNOW, which is considered somewhat similar to Snapchat, since both apps suggest video as an alternative communication tool rather than text. SNOW first began in September 2015 as a guerilla project in CAMP Mobile, but has spun off into its own company as of 2016 in order to give more focus to the global visual communication market. SNOW allows users to take pictures or videos (of a maximum duration of 10 seconds) and choose from 1,300 stickers and 50 filters. They can also send them as messages that destroy themselves in 48 hours. The application has over 200 million users, mainly consisting of teenagers in Asian countries.


title: Naver Corporation

text: The firm is led by CEO Kim Chang-wook and its office is located in Pangyo, South Korea with approximately 200 employees.


title: Naver Corporation

text: NAVER LABS Corp. is Naver's R&D subsidiary developing future technologies in areas such as autonomous driving and artificial intelligence with the goal of achieving Ambient Intelligence. It first began as an R&D division within Naver in 2013, and was officially established in Pangyo in January 2017 with CEO Song Chang-Hyeon. Naver Labs has been working in areas such as Papago (an AI-based translation app), Whale (an omni-tasking browser), and robots. Products include the autonomous robot Around, the in-vehicle information and entertainment platform Away, as well as an autonomous vehicle project.


title: Naver Corporation

text: In August 2017, Naver Labs acquired Xerox Research Center Europe (XRCE) for an undisclosed amount and renamed it Naver Labs Europe. Naver said that the acquisition of the high-tech research center located in Grenoble, France earned the company 80 specialists in AI research and development and technologies necessary to "realize 'living environment intelligence' such as autonomous driving cars and 3-dimensional indoor map production robots". Naver Labs Europe is the biggest industrial research centre in Artificial Intelligence in France.


title: Naver Corporation

text: NAVER Cloud Corporation provides global IT infrastructure management and enterprise solutions for Naver and its subsidiaries. NAVER Cloud has launched a cloud service called Naver Cloud Platform, and has also created an environment-friendly Data Center called GAK, which was a first for a domestic internet operator.


title: Naver Corporation

text: The Data Center GAK was opened in June 2013 in order to protect the data of several million users in its servers. It consists of 4 server buildings built on a scale of 7 soccer stadiums (54,229m). The name of the center comes from ‘Jang Gyung Gak’, a traditional building that houses the famous Tripitaka Koreana. Jang Gyung Gak is respected for having safely protected important historical records even in the face of foreign invasion, and continues to preserves them in a manner that is both environmentally friendly and scientifically renown. Likewise, it is said that the Data Center Gak inherits this spirit of protection and provides safe housing for current historical records so that they can be passed on to the future. The Center incorporates environmentally friendly technology that cools the heat generated from the servers, and in 2009, it has received the top LEED platinum award with 95 points, which is the highest score in the world for a data center.


title: Naver Corporation

text: Works Mobile Corporation provides a cloud-based office service called Line Works for B2B purposes. Functions include mail, calendar, address Book, N-drive, and web-office. Works Mobile has users mainly in Korea and Japan, but also targets the global B2B market with help from operation know-how of NAVER Cloud and Naver.


title: Naver Corporation

text: Studio N is the production company founded by Naver Webtoon in 2018 to produce original drama series based on their Korean webtoon IPs. Its shows include "Hell Is Other People", "Pegasus Market", and "Sweet Home".


title: Naver Corporation

text: Happy Bean began as Korea's first online donation platform in July 2005, connecting potential contributors with public organizations in need of assistance. Its concept was to make online donating easier and more convenient by using a special digital currency called 'beans', while also providing information about social welfare organizations and various donation campaigns. Ever since, Happy Bean has led a new donation trend where users can donate on a daily basis more easily, without having to go through complicated processes. The Happy Bean Foundation was established in May 2009 in order to handle the overall business operations of Happy Bean. As of October 2017, the foundation has received a total donation of 75 billion won with 14 million participants and about 6 thousand participating organizations.


title: Naver Corporation

text: Deview is a conference hosted by Naver since 2008, where developers from various countries share their technical knowledge and experience. Through several dozens of sessions, participants share in-depth knowledge in fields such as web, mobile, AI, big data, deep learning, robotics, and more. In 2017, 2,500 tickets went out in 15 seconds.


title: Naver Corporation

text: Naver Cultural Foundation, officially established in 2009, is devoted to creating online and offline cultural spaces where people can rediscover and discuss various forms of culture such as books. In 2010, the Naver Cultural Foundation launched a support program for indie musicians. In November of the same year, the foundation opened an online platform called 'Onstage' to introduce new up-and-coming indie bands.


title: Naver Corporation

text: Connect Foundation is an independent nonprofit organization established by Naver in 2011. It serves public interest by providing equal educational opportunities for everyone. It promotes the dissemination of IT education as well as basic science and engineering education projects. Programs include public online classes, software training, math/science education, and design courses. In September 2017, Naver announced plans to donate 7 billion won (6.2 million dollars) to the Connect Foundation. As a result, Naver's total amount of donations to the Connect Foundation accumulated to 12 billion won (10.6 million dollars).


title: Naver Corporation

text: D2 Startup Factory (D2SF) is an investment project that was launched in May 2015 with the goals of vitalizing the domestic tech start-up environment and fostering talents. As of 2017, it has invested in 16 start-ups with notable technical skills in areas such as AI, hardware, VR/AR and IoT. For example, in August 2017, it announced its investments in AI startups Furiosa AI, Deepixel, and CrowdWorks. In September of the same year, D2SF held a Demo Day where it presented four start-ups that they were also investing in: Buzzmusiq (social visual playlist platform), Elice (online education platform for coders), Widevantage (producer of smart pens for iPad), and The Wave Talk (technology that automatically filters bacteria and drains contaminants from running water).


title: Naver Corporation

text: In 2016, Naver launched Project Flower, the company's long-term project to provide platform services that small enterprises and content creators can utilize to maximize benefits and reap success. As a business and content platform, Naver has 1.6 million local businesses, more than 400 professional webcomic authors, 150 web novel writers, 10,000 illustrators and 3,300 indie musicians. By providing more support for small businesses, the company said that it aims to attract more than 10,000 new small businesses to its platform every year and predicts that over 1,500 of them will earn more than 100 million won each in annual sales. For content creators, Naver helps them work in a sustainable environment and ultimately encourages them to go global as a way to motivate their creativity. To do so, Naver has expanded the application of its illustration content platform Grafolio to include not only illustrations but also photography, design, art and background music. It also holds original content exhibitions and events such as Creators' Day. Naver also diversifies the income structure of content creators by matching them with investors through crowdfunding and by connecting them to digital content marketplaces.


title: Naver Corporation

text: As of 2021, Naver had 4,595 employees, excluding subsidiaries. In 2014, Naver was awarded the Presidential Award for Excellent Enterprise in equal employment division by the ministry of Labor.


title: Naver Corporation

text: Naver's headquarters, located in Bundang-gu Seongnam-si of South Korea, is referred to as the Green Factory.


title: Naver Corporation

text: The construction of the Green Factory was completed in March 2010 with 27 floors above ground and 7 floors underground. The interior of the building was designed to provide as open an environment as possible, where the company's culture and values would be reflected. The intent was to create a working space which fosters better communication between employees.


title: Naver Corporation

text: Green Factory's office spaces are designed like pods, which focus on a central open meeting area. Most of the central meeting spaces have non-traditional furniture and match the casual atmosphere represented throughout the rest of the interior. The emergency stairs sport different patterns or designs instead of the typical painted concrete finish. The building also has special facilities including a library and a magazine area, which are both open to the public, a cafeteria, an exercise center, and a healthcare center.


title: Naver Corporation

text: The steel and glass façade houses adjustable vertical louvers which restrict or allow sunlight to enter the building. The louvers are automatically closed and opened at times of sunrise and sunset, allowing the building to save energy. On special occasions, the façade displays different images such as the company's logo. Internal light is selectively blocked by a nocturnal automated louver system.


title: Parenchyma

text: Parenchyma () is the bulk of functional substance in an animal organ or structure such as a tumour. In zoology it is the name for the tissue that fills the interior of flatworms.


title: Parenchyma

text: The term "parenchyma" is New Latin from the word παρέγχυμα "parenchyma" meaning 'visceral flesh', and from παρεγχεῖν "parenchyma" meaning 'to pour in' from παρα- "para-" 'beside' + ἐν "en-" 'in' + χεῖν "chyma" 'to pour'.


title: Parenchyma

text: Originally, Erasistratus and other anatomists used it to refer to certain human tissues. Later, it was also applied to plant tissues by Nehemiah Grew.


title: Parenchyma

text: The parenchyma is the "functional" parts of an organ, or of a structure such as a tumour in the body. This is in contrast to the stroma, which refers to the "structural" tissue of organs or of structures, namely, the connective tissues.


title: Parenchyma

text: The brain parenchyma refers to the functional tissue in the brain that is made up of the two types of brain cell, neurons and glial cells. It is also known to contain collagen proteins. Damage or trauma to the brain parenchyma often results in a loss of cognitive ability or even death. Bleeding into the parenchyma is known as intraparenchymal hemorrhage.


title: Parenchyma

text: Lung parenchyma is the substance of the lung that is involved with gas exchange and includes the pulmonary alveoli.


title: Parenchyma

text: The liver parenchyma is the functional tissue of the organ made up of around 80% of the liver volume as hepatocytes. The other main type of liver cells are non-parenchymal. Non-parenchymal cells constitute 40% of the total number of liver cells but only 6.5% of its volume.


title: Parenchyma

text: The renal parenchyma is divided into two major structures: the outer renal cortex and the inner renal medulla. Grossly, these structures take the shape of 7 to 18 cone-shaped renal lobes, each containing renal cortex surrounding a portion of medulla called a renal pyramid.


title: Parenchyma

text: The tumor parenchyma, of a solid tumour, is one of the two distinct compartments in a solid tumour. The parenchyma is made up of neoplastic cells. The other compartment is the stroma induced by the neoplastic cells, needed for nutritional support and waste removal. In many types of tumour, clusters of parenchymal cells are separated by a basal lamina that can sometimes be incomplete.


title: Parenchyma

text: Parenchyma is the tissue made up of cells and intercellular spaces that fills the interior of the body of a flatworm, which is an acoelomate. This is a spongy tissue also known as a mesenchymal tissue, in which several types of cells are lodged in their extracellular matrices. The parenchymal cells include myocytes, and many types of specialised cells. The cells are often attached to each other and also to their nearby epithelial cells mainly by gap junctions and hemidesmosomes. There is much variation in the types of cell in the parenchyma according to the species and anatomical regions. Its possible functions may include skeletal support, nutrient storage, movement, and many others.


title: Freedom of Information Act (United States)

text: The Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), , is the U.S. federal freedom of information law that requires the full or partial disclosure of previously unreleased or uncirculated information and documents controlled by the United States government, state, or other public authority upon request. The act defines agency records subject to disclosure, outlines mandatory disclosure procedures, and includes nine exemptions that define categories of information not subject to disclosure. The act was intended to make U.S. government agencies' functions more transparent so that the American public could more easily identify problems in government functioning and put pressure on Congress, agency officials, and the president to address them. The FOIA has been changed repeatedly by both the legislative and executive branches.


text: Apart from the U.S. federal government's Freedom of Information Act, the U.S. states have their own varying freedom of information laws.


text: The Freedom of Information Act is commonly known for being invoked by news organizations for reporting purposes. However, such uses make up less than 10% of all requests, with businesses, law firms, and individuals all being more frequent users.


text: As indicated by its long title, FOIA was moved from its original home in Section 3 of the Administrative Procedure Act (APA). Section 3 of the APA, as enacted in 1946, gave agencies broad discretion concerning the publication of governmental records. Following concerns that the provision had become more of a withholding than a disclosure mechanism, Congress amended the section in 1966 as a standalone act to implement "a general philosophy of full agency disclosure." The amendment required agencies to publish their rules of procedure in the "Federal Register", 5 U.S.C. § 552(a)(1)(C), and to make available for public inspection and copying their opinions, statements of policy, interpretations, and staff manuals and instructions that are not already published in the Federal Register, § 552(a)(2). In addition, § 552(a)(3) requires every agency, "upon any request for records which ... reasonably describes such records" to make such records "promptly available to any person." By § 552(a)(4)(B) if an agency improperly withholds any documents, the district court has jurisdiction to order their production. Unlike the review of other agency action that must be upheld if supported by substantial evidence and not arbitrary or capricious, FOIA expressly places the burden "on the agency to sustain its action," and directs the district courts to "determine the matter de novo."


text: With the ongoing stress on both constitutional and inherent rights of American citizens and the added assertion of government subservience to the individual, some, particularly representative John Moss, thought that it was necessary for government information to be available to the public. This push built on existing principles and protocols of government administration already in place.


text: Others, though—most notably President Lyndon B. Johnson—believed that certain types of unclassified government information should nonetheless remain secret. Notwithstanding the White House's opposition, Congress expanded Section 3 of the Administrative Procedure Act as a standalone measure in 1966 to further standardize the publication of government records, consistent with the belief that the people have the "right to know" about them. The Privacy Act of 1974 was passed as a countervailing measure to ensure the security of government documents increasingly kept on private citizens.


text: The act explicitly applies only to government agencies under the executive branch. These agencies are required by several mandates to comply with public solicitation of information. Along with making public and accessible all bureaucratic and technical procedures for applying for documents from that agency, agencies are also subject to penalties for hindering the process of a petition for information. If "agency personnel acted arbitrarily or capriciously with respect to the withholding, [c] Special Counsel shall promptly initiate a proceeding to determine whether disciplinary action is warranted against the officer or employee who was primarily responsible for the withholding." In this way, there is recourse for one seeking information to go to a federal court if suspicion of illegal tampering or delayed sending of records exists. However, there are nine exemptions, ranging from a withholding "specifically authorized under criteria established by an Executive order to be kept secret in the interest of national defense or foreign policy" and "trade secrets" to "clearly unwarranted invasion of personal privacy." The nine current exemptions to the FOIA address issues of sensitivity and personal rights. They are (as listed in :


text: The Postal Reorganization Act of 1970 (at ) exempts the United States Postal Service (USPS) from disclosure of "information of a commercial nature, including trade secrets, whether or not obtained from a person outside the Postal Service, which under good business practice would not be publicly disclosed".


text: The law came about because of the determination of United States House of Representatives member John E. Moss of California. Moss was chairman of the House Government Information Subcommittee. It took Moss 12 years to get the Freedom of Information Act through Congress. Much of the desire for government transparency stemmed from the Department of Defense and Congressional committees evaluation of the nation's classification system in the late 1950s. They determined that the misuse of government classification of documents was causing insiders to leak documents that were marked "confidential". The committee also determined that the lowest rung of the confidentiality ladder "confidential" should be removed. They deemed that "secret" and "top secret" covered National security adequately. The Moss Committee took it upon itself to reform confidentiality policy and implement punishments for the overuse of classification by officials and departments.


text: The Freedom of Information Act was initially introduced as the bill in the 89th Congress. When the two-page bill was signed into law, it became , but had an effective date of one year after the date of enactment, or July 4, 1967. The law set up the structure of FOIA as we know it today.


text: That law was initially repealed. During the period between the enactment of the act and its effective date, Title 5 of the United States Code was enacted into positive law. For reasons now unclear but which may have had to do with the way the enactment of Title 5 changed how the law being amended was supposed to be cited, the original Freedom of Information Act was replaced. A new act in (originally in the 90th Congress), repealed the original and put in its place a substantively identical law. This statute was signed on June 5, 1967, and had the same effective date as the original statute: July 4, 1967.


text: Following the Watergate scandal, President Gerald R. Ford wanted to sign FOIA-strengthening amendments in the Privacy Act of 1974, but White House Chief of Staff Donald Rumsfeld and deputy Dick Cheney were concerned about leaks. Assistant Attorney General for the Office of Legal Counsel Antonin Scalia advised the bill was unconstitutional and even telephoned the CIA asking them to lobby a particular White House staffer. President Ford was persuaded to veto the bill on October 17, 1974, according to documents declassified in 2004. However, on November 21, the lame-duck Congress overrode President Ford's veto, giving the United States the core Freedom of Information Act still in effect today, with judicial review of executive secrecy claims.


text: Scalia remained highly critical of the 1974 amendments, writing years later that "It is the Taj Mahal of the Doctrine of Unanticipated Consequences, the Sistine Chapel of Cost-Benefit Analysis Ignored." Scalia particularly disliked the availability of judicial review, decrying that if "an agency denies a freedom of information request, shazam!—the full force of the Third Branch of the government is summoned to the wronged party's assistance."


text: Those amendments to the FOIA regulate government control of documents that concern a citizen. They give one "(1) the right to see records about [one]self, subject to the Privacy Act's exemptions, (2) the right to amend that record if it is inaccurate, irrelevant, untimely, or incomplete, and (3) the right to sue the government for violations of the statute including permitting others to see [one's] records unless specifically permitted by the Act." In conjunction with the FOIA, the Privacy Act is used to further the rights of an individual gaining access to information held by the government. The Justice Department's Office of Information and Privacy and federal district courts are the two channels of appeal available to seekers of information.


text: In 1976, as part of the Government in the Sunshine Act, Exemption 3 of the FOIA was amended so that several exemptions were specified:


text: Between 1982 and 1995, President Reagan's allowed federal agencies to withhold enormous amounts of information under Exemption 1 (relating to national security information), claiming it would better protect the country and strengthen national security.


text: The outcry from the effect that the Reagan Order had on FOIA requests was a factor in leading President Clinton to dramatically alter the criteria in 1995.


text: The FOIA amendments were a small part of the bipartisan Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986. Congress amended FOIA to address the fees charged by different categories of requesters and the scope of access to law enforcement and national security records. The amendments are not referenced in the congressional reports on the Act, so the floor statements provide an indication of Congressional intent.


text: Between 1995 and 1999, President Clinton issued executive directives (and amendments to the directives) that allowed the release of previously classified national security documents more than 25 years old and of historical interest, as part of the FOIA. This release of information allowed many previously publicly unknown details about the Cold War and other historical events to be discussed openly.


text: The Electronic Freedom of Information Act Amendments of 1996 (E-FOIA) stated that all agencies are required by statute to make certain types of records, created by the agency on or after November 1, 1996, available electronically. Agencies must also provide electronic reading rooms for citizens to use to have access to records. Given the large volume of records and limited resources, the amendment also extended the agencies' required response time to FOIA requests. Formerly, the response time was ten days and the amendment extended it to twenty business days.


text: Executive Order 13233, drafted by Alberto R. Gonzales and issued by President George W. Bush on November 1, 2001, restricted access to the records of former presidents.


text: This order was revoked on January 21, 2009, as part of President Barack Obama's . Public access to presidential records was restored to the original extent of five years (12 for some records) outlined in the Presidential Records Act.


text: In 2002, Congress passed the Intelligence Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2003, . Within this omnibus legislation were amendments to the FOIA (pertaining mainly to intelligence agencies) entitled "Prohibition on Compliance with Requests for Information Submitted by Foreign Governments":


text: In effect, this new language precluded any covered U.S. intelligence agency from disclosing records in response to FOIA requests made by foreign governments or international governmental organizations. By its terms, it prohibits disclosure in response to requests made by such non-U.S. governmental entities either directly or through a "representative". This means that for any FOIA request that by its nature appears as if it might have been made by or on behalf of a non-U.S. governmental entity, a covered agency may inquire into the particular circumstances of the requester in order to properly implement this new FOIA provision.


text: The agencies affected by this amendment are those that are part of, or contain "an element of", the "intelligence community". As defined in the National Security Act of 1947 (as amended), they consist of the CIA, the National Security Agency, the Defense Intelligence Agency, the National Imagery and Mapping Agency, the National Reconnaissance Office (and certain other reconnaissance offices within the Department of Defense), the intelligence elements of the Army, the Navy, the Air Force, and the Marine Corps, the FBI, the Department of the Treasury, the Department of Energy, and the Coast Guard, the Department of Homeland Security, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research in the Department of State, and "such other elements of any other department or agency as may be designated by the President, or designated jointly by the Director of Central Intelligence and the head of the department or agency concerned, as an element of the intelligence community".


text: President Bush signed the Openness Promotes Effectiveness in our National Government Act of 2007, , on December 31, 2007. This law, also known as the "OPEN Government Act of 2007", amended the federal FOIA statute in several ways. According to a White House press release, it does so by:


text: On December 29, 2009, President Barack Obama issued Executive Order 13526, which allows the government to classify certain specific types of information relevant to national security after it has been requested. That is, a request for information that meets the criteria for availability under FOIA can still be denied if the government determines that the information should have been classified, and unavailable. It also sets a timeline for automatic declassification of old information that is not specifically identified as requiring continued secrecy.


text: The Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, signed into law in July 2010, included provisions in section 929I that shielded the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) from requests under the Freedom of Information Act. The provisions were initially motivated out of concern that the FOIA would hinder SEC investigations that involved trade secrets of financial companies, including "watch lists" they gathered about other companies, trading records of investment managers, and "trading algorithms" used by investment firms.


text: In September 2010, the 111th Congress passed an act repealing those provisions. The act was introduced in the Senate on August 5, 2010 as S.3717 and given the name "A bill to amend the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, the Investment Company Act of 1940, and the Investment Advisers Act of 1940 to provide for certain disclosures under section 552 of title 5, United States Code, (commonly referred to as the Freedom of Information Act), and for other purposes."


text: A major issue in released documentation is government "redaction" of certain passages deemed applicable to the Exemption section of the FOIA. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) officers in charge of responding to FOIA requests "so heavily redacted the released records as to preclude needed research." This has also brought into question just how one can verify that they have been given complete records in response to a request.


text: This trend of unwillingness to release records was especially evident in the process of making public the FBI files on J. Edgar Hoover. Of the 164 files and about eighteen thousand pages collected by the FBI, two-thirds were withheld from Athan G. Theoharis, most notably one entire folder entitled the "White House Security Survey". Despite finding out that the Truman Library had an accessible file which documented all the reports of this folder, the FBI and Office of Information and Privacy put forth "stony resistance" to the FOIA appeal process.


text: A murder trial decided in 1993, "Department of Justice v. Landano", , involved what was alleged to be a felony murder committed during a group burglary by defendant Landano. Justice Sandra Day O'Connor wrote the unanimous opinion. "In an effort to support his claim in subsequent state court proceedings that the prosecution violated "Brady v. Maryland", , by withholding material exculpatory evidence, he filed Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests with the FBI for information it had compiled in connection with the murder investigation."


text: In defense, the FBI put forth a claim that the redacted sections of the documents requested were withheld in accordance with FOIA regulations protecting the identity of informants who gave information regarding case details. However, O'Connor ruled that those who supplied information had no need to remain anonymous in the court setting. "To the extent that the Government's proof may compromise legitimate interests, the Government still can attempt to meet its burden with in camera affidavits." The court thus remanded the case to the Circuit Courts and rejected the FBI's claim of confidentiality as being a valid reason to withhold information.


text: "While most individual sources may expect confidentiality, the Government offers no explanation, other than administrative ease, why that expectation always should be presumed." Thus, when Theoharis and company were in the middle of fighting in court to obtain J. Edgar Hoover files, they may well have benefited from "Landano" and also Janet Reno's assertions of the government's need for "greater openness" and "discretionary releases" in 1993.


text: In the case of "Scott Armstrong v. Executive Office of the President, et al.", the White House used the PROFS computer communications software. With encryption designed for secure messaging, PROFS notes concerning the Iran–Contra affair (arms-for-hostages) under the Reagan Administration were insulated. However, they were also backed up and transferred to paper memos. The National Security Council, on the eve of President George H. W. Bush's inauguration, planned to destroy these records. The National Security Archive, Armstrong's association for the preservation of government historical documents, obtained an injunction in Federal District Court against the head, John Fawcett, of the National Archives and Records Administration and the National Security Council's purging of PROFS records. A Temporary Restraining Order was approved by Senior U.S. District Court Judge Barrington D. Parker. Suit was filed at District Court under Judge Richey, who upheld the injunction of PROFS records.


text: Richey gave a further injunction to prevent a purging of the George H.W. Bush's administration's records as well. On counts of leaving the White House clean for the new Clinton Administration, the Bush group appealed but was denied its request. Finally, the Clinton Administration appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals, stating that the National Security Council was not truly an agency but a group of aides to the President and thus not subject to FOIA regulations. Under the Presidential Records Act, "FOIA requests for NSC [could] not be filed until five years after the president ha[d] left office ... or twelve years if the records [were] classified." The Clinton administration won, and the National Security Archive was not granted a writ of certiorari by the Supreme Court on these grounds. According to Scott Armstrong, taking into account labor and material costs, the three presidential administrations spent almost $9.3 million on contesting the National Security Archive FOIA requests for PROFS e-mail records.


text: In 2013, the Associated Press uncovered several federal agencies where staff regularly used fictitious identities and secret or unlisted email accounts to conduct government business. The use of these email accounts stymied FOIA requests. In some cases, the government demanded exorbitant (greater than $1 million) fees for records that appeals showed should be available for minimal cost.


text: The Act contains a provision legally requiring agencies to respond to FOIA requests within 20 days. However, for two main reasons, many agencies rarely meet this requirement. First, the task of screening requests for sensitive or classified information is often arduous and lengthy at agencies like the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Second, Congressional funding for agency staff to handle FOIA requests is usually far less than the necessary amount to hire sufficient employees. As a result, parties who request information under FOIA often end up filing lawsuits in federal court seeking judicial orders forcing the agencies to comply with their FOIA requests.