title: Tree line

text: Another treeline exists in the southwesternmost parts of the Magellanic subpolar forests ecoregion, where the forest merges into the subantarctic tundra (termed Magellanic moorland or Magellanic tundra). For example, the northern halves of Hoste and Navarino Islands have Nothofagus antarctica forests but the southern parts consist of moorlands and tundra.


title: Tree line

text: The alpine tree line at a location is dependent on local variables, such as aspect of slope, rain shadow and proximity to either geographical pole. In addition, in some tropical or island localities, the lack of biogeographical access to species that have evolved in a subalpine environment can result in lower tree lines than one might expect by climate alone.


title: Tree line

text: Averaging over many locations and local microclimates, the treeline rises when moving 1 degree south from 70 to 50°N, and per degree from 50 to 30°N. Between 30°N and 20°S, the treeline is roughly constant, between .


title: Tree line

text: Like the alpine tree lines shown above, polar tree lines are heavily influenced by local variables such as aspect of slope and degree of shelter. In addition, permafrost has a major impact on the ability of trees to place roots into the ground. When roots are too shallow, trees are susceptible to windthrow and erosion. Trees can often grow in river valleys at latitudes where they could not grow on a more exposed site. Maritime influences such as ocean currents also play a major role in determining how far from the equator trees can grow as well as the warm summers experienced in extreme continental climates. In northern inland Scandinavia there is substantial maritime influence on high parallels that keep winters relatively mild, but enough inland effect to have summers well above the threshold for the tree line. Here are some typical polar treelines:


title: Tree line

text: Trees exist on Tierra del Fuego (55°S) at the southern end of South America, but generally not on subantarctic islands and not in Antarctica. Therefore, there is no explicit Antarctic tree line.


title: Tree line

text: Kerguelen Island (49°S), South Georgia (54°S), and other subantarctic islands are all so heavily wind-exposed and with a too-cold summer climate (tundra) that none have any indigenous tree species. The Falkland Islands (51°S) summer temperature is near the limit, but the islands are also treeless, although some planted trees exist.


title: Tree line

text: Antarctic Peninsula is the northernmost point in Antarctica (63°S) and has the mildest weather—it is located from Cape Horn on Tierra del Fuego—yet no trees survive there; only a few mosses, lichens, and species of grass do so. In addition, no trees survive on any of the subantarctic islands near the peninsula.


title: Tree line

text: Southern Rata forests exist on Enderby Island and Auckland Islands (both 50°S) and these grow up to an elevation of in sheltered valleys. These trees seldom grow above in height and they get smaller as one gains altitude, so that by they are waist-high. These islands have only between 600 and 800 hours of sun annually. Campbell Island (52°S) further south is treeless, except for one stunted Spruce, planted by scientists. The climate on these islands is not severe, but tree growth is limited by almost continual rain and wind. Summers are very cold with an average January temperature of . Winters are mild but wet. Macquarie Island (Australia) is located at 54°S and has no vegetation beyond snow grass and alpine grasses and mosses.


title: Eric Gill

text: Arthur Eric Rowton Gill, (22 February 1882 – 17 November 1940) was an English sculptor, letter cutter, typeface designer, and printmaker. Although the "Oxford Dictionary of National Biography" describes Gill as ″the greatest artist-craftsman of the twentieth century: a letter-cutter and type designer of genius″, he is also a figure of considerable controversy following revelations of his sexual abuse of two of his daughters.


title: Eric Gill

text: Gill was born in Brighton and grew up in Chichester, where he attended the local college before moving to London. There he became an apprentice with a firm of ecclesiastical architects and took evening classes in stone masonry and calligraphy. Gill abandoned his architectural training and set up a business cutting memorial inscriptions for buildings and headstones. He also began designing chapter headings and title pages for books.


title: Eric Gill

text: As a young man, Gill was a member of the Fabian Society, but later resigned. Initially identifying with the Arts and Crafts Movement, by 1907 he was lecturing and campaigning against the movement's perceived failings. He became a Roman Catholic in 1913 and remained so for the rest of his life. Gill established a succession of craft communities, each with a chapel at its centre and with an emphasis on manual labour as opposed to more modern industrial methods. The first of these communities was at Ditchling in Sussex, where Gill established the Guild of St Joseph and St Dominic for Catholic craftsmen. Many members of the Guild, including Gill, were also members of the Third Order of St. Dominic, a lay division of the Dominican Order. At Ditchling, Gill and his assistants created several notable war memorials including those at Chirk in north Wales and at Trumpington near Cambridge, along with numerous works on religious subjects.


title: Eric Gill

text: In 1924, the Gill family left Ditchling and moved to an isolated, disused monastery at Capel-y-ffin in the Black Mountains of Wales. The isolation of Capel-y-ffin suited Gill's wish to distance himself from what he regarded as an increasingly secular and industrialised society, and his time there proved to be among the most productive of his artistic career. At Capel, Gill made the sculptures "The Sleeping Christ" (1925), "Deposition" (1925), and "Mankind" (1927). He created engravings for a series of books published by the Golden Cockerel Press considered among the finest of their kind, and it was at Capel that he designed the typefaces Perpetua, Gill Sans, and Solus. After four years at Capel, Gill and his family moved into a quadrangle of properties at Speen in Buckinghamshire. From there, in the last decade of his life, Gill became an architectural sculptor of some fame, creating large, high profile works for central London buildings, including both the headquarters of the BBC and the forerunner of London Underground. His mammoth frieze "The Creation of Man" was the British Government's gift to the new League of Nations building in Geneva. Despite failing health Gill was active as a sculptor until the last weeks of his life, leaving several works to be completed by his assistants after his death.


title: Eric Gill

text: Gill was a prolific writer on religious and social matters, with some 300 printed works including books and pamphlets to his name. He frequently courted controversy with his opposition to industrialisation, modern commerce, and the use of machinery in both the home and the workplace. In the years preceding World War II, he embraced pacifism and left-wing causes.


title: Eric Gill

text: Gill's religious beliefs did not limit his sexual activity, which included several extramarital affairs. His religious views and subject matter contrast with his deviant sexual behaviour, including, as described in his personal diaries, his sexual abuse of his daughters, an incestuous relationship with at least one of his sisters, and sexual experiments with his dog. Since these revelations became public in 1989, there have been a number of calls for works by Gill to be removed from public buildings and art collections.


title: Eric Gill

text: Eric Gill was born in 1882 in Hamilton Road, Brighton, the second of the 13 children of the Reverend Arthur Tidman Gill and (Cicely) Rose King (died 1929), formerly a professional singer of light opera under the name Rose le Roi. Arthur Tidman Gill had left the Congregational church in 1878 over doctrinal disagreements and became a minister of a sect of Calvinist Methodists known as the Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion. Arthur was born in the South Seas, where his father, George Gill, was a Congregational minister and missionary. Eric Gill was the elder brother of the graphic artist MacDonald "Max" Gill (1884–1947). Two of his other brothers, Romney and Cecil, became Anglican missionaries while their sister, Madeline, became a nun and also undertook missionary work.


title: Eric Gill

text: In 1897, the family moved to Chichester, when Arthur Tidman Gill left the Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion, became a mature student at Chichester Theological College and joined the Church of England. Eric Gill studied at Chichester Technical and Art School, where he won a Queen's Prize for perspective drawing and developed a passion for lettering. Later in his life, Gill cited the Norman and medieval carved stone panels in Chichester Cathedral as a major influence on his sculpture. In 1900 Gill became disillusioned with Chichester and moved to London to train as an architect with the practice of W. D. Caröe, specialists in ecclesiastical architecture with a large office close to Westminster Abbey.


title: Eric Gill

text: Frustrated with his architectural training, Gill took evening classes in stonemasonry at the Westminster Technical Institute and, from 1901, in calligraphy at the Central School of Arts and Crafts while continuing to work at Caröe's. The calligraphy course was run by Edward Johnston, creator of the London Underground typeface, who became a strong and lasting influence on Gill. For a year, until 1903, Gill and Johnston shared lodgings at Lincoln's Inn in central London.


title: Eric Gill

text: During 1903, Gill gave up training in architecture to become a calligrapher, letter-cutter and monumental mason. After making a copy of a small stone tablet from Westminster Abbey, Gill's first public inscription was for a stone memorial tablet, to a Percy Joseph Hiscock, in Chichester Cathedral. Through a contact at the Central School, Gill was employed to cut the inscription for a tombstone at Brookwood Cemetery in Surrey. Other work quickly followed, including an inscription for Holy Trinity, Sloane Street, plus commissions from architects and private individuals, including Count Kessler. Kessler, on Johnston's recommendation, employed Gill to design chapter headings and title pages for the Insel Verlag publishling house. W.H. Smith & Son employed Gill to paint the lettering on the fascias of several of their bookshops including, in 1903, their Paris store. For a time, Gill combined this work with his job at Caröe's but eventually the scale and frequency of these commissions required him to leave the company. After Gill died, his brother, Evan, compiled an inventory of 762 inscriptions known to have been carved by him.


title: Eric Gill

text: In 1904 Gill married Ethel Hester Moore (1878–1961), a former art student, later known as Mary, the daughter of a businessman who was also the head verger at Chichester Cathedral. Gill and Moore would eventually have three daughters and foster a son. After a short period in Battersea, the couple moved into 20 Black Lion Lane, Hammersmith in west London, near the, recently married, Johnstons' home on Hammersmith Terrace. A number of artists associated with the Arts and Crafts movement, including Emery Walker, T. J. Cobden-Sanderson and May Morris were already based in the area, as were a number of printing presses, notably the Doves Press. Gill formed a business partnership with Lawrence Christie and recruited a number of staff, including the 14-year old Joseph Cribb, to work in his studio. Gill began giving lectures at the Central School and taught courses in monumental masonry and lettering for stonemasons at the Paddington Institute. In 1905 he was elected to the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society and joined the Fabian Society the following year. After a period of intense involvement with the Fabians, Gill became disillusioned with both them and the Arts and Craft movement. By 1907 he was writing and making speeches about the failures, both theoretical and practical, of the craft movement to resist the advance of mass-production.


title: Eric Gill

text: In his diaries, Gill records two affairs while living at Hammersmith. He had a brief affair with the family maid while his wife was pregnant and then a relationship with Lillian Meacham, who he met through the Fabian Society. Gill and Meacham visited the Paris Opera and Chartres Cathedral together and when their affair ended, she became an apprentice in Gill's workshop and remained a family friend throughout her life.


title: Eric Gill

text: In 1907, Gill moved with his family to Sopers, a house in the village of Ditchling in Sussex, which would later become the centre of an artists' community inspired by Gill. Although by April 1908 Gill had established a workshop in Ditchling and dissolved his business partnership with Lawrence Christie, he continued to spend considerable amounts of time in London visiting clients and delivering lectures, while his wife Ethel organised their household and smallholding in Sussex. In London, Gill would stay at his old lodgings in Lincoln's Inn with his brother Max or with his sister Gladys and Ernest Laughton, her future husband. Gill continued to concentrate on lettering and inscriptions for stonework and employed a pupil for his signwriting business. He also began to use wood engraving techniques for his book illustration work, notably for a 1907 edition of "Homer" for Count Kessler.


title: Eric Gill

text: Late in 1909 Gill decided to become a sculptor. Gill had always considered himself an artisan craftsman rather than an artist. He rejected the usual sculpture technique of first making a model and then scaling up using a pointing machine, in favour of directly carving the final figure. His first sculptures included "Madonna and Child" (1910), which the art critic Roger Fry described as a depiction of "pathetic animalism", and the almost life-size work now known as "Ecstasy" (1911). The models for "Ecstasy" were his sister Gladys Gill and her husband Ernest Laughton. The incestuous relationships between Gill and Gladys that continued during their lives had already begun at this point. There is also some evidence, from Gill's own writings, of an incestuous relationship with Angela, another of his sisters.


title: Eric Gill

text: An early admirer of Gill's sculptures was William Rothenstein and he introduced Gill, who was fascinated by Indian temple sculptures, to the Ceylonese philosopher and art historian Ananda Coomaraswamy. Along with his friend and collaborator Jacob Epstein, Gill planned the construction in the Sussex countryside of a colossal, hand-carved monument in imitation of the large-scale structures at Gwalior Fort in Madhya Pradesh. Throughout the second half of 1910, Epstein and Gill would meet on an almost daily basis, but eventually their friendship soured very badly. Earlier in the year they had held long discussions with Rothenstein and other artists, including Augustus John and Ambrose McEvoy, about the formation of a religious brotherhood. At Ditchling, Epstein worked on elements of Oscar Wilde's tomb in Père Lachaise cemetery for which Gill designed the inscription before sending Joseph Cribb, who had moved to Ditchling in 1907, to Paris to carve the lettering.


title: Eric Gill

text: Gill had his first sculpture exhibition in 1911 at the Chenil Gallery in London. Eight works by Gill were included in the Second Post-Impressionism Exhibition organised by Roger Fry at the Grafton Galleries in London during 1912 and 1913.


title: Eric Gill

text: By 1912, while Gill's main source of income was from gravestone inscriptions, he had also carved a number of Madonna figures and was widely assumed, wrongly at that time, to be a Catholic artist. As such he was invited to an exhibition of Catholic art in Brussels and, on route, stayed for some days at the Benedictine monastery at Mont-César Abbey near Louvain. Gill's experiences at Louvain, seeing the monks at prayer and hearing plainsong for the first time convinced him to become a Roman Catholic. In February 1913, after religious instructions from English Benedictines, Gill and Ethel were received into the Catholic Church and Ethel changed her name to Mary.


title: Eric Gill

text: In 1913, after Gill and his wife became Roman Catholics they moved to Hopkin's Crank at Ditchling Common, two miles north of Ditchling village. There, Gill worked primarily for Catholic clients, notably his 1914 commission for the 14 stations of the cross in Westminster Cathedral. Gill was a surprising choice for the commission as he had only recently become a Catholic and had only been a sculptor for three years. However he was prepared to do the work quicker and for a lower fee than more established sculptors would. Gill modelled both the Christ figure in panel ten and a soldier in the second panel on himself. The Stations were not universally well received when they were erected with criticism of their simple appearance and how starkly they contrasted with the rest of the cathedral interior. A minority, that eventually included Nikolaus Pevsner, praised their uncluttered design and unsentimental treatment of the subject. They are now considered among Gill's most accomplished large scale works. Subsequently, Gill submitted proposals for decorations and works in other parts of the Cathedral building and, eventually, his design for the Chapel of Saint George and the English Martyrs was commissioned.


title: Eric Gill

text: Gill had been granted exemption from military service while working on the Stations of the Cross and when they were finished spent three months, from September 1918, as a driver at an RAF camp in Dorset, before returning to Ditchling.


title: Eric Gill

text: After World War I, together with Hilary Pepler and Desmond Chute, Gill founded a guild association to promote the ideals of medieval, or pre-industrial, craft production, the Guild of St Joseph and St Dominic at Ditchling. The Guild's emphasis was on manual labour as opposed to more modern industrial methods, such that they did not use mechanised tools and considered craft working a form of holy worship. All members of the Guild were Catholics and most, including Gill, were also members of the Third Order of St. Dominic, a lay division of the Dominican Order. Lay members were not expected to follow the Dominicans daily Liturgy of the Hours, a schedule of prayers from the Angelus at 6am to Compline at 9pm, but the group at Ditchlıng, unusually, did so. A chapel, designed by Gill, was built in the centre of the Guild's workshops and a wooden cross, wıth a Christ figure carved by Gill, was erected on a nearby hill. Gill had also taken to wearing a habıt, often with a symbolic cord of chastity added. In his family home, Gill determined that the household was to be free of modern appliances, with no bathroom, water drawn by a pump and cooking done on a log fire. One guest who brought a typewriter into the house was scolded for doing so. The children did not attend school.


title: Eric Gill

text: Alongside the Guild, Pepler set up the St Dominic's Press with a 100-year old Stanhope press that he bought. The Press printed books and pamphlets promoting the ideals of the Guilds' traditional craft techniques and also provided an outlet for Gill's engravings and woodcut illustrations. Gill and Pepler together produced issues of "The Game", a small journal, mostly illustrated by Gill and containing articles on craft and social matters. The views promoted by Gill and Pepler in "The Game" and their other publications were often deliberately provocative, anti-capitalist and opposed to industrialisation.


title: Eric Gill

text: Along with his Guild work and illustrations, Gill designed several war memorials in this period. These included the memorials at Trumpington in Cambridgeshire, at Chirk in north Wales, at Ditchling and the wall panel recording 228 names of the fallen in the ante-chapel at New College, Oxford. Gill also created the memorial at Briantspuddle in Dorset and, with Chute and Hilary Stratton, the monument at South Harting. Beside the main entrance to the British Museum, Gill designed and carved, with Joseph Cribb, the memorial inscription to the museum staff killed in the conflict and for the Victoria and Albert Museum, again with Cribb, he created the war memorial in that museum's entrance hall. Previously, in 1911, Gill had cut the inscription for the foundation stone of the British Museum's new King Edward VII building. Gill's other significant work from this period was the Stations of the Cross that he carved, with Chute, for the Church of St Cuthbert in the Manningham area of Bradford.


title: Eric Gill

text: Commissioned to produce a war memorial for the University of Leeds, Gill produced a frieze depicting the Cleansing of the Temple but showing contemporary merchants as the money-changers Jesus was driving from the Temple. While fully aware that this was an inappropriate subject for a war memorial and one likely to cause great offence in a commercial centre such as Leeds, Gill persisted with the design regardless. The cartoon-like nature of the finished frieze, which included the Hound of St Dominic knocking over a cash till, only added to the ferocity of the resulting uproar.


title: Eric Gill

text: Even before the Leeds memorial controversy, Gill's series of illustrations that included the "Nuptials of God", "The Convert" and "Divine Lovers" and his views on the sexual nature of Christianity were causing alarm within the Roman Catholic hierarchy and distancing Gill from other members of the Ditchling community. The series of life-drawings and prints of his daughters, including "Girl in Bath" and "Hair Combing" done at Ditchling, were considered among Gill's finest works. The sexual abuse Gill was perpetrating on his two eldest daughters during the same period only became known after his death.


title: Eric Gill

text: A number of professional craft workers joined the community, such that by the early 1920s the community had grown to 41 people, occupying several houses in the 20 acres surrounding the Guild's chapel and workshops. Notable visitors to the Common included G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc, whose Distributist ideas the Guild followed. Some young men who had been in combat in World War I came to stay for longer periods. These included Denis Tegetmeier, Reginald Lawson and the artist and poet David Jones, who was to become engaged for a time to Gill's second daughter, Petra.


title: Eric Gill

text: However, Gill became disillusioned with the direction of the Guild and fell out badly with his close friend Pepler, partly over the latter's wish to expand the community and form closer ties with Ditchling village and also because Gill's daughter, Betty, wanted to marry Pepler's son, David. Gill resigned from the Guild in July 1924 and, after considering a number of other locations in Britain and Ireland, moved his family to a deserted monastery in the Black Mountains of Wales.


title: Eric Gill

text: In August 1924, the Gills left Ditchling and, with two other families, moved to a disused monastery, Llanthony Abbey, at Capel-y-ffin in the Black Mountains of Wales. The dilapidated building was high in an isolated valley about fourteen miles from Abergavenny. Finding the monastery chapel beyond repair, a new one was quickly built and a Benedictine monk from Caldey Abbey was assigned to the group to hold a daily Mass. Donald Attwater arrived at Capel-y-ffin shortly before the Gills, David Jones and René Hague, Joan Gill's future husband, all joined shortly after. Joseph Cribb did not make the move to Wales but his younger brother, Lawrence Cribb (1898–1979), did and eventually became Gill's main assistant.


title: Eric Gill

text: Within a few weeks of arriving at Capel-y-ffin, Gill completed "Deposition", a black marble torso of Christ, and made "The Sleeping Christ", a stone head now in Manchester City Art Gallery. In 1926 he completed a sculpture of "Tobias and Sara" for the library of St John's College, Oxford. A war memorial altarpiece in oak relief for Rossall School was completed in 1927.


title: Eric Gill

text: When approached, in 1924, by Robert Gibbings to produce designs for the Golden Cockerel Press which he and his wife, Moira, had recently acquired, Gill initially refused to work with the couple as they were not Catholics. Gill changed his mind when they sought to publish a volume of poems by his sister Enid. The relationship between Gill and the Gibbingses grew such that throughout the following ten years Gill became the chief engraver and illustrator for the Golden Cockerel Press. Several of the resulting books, including "The Song of Songs" (1925), "Troilus and Criseyde" (1927), "The Canterbury Tales" (1928), and "The Four Gospels" (1931) are considered classics of specialist book production. Gill created striking designs that unified and integrated illustrations into the text and also created a new typeface for the Press. The erotic nature of "The Song of Songs" and of the illustrations for Edward Powys Mathers's "Procreant Hymn" caused considerable controversy in Roman Catholic circles and led to protracted arguments between Gill and members of the clergy. The Golden Cockerel printed four of Gill's own books and he illustrated a further thirteen works for the press. In addition, between 1924 and his death, Gill wrote 38 books and illustrated a further 28.


title: Eric Gill

text: The other key working relationship Gill established while at Capel-y-ffin was with Stanley Morison, the Typographic Advisor to the Monotype Corporation. Morison persuaded Gill to apply the skills and knowledge he had gained in letter cutting to fonts suitable for mechanical reproduction. It was at Capel that Gill designed the typefaces Perpetua (1925), Gill Sans (1927 onwards) and began work on Solus (1929). Gill Sans is considered one of the most successful type-faces ever designed and remains in wide spread use.


title: Eric Gill

text: While living at Capel-y-ffin, Gill spent many weekends at Robert and Moira Gibbings home ın Waltham St Lawrence, enjoying the couple's unconventional and hedonistic lifestyle. He was also spending sizable amounts of time in Bristol with a group of young intellectuals centred around Douglas Cleverdon, a bookseller who published and distributed some of Gill's writings. From 1925 onwards, Gills' secretary, and mistress, was Elizabeth Bill. Bill owned a villa set in several acres in the French Pyrenees at Salies-de-Béarn and which the Gills often visited. The Gill family spent the winter of 1926–27 there, and which was where Gill did many of the engravings for "Troilus and Criseyde". For the last months of 1927 he worked in a studio in London at Glebe Place in Chelsea creating the sculpture originally known as "Humanity" and now called "Mankind". The work, a giant torso, was modelled by Angela Gill and shown at the Goupil Gallery in London, to considerable acclaim, before being purchased by the artist Eric Kennington. Some years later, Kennington offered the work to Whipsnade Zoo. The zoo refused the offer, and the work is now in the Tate collection but displayed at the Victoria and Albert Museum.


title: Eric Gill

text: It had been too impractical to transport the stone for "Mankind" to Capel-y-ffin and it was clear that the site had become too remote and isolated for Gill's increasing commercial workload and by May 1928 he was seeking a new home for his family and workshops.


title: Eric Gill

text: In October 1928, the Gill family moved to Pigotts at Speen, five miles from High Wycombe in Buckinghamshire. Around a quadrangle with a central pigsty were a large farmhouse housing Eric and Mary Gill, a cottage for Petra and her husband Denis Tegetmeier and another for Joanna and René Hague. Stables and barns were converted to studios and workshops and to house printing presses. A chapel was fitted into one corner and licensed within six months for the saying of Mass.


title: Eric Gill

text: The success of his 1928 exhibition at the Goupil Gallery had raised Gill's profile considerably and led to Charles Holden commissioning him to lead a team of five sculptors, including Henry Moore, in creating some of the external sculptures for the new headquarters building of the London Electric Railway, the forerunner of London Underground. Gill started on the project within days of arriving at Pigotts and worked on site in London from November 1928 to carve three of eight relief sculptures on the theme of "The Four Winds" for the building.


title: Eric Gill

text: "Art-Nonsense And Other Essays by Eric Gill" was published in 1929 and marked the first commercial use of the "Perpetua" typeface. The frontispiece of the book had an engraving of "Belle Sauvage", an image of a naked women stepping out of some woods. The various versions of "Belle Sauvage" became among the most popular of Gill's illustrations and were modelled by Beatrice Warde, a historian of typography, an executive of the Monotype Corporation and sometimes Gill's lover. By 1930 Gladys Gill had divorced her second husband after her first, Ernest Laughton, had being killed in the Battle of the Somme, and she and Eric appear, from his diary entries, to have resumed their incestuous relationship. Later that same year the diaries record what Gill called his 'experiments' with a dog. In September 1930 he was taken seriously ill with a variety of symptoms, including amnesia, and spent several weeks in hospital.


title: Eric Gill

text: The following two years were among the most creatively accomplished of Gill's career, with several notable achievements. The Hague and Gill press was established at Pigotts in 1931 and eventually printed 16 of Gill's own books and booklets while he also illustrated six other books for the company. For the Hague and Gill press he created the "Joanna" typeface, which was eventually adapted for commercial use by Monotype. He completed "The Four Gospels", widely considered to be the finest of all the books produced by the Golden Cockerel Press, and began working on the sculpture "Prospero and Ariel" for the BBC's Broadcasting House in London. Throughout 1931 and into 1932, Gill worked on "Prospero and Ariel", and four other works for the BBC, on site in central London. Carving in the open air up on scaffolding in the middle of London further increased Gill's public profile. Although Gill had accepted the BBC's choice of subject matter when he took the commission he didn't see its relevance and frequently claimed that the figures he created represented God the Father and God the Son, the latter complete with the marks of the stigmata.


title: Eric Gill

text: The Midland Hotel, Morecambe was built in 1932–33 by the London Midland & Scottish Railway to the Art Deco design of Oliver Hill and included several works by Gill, Marion Dorn, and Eric Ravilious. For the project Gill, with Lawrence Cribb and Donald Potter, produced two seahorses, modelled as Morecambe shrimps, for the outside entrance; a round plaster relief on the ceiling of the circular staircase inside the hotel; a decorative wall map of the north-west of England; and a large stone relief of Odysseus being welcomed from the sea by Nausicaa for the entrance lounge. While working in Morecambe, Gill met May Reeves, who became a regular visitor to Pigotts before moving there to run a small school and becoming Gill's resident mistress for several years.


title: Eric Gill

text: In 1934 Gill, with Lawrence Cribb, visited Jerusalem to work at the Palestine Archaeological Museum, now the Rockefeller Archaeological Museum. There they carved a stone bas-relief of the meeting of Asia and Africa above the front entrance, together with ten stone reliefs illustrating different cultures, and a gargoyle fountain in the inner courtyard. He also carved stone signage throughout the museum in English, Hebrew and Arabic.


title: Eric Gill

text: Gill's two visits to Jerusalem had a profound impact on his state of mind. He became increasingly unhappy with the impact of humanity upon the world and also become convinced of his own role as one chosen by God to change society. Returning to England, Gill's mood of pessimism deepened with the death of his son-in-law, David Pepler, and he became increasingly antagonistic towards the Church and towards other artists. Paradoxically, alongside this despondent world view Gill dropped his long-standing opposition to the use of modern home comforts and appliances. A bathroom was installed at Pigotts, a chauffeur and a gardener were appointed and his secretaries were allowed to use typewriters. Religious observance was no longer expected of the workshop staff and among the additional apprentices and assistants Gill employed were a number of non-Catholics, including Walter Ritchie. Prudence Pelham, the daughter of the Earl of Chichester, became Gill's only female apprentice. During his career, Gill employed at least twenty-seven apprentices including his nephew John Skelton, Hilary Stratton, Desmond Chute, David Kindersley and Donald Potter.


title: Eric Gill

text: Gill's 1935 essay "All Art is Propaganda" marked a complete reversal of his previous belief that artists should not concern themselves with political activity. He became a supporter of social credit and later moved towards a socialist position. In 1934, Gill contributed art to an exhibition mounted by the left-wing Artists' International Association, and defended the exhibition against accusations in "The Catholic Herald" that its art was "anti-Christian". Gill became a regular speaker at left-wing meetings and rallies throughout the second half of the 1930s. He was adamantly opposed to fascism, and was one of the few Catholics in Britain to openly support the Spanish Republicans. Gill became a pacifist and helped set up the Catholic peace organisation Pax with E. I. Watkin and Donald Attwater. Later, Gill joined the Peace Pledge Union and supported the British branch of the Fellowship of Reconciliation.


title: Eric Gill

text: Gill was commissioned to produce a sequence of seven bas-relief panels for the façade of The People's Palace, now the Great Hall of Queen Mary University of London, which opened in 1936. In 1937, he designed the background of the first George VI definitive stamp series for the post office. In 1938 Gill was commissioned to create a mammoth artwork for the Palace of Nations building in Geneva, as the British Government's gift to the League of Nations. Gill's original proposal was to create a larger, international, version of the "Moneychangers" frieze that had caused such outrage in Leeds years earlier, but after objections from delegates to the League, submitted an alternative scheme. "The Creation of Man" flanked by "Man's Gifts to God" and "God's Gifts to Man" are three marble bas-reliefs in seventeen sections and constitute the largest single work Gill created during his career but are not considered among his finest works.


title: Eric Gill

text: In 1935, Gill was elected an Honorary Associate of the Institute of British Architects and in 1937 was made a Royal Designer for Industry, the highest British award for designers, by the Royal Society of Arts, and became a founder-member of the RSA's Faculty of Royal Designers for Industry when it was established in 1938. In April 1937, Gill was elected an associate member of the Royal Academy. Quite why Gill was offered, let alone accepted, these honours from institutions he had openly reviled throughout his career is unclear.


title: Eric Gill

text: During 1938 and 1939 Gill designed his only complete piece of architecture, the Roman Catholic Church of St Peter the Apostle at Gorleston-on-Sea. He designed the building around a central altar which, at the time, was considered a radical departure from the Catholic practice of the altar being at the east end of a church.


title: Eric Gill

text: Gill's final publications included "Twenty-Five Nudes" and "Drawings from Life" both of which included drawings of Daisy Hawkins, the teenage daughter of the Gills' housekeeper who Gill began an affair with in 1937. The affair lasted two years during which time Gill drew her on an almost daily basis. When Hawkins was sent away from Pigotts, to the boarding house at Capel-y-ffin run by Betty Gill, Eric Gill followed her there to continue the relationship.


title: Eric Gill

text: Among Gill's last sculptures were a series of commissions for Guildford Cathedral. He spent time between October and December 1939 working at Guildford, on scaffolding carving the figure of St. John the Baptist. He also worked on a set of panels depicting the stations of the cross for the Anglican St Alban's Church in Oxford, finishing the drawings three weeks before he died and completing nine of the pieces himself. For the Chapel of Saint George and the English Martyrs, in Westminster Cathedral, Gill designed a low relief sculpture to occupy the wall behind the altar. Gill's design showed a life-sized figure of Christ the Priest on the cross attended by Sir Thomas More and John Fisher. Gill died before the work was completed and Lawrence Cribb was tasked with finishing the piece by the Cathedral authorities who insisted he remove an element of Gill's original design, a figure of a pet monkey. When the chapel was eventually opened to the public this censorship of Gills' last work was a matter of some considerable controversy.


title: Eric Gill

text: From the end of 1939 into the middle of 1940, Gill had a series of illnesses, including rubella, but managed to write his autobiography that summer. Gill died of lung cancer in Harefield Hospital in Middlesex on the morning of Sunday 17 November 1940 and, after a funeral mass at the Pigotts chapel, was buried in Speen's Baptist churchyard.


title: Eric Gill

text: After Gill died an inventory of over 750 of his carved inscriptions was compiled, in addition to the over 100 stone sculptures and reliefs, 1000 engravings, the several typeface designs he created and his 300 printed works including books, articles and pamphlets.


title: Eric Gill

text: Gill's personal diaries reveal his child sex abuse of his two eldest teenage daughters during their time at Ditchling Common, incestuous relationships with his sisters, and, in 1930, sexual acts on his dog. This aspect of Gill's life was little known beyond his family and friends until the publication of the 1989 biography by Fiona MacCarthy. A 1966 biography by Robert Speaight mentioned none of it. Gill's daughter Petra Tegetmeier, who was alive at the time of the MacCarthy biography, described her father as having "endless curiosity about sex" and that "we just took it for granted", and told her friend Patrick Nuttgens she was unembarrassed. The children were educated at home and, according to Tegetmeier, she was then unaware of how her father's behaviour would seem to others. Despite the acclaim the book received, and the widespread revulsion towards aspects of Gill's sexual life that followed publication, MacCarthy received some criticism for revealing Gill's incest in his daughter's lifetime. Others, notably Bernard Levin, thought she had been too indulgent towards Gill. MacCarthy commented:


title: Eric Gill

text: after the initial shock, [...] as Gill's history of adulteries, incest, and experimental connection with his dog became public knowledge in the late 1980s, the consequent reassessment of his life and art left his artistic reputation strengthened. Gill emerged as one of the twentieth century's strangest and most original controversialists, a sometimes infuriating, always arresting spokesman for man's continuing need of God in an increasingly materialistic civilization, and for intellectual vigour in an age of encroaching triviality.


title: Eric Gill

text: Despite MacCarthy's revelations, for several years Gill's reputation as an artist continued to grow but, following the exposure of other high-profile paedophiles, this changed with groups and individuals calling for the removal of works by Gill.


title: Eric Gill

text: In 1998, a group, Ministers and Clergy Sexual Abuse Survivors, called for the Gill's Stations of the Cross to be removed from Westminster Cathedral, leading to a debate within the British Catholic press. There were calls for Gill's statue of St Michael the Archangel to be removed from St Patrick's Catholic Church in Dumbarton. In 2016, some residents in Ditchling objected to a proposal to erect a plaque by the village war memorial which would have identified Gill as the maker of the monument.


title: Eric Gill

text: In January 2022, a man climbed the façade of Broadcasting House and damaged the statue of "Prospero and Ariel" with a hammer, while another man shouted about Gill's paedophilia. Nearly 2,500 people had previously signed a petition, on the website 38 Degrees, asking for the work to be removed. Guildford Cathedral announced in February 2022 that it was considering a 'new interpretation' concerning Gill's statues of Saint John the Baptist and of Christ on the Cross which are on their building. Several organisations, including Save the Children, resolved to stop using typefaces designed by Gill.


title: Eric Gill

text: When, in 2017, the journalist Rachel Cooke contacted museums holding Gill's work to question what, if any, impact the abuse revelations had on their policy towards showing material by him, the majority refused to engage with her. A notable exception was the Ditchling Museum of Art + Craft, which holds many examples of Gill's work and also Gill family objects. Previously, in October 2016, the museum had held a workshop, "Not Turning a Blind Eye", with artists, curators and journalists invited to discuss how to address Gill's behaviour in its exhibition programme. This resulted in a 2017 exhibition "Eric Gill: The Body" and a commitment by the museum to include at least one display highlighting Gill's offending in its permanent exhibitions.


title: Eric Gill

text: In 1909, Gill carved "Alphabets and Numerals" for a book, ""Manuscript and Inscription Letters for Schools and Classes and for the Use of Craftsmen"", compiled by Edward Johnston. He later gave them to the Victoria and Albert Museum so they could be used by students at the Royal College of Art. In 1914, Gill had met the typographer Stanley Morison, who was later to become a typographic consultant for the Monotype Corporation. Commissioned by Morison, he designed the Gill Sans typeface in 1927–30. Gill Sans was based on the sans-serif lettering originally designed for the London Underground. Gill had collaborated with Edward Johnston in the early design of the Underground typeface, but dropped out of the project before it was completed. In 1925, he designed the Perpetua typeface for Morison, with the uppercase based upon monumental Roman inscriptions. An in-situ example of Gill's design and personal cutting in the style of Perpetua can be found in the nave of the church in Poling, West Sussex, on a wall plaque commemorating the life of Sir Harry Johnston. In the period 1930–31, Gill designed the typeface Joanna which he used to hand-set his book, "An Essay on Typography".


title: Eric Gill

text: These dates are not precise, since a lengthy period could pass between Gill creating a design and it being finalised by the Monotype drawing office team (who would work out many details such as spacing) and cut into metal. In addition, some designs such as Joanna were released to fine printing use long before they became widely available from Monotype.


title: Eric Gill

text: One of the most widely used British typefaces, Gill Sans, was used in the classic design system of Penguin Books and by the London and North Eastern Railway and later British Railways, with many additional styles created by Monotype both during and after Gill's lifetime. In the 1990s, the BBC adopted Gill Sans for its wordmark and many of its on-screen television graphics.


title: Eric Gill

text: The family Gill Facia was created by Colin Banks as an emulation of Gill's stone carving designs, with separate styles for smaller and larger text.


title: Eric Gill

text: Gill was commissioned to develop a typeface with the number of allographs limited to what could be used on Monotype systems or Linotype machines. The typeface was loosely based on the Arabic Naskh style but was considered unacceptably far from the norms of Arabic script. It was rejected and never cut into type.


title: Eric Gill

text: Gill published numerous essays on the relationship between art and religion, and a number of erotic engravings.


title: Eric Gill

text: Gill's papers and library are archived at the William Andrews Clark Memorial Library at UCLA in California, designated by the Gill family as the repository for his manuscripts and correspondence. Some of the books in his collection have been digitised as part of the Internet Archive. Additional archival and book collections related to Gill and his work reside at the University of Waterloo Library and the University of Notre Dame's Hesburgh Library. Much of Gill's work and memorabilia is held and is on display at the Ditchling Museum of Art + Craft.


title: My Morning Jacket

text: My Morning Jacket is an American rock band formed in Louisville, Kentucky in 1998. The band consists of vocalist/guitarist Jim James, bassist Tom Blankenship, drummer Patrick Hallahan, guitarist Carl Broemel, and keyboardist Bo Koster. The band's sound, rooted in rock and country, is often experimental and psychedelic. The group amassed a following beginning in the 2000s in part due to their live performances.


title: My Morning Jacket

text: The group first found success in Europe after the release of its debut album, "The Tennessee Fire" (1999). Its next release, "At Dawn" (2001), led to a large stateside following and preceded several lineup changes. After signing to major label ATO Records, the group released two albums, "It Still Moves" (2003) and "Z" (2005), with the latter representing a critical breakthrough. The group's next release, "Evil Urges" (2008), was more polarizing for fans and critics, while "Circuital" (2011), its sixth album, saw a more measured response. The band's seventh album, "The Waterfall", was released in 2015, followed by "The Waterfall II" in 2020 and "My Morning Jacket" in 2021.


title: My Morning Jacket

text: My Morning Jacket was formed in Louisville, Kentucky in 1998 by singer-songwriter Jim James. James created the group as an outlet for acoustic songs he had developed on his own that his band at the time, Month of Sundays, could not use. The group's first lineup included his cousin, Johnny Quaid (guitar), Tom Blankenship (bass), and J. Glenn on drums, all formerly of Shelbyville-based emo-punk band Winter Death Club. The band's name stems from James, who once found a discarded coat with the emblazoned letters MMJ.


title: My Morning Jacket

text: The band's debut album, "The Tennessee Fire", was released in May 1999. It was mildly successful in the U.S., though it became a surprise hit internationally, particularly in the Netherlands and Belgium. Soon, the group launched a European tour, where it received high marks from Dutch and Belgian press; the group also appeared in the Dutch documentary, "This is NOT America". Danny Cash joined the band as keyboardist in 2000.


title: My Morning Jacket

text: The band's second effort, "At Dawn" (2001), helped grow the group's fanbase in its home country. For the album, James recorded his vocals in a grain silo, creating a sound heavy on echo that became a hallmark of the band's early releases. Subsequently, drummer J. Glenn left the band, and was briefly replaced by Chris Guetig. Patrick Hallahan, James' childhood best friend, replaced Guetig. In the early 2000s, the band toured heavily, often supporting bands such as Guided by Voices, Doves, and Foo Fighters. The group signed to independent label ATO Records in 2002 ahead of its third album, "It Still Moves", which saw release in September 2003 to wide acclaim. In January 2004, Cash and Quaid announced their departure from the group; they were replaced by keyboardist Bo Koster and guitarist Carl Broemel.


title: My Morning Jacket

text: "Z", released in 2005, became the group's breakthrough album. It received positive critical reviews; in his review for "Rolling Stone", critic David Fricke wrote, "America is a lot closer to getting its own Radiohead, and it isn't Wilco". The album was noticeable for a break from James' heavily reverbed vocals, and featured experimentation with dub, reggae and psychedelic rock. "Okonokos", a live album captured while the band toured "Z", was released in 2006.


title: My Morning Jacket

text: The band's next release, "Evil Urges", marked a considerable shift in their sound, and it received polarizing reactions from fans and critics. Many songs on the album developed on 90-minute walks James would embark on in Louisville. Its lyrics centered on a relationship that fell apart shortly before recording. To promote the album, the band appeared on "Saturday Night Live". The band toured in support of the record that summer, which included a storied appearance at Bonnaroo Music Festival in Manchester, Tennessee. The band, beginning at midnight, performed for four hours in the rain. Unfazed by a torrential downpour for much of its first half, the band's set went on to feature thirty-five songs, including all but two tracks from "Evil Urges" and numerous covers, and featured a guest appearance from Kirk Hammett of Metallica. The set has commonly been regarded among the band's personal best and one of the best in the history of the festival. "Rolling Stone" called it "career-defining." "Evil Urges" was nominated for a Grammy for Best Alternative Rock Album. My Morning Jacket performed before a sold-out crowd at Madison Square Garden in New York. The band members appeared as themselves in the "American Dad!" episode, "My Morning Straitjacket", which aired on November 22, 2009.


title: My Morning Jacket

text: In 2010, My Morning Jacket took up residency at New York's Terminal 5 on October 18, 19, 21, 22 and 23, performing one of its five studio releases each night along with additional material from the relevant period. According to the September 16, 2010 issue of "Rolling Stone", My Morning Jacket started working on its next LP. "We've got five songs done," says front man Jim James. "It'll probably be out next spring." James co-produced the record with The Decemberists collaborator Tucker Martine in an old church in My Morning Jacket's hometown of Louisville, Kentucky. "We're trying to do everything but the strings live," said James. "There's something old and dirty-sounding about it." The band's sixth album "Circuital" was released on May 31, 2011. The band toured for two years in support of "Circuital". In 2013, it embarked on a tour alongside Wilco and Bob Dylan that left band members disappointed, as they had falsely been told Dylan desired to work with them.


title: My Morning Jacket

text: While the band took a break, James stayed busy, touring behind his solo album, "Regions of Light and Sound of God", and collaborating with Elvis Costello and Marcus Mumford for the New Basement Tapes project. These individual side projects, rather than detach the musicians, worked to strengthen band members' skill as musicians, according to Blankenship. This led to a greater appreciation of the group upon their return to it. The band's next album, "The Waterfall", was mainly recorded at a hilltop mansion above Stinson Beach in Marin County, California. The band felt the surroundings were "slightly supernatural," which produced a largely idyllic recording process. "The Waterfall" was released in May 2015, debuting number 11 on the "Billboard" 200 in the U.S., with 33,000 copies sold in its first week. In December 2015, "The Waterfall" was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album.


title: My Morning Jacket

text: The sessions for "The Waterfall" were fruitful, producing over 24 completed songs, enough to fill two albums. MMJ took most of 2018 and the early part of 2019 off from touring, but regrouped for select shows in August 2019. James described the shows as among his favorite recent MMJ performances and says the group worked through some of their personal issues in advance of the shows. The members of My Morning Jacket admitted that they were not sure if they were ever going to reunite for a period of time during their extended break.


title: My Morning Jacket

text: "The Waterfall II" was released on July 10, 2020. The band contributed a cover of the Metallica song "Nothing Else Matters" to the charity tribute album "The Metallica Blacklist," released in September 2021. The band's ninth studio album, the self-titled "My Morning Jacket", was released on October 22, 2021. Its first single, "Regularly Scheduled Programming", debuted on August 24 along with an accompanying music video.


title: Gremlins: Secrets of the Mogwai

text: Gremlins: Secrets of the Mogwai is an upcoming American computer-animated fantasy comedy streaming television series which is scheduled for release on HBO Max in the United States. The series is consisting of 10 episodes and intended to be a prequel to the 1984 film "Gremlins" and its 1990 sequel "". Set in 1920s Shanghai, East China, "Secrets of the Mogwai" tells the story of how 10-year-old Sam Wing met Gizmo, a young Mogwai. It was written and executive produced by Tze Chun. Darryl Frank, Justin Falvey, Sam Register, and Brendan Hay also serve as executive producers. In February 2021, ahead of the series premiere, the series was renewed for a second season.


title: Gremlins: Secrets of the Mogwai

text: The first episode had its world premiere at the Annecy International Animation Film Festival on June 13, 2022. The series was going to air on HBO Max in 2022, but was delayed to 2023. The series is also airing on Cartoon Network as part of their "ACME Night" block.


title: Gremlins: Secrets of the Mogwai

text: The series will focus on how 10-year-old Sam Wing met the young Mogwai called Gizmo. Along with a teenage street thief named Elle, Sam and Gizmo take a perilous journey through the Chinese countryside, encountering, and sometimes battling, colorful monsters and spirits from Chinese folklore. On their quest to return Gizmo to his family and uncover a legendary treasure, they are pursued by a power-hungry industrialist and his growing army of evil Gremlins.


title: Gremlins: Secrets of the Mogwai

text: On February 25, 2019, WarnerMedia greenlighted an animated series based on "Gremlins", for its streaming service HBO Max. Tze Chun was confirmed to write the series and serve as an executive producer with Darryl Frank, Justin Falvey, Sam Register, and Brendan Hay. On July 1, 2019, the series, now titled "Gremlins: Secrets of the Mogwai", was given a series order of 10 episodes.


title: Gremlins: Secrets of the Mogwai

text: In February 2020, Joe Dante, director of the original two films, revealed that he was acting as a consultant for the series. In July of that same year, it was revealed that Howie Mandel will not reprise his role as Gizmo for the series. On February 17, 2021, ahead of the series premiere, HBO Max renewed the series for a second season at the TCA virtual Press Tour.


title: Gremlins: Secrets of the Mogwai

text: In February 2021, the voice cast of Izaac Wang, Ming-Na Wen, B. D. Wong, James Hong, Matthew Rhys, and Gabrielle Green was announced, with A. J. Locascio voicing Gizmo. In December 2021, the first clip was shown in a HBO Max trailer for 2022 releases. In July 2022, Zach Galligan, Sandra Oh, Randall Park, George Takei, and Bowen Yang were revealed to have reoccurring roles in the series.


title: Gremlins: Secrets of the Mogwai

text: In March 2022, it was announced the series would premiere its first episode at the Annecy International Animation Film Festival on June 13, 2022. In September 2021, it was announced the series would air on Cartoon Network as part of their "ACME Night" block. On May 16, 2022, Warner Bros. Animation revealed a first look of the main characters for the series.


title: Entering heaven alive

text: Entering heaven alive (called by various religions "ascension", "assumption", or "translation") is a belief held in various religions. Since death is the normal end to an individual's life on Earth and the beginning of afterlife, entering heaven without dying first is considered exceptional and usually a sign of a deity's special recognition of the individual's piety.


title: Entering heaven alive

text: In the Hebrew Bible, there are two exceptions to the general rule that humans could not go to heaven – Enoch and Elijah – but neither is clear. mentions Enoch as one who "walked faithfully with God; then he was no more, because God took him away", but it does not explicitly say whether he was alive or dead, and it does not say where God took him. The Books of Kings describes the prophet Elijah being taken towards in a whirlwind, but the word can mean either heaven as the abode of God, or the sky (as the word "heavens" does in modern English), and so again the text is ambiguous.


title: Entering heaven alive

text: According to the post-biblical Midrash, eight people went to (or will go to) heaven (also referred to as the Garden of Eden and paradise) alive:


title: Entering heaven alive

text: The Christian Old Testament, which is based primarily upon the Hebrew Bible, follows the Jewish narrative and mentions that Enoch was "taken" by God, and that Elijah was bodily assumed into Heaven on a chariot of fire.


title: Entering heaven alive

text: Jesus is considered by the vast majority of Christians to have died before being resurrected and ascending to heaven. Most Christians believe Jesus did initially die, but was then resurrected from the dead by God, before being raised bodily to heaven to sit at the Right Hand of God with a promise to someday return to Earth. The minority views that Jesus did not die are known as the swoon hypothesis and Docetism. Mary, the mother of Jesus is considered in Eastern Orthodoxy to have died prior to being assumed (translated) into heaven. In like manner, Roman Catholicism affirms that Mary, the mother of Jesus, suffered death prior to her assumption which has been "expressly affirmed in the Liturgy of the Church" and is expressly seen in paragraph 20 of the proclamation of this teaching. Protestants generally believe that Mary died a natural death like any other human being and subsequently entered heaven in the usual manner, though certain adherents belonging to the Evangelical Catholic tradition of Lutheranism and the Anglo-Catholic tradition of Anglicanism affirm the Assumption of Mary, while others in these traditions reject the Assumption of Mary.


title: Entering heaven alive

text: Since the adoption of the Nicene Creed in 325, the ascension of Jesus into heaven, as related in the New Testament, has been officially taught by all orthodox Christian churches and is celebrated on Ascension Thursday. In the Roman Catholic Church, the ascension of the Lord is a Holy Day of Obligation. In the Eastern Orthodox Church the ascension is one of twelve Great Feasts.


title: Entering heaven alive

text: In the Reformed Churches, which teach Calvinist theology, belief in the ascension of Christ is included in the Westminster Confession of Faith, the Heidelberg Catechism and the Second Helvetic Confession.


title: Entering heaven alive

text: The premillennial dispensationalist belief in a "rapture"—a belief rejected by Catholics, Eastern Orthodox and Lutherans—is drawn from a reference to "being caught up" as found in 1 Thessalonians 4:17, when the "dead in Christ" and "we who are alive and remain" will be caught up in the clouds to meet the Lord, though Christians differ on interpretation.


title: Entering heaven alive

text: Sacred Scripture teaches that Enoch and Elijah were assumed into heaven while still alive and not experiencing physical death. There is also an unconfirmed pious belief that Moses was assumed bodily into Heaven after his death; this is based on the Epistle of Saint Jude, where Saint Michael the Archangel contends with Satan over the body of Moses.


title: Entering heaven alive

text: The Catholic Church distinguishes between the ascension of Jesus in which he rose to heaven by his own power, and the assumption of Mary, the mother of Jesus, who was raised to heaven by God's power, or the assumption of other saints.


title: Entering heaven alive

text: On November 1, 1950, Pope Pius XII, acting "ex cathedra", issued "Munificentissimus Deus", an authoritative statement of official dogma of Roman Catholicism. In Section 44 the pope stated:


title: Entering heaven alive

text: The doctrine is based on sacred tradition that Mary was bodily assumed into heaven. For centuries before that, the assumption was celebrated in art and in the Church's liturgy. The proclamation's wording does not state if Mary suffered bodily death before being assumed into heaven; this is left open to individual belief. Some theologians have argued that Mary did not die, while others maintain that she experienced death not due to original sin, but to share in her son's own death and resurrection.


title: Entering heaven alive

text: When the tomb of John the Evangelist (located in the Basilica of St. John, Ephesus) during Constantine the Great's reign supposedly yielded no bones, this gave rise to the belief that his body was assumed into heaven (other accounts say that only manna or the saint's sandals was found in the tomb). Augustine of Hippo spoke against the tradition in his "Treatises on the Gospel of John" (AD 406–420), and Dante attempted to refute the belief in his "Paradiso".


title: Entering heaven alive

text: Altogether, the Catholic Church has taught by the universal and ordinary magisterium that Saints Enoch and Elijah were assumed into Heaven, and it teaches dogmatically and therefore infallibly that Mary was assumed into Heaven; that it is acceptable as a pious belief that Saint Joseph was assumed into Heaven; and that it is a pious belief that Moses (after his death) and Saint John the Apostle were assumed into Heaven (though the assumption of Saint John has generally been considered much weaker and less probable).


title: Entering heaven alive

text: The Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that three other persons were taken bodily into heaven: Enoch, Elijah (Elias) and the Theotokos (Virgin Mary). Similar to the Western "Assumption" of Mary, the Orthodox celebrate the Dormition of the Mother of God on August 15. The Orthodox teach that Mary died a natural death like any other human being, that she was buried by the Apostles (except for Thomas, who was late), and three days later (after Thomas had arrived) was found to be missing from her tomb. The church teaches that the Apostles received a revelation during which the Theotokos appeared to them and told them she had been resurrected by Jesus and taken body and soul into heaven. The Orthodox teach that Mary already enjoys the fullness of heavenly bliss that the other saints will experience only after the Last Judgment.


title: Entering heaven alive

text: In Mandaeism, the "Left Ginza" mentions that Shitil (Seth), the son of Adam, was taken alive to the World of Light without a masiqta (death mass).


title: Entering heaven alive

text: It is believed in Zoroastrianism that the Peshotanu was taken up into heaven alive and will someday return as the Zoroastrian messiah.


title: Entering heaven alive

text: The Qur'an, central religious text of Islam, teaches that Muhammad was transported from the Great Mosque of Mecca to the Al-Aqsa Mosque during the Night Journey. After leading prayers at the mosque, Muhammad ascended into heaven alive. In heaven, he individually greets previous prophets and later, speaks to Allah, who gives him instructions regarding the details of prayer. Muhammad's ascent into heaven was temporary, and he later came back to Earth. In the "hadith," later collections of the reports, teachings, deeds and sayings of Muhammad, the Al-Aqsa Mosque was understood as relating to Temple Mount in Jerusalem. The Al-Aqsa Mosque, derived from the name mentioned in the Qur'an, was built on the Temple Mount under the Umayyads several decades after Muhammad's death to commemorate the place from which Muslims believe he had ascended to heaven.


title: Entering heaven alive

text: Islamic texts deny the idea of crucifixion or death attributed to Jesus by the New Testament. The Quran states that people (i.e., the Jews and Romans) sought to kill Jesus, but they could not crucify or kill him, although "this was made to appear to them". Muslims believe that Jesus was not crucified but instead he was raised by God unto the heavens. This "raising" is often understood to mean through bodily ascension.


title: Entering heaven alive

text: Some Islamic scholars have identified the prophet Idris to be the same person as Enoch from the Bible. This is because the Quran states that God "raised him to a lofty station", and that has been taken to be a term for ascending, upon which it is concluded that "Idris" was "Enoch".


title: Entering heaven alive

text: Members of various Ascended Master Teachings, a group of New Age religions based on Theosophy, believe that Francis Bacon underwent a physical Ascension without experiencing death (he then became the deity St. Germain). They also believe numerous others have undergone Ascension; they are called the Ascended Masters and act as spirit guides to human souls on their spiritual path. The leaders of these religions claim to be able to receive channeled messages from the Ascended Masters, which they then relay to their followers.


title: Moonwalker

text: Moonwalker is a 1988 American experimental anthology musical film starring Michael Jackson. Rather than featuring one continuous narrative, the film expresses the influence of fandom and innocence through a collection of short films about Jackson, several of which are long-form music videos from Jackson's 1987 album "Bad". The film is named after the dance technique known as the moonwalk, which Jackson was known for performing.


title: Moonwalker

text: The film's segments are connected by an underlying but overall narrative meant to represent the different stages in Jackson's career and were based on his own view of how his fans idolized him rather than listening to the messages he wanted to say with his music.


title: Moonwalker

text: The first segment of Moonwalker is a live performance of "Man in the Mirror" during his Bad World Tour in Europe and America. Clips from Met Center in Minneapolis among others can be seen. It also features a montage of clips of children in Africa, Martin Luther King Jr., Mother Teresa, Mahatma Gandhi, Nelson Mandela, Jesus Christ, kids in graduation, and other historical figures.


title: Moonwalker

text: The second segment is a 10-minute biographical film about Jackson, covering the early years from The Jackson 5 until the Bad World Tour.


title: Moonwalker

text: The third segment is a parody of the music video for "Bad"s title song, featuring children filling the roles of various people from the original clip. The video stars Brandon Quintin Adams (who also appears in the Smooth Criminal segment later in the film) as the young Michael Jackson, who would later star in "The People Under the Stairs", "The Mighty Ducks" and "The Sandlot". It also featured three of Michael's nephews Jermaine La Jaune Jackson, Jr. along with TJ and Taryll Jackson and a young Nikki Cox, who later starred in "Unhappily Ever After" and "Las Vegas". The singing group The Boys appeared as background dancers.


title: Moonwalker

text: The fourth segment begins with the "Badder" short film transitioning into the second short film, "Speed Demon", produced by Claymation innovator Will Vinton. A portion of the clip is set to Jackson's song "Speed Demon". After filming "Badder", Little Michael and his bodyguards (also young kids) are leaving the set and walk through a cloud of smoke and come out as their regular adult age. As he exits the set, he is spotted by tourists and they suddenly begin to chase him for an autograph. In an attempt to avoid the overzealous fans and the interviewers (including camera-happy Japanese tourists accompanied by stereotyped "Oriental" music, the press, and even The Noid) plus some gunslingers (after stumbling upon the filming of a Western helmed by a director resembling Steven Spielberg), Jackson soon disguises himself as a rabbit named Spike, using a costume from one of the film sets (imbued with animatronic properties using Claymation, giving a similar combined-media effect as "Who Framed Roger Rabbit", but with more obvious bluescreening), but ends up taunting the fans into chasing him once they realize it is him. Michael steals a bicycle which then turns into a motorcycle once he hits the highway in order to flee, with the fans and paparazzi (now also appearing in Claymation form) giving chase in various other, more cartoonish vehicles. During the chase, he morphs into other celebrities, namely Sylvester Stallone, Tina Turner and Pee-wee Herman, with the bike also briefly morphing (into a jackhammer, stop sign, waterski, and jet pack) in repeatedly unsuccessful attempts to throw the fans off. After a long chase, the fans/press are finally thwarted by crashing into a giant (Claymation) cop and are arrested. Michael finally then manages to escape and rides off to a desert. He takes off his rabbit costume and it then suddenly comes to life and challenges him to an extended dance-off. In the end, a passing traffic cop interrupts Michael to point out he is in a "No Dancing Zone", and when Michael turns to show him that he was competing with the rabbit, he sees that the rabbit has disappeared. The cop then sarcastically asks for Michael's autograph (as opposed to "signature") on the ticket. Just as Michael is preparing to leave, the rabbit's head materializes on a nearby rocky crag, which then nods to him and smiles.


title: Moonwalker

text: The fifth segment of the film is a surreal animated music video for the song "Leave Me Alone", focusing on supermarket tabloid interest in Jackson's personal life. It compares Jackson's life to an amusement park, and how his fans just see him as such. It is meant to point out, in a mocking tone, the way the tabloids unnecessarily sensationalized his life with claims that he had a shrine to Elizabeth Taylor and bought the Elephant Man's bones. In the video, Jackson's life is portrayed as a circus due to the press's manipulation and the everyday tug-of-war he endured as an artist. His beloved then-pet chimp Bubbles makes a cameo appearance as Jackson is seen picking him up and riding with him in his roller coaster car. His pet snake, Muscles, is also present. The press is portrayed with dog heads to insinuate that they are like animals. The segment ends with Jackson destroying the park, and looking off into space.


title: Moonwalker

text: The segment begins with three homeless children (Sean, Katie, and Zeke) sneaking through a big city to see their friend Michael going out for the evening. As Michael stands in front of the door, he notices a falling star before he is ambushed by men with machine guns. The film then backtracks to show Michael and the children playing in a meadow in happier times. As they're playing, their dog Skipper runs away, and as Michael and Katie look for him they uncover the lair of Mr. Big, a drug-dealing mobster with an army of henchmen. He wants to get the entire population of Earth addicted to drugs, starting with children. As Mr. Big continues work on his operation, he discovers that Michael and Katie are spying on his operation. The story returns to the ambush in front of Michael's apartment. Unknown to the gangsters, Michael wished on the falling star and escaped the gunfire, leaving only his trench coat. Upon realizing he has escaped again, Mr. Big orders his henchmen to track down Michael with dogs. He is eventually cornered in an alley, where he wishes on another falling star and turns into a Lancia Stratos Zero sports car that mows down several of Mr. Big's henchmen. Michael is pursued through the city streets until he loses the henchmen. Meanwhile, the children scout out Club 30s, where Michael had told them to meet him, and find only an abandoned nightclub. As Michael arrives, Katie sees a silhouette of him turning back from a car into himself. The door of the club opens with a gust of wind, and Michael walks in to find it filled with men in suits and swing dancers. The children gather outside a window of the club and watch Michael dance to "Smooth Criminal." Mr. Big lays siege to the club and kidnaps Katie. Michael follows them back to Big's lair and ends up surrounded by his henchmen. Mr. Big appears and taunts Michael by threatening to inject Katie with highly addictive narcotics. While Katie manages to wriggle free, Mr. Big decides he's had enough and orders his men to kill Katie and finish off Michael, just as a falling star passes by. Michael transforms into a giant robot and kills all of Mr. Big's soldiers, then turns into a spaceship. Mr. Big gets into a large hillside-mounted energy cannon, firing on the spaceship knocking it into a nearby ravine. The children are his next target, but the spaceship returns from the ravine in time to fire a beam in the cannon with Mr. Big inside, destroying it and finishing the villain once and for all. The children watch the ship fly into the night sky with a shower of light.


title: Moonwalker

text: In the conclusion to "Smooth Criminal", Sean, Katie and Zeke return to the city, believing that Michael is gone forever. As the boys talk about Michael, Katie walks away crying and clutching a paper star. As she sits in a corner wishing for him to come back, the paper star flies out of her hand and Michael walks out of the night fog. He takes them back to "Club 30's", where they find that the club has turned into the backstage area of a concert. Michael's stage crew return the children's missing dog and then escort Michael onto the stage where he performs a cover of The Beatles song "Come Together" with the children watching and cheering him on from backstage.


title: Moonwalker

text: During the closing credits, two more segments are shown. The first has Ladysmith Black Mambazo performing "The Moon is Walking" in Club 30's amidst behind-the-scenes clips. The second is a selection of slowed-down and sped-up clips from the "Smooth Criminal" segment, which was also used as an alternate music video to the song.


title: Moonwalker

text: The release of "Moonwalker" was originally scheduled to coincide with Jackson's 1987 album, "Bad". During the theatrical release of "Moonwalker", Jackson was also embarking on the Bad World Tour, his first tour as a solo performer. The film was released theatrically in Europe and South America, but Warner Bros. canceled plans for a Christmas 1988 theatrical release in the United States. "Moonwalker" was instead released on home video in the United States and Canada on January 10, 1989, just as the Bad World Tour finished. (His tour was supposed to finish sooner, but had been postponed due to some vocal strain, so it went on until the last week of January 1989.) The video had sold more than 800,000 copies in the United States by April 17, 1989.


title: Moonwalker

text: The film received mixed reviews. Critics praised the music though complained that there was no plot and that it seemed like a series of music videos tied together. "Variety" reported that "Moonwalker" "seems unsure of what it was supposed to be. At the center of the pic is the "Smooth Criminal" segment, a musical/dramatic piece full of dancing, schmaltzy kids, sci-fi effects and blazing machine guns (directed by Academy Award winner Colin Chilvers, based on a story by Jackson). Around it are really just numerous Jackson music videos with little or no linkage. Although quite enjoyable the whole affair does not make for a structured or professional movie."


title: Moonwalker

text: In 1989, "Moonwalker" was honoured with a certification of 800,000 copies sold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).


title: Moonwalker

text: The "Leave Me Alone" video aired as a separate entity and won a Grammy in 1990 for Best Music Video, Short Form, which is the only Grammy Award Jackson received for the album "Bad". "Leave Me Alone" video also won the Cannes Gold Lion Award for Best Special Effects.


title: Moonwalker

text: Due to the large budget, the film had a limited theatrical release and was released in the United States on VHS and LaserDisc almost immediately afterwards. The vignettes featured in the movie also appear in a DVD box set of Michael Jackson music videos titled "Michael Jackson's Vision". The set only features the song and dance sequences from "Smooth Criminal", the title song, and the ending "Come Together" as opposed to the entire short film.


title: Moonwalker

text: "Moonwalker" was released on a region-free Blu-ray in the United Kingdom in June 2010 by Warner Bros. This Blu-ray version contained a new remastered transfer and a DTS-HD Master Audio soundtrack. The release has been censored, with the scenes of Mr. Big hitting Katie and threatening to inject her with heroin cut from the film. The Blu-ray was released in its original theatrical 16:9 aspect ratio, different from the previous 4:3 home releases.


title: Moonwalker

text: Because of specific music and film licensing, "Moonwalker" has yet to be officially released on DVD and/or Blu-ray in North America. However, imported region-free DVD copies of the film from Japan or China have surfaced throughout the web.


title: Moonwalker

text: "Moonwalker" was first adapted in game form to various home computers by British developer U.S. Gold. This top-down action game followed the segments of the film and bore little resemblance to the latter, more popular games developed by Sega with Michael Jackson's cooperation.


title: Moonwalker

text: "Moonwalker" was developed into an arcade video game by Sega with the help of Jackson, which was released on the Sega System 18 hardware. A distinct adaptation was also developed for Sega's Genesis/Mega Drive and Master System home video game systems. The console versions of the game were actually based on an evolved version of the side-scrolling Sega Mega Drive "Shinobi" series engine, while the arcade version was a three-quarters beat 'em up.


title: Moonwalker

text: Both the console and arcade versions are based on the "Smooth Criminal" segment of the film, following Michael in suit and fedora through stages based on his different music videos as he rescues children from the drug dealer Mr. Big. In the three-player simultaneous arcade game, contact with Bubbles, Michael's chimp, transformed him into a robot warrior, replacing Michael's "star magic" and melee dance attacks with missiles and laser beams. In the console versions on certain levels, rescuing a certain child first would trigger a comet to fall from the sky that could be grabbed transforming Michael into the robot (which could fly with a rocket pack as well as using lasers and a missile special attack). Michael automatically changes into a robot for the final showdown with Mr. Big's henchmen and finally into a space ship for the last battle, in a sort of flight-sim shooter in the Genesis/Mega Drive version. All incarnations of the game featured the ability of Michael to use some form of "Dance Magic" which would force his enemies to dance to the music of various tunes from "Bad" or "Thriller" and be destroyed as a result.


title: Moonwalker

text: In 1989, Blackthorne Publishing adapted the film into a comic book, "Moonwalker 3-D" (# 75 in "Blackthorne's 3-D Series"). This title, illustrated by Abel Laxamana was a major contributing factor in the demise of Blackthorne, since the publisher had to pay a large licensing fee for the property, and when the comic flopped, they experienced a large financial loss. Blackthorne ceased its operations in 1990.


title: Lighting

text: Lighting or illumination is the deliberate use of light to achieve practical or aesthetic effects. Lighting includes the use of both artificial light sources like lamps and light fixtures, as well as natural illumination by capturing daylight. Daylighting (using windows, skylights, or light shelves) is sometimes used as the main source of light during daytime in buildings. This can save energy in place of using artificial lighting, which represents a major component of energy consumption in buildings. Proper lighting can enhance task performance, improve the appearance of an area, or have positive psychological effects on occupants.


title: Lighting

text: Indoor lighting is usually accomplished using light fixtures, and is a key part of interior design. Lighting can also be an intrinsic component of landscape projects.


title: Lighting

text: With the discovery of fire, the earliest form of artificial lighting used to illuminate an area were campfires or torches. As early as 400,000 years ago, fire was kindled in the caves of Peking Man. Prehistoric people used primitive oil lamps to illuminate surroundings. These lamps were made from naturally occurring materials such as rocks, shells, horns and stones, were filled with grease, and had a fiber wick. Lamps typically used animal or vegetable fats as fuel. Hundreds of these lamps (hollow worked stones) have been found in the Lascaux caves in modern-day France, dating to about 15,000 years ago. Oily animals (birds and fish) were also used as lamps after being threaded with a wick. Fireflies have been used as lighting sources. Candles and glass and pottery lamps were also invented. Chandeliers were an early form of "light fixture".


title: Lighting

text: A major reduction in the cost of lighting occurred with the discovery of whale oil. The use of whale oil declined after Abraham Gesner, a Canadian geologist, first refined kerosene in the 1840s, allowing brighter light to be produced at substantially lower cost. In the 1850s, the price of whale oil dramatically increased (more than doubling from 1848 to 1856) due to shortages of available whales, hastening whale oil's decline. By 1860, there were 33 kerosene plants in the United States, and Americans spent more on gas and kerosene than on whale oil. The final death knell for whale oil was in 1859, when crude oil was discovered and the petroleum industry arose.


title: Lighting

text: Gas lighting was economical enough to power street lights in major cities starting in the early 1800s, and was also used in some commercial buildings and in the homes of wealthy people. The gas mantle boosted the luminosity of utility lighting and of kerosene lanterns. The next major drop in price came about in the 1880s with the introduction of electric lighting in the form of arc lights for large space and street lighting, followed by incandescent light bulb-based utilities for indoor and outdoor lighting.


title: Lighting

text: Over time, electric lighting became ubiquitous in developed countries. Segmented sleep patterns disappeared, improved nighttime lighting made more activities possible at night, and more street lights reduced urban crime.


title: Lighting

text: Lighting fixtures come in a wide variety of styles for various functions. The most important functions are as a holder for the light source, to provide directed light and to avoid visual glare. Some are very plain and functional, while some are pieces of art in themselves. Nearly any material can be used, so long as it can tolerate the excess heat and is in keeping with safety codes.


title: Lighting

text: An important property of light fixtures is the luminous efficacy or wall-plug efficiency, meaning the amount of usable light emanating from the fixture per used energy, usually measured in lumen per watt. A fixture using replaceable light sources can also have its efficiency quoted as the percentage of light passed from the "bulb" to the surroundings. The more transparent the lighting fixtures are, the higher efficacy. Shading the light will normally decrease efficacy but increase the directionality and the visual comfort probability.


title: Lighting

text: Color temperature for white light sources also affects their use for certain applications. The color temperature of a white light source is the temperature in kelvins of a theoretical black body emitter that most closely matches the spectral characteristics of the lamp. An incandescent bulb has a color temperature around 2800 to 3000 kelvins; daylight is around 6400 kelvins. Lower color temperature lamps have relatively more energy in the yellow and red part of the visible spectrum, while high color temperatures correspond to lamps with more of a blue-white appearance. For critical inspection or color matching tasks, or for retail displays of food and clothing, the color temperature of the lamps will be selected for the best overall lighting effect.


title: Lighting

text: Lighting is classified by intended use as general, accent, or task lighting, depending largely on the distribution of the light produced by the fixture.


title: Lighting

text: Forms of lighting include alcove lighting, which like most other uplighting is indirect. This is often done with fluorescent lighting (first available at the 1939 World's Fair) or rope light, occasionally with neon lighting, and recently with LED strip lighting. It is a form of backlighting.


title: Lighting

text: Soffit or close to wall lighting can be general or a decorative wall-wash, sometimes used to bring out texture (like stucco or plaster) on a wall, though this may also show its defects as well. The effect depends heavily on the exact type of lighting source used.


title: Lighting

text: Recessed lighting (often called "pot lights" in Canada, "can lights" or 'high hats" in the US) is popular, with fixtures mounted into the ceiling structure so as to appear flush with it. These downlights can use narrow beam spotlights, or wider-angle floodlights, both of which are bulbs having their own reflectors. There are also downlights with internal reflectors designed to accept common 'A' lamps (light bulbs) which are generally less costly than reflector lamps. Downlights can be incandescent, fluorescent, HID (high intensity discharge) or LED.


title: Lighting

text: Track lighting, invented by Lightolier, was popular at one period of time because it was much easier to install than recessed lighting, and individual fixtures are decorative and can be easily aimed at a wall. It has regained some popularity recently in low-voltage tracks, which often look nothing like their predecessors because they do not have the safety issues that line-voltage systems have, and are therefore less bulky and more ornamental in themselves. A master transformer feeds all of the fixtures on the track or rod with 12 or 24 volts, instead of each light fixture having its own line-to-low voltage transformer. There are traditional spots and floods, as well as other small hanging fixtures. A modified version of this is cable lighting, where lights are hung from or clipped to bare metal cables under tension.


title: Lighting

text: A sconce is a wall-mounted fixture, particularly one that shines up and sometimes down as well. A torchère is an uplight intended for ambient lighting. It is typically a floor lamp but may be wall-mounted like a sconce. Further interior light fixtures include chandeliers, pendant lights, ceiling fans with lights, close-to-ceiling or flush lights, and various types of lamps


title: Lighting

text: The portable or table lamp is probably the most common fixture, found in many homes and offices. The standard lamp and shade that sits on a table is general lighting, while the desk lamp is considered task lighting. Magnifier lamps are also task lighting.


title: Lighting

text: The illuminated ceiling was once popular in the 1960s and 1970s but fell out of favor after the 1980s. This uses diffuser panels hung like a suspended ceiling below fluorescent lights, and is considered general lighting. Other forms include neon, which is not usually intended to illuminate anything else, but to actually be an artwork in itself. This would probably fall under accent lighting, though in a dark nightclub it could be considered general lighting.


title: Lighting

text: In a movie theater, steps in the aisles are usually marked with a row of small lights for convenience and safety, when the film has started and the other lights are off. Traditionally made up of small low wattage, low-voltage lamps in a track or translucent tube, these are rapidly being replaced with LED based versions.


title: Lighting

text: Street Lights are used to light roadways and walkways at night. Some manufacturers are designing LED and photovoltaic luminaires to provide an energy-efficient alternative to traditional street light fixtures.


title: Lighting

text: Floodlights can be used to illuminate work zones or outdoor playing fields during nighttime hours. The most common type of floodlights are metal halide and high pressure sodium lights.


title: Lighting

text: Sometimes security lighting can be used along roadways in urban areas, or behind homes or commercial facilities. These are extremely bright lights used to deter crime. Security lights may include floodlights and be activated with PIR switches that detect moving heat sources in darkness.


title: Lighting

text: Entry lights can be used outside to illuminate and signal the entrance to a property. These lights are installed for safety, security, and for decoration.


title: Lighting

text: Vehicles typically include headlamps and tail lights. Headlamps are white or selective yellow lights placed in the front of the vehicle, designed to illuminate the upcoming road and to make the vehicle more visible. Many manufactures are turning to LED headlights as an energy-efficient alternative to traditional headlamps. Tail and brake lights are red and emit light to the rear so as to reveal the vehicle's direction of travel to following drivers. White rear-facing reversing lamps indicate that the vehicle's transmission has been placed in the reverse gear, warning anyone behind the vehicle that it is moving backwards, or about to do so. Flashing turn signals on the front, side, and rear of the vehicle indicate an intended change of position or direction. In the late 1950s, some automakers began to use electroluminescent technology to backlight their cars' speedometers and other gauges or to draw attention to logos or other decorative elements.


title: Lighting

text: Commonly called 'light bulbs', lamps are the removable and replaceable part of a light fixture, which converts electrical energy into electromagnetic radiation. While lamps have traditionally been rated and marketed primarily in terms of their power consumption, expressed in watts, proliferation of lighting technology beyond the incandescent light bulb has eliminated the correspondence of wattage to the amount of light produced. For example, a 60 W incandescent light bulb produces about the same amount of light as a 13 W compact fluorescent lamp. Each of these technologies has a different efficacy in converting electrical energy to visible light. Visible light output is typically measured in lumens. This unit only quantifies the visible radiation, and excludes invisible infrared and ultraviolet light. A wax candle produces on the close order of 13 lumens, a 60 watt incandescent lamp makes around 700 lumens, and a 15-watt compact fluorescent lamp produces about 800 lumens, but actual output varies by specific design. Rating and marketing emphasis is shifting away from wattage and towards lumen output, to give the purchaser a directly applicable basis upon which to select a lamp.


title: Lighting

text: Lighting design as it applies to the built environment is known as 'architectural lighting design'. Lighting of structures considers aesthetic elements as well as practical considerations of quantity of light required, occupants of the structure, energy efficiency, and cost. Artificial lighting takes into account the amount of daylight received in a space by using daylight factor calculations. For simple installations, hand calculations based on tabular data are used to provide an acceptable lighting design. More critical or complex designs now routinely use computer software such as Radiance for mathematical modeling, which can allow an architect to quickly evaluate the benefit of a proposed design.


title: Lighting

text: In some instances, the materials used on walls and furniture play a key role in the lighting effect. For example, dark paint tends to absorb light, making the room appear smaller and more dim than it is, whereas light paint does the opposite. Other reflective surfaces also have an effect on lighting design.


title: Lighting

text: Lighting illuminates the performers and artists in a live theatre, dance, or musical performance, and is selected and arranged to create dramatic effects. Stage lighting uses general illumination technology in devices configured for easy adjustment of their output characteristics. The setup of stage lighting is tailored for each scene of each production. Dimmers, colored filters, reflectors, lenses, motorized or manually aimed lamps, and different kinds of flood and spot lights are among the tools used by a stage lighting designer to produce the desired effects. A set of lighting cues are prepared so that the lighting operator can control the lights in step with the performance; complex theatre lighting systems use computer control of lighting instruments.


title: Lighting

text: Motion picture and television production use many of the same tools and methods of stage lighting. Especially in the early days of these industries, very high light levels were required and heat produced by lighting equipment presented substantial challenges. Modern cameras require less light, and modern light sources emit less heat.


title: Lighting

text: Measurement of light or photometry is generally concerned with the amount of useful light falling on a surface and the amount of light emerging from a lamp or other source, along with the colors that can be rendered by this light. The human eye responds differently to light from different parts of the visible spectrum, therefore photometric measurements must take the luminosity function into account when measuring the amount of useful light. The basic SI unit of measurement is the candela (cd), which describes the luminous intensity, all other photometric units are derived from the candela. Luminance for instance is a measure of the density of luminous intensity in a given direction. It describes the amount of light that passes through or is emitted from a particular area, and falls within a given solid angle. The SI unit for luminance is candela per square metre (cd/m). The CGS unit of luminance is the stilb, which is equal to one candela per square centimetre or 10 kcd/m. The amount of useful light emitted from a source or the luminous flux is measured in lumen (lm).


title: Lighting

text: The SI unit of illuminance and luminous emittance, being the luminous power per area, is measured in Lux. It is used in photometry as a measure of the intensity, as perceived by the human eye, of light that hits or passes through a surface. It is analogous to the radiometric unit watts per square metre, but with the power at each wavelength weighted according to the luminosity function, a standardized model of human visual brightness perception. In English, "lux" is used in both singular and plural.


title: Lighting

text: Visual comfort often entails the measurement of subjective evaluations. Several measurement methods have been developed to control glare resulting from indoor lighting design. The Unified Glare Rating (UGR), the Visual Comfort Probability, and the Daylight Glare Index are some of the most well-known methods of measurement. In addition to these new methods, four main factors influence the degree of discomfort glare; the luminance of the glare source, the solid angle of the glare source, the background luminance, and the position of the glare source in the field of view must all be taken into account.


title: Lighting

text: To define light source color properties, the lighting industry predominantly relies on two metrics, correlated color temperature (CCT), commonly used as an indication of the apparent "warmth" or "coolness" of the light emitted by a source, and color rendering index (CRI), an indication of the light source's ability to make objects appear natural.


title: Lighting

text: However, these two metrics, developed in the last century, are facing increased challenges and criticisms as new types of light sources, particularly light-emitting diodes (LEDs), become more prevalent in the market.


title: Lighting

text: For example, in order to meet the expectations for good color rendering in retail applications, research suggests using the well-established CRI along with another metric called gamut area index (GAI). GAI represents the relative separation of object colors illuminated by a light source; the greater the GAI, the greater the apparent saturation or vividness of the object colors. As a result, light sources which balance both CRI and GAI are generally preferred over ones that have only high CRI or only high GAI.


title: Lighting

text: Typical measurements of light have used a Dosimeter. Dosimeters measure an individual's or an object's exposure to something in the environment, such as light dosimeters and ultraviolet dosimeters.


title: Lighting

text: In order to specifically measure the amount of light entering the eye, personal circadian light meter called the Daysimeter has been developed. This is the first device created to accurately measure and characterize light (intensity, spectrum, timing, and duration) entering the eye that affects the human body's clock.


title: Lighting

text: The small, head-mounted device measures an individual's daily rest and activity patterns, as well as exposure to short-wavelength light that stimulates the circadian system. The device measures activity and light together at regular time intervals and electronically stores and logs its operating temperature. The Daysimeter can gather data for up to 30 days for analysis.