title: Lorelei

text: The name comes from the old German words , Rhine dialect for "murmuring", and the Celtic term "rock". The translation of the name would therefore be "murmur rock" or "murmuring rock". The heavy currents, and a small waterfall in the area (still visible in the early 19th century) created a murmuring sound, and this combined with the special echo the rock produces to act as a sort of amplifier, giving the rock its name. The murmuring is hard to hear today owing to the urbanization of the area. Other theories attribute the name to the many boating accidents on the rock, by combining the German verb ('to lurk, lie in wait') with the same "ley" ending, with the translation "lurking rock".


title: Lorelei

text: After the German spelling reform of 1901, in almost all German terms, the letter "y" was changed to the letter "i", but some proper nouns have kept their "y", such as Bayern, Speyer, Spay, Tholey, (Rheinberg-)Orsoy and including Loreley, which is thus the correct spelling in German.


title: Lorelei

text: The rock and the murmur it creates have inspired various tales. An old legend envisioned dwarfs living in caves in the rock.


title: Lorelei

text: In 1801, German author Clemens Brentano composed his ballad "Zu Bacharach am Rheine" as part of a fragmentary continuation of his novel "Godwi oder Das steinerne Bild der Mutter". It first told the story of an enchanting female associated with the rock. In the poem, the beautiful Lore Lay, betrayed by her sweetheart, is accused of bewitching men and causing their death. Rather than sentence her to death, the bishop consigns her to a nunnery. On the way thereto, accompanied by three knights, she comes to the Lorelei rock. She asks permission to climb it and view the Rhine once again. She does so, and, thinking that she sees her love in the Rhine, falls to her death; the rock ever afterward retaining an echo of her name. Brentano had taken inspiration from Ovid and the Echo myth.


title: Lorelei

text: In 1824, Heinrich Heine seized on and adapted Brentano's theme in one of his most famous poems, "Die Lorelei". It describes the eponymous female as a sort of siren who, sitting on the cliff above the Rhine and combing her golden hair, unwittingly distracted shipmen with her beauty and song, causing them to crash on the rocks. In 1837 Heine's lyrics were set to music by Friedrich Silcher in the art song "Lorelei" that became well known in German-speaking lands. A setting by Franz Liszt was also favored and dozens of other musicians have set the poem to music. During the Nazi regime and World War II, Heinrich Heine (born as a Jew) became discredited as author of the lyrics, in an effort to dismiss and hide Jewish contribution to German art. Lorelei also appears in the poem Waldesgespräch, which appears as a dialog in Joseph von Eichendorff's first novel, . The poem was set by Robert Schumann in his Liederkreis, op. 39.


title: Lorelei

text: The Lorelei character, although originally imagined by Brentano, passed into German popular culture in the form described in the Heine–Silcher song and is commonly but mistakenly believed to have originated in an old folk tale. The French writer Guillaume Apollinaire took up the theme again in his poem "La Loreley", from the collection "Alcools" which is later cited in Symphony No. 14 (3rd movement) of Dmitri Shostakovich. The character continues to be referenced in pop culture.


title: Lorelei

text: A barge carrying 2,400 tons of sulphuric acid capsized on 13 January 2011, near the Lorelei rock, blocking traffic on one of Europe's busiest waterways.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked

text: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked is a 2011 American live action/computer animated jukebox musical adventure comedy film directed by Mike Mitchell. It is the third film starring Alvin and the Chipmunks following the 2009 film "", and the first. The film's main cast includes: Jason Lee, David Cross and Jenny Slate. Justin Long, Matthew Gray Gubler, Jesse McCartney, Amy Poehler, Anna Faris, and Christina Applegate return as the Chipmunks and Chipettes, respectively. Distributed by 20th Century Fox and produced by Fox 2000 Pictures, Regency Enterprises and Bagdasarian Productions.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked

text: The film was released on December 16, 2011, and grossed $343 million on an $80 million budget, to even worse reviews than the previous films. A fourth and final film, "", was released on December 18, 2015.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked

text: Two years after the events of , Dave, the Chipmunks and the Chipettes go on a cruise ship heading for the International Music Awards. Both groups end up creating trouble; culminating in Dave having dinner with the captain to apologize for the trouble. He tells them to stay in their room, only for all of them (except Theodore) to escape to the casinos. Dave discovers his former supervisor; Ian Hawke is working as the ship's safety monitor dressed as a pelican, and is out to inform the captain if the Chipmunks and Chipettes cause more problems. The next day, Alvin decides to go para-sailing on a kite but the kite flies away with him and the other Chipmunks. Dave goes on a hang-glider to try to find them but Ian attempts to stop him, which results in them both ending up in the Pacific Ocean.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked

text: Meanwhile, the Chipmunks find an island and they sleep for the night. Dave enlists Ian's help to find the same island and begin looking for the Chipmunks. The next morning the Chipmunks go and find food and while doing so, an island castaway named Zoe shows up and sees the chipmunks for the first time. They then go to Zoe's tree house where Eleanor sprains her ankle and Simon gets bitten by a spider; its side effects including personality changes and loss of inhibition.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked

text: The morning after, everyone observes Simon's personality changed where he thinks he's a French adventurous chipmunk named "Simon(e)". "Simone" becomes attracted to Jeanette but does not take as kindly to Alvin and Brittany. Later, Zoe takes "Simone", Jeanette, Eleanor and Theodore to a lake with a waterfall and "Simone" finds a cave. He returns with a gold bracelet which he gives to Jeanette as a crown. Brittany and Alvin see an active volcano the next day and they decide that they have to leave the island with the others. Theodore and "Simone" find Dave and Ian and they go to meet with the other chipmunks. They all begin to prepare a raft to get them off the island and everyone is assigned a job. When Jeanette and "Simone" go and look for food, "Simone" is knocked unconscious and Jeanette is kidnapped; "Simone" reverts to Simon afterwards.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked

text: Everyone finds Simon awake and he cannot remember anything since the bite. They discover that Zoe has taken Jeanette and they head towards the waterfall. When they approached the tree log to cross, Dave and Alvin decide to go and find Jeanette. As Zoe forces Jeanette to get the treasure in the cave by tying her to a rope, she reveals that she was never a castaway, but came to the island intentionally to find the treasure, but due to the effects of living alone on the island for ten years, she has gone mentally insane and is ruthlessly willing to find the treasure at all costs. Alvin and Dave come to her rescue. The island begins to rumble again and Zoe lets go of the rope and Jeanette runs with Dave and Alvin back to the raft. When they reach the log to cross, Dave almost falls.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked

text: Alvin and a reformed Ian convince Zoe to help save Dave. They then run towards the raft and escape the eruption. While on the raft, Zoe apologizes to Jeanette for kidnapping her and forcing her to get the treasure. As a gift, Jeanette gives Zoe the gold bracelet that Simon had given to her. Alvin reconciles with Dave and they are rescued. The Chipmunks and Chipettes perform at the International Music Awards. Ian also starts a new career as a screenwriter by selling a screenplay about Zoe's story to Hollywood, earning him his wealth back and making Zoe famous.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked

text: On October 26, 2010, according to 24 Frames from the "Los Angeles Times", Mike Mitchell, the director behind "Shrek Forever After", was in negotiations with 20th Century Fox to direct the new film. The film featured one of Carnival's newest and biggest cruise ships, "Carnival Dream". The external shots and interior stateroom suite were filmed during a seven-day Caribbean cruise. The casino, dance club, and dining room were filmed on a set not attempting to match the actual interior of the Carnival Dream cruise ship.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked

text: "Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked" was released in the U.S. on December 16, 2011, and was the first and only live-action/CGI Chipmunks film to be rated G by the MPAA.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked

text: "Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked" was released on DVD and Blu-ray on March 27, 2012, from 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked

text: The film grossed a total of $133,110,742 in North America, and another $209,584,693 internationally, for a total worldwide gross of $342,695,435. "Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked" made $6.7 million on its opening day, which was lower than the opening day grosses of the original film ($13.3 million) and its ($18.8 million). For its opening weekend, the film ranked at the #2 spot behind "" with $23.2 million, which was less than the opening weekends of the franchise's previous two films, the original film's $44.3 million and its sequel's $48.9 million respectively.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 12% based on 82 reviews and an average rating of 3.51/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Lazy, rote, and grating, "Chipwrecked" is lowest-common-denominator family entertainment that's strictly for the very, very, very young at heart." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 24 out of 100 based on 19 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked

text: John Anderson of "Variety" wrote: "As impressive as the CG elements are in 'Chipwrecked,' they're a mixed blessing: The more lifelike the techies make the critters—Alvin (voiced by Justin Long), Theodore (Jesse McCartney) and Simon (Matthew Gray Gubler) —the more we're reminded they're rodents."


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked

text: Michael Rechtshaffen of "The Hollywood Reporter" called it "Every bit as frantic, frenetic, groan-inducing and all around grating as its two predecessors."


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked

text: David Cross, who played Ian in this film and the previous two installments, has spoken critically of making the film, calling it "the most miserable experience I ever had in my professional life". He had no problems with the other actors or director, but said there were a couple of people who made it an awful experience.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked

text: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked: Music from the Motion Picture is the licensed soundtrack based on the film. It was released on November 15, 2011, by Atlantic Records. Released to US Target stores, a limited edition version of the soundtrack was released containing four exclusive bonus tracks. iTunes and Amazon.com released a deluxe edition available only on digital download containing three bonus tracks.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked

text: Chipwrecked - Queensberry Chipwrecked - Queensberry (feat. The Chipmunks) (*) - denotes original song


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked

text: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked is a video game based on the film. It was released for the Wii, Nintendo DS, and Xbox 360 on November 15, 2011, in North America and on November 25, 2011, in Europe. Like the previous "Alvin & The Chipmunks" and adaptations, Ross Bagdasarian Jr. and Janice Karman reprised their respective roles.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked

text: In June 2013, 20th Century Fox announced that a sequel, "", would be released on December 11, 2015. On December 18, 2014, however, it was announced for a December 23, 2015 release. On October 14, 2015, the release date was pushed forward to December 18, 2015.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: H. L. Hunley, often referred to as Hunley, CSS H. L. Hunley, or as CSS Hunley, was a submarine of the Confederate States of America that played a small part in the American Civil War. "Hunley" demonstrated the advantages and the dangers of undersea warfare. She was the first combat submarine to sink a warship (), although "Hunley" was not completely submerged and, following her successful attack, was lost along with her crew before she could return to base. The Confederacy lost 21 crewmen in three sinkings of "Hunley" during her short career. She was named for her inventor, Horace Lawson Hunley, shortly after she was taken into government service under the control of the Confederate States Army at Charleston, South Carolina.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: "Hunley", nearly long, was built at Mobile, Alabama, and launched in July 1863. She was then shipped by rail on 12 August 1863, to Charleston. "Hunley" (then referred to as the "fish boat", the "fish torpedo boat", or the "porpoise") sank on 29 August 1863, during a test run, killing five members of her crew. She sank again on 15 October 1863, killing all eight of her second crew, including Horace Lawson Hunley himself, who was aboard at the time, even though he was not a member of the Confederate military. Both times "Hunley" was raised and returned to service.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: On 17 February 1864, "Hunley" attacked and sank the 1,240-ton United States Navy screw sloop-of-war "Housatonic", which had been on Union blockade-duty in Charleston's outer harbor. "Hunley" did not survive the attack and also sank, taking with her all eight members of her third crew, and was lost.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: Finally located in 1995, "Hunley" was raised in 2000, and is on display in North Charleston, South Carolina, at the Warren Lasch Conservation Center on the Cooper River. Examination in 2012 of recovered "Hunley" artifacts suggests that the submarine was as close as to her target, "Housatonic", when her deployed torpedo exploded, which caused the submarine's own loss.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: Horace Lawson Hunley provided financing for James McClintock to design three submarines: in New Orleans, Louisiana, built in Mobile, and "Hunley".


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: While the United States Navy was constructing its first submarine , in late 1861, the Confederacy were doing so as well. Hunley, McClintock, and Baxter Watson first built "Pioneer", which was tested in February 1862, in the Mississippi River, and was later towed to Lake Pontchartrain, for additional trials. But the Union advance towards New Orleans caused the men to abandon development and scuttle "Pioneer" the following month. The Bayou St. John Confederate submarine may have been constructed about this time.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: Hunley and McClintock moved to Mobile, to begin development of a second submarine, "American Diver" with the collaboration of two others. Their efforts were supported by the Confederate States Army. Lieutenant William Alexander of the 21st Alabama Infantry Regiment was assigned to oversee the project. The builders experimented with electric and steam propulsion for the new submarine, before falling back on a simple hand-cranked propulsion system. "American Diver" was ready for harbor trials by January 1863, but she proved too slow to be practical. Nonetheless, it was decided to tow the submarine down the bay to Fort Morgan and attempt an attack on the Union blockade. However, the submarine foundered in the heavy chop caused by foul weather and the currents at the mouth of Mobile Bay and sank. The crew escaped, but the boat was not recovered.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: Construction of "Hunley" began soon after the loss of "American Diver". At this stage, "Hunley" was variously referred to as the "fish boat", the "fish torpedo boat", or the "porpoise". Legend held that "Hunley" was made from a cast-off steam boiler—perhaps because a cutaway drawing by William Alexander, who had seen her, showed a short and stubby machine. In fact, "Hunley" was designed and built for her role, and the sleek, modern-looking craft shown in R.G. Skerrett's 1902 drawing is an accurate representation. "Hunley" was designed for a crew of eight, seven to turn the hand-cranked ducted propeller, about , and one to steer and direct the boat. Each end was equipped with ballast tanks that could be flooded by valves or pumped dry by hand pumps. Extra ballast was added through the use of iron weights bolted to the underside of the hull. In the event the submarine needed additional buoyancy to rise in an emergency, the iron weight could be removed by unscrewing the heads of the bolts from inside the vessel.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: "Hunley" was equipped with two watertight hatches, one forward and one aft, atop two short conning towers equipped with small portholes and slender, triangular cutwaters. The hatches, bigger than original estimates, measure about wide and nearly long), making entrance to and egress from the hull difficult. The height of the ship's hull was .


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: By July 1863, "Hunley" was ready for a demonstration. Supervised by Confederate Admiral Franklin Buchanan, "Hunley" successfully attacked a coal flatboat in Mobile Bay. Following this, the submarine was shipped by rail to Charleston, South Carolina, arriving on 12 August 1863.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: However, the Confederate military seized the submarine from her private builders and owners shortly after arriving, turning her over to the Confederate Army. "Hunley" would operate as a Confederate Army vessel from then on, although Horace Hunley and his partners would remain involved in her further testing and operation. While sometimes referred to as CSS "Hunley", she was never officially commissioned into service.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: Confederate Navy Lieutenant John A. Payne of CSS "Chicora" volunteered to be "Hunley"s captain, and seven men from "Chicora" and CSS "Palmetto State" volunteered to operate her. On 29 August 1863, "Hunley"s new crew was preparing to make a test dive, when Lieutenant Payne accidentally stepped on the lever controlling the sub's diving planes as she was running on the surface. This caused "Hunley" to dive with one of her hatches still open. Payne and two others escaped, but the other five crewmen drowned.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: The Confederate Army took control of "Hunley", with all orders coming directly from General P. G. T. Beauregard, with Lt. George E. Dixon placed in charge. On 15 October 1863, "Hunley" failed to surface after a mock attack, killing all eight crewmen. Among these was Hunley himself, who had joined the crew for the exercise and possibly had taken over command from Dixon, for the attack maneuver. The Confederate Navy once more salvaged the submarine and returned her to service.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: "Hunley" was originally intended to attack by using a floating explosive charge with a contact fuse (a torpedo in 19th century terminology) which was towed at the end of a long rope. "Hunley" was to approach an enemy ship on the surface, then dive under her, and surface again once beyond her. The torpedo would be drawn against the targeted ship and explode. This plan was discarded as dangerous because of the possibility of the tow line fouling "Hunley"s screw or drifting into the submarine herself.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: Instead, a spar torpedo—a copper cylinder containing of black powder—was attached to a -long wooden spar, as seen in illustrations made at this time. Mounted on "Hunley"s bow, the spar was to be used when the submarine was or more below the surface. Previous spar torpedoes had been designed with a barbed point: the spar torpedo would be jammed in the target's side by ramming, and then detonated by a mechanical trigger attached to the submarine by a line, so that as she backed away from her target, the torpedo would set off. However, archaeologists working on "Hunley" discovered evidence, including a spool of copper wire and components of a battery, that it may actually have been electrically detonated. In the configuration used in the attack on "Housatonic", it appears "Hunley"s torpedo had no barbs, and was designed to explode on contact as it was pushed against an enemy vessel at close range. After Horace Hunley's death, General Beauregard ordered that the submarine should no longer be used to attack underwater. An iron pipe was then attached to her bow, angled downwards so the explosive charge would be delivered sufficiently under water to make it effective. This was the same method developed for the earlier "David" surface attack craft used successfully against the USS "New Ironsides". "The Confederate Veteran" of 1902, printed a reminiscence authored by an engineer stationed at Battery Marshall who, with another engineer, made adjustments to the iron pipe mechanism before "Hunley" left on her last fatal mission on 17 February 1864. A drawing of the iron pipe spar, confirming her "David" type configuration, was published in early histories of submarine warfare.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: "Hunley" made her only attack against an enemy target on the night of 17 February 1864. The target was USS "Housatonic", a wooden-hulled steam-powered sloop-of-war with 12 large cannons, which was stationed at the entrance to Charleston, about offshore.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: Desperate to break the naval blockade of the city, Lieutenant George E. Dixon, and a crew of seven volunteers successfully attacked "Housatonic", ramming "Hunley"s only spar torpedo against the enemy's hull. The torpedo was detonated, sending "Housatonic" to the bottom in five minutes, along with five of her crewmen.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: Years later, when the area around the wreck of "Housatonic" was surveyed, the sunken "Hunley" was found on the seaward side of the sloop, where no one had considered looking before. This later indicated that the ocean current was going out following the attack on "Housatonic", taking "Hunley" with her to where she was eventually found and later recovered.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: After the attack, "H.L. Hunley" failed to return to her base. At one point there appeared to be evidence that "Hunley" survived as long as one hour following the attack, which occurred at about 20:45. The day after the attack, the commander of "Battery Marshall" reported that he had received "the signals" from the submarine indicating she was returning to her base. The report did not say what the signals were. A postwar correspondent wrote that "two blue lights" were the prearranged signals, and a lookout on "Housatonic" reported he saw a "blue light" on the water after his ship sank. "Blue light" in 1864 referred to a pyrotechnic signal in long use by the U.S. Navy. It has been falsely represented in published works as a blue lantern; the lantern eventually found on the recovered "H. L. Hunley" had a clear, not a blue, lens. Pyrotechnic "blue light" could be seen easily over the distance between Battery Marshall and the site of "Hunley"s attack on "Housatonic".


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: After signalling, Dixon's plan could have been to take his submarine underwater to make a return to Sullivan's Island, although he left no confirmed documentation of this plan. At one point the finders of "Hunley" suggested she was unintentionally rammed by USS "Canandaigua" when that warship was going to rescue the crew of "Housatonic", but no such damage was found when she was raised from the bottom of the harbor. Instead, all evidence and analysis eventually pointed to the instantaneous death of "Hunley"s entire crew at the moment of the spar torpedo's contact with the hull of "Housatonic". Upon removal of the silt inside the hull, the skeletons of the crewmembers were found seated at their stations, with no signs of skeletal trauma. In October 2008, scientists reported they had found that the crew of "Hunley" had not set her pump to remove water from the crew's compartment, and this might indicate she was not flooded until after they died. In January 2013, it was announced that conservator Paul Mardikian had found evidence of a copper sleeve at the end of "Hunley"s spar. This finding indicated the torpedo had been attached directly to the spar, meaning the submarine may have been less than from "Housatonic" when the torpedo exploded. In 2018, researchers reported that the keel blocks, which the crew could release from inside the vessel to allow the sub to surface quickly in an emergency, had never been released.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: The short distance between the torpedo and the vessel, in addition to the signs that the crew died instantaneously and without a struggle to survive, led a team of blast trauma specialists from Duke University to theorize that the "Hunley"s crew was killed by the blast itself, which could have transmitted pressure waves inside the vessel without damaging its hull. Their research, which included scaled experiments with live black powder bombs, provided data indicating the crew was likely killed by the explosion of their own torpedo, which could have caused immediate pulmonary blast trauma. The Duke team's experiments and results were published August 2017 in the peer-reviewed journal "PLoS One" and eventually became the subject of the book "In the Waves: My Quest to Solve the Mystery of a Civil War Submarine". Although their conclusions have been disputed by archaeologists with the Naval History and Heritage Command (NHHC), the NHCC website disputing the results of the scientific experiments contains several inconsistencies. For example, the website implies that the experiments are not valid because "a 1/8th inch plate at 1/6th scale is only 0.02 inches thick," but neither of these dimensions are relevant to either the original "Hunley" or the scale model used by Duke.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: "Hunley"s discovery was described by Dr. William Dudley, Director of Naval History at the Naval Historical Center as "probably the most important find of the century." The tiny sub and her contents have been valued at more than $40 million, making her discovery and subsequent donation one of the most important and valuable contributions made to South Carolina.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: The discovery of "Hunley" has been claimed by two different individuals. Underwater archaeologist E. Lee Spence, president, Sea Research Society, reportedly discovered "Hunley" in 1970, and has a collection of evidence claiming to validate this, including a 1980 Civil Admiralty Case. The court took the position that the wreck was outside the jurisdiction of the U.S. Marshals Office, and no determination of ownership was made.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: On 13 September 1976, the National Park Service submitted Sea Research Society's (Spence's) location for "H. L. Hunley" for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places. Spence's location for "Hunley" became a matter of public record when "H. L. Hunley"s placement on that list was officially approved on 29 December 1978. Spence's book "Treasures of the Confederate Coast", which had a chapter on his discovery of "Hunley" and included a map complete with an "X" showing the wreck's location, was published in January 1995.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: Diver Ralph Wilbanks located the wreck in April 1995, while leading a NUMA dive team originally organized by archaeologist Mark Newell, and funded by novelist Clive Cussler, who announced the find as a new discovery and first claimed that the location was in about of water over inshore of "Housatonic", but later admitted to a reporter that that was false. The wreck was actually away from and on the "seaward" side of "Housatonic" in of water. The submarine was buried under several feet of silt, which had both concealed and protected the vessel for more than a hundred years. The divers exposed the forward hatch and the ventilator box (the air box for the attachment of her twin snorkels) in order to identify her. The submarine was resting on her starboard side, at about a 45-degree angle, and was covered in a thick encrustation of rust bonded with sand and seashell particles. Archaeologists exposed part of the ship's port side and uncovered the bow dive plane. More probing revealed an approximate length of , with all of the vessel preserved under the sediment.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: On 14 September 1995, at the official request of Senator Glenn F. McConnell, Chairman, South Carolina "Hunley" Commission, E. Lee Spence, with South Carolina Attorney General Charles M. Condon signing, donated "Hunley" to the State of South Carolina. Shortly thereafter, NUMA disclosed to government officials Wilbank's location for the wreck which, when finally made public in October 2000, matched Spence's 1970s plot of the wreck's location well within standard mapping tolerances. Spence avows that he discovered "Hunley" in 1970, revisiting and mapping the site in 1971 and again in 1979, and that after he published the location in his 1995 book he expected NUMA to independently verify the wreck as "Hunley", not to claim that NUMA had discovered her. NUMA was actually part of a SCIAA expedition directed by Dr. Mark M. Newell and not Cussler. Dr. Newell swore under oath that he used Spence's maps to direct the joint SCIAA/NUMA expedition and credited Spence with the original discovery. Dr. Newell credits his expedition only with the official verification of "Hunley".


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: The "in situ" underwater archaeological investigation and excavation culminated with the raising of "Hunley" on 8 August 2000. A large team of professionals from the Naval Historical Center's Underwater Archaeology Branch, National Park Service, the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, and various other individuals investigated the vessel, measuring and documenting her prior to removal. Once the on-site investigation was complete, harnesses were slipped underneath the sub and attached to a truss designed by Oceaneering International. After the last harness had been secured, the crane from the recovery barge "Karlissa B" hoisted the submarine from the sea floor. She was raised from the open waters of the Atlantic Ocean, just over from Sullivan's Island outside the entrance to Charleston Harbor. Despite having used a sextant and hand-held compass, thirty years earlier, to plot the wreck's location, Dr. Spence's accuracy turned out to be well within the length of the recovery barge, which was long. On 8 August 2000, at 08:37, the sub broke the surface for the first time in more than 136 years, greeted by a cheering crowd on shore and in surrounding watercraft, including author Clive Cussler. Once safely on her transporting barge, "Hunley" was shipped back to Charleston. The removal operation concluded when the submarine was secured inside the Warren Lasch Conservation Center, at the former Charleston Navy Yard in North Charleston, in a specially designed tank of fresh water to await conservation until she could eventually be exposed to air.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: The exploits of "Hunley" and her final recovery were the subject of an episode of the television series "", called "Hunley: First Kill". This program was based on a section ("Part 6") in Clive Cussler's 1996 non-fiction book of the same name (which was accepted by the Board of Governors of the Maritime College of the State University of New York in lieu of his Ph.D. thesis).


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: In 2001, Clive Cussler, filed a lawsuit against E. Lee Spence, for unfair competition, injurious falsehood, civil conspiracy, and defamation. Spence filed a countersuit against Cussler, in 2002, seeking damages, claiming that Cussler was engaging in unfair competition, tortious interference, and civil conspiracy by claiming Cussler had discovered the location of the wreck of "Hunley" in 1995, when she had already been discovered by Spence in 1970, and that such claims by Cussler were damaging to Spence's career, and had caused him damages in excess of $100,000. Spence's lawsuit was dismissed through summary judgment in 2007, on the legal theory that, under the Lanham Act, regardless of whether Cussler's claims were factual or not, Cussler had been making them for over three years before Spence brought his suit against Cussler, and thus the suit was not filed within the statute of limitations. Cussler dropped his suit a year later, after the judge agreed that Spence could introduce evidence in support of his discovery claims as a truth defense against Cussler's claims against him.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: "Hunley" may be viewed during tours at the Warren Lasch Conservation Center, in Charleston. A replica is on display at Battleship Memorial Park, Mobile, Alabama, alongside the and the .


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: The crew was composed of Lieutenant George E. Dixon (Commander) (of Alabama or Ohio), Frank Collins (of Virginia), Joseph F. Ridgaway (of Maryland), James A. Wicks (North Carolina native living in Florida), Arnold Becker (of Germany), Corporal Johan Frederik Carlsen (of Denmark), C. Lumpkin (probably of the British Isles), and Augustus Miller (probably a former member of the German Artillery).


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: Apart from the commander of the submarine, Lieutenant George E. Dixon, the identities of the volunteer crewmen of "Hunley" had long remained a mystery. Douglas Owsley, a physical anthropologist working for the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History, examined the remains and determined that four of the men were American born, while the four others were of European birth, based on the chemical signatures left on the men's teeth and bones by the predominant components of their diet. Four of the men had eaten plenty of corn, an American diet, while the remainder ate mostly wheat and rye, a mainly European one. By examining Civil War records and conducting DNA testing with possible relatives, forensic genealogist Linda Abrams, was able to identify the remains of Dixon, and the three other Americans: Frank G. Collins of Fredericksburg, Va., Joseph Ridgaway, and James A. Wicks. Identifying the European crewmen has been more problematic, but was apparently solved in late 2004. The position of the remains indicated that the men died at their stations and were not trying to escape from the sinking submarine.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: On 17 April 2004, the remains of the crew were laid to rest at Magnolia Cemetery, in Charleston. Tens of thousands of people attended including some 6,000 reenactors and 4,000 civilians wearing period clothing. Color guards from all five branches of the U.S. armed forces—wearing modern uniforms—were also in the procession. Even though only two of the crew were from the Confederate States, all were buried with full Confederate honors, including being buried with the 2nd Confederate national flag, known as the Stainless Banner.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: Another surprise occurred in 2002, when lead researcher Maria Jacobsen, examining the area close to Lieutenant Dixon, found a misshapen $20 gold piece, minted in 1860, with the inscription ""Shiloh April 6, 1862 My life Preserver G. E. D."" on a sanded-smooth area of the coin's reverse side, and a forensic anthropologist found a healed injury to Lt. Dixon's hip bone. The findings matched a legend, passed down in the family, that Dixon's sweetheart, Queenie Bennett, had given him the coin to protect him. However, the supposed relationship between Bennett and Dixon has not been supported by archaeological investigation of the legend. Dixon had the coin with him at the Battle of Shiloh, where he was wounded in the thigh on 6 April 1862. The bullet struck the coin in his pocket, saving his leg and possibly his life. He had the gold coin engraved and carried it as a lucky charm.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: A.J. Kronegh, of the Danish National Archive, has identified the J.F. Carlsen of "Hunley". Johan F. Carlsen, was born in Ærøskøbing 9 April 1841. The last year he is registered in the census of Ærøskøbing is 1860, where he is registered as "sailor". The teeth of his remains in "Hunley" still bear significant marks of a cobbler, which was the profession of his father. In 1861, J.F. Carlsen entered the freight ship "Grethe" of Dragør, which landed in Charleston, in February 1861, where J.F. Carlsen left (deserted) the ship. In June 1861, he entered "Jefferson Davis" (the Confederate privateer brig originally named "Putnam") as mate.


title: H. L. Hunley (submarine)

text: Visitors can obtain tickets for guided tours of the conservation laboratory that houses "Hunley", at the Warren Lasch Conservation Center, on weekends. The actual "Hunley" is preserved and on display in a tank of water, while a replica can be entered by the public. The Center includes artifacts found inside "Hunley", exhibits about the submarine and a video. After a yearlong partial hiatus due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the H.L. Hunley viewing facility is reopening to the public with self-guided tours and a new multimedia video presentation showing the vessel’s story.


title: 2012 NFL season

text: The 2012 NFL season was the 93rd season of the National Football League and the 47th of the Super Bowl era. It began on Wednesday, September 5, 2012, with the defending Super Bowl XLVI champion New York Giants falling to the Dallas Cowboys in the 2012 NFL Kickoff game at MetLife Stadium, and ended with Super Bowl XLVII, the league's championship game, on Sunday, February 3, 2013, at the Mercedes-Benz Superdome in New Orleans, with the Jim Harbaugh-coached San Francisco 49ers facing the John Harbaugh-coached Baltimore Ravens. The Ravens won the game, which marked the first time two brothers were head coaches for opposing teams in the championship game.


title: 2012 NFL season

text: In 2005, the NFL and NFL Referees Association agreed to a contract that would last through the 2011 season. In 2011, the officials' union had planned to use a contract clause to reopen negotiations a year early, but this failed to occur due to the 2011 NFL lockout.


title: 2012 NFL season

text: By June 2012, the league and the officials' union had not yet come to terms on a new collective bargaining agreement, thus failing to resolve the labor dispute. The main issues between the union and the league were changes to the retirement plan, salaries, and personnel. On June 4, 2012, the NFL announced it would begin hiring replacement officials.


title: 2012 NFL season

text: On September 26, 2012, an agreement was reached to end the lockout after increasing criticism of the NFL and the performance of the replacement officials. The contentious nature of the replacement officials' decision at the end of the Green Bay Packers–Seattle Seahawks game two days earlier was widely considered to have been the tipping point that finally led to an agreement. NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell acknowledged that the game "may have pushed the parties further along" in negotiations.


title: 2012 NFL season

text: The 2012 NFL League year and trading period began at 4pm EST on March 13 2012, which marked the start of the league's free agency period. The per-team salary cap was set at US$120,600,000, marginally increased from US$120,000,000 the previous year.


title: 2012 NFL season

text: The 2012 NFL Draft was held from April 26 to 28, 2012 at New York City's Radio City Music Hall. With the first pick, the Indianapolis Colts selected quarterback Andrew Luck from Stanford.


title: 2012 NFL season

text: Bill Vinovich returned to the field as a substitute referee, working several games during the season. He was originally promoted to referee in 2004, but had to leave the field in 2007 because of a heart condition. During his recovery, he served as a replay official.


title: 2012 NFL season

text: The league announced on June 28 that all late Sunday doubleheader games will be moved ten minutes later from 4:15 p.m. ET to 4:25 p.m. Late games broadcast on the single game network will still remain at 4:05 p.m. The league cited 44 early games from the 2009 to 2011 seasons in which part of the audience had to be switched immediately to the kickoff of their home team's doubleheader game, and thus miss the end of the first game. The 4:15 p.m. late doubleheader kickoff time dates back to the 1998 season when the NFL moved it from 4:05 p.m. for the same reason.


title: 2012 NFL season

text: The Pro Football Hall of Fame Game was played August 5 and featured a match-up between the Arizona and the New Orleans. The Saints last appeared in the game in 2007; former Saints offensive tackle Willie Roaf was inducted as part of the Hall of Fame ceremonies. The Cardinals played there for the first time since 1986, when the franchise was still located in St. Louis. As with the originally announced 2011 game, this matchup broke from the game's usual tradition of featuring two teams from opposing conferences (the 2011 Hall of Fame Game would've featured the Chicago and St. Louis, but the game was canceled due to the 2011 NFL lockout). The game, normally airing on NBC, instead aired this season on NFL Network due to NBC airing the 2012 Summer Olympics, as it had done in 2007. The Saints defeated the Cardinals, 17–10. The remainder of the 2012 preseason matchups were revealed on April 4.


title: 2012 NFL season

text: The November 11 game between the San Francisco and the St. Louis ended in a rare tied game, with each team scoring 24 points, none in the overtime period. Prior to this, the last tie game had been in 2008.


title: 2012 NFL season

text: The 2013 Pro Bowl was held in Hawaii on January 27, 2013, after New Orleans was briefly considered as a site. Originally, the NFL delayed announcing a date or venue for the game, and even considered eliminating the game altogether due to the NFL's displeasure with the quality of play in the 2012 Pro Bowl.


title: 2012 NFL season

text: The following games were rescheduled by the NFL using flexible scheduling to promote what the NFL deems to be its best games, typically because of their playoff implications:


title: 2012 NFL season

text: In 2012, the New Orleans Saints were discovered to have run a "slush fund" under former defensive coordinator Gregg Williams, that paid out bonuses, called "bounties", to purposely injure offensive players that the Saints were playing against. The system was known to have operated during Williams's time in Buffalo and Washington. Rumors started in 2009 during the Saints Super Bowl XLIV run in the 2009 NFC Championship game against the Vikings, where the Saints defense was allegedly trying to hurt Vikings quarterback Brett Favre. Other than the Vikings, the Saints also allegedly targeted Chicago Bears and Carolina Panthers players, and the program became even more notorious in the 2011 NFL Divisional Playoff Game against the San Francisco 49ers, when filmmaker Sean Pamphilon released audio tapes of Williams telling his players to injure a select group of 49ers, with one of them being running back Kendall Hunter, and to knock him out, as well as going after Kyle Williams because of his past history of concussions. Williams also told them to injure Vernon Davis' ankles and tear wide receiver Michael Crabtree's ACL. According to Pamphilon, Williams also appeared to put a bounty on quarterback Alex Smith after he told his men to hit Smith in the chin, "then he rubs his thumb against his index and middle fingers – the cash sign – and says, "I got the first one. I got the first one. Go get it. Go lay that [expletive] out.""


title: 2012 NFL season

text: Ultimately, Goodell handed down one of the harshest penalties in league history, by suspending Williams indefinitely, head coach Sean Payton for the entire 2012 season, interim head coach Joe Vitt for the first 6 games, and general manager Mickey Loomis for 8 games. Saints linebacker Jonathan Vilma was also suspended for the season, as well as defensive linemen Anthony Hargrove and Will Smith for 8 and 4 games, respectively. Former Saints and current Cleveland Browns linebacker Scott Fujita was also suspended for 3 games. The player's suspensions were later thrown out on appeal.


title: 2012 NFL season

text: During the Monday Night Football game on October 15 between the San Diego Chargers and the Denver Broncos, officials checked the hands of Chargers players, under the suspicion that players were using Stickum or a similar banned adhesive on players' towels to gain a competitive edge. Chargers' head coach Norv Turner strenuously denied the accusations. The towels were revealed to have Gorilla Gold Grip Enhancer. The Chargers were fined $20,000 by the NFL for failing to immediately surrender team towels when requested, but were cleared of illegal substance use. Gorilla Gold was subsequently banned from use by the NFL.


title: 2012 NFL season

text: There were a total of 11,651 points scored during the 2012 NFL regular season. The average points scored among all the teams in the NFL was 22.8 points per game.


title: 2012 NFL season

text: The New England Patriots had the highest point differential, scoring an average of 14.1 points more than their opponents. The Kansas City Chiefs had the lowest point differential scoring an average of 13.4 points less than their opponents.


title: 2012 NFL season

text: The 2nd Annual NFL Honors, saluting the best players and plays from 2012 season, was held at the Mahalia Jackson Theater in New Orleans, Louisiana on February 2, 2013.


title: 2012 NFL season

text: This was the seventh season under the television contracts with the league's television partners. On December 14, 2011, the NFL announced that it had extended all of its broadcasting contracts through 2022. There were some changes to the contracts, with the most immediate change in 2012 being the Thanksgiving night game being promoted from NFL Network's "Thursday Night Football" package to NBC's "Sunday Night Football" package. CBS continued to primarily televise AFC afternoon away games, Fox airing NFC afternoon away games, and ESPN broadcasting "Monday Night Football" games.


title: 2012 NFL season

text: ESPN made a cut to its "Monday Night Football" broadcasts, removing Ron Jaworski from the broadcast booth and moving to a two-man announcing crew; Mike Tirico will continue on play-by-play while Jon Gruden continues as the sole color commentator. One year prior, the network had switched from two sideline reporters to one.


title: 2012 NFL season

text: The 2013 Pro Bowl was televised by NBC; although the game was normally assigned to the Super Bowl's broadcaster, CBS declined.


title: 2012 NFL season

text: The NFL authorized a new rule loosening the league's blackout restrictions during the 2012 offseason. For the first time in NFL history, the new rule no longer requires a stadium to be sold out to televise a game; instead, teams were allowed to set a benchmark anywhere from 85 to 100 percent of the stadium's non-premium seats. Any seats sold beyond that benchmark will be subject to heavier revenue sharing. Four clubs opted to set the lower TV threshold: the Miami Dolphins, the Minnesota Vikings, the Oakland Raiders, and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. At least four other teams expressly refused to lower their threshold; one case, that of the Buffalo Bills, was particularly controversial, as Buffalo congressman Brian Higgins had lobbied for the loosening of the blackout restrictions only for the Bills to rebuff his efforts, saying such a move would threaten the team's revenue.


title: Monty Hall

text: Monty Hall (born Monte Halparin; August 25, 1921 – September 30, 2017) was a Canadian radio and television show host who moved to the United States in 1955 to pursue a career in broadcasting. After working as a radio newsreader and sportscaster, Hall returned to television in the U.S., this time in game shows. Starting in 1963, he was best known as the game show host and producer of "Let's Make a Deal." As a celebrity, he had a conundrum with game theory and psychology aspects named after him: the Monty Hall problem. Behind the scenes, Hall also carried on an active life of philanthropy.


title: Monty Hall

text: Hall was born as Monte Halparin in Winnipeg, Manitoba, on August 25, 1921, to Orthodox Jewish parents Maurice Harvey Halparin, who owned a slaughterhouse, and Rose (née Rusen). He was raised in Winnipeg's north end, where he attended Lord Selkirk School (Elmwood, Winnipeg), and, later St. John's High School. Hall graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree from the University of Manitoba, where he majored in chemistry and zoology. He was sponsored through university by Max Freed, a local businessman who was a customer of his father. Originally though, Hall had hoped to go to medical school but was not admitted due to secret quotas restricting the number of Jewish students admitted.


title: Monty Hall

text: Hall's first radio job was working for CKRC radio in Winnipeg while still a student. He briefly worked for the Canadian Wheat Board after graduating before deciding to pursue a full-time career in broadcasting. He moved to Toronto in 1946 and found a job with radio station CHUM, where management shortened his name to Hall and misspelled his first name as "Monty" on billboards, giving him the stage name "Monty Hall". For the next decade he hosted and produced a number of programs for radio stations in Toronto, as well as "Who Am I?" on CFRB, which was distributed nationally in Canada through private syndication until 1959. He also had several short-lived programmes on CBC Television after it was launched in 1952, but when they were cancelled and another program he had conceived of was taken away from him, Hall decided he had no future in Canadian television.


title: Monty Hall

text: Hall moved to New York City in 1955, attempting to break into American broadcasting, but commuted to Toronto several times a month to record episode blocks of "Who Am I?" In New York, Hall hosted game shows such as "Bingo at Home" on WABD-TV and guest-hosted more established game shows such as "Strike It Rich" on CBS and "Twenty-One" on NBC. He was the host/performer of two local New York City TV film shows for children, "Cowboy Theater" for WRCA (Channel 4) in 1956 and "Fun In the Morning" for WNEW (Ch. 5) in the early 1960s. From 1956 to 1960, along with NBC Radio newsman Morgan Beatty, Hall co-hosted the Saturday night segment of the NBC Radio Network weekend program "Monitor" from 8 p.m. until midnight (EST). At least two recordings of Hall on "Monitor" are known to exist.


title: Monty Hall

text: Hall was a radio analyst for the New York Rangers of the National Hockey League during the 1959–1960 season.


title: Monty Hall

text: He succeeded Jack Narz as host of a game show called "Video Village", which ran from 1960 to 1962 on CBS. From 1961 to 1962, Hall hosted its spinoff, "Video Village Junior", which featured children. After moving to Southern California, Hall became the host of the game show "Let's Make a Deal", which he developed and produced with partner Stefan Hatos. "Let's Make a Deal" aired on NBC daytime from December 30, 1963, to December 27, 1968, and on ABC daytime from December 30, 1968, until July 9, 1976, along with two prime time runs. It aired in syndication from 1971 to 1977, from 1980 to 1981, from 1984 to 1986, and again on NBC briefly from 1990 to 1991, with Hall replacing Bob Hilton, who had been dismissed. He was producer or executive producer of the show through most of its runs. During the show's initial run, Hall appeared alongside model Carol Merrill and announcer Jay Stewart.


title: Monty Hall

text: Besides "Let's Make a Deal," the game show "Split Second," which originally ran on ABC from 1972 to 1975 with Tom Kennedy as host, and again in syndication in 1986 with Hall hosting that version, was the only other successful program from Hatos-Hall Productions. In 1975, he published his autobiography, co-authored with Bill Libby, called "Emcee Monty Hall". Other game shows from Hatos' and Hall's production company included "Chain Letter" in 1966; a revival of the venerable 1950s-era panel quiz "Masquerade Party" in 1974; "Three for the Money" in 1975; "It's Anybody's Guess" in 1977, which reunited "Let's Make a Deal" announcer Jay Stewart with Hall, who also hosted the show; and the Canadian-based "The Joke's on Us" in 1983. Hall filled in as guest host on several daytime game shows while "Let's Make a Deal" was on NBC, most notably "What's This Song?" and "PDQ".


title: Monty Hall

text: In 1979, Hall hosted the only game show since "Video Village" which he did not produce, Goodson-Todman's "All-New Beat the Clock". Also, in 1979, Hall made an appearance on the game show "Password Plus" as a game show contestant, followed by another week of appearances in August 1980 (just prior to the launch of the upcoming Canadian-produced "Let's Make a Deal" revival, which he took the opportunity to plug). He appeared as himself on "The Promise Ring" episode of "That '70s Show" in 2001. He played the host of a beauty pageant who schemed to become "the world's most powerful game show host" in the Disney animated series "". He appeared on "GSN Live" on March 14, 2008, and hosted a game of "Let's Make a Deal" for "Good Morning America" on August 18, 2008, as part of Game Show Reunion week.


title: Monty Hall

text: In summer 2009, CBS announced that it was reviving "Let's Make a Deal" on its daytime schedule. The show premiered on October 5, 2009, with Wayne Brady as host. Hall was credited as "Creative Consultant" until his death in 2017, and remains credited as co-creator of the format (with Stefan Hatos), as per many international versions of the show, with Hatos/Hall Productions being credited as co-production company (with Fremantle). Hall made appearances in 2010 and 2013 during the Brady run, and had been part of publicity photos in early 2017 to promote season nine.


title: Monty Hall

text: Hall spent much of his post-"Deal" days involved in philanthropic work. His family says he was always going to telethons and helped raise close to $1 billion for charity in his lifetime. Hall was repeatedly honored for his charitable efforts. Wards at Mount Sinai Hospital in Toronto and Hahnemann University Hospital in Philadelphia are named in his honor.


title: Monty Hall

text: Hall received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on August 24, 1973, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs, California, Walk of Stars in 2000, and in 2002, he was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame.


title: Monty Hall

text: Hall is one of three game show hosts—along with Alex Trebek and Howie Mandel—on both Hollywood's and Canada's Walks of Fame. In May 1988, Her Excellency, Jeanne Sauvé, the Governor-General of Canada appointed him an Officer of the prestigious The Order of Canada for his humanitarian work in Canada and other nations of the world. In 2003, His Honour the Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba appointed him a Member of the Order of Manitoba.


title: Monty Hall

text: He was the recipient of the 2005 Ralph Edwards Service Award from Game Show Congress, in recognition of all the work the emcee-producer has done for charity through the years. On October 13, 2007, Hall was one of the first inductees into the American TV Game Show Hall of Fame in Las Vegas, Nevada. Hall received the Lifetime Achievement Award at the 2013 Daytime Emmy Awards.


title: Monty Hall

text: On September 28, 1947, Hall married Marilyn Doreen Plottel (May 17, 1927 – June 5, 2017); the two had been introduced by a mutual cousin, Norman Shnier, the previous year. They later became United States citizens. They had three children: Tony Award–winning actress Joanna Gleason; Sharon Hall Kessler, president of Endemol Shine Studios; and Richard Hall, an Emmy Award–winning television producer. Monty and Marilyn lived in Beverly Hills, California, from 1962 until their deaths; Marilyn died four months before her husband.


title: Monty Hall

text: Hall died from heart failure on September 30, 2017, at his home in Beverly Hills a little over a month after his 96th birthday. He was interred at Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery on October 3.


title: Monty Hall

text: Hall's name is used in a probability puzzle known as the "Monty Hall problem". The name was conceived by statistician Steve Selvin who used the title in describing a probability problem to "Scientific American" in 1975 based on one of the games on "Let's Make a Deal", and more popularized when it was presented in a weekly national newspaper column by Marilyn vos Savant in 1990.


title: Monty Hall

text: A host ("Monty") provides a player with three doors, one containing a valuable prize and the other two containing a "gag", valueless prize. The contestant is offered a choice of one of the doors without knowledge of the content behind them. "Monty", who knows which door has the prize, opens a door that the player did not select that has a gag prize, and then offers the player the option to switch from their choice to the other remaining unopened door. The probability problem arises from asking if the player should switch to the unrevealed door.


title: Monty Hall

text: Mathematically, the problem shows that a player switching to the other door has a 2/3 chance of winning under standard conditions, but this is a counterintuitive effect of switching one's choice of doors, and the problem gained wide attention due to conflicting views following vos Savant's publication, with many asserting that the probability of winning had dropped to 1/2 if one switched. A number of other solutions become possible if the problem setup is outside of the "standard conditions" defined by vos Savant: that the host equally selects one of the two gag prize doors if the player had first picked the winning prize, and the offer to switch is always presented.


title: Monty Hall

text: Hall gave an explanation of the solution to that problem in an interview with "The New York Times" reporter John Tierney in 1991. In the article, Hall pointed out that because he had control over the way the game progressed, playing on the psychology of the contestant, the theoretical solution did not apply to the show's actual gameplay. He said he was not surprised at the experts' insistence that the probability was 1 out of 2. "That's the same assumption contestants would make on the show after I showed them there was nothing behind one door," he said. "They'd think the odds on their door had now gone up to 1 in 2, so they hated to give up the door no matter how much money I offered. By opening that door we were applying pressure. We called it the Henry James treatment. It was 'The Turn of the Screw. Hall clarified that as a game show host he was not required to follow the rules of the puzzle as Marilyn vos Savant often explains in her weekly column in "Parade", and did not always allow a person the opportunity to switch. For example, he might open their door immediately if it was a losing door, might offer them money to not switch from a losing door to a winning door, or might only allow them the opportunity to switch if they had a winning door. "If the host is required to open a door all the time and offer you a switch, then you should take the switch," he said. "But if he has the choice whether to allow a switch or not, beware. Caveat emptor. It all depends on his mood."


title: Monty Hall

text: The Monty Hall problem was mentioned in an episode of the first season of the television drama "NUMB3RS", in the 2008 movie "21", in the television series "Brooklyn Nine-Nine" in the episode "Skyfire Chronicle" (season 4 episode 8), and in the novel "The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time". A detailed explanation and rationale for the solution to this problem is presented in the book "The World's 200 Hardest Brainteasers" by Gary Gruber. In 2011, it was showcased on an episode of the show "MythBusters".


title: Gun control

text: Gun control, or firearms regulation, is the set of laws or policies that regulate the manufacture, sale, transfer, possession, modification, or use of firearms by civilians.


title: Gun control

text: Most countries have a restrictive firearm guiding policy, with only a few legislations being categorized as permissive. Jurisdictions that regulate access to firearms typically restrict access to only certain categories of firearms and then to restrict the categories of persons who will be granted a license to have access to a firearm. In some countries, such as the United States, gun control may be legislated at either a federal level or a local state level.


title: Gun control

text: Gun control refers to domestic regulation of firearm manufacture, trade, possession, use, and transport, specifically with regard to the class of weapons referred to as small arms (revolvers and self-loading pistols, rifles, and carbines, assault rifles, submachine guns, and light machine guns).


title: Gun control

text: Usage of the term "gun control" is sometimes politicized. Some of those in favor of legislation instead prefer to use terms such as "gun-violence prevention", "gun safety", "firearms regulation", "illegal guns", or "criminal access to guns".


title: Gun control

text: In 2007, it was estimated that globally there were about 875 million small arms in the hands of civilians, law enforcement agencies, and armed forces. Of these firearms 650 million, or 75%, are held by civilians. U.S. civilians account for 270 million of this total. A further 200 million are controlled by state military forces. Law enforcement agencies have some 26 million small arms. Non-state armed groups have about 1.4 million firearms. Finally, gang members hold between 2 and 10 million small arms. Together, the small arms arsenals of non-state armed groups and gangs account for, at most, 1.4% of the global total.


title: Gun control

text: Barring a few exceptions, most countries in the world allow civilians to purchase firearms subject to certain restrictions. A 2011 survey of 28 countries over five continents found that a major distinction between different national regimes of firearm regulation is whether civilian gun ownership is seen as a right or a privilege. The study concluded that both the United States and Yemen were distinct from the other countries surveyed in viewing firearm ownership as a basic right of civilians and in having more permissive regimes of civilian gun ownership. In the remaining countries included in the sample, civilian firearm ownership is considered a privilege and the legislation governing possession of firearms is correspondingly more restrictive.


title: Gun control

text: At the international and regional level, diplomatic attention has tended to focus on the cross-border illegal trade in small arms as an area of particular concern rather than the regulation of civilian-held firearms. During the mid-1990s, however, the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) adopted a series of resolutions relating to the civilian ownership of small arms. These called for an exchange of data on national systems of firearm regulation and for the initiation of an international study of the issue. In July 1997, ECOSOC issued a resolution that underlined the responsibility of UN member states to competently regulate civilian ownership of small arms and which urged them to ensure that their regulatory frameworks encompassed the following aspects: firearm safety and storage; penalties for the unlawful possession and misuse of firearms; a licensing system to prevent undesirable persons from owning firearms; exemption from criminal liability to promote the surrender by citizens of illegal, unsafe or unwanted guns; and, a record-keeping system to track civilian firearms.


title: Gun control

text: In 1997, the UN published a study based on member state survey data titled the "United Nations International Study on Firearm Regulation" which was updated in 1999. This study was meant to initiate the establishment of a database on civilian firearm regulations which would be run by the Centre for International Crime Prevention, located in Vienna. who were to report on national systems of civilian firearm regulation every two years. These plans never reached fruition and further UN-led efforts to establish international norms for the regulation of civilian-held firearms were stymied. Responding to pressure from the U.S. government, any mention of the regulation of civilian ownership of small arms was removed from the draft proposals for the 2001 UN Programme of Action on Small Arms.


title: Gun control

text: Although the issue is no longer part of the UN policy debate, since 1991 there have been eight regional agreements involving 110 countries concerning aspects of civilian firearm possession. The Bamako Declaration, was adopted in Bamako, Mali, on 1 December 2000 by the representatives of the member states of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU). The provisions of this declaration recommend that the signatories would establish the illegal possession of small arms and light weapons as a criminal offence under national law in their respective countries.


title: Gun control

text: High rates of gun mortality and injury are often cited as a primary impetus for gun control policies. A 2004 National Research Council critical review found that while some strong conclusions are warranted from current research, the state of our knowledge is generally poor. The result of the scarcity of relevant data is that gun control is one of the most fraught topics in American politics, and scholars remain deadlocked on a variety of issues. Notably, since 1996, when the Dickey Amendment was first inserted into the federal spending bill, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has been prohibited from using its federal funding "to advocate or promote gun control", thwarting gun violence research at the agency at the time. The funding provision's author has said that this was an over-interpretation, but the amendment still had a chilling effect, effectively halting federally funded firearm-related research. Since the amendment, the CDC has continued to research gun violence and publish studies about it, although their funding for such research has fallen by 96% since 1996, according to Mayors Against Illegal Guns. According to a spokesman, the CDC has limited funding and has not produced any comprehensive study aimed at reducing gun violence since 2001.


title: Gun control

text: A 1998 review found that suicide rates generally declined after gun control laws were enacted, and concluded, "The findings support gun control measures as a strategy for reducing suicide rates." A 2016 review found that laws banning people under restraining orders due to domestic violence convictions from accessing guns were associated with "reductions in intimate partner homicide". Another 2016 review identified 130 studies regarding restrictive gun laws and found that the implementation of multiple such laws simultaneously was associated with a decrease in gun-related deaths. According to "Vox", "The authors are careful to note that their findings do not conclusively prove that gun restrictions reduce gun deaths. However, they did find a compelling trend whereby new restrictions on gun purchasing and ownership tended to be followed by a decline in gun deaths."


title: Gun control

text: According to a 2011 UN study, after identifying a number of methodological problems, it stated "notwithstanding such challenges, a significant body of literature tends to suggest that firearm availability predominantly represents a risk factor rather than a protective factor for homicide. In particular, a number of quantitative studies tend towards demonstrating a firearm prevalence–homicide association."


title: Gun control

text: Gun control activists argue that current gun policies are too permissive, while gun rights advocates argue that most gun policies are ineffective at reducing gun-related deaths.


title: Gun control

text: In 1983, a cross-sectional study of all 50 U.S. states found that the six states with the strictest gun laws (according to the National Rifle Association) had suicide rates that were approximately 3/100,000 people lower than in other states, and that these states' suicide rates were 4/100,000 people lower than those of states with the least restrictive gun laws. A 2003 study published in the "American Journal of Preventive Medicine" looked at the restrictiveness of gun laws and suicide rates in men and women in all 50 U.S. states and found that states whose gun laws were more restrictive had lower suicide rates among both sexes. In 2004, another study found that the effect of state gun laws on gun-related homicides was "limited". A 2005 study looked at all 50 states in the U.S. and the District of Columbia, and found that no gun laws were associated with reductions in firearm homicide or suicide, but that a "shall-issue" concealed carry law (mandatory issue of a license when legal criteria met) may be associated with increased firearm homicide rates. A 2011 study found that firearm regulation laws in the United States have "a significant deterrent effect on male suicide".


title: Gun control

text: A 2013 study found that in the United States, "A higher number of firearm laws in a state are associated with a lower rate of firearm fatalities in the state." A 2016 study published in "The Lancet" found that of 25 laws studied, and in the time period examined (2008–2010), nine were associated with reduced firearm mortality (including both homicide and suicide), nine were associated with increased mortality, and seven had an inconclusive association. The three laws most strongly associated with reduced firearm mortality were laws requiring universal background checks, background checks for ammunition sales, and identification for guns. In an accompanying commentary, David Hemenway noted that this study had multiple limitations, such as not controlling for all factors that may influence gun-related deaths aside from gun control laws, and the use of 29 explanatory variables in the analysis.


title: Gun control

text: Other studies comparing gun control laws in different U.S. states include a 2015 study which found that in the United States, "stricter state firearm legislation is associated with lower discharge rates" for nonfatal gun injuries. A 2014 study that also looked at the United States found that children living in states with stricter gun laws were safer. Another study looking specifically at suicide rates in the United States found that the four handgun laws examined (waiting periods, universal background checks, gun locks, and open carrying regulations) were associated with "significantly lower firearm suicide rates and the proportion of suicides resulting from firearms." The study also found that all four of these laws (except the waiting-period one) were associated with reductions in the overall suicide rate.


title: Gun control

text: Another study, published the same year, found that states with permit to purchase, registration, and/or license laws for handguns had lower overall suicide rates, as well as lower firearm suicide rates. A 2014 study found that states that required licensing and inspections of gun dealers tended to have lower rates of gun homicides. Another study published the same year, analyzing panel data from all 50 states, found that stricter gun laws may modestly reduce gun deaths. A 2016 study found that U.S. military veterans tend to commit suicide with guns more often than the general population, thereby possibly increasing state suicide rates, and that "the tendency for veterans to live in states without handgun legislation may exacerbate this phenomenon." California has exceptionally strict gun sales laws, and a 2015 study found that it also had the oldest guns recovered in crimes of any states in the U.S. The same study concluded that "These findings suggest that more restrictive gun sales laws and gun dealer regulations do make it more difficult for criminals to acquire new guns first purchased at retail outlets."


title: Gun control

text: Another 2016 study found that stricter state gun laws in the United States reduced suicide rates. Another 2016 study found that U.S. states with lenient gun control laws had more gun-related child injury hospital admissions than did states with stricter gun control laws. A 2017 study found that suicide rates declined more in states with universal background check and mandatory waiting period laws than in states without these laws. Another 2017 study found that states without universal background check and/or waiting period laws had steeper increases in their suicide rates than did states with these laws. A third 2017 study found that "waiting period laws that delay the purchase of firearms by a few days reduce gun homicides by roughly 17%." A 2017 study in the "Economic Journal" found that mandatory handgun purchase delays reduced "firearm related suicides by between 2 to 5 percent with no statistically significant increase in non-firearm suicides," and were "not associated with statistically significant changes in homicide rates." Another 2017 study showed that laws banning gun possession by people subject to intimate partner violence restraining orders, and requiring such people to give up any guns they have, were associated with lower intimate partner homicide rates. A 2021 study found that firearm purchase delay laws reduced homicide – the authors suggested that it was driven by reductions in gun purchases by impulsive customers.


title: Gun control

text: A review of published studies of gun control released in October 2003 by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention was unable to determine any statistically significant effect resulting from such laws, although the authors suggest that further study may provide more conclusive information, and noted that "insufficient evidence to determine effectiveness should not be interpreted as evidence of ineffectiveness".


title: Gun control

text: In 2015, Daniel Webster and Garen Wintemute reviewed studies examining the effectiveness of gun laws aimed at keeping guns out of the hands of high-risk individuals in the United States. They found that some laws prohibiting gun possession by people under domestic violence restraining orders or who had been convicted of violent misdemeanors were associated with lower violence rates, as were laws establishing more procedures to see if people were prohibited from owning a gun under these laws. They also found that multiple other gun regulations intended to prevent prohibited individuals from obtaining guns, such as "rigorous permit-to-purchase" laws and "comprehensive background checks", were "negatively associated with the diversion of guns to criminals."


title: Gun control

text: A 2016 systematic review found that restrictive gun licensing laws were associated with lower gun injury rates, while concealed carry laws were not significantly associated with rates of such injuries. Another systematic review found that stricter gun laws were associated with lower gun homicide rates; this association was especially strong for background check and permit-to-purchase laws.


title: Gun control

text: A 2020 review of almost 13,000 studies by RAND Corporation found only 123 that met their criteria of methodological rigor, "a surprisingly limited base of rigorous scientific evidence...". Only 2 of the 18 gun policies examined had supporting evidence. Among the policies for which RAND found supporting evidence were that child-access prevention laws reduce firearm injuries and deaths among children and that "stand-your-ground" laws increase firearm homicides. RAND also noted that the limited evidence currently available "does not mean that these policies are ineffective ... Instead, it partly reflects shortcomings in the contributions that science has made to policy debates."


title: Gun control

text: Other studies have examined trends in firearm-related deaths before and after gun control laws are either enacted or repealed. A 2004 study in the "Journal of the American Medical Association" found evidence that child access prevention laws were "associated with a modest reduction in suicide rates among youth aged 14 to 17 years." Two 2015 studies found that the permit-to-purchase law passed in Connecticut in 1995 was associated with a reduction in firearm suicides and homicides. One of these studies also found that the repeal of Missouri's permit-to-purchase law was associated with "a 16.1% increase in firearm suicide rates," and a 2014 study by the same research team found that the repeal of this law was associated with a 16% increase in homicide rates. A 2000 study designed to assess the effectiveness of the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act found that the law was not associated with reductions in overall homicide or suicide rates, but that it was associated with a reduction in the firearm suicide rate among individuals aged 55 or older. A 1991 study looked at Washington, D.C.'s Firearms Control Regulations Act of 1975, which banned its residents from owning all guns except certain shotguns and sporting rifles, which were also required to be unloaded, disassembled, or stored with a trigger lock in their owners' homes. The study found that the law's enactment was associated with "a prompt decline in homicides and suicides by firearms in the District of Columbia." A 1996 study reanalyzed this data and reached a significantly different conclusion as to the effectiveness of this law.


title: Gun control

text: In 1993, Kleck and Patterson analyzed the impact of 18 major types of gun control laws on every major type of gun-involved crime or violence (including suicide) in 170 U.S. cities, and found that gun laws generally had no significant effect on violent crime rates or suicide rates. Similarly, a 1997 study found that gun control laws had only a small influence on the rate of gun deaths in U.S. states compared to socioeconomic variables like poverty and unemployment.


title: Gun control

text: Philosophy professor Michael Huemer argues that gun control may be morally wrong, even if its outcomes would be positive, because individuals have a prima facie right to own a gun for self-defense and recreation.


title: Gun control

text: RAND Corporation did a study that demonstrates that background checks may decrease suicides and violent crime; child-access prevention laws may decrease the number of suicides and unintentional injuries and deaths; minimum age requirements may decrease suicides; and prohibitions associated with mental illness may decrease suicides and violent crimes. On the other hand, concealed-carry laws may increase violent crimes and suicides, while stand-your-ground laws may increase violent crime. Bans on the sale of assault weapons and high-capacity magazines may increase the sale price for these items. An August 2019 article entitled, "Gun control really works" published by "Business Insider" looks at a dozen studies by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, "The Journal of the American Medical Association," Rand Corporation, the journal "Preventive Medicine," Everytown for Gun Safety, Johns Hopkins University, and others. They conclude that mirroring the firearms regulations in Switzerland such as banning the sale of new assault weapons, denying concealed-carry licenses to some individuals, and prohibiting firearm sales to people convicted of multiple alcohol-related offenses will decrease gun-related deaths and injuries.


title: Gun control

text: Rifles and shotguns are relatively easy to obtain, while handguns and some semi-automatic rifles are restricted.


title: Gun control

text: With respect to the Criminal Law Amendment Act, a gun control law passed in Canada in 1977, some studies have found that it was ineffective at reducing homicide or robbery rates. One study even found that the law may have actually increased robberies involving firearms. A 1993 study found that after this law was passed, gun suicides decreased significantly, as did the proportion of suicides committed in the country with guns. A 2003 study found that this law "may have had an impact on suicide rates, even after controls for social variables," while a 2001 study by the same research team concluded that the law "may have had an impact on homicide rates, at least for older victims." A 1994 study found that after this law came into force in 1978, suicide rates decreased over time in Ontario, and that there was no evidence of method substitution. The same study found that "These decreases may be only partly due to the legislation."


title: Gun control

text: In 1991, Canada implemented the gun control law Bill C-17. According to a 2004 study, after this law was passed, firearm-related suicides and homicides, as well as the percentage of suicides involving firearms, declined significantly in that country. A 2010 study found that after this law was passed, firearm suicides declined in Quebec among men, but acknowledged that this may not represent a causal relationship. In 1992, Canada promulgated the Canadian Firearms Act, which aimed at ensuring that guns were stored safely. A 2004 study found that although firearm suicide rates declined in the Quebec region Abitibi-Témiscamingue after the law was passed, overall suicide rates did not. A study in 2005 also found that overall suicide rates did not change after passage of Bill C-17. A 2008 study reached similar conclusions with regard to the entire Quebec province; this study also found that C-17 did not seem to increase the rate at which the firearm suicide rate was declining. Other researchers have criticized this 2008 study for looking at too short a time period and not taking account of the fact that the regulations in C-17 were implemented gradually.


title: Gun control

text: A 1990 study compared suicide rates in the Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada metropolitan area (where gun control laws were more restrictive) with those in the Seattle, Washington area in the United States. The overall suicide rate was essentially the same in the two locations, but the suicide rate among 15 to 24 year olds was about 40 percent higher in Seattle than in Vancouver. The authors concluded that "restricting access to handguns might be expected to reduce the suicide rate in persons 15 to 24 years old, but ... it probably would not reduce the overall suicide rate." A study that looked at provincial gun ownership rates, and associated suicide rates found no significant correlations with overall suicide rates.


title: Gun control

text: A 2011 study looked at gun control passed in Canada between 1974 and 2004 and found that gun laws were responsible for 5 to 10 percent drops in homicides. The study found that the homicide reduction effects of Canadian gun legislation remained even after accounting for sociodemographic and economic factors associated with homicide rates.


title: Gun control

text: A 2012 study looked at gun control laws passed in Canada from 1974 to 2008 and found no evidence that these laws had a beneficial effect on firearm homicide rates in that country. According to the study, "other factors found to be associated with homicide rates were median age, unemployment, immigration rates, percentage of population in low-income bracket, Gini index of income equality, population per police officer, and incarceration rate."


title: Gun control

text: A 2013 study of the 1995 Canadian gun control law Firearms Act, 1995 reported little evidence that this law significantly reduced rates of lethal gun violence against women.


title: Gun control

text: On May 1, 2020, after deadly shootings in Nova Scotia, Justin Trudeau's Liberal government banned 1,500 kinds of military-style semi-automatic rifles, including the popular AR-15 and its variants. The ban was enacted via an Order In Council.


title: Gun control

text: A 2020 study examining laws passed from 1981-2016 found no significant changes in overall homicide or suicide rates following changes in legislation. In addition, it also found that firearm ownership by province was not correlated to overall suicide rates by province.


title: Gun control

text: In 1988 and 1996, gun control laws were enacted in the Australian state of Victoria, both times following mass shootings. A 2004 study found that in the context of these laws, overall firearm-related deaths, especially suicides, declined dramatically. A 1995 study found preliminary evidence that gun control legislation enacted in Queensland, Australia, reduced suicide rates there.


title: Gun control

text: A 2006 study by gun lobby-affiliated researchers Jeanine Baker and Samara McPhedran found that after Australia enacted the National Firearms Agreement (NFA), a gun control law, in 1996, gun-related suicides may have been affected, but no other parameter appeared to have been. Another 2006 study, led by Simon Chapman, found that after this law was enacted in 1996 in Australia, the country went more than a decade without any mass shootings, and gun-related deaths (especially suicides) declined dramatically. The latter of these studies also criticized the former for using a time-series analysis despite the fact that, according to Chapman et al., "calculating mortality rates and then treating them as a number in a time series ignores the natural variability inherent in the counts that make up the numerator of the rate." Chapman et al. also said that Baker and McPhedran used the Box–Jenkins model inappropriately.


title: Gun control

text: A 2010 study looking at the effect of the NFA on gun-related deaths found that the law "did not have any large effects on reducing firearm homicide or suicide rates," although David Hemenway has criticized this study for using a structural break test despite the fact that such tests can miss the effects of policies in the presence of lags, or when the effect occurs over several years. Another study, published the same year, found that Australia's gun buyback program reduced gun-related suicide rates by almost 80%, while non-gun death rates were not significantly affected. Other research has argued that although gun suicide rates fell after the NFA was enacted, the NFA may not have been responsible for this decrease and "a change in social and cultural attitudes" may have instead been at least partly responsible. A 2011 study found that "Australia's prohibition of certain types of firearms" has not prevented mass shootings. In 2016, Chapman co-authored another study that found that after the NFA was passed, there were no mass shootings in the country (), and that gun-related death rates declined more quickly after the NFA than they did before it. The study also found, however, that non-gun suicide and homicide rates declined even more quickly after the NFA, leading the authors to conclude that "it is not possible to determine whether the change in firearm deaths can be attributed to the gun law reforms."


title: Gun control

text: A 2007 study found evidence that gun control laws passed in Austria in 1997 reduced the rates of firearm suicide and homicide in that country. In Brazil, after disarmament laws were passed in 2003, gun-related mortality declined by 8% in 2004 relative to the previous year, the first decline observed in a decade. Gun-related hospitalizations also reversed their previous trend by decreasing 4.6% from 2003 to 2004. A 2006 study found that after gun control laws were passed in New Zealand in 1992, suicides committed with guns declined significantly, especially among youth. This study however found that overall suicide rates did not change significantly. A case-control study conducted in New Zealand found that gun ownership was significantly associated with a greater risk of gun suicides, but not suicides overall.


title: Gun control

text: A 2010 study looked at the effect of a policy adopted by the Israeli Defense Forces that restricted access to guns among adolescents on suicide rates, and found that "Following the policy change, suicide rates decreased significantly by 40%." The authors concluded that "The results of this study illustrate the ability of a relatively simple change in policy to have a major impact on suicide rates." A 2013 study showed that after the Military of Switzerland adopted the Army XXI reform, which restricted gun availability, in 2003, suicide ratesboth overall and firearm-relateddecreased. Another 2013 study looking at four restrictive gun laws passed in Norway found that two of them may have reduced firearm mortality among men, but that the evidence was more inconclusive with respect to all of the laws they studied. A 2014 study found that after South Africa's Firearm Control Act was passed in 2000, homicide rates in the country declined, and concluded that "stricter gun control mediated by the FCA accounted for a significant decrease in homicide overall, and firearm homicide in particular, during the study period [2001–2005]." A 2000 study found that a ban on carrying guns in Colombia was associated with reductions in homicide rates in two cities in the country, namely, Cali and Bogotá.


title: Polyamide

text: Polyamides occur both naturally and artificially. Examples of naturally occurring polyamides are proteins, such as wool and silk. Artificially made polyamides can be made through step-growth polymerization or solid-phase synthesis yielding materials such as nylons, aramids, and sodium polyaspartate. Synthetic polyamides are commonly used in textiles, automotive industry, carpets, kitchen utensils and sportswear due to their high durability and strength. The transportation manufacturing industry is the major consumer, accounting for 35% of polyamide (PA) consumption.


title: Polyamide

text: All polyamides are made by the formation of an amide function to link two molecules of monomer together. The monomers can be amides themselves (usually in the form of a cyclic lactam such as caprolactam), α,ω-amino acids or a stoichiometric mixture of a diamine and a diacid. Both these kinds of precursors give a homopolymer. Polyamides are easily copolymerized, and thus many mixtures of monomers are possible which can in turn lead to many copolymers. Additionally many nylon polymers are miscible with one another allowing the creation of blends.


title: Polyamide

text: Production of polymers requires the repeated joining of two groups to form an amide linkage. In this case this specifically involves amide bonds, and the two groups involved are an amine group, and a terminal carbonyl component of a functional group. These react to produce a carbon-nitrogen bond, creating a singular amide linkage. This process involves the elimination of other atoms previously part of the functional groups. The carbonyl-component may be part of either a carboxylic acid group or the more reactive acyl halide derivative. The amine group and the carboxylic acid group can be on the same monomer, or the polymer can be constituted of two different bifunctional monomers, one with two amine groups, the other with two carboxylic acid or acid chloride groups.


title: Polyamide

text: The condensation reaction is used to synthetically produce nylon polymers in industry. Nylons must specifically include a straight chain (aliphatic) monomer. The amide link is produced from an amine group (alternatively known as an amino group), and a carboxylic acid group. The hydroxyl from the carboxylic acid combines with a hydrogen from the amine, and gives rise to water, the elimination byproduct that is the namesake of the reaction.


title: Polyamide

text: As an example of condensation reactions, consider that in living organisms, Amino acids are condensed with one another by an enzyme to form amide linkages (known as peptides). The resulting polyamides are known as proteins or polypeptides. In the diagram below, consider the amino-acids as single aliphatic monomers reacting with identical molecules to form a polyamide, focusing on solely the amine and acid groups. Ignore the substituent R groups – under the assumption the difference between the R groups are negligible:


title: Polyamide

text: For fully aromatic polyamides or "aramids" e.g. Kevlar, the more reactive acyl chloride is used as a monomer. The polymerization reaction with the amine group eliminates hydrogen chloride. The acid chloride route can be used as a laboratory synthesis to avoid heating and obtain an almost instantaneous reaction. The aromatic moiety itself does not participate in elimination reaction, but it does increase the rigidity and strength of the resulting material which leads to Kevlar's renowned strength.


title: Polyamide

text: In the diagram below, an aramid is made from two different monomers which continuously alternate to form the polymer chain. Aramids are aromatic polyamides:


title: Polyamide

text: Polyamides can also be synthesized from dinitriles using acid catalysis via an application of the Ritter reaction. This method is applicable for preparation of nylon 1,6 from adiponitrile, formaldehyde and water. Additionally, polyamides can be synthesized from glycols and dinitriles using this method as well.


title: Kaito Ishikawa

text: Ishikawa performed in a production of "Gamba's Great Adventure" at a science society when he was in fifth grade. After graduating from high school, he joined a drama club. After making his debut, he was impressed when he heard about the concept of "living a role" from a colleague. After immersing himself in late-night anime like "The Familiar of Zero", he pursued roles in "Kanon" and "Genesis of Aquarion". He praised Hiroaki Hirata for voicing Jack Sparrow in "Pirates of the Caribbean". Ishikawa entered the Pro Fit Voice Actor Training Center with the money he earned from his part-time job. In 2012, he made his anime debut in "Waiting in the Summer". In April 2013, he played the first leading role in the anime series "Gargantia on the Verdurous Planet". He won the Best Rookie actor at the 8th Seiyu Awards and the Best Actor in a Supporting Role award at the 14th Seiyu Awards.


title: Sodium silicate

text: Sodium silicate is a generic name for chemical compounds with the formula or ·, such as sodium metasilicate , sodium orthosilicate , and sodium pyrosilicate . The anions are often polymeric. These compounds are generally colorless transparent solids or white powders, and soluble in water in various amounts.


title: Sodium silicate

text: Sodium silicate is also the technical and common name for a mixture of such compounds, chiefly the metasilicate, also called waterglass, water glass, or liquid glass. The product has a wide variety of uses, including the formulation of cements, passive fire protection, textile and lumber processing, manufacture of refractory ceramics, as adhesives, and in the production of silica gel. The commercial product, available in water solution or in solid form, is often greenish or blue owing to the presence of iron-containing impurities.


title: Sodium silicate

text: In industry, the various grades of sodium silicate are characterized by their SiO:NaO weight ratio (which can be converted to molar ratio by multiplication with 1.032). The ratio can vary between 1:2 and 3.75:1. Grades with ratio below 2.85:1 are termed alkaline. Those with a higher SiO:NaO ratio are described as neutral.


title: Sodium silicate

text: Soluble silicates of alkali metals (sodium or potassium) were observed by European alchemists already in the 1500s. Giambattista della Porta observed in 1567 that "tartari salis" (cream of tartar, potassium hydrogen tartrate) caused powdered "crystallum" (quartz) to melt at a lower temperature. Other possible early references to alkali silicates were made by Basil Valentine in 1520, and by Agricola in 1550. Around 1640, Jean Baptist van Helmont reported the formation of alkali silicates as a soluble substance made by melting sand with excess alkali, and observed that the silica could be precipitated quantitatively by adding acid to the solution.


title: Sodium silicate

text: In 1646, Glauber made potassium silicate, that he termed "liquor silicum" by melting potassium carbonate (obtained by calcinating cream of tartar) and sand in a crucible, and keeping it molten until it ceased to bubble (due to the release of carbon dioxide). The mixture was allowed to cool and then was ground to a fine powder. When the powder was exposed to moist air, it gradually formed a viscous liquid, which Glauber called ""Oleum oder Liquor Silicum, Arenæ, vel Crystallorum"" (i.e., oil or solution of silica, sand or quartz crystal).


title: Sodium silicate

text: However, it was later claimed that the substances prepared by those alchemists were not waterglass as it is understood today. That would have been prepared in 1818 by Johann Nepomuk von Fuchs, by treating silicic acid with an alkali; the result being soluble in water, "but not affected by atmospheric changes".


title: Sodium silicate

text: The terms "water glass" and "soluble glass" were used by Leopold Wolff in 1846, by Émile Kopp in 1857, and by Hermann Krätzer in 1887.


title: Sodium silicate

text: In 1892, Rudolf Von Wagner distinguished soda, potash, double (soda and potash), and fixing (i.e., stabilizing) as types of water glass. The fixing type was "a mixture of silica well saturated with potash water glass and a sodium silicate" used to stabilize inorganic water color pigments on cement work for outdoor signs and murals.


title: Sodium silicate

text: Sodium silicates are colorless glassy or crystalline solids, or white powders. Except for the most silicon-rich ones, they are readily soluble in water, producing alkaline solutions.


title: Sodium silicate

text: Sodium silicates are stable in neutral and alkaline solutions. In acidic solutions, the silicate ions react with hydrogen ions to form silicic acids, which tend to decompose into hydrated silicon dioxide gel. Heated to drive off the water, the result is a hard translucent substance called silica gel, widely used as a desiccant. It can withstand temperatures up to 1100 °C.