title: Labyrinthitis

text: Labyrinthitis is inflammation of the labyrinth – a maze of fluid-filled channels in the inner ear. Vestibular neuritis is inflammation of the vestibular nerve – the nerve in the inner ear that sends messages related to motion and position to the brain. Both conditions involve inflammation of the inner ear. Labyrinths that house the vestibular system sense changes in the head's position or the head's motion. Inflammation of these inner ear parts results in a sensation of the world spinning and also possible hearing loss or ringing in the ears. It can occur as a single attack, a series of attacks, or a persistent condition that diminishes over three to six weeks. It may be associated with nausea, vomiting, and eye nystagmus.


title: Labyrinthitis

text: The cause is often not clear. It may be due to a virus, but it can also arise from bacterial infection, head injury, extreme stress, an allergy, or as a reaction to medication. 30% of affected people had a common cold prior to developing the disease. Either bacterial or viral labyrinthitis can cause a permanent hearing loss in rare cases. This appears to result from an imbalance of neuronal input between the left and right inner ears.


title: Labyrinthitis

text: The main symptoms are severe vertigo and nystagmus. The most common symptom for vestibular neuritis is the onset of vertigo that has formed from an ongoing infection or trauma. The dizziness sensation that is associated with vertigo is thought to be from the inner ear labyrinth. Rapid and undesired eye motion (nystagmus) often results from the improper indication of rotational motion. Nausea, anxiety, and a general ill feeling are common due to the distorted balance signals that the brain receives from the inner ear system. Other common symptoms include tinnitus, ear ache, and a feeling of fullness in the ear.


title: Labyrinthitis

text: Some people will report having an upper respiratory infection (common cold) or flu prior to the onset of the symptoms of vestibular neuritis; others will have no viral symptoms prior to the vertigo attack.


title: Labyrinthitis

text: Some cases of vestibular neuritis are thought to be caused by an infection of the vestibular ganglion by the herpes simplex type 1 virus. However, the cause of this condition is not fully understood, and in fact, many different viruses may be capable of infecting the vestibular nerve.


title: Labyrinthitis

text: Acute localized ischemia of these structures also may be an important cause. Especially in children, vestibular neuritis may be preceded by symptoms of a common cold. However, the causative mechanism remains uncertain.


title: Labyrinthitis

text: This can also be brought on by pressure changes such as those experienced while flying or scuba diving.


title: Labyrinthitis

text: In the vestibular system, there are three canals that are semicircular in shape that input sensory clues. These canals allow the brain to sense rotational motion and linear motion changes. The brain then uses the sensory input clues and the visual input clues from the vestibular system to retain balance. The vestibulo–ocular reflex retains continuous visual focus during motion which is also the vestibular systems job during activity.


title: Labyrinthitis

text: The treatment for vestibular neuritis depends on the cause. However, symptoms of vertigo can be treated in the same way as other vestibular dysfunctions with vestibular rehabilitation.


title: Labyrinthitis

text: Typical treatments include combinations of head and eye movements, postural changes, and walking exercises. Specifically, exercises that may be prescribed include keeping eyes fixated on a specific target while moving the head, moving the head right to left at two targets at a significant distance apart, walking while keeping eyes fixated on a specific target, and walking while keeping eyes fixated on a specific target while also turning the head in different directions.


title: Labyrinthitis

text: The main function behind repeating a combination of head and eye movements, postural changes and walking is that through this repetition, compensatory changes for the dysfunctions arising from peripheral vestibular structures may be promoted in the central vestibular system (brainstem and cerebellum).


title: Labyrinthitis

text: Vestibular rehabilitation therapy is a highly effective way to substantially reduce or eliminate residual dizziness from labyrinthitis. VRT works by causing the brain to use already existing neural mechanisms for adaptation, neuroplasticity, and compensation. Vestibular neuritis rehabilitation is an effective and safe management to improve symptoms. The vestibular neuritis rehabilitation can improve symptoms or resolve the symptoms which is dependent on each individual.


title: Labyrinthitis

text: These exercises function by challenging the vestibular system. Progression occurs by increasing the amplitude of the head or focal point movements, increasing the speed of movement, and combining movements such as walking and head turning.


title: Labyrinthitis

text: One study found that patients who believed their illness was out of their control showed the slowest progression to full recovery, long after the initial vestibular injury had healed. The study revealed that the patient who compensated well was one who, at the psychological level, was not afraid of the symptoms and had some positive control over them. Notably, a reduction in negative beliefs over time was greater in those patients treated with rehabilitation than in those untreated. "Of utmost importance, baseline beliefs were the only significant predictor of change in a handicap at 6 months follow-up."


title: Labyrinthitis

text: Vestibular neuritis is generally a self-limiting disease. Treatment with drugs is neither necessary nor possible. The effect of glucocorticoids has been studied, but they have not been found to significantly affect long-term outcome.


title: Labyrinthitis

text: Symptomatic treatment with antihistaminics such as cinnarizine, however, can be used to suppress the symptoms of vestibular neuritis while it spontaneously regresses. Prochlorperazine is another commonly prescribed medication to help alleviate the symptoms of vertigo and nausea.


title: Labyrinthitis

text: Because mood disorders can hamper recovery from labyrinthitis, treatment may also include any co-occurring anxiety disorder or depression. Severe anxiety episodes are usually addressed by short-term benzodiazepine therapy.


title: Labyrinthitis

text: Recovery from acute labyrinthine inflammation generally takes from one to six weeks, but it is not uncommon for residual symptoms such as dysequilibrium and dizziness to last for a couple of months.


title: Labyrinthitis

text: Labyrinthitis affects approximately 35 million people per year (approximately 3.5 cases per 100,000 people). It typically occurs in those between 30 and 60 years of age, and there are no significant differences between male and female incidence rates. In 95% of cases, sufferers experience a single attack and fully recover. Vestibular rehabilitation showed a statistically significant increase in controlling symptoms over no intervention in people who have vestibular neuritis.


title: Episiotomy

text: Episiotomy, also known as perineotomy, is a surgical incision of the perineum and the posterior vaginal wall generally done by a midwife or obstetrician. Episiotomy is usually performed during second stage of labor to quickly enlarge the opening for the baby to pass through. The incision, which can be done from the posterior midline of the vulva straight toward the anus or at an angle to the right or left (medio-lateral episiotomy), is performed under local anesthetic (pudendal anesthesia), and is sutured after delivery.


title: Episiotomy

text: Its routine use is no longer recommended, as perineal massage is an alternative painless method of enlarging the opening for baby. Despite this, it is one of the most common surgical procedures specific to women. In the United States, as of 2012, it was performed in 12% of vaginal births. It is still widely practiced in many parts of the world, including Korea, Japan, Taiwan, China, and Spain.


title: Episiotomy

text: Vaginal tears can occur during childbirth, most often at the vaginal opening as the baby's head passes through, especially if the baby descends quickly. Episiotomy is done in an effort to prevent against soft-tissue tearing (perineal tear) which may involve the anal sphincter and rectum. Tears can involve the perineal skin or extend to the muscles and the anal sphincter and anus. The midwife or obstetrician may decide to make a surgical cut to the perineum with scissors or a scalpel to make the baby's birth easier and prevent severe tears that can be difficult to repair. The cut is repaired with stitches (sutures). Some childbirth facilities have a policy of routine episiotomy.


title: Episiotomy

text: Specific reasons to do an episiotomy are unclear. Though indications on the need for episiotomy vary and may even be controversial (see discussion below), where the technique is applied, there are two main variations. Both are depicted in the above image.


title: Episiotomy

text: In 2009, a Cochrane meta-analysis based on studies with over 5,000 women concluded that: "Restrictive episiotomy policies appear to have a number of benefits compared to policies based on routine episiotomy. There is less posterior perineal trauma, less suturing and fewer complications, no difference for most pain measures and severe vaginal or perineal trauma, but there was an increased risk of anterior perineal trauma with restrictive episiotomy". The authors were unable to find quality studies that compared mediolateral versus midline episiotomy.


title: Episiotomy

text: Traditionally, physicians have used episiotomies in an effort to deflect the cut in the perineal skin away from the anal sphincter muscle, as control over stool (faeces) is an important function of the anal sphincter, i.e. lessen perineal trauma, minimize postpartum pelvic floor dysfunction, and as muscles have a good blood supply, by avoiding damaging the anal sphincter muscle, reduce the loss of blood during delivery, and protect against neonatal trauma. While episiotomy is employed to obviate issues such as post-partum pain, incontinence, and sexual dysfunction, some studies suggest that episiotomy surgery itself can cause all of these problems. Research has shown that natural tears typically are less severe (although this is perhaps not surprising since an episiotomy is designed for when natural tearing will cause significant risks or trauma). Slow delivery of the head in between contractions will result in the least perineal damage. Studies in 2010 based on interviews with postpartum women have concluded that limiting perineal trauma during birth is conducive to continued sexual function after birth. At least one study has recommended that routine episiotomy be abandoned for this reason.


title: Episiotomy

text: In various countries, routine episiotomy has been accepted medical practice for many years. Since about the 1960s, routine episiotomies have been rapidly losing popularity among obstetricians and midwives in almost all countries in Europe, Australia, Canada, and the United States. A nationwide U.S. population study suggested that 31% of women having babies in U.S. hospitals received episiotomies in 1997, compared with 56% in 1979. In Latin America it remains popular, and is performed in 90% of hospital births.


title: Episiotomy

text: Having an episiotomy may increase perineal pain during postpartum recovery, resulting in trouble defecating, particularly in midline episiotomies. In addition, it may complicate sexual intercourse by making it painful and replacing erectile tissues in the vulva with scar tissue.


title: Episiotomy

text: In cases where an episiotomy is indicated, a mediolateral incision may be preferable to a median (midline) incision, as the latter is associated with a higher risk of injury to the anal sphincter and the rectum. Damage to the anal sphincter caused by episiotomy can result in fecal incontinence (loss of control over defecation). Conversely, one of the reasons episiotomy is performed is to prevent tearing of the anal sphincter, which is also associated with faecal incontinence.


title: Episiotomy

text: Some midwives compare routine episiotomy to female genital mutilation. One study found that women who underwent episiotomy reported more painful intercourse and insufficient lubrication 12–18 months after birth but did not find any problems with orgasm or arousal.


title: Episiotomy

text: Perineal pain after episiotomy has immediate and long-term negative effects for women and their babies. These effects can interfere with breastfeeding and the care of the infant. The pain from injection sites and episiotomy is managed by the frequent assessment of the report of pain from the mother. Pain can come from possible lacerations, incisions, uterine contractions and sore nipples. Appropriate medications are usually administered. Nonpharmacologic interventions can also be used: a warm sitz bath increases blood flow to the area, decreases local discomfort, and promotes healing. Routine episiotomies have not been found to reduce the level of pain after the birth.


title: Holger Rune

text: Holger Vitus Nødskov Rune (; born 29 April 2003) is a Danish professional tennis player. He was ranked as high as No. 10 in singles by the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP), which he first achieved on 7 November 2022 making him the highest-ranked Danish singles male tennis player in the ATP Rankings and the second highest in history (tied with Jan Leschly and behind Kurt Nielsen). Rune has won three ATP Tour singles titles, including a Masters 1000 title at the 2022 Paris Masters, and produced his best Grand Slam performance at the 2022 French Open by reaching the quarterfinals in his main draw debut at the tournament.As a junior, Rune was ranked as high as world No. 1 and won ten titles on the ITF Junior Circuit, including the 2019 French Open boys' title. After turning professional in 2020, he won five titles on the ITF World Tennis Tour and five on the ATP Challenger Tour and made his top 100 debut in the rankings in January 2022. Three months later, Rune reached his first ATP Tour final at the 2022 Bavarian International Tennis Championships, where he won his first title and subsequently entered into the top 50. By winning the Paris Masters later that year, Rune made his top 10 debut and became the first player on record (since ATP Rankings began in 1973) to beat five top-10 opponents in the same event (outside the ATP Finals).


title: Holger Rune

text: Rune was born on 29 April 2003 in Gentofte, Denmark, to Aneke Rune and Anders Nødskov. He has a sister named Alma. He began playing tennis at the age of 6 because his sister played and started to take the sport seriously. Throughout his childhood, he was coached by Lars Christensen who still remains his head coach and, along with his mother, is credited as his biggest inspiration. His idols growing up were fellow tennis players Rafael Nadal and Roger Federer.


title: Holger Rune

text: At age 15, he became the youngest Danish male singles champion by winning the 2019 indoor tournament.


title: Holger Rune

text: Holger received a wildcard and won a match at the 2019 Blois ATP Challenger in June. At the time, he was 16 years, 1 month and 18 days old. Holger also competed in the 2019 Amersfoort Challenger in July where he captured his second ATP Challenger match win.


title: Holger Rune

text: On 28 October 2019 he achieved a ITF juniors ranking of World No. 1 after he defeated Harold Mayot to win the ITF Junior Finals.


title: Holger Rune

text: At the 2020 Auckland Open, Rune received a wildcard into the qualifying draw but lost to Vasek Pospisil in straight sets.


title: Holger Rune

text: In July 2020, Holger became the youngest player to compete at the Ultimate Tennis Showdown (UTS), where he was defeated by French player Corentin Moutet.


title: Holger Rune

text: In September 2020, Rune won his first ITF title at an M25 event in Switzerland. He would make three more ITF finals by the end of 2020, winning two of the three.


title: Holger Rune

text: In October 2020, Rune received a wildcard to the ATP Challenger 80 in Puente Romano in Marbella, AnyTech365 Marbella Tennis Open. He lost 1-2 (6-1,4-6,4-6) in the first round to Elliot Benchetrit.


title: Holger Rune

text: In March 2021, Rune made his ATP debut as a wildcard in the Argentina Open. He lost in the first round to fifth seeded Albert Ramos Viñolas in three sets. At the Chile Open the next week, Rune was accepted into the qualifying draw as a wildcard. He went on to win the qualifying round and record his first ATP match win against Sebastián Báez in straight sets. He followed this up with his first top-30 victory over Benoît Paire in straight sets to reach his first ATP quarterfinal, where he lost to Federico Delbonis in straight sets. At the age of 17, he became the youngest ATP Tour quarterfinalist since 2014.


title: Holger Rune

text: In June 2021, Rune won his first ATP Challenger title in Biella. His victory was overshadowed by homophobic slurs he made during his semi-final match. His actions were investigated by the ATP, and he was fined for his homophobic outburst.


title: Holger Rune

text: In July 2021, Rune received another wave of wildcards into several clay-court events during the summer clay-court swing: the Swedish Open, Croatia Open, and Austrian Open Kitzbühel. He posted a few more match wins in these tournaments which boosted his ranking to a career-high of No. 145 on 23 August 2021 after winning the San Marino Open and the Verona Challenger, making him the second youngest male player in the top 150.


title: Holger Rune

text: Rune entered the 2021 US Open Qualifying as the 24th seed. There, he won all three of his qualifying matches to qualify for the 2021 US Open for his grand slam debut. He played world No. 1 Novak Djokovic in the first round, where he lost the first set and won the second set in a tiebreak, but started to cramp late in the third set and eventually lost the match.


title: Holger Rune

text: Rune made his second ATP quarterfinal at the Moselle Open, after qualifying for the main draw. He double-bageled lucky loser Bernabé Zapata Miralles in the first round, and then upset fifth seed Lorenzo Sonego in the second round in three sets to make the quarterfinals. He lost in the quarterfinals to second seed Pablo Carreño Busta in three sets.


title: Holger Rune

text: On 4 November 2021, Rune qualified for the 2021 Next Generation ATP Finals. He finished the year ranked No. 103 in the ATP rankings.


title: Holger Rune

text: Rune made his debut in the top 100 of the ATP singles rankings on 17 January 2022 at world No. 99, making him the second youngest male player after Carlos Alcaraz to be ranked in the top 100. At the 2022 Open 13, he reached his first career ATP semifinal in the doubles tournament with partner Hugo Gaston, defeating top seeds Nicolas Mahut and Pierre-Hugues Herbert and Polish pair Szymon Walków and Jan Zieliński before losing to eventual champions Andrey Rublev and Denys Molchanov.


title: Holger Rune

text: In April, Rune received a wild card to the Bavarian International Tennis Championships, where he defeated world No. 3 Alexander Zverev in the second round for his first top 10 win in his career in straight sets to advance to his third ATP quarterfinal. He then overcame Emil Ruusuvuori and Oscar Otte to reach his first career ATP singles final. There, his opponent, Botic van de Zandschulp, was forced to retire with chest pain with the scoreline at 3–4, leading the 70th-ranked Rune to become the tournament's third youngest champion in the Open Era after Guillermo Perez-Roldan in 1987. The title propelled Rune into the top 50 on 2 May 2022.


title: Holger Rune

text: The following month, Rune made his main draw debut at the French Open, where he shocked 14th seed Denis Shapovalov in the first round before defeating Henri Laaksonen and Gaston in the second and third rounds, respectively, all in straight sets. He then stunned fourth seed Stefanos Tsitsipas to earn his third win of the season over a top 15 player to reach his first career Grand Slam quarterfinal, making him the first Danish man in singles to reach the quarterfinals of any Grand Slam tournament in the Open Era. There, he succumbed to Casper Ruud in four sets, but the achievement landed Rune inside the world's top 30.


title: Holger Rune

text: Rune did not win a match between the French Open and Washington. In Washington, as the 9th seed, he beat Benoît Paire in the second round before losing to wildcard J.J. Wolf in the third round. In Montreal, Rune beat Fabio Fognini in straight sets in the first round, then lost to eventual champion Pablo Carreño Busta in the second round. In Cincinnati, Rune lost to 9th seed Cameron Norrie in the first round. At the US Open, Rune beat Peter Gojowczyk and received a walkover from John Isner to reach the third round, where he lost again to Norrie.


title: Holger Rune

text: He reached his second ATP final in Sofia, beating Tim van Rijthoven, Lorenzo Sonego and Ilya Ivashka, then moved on to the final after defending champion and top seed Jannik Sinner retired in the middle of their match due to injury. He lost to Marc-Andrea Hüsler in the final. As a result he qualified for the 2022 Next Generation ATP Finals in Milan on 30 September.


title: Holger Rune

text: He reached his third final at the 2022 Stockholm Open defeating fifth seed Alex de Minaur. As a result he reached the top 25 in the rankings on 24 October 2022. He won his second title defeating top seed Stefanos Tsitsipas in the final. The following week at the next tournament in Basel he beat again seventh seeded Alex de Minaur in the first round. He reached the final defeating two Frenchmen Ugo Humbert and Arthur Rinderknech, and then sixth seed Roberto Bautista Agut in the semifinals. As a result he made his top 20 debut in the rankings at No. 18 on 31 October 2022. He became only the fourth man born in the 2000s to reach the Top 20 in the ATP rankings.


title: Holger Rune

text: He saved three match points in his opening match against Wawrinka on his debut at the 2022 Rolex Paris Masters. He then defeated four top-10 players in a row: 10th seed Hubert Hurkacz, world No. 9 and 7th seed Andrey Rublev, World No. 1 Carlos Alcaraz, and world No. 8 Félix Auger-Aliassime, to reach his first Masters 1000 and fourth final in a row. It was his 18th tour-level win in 20 matches. He defeated 6th seed and world No. 7 defending champion Novak Djokovic, his fifth top-10 win in a row, to win his first Masters 1000 title, the youngest champion in Paris since Boris Becker in 1986. He became the first man to beat five top-10 opponents in the same event (excluding the ATP Finals). As a result he moved into the top 10 in the rankings on 7 November 2022. He also moved one position up as first alternate for the 2022 ATP Finals. The same day on 6 November, he withdrew from the 2022 Next Generation ATP Finals.


title: Holger Rune

text: Rune's record against players who have been ranked in the top 10, with those who are active in boldface. Only ATP Tour main draw matches are considered:


title: Jerry Sheindlin

text: Gerald "Jerry" Sheindlin (born November 19, 1933) is an American author, television personality, jurist and attorney. He spent many years as a trial judge serving the New York Supreme Court.


title: Jerry Sheindlin

text: After serving in the Army during the Korean War, Sheindlin received a B.A. from Long Island University and a L.L.B from Brooklyn Law School, in 1959. He is the author of two books, "Genetic Fingerprinting: The Law and Science of DNA Evidence" and "Blood Trail".


title: Jerry Sheindlin

text: Following his career as a trial judge, Sheindlin became a television arbitrator when he replaced former New York City Mayor Ed Koch as the presiding judge on "The People’s Court" in the fall of 1999. This put him in competition with his wife Judith Sheindlin, a fellow former judge who presided over top-rated court show "Judge Judy", which ran for 25 seasons from 1996 to 2021 and led to spin-off courtroom streaming series "Judy Justice". Jerry presided over "The People’s Court" for the 1999–2000 season and most of the 2000–2001 season, after which he left the series and was replaced by Marilyn Milian.


title: Jerry Sheindlin

text: He is married to Judy Sheindlin, better known as Judge Judy (so named after her court TV series). The two married in 1978, a second marriage for both. They were divorced in 1990, but they remarried in 1991. Sheindlin has 3 children (Gregory, Jonathan and Nicole), 2 stepchildren (Jamie and Adam Levy), and 13 grandchildren. Jonathan A. Sheindlin is a retinal surgeon and Greg, Adam and Nicole are lawyers.


title: Alfredo Ferrari

text: Alfredo Ferrari (nicknamed Alfredino or Dino; 19 January 1932 – 30 June 1956) was an Italian automotive engineer and the first son of automaker Enzo Ferrari. He was diagnosed with Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and died at the age of 24. After his death, Ferrari named the car fitted with the engine that Alfredo was working on at the time of his death "Dino" in his honour.


title: Alfredo Ferrari

text: Born to Enzo Ferrari and his wife Laura Dominica Garello, on 19 January 1932, Alfredo was named after his paternal grandfather.


title: Alfredo Ferrari

text: Enzo, who at the time was a racing driver for Alfa Romeo, had vowed to stop racing cars if he had a son. He kept his promise, and retired from driving in 1932, concentrating on racing team management with the newly-formed Scuderia Ferrari.


title: Alfredo Ferrari

text: From an early age, Enzo groomed Alfredino, "little Alfredo", to be his successor. Alfredo studied economics in Bologna before moving to mechanical engineering in Switzerland.


title: Alfredo Ferrari

text: In his short career at Ferrari, Alfredo was widely credited for the 750 Monza racing car; and, to a limited extent, a 1.5-litre V6, the Ferrari Dino engine, that would later see action in Ferrari's early Formula Two racers. Alfredo suggested to his father the development of a 1.5-litre DOHC V6 engine for F2 at the end of 1955. Two years later in 1957, to honour his son, Enzo named the Dino series of racing sports cars using this V6 engine after him. Road cars under the same marque soon followed.


title: Alfredo Ferrari

text: Gino Rancatti, a friend of Dino's father, Enzo Ferrari, noted: "Dino, though he suffered because of his health, had always played an active part in the Ferrari company. He was interested in everything, but it was perhaps engines that interested him the most."


title: Alfredo Ferrari

text: During his time at Ferrari, Alfredo started experiencing health problems. His physical movements gradually became stiff, and he was often unable to maintain his balance. At his return to Modena, he was diagnosed with Duchenne muscular dystrophy. In the final days of his life, while hospitalized, he discussed technical details of the 1.5-litre V6 with fellow engineer Vittorio Jano and his father, Enzo Ferrari; Enzo remarked on Dino's "intensity, intelligence, and attentiveness". Alfredo would never see the engine; he died in Modena on 30 June 1956, at the age of 24.


title: Alfredo Ferrari

text: The death of Alfredo took a toll on his parents' marriage. His mother, Laura Dominica Garello, never got over the loss of her only son, and her behaviour became increasingly erratic and unstable.


title: Alfredo Ferrari

text: Piero Ferrari, Dino's younger half-brother who was born out-of-wedlock to Enzo Ferrari and mistress Lina Lardi on 22 May 1945, and who became Enzo's heir after Dino's death, has stated: "I never knew Dino, but I have never felt I was a victim of his memory, or of the pain that my father, Enzo, had always felt because of his death. And I would not be sincere if I did not say that when I was recognized [in 1978, after Laura's death], I experienced a great deal of emotion."


title: Alfredo Ferrari

text: Gino Rancati, a long-time friend of Dino's and Piero's father, Enzo Ferrari, said: "Piero is now a man, with a family of his own, but his father [Enzo]'s obsession with Dino's memory must have left a mark on him."


title: Alfredo Ferrari

text: Dino Ferrari is probably best-known posthumously for designing the Ferrari Dino engine, a series of V6s and V8s that were produced by Ferrari from the late 1950s into the early 2000s; and the Dino, a marque best known for mid-engined, rear-drive sports cars produced by Ferrari from 1957 to 1976.


title: Alfredo Ferrari

text: The marque came into existence in late 1956, with a front-engined Formula Two racer powered by a brand new Ferrari Dino V6 engine. The name "Dino" was also used for some models with engines smaller than 12 cylinders, it was an attempt by the company to offer a relatively low-cost sports car. The Ferrari name remained reserved for its premium V12 and flat-12 models until 1976, when "Dino" was retired in favor of full Ferrari branding.


title: Alfredo Ferrari

text: Alongside engineer Vittorio Jano, Dino persuaded his father, Enzo Ferrari, to produce a line of racing cars in the 1950s with V6 and V8 engines. The script that adorns the badge and cylinder head covers was based on Dino's own signature.


title: Alfredo Ferrari

text: In 1962, Enzo Ferrari launched the Premio Giornalistico Dino Ferrari (the Dino Ferrari Prize for Journalism) in memory of his son, originally with a prize of 500,000 lira. The prize money was later increased to 1 million lira, in a addition to a small bronze statuette of the Ferrari emblem, the Prancing Horse. Writers Gino Rancati, Giovanni Arpino, and Alberto Bevilacqua, among others, have been recipients of this annual award.


title: Alfredo Ferrari

text: The Autodromo Enzo e Dino Ferrari in Imola, Italy was originally named the "Autodromo Dino Ferrari" in Alfredo's honour, with his father's name added after Enzo's death in 1988. The 1979 Dino Ferrari Grand Prix was held there on 16 September 1979.


title: Alfredo Ferrari

text: Dino's half-brother, Piero, also actively supports Centro Dino Ferrari, a research center for neurodegenerative and muscular diseases at the University of Milan, located in the Clinical Neurology Institute at the University Polyclinic of Milan. The center was named after Dino, and co-founded by their father, Enzo Ferrari, with Prof. Guglielmo Scarlato (1931 – 2002) in 1978.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: Lúcia de Jesus Rosa dos Santos, OCD, (28 March 1907 – 13 February 2005) also known as "Lúcia of Fátima" and by her religious name "Maria Lúcia of Jesus and of the Immaculate Heart", was a Portuguese Catholic Discalced Carmelite nun, one of the three children, along with her cousins Francisco and Jacinta Marto, who claimed to have witnessed Marian apparitions in Fátima in 1917.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: Lúcia was the youngest child of António dos Santos and Maria Rosa Ferreira (1869–1942), both from Aljustrel, who married on 19 November 1890. She had six brothers and sisters: Maria dos Anjos (1891–1986), Teresa de Jesus Rosa dos Santos, Manuel Rosa dos Santos (1895-1977), Glória de Jesus Rosa dos Santos (1898–1971), Carolina de Jesus Rosa dos Santos (1902–1992), and Maria Rosa (died at birth). Although peasants, the Santos family was by no means poor, owning land "in the direction of Montelo, Ortiga, Fátima, Valinhos, Cabeço, Charneca, and Cova da Iria."


title: Sister Lúcia

text: Even though Lúcia's birthday is registered as 22 March 1907, her actual date of birth is 28 March. In those days, it was required that parents bring their children for baptism on the eighth day after birth or face a fine, and, because 30 March was a more convenient day, the 22nd was chosen as her birthday.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: Lúcia's father António, by her report, was a hardworking and generous man. Lúcia remembered him telling fairy tales and singing folk songs, but he was also the one who first taught her to make the Sign of the Cross. Contrary to popular hagiographical accounts of the apparitions, he believed the children and there is some evidence that he conspired to make sure Lúcia got to the Cova for the visitations after her mother had forbidden it. Lúcia said that her father was not a particularly heavy drinker, but liked to socialize in the tavern. Because he did not like Fr. Ferreira, he went to church in a nearby town.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: Maria Rosa was literate, although she never taught her children to read. She had a taste for religious literature and storytelling. She gave catechism lessons to her children and the neighbor's children, if they were there, at siesta time during the summer and especially around Lent. During the winter, catechism lessons took place after supper and around the fire. According to her mother, Lúcia repeated everything that she heard "like a parrot."


title: Sister Lúcia

text: Fr. De Marchi described her features in the following manner: "She was not a pretty child. The only attractions of her face—which was not on the whole repellent—were her two great black eyes which gazed out from under thick eyebrows. Her hair, thick and dark, was parted in the center over her shoulders. Her nose was rather flat, her lips thick and her mouth large."


title: Sister Lúcia

text: Lúcia was a fabulous storyteller with a "gift for narration." She had a talent for composing original songs, with catchy folk-style tunes and sacred and secular lyrics. Among the songs she invented as a small child are "In Heaven, I'll Be With My Mother", "I Love God in Heaven", and "Lady of Carmel". She set to music the words of the brief prayer she said had been taught to her and her cousins by the Angel of Portugal: "O God, I believe, I adore, I hope, and I love Thee. I ask forgiveness for those who do not believe, nor hope, nor love Thee." She also wrote a poem about Jacinta which appears in her memoirs.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: Lúcia's First Communion occurred at six years of age despite ten being the usual minimum. Initially, the parish priest refused because of her young age. However, Father Cruz, a Jesuit missionary visiting from Lisbon, interviewed Lúcia after finding her in tears that day and concluded that "she understands what she's doing better than many of the others." Because of this intervention, the parish priest admitted Lúcia to Holy Communion. After her First Confession she prayed before the altar of Our Lady of the Rosary and saw the statue smile at her. Upon receiving the Eucharist, Lúcia felt "bathed in such a supernatural atmosphere that the presence of our dear Lord became as clearly perceptible to me as if I had seen and heard Him with my bodily senses." Lúcia's First Communion left a deep impact on her. "I lost the taste and attraction for the things of the world, and only felt at home in some solitary place where, all alone, I could recall the delights of my First Communion."


title: Sister Lúcia

text: By eight years of age, she was tending the family's sheep, accompanied by other boys and girls of the village.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: Between May and October 1917, Lúcia and her cousins Jacinta and Francisco Marto reported visions of a luminous lady, who they believed to be the Virgin Mary, in the Cova da Iria fields outside the hamlet of Aljustrel, near Fátima, Portugal. The children said the visitations took place on the 13th day of each month at approximately noon, for six straight months. The only exception was August, when the children were detained by the local administrator. That month they did not report a vision of the Lady until after they were released from jail, two days later.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: According to Lúcia's accounts, the lady told the children to do penance and to make sacrifices to save sinners. Lúcia said that the lady stressed the importance of saying the Rosary every day, to bring peace to the world. Many young Portuguese men, including relatives of the visionaries, were then fighting in World War I. Lúcia heard Mary ask her to learn to read and write because Jesus wanted to employ her to convey messages to the world about Mary, particularly the Immaculate Heart of Mary.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: Lúcia's mother did not take kindly to the news that her youngest daughter was having visitations, believing that Lúcia was simply making up lies for attention. Although the favorite child until this point, Lúcia suffered beatings and ridicule from her mother. She was especially incredulous of the idea that Lúcia had been asked to learn to read and write.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: On 13 July 1917, around noon, the Lady is said to have entrusted the children with three secrets. Two of the secrets were revealed in 1941 in a document written by Lúcia, at the request of the Bishop of Leiria, José Alves Correia da Silva, partly to assist with the publication of a new edition of a book on Jacinta.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: When asked by José Alves Correia da Silva, Bishop of Leiria, in 1943 to reveal the third secret, Lúcia struggled for a short period, being "not yet convinced that God had clearly authorized her to act". She was under strict obedience in accordance with her Carmelite life, and conflicted as to whether she should obey her superiors, or the personal orders she believed were from Mary. However, in October 1943 she fell ill with influenza and pleurisy, the same illness which had killed her cousins, and for a time believed she was about to die. Bishop Da Silva then ordered her to put the third secret in writing. Lúcia then wrote down the secret and sealed it in an envelope not to be opened until 1960.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: She designated 1960 because she thought that "by then it will appear clearer." The text of the third secret was officially released by Pope John Paul II in 2000.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: The visions increasingly received wide publicity, and an estimated 70,000 witnesses were reportedly present for the sixth and final apparition. Lúcia had promised for several months that the Lady would perform a miracle on that day "so that all may believe." Witnesses present in the Cova da Iria that day, as well as some up to away, reported that the Sun appeared to change colors and rotate, like a fire wheel, casting off multicolored light across the landscape. The Sun appeared to plunge towards the Earth, frightening many into believing that it was the end of the world. Others suggested they had merely witnessed an eclipse. The popular expression, according to the "O Século" reporter Avelino de Almeida, was that the Sun "danced." The event became known as the Miracle of the Sun. The episode was widely reported by the Portuguese secular media. Some coverage appeared in a small article in the "New York Times" on 17 October 1917. Lúcia reported that day that the Lady identified herself as "Our Lady of the Rosary." She thereafter also became known as Our Lady of Fátima.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: On behalf of the Catholic Church, Bishop Da Silva approved the visions as "worthy of belief" on 13 October 1930.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: Lúcia moved to Porto in 1921, and at 14 was admitted as a boarder in the school of the Sisters of St. Dorothy in Vilar, on the city's outskirts. On 24 October 1925, she entered the Institute of the Sisters of St. Dorothy as a postulant in the convent in Pontevedra, Spain, just across the northern Portuguese border. According to Sister Lúcia, on 10 December 1925, she experienced a vision of the Holy Virgin and the Christ Child. The Virgin Mary is said to have requested the practice of the Five First Saturdays devotion. If one fulfilled the conditions on the First Saturday of five consecutive months, the Virgin Mary promised special graces at the hour of death.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: On 20 July 1926, Lucia moved to Tuy, where she began her novitiate; she received her habit on 2 October of the same year. Lúcia professed her first vows on 3 October 1928. Sister Lucia reported that on 13 June 1929, she had a vision during which the Blessed Virgin told her: "The moment has come in which God asks the Holy Father, in union with all the bishops of the world, to make the consecration of Russia to my Immaculate Heart, promising to save it by this means." She made her perpetual vows on 3 October 1934, receiving the name "Sister Maria das Dores" (Mary of the Sorrows).


title: Sister Lúcia

text: On 25 January 1938, a massive aurora borealis, described variously as "a curtain of fire" and a "huge blood-red beam of light", appeared in the skies over Europe and was visible as far away as Gibraltar and even parts of the United States. Lúcia believed this event was the "night illuminated by a strange light in the sky" which she had heard Mary speak about as part of the Second Secret, predicting the events which would lead to the Second World War and requesting Acts of Reparation including the First Saturday Devotions along with the Consecration of Russia.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: She returned to Portugal in 1946 (where she visited Fátima incognito), and in March 1948, after receiving special papal permission to be relieved of her perpetual vows, entered the Carmelite convent of Santa Teresa in Coimbra, where she resided until her death. She made her profession as a Discalced Carmelite on 31 May 1949, taking the religious name "Sister Maria Lúcia of Jesus and the Immaculate Heart".


title: Sister Lúcia

text: Because of the Constitutions of the community, Lúcia was expected to "converse as little as possible with persons from without, even with their nearest relatives, unless their conversation be spiritual, and even then it should be very seldom and as brief as possible" and "have nothing to do with worldly affairs, nor speak of them". This has led some people to believe in a conspiracy to cover up the Fátima message and silence Lúcia.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: She came back to Fátima on the occasion of four papal pilgrimages – all on 13 May – firstly by Paul VI in 1967, and John Paul II in 1982 (in thanksgiving for surviving an assassination attempt the previous year), 1991, and 2000 when her cousins Jacinta and Francisco were beatified. On 16 May 2000, she unexpectedly returned to Fátima to visit the parish church.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: Sister Lúcia wrote six memoirs during her lifetime. The first four were written between 1935 and 1941, and the English translation is published under the name "Fatima in Lucia's Own Words". The fifth and six memoirs, written in 1989 and 1993, are published in English under the name "Fatima in Lucia's Own Words II". These latter books were written in her own handwriting.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: An additional book was published in 2001, variously known as "Calls from the Message of Fatima" and "Appeals from the Message of Fatima", as announced by the Vatican on 5 December 2001.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: Sister Lúcia also wrote numerous letters to clergy and devout laypeople who were curious about the Third Secret of Fátima and about Lúcia's interpretation of what she had heard Virgin Mary request. Two letters she supposedly wrote concerned the Consecration of Russia, in which she said Our Lady's request had been fulfilled. Any and all material written by Sister Lúcia is now held for study by the Congregation for the Causes of Saints.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: Sister Lúcia had been blind and deaf and ailing for some years prior to her death. She died at the Carmelite convent of Santa Teresa in Coimbra, where she had lived since 1948.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: In Portugal, 15 February 2005 was declared a day of national mourning; even campaigning for the national parliamentary election scheduled for Sunday, 20 February, was interrupted. Sister Lúcia was a registered voter (as are all Portuguese citizens), and her polling place visits were covered by the Portuguese press.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: A conspiracy theory mainly propagated by Peter Chojnowski claims that the Sister Lúcia who appeared in public after 1967 was not Sister Lúcia, but an imposter. Advocates of this conspiracy theory operate a website called 'Sister Lucy Truth', which has commissioned various experts, including forensic artist Lois Gibson, to determine whether Sister Lúcia's physical features altered after 1967.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: On 13 February 2008 (the third anniversary of her death), Pope Benedict XVI announced that in the case of Sister Lúcia he would waive the five-year waiting period established by ecclesiastical law before opening a cause for beatification. On 13 February 2017, Sister Lúcia was accorded the title Servant of God, as the first major step toward her canonization.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: Felipa Fernandes played her in "The 13th Day", a straight-to-video feature film produced by Natasha Howes and directed by Dominic and Ian Higgins.


title: Sister Lúcia

text: In the 2020 film "Fatima", Lúcia is played by Stephanie Gil as the young seer and by Sônia Braga as an adult.


title: Got My Mind Set on You

text: "Got My Mind Set on You" (also written as "(Got My Mind) Set on You") is a song written and composed by Rudy Clark and originally recorded by James Ray in 1962, under the title "I've Got My Mind Set on You". An edited version of the song was released later in the year as a single on Dynamic Sound Records credited to James Ray with Hutch Davie Orchestra & Chorus.


title: Got My Mind Set on You

text: In 1987, George Harrison released a cover version of the song on his album "Cloud Nine", which he had recorded on his Dark Horse Records label.


title: Got My Mind Set on You

text: The first time Harrison heard the song was during a visit to his sister in the United States in 1963–five months before the Beatles first appeared on "The Ed Sullivan Show". His sister lived in the countryside of Illinois. While there, Harrison visited record shops and bought a variety of albums. One was James Ray's 1962 album that contained the song "I've Got My Mind Set on You." In January 1987, Harrison began recording the song at his Friar Park home studio, with Jeff Lynne producing and playing bass and keyboards, Jim Keltner on drums, Jim Horn on sax, and Ray Cooper on percussion.


title: Got My Mind Set on You

text: Of Harrison's three number-one singles in the US, it was the only song not written or composed by Harrison himself. Not only was it the last US No. 1 hit by Harrison, but, , his last top 10 hit in the US. When the song hit No. 1, it broke a three-way tie between Harrison, John Lennon, and Ringo Starr, all of whom had two No. 1 hit singles as solo artists (discounting Paul McCartney's work with Wings). It also happened to be the No. 1 single in the US the week immediately preceding the induction of the Beatles into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, making Harrison one of the few inductees to have an active single on the US record charts at the time of induction. "Billboard" ranked the song as No. 3 for 1988.


title: Got My Mind Set on You

text: The single's B-side is "Lay His Head", a remixed version of the unreleased song from Harrison's originally intended "Somewhere in England" album. The 12-inch version of the single also adds an extended version of "Got My Mind Set on You".


title: Got My Mind Set on You

text: In the UK, the single spent four weeks at number two. It was kept off the number 1 spot by T'Pau's "China in Your Hand" becoming the 5th best selling single of 1987.


title: Got My Mind Set on You

text: The song was included in the Harrison compilation albums "Best of Dark Horse 1976–1989" (1989) and "" (2009).


title: Got My Mind Set on You

text: In 2010, AOL radio listeners chose "Got My Mind Set on You" as one of the "10 Best George Harrison Songs", appearing at number 4 on the list.


title: Got My Mind Set on You

text: Two music videos were released for the single, both directed by Gary Weis. The first features Alexis Denisof trying to win the heart of a girl in an amusement arcade. While the girl watches Harrison and his band (including Jeff Lynne) in a movie viewer, the young man tries to win a toy ballerina for the girl. He succeeds, but the ballerina somehow drops into Harrison's performance, to the girl's amusement.


title: Got My Mind Set on You

text: The second video, inspired by the then-recently released comedy horror film "Evil Dead II", depicts Harrison playing a guitar while seated in a study. As the song progresses, furniture and knick-knacks (including a stuffed squirrel, sentient chainsaw, a statue, and mounted stag and warthog), begin to sing or dance along with the song. In the middle of the video, Harrison (through the use of a stunt double) performs a backflip from his chair and follows it with a dance routine before jumping back to his seat. It was choreographed by Vincent Paterson.


title: Got My Mind Set on You

text: Harrison's version of the song was parodied by "Weird Al" Yankovic on his 1988 album "Even Worse," as "(This Song's Just) Six Words Long" poking fun at the repetitive nature of the lyrics.


title: Got My Mind Set on You

text: Shakin' Stevens recorded the song for his 2006 album "Now Listen". Irish singer Lee Matthews covered it in his 2015 album "It's a Great Day to Be Alive". British entertainer and musician, Warren James, performed the song following his 2003 live performance for the show business charity the Grand Order of Water Rats—an organisation that Harrison was an active member of.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: AVR is a family of microcontrollers developed since 1996 by Atmel, acquired by Microchip Technology in 2016. These are modified Harvard architecture 8-bit RISC single-chip microcontrollers. AVR was one of the first microcontroller families to use on-chip flash memory for program storage, as opposed to one-time programmable ROM, EPROM, or EEPROM used by other microcontrollers at the time.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: AVR microcontrollers find many applications as embedded systems. They are especially common in hobbyist and educational embedded applications, popularized by their inclusion in many of the Arduino line of open hardware development boards.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The AVR architecture was conceived by two students at the Norwegian Institute of Technology (NTH), Alf-Egil Bogen and Vegard Wollan.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: Atmel says that the name AVR is not an acronym and does not stand for anything in particular. The creators of the AVR give no definitive answer as to what the term "AVR" stands for. However, it is commonly accepted that AVR stands for Alf and Vegard's RISC processor. Note that the use of "AVR" in this article generally refers to the 8-bit RISC line of Atmel AVR microcontrollers.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The original AVR MCU was developed at a local ASIC house in Trondheim, Norway, called Nordic VLSI at the time, now Nordic Semiconductor, where Bogen and Wollan were working as students. It was known as a μRISC (Micro RISC) and was available as silicon IP/building block from Nordic VLSI. When the technology was sold to Atmel from Nordic VLSI, the internal architecture was further developed by Bogen and Wollan at Atmel Norway, a subsidiary of Atmel. The designers worked closely with compiler writers at IAR Systems to ensure that the AVR instruction set provided efficient compilation of high-level languages.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: Among the first of the AVR line was the AT90S8515, which in a 40-pin DIP package has the same pinout as an 8051 microcontroller, including the external multiplexed address and data bus. The polarity of the RESET line was opposite (8051's having an active-high RESET, while the AVR has an active-low RESET), but other than that the pinout was identical.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The AVR 8-bit microcontroller architecture was introduced in 1997. By 2003, Atmel had shipped 500 million AVR flash microcontrollers. The Arduino platform, developed for simple electronics projects, was released in 2005 and featured ATmega8 AVR microcontrollers.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The AVR is a modified Harvard architecture machine, where program and data are stored in separate physical memory systems that appear in different address spaces, but having the ability to read data items from program memory using special instructions.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The ATtiny series features a small package microcontroller with a limited peripheral set available. This does however include:


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The ATmega series features a microcontroller that provides a solid amount of program memory, as well as a wide range of pins available. It does also have functionality such as:


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: AVR Dx – The AVR Dx family is featuring multiple microcontroller series, focused on HCI, analog signal conditioning and functional safety.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The parts numbers is formatted as AVR"ff"D"xpp", where "ff" is flash size, "x" is family, and "pp" is number of pins. Example: AVR128DA64 – 64-pin DA-series with 128k flash. All devices is AVR Dx family include:


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: Flash, EEPROM, and SRAM are all integrated onto a single chip, removing the need for external memory in most applications. Some devices have a parallel external bus option to allow adding additional data memory or memory-mapped devices. Almost all devices (except the smallest TinyAVR chips) have serial interfaces, which can be used to connect larger serial EEPROMs or flash chips.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: Program instructions are stored in non-volatile flash memory. Although the MCUs are 8-bit, each instruction takes one or two 16-bit words.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The size of the program memory is usually indicated in the naming of the device itself (e.g., the ATmega64x line has 64 KB of flash, while the ATmega32x line has 32 KB).


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: There is no provision for off-chip program memory; all code executed by the AVR core must reside in the on-chip flash. However, this limitation does not apply to the AT94 FPSLIC AVR/FPGA chips.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The data address space consists of the register file, I/O registers, and SRAM. Some small models also map the program ROM into the data address space, but larger models do not.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: In the tinyAVR and megaAVR variants of the AVR architecture, the working registers are mapped in as the first 32 memory addresses (0000–001F), followed by 64 I/O registers (0020–005F). In devices with many peripherals, these registers are followed by 160 “extended I/O” registers, only accessible as memory-mapped I/O (0060–00FF).


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: Actual SRAM starts after these register sections, at address 0060 or, in devices with "extended I/O", at 0100.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: Even though there are separate addressing schemes and optimized opcodes for accessing the register file and the first 64 I/O registers, all can also be addressed and manipulated as if they were in SRAM.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The very smallest of the tinyAVR variants use a reduced architecture with only 16 registers (r0 through r15 are omitted) which are not addressable as memory locations. I/O memory begins at address 0000, followed by SRAM. In addition, these devices have slight deviations from the standard AVR instruction set. Most notably, the direct load/store instructions (LDS/STS) have been reduced from 2 words (32 bits) to 1 word (16 bits), limiting the total direct addressable memory (the sum of both I/O and SRAM) to 128 bytes. Conversely, the indirect load instruction's (LD) 16-bit address space is expanded to also include non-volatile memory such as Flash and configuration bits; therefore, the Load Program Memory (LPM) instruction is unnecessary and omitted. (For detailed info, see Atmel AVR instruction set.)


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: In the XMEGA variant, the working register file is not mapped into the data address space; as such, it is not possible to treat any of the XMEGA's working registers as though they were SRAM. Instead, the I/O registers are mapped into the data address space starting at the very beginning of the address space. Additionally, the amount of data address space dedicated to I/O registers has grown substantially to 4096 bytes (0000–0FFF). As with previous generations, however, the fast I/O manipulation instructions can only reach the first 64 I/O register locations (the first 32 locations for bitwise instructions). Following the I/O registers, the XMEGA series sets aside a 4096 byte range of the data address space, which can be used optionally for mapping the internal EEPROM to the data address space (1000–1FFF). The actual SRAM is located after these ranges, starting at 2000.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: Each GPIO port on a tiny or mega AVR drives up to eight pins and is controlled by three 8-bit registers: DDR"x", PORT"x" and PIN"x", where "x" is the port identifier.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: Newer ATtiny AVR's, like ATtiny817 and its siblings, have their port control registers somewhat differently defined.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: Almost all AVR microcontrollers have internal EEPROM for semi-permanent data storage. Like flash memory, EEPROM can maintain its contents when electrical power is removed.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: In most variants of the AVR architecture, this internal EEPROM memory is not mapped into the MCU's addressable memory space. It can only be accessed the same way an external peripheral device is, using special pointer registers and read/write instructions, which makes EEPROM access much slower than other internal RAM.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: However, some devices in the SecureAVR (AT90SC) family use a special EEPROM mapping to the data or program memory, depending on the configuration. The XMEGA family also allows the EEPROM to be mapped into the data address space.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: Since the number of writes to EEPROM is limited Atmel specifies 100,000 write cycles in their datasheets a well designed EEPROM write routine should compare the contents of an EEPROM address with desired contents and only perform an actual write if the contents need to be changed.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: Atmel's AVRs have a two-stage, single-level pipeline design. This means the next machine instruction is fetched as the current one is executing. Most instructions take just one or two clock cycles, making AVRs relatively fast among eight-bit microcontrollers.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The AVR processors were designed with the efficient execution of compiled C code in mind and have several built-in pointers for the task.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The AVR instruction set is more orthogonal than those of most eight-bit microcontrollers, in particular the 8051 clones and PIC microcontrollers with which AVR competes today. However, it is not completely regular:


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: Additionally, some chip-specific differences affect code generation. Code pointers (including return addresses on the stack) are two bytes long on chips with up to 128 KB of flash memory, but three bytes long on larger chips; not all chips have hardware multipliers; chips with over 8 KB of flash have branch and call instructions with longer ranges; and so forth.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The mostly regular instruction set makes C (and even Ada) compilers fairly straightforward and efficient. GCC has included AVR support for quite some time, and that support is widely used. LLVM also has rudimentary AVR support. In fact, Atmel solicited input from major developers of compilers for small microcontrollers, to determine the instruction set features that were most useful in a compiler for high-level languages.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The AVR line can normally support clock speeds from 0 to 20 MHz, with some devices reaching 32 MHz. Lower-powered operation usually requires a reduced clock speed. All recent (Tiny, Mega, and Xmega, but not 90S) AVRs feature an on-chip oscillator, removing the need for external clocks or resonator circuitry. Some AVRs also have a system clock prescaler that can divide down the system clock by up to 1024. This prescaler can be reconfigured by software during run-time, allowing the clock speed to be optimized.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: Since all operations (excluding multiplication and 16-bit add/subtract) on registers R0–R31 are single-cycle, the AVR can achieve up to 1 MIPS per MHz, i.e. an 8 MHz processor can achieve up to 8 MIPS. Loads and stores to/from memory take two cycles, branching takes two cycles. Branches in the latest "3-byte PC" parts such as ATmega2560 are one cycle slower than on previous devices.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: AVRs have a large following due to the free and inexpensive development tools available, including reasonably priced development boards and free development software. The AVRs are sold under various names that share the same basic core, but with different peripheral and memory combinations. Compatibility between chips in each family is fairly good, although I/O controller features may vary.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: There are many means to load program code into an AVR chip. The methods to program AVR chips varies from AVR family to family. Most of the methods described below use the RESET line to enter programming mode. In order to avoid the chip accidentally entering such mode, it is advised to connect a pull-up resistor between the RESET pin and the positive power supply.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The in-system programming (ISP) programming method is functionally performed through SPI, plus some twiddling of the Reset line. As long as the SPI pins of the AVR are not connected to anything disruptive, the AVR chip can stay soldered on a PCB while reprogramming. All that is needed is a 6-pin connector and programming adapter. This is the most common way to develop with an AVR.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The Atmel-ICE device or AVRISP mkII (Legacy device) connects to a computer's USB port and performs in-system programming using Atmel's software.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: AVRDUDE (AVR Downloader/UploaDEr) runs on Linux, FreeBSD, Windows, and , and supports a variety of in-system programming hardware, including Atmel AVRISP mkII, Atmel JTAG ICE, older Atmel serial-port based programmers, and various third-party and "do-it-yourself" programmers.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The Program and Debug Interface (PDI) is an Atmel proprietary interface for external programming and on-chip debugging of XMEGA devices. The PDI supports high-speed programming of all non-volatile memory (NVM) spaces; flash, EEPROM, fuses, lock-bits and the User Signature Row. This is done by accessing the XMEGA NVM controller through the PDI interface, and executing NVM controller commands. The PDI is a 2-pin interface using the Reset pin for clock input (PDI_CLK) and a dedicated data pin (PDI_DATA) for input and output.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The Unified Program and Debug Interface (UPDI) is a one-wire interface for external programming and on-chip debugging of newer ATtiny and ATmega devices. The Atmel-ICE and PICkit 4 are capable of programming UPDI chips. It is also possible to use an Arduino thanks to jtag2updi, or a standard USB-UART adapter with the TX and RX pin shorted by a 1 kΩ resistor and the pymcuprog utility provided by Microchip.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: High-voltage serial programming (HVSP) is mostly the backup mode on smaller AVRs. An 8-pin AVR package does not leave many unique signal combinations to place the AVR into a programming mode. A 12-volt signal, however, is something the AVR should only see during programming and never during normal operation. The high voltage mode can also be used in some devices where the reset pin has been disabled by fuses.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: High-voltage parallel programming (HVPP) is considered the "final resort" and may be the only way to correct bad fuse settings on an AVR chip.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: Most AVR models can reserve a bootloader region, 256 bytes to 4 KB, where re-programming code can reside. At reset, the bootloader runs first and does some user-programmed determination whether to re-program or to jump to the main application. The code can re-program through any interface available, or it could read an encrypted binary through an Ethernet adapter like PXE. Atmel has application notes and code pertaining to many bus interfaces.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The AT90SC series of AVRs are available with a factory mask-ROM rather than flash for program memory. Because of the large up-front cost and minimum order quantity, a mask-ROM is only cost-effective for high-production runs.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The AVR offers several options for debugging, mostly involving on-chip debugging while the chip is in the target system.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: debugWIRE is Atmel's solution for providing on-chip debug capabilities via a single microcontroller pin. It is particularly useful for lower pin count parts which cannot provide the four "spare" pins needed for JTAG. The JTAGICE mkII, mkIII and the AVR Dragon support debugWIRE. debugWIRE was developed after the original JTAGICE release, and now clones support it.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The Joint Test Action Group (JTAG) feature provides access to on-chip debugging functionality while the chip is running in the target system. JTAG allows accessing internal memory and registers, setting breakpoints on code, and single-stepping execution to observe system behaviour.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: JTAG can also be used to perform a boundary scan test, which tests the electrical connections between AVRs and other boundary scan capable chips in a system. Boundary scan is well-suited for a production line, while the hobbyist is probably better off testing with a multimeter or oscilloscope.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: Official Atmel AVR development tools and evaluation kits contain a number of starter kits and debugging tools with support for most AVR devices:


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The STK600 starter kit and development system is an update to the STK500. The STK600 uses a base board, a signal routing board, and a target board.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The base board is similar to the STK500, in that it provides a power supply, clock, in-system programming, an RS-232 port and a CAN (Controller Area Network, an automotive standard) port via DE9 connectors, and stake pins for all of the GPIO signals from the target device.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The signal routing board sits between the base board and the target board, and routes the signals to the proper pin on the device board. There are many different signal routing boards that could be used with a single target board, depending on what device is in the ZIF socket.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The STK600 allows in-system programming from the PC via USB, leaving the RS-232 port available for the target microcontroller. A 4 pin header on the STK600 labeled 'RS-232 spare' can connect any TTL level USART port on the chip to an onboard MAX232 chip to translate the signals to RS-232 levels. The RS-232 signals are connected to the RX, TX, CTS, and RTS pins on the DB-9 connector.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The STK500 starter kit and development system features ISP and high voltage programming (HVP) for all AVR devices, either directly or through extension boards. The board is fitted with DIP sockets for all AVRs available in DIP packages.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The STK200 starter kit and development system has a DIP socket that can host an AVR chip in a 40, 20, or 8-pin package. The board has a 4 MHz clock source, 8 light-emitting diode (LED)s, 8 input buttons, an RS-232 port, a socket for a 32 KB SRAM and numerous general I/O. The chip can be programmed with a dongle connected to the parallel port.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The Atmel ICE is the currently supported inexpensive tool to program and debug all AVR devices (unlike the AVRISP/AVRISP mkII, Dragon, etc discussed below). It connects to and receives power from a PC via USB, and supports JTAG, PDI, aWire, debugWIRE, SPI, SWD, TPI, and UPDI (the Microchip Unified Program and Debug Interface) interfaces.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The ICE can program and debug all AVRs via the JTAG interface, and program with additional interfaces as supported on each device:


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: Target operating voltage ranges of 1.62V to 5.5V are supported as well as the following clock ranges:


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The Atmel-ICE supports a limited implementation of the Data Gateway Interface (DGI) when debugging and programming features are not in use. The Data Gateway Interface is an interface for streaming data from a target device to the connected computer. This is meant as a useful adjunct to the unit to allow for demonstration of application features and as an aid in application level debugging.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The AVRISP connects to a PC via a serial port and draws power from the target system. The AVRISP allows using either of the "standard" ICSP pinouts, either the 10-pin or 6-pin connector.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The AVRISP mkII connects to a PC via USB and draws power from USB. LEDs visible through the translucent case indicate the state of target power.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: As the AVRISP mkII lacks driver/buffer ICs, it can have trouble programming target boards with multiple loads on its SPI lines. In such occurrences, a programmer capable of sourcing greater current is required. Alternatively, the AVRISP mkII can still be used if low-value (~150 ohm) load-limiting resistors can be placed on the SPI lines before each peripheral device.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: Both the AVRISP and the AVRISP mkII are now discontinued, with product pages removed from the Microchip website. As of July 2019 the AVRISP mkII is still in stock at a number of distributors. There are also a number of 3rd party clones available.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The Atmel Dragon is an inexpensive tool which connects to a PC via USB. The Dragon can program all AVRs via JTAG, HVP, PDI, or ICSP. The Dragon also allows debugging of all AVRs via JTAG, PDI, or debugWire; a previous limitation to devices with 32 KB or less program memory has been removed in AVR Studio 4.18. The Dragon has a small prototype area which can accommodate an 8, 28, or 40-pin AVR, including connections to power and programming pins. There is no area for any additional circuitry, although this can be provided by a third-party product called the "Dragon Rider".


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The JTAG In Circuit Emulator (JTAGICE) debugging tool supports on-chip debugging (OCD) of AVRs with a JTAG interface. The original JTAGICE (sometimes retroactively referred to as JTAGICE mkI) uses an RS-232 interface to a PC and can only program AVR's with a JTAG interface. The JTAGICE mkI is no longer in production, however it has been replaced by the JTAGICE mkII.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The JTAGICE mkII debugging tool supports on-chip debugging (OCD) of AVRs with SPI, JTAG, PDI, and debugWIRE interfaces. The debugWire interface enables debugging using only one pin (the Reset pin), allowing debugging of applications running on low pin-count microcontrollers.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The JTAGICE mkII connects using USB, but there is an alternate connection via a serial port, which requires using a separate power supply. In addition to JTAG, the mkII supports ISP programming (using 6-pin or 10-pin adapters). Both the USB and serial links use a variant of the STK500 protocol.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The JTAGICE3 updates the mkII with more advanced debugging capabilities and faster programming. It connects via USB and supports the JTAG, aWire, SPI, and PDI interfaces. The kit includes several adapters for use with most interface pinouts.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The AVR ONE! is a professional development tool for all Atmel 8-bit and 32-bit AVR devices with On-Chip Debug capability. It supports SPI, JTAG, PDI, and aWire programming modes and debugging using debugWIRE, JTAG, PDI, and aWire interfaces.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The very popular AVR Butterfly demonstration board is a self-contained, battery-powered computer running the Atmel AVR ATmega169V microcontroller. It was built to show off the AVR family, especially a then new built-in LCD interface. The board includes the LCD screen, joystick, speaker, serial port, real time clock (RTC), flash memory chip, and both temperature and voltage sensors. Earlier versions of the AVR Butterfly also contained a CdS photoresistor; it is not present on Butterfly boards produced after June 2006 to allow RoHS compliance. The small board has a shirt pin on its back so it can be worn as a name badge.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The AVR Butterfly comes preloaded with software to demonstrate the capabilities of the microcontroller. Factory firmware can scroll your name, display the sensor readings, and show the time. The AVR Butterfly also has a piezoelectric transducer that can be used to reproduce sounds and music.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The AVR Butterfly demonstrates LCD driving by running a 14-segment, six alpha-numeric character display. However, the LCD interface consumes many of the I/O pins.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The Butterfly's ATmega169 CPU is capable of speeds up to 8 MHz, but it is factory set by software to 2 MHz to preserve the button battery life. A pre-installed bootloader program allows the board to be re-programmed via a standard RS-232 serial plug with new programs that users can write with the free Atmel IDE tools.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: This small board, about half the size of a business card, is priced at slightly more than an AVR Butterfly. It includes an AT90USB1287 with USB On-The-Go (OTG) support, 16 MB of DataFlash, LEDs, a small joystick, and a temperature sensor. The board includes software, which lets it act as a USB mass storage device (its documentation is shipped on the DataFlash), a USB joystick, and more. To support the USB host capability, it must be operated from a battery, but when running as a USB peripheral, it only needs the power provided over USB.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: Only the JTAG port uses conventional 2.54 mm pinout. All the other AVR I/O ports require more compact 1.27 mm headers.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The AVR Dragon can both program and debug since the 32 KB limitation was removed in AVR Studio 4.18, and the JTAGICE mkII is capable of both programming and debugging the processor. The processor can also be programmed through USB from a Windows or Linux host, using the USB "Device Firmware Update" protocols. Atmel ships proprietary (source code included but distribution restricted) example programs and a USB protocol stack with the device.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: LUFA is a third-party free software (MIT license) USB protocol stack for the USBKey and other 8-bit USB AVRs.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The RAVEN kit supports wireless development using Atmel's IEEE 802.15.4 chipsets, for ZigBee and other wireless stacks. It resembles a pair of wireless more-powerful Butterfly cards, plus a wireless USBKey; and costing about that much (under $US100). All these boards support JTAG-based development.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The kit includes two AVR Raven boards, each with a 2.4 GHz transceiver supporting IEEE 802.15.4 (and a freely licensed ZigBee stack). The radios are driven with ATmega1284p processors, which are supported by a custom segmented LCD display driven by an ATmega3290p processor. Raven peripherals resemble the Butterfly: piezo speaker, DataFlash (bigger), external EEPROM, sensors, 32 kHz crystal for RTC, and so on. These are intended for use in developing remote sensor nodes, to control relays, or whatever is needed.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The USB stick uses an AT90USB1287 for connections to a USB host and to the 2.4 GHz wireless links. These are intended to monitor and control the remote nodes, relying on host power rather than local batteries.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: A wide variety of third-party programming and debugging tools are available for the AVR. These devices use various interfaces, including RS-232, PC parallel port, and USB.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: AVRs have been used in various automotive applications such as security, safety, powertrain and entertainment systems. Atmel has recently launched a new publication "Atmel Automotive Compilation" to help developers with automotive applications. Some current usages are in BMW, Daimler-Chrysler and TRW.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: The Arduino physical computing platform is based on an ATmega328 microcontroller (ATmega168 or ATmega8 in board versions older than the Diecimila). The ATmega1280 and ATmega2560, with more pinout and memory capabilities, have also been employed to develop the Arduino Mega platform. Arduino boards can be used with its language and IDE, or with more conventional programming environments (C, assembler, etc.) as just standardized and widely available AVR platforms.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: USB-based AVRs have been used in the Microsoft Xbox hand controllers. The link between the controllers and Xbox is USB.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: Numerous companies produce AVR-based microcontroller boards intended for use by hobbyists, robot builders, experimenters and small system developers including: Cubloc, gnusb, BasicX, Oak Micros, ZX Microcontrollers, and myAVR. There is also a large community of Arduino-compatible boards supporting similar users.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: Schneider Electric used to produce the M3000 Motor and Motion Control Chip, incorporating an Atmel AVR Core and an advanced motion controller for use in a variety of motion applications but this has been discontinued.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: With the growing popularity of FPGAs among the open source community, people have started developing open source processors compatible with the AVR instruction set. The OpenCores website lists the following major AVR clone projects:


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: In addition to the chips manufactured by Atmel, clones are available from LogicGreen Technologies. These parts are not exact clones - they have a few features not found in the chips they are "clones" of, and higher maximum clock speeds, but use SWD instead of ISP for programming, so different programming tools must be used.


title: AVR microcontrollers

text: Microcontrollers using the ATmega architecture are being manufactured by NIIET in Voronezh, Russia, as part of the 1887 series of integrated circuits. This includes an ATmega128 under the designation 1887VE7T ().


title: Reactive arthritis

text: Reactive arthritis, also known as Reiter's syndrome, is a form of inflammatory arthritis that develops in response to an infection in another part of the body (cross-reactivity). Coming into contact with bacteria and developing an infection can trigger the disease. By the time the patient presents with symptoms, often the "trigger" infection has been cured or is in remission in chronic cases, thus making determination of the initial cause difficult.


title: Reactive arthritis

text: The arthritis often is coupled with other characteristic symptoms; this has been called Reiter's syndrome, Reiter's disease or Reiter's arthritis. The term "reactive arthritis" is increasingly used as a substitute for this designation because of Hans Reiter's war crimes with the Nazi Party.


title: Reactive arthritis

text: The manifestations of reactive arthritis include the following triad of symptoms: an inflammatory arthritis of large joints, inflammation of the eyes in the form of conjunctivitis or uveitis, and urethritis in men or cervicitis in women. Arthritis occurring alone following sexual exposure or enteric infection is also known as reactive arthritis. Patients can also present with mucocutaneous lesions, as well as psoriasis-like skin lesions such as circinate balanitis, and keratoderma blennorrhagicum. Enthesitis can involve the Achilles tendon resulting in heel pain. Not all affected persons have all the manifestations.


title: Reactive arthritis

text: The clinical pattern of reactive arthritis commonly consists of an inflammation of fewer than five joints which often includes the knee or sacroiliac joint. The arthritis may be "additive" (more joints become inflamed in addition to the primarily affected one) or "migratory" (new joints become inflamed after the initially inflamed site has already improved).


title: Reactive arthritis

text: Reactive arthritis is an RF-seronegative, HLA-B27-linked arthritis often precipitated by genitourinary or gastrointestinal infections. The most common triggers are intestinal infections (with "Salmonella", "Shigella" or "Campylobacter") and sexually transmitted infections (with "Chlamydia trachomatis"); however, it also can happen after group A streptococcal infections.


title: Reactive arthritis

text: It most commonly strikes individuals aged 20–40 years of age, is more common in men than in women, and more common in white than in black people. This is owing to the high frequency of the HLA-B27 gene in the white population. It can occur in epidemic form. Patients with HIV have an increased risk of developing reactive arthritis as well.


title: Reactive arthritis

text: Numerous cases during World Wars I and II focused attention on the triad of arthritis, urethritis, and conjunctivitis (often with additional mucocutaneous lesions), which at that time was also referred to as Fiessenger-Leroy-Reiter syndrome.


title: Reactive arthritis

text: Reactive arthritis is associated with the HLA-B27 gene on chromosome 6 and by the presence of enthesitis as the basic pathologic lesion and is triggered by a preceding infection. The most common triggering infection in the US is a genital infection with "Chlamydia trachomatis". Other bacteria known to cause reactive arthritis which are more common worldwide are "Ureaplasma urealyticum", "Salmonella" spp., "Shigella" spp., "Yersinia" spp., and "Campylobacter" spp. A bout of food poisoning or a gastrointestinal infection may also precede the disease (the last four genera of bacteria mentioned above are enteric bacteria). "Shigella" is the most common organism causing reactive arthritis following diarrhea. "Chlamydia trachomatis" is the most common cause of reactive arthritis following urethritis. "Ureaplasma" and "mycoplasma" are rare causes. There is some circumstantial evidence for other organisms causing the disease, but the details are unclear.


title: Reactive arthritis

text: Reactive arthritis usually manifests about 1–3 weeks after a known infection. The mechanism of interaction between the infecting organism and the host is unknown. Synovial fluid cultures are negative, suggesting that reactive arthritis is caused either by an autoimmune response involving cross-reactivity of bacterial antigens with joint tissues or by bacterial antigens that have somehow become deposited in the joints.


title: Reactive arthritis

text: There are few clinical symptoms, but the clinical picture is dominated by arthritis in one or more joints, resulting in pain, swelling, redness, and heat sensation in the affected areas.


title: Reactive arthritis

text: The urethra, cervix and the throat may be swabbed in an attempt to culture the causative organisms. Cultures may also be carried out on urine and stool samples or on fluid obtained by arthrocentesis.


title: Reactive arthritis

text: Tests for C-reactive protein and erythrocyte sedimentation rate are non-specific tests that can be done to corroborate the diagnosis of the syndrome.


title: Reactive arthritis

text: A blood test for the genetic marker HLA-B27 may also be performed. About 75 percent of all the patients with reactive arthritis have this gene.


title: Reactive arthritis

text: Although there are no definitive criteria to diagnose the existence of reactive arthritis, the American College of Rheumatology has published sensitivity and specificity guidelines.


title: Reactive arthritis

text: The main goal of treatment is to identify and eradicate the underlying infectious source with the appropriate antibiotics if still present. Otherwise, treatment is symptomatic for each problem. Nonspecific urethritis may be treated with a short course of tetracycline. Analgesics, particularly NSAIDs, are used. Steroids, sulfasalazine and immunosuppressants may be needed for patients with severe reactive symptoms that do not respond to any other treatment. Local corticosteroids are useful in the case of iritis.


title: Reactive arthritis

text: Reactive arthritis may be self-limiting, frequently recurring, chronic or progressive. Most patients have severe symptoms lasting a few weeks to six months. 15 to 50 percent of cases involve recurrent bouts of arthritis. Chronic arthritis or sacroiliitis occurs in 15–30 percent of cases. Repeated attacks over many years are common, and patients sometimes end up with chronic and disabling arthritis, heart disease, amyloid deposits, ankylosing spondylitis, immunoglobulin A nephropathy, cardiac conduction abnormalities, or aortitis with aortic regurgitation. However, most people with reactive arthritis can expect to live normal life spans and maintain a near-normal lifestyle with modest adaptations to protect the involved organs.


title: Reactive arthritis

text: Because women may be underdiagnosed, the exact incidence of reactive arthritis is difficult to estimate. A few studies have been completed, though. In Norway between 1988 and 1990, the incidence was 4.6 cases per 100,000 for chlamydia-induced reactive arthritis and 5 cases per 100,000 for that induced by enteric bacteria. In 1978 in Finland, the annual incidence was found to be 43.6 per 100,000.


title: Reactive arthritis

text: When reactive arthritis appears in a triad that also includes ophthalmic and urogenital manifestations, the eponym "Reiter's syndrome" is often applied; German physician Hans Conrad Julius Reiter described the condition in a soldier he treated during World War I.


title: Reactive arthritis

text: A number of physicians have suggested that the eponym is undeserved. Reiter's Nazi Party affiliation, and in particular his involvement in forced human experimentation in the Buchenwald concentration camp (which, after his capture at the end of World War II, resulted in his prosecution in Nuremberg as a war criminal), have come to overshadow his medical accomplishments. Furthermore, he was not the first physician to make associations between the arthritis and other symptoms—the names arthritis urethritica, venereal arthritis and polyarteritis enterica had previously been applied—and the full triad was described by another physician in the 19th century.


title: Super Smash Bros. Brawl

text: Super Smash Bros. Brawl is a 2008 crossover fighting video game developed by Sora Ltd. and published by Nintendo for the Wii. The third installment in the "Super Smash Bros." series, it was announced at a pre-E3 2005 press conference by Nintendo president Satoru Iwata. Masahiro Sakurai, director of the previous two games in the series, assumed the role of director at Iwata's request. Game development began in October 2005 with a creative team that included members from several Nintendo and third-party development teams. After delays due to development problems, the game was released worldwide in 2008.


title: Super Smash Bros. Brawl

text: The number of playable characters in "Brawl" has grown from that in "Super Smash Bros. Melee", although some characters from "Melee" were cut in "Brawl". "Brawl" is the first game in the series to have playable third-party characters. Like that of its predecessors, the objective of "Brawl" is to knock opponents off the screen. It is a departure from traditional fighting games, notably in its simplified move commands and emphasis on ring outs over knockouts. It includes a more extensive single-player mode than its predecessors, known as the Subspace Emissary. This mode is a plot-driven, side-scrolling beat 'em up featuring computer-generated cut scenes. "Brawl" supports multiplayer battles with up to four combatants, and is the first game of its franchise to feature online battles via Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection. The game is unique in that it can be played with four different controllers, including the Wii Remote, Wii Remote with Nunchuk, GameCube controller, and Classic Controller, simultaneously.


title: Super Smash Bros. Brawl

text: "Super Smash Bros. Brawl" received universal acclaim, with praise centered on its entertainment value despite issues relating to its content loading times. Its musical score, composed through a collaboration of 38 renowned video game composers, was lauded for its representation of different generations in gaming history. "Brawl" received an aggregate review score of 93% on Metacritic and was named the "Fighting Game of the Year" by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences. In 2010, the game was included as one of the titles in the book "1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die". As of 2008, it is the eighth best-selling Wii game of all time, with over thirteen million copies sold worldwide. It was followed by "Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U" in 2014.


title: Super Smash Bros. Brawl

text: Following its predecessors, "Brawl" is a platform fighter that uses a battle system unlike that of typical fighting games. Players can choose from a large selection of characters, each attempting to knock their opponents off the screen as they fight on various stages. The characters in "Brawl" include most of the same ones as the predecessors, such as Mario and Pikachu. Instead of using traditional health bars that start at a maximum value and lose value, "Brawl" characters start the game with 0%; the value rises as they take damage, to a maximum of 999%. As a character's percentage increases, the character flies further back when hit. When a character is knocked beyond a stage's boundary and disappears from the screen, the character loses either a life, a point, or coins, depending on the mode of play. "Brawl" includes a function which allows players to create profiles with personalized button configurations for each control method along with their chosen username.


title: Super Smash Bros. Brawl

text: The characters in "Brawl" fight using a variety of attacks, that give the player a wider selection than the predecessors. Players execute each move by pressing a button in conjunction with a tilt of the control stick or a press of the D-pad, depending on the mode of control. In addition to basic attacks, characters have access to more powerful moves, known as smash attacks. Each character has four unique moves, which often cause effects besides damage to an opponent. "Brawl" introduces character-specific super attacks, referred to as "Final Smashes". Significantly more powerful than regular attacks, these moves have a wide variety of effects that range from nearly unavoidable blasts to temporary transformations. Final Smash moves can be performed by destroying a Smash Ball: a colorful floating orb bearing the "Smash Bros." logo.


title: Super Smash Bros. Brawl

text: Characters can use items ranging from projectiles to melee weapons; each has a different effect on the characters around it. Although many items have returned from previous "Super Smash Bros." games, new ones have been introduced as well. Some returning items have changed appearance and function. Two varieties of items, Assist Trophies and Poké Balls, temporarily summon guest characters and Pokémon, respectively, that generally aid the summoner. They cannot be controlled by players and are usually invincible.


title: Super Smash Bros. Brawl

text: "Brawl" allows the player to select from 39 playable characters, 25 of which are initially available from the start. Some are new, but others return from "Melee"—in some cases updated or refined, either in appearance, fighting capabilities, or both. For example, Link and Fox have adopted designs from more recent titles at the time, while Samus has gained the ability to change into Zero Suit Samus. Dr. Mario, Roy, Young Link, Mewtwo and Pichu are the first characters to not return from a previous game, though they do appear as stickers and/or trophies.


title: Super Smash Bros. Brawl

text: Some previously represented series have had more characters added to "Brawl". Diddy Kong from the "Donkey Kong" series, Ike from the "Fire Emblem" series, and Lucas from "Mother 3" make their first appearance in the "Smash Bros." series. Other newcomers are the first to represent their series. These include characters such as Pit, representing the "Kid Icarus" series for the first time since the 1991 Game Boy game "", Olimar of the "Pikmin" series, Lucario from "", and Wario, as he appears in Nintendo's "WarioWare". Solid Snake, the protagonist of Konami's "Metal Gear" franchise, and Sonic the Hedgehog from Nintendo's former rival Sega are the first third-party characters to appear in a "Super Smash Bros." game, with Snake being the first character from an M-rated game to appear in the series.


title: Super Smash Bros. Brawl

text: "Brawl"s stages are generally based on plot devices from the various game series of "Super Smash Bros." Stages range from floating platforms to moving areas where the characters must stay within the field of play. Each stage has a boundary that cannot be passed, or the character will be "KO'd", thus losing a life or "point", depending on the mode of play.


title: Super Smash Bros. Brawl

text: "Brawl" contains 41 selectable stages, 29 of which are initially available. Many stages undergo elaborate changes while battles take place, such as a cycling day-to-night system or changing seasons. A stage based on the "Animal Crossing" series features a live events system in which special events may occur depending on the date and time. Environmental gameplay mechanics are featured in this installment, such as destructible terrain and the ability to float. Unlike its predecessors, "Brawl" includes stages based on third-party games such as the "Metal Gear Solid"-inspired Shadow Moses Island. The game also includes 10 stages taken from its predecessor, "Super Smash Bros. Melee".


title: Super Smash Bros. Brawl

text: "Brawl" allows players to create their own stages in a mode called Stage Builder. Players can save their stages to an SD card or to the internal memory of the Wii console. Through Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection, players can submit their creations to their friends, or to Nintendo to receive a daily stage from the service.


title: Super Smash Bros. Brawl

text: In addition to the standard multiplayer mode, "Brawl" features other multiplayer modes and options in Group mode. Special Melee, from the previous game, returns as Special Brawl. In this mode, players are able to battle in matches using special rules for a greater level of customization. Whereas previously standard options such as "Giant Melee" or "Invisible Melee" were limited to one feature per match, players may now select multiple options for a single match. Another returning game type, Tourney mode (formerly Tournament mode), enables players to create an elimination-based tournament, where up to 32 players can play, with a large number of game-controlled or human-controlled opponents. A "Rotation" feature has been introduced in "Brawl", which allows up to sixteen players to compete in sequence by switching out winners or losers after each round.


title: Super Smash Bros. Brawl

text: Like its predecessors, "Super Smash Bros. Brawl" includes various modes of play from the previous game designed for a single player. In Classic Mode, players fight individual characters in a selected order. Each match features an arena or opponent from a particular series, such as "The Legend of Zelda" or "Pokémon". Several matches have a unique battle condition, such as a metal opponent, large opponent, or a two-on-two team battle. Similar to Classic mode are All Star Mode and Boss Battles, where the player has only one life to defeat all of the playable characters and bosses respectively.


title: Super Smash Bros. Brawl

text: "Brawl" features Events, matches with predetermined battle conditions such as defeating opponents within a time limit or reaching a specific goal. New to single-player mode, each of the 41 Events has three difficulty levels, with a distinct high score recorded for each. In addition to the normal set of 41 Events played with a single player, a smaller set of 21 two-player Events is included.


title: Super Smash Bros. Brawl

text: Stadium mode is a collection of objective-oriented minigames. Returning from the two previous games is the "Target Smash!" minigame, in which the player must break ten targets as quickly as possible. In the Home-Run Contest, the player must beat Sandbag to inflict as much damage as possible in 10 seconds, then strike it with a Home-Run Bat. Updated from "Melee", all Stadium mode minigames feature cooperative or competitive multiplayer.


title: Super Smash Bros. Brawl

text: "Super Smash Bros. Brawl" features a new Adventure mode titled "The Subspace Emissary", abbreviated to "SSE". This mode features a unique storyline and numerous side-scrolling levels and bosses, as well as cutscenes explaining the plot. The mode introduces a group of antagonists called the Subspace Army, led by the Ancient Minister. Some of these enemies appeared in previous Nintendo video games, such as Petey Piranha from the "Mario" series and a squadron of R.O.B.s based on classic Nintendo hardware. The Subspace Army boasts a number of original enemies, such as the Roader, a robotic unicycle; the Bytan, a one-eyed spherical creature which can replicate itself if left alone; and the Primid, enemies that fight with a variety of weapons. Though the game is primarily played as a single-player mode, cooperative multiplayer is available. The SSE features a mechanism which strengthens a character's abilities in the form of collectible stickers which can be applied to the player's Trophies.