title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Three factors threaten ring-tailed lemurs. First and foremost is habitat destruction. Starting nearly 2,000 years ago with the introduction of humans to the island, forests have been cleared to produce pasture and agricultural land. Extraction of hardwoods for fuel and lumber, as well mining and overgrazing, have also taken their toll. Today, it is estimated that 90% of Madagascar's original forest cover has been lost. Rising populations have created even greater demand in the southwest portion of the island for fuel wood, charcoal, and lumber. Fires from the clearing of grasslands, as well as slash-and-burn agriculture destroy forests. Another threat to the species is harvesting either for food (bushmeat), fur clothing or pets. Finally, periodic drought common to southern Madagascar can impact populations already in decline. In 1991 and 1992, for example, a severe drought caused an abnormally high mortality rate among infants and females at the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve. Two years later, the population had declined by 31% and took nearly four years to start to recover.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The ring-tailed lemur resides in several protected areas within its range, each offering varying levels of protection. At the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, a holistic approach to in-situ conservation has been taken. Not only does field research and resource management involve international students and local people (including school children), livestock management is used at the peripheral zones of the reserve and ecotourism benefits the local people.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Outside of its diminishing habitat and other threats, the ring-tailed lemur reproduces readily and has fared well in captivity. For this reason, along with its popularity, it has become the most populous lemur in zoos worldwide, with more than 2500 in captivity as of 2009. It is also the most common of all captive primates. Ex situ facilities actively involved in the conservation of the ring-tailed lemur include the Duke Lemur Center in Durham, North Carolina, the Lemur Conservation Foundation in Myakka City, Florida, and the Madagascar Fauna Group headquartered at the Saint Louis Zoo. Due to the high success of captive breeding, reintroduction is a possibility if wild populations were to crash. Although experimental releases have met success on St. Catherines Island in Georgia, demonstrating that captive lemurs can readily adapt to their environment and exhibit a full range of natural behaviors, captive release is not currently being considered.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: Ring-tailed lemur populations can also benefit from drought intervention, due to the availability of watering troughs and introduced fruit trees, as seen at the Berenty Private Reserve in southern Madagascar. However, these interventions are not always seen favorably, since natural population fluctuations are not permitted. The species is thought to have evolved its high fecundity due to its harsh environment.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The ring-tailed lemur is known locally in Malagasy as ' (pronounced , and spelled "maki" in French) or ' (pronounced or colloquially ). Being the most widely recognized endemic primate on the island, it has been selected as the symbol for Madagascar National Parks (formerly known as ANGAP). The "Maki" brand, which started by selling T-shirts in Madagascar and now sells clothing across the Indian Ocean islands, is named after this lemur due to its popularity, despite the fact that the company's logo portrays the face of a sifaka and its name uses the French spelling.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: The first mention of the ring-tailed lemur in Western literature came in 1625 when English traveler and writer Samuel Purchas described them as being comparable in size to a monkey and having a fox-like long tail with black and white rings. Charles Catton included the species in his 1788 book "Animals Drawn from Nature and Engraved in Aqua-tinta", calling it the "Maucauco" and regarding it as a type of monkey.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: It has been popularized in Western culture by the Animal Planet television series "Lemur Street", as well as by the character King Julien in the animated "Madagascar" film and TV franchise. The ring-tailed lemur was also the focus of the 1996 "Nature" documentary "A Lemur's Tale", which was filmed at the Berenty Reserve and followed a troop of lemurs. The troop included a special infant named Sapphire, who was nearly albino, with white fur, bright blue eyes, and the characteristic ringed tail.


title: Ring-tailed lemur

text: This species also played a role in the 1997 comedy film "Fierce Creatures", starring John Cleese, who has a passion for lemurs. Cleese later hosted the 1998 BBC documentary "In the Wild: Operation Lemur with John Cleese", which tracked the progress of a reintroduction of black-and-white ruffed lemurs back into the Betampona Reserve in Madagascar. The project had been partly funded by Cleese's donation of the proceeds from the London premier of "Fierce Creatures".


title: Oxbow lake

text: An oxbow lake is a U-shaped lake or pool that forms when a wide meander of a river is cut off, creating a free-standing body of water. In South Texas, oxbows left by the Rio Grande are called "resacas". In Australia, oxbow lakes are called billabongs.


title: Oxbow lake

text: The word "oxbow" can also refer to a U-shaped bend in a river or stream, whether or not it is cut off from the main stream.


title: Oxbow lake

text: An oxbow lake forms when a meandering river erodes through the neck of one of its meanders. This takes place because meanders tend to grow and become more curved over time. The river then follows a shorter course that bypasses the meander. The entrances to the abandoned meander eventually silt up, forming an oxbow lake. Because oxbow lakes are stillwater lakes, with no current flowing through them, the entire lake gradually silts up, becoming a bog or swamp and then evaporating completely.


title: Oxbow lake

text: When a river reaches a low-lying plain, often in its final course to the sea or a lake, it meanders widely. In the vicinity of a river bend, deposition occurs on the convex bank (the bank with the smaller radius). In contrast, both lateral erosion and undercutting occur on the cut bank or concave bank (the bank with the greater radius). Continuous deposition on the convex bank and erosion of the concave bank of a meandering river cause the formation of a very pronounced meander with two concave banks getting closer. The narrow neck of land between the two neighboring concave banks is finally cut through, either by lateral erosion of the two concave banks or by the strong currents of a flood. When this happens a new, straighter river channel develops—and an abandoned meander loop, called a cutoff, forms. When deposition finally seals off the cutoff from the river channel, an oxbow lake forms. This process can occur over a time from a few years to several decades, and may sometimes become essentially static.


title: Oxbow lake

text: Gathering of erosion products near the concave bank and transporting them to the convex bank is the work of the secondary flow across the floor of the river in the vicinity of a river bend. The process of deposition of silt, sand and gravel on the convex bank is clearly illustrated in point bars.


title: Oxbow lake

text: The effect of the secondary flow can be demonstrated using a circular bowl. Partly fill the bowl with water and sprinkle dense particles such as sand or rice into the bowl. Set the water into circular motion with one hand or a spoon. The dense particles quickly sweep into a neat pile in the center of the bowl. This is the mechanism that leads to the formation of point bars and contributes to the formation of oxbow lakes. The primary flow of water in the bowl is circular and the streamlines are concentric with the side of the bowl. However, the secondary flow of the boundary layer across the floor of the bowl is inward toward the center. The primary flow might be expected to fling the dense particles to the perimeter of the bowl, but instead the secondary flow sweeps the particles toward the center.


title: Oxbow lake

text: The curved path of a river around a bend makes the water's surface slightly higher on the outside of the bend than on the inside. As a result, at any elevation within the river, water pressure is slightly greater near the outside of the bend than on the inside. A pressure gradient toward the convex bank provides the centripetal force necessary for each parcel of water to follow its curved path.


title: Oxbow lake

text: The boundary layer that flows along the river floor does not move fast enough to balance the pressure gradient laterally across the river. It responds to this pressure gradient, and its velocity is partly downstream and partly across the river toward the convex bank. As it flows along the floor of the river, it sweeps loose material toward the convex bank. This flow of the boundary layer is significantly different from the speed and direction of the primary flow of the river, and is part of the river's secondary flow.


title: Oxbow lake

text: River flood plains that contain rivers with a highly sinuous platform are populated by longer oxbow lakes than those with low sinuosity. This is because rivers with high sinuosity have larger meanders, and greater opportunity for longer lakes to form. Rivers with lower sinuosity are characterized by fewer cutoffs and shorter oxbow lakes due to the shorter distance of their meanders.


title: Oxbow lake

text: Oxbow lakes form favorable habitats for wildlife communities. These often have unique characteristics. For example, the numerous oxbow lakes of the Amazon River are a favorable habitat for the giant river otter. Oxbow lakes may also be suitable locations for aquaculture.


title: Oxbow lake

text: Oxbow lakes contribute to the health of a river ecosystem by trapping sediments and agricultural runoff, thereby removing them from the main river flow. However, this is destructive of the oxbow lake ecosystem itself. Oxbow lakes are also vulnerable to heavy metal contamination from industrial sources.


title: Oxbow lake

text: Oxbow lakes may be formed when a river channel is straightened artificially to improve navigation or for flood alleviation. This occurred notably on the upper Rhine in Germany in the nineteenth century.


title: Oxbow lake

text: An example of an entirely artificial waterway with oxbows is the Oxford Canal in England. When originally constructed, it had a very meandering course, following the contours of the land, but the northern part of the canal was straightened out between 1829 and 1834, reducing its length from approximately and creating a number of oxbow-shaped sections isolated from the new course.


title: Oxbow lake

text: There has also been a possible oxbow lake postulated in Saraswati Flumen near Ontario Lacus on Saturn's moon Titan.


title: Dick Martin (comedian)

text: Thomas Richard Martin (January 30, 1922 – May 24, 2008), known professionally as Dick Martin, was an American comedian and director. He was known for his role as the co-host of the sketch comedy program "Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In" from 1968 to 1973.


title: Dick Martin (comedian)

text: Martin was born in Battle Creek, Michigan, to William, a salesman, and Ethel Martin, a homemaker. In the early 1930s, the family moved to Detroit, where his teenage years included a bout with tuberculosis, which kept him out of the military.


title: Dick Martin (comedian)

text: Early in his career, Martin was a staff writer for "Duffy's Tavern", a radio situation comedy. He and Dan Rowan formed the comedy team Rowan and Martin in 1952 and played in nightclubs throughout the United States and overseas. Martin played a drunk heckling a Shakespearean performer, a mainstay of their act for years. They could frequently be seen as host-performers on NBC's "Colgate Comedy Hour," alternating with Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis and other more established names. In 1958, they starred in Hal Kanter's comedy Western "Once Upon a Horse...", which was a box office failure. In 1960, they asked NBC to cancel their contract four years early and the network agreed.


title: Dick Martin (comedian)

text: In 1962, Martin worked solo, playing the next-door neighbor to Lucille Ball during the first season of her comeback comedy "The Lucy Show". He and Rowan returned to the nightclub circuit until 1966, when they were asked to host the summer replacement series for "The Dean Martin Show". He co-starred in the 1966 Doris Day movie "The Glass Bottom Boat".


title: Dick Martin (comedian)

text: The exposure led to an opportunity for Rowan and Martin to team up with producers Ed Friendly and George Schlatter and create "Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In" (1968–1973) on NBC. The comedy show was an immediate hit, becoming the number one American television program within two months of its debut. It was the top-rated show in its second and third seasons. "Laugh-In" had a uniquely fast-paced stream-of-consciousness style of blackout gags, double entendre, topical satire, and catchphrases, much of it delivered by a cast of then-unknowns such as Goldie Hawn, Lily Tomlin, Arte Johnson, and Ruth Buzzi.


title: Dick Martin (comedian)

text: At the center of the maelstrom stood the veterans Rowan and Martin, who bemusedly made no effort to slow down the program. Martin later said, "We designed it so that we are two relatively normal guys wandering through a sea of madness," and described his comic persona as "a kind of inept lech" who could be laughed at as well as laughed with. In real life, Martin spent the 1960s enjoying his high-flying lifestyle of women and parties. At the height of the show's popularity, Rowan and Martin starred in the 1969 film "The Maltese Bippy", which was a notorious failure. After Rowan retired from show business, Martin was a frequent panelist on game shows such as "Match Game", "Password Plus", and "Tattletales", and he also hosted a parody game show called "The Cheap Show" in 1978, and the game show "Mindreaders" in 1979.


title: Dick Martin (comedian)

text: Martin also established himself as a comedy director. Starting on "The Bob Newhart Show", he directed episodes of more than twenty different TV comedy series. Martin later became the chief director of the 1980s sitcom "Newhart". He continued his relationship with Bob Newhart on the latter's short-lived series "Bob" on CBS (1992–93), where he portrayed Buzz Loudermilk and directed several of the series' episodes.


title: Dick Martin (comedian)

text: In 1991, Martin guest-starred in a two episode role on "Coach" as Peter Plunkett, a childhood friend of Luther VanDam. In a 1998 episode of "The Nanny", Martin guest-starred as a homeless man Fran Fine meets in a park who turns out to be Preston Collier, one of the wealthiest men in New York City.


title: Dick Martin (comedian)

text: In 1992, he played a small role in the Canadian film "North of Pittsburgh", which was directed by his son Richard. In 1996, Martin guest starred as sociology professor Dr. Ben Littmeyer on "3rd Rock from the Sun".


title: Dick Martin (comedian)

text: In 1997, he guest-starred in an episode of "Baywatch". He played an old World War II sailor named Ed who was trying to give a buddy a proper burial.


title: Dick Martin (comedian)

text: Martin married singer Peggy Connelly in 1957. They divorced prior to 1968 and he married Playboy Playmate and "Beyond the Valley of the Dolls" star Dolly Read in 1971. Martin and Read divorced in June 1974, but remarried in 1978 and remained married until his death. His son Richard Martin is a television director, film director and film editor.


title: Dick Martin (comedian)

text: Martin died on May 24, 2008, of breathing complications in Santa Monica, California. He had lost the use of a lung due to tuberculosis as a teenager and suffered respiratory problems late in life.


title: Cultural studies

text: Cultural studies is an interdisciplinary field that examines the political dynamics of contemporary culture (including popular culture) and its historical foundations. Cultural studies researchers generally investigate how cultural practices relate to wider systems of power associated with, or operating through, social phenomena. These include ideology, class structures, national formations, ethnicity, sexual orientation, gender, and generation. Employing cultural analysis, cultural studies views cultures not as fixed, bounded, stable, and discrete entities, but rather as constantly interacting and changing sets of practices and processes. The field of cultural studies encompasses a range of theoretical and methodological perspectives and practices. Although distinct from the discipline of cultural anthropology and the interdisciplinary field of ethnic studies, cultural studies draws upon and has contributed to each of these fields.


title: Cultural studies

text: Cultural studies was initially developed by British Marxist academics in the late 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, and has been subsequently taken up and transformed by scholars from many different disciplines around the world. Cultural studies is avowedly and even radically interdisciplinary and can sometimes be seen as anti-disciplinary. A key concern for cultural studies practitioners is the examination of the forces within and through which socially organized people conduct and participate in the construction of their everyday lives.


title: Cultural studies

text: Cultural studies combines a variety of politically engaged critical approaches drawn including semiotics, Marxism, feminist theory, ethnography, post-structuralism, postcolonialism, social theory, political theory, history, philosophy, literary theory, media theory, film/video studies, communication studies, political economy, translation studies, museum studies and art history/criticism to study cultural phenomena in various societies and historical periods. Cultural studies seeks to understand how meaning is generated, disseminated, contested, bound up with systems of power and control, and produced from the social, political and economic spheres within a particular social formation or conjuncture. The movement has generated important theories of cultural hegemony and agency. Its practitioners attempt to explain and analyze the cultural forces related and processes of globalization.


title: Cultural studies

text: During the rise of neoliberalism in Britain and the US, cultural studies both became a global movement, and attracted the attention of many conservative opponents both within and beyond universities for a variety of reasons. A worldwide movement of students and practitioners with a raft of scholarly associations and programs, annual international conferences and publications carry on work in this field today. Distinct approaches to cultural studies have emerged in different national and regional contexts.


title: Cultural studies

text: In his 1994 book, "Introducing Cultural Studies", orientalist scholar Ziauddin Sardar lists the following five main characteristics of cultural studies:


title: Cultural studies

text: Dennis Dworkin writes that "a critical moment" in the beginning of cultural studies as a field was when Richard Hoggart used the term in 1964 in founding the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) at the University of Birmingham. The centre would become home to the development of the intellectual orientation that has become known internationally as the "Birmingham School" of cultural studies, thus becoming the world's first institutional home of cultural studies.


title: Cultural studies

text: Hoggart appointed as his assistant Stuart Hall, who would effectively be directing CCCS by 1968. Hall formally assumed the directorship of CCCS in 1971, when Hoggart left Birmingham to become Assistant Director-General of UNESCO. Thereafter, the field of cultural studies became closely associated with Hall's work. In 1979, Hall left Birmingham to accept a prestigious chair in sociology at the Open University, and Richard Johnson took over the directorship of the centre.


title: Cultural studies

text: In the late 1990s, "restructuring" at the University of Birmingham led to the elimination of CCCS and the creation of a new Department of Cultural Studies and Sociology (CSS) in 1999. Then, in 2002, the University's senior administration abruptly announced the disestablishment of CSS, provoking a substantial international outcry. The immediate reason for disestablishment of the new department was an unexpectedly low result in the UK's Research Assessment Exercise of 2001, though a dean from the university attributed the decision to "inexperienced ‘macho management’." The RAE, a holdover initiative of the Margaret Thatcher-led British government of 1986, determines research funding for university programs.


title: Cultural studies

text: To trace the development of British Cultural Studies, see, for example, the work of Richard Hoggart, E. P. Thompson, Raymond Williams, Stuart Hall, Paul Willis, Angela McRobbie, Paul Gilroy, David Morley, Charlotte Brunsdon, Richard Dyer, and others.


title: Cultural studies

text: Beginning in 1964, after the initial appearance of the founding works of British Cultural Studies in the late 1950s, Stuart Hall's pioneering work at CCCS, along with that of his colleagues and postgraduate students gave shape and substance to the field of cultural studies. This would include such people as Paul Willis, Dick Hebdige, David Morley, Charlotte Brunsdon, John Clarke, Richard Dyer, Judith Williamson, Richard Johnson, Iain Chambers, Dorothy Hobson, Chris Weedon, Tony Jefferson, Michael Green and Angela McRobbie.


title: Cultural studies

text: Many cultural studies scholars employed Marxist methods of analysis, exploring the relationships between cultural forms (i.e., the "superstructure") and that of the political economy (i.e., the "base"). By the 1970s, the work of Louis Althusser radically rethought the Marxist account of "base" and "superstructure" in ways that had a significant influence on the "Birmingham School." Much of the work done at CCCS studied youth-subcultural expressions of antagonism toward "respectable" middle-class British culture in the post-WWII period. Also during the 1970s, the politically formidable British working classes were in decline. Britain's manufacturing industries while continuing to grow in output and value, were decreasing in share of GDP and numbers employed, and union rolls were shrinking. Millions of working-class Britons backed the rise of Margaret Thatcher, through the labour losses. For Stuart Hall and his colleagues, this shift in loyalty from the Labour Party to the Conservative Party had to be explained in terms of cultural politics, which they had been tracking even before Thatcher's first victory. Some of this work was presented in the cultural studies classic, "Policing the Crisis", and in other later texts such as Hall's "The Hard Road to Renewal: Thatcherism and the Crisis of the Left", and "New Times: The Changing Face of Politics in the 1990s".


title: Cultural studies

text: By the late 1970s, scholars associated with The Birmingham School had firmly placed questions of gender and race on the cultural studies agenda, where they have remained ever since. Also by the late 1970s, cultural studies had begun to attract a great deal of international attention. It spread globally throughout the 1980s and 1990s. As it did so, it both encountered new conditions of knowledge production, and engaged with other major international intellectual currents such as poststructuralism, postmodernism, and postcolonialism. The wide range of cultural studies journals now located throughout the world, as shown below, is one indication of the globalization of the field.


title: Cultural studies

text: In the US, prior to the emergence of British Cultural Studies, several versions of cultural analysis had emerged largely from pragmatic and liberal-pluralist philosophical traditions. However, in the late 1970s and 1980s, when British Cultural Studies began to spread internationally, and to engage with feminism, poststructuralism, postmodernism, and race, critical cultural studies (i.e., Marxist, feminist, poststructuralist, etc.) expanded tremendously in American universities in fields such as communication studies, education, sociology, and literature. "Cultural Studies", the flagship journal of the field, has been based in the US since its founding editor, John Fiske, brought it there from Australia in 1987.


title: Cultural studies

text: A thriving cultural studies scene has existed in Australia since the late 1970s, when several key CS practitioners emigrated there from the UK, bringing British Cultural Studies with them, after Margaret Thatcher became Prime Minister of the UK in 1979. A school of cultural studies known as cultural policy studies is one of the distinctive Australian contributions to the field, though it is not the only one. Australia also gave birth to the world's first professional cultural studies association (now known as the Cultural Studies Association of Australasia) in 1990. Cultural studies journals based in Australia include "International Journal of Cultural Studies", "", and "Cultural Studies Review".


title: Cultural studies

text: In Canada, cultural studies has sometimes focused on issues of technology and society, continuing the emphasis in the work of Marshall McLuhan, Harold Innis, and others. Cultural studies journals based in Canada include "Topia: Canadian Journal of Cultural Studies".


title: Cultural studies

text: In Africa, human rights and Third-World issues are among the central topics treated. There is a thriving cultural and media studies scholarship in Southern Africa, with its locus in South Africa and Zimbabwe. Cultural Studies journals based in Africa include the "Journal of African Cultural Studies".


title: Cultural studies

text: In Latin America, cultural studies have drawn on thinkers such as José Martí, Ángel Rama, and other Latin-American figures, in addition to the Western theoretical sources associated with cultural studies in other parts of the world. Leading Latin American cultural studies scholars include Néstor García Canclini, Jésus Martín-Barbero, and Beatriz Sarlo. Among the key issues addressed by Latin American cultural studies scholars are decoloniality, urban cultures, and postdevelopment theory. Latin American cultural studies journals include the "Journal of Latin American Cultural Studies".


title: Cultural studies

text: Even though cultural studies developed much more rapidly in the UK than in continental Europe, there is significant cultural studies presence in countries such as France, Spain, and Portugal. The field is relatively undeveloped in Germany, probably due to the continued influence of the Frankfurt School, which is now often said to be in its third generation, which includes notable figures such as Axel Honneth. Cultural studies journals based in continental Europe include the "European Journal of Cultural Studies", the "Journal of Spanish Cultural Studies", "French Cultural Studies", and "Portuguese Cultural Studies".


title: Cultural studies

text: In Germany, the term "cultural studies" specifically refers to the field in the Anglosphere, especially British Cultural Studies, to differentiate it from the German which developed along different lines and is characterized by its distance from political science. However, Kulturwissenschaft and cultural studies are often used interchangeably, particularly by lay people.


title: Cultural studies

text: Throughout Asia, cultural studies have boomed and thrived since at least the beginning of the 1990s. Cultural studies journals based in Asia include "Inter-Asia Cultural Studies". In India, the Centre for Study of Culture and Society, Bangalore and the Department of Cultural Studies at The English and Foreign Languages and the University of Hyderabad are two major institutional spaces for Cultural Studies.


title: Cultural studies

text: Marxism has been an important influence upon cultural studies. Those associated with CCCS initially engaged deeply with the structuralism of Louis Althusser, and later in the 1970s turned decisively toward Antonio Gramsci. Cultural studies has also embraced the examination of race, gender, and other aspects of identity, as is illustrated, for example, by a number of key books published collectively under the name of CCCS in the late 1970s and early 1980s, including "Women Take Issue: Aspects of Women's Subordination" (1978), and "The Empire Strikes Back: Race and Racism in 70s Britain" (1982).


title: Cultural studies

text: To understand the changing political circumstances of class, politics, and culture in the United Kingdom, scholars at The Birmingham School turned to the work of Antonio Gramsci, an Italian thinker, writer, and Communist Party leader. Gramsci had been concerned with similar issues: why would Italian laborers and peasants vote for fascists? What strategic approach is necessary to mobilize popular support in more progressive directions? Gramsci modified classical Marxism, and argued that culture must be understood as a key site of political and social struggle. In his view, capitalists used not only brute force (police, prisons, repression, military) to maintain control, but also penetrated the everyday culture of working people in a variety of ways in their efforts to win popular "consent."


title: Cultural studies

text: It is important to recognize that for Gramsci, historical leadership, or "hegemony", involves the formation of alliances between class factions, and struggles within the cultural realm of everyday common sense. "Hegemony" was always, for Gramsci, an interminable, unstable and contested process.


title: Cultural studies

text: The theory of hegemony was of central importance to the development of British cultural studies [particularly The Birmingham School. It facilitated the analysis of the ways subordinate groups actively resist and respond to political and economic domination. The subordinate groups needed not to be seen merely as the passive dupes of the dominant class and its ideology.


title: Cultural studies

text: The development of "hegemony" "theory" in cultural studies was in some ways consonant with work in other fields exploring agency, a theoretical concept that insists on the active, critical capacities of subordinated people (e.g. the working classes, colonized peoples, women). As Stuart Hall famously argued in his 1981 essay, "Notes on Deconstructing 'the Popular'": "ordinary people are not cultural dopes." Insistence on accounting for the agency of subordinated people run counter to the work of traditional structuralists. Some analysts have however been critical of some work in cultural studies that they feel overstates the significance of or even romanticizes some forms of popular cultural agency.


title: Cultural studies

text: Cultural studies often concerns itself with the agency at the level of the practices of everyday life, and approaches such research from a standpoint of radical contextualism. In other words, cultural studies rejects universal accounts of cultural practices, meanings, and identities.


title: Cultural studies

text: Judith Butler, an American feminist theorist whose work is often associated with cultural studies, wrote that:


title: Cultural studies

text: the move from a structuralist account in which capital is understood to structure social relations in relatively homologous ways to a view of hegemony in which power relations are subject to repetition, convergence, and rearticulation brought the question of temporality into the thinking of structure. It has marked a shift from a form of Althusserian theory that takes structural totalities as theoretical objects to one in which the insights into the contingent possibility of structure inaugurate a renewed conception of hegemony as bound up with the contingent sites and strategies of the rearticulation of power.


title: Cultural studies

text: In recent decades, as capitalism has spread throughout the world via contemporary forms of globalization, cultural studies has generated important analyses of local sites and practices of negotiation with and resistance to Western hegemony.


title: Cultural studies

text: Cultural Studies criticizes the traditional view of the passive consumer, particularly by underlining the different ways people "read," receive and interpret cultural texts, or appropriate other kinds of cultural products, or otherwise participate in the production and circulation of meanings. On this view, a consumer can appropriate, actively rework, or challenge the meanings circulated through cultural texts. In some of its variants, cultural studies has shifted the analytical focus from traditional understandings of production to consumption - viewed as a form of production (of meanings, of identities, etc.) in its own right. Stuart Hall, John Fiske, and others have been influential in these developments.


title: Cultural studies

text: A special 2008 issue of the field's flagship journal, "Cultural Studies", examined "anti-consumerism" from a variety of cultural studies angles. Jeremy Gilbert noted in the issue, cultural studies must grapple with the fact that "we now live in an era when, throughout the capitalist world, the overriding aim of government economic policy is to maintain consumer spending levels. This is an era when 'consumer confidence' is treated as the key indicator and cause of economic effectiveness."


title: Cultural studies

text: Cultural studies, drawing upon and developing semiotics, uses the concept of "text" to designate not only written language, but also television programs, films, photographs, fashion, hairstyles, and so forth; the texts of cultural studies comprise all the meaningful artifacts of culture. This conception of textuality derives especially from the work of the pioneering and influential semiotician, Roland Barthes, but also owes debts to other sources, such as Juri Lotman and his colleagues from Tartu–Moscow School. Similarly, the field widens the concept of "culture". Cultural studies approach the sites and spaces of everyday life, such as pubs, living rooms, gardens, and beaches, as "texts."


title: Cultural studies

text: "Culture", in this context, includes not only high culture, but also everyday meanings and practices, a central focus of cultural studies.


title: Cultural studies

text: Jeff Lewis summarized much of the work on textuality and textual analysis in his cultural studies textbook and a post-9/11 monograph on media and terrorism. According to Lewis, "textual studies" use complex and difficult heuristic methods and require both powerful interpretive skills and a subtle conception of politics and contexts. The task of the cultural analyst, for Lewis, is to engage with both knowledge systems and texts and observe and analyze the ways the two interact with one another. This engagement represents the critical dimensions of the analysis, its capacity to illuminate the hierarchies within and surrounding the given text and its discourse.


title: Cultural studies

text: Cultural studies has evolved through the confluence of various disciplines—anthropology, media studies, communication studies, Literary Studies, education, geography, philosophy, sociology, politics, and others.


title: Cultural studies

text: While some have accused certain areas of cultural studies of meandering into political relativism and a kind of empty version of "postmodern" analysis, others hold that at its core, cultural studies provides a significant conceptual and methodological framework for cultural, social, and economic critique. This critique is designed to "deconstruct" the meanings and assumptions that are inscribed in the institutions, texts, and practices that work with and through, and produce and re-present, culture. Thus, while some scholars and disciplines have dismissed cultural studies for its methodological rejection of disciplinarity, its core strategies of critique and analysis have influenced areas of the social sciences and humanities; for example, cultural studies work on forms of social differentiation, control and inequality, identity, community-building, media, and knowledge production has had a substantial impact. Moreover, the influence of cultural studies has become increasingly evident in areas as diverse as translation studies, health studies, international relations, development studies, computer studies, economics, archaeology, and neurobiology.


title: Cultural studies

text: Cultural studies has also diversified its own interests and methodologies, incorporating a range of studies on media policy, democracy, design, leisure, tourism, warfare, and development. While certain key concepts such as ideology or discourse, class, hegemony, identity, and gender remain significant, cultural studies has long engaged with and integrated new concepts and approaches. The field thus continues to pursue political critique through its engagements with the forces of culture and politics.


title: Cultural studies

text: The "Blackwell" "Companion to Cultural Studies", edited by leading cultural studies scholar Toby Miller, contains essays that analyze the development of cultural studies approaches within each of a wide range of disciplines across the contemporary social sciences and humanities.


title: Cultural studies

text: Many cultural studies practitioners work in departments of English or comparative literature. Nevertheless, some traditional literary scholars such as Yale professor Harold Bloom have been outspoken critics of cultural studies. On the level of methodology, these scholars dispute the theoretical underpinning of the movement's critical framework.


title: Cultural studies

text: Bloom stated his position during the 3 September 2000 episode of C-SPAN's "Booknotes", while discussing his book "How to Read and Why":


title: Cultural studies

text: Marxist literary critic Terry Eagleton is not wholly opposed to cultural studies, but has criticised aspects of it and highlighted what he sees as its strengths and weaknesses in books such as "After Theory" (2003). For Eagleton, literary and cultural theory have the potential to say important things about the "fundamental questions" in life, but theorists have rarely realized this potential.


title: Cultural studies

text: English departments also host cultural rhetorics scholars. This academic field defines cultural rhetorics as "the study and practice of making meaning and knowledge with the belief that all cultures are rhetorical and all rhetorics are cultural." Cultural rhetorics scholars are interested in investigating topics like climate change, autism, Asian American rhetoric, and more.


title: Cultural studies

text: Cultural studies have also had a substantial impact on sociology. For example, when Stuart Hall left CCCS at Birmingham, it was to accept a prestigious professorship in Sociology at the Open University in Britain. The subfield of cultural sociology, in particular, is disciplinary home to many cultural studies practitioners. Nevertheless, there are some differences between sociology as a discipline and the field of cultural studies as a whole. While sociology was founded upon various historic works purposefully distinguishing the subject from philosophy or psychology, cultural studies have explicitly interrogated and criticized traditional understandings and practices of disciplinarity. Most CS practitioners think it is best that cultural studies neither emulate disciplines nor aspire to disciplinarity for cultural studies. Rather, they promote a kind of radical interdisciplinarity as the basis for cultural studies.


title: Cultural studies

text: One sociologist whose work has had a major influence on cultural studies is Pierre Bourdieu, whose work makes innovative use of statistics and in-depth interviews. However, although Bourdieu's work has been highly influential within cultural studies, and although Bourdieu regarded his work as a form of science, cultural studies has never embraced the idea that it should aspire toward "scientificity," and has marshalled a wide range of theoretical and methodological arguments against the fetishization of "scientificity" as a basis for cultural studies.


title: Cultural studies

text: Two sociologists who have been critical of cultural studies, Chris Rojek and Bryan S. Turner, argue in their article, "Decorative sociology: towards a critique of the cultural turn," that cultural studies, particularly the flavor championed by Stuart Hall, lacks a stable research agenda, and privileges the contemporary reading of texts, thus producing an ahistorical theoretical focus. Many, however, would argue, following Hall, that cultural studies have always sought to avoid the establishment of a fixed research agenda; this follows from its critique of disciplinarity. Moreover, Hall and many others have long argued against the misunderstanding that textual analysis is the sole methodology of cultural studies, and have practiced numerous other approaches, as noted above. Rojek and Turner also level the accusation that there is "a sense of moral superiority about the correctness of the political views articulated" in cultural studies.


title: Cultural studies

text: In 1996, physicist Alan Sokal expressed his opposition to cultural studies by submitting a hoax article to a cultural studies journal, "Social Text". The article, which was crafted as a parody of what Sokal referred to as the "fashionable nonsense" of postmodernism, was accepted by the editors of the journal, which did not at the time practice peer review. When the paper appeared in print, Sokal published a second article in a self-described "academic gossip" magazine, "Lingua Franca", revealing his hoax on "Social Text". Sokal stated that his motivation stemmed from his rejection of contemporary critiques of scientific rationalism:


title: Cultural studies

text: Hall and others have identified some core originating texts, or the original "curricula," of the field of cultural studies:


title: The Graveyard Book

text: The Graveyard Book is a young adult novel by the English author Neil Gaiman, simultaneously published in Britain and America in 2008. "The Graveyard Book" traces the story of the boy Nobody "Bod" Owens who is adopted and reared by the supernatural occupants of a graveyard after his family is brutally murdered.


title: The Graveyard Book

text: Gaiman won both the British Carnegie Medal and the American Newbery Medal recognizing the year's best children's books, the first time both named the same work. "The Graveyard Book" also won the annual Hugo Award for Best Novel from the World Science Fiction Convention and Locus Award for Best Young Adult Book selected by "Locus Magazine" subscribers.


title: The Graveyard Book

text: Chris Riddell, who illustrated the British children's edition, made the Kate Greenaway Medal shortlist. It was the first time in the award's 30-year history that one book made both the author and illustrator shortlists. "Time" magazine included the novel in its list of the 100 Best Young-Adult Books of All Time.


title: The Graveyard Book

text: Gaiman first had the idea for the story in 1985, after seeing his then-two-year-old son Mike "pedaling his tricycle around a graveyard" near their home in East Grinstead, West Sussex. Recalling how comfortable his son looked there, Gaiman thought he "could write something a lot like "The Jungle Book" and set it in a graveyard." When he sat down to write, however, Gaiman decided he was "not yet a good enough writer" and came to the same conclusion as he revisited it every few years. He eventually published it in 2008.


title: The Graveyard Book

text: The bulk of the book is about the protagonist's adventures in and out of the graveyard in which he lives as he grows up. Throughout his adventures, Bod learns supernatural abilities such as Fading (allows Bod to turn invisible, but only if no one is paying attention to him), Haunting (which allows Bod to make people feel uneasy, though this ability can be amplified to terrify them), and Dreamwalking (going into others' dreams and controlling the dream, though he cannot cause physical harm).Each of the eight chapters is a short story, each set two years after the preceding chapter. Some chapters have analogues to Rudyard Kipling's 1894 work; for example, the chapter "The Hounds of God" parallels the story "Kaa's Hunting".


title: The Graveyard Book

text: The story begins as the man Jack murders three members of a family (later revealed to be the Dorian family), but fails to kill the youngest child, a one-and-a-half-year-old boy. Unknown to him, the toddler has climbed out of his crib to explore. The child crawls out of the house and up a hill to a graveyard where ghosts find him. His mother, as a ghost, asks them to protect the child, and they argue about whether to do this until the Lady on the Grey (implied to be the Angel of Death) appears and states "The dead should have charity". The ghosts accept, and Mrs. Owens (the ghost who first discovered the baby) and her husband, Mr. Owens, become his adoptive parents. The baby is named Nobody Owens (since Mrs. Owens declares "He looks like nobody except himself") and is granted the Freedom of the Graveyard, which allows Nobody to pass through solid objects when in the graveyard, including its gates. The caretaker Silas (subsequently implied to be an ancient and formerly evil vampire, now reformed) agrees to act as Nobody's 'guardian', providing for and protecting him. The man Jack is persuaded by Silas that the toddler isn't there, and leaves.


title: The Graveyard Book

text: As a young child, Nobody (often called Bod) begins learning to read and write and befriends a girl called Scarlett Perkins, whose parents regularly bring her to play in the graveyard. It is with her that Bod discovers a creature called the Sleer, who has been waiting for thousands of years within a prehistoric barrow for his "Master" to come and reclaim him along with the treasures he guards (a knife, a goblet, and brooch respectively). The Sleer initially attempts to scare the two away with a ghostly projection, but Bod sees through the ruse and the Sleer relents. Scarlett's parents believe she has gone missing during this adventure. Shortly afterward, the family moves to Scotland.


title: The Graveyard Book

text: Silas temporarily leaves the graveyard 'to obtain some information, and Miss Lupescu arrives to take care of six-year-old Bod in his absence. She brings Bod home-made food and tutors him, as Bod grows a distaste for Miss Lupescu's strictness and unique cooking. Bod is then tricked by the Ghouls, a race of corpse-eating creatures that live in an alternate dimension accessed by a special grave called a Ghoulgate. After being brought through a Ghoulgate and finding out the Ghoul's true intent to either convert him into one of their own or eat him, Bod is forced into a sack and carried to the Ghoul city Ghûlheim. After cutting his way out of the sack with a loose nail, Bod is subsequently rescued by Miss Lupescu, discovering she is a Hound of God (i.e. a werewolf). The two's relationship improves after the event, and Bod asks a returned Silas if Miss Lupescu could come to teach him again in the future.


title: The Graveyard Book

text: Bod befriends Elizabeth 'Elsa' Hempstock, the ghost of an unjustly executed witch buried in an unmarked grave. Liza's grave is located on the other side of the fence where suicides, criminals, and witches are buried separate from the main Graveyard grounds. Bod attempts to pawn the Sleer's brooch to buy Liza a headstone after learning her story. He is kidnapped by the pawnshop owner, Abanazer Bolger, who is one of Man Jack's contacts, but escapes and returns the brooch to the Sleer's altar. He gives Liza a homemade headstone made from a paperweight instead, marking it "E.H. We Don't Forget".


title: The Graveyard Book

text: In a short story based on the allegorical Danse Macabre, Bod observes the preparation of and participates in a folk dance with the dead inhabitants of the graveyard and the living inhabitants of the local area. He meets the Lady on the Grey, who promises him that one day he will ride on her horse with her: "Everyone does." After the dance ends and the living and dead return to their homes, the ground is covered in small white flowers that had been handed out by the mayor: "It looked as if there had been a wedding." Later, Bod wants to discuss the experience with his undead friends but learns that it is considered a 'forbidden' subject.


title: The Graveyard Book

text: On Bod's 14th year at the graveyard, Scarlett and her mother come back to the town, and she and Bod reunite. Scarlett has also made friends with a historian called Mr. Jay Frost who is living in a house not too far from the graveyard. Researching the murder of Bod's family, Scarlett learns that the historian lives in the house that Bod's family once lived in. Bod visits the house, to learn more about his family. When showing Bod the room he lived in as a baby, Mr. Frost reveals that he actually is the Man Jack; Jack Frost is his full name.


title: The Graveyard Book

text: Bod is chased by the Man Jack and four other members of the Jacks of All Trades. Bod and Scarlett escape to the graveyard where Bod can defeat each Jack separately, except for Jack Frost. Jack Frost takes Scarlett captive in the chamber of the Sleer but is then tricked by Bod into claiming to be the Sleer's master. The Sleer engulfs Jack Frost in an "embrace", and they disappear into the wall, presumably "protecting him from the world", forever. Silas returns, and it is revealed that he and Miss Lupescu are members of the Honour Guard, devoted to protecting "the borders between things". Two other supernatural beings (the Ifrit Haroun and the winged mummy Kandar), have fought the Jacks of All Trades throughout the novel. Though they succeed in destroying society, Miss Lupescu is killed in battle, to Silas and Bod's great sorrow.


title: The Graveyard Book

text: Scarlett is shocked and appalled by the events of the night and Bod's ethically questionable actions in the course of defeating Jack Frost. Silas suggests the best course is to remove most of her memories of Bod and what happened that night. Bod disagrees with Silas, but Scarlett ends up with her memories taken anyway. Silas uses his power of suggestion to convince Scarlett and her mother to return to Glasgow.


title: The Graveyard Book

text: In the final chapter of the book, Bod is "about 15" and is slowly losing the Freedom of the Graveyard and even his ability to see ghosts. At the end of the book, Silas gives Bod some money and a passport. Bod says his goodbyes to his ghostly family and friends and leaves the graveyard to embark on the rest of his life.


title: The Graveyard Book

text: The fourth chapter, "The Witch's Headstone", was published as a short story in the Gaiman anthology "M Is for Magic" and in "Wizards: Magical Tales from the Masters of Modern Fantasy" and won the 2008 Locus Award for Best Novelette. The book was released on 30 September 2008 in the United States by HarperCollins and on 31 October 2008 in the United Kingdom by Bloomsbury Publishing. The cover and interior illustrations of the US edition were created by longtime Gaiman collaborator Dave McKean; he illustrated the UK edition for the adult market. The simultaneous British Children's Edition was illustrated by Chris Riddell, for which he made the 2010 Greenaway Medal shortlist.


title: The Graveyard Book

text: Subterranean Press published an American limited edition with a different cover and interior illustrations by McKean.


title: The Graveyard Book

text: HarperAudio published an audiobook edition read by Gaiman. It includes a version of "Danse macabre" played by Béla Fleck, which Fleck provided after reading on Gaiman's blog that he hoped for ""Danse Macabre" with banjo in it". It won Audiobook of the Year (the "Audie") from the Audiobook Publisher's Association (US).


title: The Graveyard Book

text: In 2014, HarperAudio published a full-cast audiobook edition performed by Derek Jacobi (narrator), Robert Madge (Bod), Clare Corbett, Miriam Margolyes (Mrs. Owens), Andrew Scott (the Man Jack), Julian Rhind-Tutt (Silas), Emilia Fox, Reece Shearsmith, Lenny Henry, and an ensemble cast. Special content in this edition includes the story behind "The Graveyard Book", written and performed by Gaiman. This edition won the 2015 Audie Award Distinguished Achievement in Production.


title: The Graveyard Book

text: "The Graveyard Book" was cited by the American Library Association for its "delicious mix of murder, fantasy, humor and human longing", noting its "magical, haunting prose". "The New York Times" Monica Edinger was very positive about the book, concluding, "In this novel of wonder, Neil Gaiman follows in the footsteps of long-ago storytellers, weaving a tale of unforgettable enchantment". "Kirkus Reviews" awarded it a starred review, claiming that, "this needs to be read by anyone who is or has ever been a child". Author Patrick Ness wrote, "what's lost in forward momentum is more than made up for by the outrageous riches of Gaiman's imagination" and praised the villains. "The Independent" praised the novel's different tones. Richard Bleiler described the novel as a piece of neo-Gothic fiction echoing back to Horace Walpole's "The Castle of Otranto". In 2013, a blogger recommended "The Graveyard Book" for children, describing the premise as "staggeringly original" and the structure "satisfyingly episodic".


title: The Graveyard Book

text: In January 2009, filmmaker Neil Jordan signed on to write and direct a film adaptation for Miramax. In May 2010, CJ Entertainment, associated with Chris Columbus's 1492 Pictures, acquired the rights for distribution in Korea and Japan and agreed to co-finance the adaptation.


title: The Graveyard Book

text: In April 2012, Walt Disney Pictures acquired the rights and hired Henry Selick, director of "The Nightmare Before Christmas" and the film adaptation of Gaiman's novel "Coraline", to direct "The Graveyard Book". The film was moved to Pixar, which would have been the company's first adapted work. After the studio and Selick parted ways over scheduling and development, it was announced in January 2013 that Ron Howard would be directing the film, but he was dropped out to work on other projects as well, thus the film was in development hell for some time.


title: The Graveyard Book

text: In July 2022, it was announced that Marc Forster will direct the adaptation with a screenplay by David Magee under Walt Disney Studios.


title: The Graveyard Book

text: Artist P. Craig Russell, along with Galen Showman, Kevin Nowlan, Jill Thompson, David Lafuente, Stephen Scott, Scott Hampton and Tony Harris, has adapted the book into a two-volume graphic novel. The first volume was released on 29 July 2014, followed by the second on 7 October.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: On March 16, 2021, a shooting spree occurred at three spas or massage parlors in the metropolitan area of Atlanta, Georgia, United States. Eight people were killed, six of whom were women of Asian descent, and one other person was wounded.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: A suspect, 21-year-old Robert Aaron Long, was taken into custody later that day. He told police he was motivated by a sexual addiction that was at odds with his Christianity, for which he had spent time in an evangelical treatment clinic. He was charged with 19 crimes in Fulton County, and 23 in Cherokee County. Long pleaded guilty to the Cherokee County charges and was sentenced to life without parole.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: The suspect, Robert Aaron Long, legally purchased a 9mm handgun at Big Woods Goods, a firearms store and indoor gun range in Holly Springs, hours before the shooting. Like most states, Georgia does not have a waiting period to buy a gun. Surveillance footage showed him arriving at Young's Asian Massage, a massage parlor near Acworth, and sitting for an hour in the parking lot. He then entered the building at about 3:38p.m.EDT and remained inside for a period of one hour and 12 minutes. Police did not elaborate on what Long did during this time. Another customer who went to Young's that day said in an interview that everything was still normal inside when he arrived at around 4:40p.m.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: Long left Young's at 4:50p.m. Shots were fired at some point after. A customer who survived a gunshot wound said the gunman walked into Young's and began firing. The customer threw himself to the floor and begged the gunman not to shoot him. The gunman demanded him to look up at him, and when the customer complied, he was shot in the face.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: The first 9-1-1 calls reporting the shooting to the Cherokee County Sheriff's Office were made at 4:54p.m. Police arrived within minutes of Long leaving. There, they found two people fatally shot and three others wounded in different rooms down a hallway; two of the wounded later died at a hospital. Police found a male customer, whose wife and fellow customer was fatally shot, sitting on a bed in another room, scared and confused, and detained him for four hours.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: At 5:47p.m.EDT, the APD responded to reports of a robbery at Gold Massage Spa on Piedmont Road in northeast Atlanta, about from the first shooting scene. There, they found three women dead from gunshot wounds. While Atlanta police were at Gold Spa, they received reports of another shooting across the street at Aromatherapy Spa, where they discovered another woman shot and killed.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: Two Gold Massage Spa employees who survived the shooting reported hearing ticking sounds while in a break room, which turned out to be gunfire. They hid in a lounge, using items to take cover, and were shot at but not injured. According to them, the gunman did not speak or make any other sounds during the shooting, and he locked both the front and back doors of the spa at some point. According to a report from national Korean newspaper "The Chosun Ilbo", a Gold Massage Spa employee who escaped from the store during the shooting stated that the shooter said, "I'm going to kill all Asians." According to an eyewitness, the attacker shot the worker who opened the door of Aromatherapy Spa for him and fled without entering the interior.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: According to the APD, they noticed the similarities between the Piedmont Road and Cherokee County shootings and subsequently dispatched officers to patrol similar businesses in the area. The Federal Bureau of Investigation was called in to assist in the investigation.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: After the first shooting, Cherokee County police released surveillance footage to the public and were contacted by Long's parents, who recognized him. While they were being interviewed, the APD was responding to the second and third shootings in Atlanta. His parents informed deputies that Long's Hyundai Tucson was equipped with a tracking device. Using surveillance footage of his vehicle at both crime scenes along with the car's tracker, police were able to ascertain his location.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: At around 8:30p.m., roughly 3.5 hours after the shootings, Long was spotted by police in Crisp County, about south of Atlanta. Georgia State Patrol officers followed him south on Interstate 75 until a location just south of Cordele, where they used a PIT maneuver to stop his vehicle and took him into custody. Long was on his way to Florida when he was apprehended.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: Long was initially arrested in connection to the Cherokee County shooting; police later identified him as a suspect in the Piedmont Road shootings as well. Police found a 9mm handgun in his car.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: The shooter killed seven women and one man. One man was wounded. Six died at the scene, one en route to a hospital, and one in treatment. Six victims, four at Piedmont Road and two at Cherokee County, were women of Asian descent. The others were a white woman and a white man, and the survivor is a Hispanic man from Guatemala. The South Korean Foreign Affairs Ministry reported that four of the dead were of Korean ethnicity, and one was a South Korean citizen.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: Police released the names of the eight deceased victims on March 19. The victims at Young's Asian Massage were Delaina Ashley Yaun, 33; Xiaojie Tan, 49; Daoyou Feng, 44; and Paul Andre Michels, 54. The victims at the Gold Spa were Hyun Jung Grant, 51; Suncha Kim, 69; and Soon Chung Park, 74. The victim at Aromatherapy Spa was Yong Ae Yue, 63.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: The suspect was identified as 21-year-old Robert Aaron Long, of Woodstock. He was born in April 1999, in Woodstock, Georgia, and was raised in a conservative community. He graduated from Sequoyah High School in the spring of 2017. From fall 2017 to fall 2018, Long was enrolled at the Cumming campus of the University of North Georgia, but he did not earn a degree. Long was a hunter and was heavily involved in his Southern Baptist congregation. Cherokee County Sheriff Frank Reynolds said Long did not have any prior interactions with law enforcement.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: Long spent time in HopeQuest, an evangelical treatment facility located near Acworth and down the road from the first spa that he attacked. He was a patient at the treatment center for what he described as "sex addiction", a label used by some for those that cannot control their sexual urges as expected by purity culture. He claimed to be "tortured" by his addiction to sex since he was "deeply religious", according to his halfway house roommate. His roommate also said that, several times during his stay at the halfway house, Long said that he had "relapsed" and gone to massage parlors to visit sex workers. His parents had kicked him out of their house the night before the shooting due to concerns about his sex addiction, and said he watched internet pornography several hours each day. A report to police said that he "was emotional" after being evicted from his parents' house.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: According to the police, Long described his actions as being the result of a sex addiction that conflicted with his religious beliefs. Long had been a customer at two of the massage parlors, and saw them as sources of sexual temptation. Police records show that two of the massage parlors had been the site of 10 prostitution arrests, the latest of which took place in 2013. All three targeted spas appeared on an online guide to brothels. Long claims to have initially thought about killing himself but instead decided to target the businesses to "help" others dealing with sex addiction. According to the Cherokee County Sheriff's Department, Long wanted to "eliminate the temptation" by targeting spas.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: He had been an active member of Crabapple First Baptist Church in Milton, Georgia. The church took down its Facebook site, which included photos that included Long, after the shooting.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: Ruth Graham, a national religion correspondent of "The New York Times", wrote that Long "seemed to have a fixation on sexual temptation, one that can lead to despair among people who believe they are failing to follow the ideal of refraining from sex and even lust outside heterosexual marriage."


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: According to Samuel Perry, a professor of sociology and author of three books on the modern evangelical church, the church's confusing sex rhetoric can lead to desperation over perceived sex addiction and a belief that one must take extreme measures to stop it.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: The American Psychological Association does not have sex addiction as a diagnosis in the DSM-5. The World Health Organization includes "excessive sexual drive" as a diagnosis (code F52.7) in the latest version of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10), but as a compulsive behavior or impulse control disorder rather than an addiction. Psychologist David J. Ley and neuroscientist Nicole Prause noted significant differences between sex addiction and other types of addiction. Psychotherapist Robert Weiss, who diagnoses people with sexual addiction, expressed doubt in the diagnosis for Long because sex addicts are typically nonviolent.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: Some noted the ethnicity of six of the victims, who were Asian women, amidst an increase in anti-Asian hate crimes in the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic, or characterized the shooting as a hate crime. Some experts have said that race cannot be ruled out as a motive because of the fetishization of Asian women in the U.S. Long said that his actions were not racially motivated.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: On March 17, Long was charged with eight counts of murder, split evenly between the shooting in Cherokee County and the shootings in Atlanta, and one count of aggravated assault in Cherokee County. He confessed to the killings while in custody. On May 11, Long received a 19-count indictment by a Fulton County grand jury on charges including murder, felony murder, aggravated assault, and domestic terrorism. During the press conference, district attorney Fani Willis shared her plans to seek death penalty and hate crime enhancements if he is convicted of murder. Later that day, he received a 23-count indictment on charges of malice murder, felony murder, attempt to commit murder, and aggravated assault from a grand jury in Cherokee County, Georgia.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: On July 27, Long pleaded guilty to the Cherokee County charges and was sentenced to life without parole. Cherokee County District Attorney Shannon Wallace said that investigators had found no evidence of racial bias in the shootings. On August 30, state prosecutors announced Willis had filed court papers seeking the death penalty against Long for the Fulton County charges and designating the Piedmont Road shootings as a hate crime based on race and gender. On September 28, Long pleaded not guilty to the Fulton County charges.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: On March 18, President Joe Biden ordered all U.S. flags at the White House, on other federal grounds, at military installations, on naval vessels, and at U.S. diplomatic missions to be flown at half-mast until sunset on March 22 to respect the victims of the shooting. He and Vice President Kamala Harris subsequently met with local Asian American community leaders on March 19 to discuss the shootings. After the meeting, he gave a speech condemning rising hate crimes against Asian Americans during the COVID-19 pandemic and declared his support for the proposed COVID-19 Hate Crimes Act, which he claimed would facilitate tackling anti-Asian hate crimes.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: South Korean foreign minister Chung Eui-yong and national defense minister Suh Wook held a joint press conference in Seoul on March 19 with their U.S. counterparts Secretary of State Antony Blinken and Defense Secretary Lloyd Austin, and the South Korean foreign ministry released a statement the following day addressing the shooting and the United States government's anti-hate crime efforts.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: On April 14, following the shootings and the overall rise in anti-Asian hate crimes, the U.S. Senate voted 92–6 to advance the COVID-19 Hate Crimes Act, which would allow the U.S. Justice Department to review hate crimes related to COVID-19 and establish an online database. On April 22, the Senate voted 94–1 to pass the COVID-19 Hate Crimes Act with bipartisan changes; Josh Hawley of Missouri was the only senator to vote in opposition. It then passed the U.S. House of Representatives by a 364–62 vote on May 18 and was signed into law by Biden on May 20.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: Sociologist Nancy Wang Yuen characterized the event as "part of a nationwide pattern of Asian [women] being disproportionately targeted in hate incidents", stating that the events took place in the context of an "intersection of racism and sexism" against Asian women, citing the Page Act of 1875, and the portrayal of Asian women as prostitutes in media such as the movie "Full Metal Jacket" and the stage play "Miss Saigon" as examples.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: According to Stop Asian Hate, nearly 11,000 attacks against the Asian American community were reported just on the mere span from March 2020 to December 2021. The FBI has also discovered an upsurge in anti-Asian hate crimes since 2019.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: Georgia House of Representatives member Sam Park urged Asian Americans who are facing discrimination to reach out to the police, politicians, and the public. Another member, Bee Nguyen, said that violence against Asian Americans has increased in the last year and identified as a causative factor Donald Trump's use of the term "Chinese Virus" to refer to COVID-19. Asian-American basketball player Jeremy Lin accused Trump's rhetoric of inciting bitter hatred. A number of other athletes and public figures also made statements alleging racist motives in the attacks.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: The attacks were widely covered by media in South Korea, which has close cultural ties with the United States, especially through the 1.8 million Korean Americans considered part of the Korean diaspora. "The Hankyoreh" called for American society to accept "the serious reality of racial bullying and hate crimes" and take steps to ensure everyone's safety regardless of race. The "Kyunghyang Shinmun" said the United States was "defenseless to racist attacks", while "Segye Ilbo" called for "effective measures so that crimes against humanity do not take root" in the United States. Mainstream American English-language media was criticized for its coverage of the shooting compared to American Korean-language and South Korean media. Issues brought up included that the former was focused more on the shooter's background, ignored the victims, and immediately dismissed racial motivations after the shooter and law enforcement claimed it was sexually motivated, while the latter instead focused on the victims, interviewed community figures and people who knew the victims, and looked at previous racist and anti-Chinese statements made by the shooter.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: The shootings prompted the Chinese Canadian National Council's Toronto chapter and other groups to issue a statement calling for action against rising anti-Asian sentiment in Canada during the COVID-19 pandemic and the discrimination and violence faced by Asian workers in massage parlors and the sex industry. On March 23, the House of Commons of Canada unanimously passed a motion introduced by New Democratic Party leader Jagmeet Singh condemning the shootings and the rise of anti-Asian sentiment across North America, as well as calling on the federal government to hold a federal-provincial summit on coordinating and funding anti-hate efforts.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: Advocates for sex workers said the shootings fueled fears over anti-sex work ideology. Columnist Tracy Quan commented on the incident from her perspective as an Asian American and a former sex worker: "Untangling the suspect's motive isn't easy when race and sex are competing to dominate the narrative... I've experienced bias and ethnic profiling, but I've also been a sex worker, and I have encountered more prejudice, more name-calling, more fear, bitterness, anger and hostility in connection with my sex work than regarding my race."


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: The shootings sparked fears of lack of security among owners and employees of Asian-owned businesses across the U.S., a debate over hate crime definitions, and criticism of the current methods used to aggregate hate crime data in the country. The New York City Police Department deployed counterterrorism officers to Asian American communities as a precaution due to the shootings. Police patrols and community outreach efforts were also increased in Seattle.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: Long's statements that the shootings were not racially motivated but rather motivated by an intent to lash out at sources of temptation have spurred widespread skepticism, with members of the Congressional Asian Pacific American Caucus citing the nature of the targeted locations and the ethnicity of many of the victims. State Representative Nguyen argued that Long should be charged with a hate crime, noting that a racial motivation would not be necessary for his actions to qualify as a hate crime, since the law also applies to those who specifically target women. President Joe Biden also condemned the attacks as a hate crime, and expressed his support for hate crimes legislation recently introduced into Congress. U.S. Representative Marilyn Strickland, a Korean American from Washington state, said from the House floor that racially-motivated hate crimes should be called out instead of "making excuses and rebranding it as economic anxiety or sexual addiction." Li Zhou, writing for "Vox", argued that no matter whether or not the crimes were due to sexual addiction, the main motive would nonetheless coincide with factors of race and gender, since the stereotype of Asian female spa workers being prostitutes would in and of itself be a racist, misogynistic line of thinking.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: On March 18, the U.S. House of Representatives held a previously-scheduled congressional hearing on anti-Asian American discrimination, where Representative Chip Roy (R-TX) questioned whether the committee's attempts to prevent hate crimes and hate incidents against Asian Americans would hamper free speech. He claimed, "It seems to want to venture into the policing of rhetoric in a free society." His statement prompted criticism from Democrats.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: Andrew Sullivan criticized speculation in the media about Long's motives and the assertion that his actions constitute a hate crime, saying that the media is "rushing to promote ready-made narratives, which actually point away from the empirical facts." Elizabeth Nolan Brown, writing in "Reason", said that Long's motives were "still unclear, despite many in the media attributing it to anti-Asian racism". Deborah Epstein, director of Georgetown University Law Center’s Domestic Violence Clinic, claimed in an interview for NPR: "This man targeted his victims because they were Asian, and he targeted his victims because they were women. And we have to shed the blinders that limit us to seeing the race piece, but not the gender piece of hate."


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: Several politicians expressed concern with how easy it was for Long to obtain a gun on the day of the shooting, with the Giffords Law Center saying he would have completed the required background check within 100 seconds. Georgia state senator Michelle Au commented, "It is easier to buy a gun here than it is to vote." Advocates said a waiting period in Georgia could have prevented spontaneous violence. The day after the killings, Satirical news site "The Onion" republished its 'No Way To Prevent This,' Says Only Nation Where This Regularly Happens article, with minor alterations to reflect the particular incident, as it routinely does in the aftermath of high-profile mass shootings.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: Calls for gun reform were renewed when a shooting in Boulder, Colorado, occurred six days later. Senate Majority Leader Chuck Schumer (D-NY) said the Senate "must and will move forward on legislation to help stop the epidemic of gun violence". Asian American state legislators and the family of one of the victims met to discuss gun reform on May 4.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: During a press conference on the shootings, Captain Jay Baker of the Cherokee County Sheriff's Department paraphrased what Long told investigators about his motives, saying "he was pretty much fed up and kind of at the end of his rope, and I guess it was a really bad day for him and this is what he did."


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: The phrase "really bad day" attracted criticism and led to the discovery of Baker's anti-Chinese sentiments on Facebook, thereby calling the integrity of the investigation into question. He has allegedly shared a Facebook post of t-shirts with the message "Covid 19 imported virus from Mainland Chy-na". Observers said he was a sympathizer with Long. Georgia State Senator Michelle Au said Baker's remarks showed that law enforcement handled crimes against particular groups differently. Representative Ted Lieu (D-Calif.) called for the FBI to conduct its own independent investigation, saying that he believed the Cherokee County Sheriff’s Office investigation would be unfair because of Baker's press conference remarks and Facebook post. Vincent Pan, a co-executive director of the civil rights group Chinese for Affirmative Action, said that Baker's involvement undermined Asian-American confidence that the investigation would be taken seriously.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: On March 18, Sheriff Reynolds of the Cherokee County Sheriff’s Office released a letter that acknowledged the criticism, expressed regret over Baker's words, and contextualized the remarks by pointing to the "difficult task" that Baker had and Baker's personal connections to the Asian-American community. The letter did not address Baker's Facebook post. Later that day, Baker was removed from his spokesman role in the investigation. According to WSB-TV, the incident prompted the Cherokee County Sheriff Department to briefly consider handing off its role in the case to the Georgia Bureau of Investigation.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: Oscillations of violence against the Asian American community has sparked social movement across the U.S., with anti-racist messaging such as "Stop Asian Hate" becoming more prevalent. On March 21, thousands participated in protests in Atlanta, New York City, Washington, D.C., and Montreal, denouncing anti-Asian sentiment and hate crimes.


title: 2021 Atlanta spa shootings

text: Red Canary Song, an Asian and migrant massage parlor worker rights organization, has also protested against some of the proposed solutions which they view as counter-productive, such as increased policing and pressure to shutdown massage parlors entirely. Alternatively, they have promoted efforts to de-stigmatize massage parlors, advocated for decriminalization of sex work, and encouraged positive cultural changes that would affirm the dignity of massage parlor workers.


title: West Papua (province)

text: West Papua (), formerly Irian Jaya Barat (West Irian), is a province of Indonesia. It covers the two western peninsulas of the island of New Guinea, the eastern half of the Bird's Head Peninsula (or Doberai Peninsula) and the Bomberai Peninsula, along with nearby smaller islands. The province is bordered to the north by the Pacific Ocean, to the west by the Halmahera Sea and the Ceram Sea, to the south by the Banda Sea, and to the east by the province of Central Papua and the Cenderawasih Bay. Manokwari is the province's capital and largest city. West Papua is the second-least populous province in Indonesia (after South Papua). It had a population of 1,134,068 at the 2020 Census, and the official estimate for mid 2021 was 1,156,840. However the total area and population will be reduced by the Parliamentary decision on 17 November 2022 to create a 38th province of Indonesia, comprising Sorong city and the regencies of Sorong, South Sorong, Raja Ampat, Maybrat and Tambrauw. The reduced West Papua Province will thus have a mid-2021 population estimated at only 551,791.


title: West Papua (province)

text: After the Japanese surrender, the Dutch remained in New Guinea until 1962 when they transferred the control of the region to the Indonesian government as a part of the New York Agreement. West Papua was legally created as a province in 1999, but it was not inaugurated until 2003. Consisting until 2022 of twelve regencies and one city, the province has a special autonomous status as granted by Indonesian legislation.


title: West Papua (province)

text: West Papua has a medium Human Development Index, which is the second lowest among Indonesia's 38 provinces. The Indonesian government has launched the building of ambitious infrastructure projects including the Trans-Papua Highway, airports, and other facilities. Detractors claim that these projects threaten Southeast Asia's and Oceania's last large regions of tropical rainforests and native cultures. According to Bank Indonesia, West Papua recorded an economic growth rate of 7.7% during 2018, which is higher than the national economic growth.


title: West Papua (province)

text: There are several theories regarding the origin of the word Papua. One theory is that the name comes from the word 'Papo-Ua', which is named by the Tidore Sultanate, which in the Tidore language means "not joining" or "not being united", which means that on this island there is no king who rules."" Before the age of colonization, the Tidore Sultanate exercised suzerainty over some parts of the Bird's Head Peninsula in what is now the province of West Papua before expanding to also include coastal regions in the current province of Papua. This relationship plays an important historical role in binding the archipelagic civilizations of Indonesia to the Papuan world. Another theory is that the word Papua comes from the Malay word 'papuwah', which means 'frizzled hair'. It was first mentioned in 1812 Malay Dictionary by William Marsden, although it was not found on earlier dictionaries. In the records of 16th century Portuguese and Spanish sailors, the word 'Papua' is the designation for the inhabitants who inhabit the Raja Ampat Islands and the coastal parts of the Bird's Head Peninsula.


title: West Papua (province)

text: The former name of the province, Irian Jaya, is suggested during a tribal committee meeting in Tobati, Jayapura, formed by Atmoprasojo, head of bestuur school in the 1940s, Frans Kaisiepo the committee leader suggested name from Mansren Koreri myths, "Iri-an" from the Biak language of Biak Island, means "hot land" referring to local hot climate, but also from "Iryan" which means heated process as a methapor for a land that is entering new era. In Serui "Iri-an" () means "pillar of nation", while in Merauke "Iri-an" () means "rising spirit" or "to rise". The name was promoted in 1945 by Marcus Kaisiepo, brother of the future governor Frans Kaisiepo. The name "Irian" was politicized later by Marthin Indey, Silas Papare, and others with the Indonesian acronym 'Ikut Republik Indonesia Anti Nederland' (Join the Republic of Indonesia oppose the Netherlands). The name was used throughout the Suharto administration, until it was changed to "Papua" during the administration of President Abdurrahman Wahid.


title: West Papua (province)

text: The Dutch, who arrived later under Jacob Le Maire and Willem Schouten, called it "Schouten island". They later used this name only to refer to islands off the north coast of Papua proper, the Schouten Islands or Biak Island. When the Dutch colonized this island as part of the Dutch East Indies, they called it "Nieuw Guinea".


title: West Papua (province)

text: Speakers align themselves with a political orientation when choosing a name for the western half of the island of New Guinea. The official name of the region is "Papua" according to International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Independence activists refer to the region as "West Papua," while Indonesian officials have also used "West Papua" to name the westernmost province of the region since 2007. Historically, the region has had the official names of Netherlands New Guinea (1895–1962), West Irian or Irian Barat (1962–73), Irian Jaya (1973–2002), Irian Jaya Barat (2003–2007), and Papua Barat (2007–present).


title: West Papua (province)

text: Papuan habitation of the region is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago. Research indicates that the highlands were an early and independent center of agriculture, and show that agriculture developed gradually over several thousands of years; the banana has been cultivated in this region for at least 7,000 years. Austronesian peoples migrating through Maritime Southeast Asia settled in the area at least 3,000 years ago, and populated especially in Cenderawasih Bay. Diverse cultures and languages have developed in the island due to geographical isolation; there are over 300 languages and two hundred additional dialects in the region ("see Papuan languages, Austronesian languages, Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages").


title: West Papua (province)

text: Ghau Yu Kuan, a Chinese merchant, came to Papua around the latter half of 500 AD and referred to it as "Tungki", the area where they obtained spices. Meanwhile, in the latter half of 600 AD, the Sumatra-based empire of Srivijaya (7th century–13th century) referred to the island as "Janggi". The empire engaged in trade relations with western New Guinea, initially taking items like sandalwood and birds-of-paradise in tribute to China, but later making slaves out of the natives. It was only at the beginning of 700 AD that traders from Persia and Gujarat began to arrive in what is now Papua and call it "Dwi Panta" or "Samudrananta", which means 'at edge of the ocean'.


title: West Papua (province)

text: The 14th-century Majapahit poem "Nagarakretagama" mentioned Wwanin or Onin and Sran as a recognized territory in the east, today identified as Onin peninsula in Fakfak Regency in the western part of the larger Bomberai Peninsula south of the Bird's Head region of Western New Guinea. At that time, Papua was said to be the eighth region of the Majapahit Empire."" Wanin or Onin was probably the oldest name in recorded history to refer to the western part of the island of New Guinea. A transcript from the "Nagarakretagama" says the following:


title: West Papua (province)

text: According to some linguists, the word "Ewanin" is another name for Onin, while "Sran" popularly misunderstood to refers to Seram Island in Maluku, is more likely another name for Kowiai. The local Papuan kingdom in its native language is called Sran Eman Muun which is based in Kaimana and its furthest influence extends to the Kei Islands, in southeastern Maluku. In his book "Nieuw Guinea," Dutch author WC. Klein explained the beginning of the influence of the Bacan Sultanate in Papua. There he wrote: "In 1569 Papoese hoof den bezoeken Batjan. Ee aanterijken worden vermeld" (In 1569, Papuan tribal leaders visited Bacan, which resulted in the creation of new kingdoms). According to the oral history of the Biak people, there used to be a relationship and marriage between their tribal chiefs and the sultans of Tidore. The Biak people is the largest Melanesian tribe that spreads on the northern coast of Papua, therefore the Biak language is also the most widely used and considered the language of Papuan unity. Due to the relationship of the coastal areas of Papua with the Sultans of Maluku, there are several local kingdoms on this island, which shows the entry of the system of feudalism that does not originated from Papua itself.


title: West Papua (province)

text: Since the 16th century, apart from the Raja Ampat Islands which was contested between the Bacan Sultanate, Tidore Sultanate, and Ternate Sultanate, other coastal areas of Papua from the island of Biak to Mimika have become a vassal of the Tidore Sultanate. The Tidore Sultanate adheres to the trade pact and custom of "Uli-Siwa" ( federation of nine ), so there were nine trade partners led by Tidore in opposition to Ternate-led "Uli Lima" ( federation of five ). In administering its regions in Papua, Tidore divide them to three regions, "Korano Ngaruha" ( ) or Raja Ampat Islands, "Papo Ua Gamsio" ( ) and "Mafor Soa Raha" ( ). The role of these kingdoms began to decline due to the entry of traders from Europe to the archipelago which marks the beginning of colonialism in the Indonesian Archipelago. During Tidore's rule, the main exports of the island during this period were resins, spices, slaves and the highly priced feathers of the bird-of-paradise. Sultan Nuku, one of the most famous Tidore sultans who rebelled against Dutch colonization, called himself "Sultan of Tidore and Papua", during his revolt in 1780s. He commanded loyalty from both Moluccan and Papuan chiefs, especially those of Raja Ampat Islands. Following Tidore's defeat, much of the territory it claimed in western part of New Guinea came under Dutch rule as part of Dutch East Indies.


title: West Papua (province)

text: In 1511, Antonio d'Arbau, a Portuguese sailor, called the Papua region as "Os Papuas" or "llha de Papo". Don Jorge de Menetes, a sailor from Spain also stopped by in Papua a few years later (1526–1527), he refers to the region as 'Papua', which was mentioned in the diary of Antonio Figafetta, the clerk for the Magellan voyage. The name Papua was known to Figafetta when he stopped on the island of Tidore.


title: West Papua (province)

text: On 16 May 1545, Yñigo Ortiz de Retez, a Spanish maritime explorer who in command of the "San Juan de Letran", left port in Tidore, an island which was Spain's stronghold in the Maluku Islands and going by way of the Talaud Islands and the Schoutens, reached the northern coast of New Guinea, which was coasted till the end of August when, having got to the 5°S latitude, contrary winds and currents forced a return to Tidore where he arrived on 5 October 1545. Many islands were encountered and first charted, along the northern coast of New Guinea, and in the Padaidos, Le Maires, Ninigos, Kaniets and Hermits, to some of which Spanish names were given. On 20 June 1545 at the mouth of the Mamberamo River (that was charted as "San Agustin") he took possession of the land for the Spanish Crown, in the process giving the island the name by which it is known today. He called it "Nueva Guinea" owing to the resemblance of the local inhabitants to the peoples of the Guinea coast in West Africa. The first map showing the whole island (as an island) was published in 1600 and shown 1606, Luís Vaz de Torres explored the southern coast of New Guinea from Milne Bay to the Gulf of Papua including Orangerie Bay, which he named "Bahía de San Lorenzo". His expedition also discovered Basilaki Island, naming it "Tierra de San Buenaventura", which he claimed for Spain in July 1606. On 18 October, his expedition reached the western part of the island in present-day Indonesia, and also claimed the territory for the King of Spain.


title: West Papua (province)

text: In 1606, a Duyfken expedition led by the commander Wiliam Jansen from Holland landed in Papua. This expedition consisted of 3 ships, where they sailed from the north coast of Java and stopped at the Kei Islands, at the southwestern coast of Papua. With the increasing Dutch grip in the region, the Spanish left New Guinea in 1663. In 1660, the Dutch recognized the Sultan of Tidore's sovereignty over New Guinea. New Guinea thus became notionally Dutch as the Dutch held power over Tidore.


title: West Papua (province)

text: Dutch New Guinea in the early 19th century was administered from the Moluccas. Although the coast had been mapped in 1825 by Lieutenant Commander D.H. Kolff, there had been no serious effort to establish a permanent presence in Dutch New Guinea. The British, however, had shown considerable interest in the area, and were threatening to settle it. To prevent this, the Governor of the Moluccas, Pieter Merkus, urged the Dutch government to establish posts along the coast. An administrative and trading post established in 1828 on Triton Bay on the southwest coast of New Guinea. The post was named Fort Du Bus for the then-Governor General of the Dutch East Indies, Leonard du Bus de Gisignies. On 24 August 1828, the birthday of King William I of the Netherlands, the Dutch flag was hoisted and Dutch claimed all of western Papua, which they called "Nieuw Guinea". In the ceremony, multiple tribes and kingdoms of the region was invited. The Dutch reorganized VOC vassalization system of Tidore Sultanate with the Sultan being given new rattan baton with gold head (formerly having VOC stamp). Under him, Sendawan (King of Namatota), Kassa (King of Lahakia) and Lutu ("Orang Kaya" from Lobo and Mawara) were recognized as leader of the regions which was symbolized by three rattan batons with silver head. Under those three, The Netherlands also recognized another twenty eight tribes or vassal kingdoms. Almost 30 years later, Germans established the first missionary settlement on an island near Manokwari. While in 1828 the Dutch claimed the south coast west of the 141st meridian and the north coast west of Humboldt Bay in 1848, they did not try to develop the region again until 1896; they established settlements in Manokwari and Fak-Fak in response to perceived Australian ownership claims from the eastern half of New Guinea.


title: West Papua (province)

text: Under Tidore hegemony around Onin Peninsula, there was three main local kingdoms Atiati, Fatagar, and Rumbati led by Bauw dynasty. In 1878, there was a war between Rumbati on one side and Fatagar and Atiati on the other side. Atiati and Fatagar moved their capitals to Ega islands. After some time there was a conflict between Atiati and Fatagar, as a result Atiati moved its capital to the mainland on the coast just across Ega island which come to be known as Atiati in modern time. Meanwhile, Fatagar moved its capital to a place called Merapi, located on the eastern side of Fakfak town in modern time.


title: West Papua (province)

text: Great Britain and Germany had recognized the Dutch claims in treaties of 1885 and 1895. At much the same time, Britain claimed south-east New Guinea, later known as the Territory of Papua, and Germany claimed the northeast, later known as the Territory of New Guinea. The German, Dutch and British colonial administrators each attempted to suppress the still-widespread practices of inter-village warfare and headhunting within their respective territories. In 1901, the Netherlands formally purchased West New Guinea from the Sultanate of Tidore, incorporating it into the Netherlands East Indies.


title: West Papua (province)

text: Other local kingdoms around the area, were formerly under the dominion of Rumbati kingdom but achieved kingdom status when the Netherlands achieved hegemony of the area in 1898, these includes: Patipi kingdom centered in Patipi Bay in Fakfak, Sekar kingdom in Kokas led by Rumagesan dynasty, Wertuar kingdom centered in Sisir led by Heremba dynasty, Arguni kingdom centered in Arguni islands in Kaimana.


title: West Papua (province)

text: During the Indonesian National Awakening period several Indonesian nationalists were interned in the Boven-Digoel detention camp in modern-day Papua province, mostly from the failed 1926 communist uprising. This began the long interaction and formation of local Indonesian nationalist movement in Western New Guinea. Following its independence declaration from the Netherlands in 1945, Indonesia claimed all of the territory of the former Dutch East Indies, including Western New Guinea. Local figures like Silas Papare created PKII In 1946 centered in Serui to begin preparation for revolution war against the Netherlands. To counter this Netherlands formed the Papuan Council.


title: West Papua (province)

text: In 1947 Malino Conference the formation of United States of Indonesia was considered but because of pressure from local Dutch politicians hoping to create a West New Guinea country for fleeing Indo-Eurasians, they decided against including West New Guinea in United States of Indonesia. This is contrary to the local Papuan delegates in the event, Frans Kaisiepo who argued for the inclusion of West Papua with Indonesia. This is also the first time 'Irian' is proposed to describe the territory as suggested by Kaisiepo. Kaisiepo was then rejected to becoming Dutch New Guinea representatives during 1949 Round-Table Conference which resulted in United States of Indonesia independence and postponement of the Western new Guinea status negotiation to the next year.


title: West Papua (province)

text: However, by 1950s Republic of Indonesia Government dissolved United States of Indonesia and many of the constituent merged to form United Republic of Indonesia. This angered the Dutch because it destroyed their influence in many of the formed republics constituent of BFO and the dissolving of Dutch-Indonesian Union. As a result, the region was still retained by the Dutch, which caused increasing tension of Netherlands with Indonesia.


title: West Papua (province)

text: By December 1957, Sukarno frustrated with the lack of progress for Western New Guinea negotiation, decided to nationalise around 246 Dutch companies dominating Indonesian economy. By early 1960s Indonesia also began to accept increasing amounts of Soviet-bloc military aid. This leads to increasingly aggressive stance by Indonesia. In April 1961, Netherlands announced the formation of a Nieuw Guinea Raad, intending to create an independent Papuan state. Indonesia declared intention of military confrontation by Formation of Tri Komando Rakjat (TRIKORA) speech in Yogyakarta, on 19 December 1961. Indonesia then began to direct military incursions into the half-island, which he referred to as West Irian. By the end of 1962, 3,000 Indonesian soldiers were present throughout West Irian/West Papua. Although most of these military incursion managed to make contact with local Indonesian nationalists most were unsuccessful in taking control and were captured by Dutch authority.