title: Maundy Thursday

text: The oil of the catechumens and chrism are used on the upcoming Holy Saturday at the Easter Vigil, for the baptism and confirmation of those entering the church. While the Oil of the Catechumens and the Oil of the Sick, are simply "blessed," the Sacred Chrism is "consecrated,". Holy chrism is a mixture of olive oil and balsam, an aromatic resin. Balsam is poured into the oil, which gives it a sweet smell intended to remind those who encounter it of the "odor of sanctity" to which those who are marked with it, are called to strive. The bishop breathes over the vessel containing the chrism, a gesture which symbolizes the Holy Spirit coming down to consecrate this oil, and recalls the actions of Jesus in John 20:22, when he breathed on the apostles and said, "Receive the Holy Spirit..."


title: Maundy Thursday

text: With respect to Anglicanism, the 1979 Book of Common Prayer (p. 307) calls for chrism to be consecrated by the bishop. In many dioceses, the consecration of chrism by the bishop may be done at a service of reaffirmation of ordination vows during Holy Week. During the Chrism Eucharist, the Bishop will bless the oils used throughout the next year for baptisms and healing. In addition, the Bishop and clergy in attendance will reaffirm their Ordination Vows.


title: Maundy Thursday

text: In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the liturgical colours are brighter, white being common. On this day alone during Holy Week, the fast is relaxed to permit consumption of wine and oil.


title: Maundy Thursday

text: The primary service of this day is Vespers combined with the Liturgy of St. Basil the Great at which is read a Composite Gospel, primarily taken from Matthew, but with episodes inserted from John (the Washing of the Feet) and Luke (Jesus sweating blood), and many of the normal hymns of the Divine Liturgy are substituted with the following troparion:


title: Maundy Thursday

text: "Of Thy Mystical Supper, O Son of God, accept me today as a communicant; for I will not speak of Thy Mystery to Thine enemies, neither will I give Thee a kiss like Judas. But like the Thief will I confess Thee: Remember me, O Lord, in Thy Kingdom."


title: Maundy Thursday

text: When necessary to replenish the sacrament for communing the sick at a time not following a divine liturgy, an additional Lamb (Host) is consecrated on this day, intincted, covered, and left to dry until Holy Saturday when it is divided, completely dried with a candle flame, and the pieces placed in the artophorion.


title: Maundy Thursday

text: In cathedrals and monasteries the ceremony of the Washing of Feet is normally performed. When there is need to consecrate more chrism, that is performed by patriarchs and other heads of the various autocephalous churches.


title: Maundy Thursday

text: In the evening, after the Liturgy, all of the hangings and vestments are changed to black or some other dark colour, to signify the beginning of the Passion. Anticipating the Matins of Friday morning, the Holy Passion service of the reading of the Twelve Gospels is conducted. In these readings Christ's last instructions to his disciples are presented, as well as the prophecy of the drama of the Cross, Christ's prayer, and his new commandment. The twelve readings are:


title: Maundy Thursday

text: Beginning on Holy and Great Thursday, the memorial service for the dead is forbidden until after Thomas Sunday.


title: Maundy Thursday

text: Oriental Orthodoxy including Coptic (Egyptian) and Ethiopian Orthodoxy which is under papacy of Pope Tawadros II The Copts celebrate Covenant Thursday on 16 April which is 1 week after the Catholics celebrate it. They have praises and vespers every day of week and on Thursday and Saturday they stay praising God and reading about the First Liturgy and Judas’ Betrayal. On Saturday they sing praises for the Entrance of the Messiah in Hades freeing all of the faithful ones including Moses and Abraham etc.


title: Maundy Thursday

text: Maundy Thursday is a public holiday in most countries that were part of the Spanish empire (Argentina, Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru, the Philippines, Spain, Uruguay and Venezuela), countries that were part of the Danish colonial empire (Denmark, Iceland, Norway and United States Virgin Islands), and in the Kerala State of India.


title: Maundy Thursday

text: Certain German states declare a public holiday for public sector employees. In the UK, civil servants were traditionally granted a half-day holiday (known as "privilege leave") on this date, but that was abolished, by David Cameron, after 2012.


title: Maundy Thursday

text: The tradition of visiting seven churches on Holy Thursday is an ancient practice, probably originating in Rome. and occurs among the faithful in countries around the world.


title: Maundy Thursday

text: In India, the custom is to visit fourteen churches, one per Station of the Cross. Traditionally, this is performed on Maundy Thursday evening but is more often done on the morning of Good Friday or on any day of Lent. Usually, whole families would participate, customarily fasting for the duration of the rite. It is also undertaken by parish devotional groups.


title: Maundy Thursday

text: In the Philippines the tradition is called "Visita Iglesia" (Spanish, "church visit") – people visit churches to pray, usually reciting the Stations of the Cross. It is a chiefly urban custom, as churches are located closer to each other in cities, and supposedly because it originates in visiting the seven churches of Intramuros that stood until the 1945 Bombing of Manila.


title: Maundy Thursday

text: The original purpose of the ritual was to venerate the Blessed Sacrament in the Altar of Repose on Maundy Thursday night, but since no prayers were prescribed (apart from those for the Pope), the Stations of the Cross were recited.


title: Maundy Thursday

text: In Singapore, the visiting of churches occurs shortly after the evening Mass of the Lord's Supper. Prayers at each church consist of seven repetitions of the Lord's Prayer, Ave Maria, and the "Gloria Patri". Due to the new trend of late Mass times (sometimes 7 or 8 pm) to allow for more churchgoers, eight churches are the maximum number visited (even in the city area, where these are closer to each other than in outer residential areas) before these close at midnight. A festive atmosphere exists, with the sale of drinks, hot cross buns and other local snacks like the traditional "kueh ko chee". Observant Catholics have a 'Last Supper' meal in anticipation of the next day's fast.


title: Moldovan language

text: Moldovan (Latin alphabet: "limba moldovenească"; Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet: лимба молдовеняскэ), also known historically as Moldavian, is one of the two local names of the Romanian language in Moldova. "Moldovan" is declared the official language in Article 13 of the constitution adopted in 1994, while the 1991 Declaration of Independence of Moldova uses the name "Romanian". In 2003, the Moldovan parliament adopted a law defining "Moldovan" and "Romanian" as glottonyms for the same language. In 2013, the Constitutional Court of Moldova interpreted that Article 13 of the constitution is superseded by the Declaration of Independence, thus giving official status to the name "Romanian". The breakaway region of Transnistria continues to recognize "Moldovan" as one of its official languages, alongside Russian and Ukrainian. Ukraine also makes a distinction between "Moldovan" and Romanian in its law, though Ukrainian officials have announced an intention to remove the legal status of "Moldovan".


title: Moldovan language

text: The language of the Moldovans had historically been identified by both terms, however, during the Soviet Union, Moldovan, or, as it was called at the time, "Moldavian", was the only term officially recognized. Soviet policy emphasized distinctions between Moldavians and Romanians based on their allegedly different histories. Its resolution declared Moldavian a distinct Romance language from Romanian.


title: Moldovan language

text: While a majority of inhabitants of the capital city of Chișinău and, according to surveys, people with higher education call their language "Romanian", most rural residents indicated "Moldovan" as their native language in the 2004 census. In schools in Moldova, the term "Romanian language" has been used since independence.


title: Moldovan language

text: The variety of Romanian spoken in Moldova is the Moldavian subdialect, which is spread approximately within the territory of the former Principality of Moldavia (now split between Moldova, Romania, and Ukraine). Moldavian is considered one of the five major spoken varieties of Romanian. However, all five are written identically, and Moldova and Romania share the same literary language.


title: Moldovan language

text: The standard alphabet used in Moldova is equivalent to the Romanian alphabet, which is based on the Latin alphabet. Until 1918, varieties of the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet were used. The Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet (derived from the Russian alphabet and standardised in the Soviet Union) was used in 1924–1932 and 1938–1989 and remains in use in Transnistria.


title: Moldovan language

text: The history of the Moldovan language refers to the historical evolution of the glottonym "Moldavian"/"Moldovan" in Moldova and beyond. It is closely tied to the region's political status, as during long periods of rule by Russia and the Soviet Union, officials emphasized the language's name as part of separating the Moldovans from those people who began to identify as Romanian in a different nation-building process. Cyrillic script was in use. From a linguistic perspective, "Moldovan" is an alternative name for the varieties of the Romanian language spoken in the Republic of Moldova (see History of the Romanian language).


title: Moldovan language

text: Before 1918, during the period between the wars, and after the union of Bessarabia with Romania, scholars did not have consensus that Moldovans and the Romanians formed a single ethnic group. The Moldovan peasants had grown up in a different political entity and missed the years of creating a pan-Romanian national political consciousness. They identified as Moldovans speaking the language "Moldovan". This caused reactions from pan-Romanian nationalists. The concept of the distinction of Moldovan from Romanian was explicitly stated only in the early 20th century. It accompanied the raising of national awareness among Moldovans, with the Soviets emphasizing distinctions between Moldavians and Romanians. "Moldavian" has also been recorded by the 1960s' Romanian Linguistic Atlas as the answer to the question "What [language] do you speak?" in parts of Western Moldavia (Galați and Iași counties).


title: Moldovan language

text: Major developments since the fall of the Soviet Union include resuming use of a Latin script rather than Cyrillic letters in 1989, and several changes in the statutory name of the official language used in Moldova. At one point of particular confusion about identity in the 1990s, all references to geography in the name of the language were dropped, and it was officially known simply as "" — "the state language".


title: Moldovan language

text: Moldovan was assigned the code codice_1 in ISO 639-1 and code codice_2 in ISO 639-2 and ISO 639-3. Since November 2008, these have been deprecated, leaving codice_3 and codice_4 (639-2/T) and codice_5 (639-2/B), the language identifiers to be used for the variant of the Romanian language also known as Moldavian and Moldovan in English, the ISO 639-2 Registration Authority said in explaining the decision.


title: Moldovan language

text: In 1989, the contemporary Romanian version of the Latin alphabet was adopted as the official script of the Moldavian SSR.


title: Moldovan language

text: The Declaration of Independence of Moldova (27 August 1991) named the official language as "Romanian". The 1994 constitution, passed under a Communist government, declared "Moldovan" as the state language.


title: Moldovan language

text: When in 1993 the Romanian Academy changed the official orthography of the Romanian language, the Institute of Linguistics at the Academy of Sciences of Moldova did not initially make these changes, which however have since been adopted.


title: Moldovan language

text: In 1996, the Moldovan president Mircea Snegur attempted to change the official name of the language back to "Romanian"; the Moldovan Parliament, Communist-dominated, dismissed the proposal as promoting "Romanian expansionism".


title: Moldovan language

text: In 2003, a Moldovan–Romanian dictionary ( (2003)) by Vasile Stati was published aiming to prove that there existed two distinct languages. Reacting to this, linguists of the Romanian Academy in Romania declared that all the Moldovan words are also Romanian words, although some of its contents are disputed as being Russian loanwords. In Moldova, the head of the Academy of Sciences' Institute of Linguistics, , described the dictionary as "an absurdity, serving political purposes". Stati, however, accused both of promoting "Romanian colonialism". At that point, a group of Romanian linguists adopted a resolution stating that promotion of the notion of a distinct Moldovan language is an anti-scientific campaign.


title: Moldovan language

text: In 2003, the Parliament of the Republic of Moldova adopted a law defining "Moldovan" and "Romanian" as "designations" for the same language (glottonyms).


title: Moldovan language

text: In the 2004 census, 16.5% (558,508) of the 3,383,332 people living in Moldova declared Romanian as their native language, whereas 60% declared Moldovan. Most of the latter responses were from rural populations. While the majority of the population in the capital city of Chișinău gave their language as "Romanian", in the countryside more than six-sevenths of the Romanian/Moldovan speakers indicated "Moldovan" as their native language, reflecting historic conservatism.


title: Moldovan language

text: In December 2007, Moldovan president Vladimir Voronin asked for the term to be changed to "Moldovan language", but due to public pressure against that choice, the term was not changed.


title: Moldovan language

text: In December 2013, the Constitutional Court of Moldova ruled that the Declaration of Independence takes precedence over the Constitution and that the state language should be called Romanian.


title: Moldovan language

text: As of March 2017, the presidential website under Igor Dodon has seen the Romanian language option changed to "Moldovan", which is described to be "in accordance with the constitution" by said president. The change was reverted on 24 December 2020, the day Maia Sandu assumed office.


title: Moldovan language

text: In June 2021, during a meeting between the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Romania Bogdan Aurescu and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine Dmytro Kuleba, the former asked Ukraine to recognize the inexistence of the Moldovan language to improve the situation of the Romanians in Ukraine. Kuleba responded to this saying that they were trying to do the paperwork for this as soon as possible. On 30 November 2022, during another meeting between Aurescu and Kuleba, Aurescu reiterated this request.


title: Moldovan language

text: The matter of whether or not "Moldovan" is a separate language continues to be contested politically within and beyond the Republic of Moldova. The 1989 Language Law of the Moldavian SSR, which is still in effect in Moldova, according to the Constitution, asserts a "linguistic Moldo-Romanian identity". Article 13 of the Moldovan Constitution names it "the national language of the country" (the original uses the phrase , which literally means "the language of the state").


title: Moldovan language

text: In the breakaway region of Transnistria, Moldovan is declared an official language, together with Ukrainian and Russian.


title: Moldovan language

text: Standard "Moldovan" is widely considered to be identical to standard Romanian. Writing about "essential differences", Vasile Stati, supporter of Moldovenism, is obliged to concentrate almost exclusively on lexical rather than grammatical differences. Whatever language distinctions may once have existed, these have been decreasing rather than increasing. King wrote in 2000 that "in the main, Moldovan in its standard form was more Romanian by the 1980s than at any point in its history".


title: Moldovan language

text: In 2002, the Moldovan Minister of Justice Ion Morei said that Romanian and Moldovan were the same language and that the Constitution of Moldova should be amended to reflect this—not by substituting "Romanian" for the word "Moldovan", but by adding that "Romanian and Moldovan are the same language". The education minister said: "I have stated more than once that the notion of a Moldovan language and a Romanian language reflects the same linguistic phenomenon in essence." The President of Moldova Vladimir Voronin acknowledged that the two languages are identical, but said that Moldovans should have the right to call their language "Moldovan".


title: Moldovan language

text: In the 2004 census, of the 3.38 million people living in Moldova, 60% identified Moldovan as their native language; 16.5% chose Romanian. While 37% of all urban Romanian/Moldovan speakers identified Romanian as their native language, in the countryside 86% of the Romanian/Moldovan speakers indicated Moldovan, a historic holdover. Independent studies found a Moldovan linguistic identity asserted in particular by the rural population and post-Soviet political class. In a survey conducted in four villages near the border with Romania, when asked about their native language the interviewees identified the following: Moldovan 53%, Romanian 44%, Russian 3%.


title: Moldovan language

text: In November 2007, when reporting on EU Council deliberations regarding an agreement between the European Community and Moldova, the Romanian reporter Jean Marin Marinescu included a recommendation to avoid formal references to the "Moldovan language". The Romanian press speculated that the EU banned the usage of the phrase "Moldovan language". However, the European Commissioner for External Relations and European Neighbourhood Policy, Benita Ferrero-Waldner, denied these allegations. She said that the Moldovan language is referred to in the 1998 Cooperation Agreement between the EU and Moldova, and hence it is considered a part of the acquis, binding to all member states.


title: Moldovan language

text: The language was generally written in a Romanian Cyrillic alphabet (based on the Old Church Slavonic alphabet) before the 19th century. Both Cyrillic and, rarely, Latin, were used until after World War I; after Bessarabia was included in Romania in 1918, the Cyrillic alphabet was officially forbidden in the region. In the interwar period, Soviet authorities in the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic alternately used Latin or Cyrillic for writing the language, mirroring the political goals of the moment. Between 1940 and 1989, i.e., during Soviet rule, the new Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet replaced Latin as the official alphabet in Moldova (then Moldavian SSR). In 1989, the Latin script was once again adopted in Moldova by Law 3462 of 31 August 1989, which provided rules for transliterating Cyrillic to Latin, along with the orthographic rules used in Romania at the time. Transnistria, however, uses the Cyrillic alphabet.


title: Moldovan language

text: Though not immediately adopting these, the Academy of Sciences of Moldova acknowledged both the Romanian Academy's decision of 1993 and the orthographic reform of 2005. In 2000, the Moldovan Academy recommended adopting the spelling rules used in Romania, and in 2010 launched a schedule for the transition to the new rules that was completed in 2011 (regarding its publications). However, these changes were not implemented by Moldova's Ministry of Education, so the old orthographic conventions were maintained in the education sector such as in school textbooks.


title: Moldovan language

text: On 17 October 2016, Minister of Education Corina Fusu signed Order No. 872 on the application of the revised spelling rules as adopted by the Moldovan Academy of Sciences, coming into force on the day of signing. Since then the spelling used by institutions subordinated to the Ministry of Education is in line with the spelling norms used in Romania since 1993. This order, however, has no application to other government institutions, nor has Law 3462 been amended to reflect these changes; thus, those institutions continue to use the old spelling.


title: Mark Carney

text: Mark Joseph Carney (born March 16, 1965) is a Canadian economist and banker who served as the governor of the Bank of Canada from 2008 to 2013 and the governor of the Bank of England from 2013 to 2020. Since October 2020, he is vice chairman and head of Impact Investing at Brookfield Asset Management. He was the chair of the Financial Stability Board from 2011 to 2018. Prior to his governorships, Carney worked at Goldman Sachs as well as the Department of Finance Canada.


title: Mark Carney

text: Carney was born on March 16, 1965, in Fort Smith, Northwest Territories, the son of Verlie Margaret (née Kemper) and Robert James Martin Carney.


title: Mark Carney

text: When Carney was six, his family moved to Edmonton, Alberta. Carney has three siblings — an older brother and sister, Seán and Brenda, and a younger brother Brian. Carney attended St. Francis Xavier High School, Edmonton before studying at Harvard University.


title: Mark Carney

text: Carney graduated from Harvard in 1988 with a bachelor's degree with high honours in economics, before postgraduate studies at the University of Oxford at St Peter's College and Nuffield College, where he received masters and doctoral degrees in the same field in 1993 and 1995, respectively. The title of his DPhil thesis is "The dynamic advantage of competition".


title: Mark Carney

text: Carney spent 13 years at Goldman Sachs and worked in their Boston, London, New York City, Tokyo, and Toronto offices. His progressively more senior positions included: co-head of sovereign risk; executive director, emerging debt capital markets; and managing director, investment banking. He worked on South Africa's post-apartheid venture into international bond markets, and was involved in Goldman's work with the 1998 Russian financial crisis.


title: Mark Carney

text: In 2003, Carney left Goldman Sachs to join the Bank of Canada as a deputy governor. One year later, he was recruited to join the Department of Finance Canada as senior associate deputy minister, beginning that role on November 15, 2004.


title: Mark Carney

text: From November 2004 to October 2007, Carney was the senior associate deputy minister and G7 deputy in the Canadian Finance Department. He served under two finance ministers: Ralph Goodale, a Liberal and Jim Flaherty, a Conservative. During this time Carney oversaw the Government of Canada's controversial plan to tax income trusts at source. Carney was also the lead on the federal government's profitable sale of its 19 percent stake in Petro-Canada.


title: Mark Carney

text: In November 2007, it was announced that Carney would be appointed Governor of the Bank of Canada. He immediately left his position at the Department of Finance to serve as an advisor to the outgoing governor, David Dodge, before formally assuming Dodge's position on February 1, 2008. Carney was selected over Paul Jenkins, the senior deputy governor, who had been considered the front-runner to succeed Dodge.


title: Mark Carney

text: Carney took on this role at the beginning of the 2007 global financial crisis. At the time of his appointment, Carney was the youngest central bank governor among the G8 and G20.


title: Mark Carney

text: Carney's actions as Governor of the Bank of Canada are said to have played a major role in helping Canada avoid the worst impacts of the financial crisis.


title: Mark Carney

text: The epoch-making feature of his tenure as Governor remains the decision to cut the overnight rate by 50 basis points in March 2008, only one month after his appointment. While the European Central Bank delivered a rate increase in July 2008, Carney anticipated the leveraged-loan crisis would trigger global contagion. When policy rates in Canada hit the effective lower-bound, the central bank combatted the crisis with the non-standard monetary tool: "conditional commitment" in April 2009 to hold the policy rate for at least one year, in a boost to domestic credit conditions and market confidence. Output and employment began to recover from mid-2009, in part thanks to monetary stimulus. The Canadian economy outperformed those of its G7 peers during the crisis, and Canada was the first G7 nation to have both its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and employment recover to pre-crisis levels.


title: Mark Carney

text: The Bank of Canada's decision to provide substantial additional liquidity to the Canadian financial system, and its unusual step of announcing a commitment to keep interest rates at their lowest possible level for one year, appear to have been significant contributors to Canada's weathering of the crisis.


title: Mark Carney

text: Canada's risk-averse fiscal and regulatory environment is also cited as a factor. In 2009 a "Newsweek" columnist wrote, "Canada has done more than survive this financial crisis. The country is positively thriving in it. Canadian banks are well capitalized and poised to take advantage of opportunities that American and European banks cannot seize."


title: Mark Carney

text: Carney earned various accolades for his leadership during the financial crisis: he was named one of "Financial Times"s "Fifty who will frame the way forward", and of "Time Magazine"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s "2010 Time 100". In May 2011, "Reader's Digest" named him "Editor's Choice for Most Trusted Canadian".


title: Mark Carney

text: In October 2012, Carney was named "Central Bank Governor of the Year 2012" by the editors of "Euromoney" magazine.


title: Mark Carney

text: On November 4, 2011, Carney was named Chairman of the Basel-based Financial Stability Board. In a statement, Carney credited his appointment to "the strong reputation of Canada's financial system and the leading role that Canada has played in helping to develop many of the most important international reforms".


title: Mark Carney

text: The three-year term was a part-time commitment, allowing Carney to complete his term at the Bank of Canada. While there had been no indication of his priorities as chairman, on the day of his appointment the Board published a list of 29 banks that were considered sufficiently large as to pose a risk to the global economy should they fail. At his first press conference as Chairman of the FSB in January 2012, Carney laid out his key priorities for the board.


title: Mark Carney

text: Carney served as Chairman of the Bank for International Settlements' Committee on the Global Financial System from July 2010 until January 2012.


title: Mark Carney

text: Carney is a member of the Group of Thirty, an international body of leading financiers and academics, and of the Foundation Board of the World Economic Forum. Carney attended the annual meetings of the Bilderberg Group in 2011, 2012 and 2019.


title: Mark Carney

text: On November 26, 2012, Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne announced the appointment of Carney as Governor of the Bank of England. He succeeded Sir Mervyn King on July 1, 2013. He was the first non-Briton to be appointed to the role since the Bank of England was established in 1694. The Bank of England was given additional powers from 2013, such as the ability to set bank capital requirements.


title: Mark Carney

text: Prior to taking up the post, Carney had already indicated disagreement with the Bank of England's Executive Director of Financial Stability Andy Haldane, specifically on leverage ratios and on bank break-ups. He has been quoted as saying that Haldane does not have a "proper understanding of the facts" on bank regulation. He was thought to have been offered a total pay package of about £624,000 ($844,000 USD) per year, approximately £100,000 ($135,000 USD) more per year than his predecessor.


title: Mark Carney

text: Carney was appointed as United Nations special envoy for climate action and finance as he prepared to step down as governor of the Bank of England in March 2020. In January 2020, UK Prime Minister Boris Johnson appointed Carney to the position of finance advisor for the UK presidency of the COP26 United Nations Climate Change conference in Glasgow; at that time the conference was scheduled for November 2020 but it was later postponed to November 2021.


title: Mark Carney

text: As of October 2020, Carney is vice chairman at Brookfield Asset Management where he leads the firm's environmental, social and governance (ESG) and impact fund investment strategy. In February 2021, Carney had to retract an earlier claim that the $600 billion Brookfield Asset Management portfolio was carbon neutral. He based his claim on the fact that Brookfield has a large renewable energy portfolio and "all the avoided emissions that come with that”. The claim was criticized as accounting tricks as avoided emissions do not counteract the emissions from investments in coal and other fossil fuels responsible for Brookfield's carbon footprint of about 5,200 metric tons of carbon dioxide.


title: Mark Carney

text: In February 2021, Carney joined the board of fintech company Stripe. As of March 2021, Stripe was valued at $95 billion.


title: Mark Carney

text: Carney helped launch the Glasgow Financial Alliance for Net Zero (GFANZ) at COP26 in Glasgow in November 2021. He acts as the group's Co-Chair.


title: Mark Carney

text: In December 2016, Carney warned of the societal risk of "staggering wealth inequalities" in a Roscoe Lecture at Liverpool John Moores University: "The proportion of the wealth held by the richest 1% of Americans increased from 25% in 1990 to 40% in 2012 ... Globally, the share of wealth held by the richest 1% in the world rose from one-third in 2000 to one-half in 2010."


title: Mark Carney

text: Carney warned many times that Brexit was expected to negatively influence the UK economy. Consequently, Brexit activists accused him of making statements favouring the UK's continued membership of the European Union (EU) before the British EU-membership referendum. He replied that he felt it was his duty to speak up on such issues.


title: Mark Carney

text: In September 2018, Philip Hammond, the chancellor of the Exchequer, confirmed speculation that Carney would remain as Governor until January 2020, in order to ensure a "smooth" transition after the UK was set to leave the EU on March 29, 2019, a departure deadline that was missed.


title: Mark Carney

text: In November 2018, Carney warned that large parts of the British economy were not ready for a no-deal Brexit. Speaking on BBC Radio 4's "Today" Programme, Carney explained that fewer than half of businesses have initiated contingency plans.


title: Mark Carney

text: In February 2019, speaking about the global economy, Carney provided a less negative perspective on Brexit, stating that globalisation has resulted in "imbalances of democracy and sovereignty", and that Brexit "is the first test of a new global order and could prove the acid test of whether a way can be found to broaden the benefits of openness while enhancing democratic accountability".


title: Mark Carney

text: In his August 23, 2019, speech delivered at the Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City's 2019 annual Jackson Hole Economic Symposium at Jackson Lake Lodge, entitled "The Growing Challenges for Monetary Policy in the current International Monetary and Financial System", Carney said that the "widespread use of the US dollar—the dominant currency pricing—in "trade invoicing, in place of the currency of either the producer or the importer" has had a "destablilizing" effect on the global economy, according to "Reuters". About 50 percent of international trade relies on the US dollar as the "currency of choice." This represents "five times greater than the US's share in world goods imports, and three times its share in world exports." Dominant currency pricing is not problematic when there is "synchronised growth" globally, Carney said. When "the tide is rising in America while receding elsewhere", the system needs to be revamped. Carney cited an article by Markus K. Brunnermeier, Harold James, and Jean-Pierre Landau on the potential role of digital currency area (DCA) in redefining the international monetary system.


title: Mark Carney

text: Speaking only hours after US President Donald Trump had posted on Twitter that he blamed Federal Reserve Chairman Jerome Powell's policies creating fears of an economic recession—and then threatened China with more retaliatory tariffs—Carney urged central banks to work together to replace the US dollar as reserve currency. He cautioned against choosing another new hegemonic reserve currency like the Renminbi and suggested instead, a "new Synthetic Hegemonic Currency (SHC), such as Libra, which could potentially be provided "through a network of central bank digital currencies," that would decrease the US dollar's "domineering influence" on trade worldwide.


title: Mark Carney

text: Carney also said that the recent increase in the perception that a no-deal Brexit is likely, is "evidenced by betting odds and financial market asset pricing" resulting in the UK now having "the highest FX implied volatility, the highest equity risk premium and lowest real yields of any advanced economy."


title: Mark Carney

text: In 2020, Carney launched the Taskforce on Scaling Voluntary Carbon Markets—an initiative to increase trading of voluntary carbon offsets— with Bill Winters as Group Chief Executive. The TSVCM is sponsored by the Institute of International Finance. Taskforce members include more than "40 leaders from six continents with backgrounds across the carbon market value chain", including representatives from the Bank of America, BlackRock, Bloomberg's New Energy Finance, BNP Paribas, BP, Boeing, Goldman Sachs, Tata Steel, Total, IHS Markit, and LSE. In a December 3, 2020 "Financial Times" article, Carney said that the voluntary global carbon offset market was an "imperative" to help reduce emissions. The "Times" article cited Carney saying London would likely be the host of the new "new pilot market for voluntary carbon offsets" which could be "set up" by December 2021.


title: Mark Carney

text: On December 2, 2020, Carney delivered the first of four Reith Lectures—the BBC's flagship annual series. In "How We Get What We Value – From Moral to Market Sentiments", he said society had come to esteem financial value over human value and moved from market economies to market societies. The series covers a trio of crises—credit, Covid and climate.


title: Mark Carney

text: Carney met his wife, Diana Fox, a British economist specializing in developing nations, while at the University of Oxford. She is active in various environmental and social justice causes. The couple married in July 1994 while he was finishing his doctoral thesis. They have four children and lived in Toronto, before moving to the Rockcliffe Park neighbourhood of Ottawa and then moving to London in 2013. They moved back to Ottawa when Mark Carney left his role in the Bank of England.


title: Mark Carney

text: During his Harvard years, Carney was backup goalie for the school's ice hockey team. Carney continued playing the sport with the Oxford University Ice Hockey Club while studying at Nuffield College, Oxford.


title: Mark Carney

text: Carney completed the 2015 London Marathon in 03:31:22, which was 17 minutes faster than his time at the 2011 Ottawa Marathon.


title: Mark Carney

text: Carney speaks fluent French. In addition to his Canadian citizenship, he also holds Irish (two of his grandparents are from County Mayo) and British citizenship. He has distant relatives in Liverpool and is a supporter of the city's Everton F.C. He is also a supporter of the Edmonton Oilers.


title: Mark Carney

text: There was some controversy with Carney's time running the Bank of England. Staff members compared his temper flare-ups to 'being tasered'.


title: Medb

text: Medb (), later spelled Meadhbh (), Méibh () and Méabh (), and often anglicised as Maeve ( ), is queen of Connacht in the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology. Her husband in the core stories of the cycle is Ailill mac Máta, although she had several husbands before him who were also kings of Connacht. She rules from Cruachan (now Rathcroghan, County Roscommon). She is the enemy (and former wife) of Conchobar mac Nessa, king of Ulster, and is best known for starting the "Táin Bó Cúailnge" ("The Cattle Raid of Cooley") to steal Ulster's prize stud bull Donn Cúailnge.


title: Medb

text: Medb is strong-willed, ambitious, cunning and promiscuous, and is an archetypal warrior queen. She is believed by some to be a manifestation of the sovereignty goddess. Medb of Connacht is probably identical with Medb Lethderg, the sovereignty goddess of Tara, and may also be linked with the Morrígan. She may be the inspiration for the fairy Queen Mab found in William Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet" and other media.


title: Medb

text: In Old Irish her name is ; in Middle Irish, ; in early modern Irish, or ; and in modern Irish "Méabh" or "Méibh". This is generally believed to come from the Proto-Celtic "*medu-" ("mead") or "*medua" ("intoxicating"), and the meaning of her name has thus been interpreted as "mead-woman" or "she who intoxicates". This is thought to reflect her role as sovereignty goddess. In ancient and medieval Ireland, the drinking of mead was a key part of a king's inauguration ceremony. In myth, a supernatural woman representing the sovereignty of the land chooses a king by offering him an alcoholic drink, thus bestowing sovereignty upon him. However, it is also suggested that the name comes from Proto-Celtic "" ("the ruler").


title: Medb

text: The name has been Anglicised as Maeve, Maev, Mave or Maiv. There are several place names in Ireland containing the name Medb. According to Kay Muhr of the Ulster Place-Name Society, some of these names suggest Medb was also an earth and fertility goddess. They include Ballypitmave ("Baile Phite Méabha", "townland of Medb's vulva") in County Antrim and Sawel Pitmave ("Samhail Phite Méabha", "likeness to Medb's vulva") in County Tyrone, both in northern Ulster. Other placenames include Maeve's Cairn in County Sligo, Barnavave ("Bearna Mhéabha", "Medb's gap") in County Louth, Boveva ("Boith Mhéabha", "Medb's huts") in County Londonderry, Knockmaa ("Cnoc Meá", "Medb's hill") in County Galway, Meskanmave ("Meascán Mhéabha", "Medb's lump") in County Donegal, Milleen Meva ("Millín Mhéabha", "Medb's knoll") at Rathcroghan in County Roscommon, and Rath Meave at Tara in County Meath.


title: Medb

text: Medb is described as a fair haired wolf queen, whose form was so beautiful that it robbed men of two-thirds of their valor upon seeing her.


title: Medb

text: How Medb came to power in Connacht and married Ailill mac Máta is told in the tale "Cath Bóinde" ("The Battle of the Boyne"), also known as "Ferchuitred Medba" ("Medb's man-share"). Her father, Eochaid Feidlech, the High King of Ireland, married her to Conchobar mac Nessa, king of Ulster, because he had killed Conchobar's purported father, the former High King Fachtna Fáthach, in battle. She bore him a son, Glaisne, but the marriage was a bad one and she left him. Eochaid gave Conchobar another of his daughters, Eithne (or Clothru), but Medb murdered her while she was pregnant; her son Furbaide was born by posthumous caesarian section.


title: Medb

text: Eochaid deposed the then-king of Connacht, Tinni mac Conri, and installed Medb in his place. However, Tinni regained a share of the throne when he and Medb later became lovers. Conchobar raped Medb after an assembly at Tara, and war ensued between the High King and Ulster. Tinni challenged Conchobar to single combat, and lost. Eochaid Dála of the Fir Domnann, who had been Tinni's rival for the kingship, protected the Connacht army as it retreated, and became Medb's next husband and king of Connacht. Medb demanded her husband satisfy her three criteria—that he be without fear, meanness, or jealousy. The last was particularly important, as she had many lovers. While married to Eochaid Dála, she took Ailill mac Máta, chief of her bodyguard, as her lover. Eochaid discovered the affair, challenged Ailill to single combat, and lost. Ailill then married Medb and became king of Connacht.


title: Medb

text: Medb and Ailill had seven sons, all called Maine. They originally all had other names, but when Medb asked a druid which of her sons would kill Conchobar, he replied, "Maine". She did not have a son called Maine, so she renamed all her sons as follows:


title: Medb

text: The prophecy was fulfilled when Maine Andoe went on to kill Conchobar, son of Arthur, son of Bruide – not Conchobar, son of Fachtna


title: Medb

text: Medb insisted that she be equal in wealth with her husband, and started the Cattle Raid of Cooley when she discovered that Ailill was one powerful stud bull richer than her. She discovered that the only rival to Ailill's bull, Finnbennach, was Donn Cúailnge, owned by Dáire mac Fiachna, a vassal of Conchobar's. She sent messengers to Dáire, offering wealth, land and sexual favours in return for the loan of the bull, and Dáire initially agreed. But when a drunken messenger declared that, if he had not agreed, the bull would have been taken by force, Dáire withdrew his consent, and Medb prepared for war.


title: Medb

text: An army was raised including contingents from all over Ireland. One was a group of Ulster exiles led by Conchobar's estranged son Cormac Cond Longas and his foster-father Fergus mac Róich, former king of Ulster and one of Medb's lovers. It is reported that it took thirty men to satisfy her, or Fergus once. Medb's relationship with Fergus is alluded to in the early poem "Conailla Medb míchuru" ("Medb has entered evil contracts") by Luccreth moccu Chiara (c. 600); it asserts that Medb wrongly seduced Fergus into turning against Ulster "because he preferred the buttocks of a woman to his own people".


title: Medb

text: Because of a divine curse on the Ulstermen, the invasion was opposed only by the teenage Ulster hero Cúchulainn, who held up the army's advance by demanding single combat at fords. Medb and Ailill offered their daughter Findabair in marriage to a series of heroes as payment for fighting Cúchulainn, but all were defeated. Nevertheless, Medb secured the bull. However, after a final battle against Conchobar's assembled army, she was forced to retreat. Donn Cúailnge was brought back to Cruachan, where it fought Ailill's bull, Finnbennach, killing him, but dying of his wounds.


title: Medb

text: Also, throughout the Táin Bó Cúailnge Medb has several encounters with Cúchulainn in which he kills either her pets or handmaidens and the place in which they were killed is then named after them, which illustrates the importance of landscape throughout the text of the Táin Bó Cúailnge. Examples of this occur when Cúchulainn "slung a stone and killed a pet stoat as it sat on Medb's shoulder by her neck, south of the ford. Hence the name Meithe Togmaill, Stoat Neck" and when he kills Medb's handmaid: "He slung a stone at her from the heights of Cuincu and killed her on the flat place that bears her name, Reid Locha, Locha's Level, in Cualinge". Medb's behaviour further illustrates the importance of the landscape when she goes to great lengths to permanently alter it to show her contempt for Ulster. "She preferred to cross the mountain by leaving a track that would show forever her contempt for Ulster… to make the Pass of the Cualinge Cattle".


title: Medb

text: Out of jealousy for his affair with Medb, Ailill had Fergus killed. In his old age, after Conchobar's death, the Ulster hero Conall Cernach came to stay with Ailill and Medb, as they were the only household capable of supporting him. Medb tasked him to keep an eye on Ailill, who was seeing other women. Finding Ailill "in flagrante", she ordered Conall to kill him, which he was happy to do in revenge for Fergus. However, the dying Ailill sent his men after him, and he was killed while trying to escape.


title: Medb

text: In her later years, Medb often went to bathe in a pool on Inchcleraun (Inis Cloithreann), an island on Lough Ree, near Knockcroghery. Furbaide sought revenge for the death of his mother. He took a rope and measured the distance between the pool and the shore, and practised with his sling until he could hit an apple on top of a stake Medb's height from that distance. The next time he saw Medb bathing he put his practice to good use and killed her with a piece of cheese. She was succeeded to the throne of Connacht by her son Maine Athramail.


title: Medb

text: According to legend, Medb is buried in Miosgán Médhbh, a high stone cairn on the summit of Knocknarea ("Cnoc na Ré" in Irish) in County Sligo. Supposedly, she is buried upright facing her enemies in Ulster. Her home in Rathcroghan, County Roscommon is also a potential burial site, with a long low slab named 'Misgaun Medb' being given as the most likely location.


title: Medb

text: Tomás Ó Máille was the first to suggest in 1928, that Medb is probably an allegorical figure representing the sovereignty of Connacht, "whom a king would ritually marry as part of his inauguration." Medb Lethderg, who performs a similar function in Tara, is probably identical with or the inspiration for this Medb. Her name is said to mean 'she who intoxicates', and is cognate with the English word 'mead'; it is likely that the sacred marriage ceremony between the king and the goddess would involve a shared drink. Medb's "pillow talk" argument with her consort contains suggestions of matrilineality, as does Ailill's taking his name from his mother Máta Muirisc. Recently, Irish and Irish-American poets have explored Medb as an image of woman's power, including sexuality, as in "Labhrann Medb" ("Medb Speaks") by Irish-language poet Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill and "Intoxication" by Irish-American poet Patricia Monaghan.


title: Medb

text: The name "Connacht" is an apparent anachronism: the stories of the Ulster Cycle are traditionally set around the time of Christ, but the Connachta, after whom the province is named, were said to have been the descendants of Conn Cétchathach, who is supposed to have lived several centuries later. Later stories use the name Cóiced Ol nEchmacht as an earlier name for the province of Connacht to get around this problem. But the chronology of early Irish historical tradition is an artificial attempt by Christian monks to synchronise native traditions with classical and biblical history, and it is possible that the cycle has been chronologically misplaced.


title: Geppetto

text: Geppetto ( , ), also known as Mister Geppetto, is an Italian fictional character in the 1883 novel "The Adventures of Pinocchio" by Carlo Collodi. Geppetto is an elderly, impoverished woodcarver and the creator (and thus 'father') of Pinocchio. He wears a yellow wig resembling cornmeal mush (called "polendina"), and consequently his neighbors call him "Polendina" to annoy him. The name is a Tuscan diminutive of the name Giuseppe (Italian for Joseph).


title: Geppetto

text: Geppetto is introduced when carpenter Mister Antonio finds a talking block of pinewood that he was about to carve into a leg for his table. When Geppetto drops by looking for a piece of wood to build a marionette, Antonio gives the block to Geppetto.


title: Geppetto

text: Geppetto, being extremely poor and thinking of making a living as a puppeteer, carves the block into a boy and names him "Pinocchio." Before he is even built, Pinocchio already has a mischievous attitude; no sooner is Geppetto finished carving Pinocchio's feet then the puppet proceeds to kick him. Once the puppet has been finished and Geppetto teaches him to walk, Pinocchio runs out the door and away into the town. He is caught by the carabiniere. When people say that Geppetto dislikes children, the carabiniere assumes that Pinocchio has been treated poorly and imprisons Geppetto.


title: Geppetto

text: The next morning, Geppetto is released from jail and finds that Pinocchio's feet have burnt off. Geppetto replaces them with new feet. When Geppetto feeds him three pears, Pinocchio promises to go to school. Because Geppetto has no money to buy school books, he sells his only coat.


title: Geppetto

text: Geppetto is next seen when Pinocchio believes that the Fairy with Turquoise Hair has died and a pigeon carries him to the seashore, where Geppetto is building a boat to search for Pinocchio (depending on the version of the story he sails in search for Pinocchio on near islands or following Mangiafuoco and his puppet theatre headed to the "Nuovo Mondo"). Pinocchio tries to swim to Geppetto but is washed underwater while Geppetto is swallowed by the Terrible Dogfish.


title: Geppetto

text: Geppetto is not seen again until Pinocchio is himself swallowed. Pinocchio and Geppetto escape the Dogfish and are thence conveyed to shore by a tuna.


title: Geppetto

text: After several months of hard work supporting the ailing Geppetto at a farmer's house, Pinocchio goes to buy himself a new suit, and Geppetto and Pinocchio are not reunited until the puppet has become a boy. Geppetto is seen healthy again and resuming woodcarving.


title: Geppetto

text: In the 1940 Disney animated film, Geppetto is introduced as a shopkeeper finishing Pinocchio. Before falling asleep, Geppetto makes a wish on a falling star that Pinocchio come to life. During the night, the Blue Fairy grants Geppetto's wish. The next day, he sends Pinocchio on his first day of school. On his way, Pinocchio meets Honest John and Gideon, who convince him to join Stromboli's puppet show instead. When Pinocchio returns home, he finds the shop empty and learns from a letter by the Blue Fairy that Geppetto, venturing out to sea to rescue Pinocchio from Pleasure Island, had been swallowed by Monstro (a whale-like variation of The Terrible Dogfish). Determined to rescue his father, Pinocchio is reunited with Geppetto and his pets in Monstro's throat, where Pinocchio burns spare furniture to choke their captor into releasing them. This done, Monstro pursues them to the coast, where Pinocchio pulls Geppetto to safety, but himself falls senseless. While Geppetto mourns Pinocchio at home, the Blue Fairy revives Pinocchio, and makes him human.


title: Geppetto

text: Geppetto appeared the following year in the short "All Together" (1942), made for the Canadian government.


title: Geppetto

text: Disney's version of Geppetto has also made appearances in "Disney's House of Mouse" as well as in the "Kingdom Hearts" series of video games in the "Monstro" world. The character also made a cameo appearance alongside Pinocchio in the episode "Wonders of the Deep" of the "Mickey Mouse" TV show.


title: Geppetto

text: Tom Hanks plays Geppetto in the 2022 live-action/CGI adaptation of the film. This version was shown to have a son who died.


title: Geppetto

text: Geppetto is the title character in the 2000 made-for-television musical, portrayed by Drew Carey. He dearly wishes to become a father until one night, the Blue Fairy appears in his workshop and brings Pinocchio to life. At first, Geppetto is happy that his wish came true, but runs into problems with Pinocchio asking persistent questions when trying to get to sleep, wandering off and getting into mischief when introducing him to the townspeople of Villagio, lying, and not interested in being a toymaker. The next day, Geppetto sends Pinocchio off to school, telling him to just act like all of the other children and he'll be alright. However, Pinocchio gets sent home from school after he gets into a fight for imitating all the other children, disappointing Geppetto. On their way home, they meet Stromboli the puppeteer who is fascinated by Pinocchio and thinks he would be worth a fortune to him as the main attraction in his puppet show.


title: Geppetto

text: After a brief confrontation with the Blue Fairy doesn't go well, Geppetto returns home, only to find out that Pinocchio ran away to live with Stromboli, who keeps him under a contract he had him sign. When Geppetto arrives after the show, Stromboli says Pinocchio left, claiming that he wanted to see the world, only to find Pinocchio running off to Pleasure Island and they both set out to find him. Along the way, Geppetto meets a magician named Lezarno and visits the town of Idylia where Professor Buonragazzo and his son make perfectly obedient children for any family that wants one. He then arrives at Pleasure Island and discovers the terrible curse it harnesses. After riding the roller coaster, the boys all "make jackasses of themselves" by turning into donkeys. He arrives at the roller coaster to rescue Pinocchio, but he refuses, saying he was a big disappointment to him, gets on the ride, and is shipped off to the salt mines after having been turned into a donkey. Geppetto, keeping up with the ship using a tiny fishing boat, suddenly gets swallowed by a monstrous whale where Pinocchio tells him that after he jumped in the water to save him, the donkey curse washed away and he became human again. After making up their misunderstanding, Pinocchio tells as many lies as he can, causing his nose to grow, which tickles the whale's uvula, causing it to throw them up. They then return home to Villagio, only to find Stromboli waiting to take Pinocchio back, still keeping him under the contract he signed earlier. Geppetto offers his entire shop in exchange, only for Stromboli to kidnap Pinocchio and Geppetto pleads and begs to the Blue Fairy, who can no longer help him, to grant him one last wish. The fairy then turns Pinocchio into a real boy, shoos Stromboli away with her magic, and transformed the words on the workshop sign to "Geppetto & Son," thus resulting in Pinocchio and Geppetto living happily ever after.


title: Geppetto

text: Geppetto is a major villain in the "Fables" comic series written by Bill Willingham and published by DC Comics. His actions are responsible for the entire premise of the comic book, in that he is the being known as "The Adversary" who masterminded the conquest of the Fable homelands, forcing the Fables to flee into the mundane world.


title: Pratyusha Banerjee

text: Pratyusha Banerjee (10 August 1991– 1 April 2016) was an Indian television actress. She had appeared in numerous television and reality shows.


title: Pratyusha Banerjee

text: Banerjee first gained recognition in 2010 in the television show "Balika Vadhu". This was her first leading role in the television series where she earned her household name "Anandi". She had participated in the reality show "Bigg Boss 7" (2013).


title: Pratyusha Banerjee

text: She started her career with a supporting role in the show "Rakt Sambandh" which was followed by playing the role of Vaani (best friend of Akshara played by Hina Khan) in "Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai" on Star Plus.


title: Pratyusha Banerjee

text: She was selected for the lead role in 2010 Indian television series "Balika Vadhu" as an adult version of Anandi, replacing Avika Gor. According to the actress, she was chosen via a talent hunt, surpassing the contestants Nivedita Tiwari from Lucknow and Ketaki Chitale from Mumbai. Following the success of the show Banerjee participated in "Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa" (season 5). However, she left the dance show, stating that she was not comfortable during the dance rehearsals.


title: Pratyusha Banerjee

text: In 2013, she was one of the most competitive contestants in the seventh season of the show "Bigg Boss". She appeared in "Power Couple", along with her partner Rahul Raj Singh. Banerjee had played vital roles in "Hum Hain Na", Sasural Simar Ka and "Gulmohar Grand".


title: Pratyusha Banerjee

text: Pratyusha was born in a Bengali family in Jamshedpur city of Jharkhand to Shankar and Soma Banerjee. Her father is known social worker and runs their own NGO. In 2010, she left Jamshedpur to work in Mumbai.


title: Pratyusha Banerjee

text: On 1 April 2016, Banerjee was found hanging in her Mumbai apartment and according to the postmortem report the cause of death was asphyxia.


title: Pratyusha Banerjee

text: However her parents allege she was murdered by her boyfriend and passed off as suicide. They have pressed charges against him.


title: Aswang

text: Aswang is an umbrella term for various shape-shifting evil creatures in Filipino folklore, such as vampires, ghouls, witches, viscera suckers, and werebeasts (usually dogs, cats, pigs). The aswang is the subject of a wide variety of myths, stories, arts, and films, as it is well known throughout the Philippines. Spanish colonists noted that the aswang was the most feared among the mythical creatures of the Philippines, even in the 16th century. Although with no specific motive other than harming others, their behavior can be interpreted as an inversion of the traditional Filipino's values. The aswang is especially popular in southern parts of Luzon, and some parts of Mindanao and Visayas, especially the Visayan province of Capiz.


title: Aswang

text: "The sixth was called "silagan", whose office it was, if they saw anyone clothed in white, to tear out his liver and eat it, thus causing his death. This, like the preceding, was in the island of Catanduanes. Let no one, moreover, consider this a fable; because, in Calavan, they tore out in this way through the anus all the intestines of a Spanish notary, who was buried in Calilaya by father Fray Juan de Mérida.


title: Aswang

text: The seventh was called "manananggal", and his purpose was to show himself at night to many persons, without his head or entrails. In such wise the devil walked about and carried, or pretended to carry, his head to different places; and, in the morning, returned it to his body—remaining, as before, alive. This seems to me to be a fable, although the natives affirm that they have seen it, because the devil probably caused them so to believe. This occurred in Catanduanes.


title: Aswang

text: The eighth they called "osuang", which is equivalent to 'sorcerer;' they say that they have seen him fly, and that he murdered men and ate their flesh. This was among the Visayas Islands; among the Tagalos these did not exist."


title: Aswang

text: According to Maximo Ramos, the term "aswang" can be thought of as an aggregate term for a multitude of Filipino supernatural creatures. These creatures can be organized into five categories that parallel creatures from Western traditions. These categories are the vampire, the self-segmenting viscera sucker, the weredog, the witch, and the ghoul.


title: Aswang

text: The vampire aswang disguises itself in the shape of a beautiful woman. It shares its diet of blood with vampires of Western cultures. However, it differs by sucking blood using a proboscis-like tongue, rather than sharpened teeth. Furthermore, aswang do not live in tombs. Some live in forests far from human communities, but the aswang can infiltrate human society by means of marrying into a community, and either slowly draining their husband of blood, or else using it strictly as a hideout and leaving at night to raid other villages, thereby keeping their cover intact. One example of a vampire aswang is the Tagalog "mandurugo", said to live in the region of Capiz.


title: Aswang

text: The viscera sucker, also known as "manananggal", is said to have a diet of internal organs, or the phlegmatic discharge of the sick. Like the vampire aswang, it consumes its food with its tongue, narrow and tubular, but not pointed like the vampire. By day, it takes the shape of an attractive, light-skinned, and long-haired woman. By night, it grows wings and segments itself, leaving behind its body from the waist downwards. It takes great care to hide its lower half, then flies in searches for victims. It is particularly attracted to the fetuses growing inside pregnant women. Viscera suckers are said to live in domiciles deep in the jungle, if not the trees themselves. But like the vampire aswang, most infiltrate human communities via marriage.


title: Aswang

text: Maximo Ramos refers to this category as the weredog, though the creature does not necessarily transform into a dog. Ramos reasons that the werecreature of a given region is named after their most ferocious creature. As such, for example, Europe has werewolves, India has weretigers, Africa has wereleopards, and Russia has werebears. The Philippines has no indigenous wolf population, thus making weredog the more appropriate term. Like the previous aswang, the weredog infiltrates villages and turns into a creature by night, around midnight. The creature is most commonly a dog, but a cat or pig is also possible. The weredog then kills and eats people, particularly pregnant women on the road in the night, and do not let their long hair hang loose. (Doing so is said to protect against these aswang.) The weredog is said to develop a taste for human flesh by eating food spat on, or licked, by another weredog. (The same is said of the viscera sucker.) Unlike the previous aswang, the weredog does not infiltrate human communities through marriage, but as a traveler of some sort, such as a peddler or a construction labourer.


title: Aswang

text: Witch aswang are characterized by extreme vindictiveness, laying curses upon those who have crossed her by making certain objects, such as rice, bones, or insects, come out of the bodily orifices of the cursed. Witches have eyes that reflect images upside down, as well as elongated irises. They live in the outskirts of towns and villages. Witches in the Philippines are feared, avoided and hated. Witches can become aswang, only if they have certain qualities that follow an aswang already. Then they can become an aswang, and by doing so their powers become stronger, stronger than the other witches as well. If an aswang is caught, they are to be immediately killed without question. Though with witches there is just complete avoidance by the people and people around them regard them with fear. Though if an incident were to happen near the witch's residence, then there is reason to turn to the witch to blame and punish.


title: Aswang

text: Ghoul aswang are described as humanoid but generally hidden. Their diet consists of human corpses, they are carrion-eaters. Their nails and teeth are sharp and strong to help with the theft and consumption of the corpses. Their diet makes them smell rank and pungent. They gather in trees near cemeteries to exhume and consume the fresh burials.


title: Aswang

text: Aswang commonly dwell at night in locations such as cemeteries and woods, as their powers are significantly, or sometimes totally, reduced during the daytime. However, despite being described as wild monsters that often live in the wilderness and outskirts of society, aswang are also described as creatures that are capable of living within close proximity of or even within the confines of a village, leading to several reports of aswang attacks within large, populated towns and cities. Their ability to adapt and live within the urban and rural environments populated by humans while still maintaining their feral, monstrous nature is cited as a feature that distinguishes aswang from most other monsters. Aswang also generally have a fear of light. Wakes were often brightly lit to ensure that aswang would not come to the funeral to steal and devour the corpse. They also have a disdain for noise, but rare occasions describe aswang attending noisy parties.


title: Aswang

text: Aswang are traditionally described as one-dimensional monsters and inherently evil by nature with no explicable motives beyond harming and devouring other creatures. Their overtly evil behaviour may be described as an inversion of traditional Filipino values. Traditional aswang have no bias when selecting their prey and will not hesitate to target their own kin: an inversion of the traditional Filipino value of strong kinship and family closeness. Aswang are described to be unclean and favor raw human meat to the food found in traditional Filipino culture. The aswang are also often described to be lewd in behaviour, with female aswang often exposing their genitals to contrast values of traditional modesty.


title: Aswang

text: There are several remedies and countermeasures to drive away or slay aswang. The different countermeasures often vary depending on the cultural and symbolic significance of each tool. Holy objects, spices, salt, ash, the tail of a sting-ray, large crustaceans, vinegar, betel nut chew, and urine are all listed as tools for protection against aswang. The reversal of a ladder leading to the house was also said to be a countermeasure against aswang.


title: Aswang

text: Because aswang were believed to be the cause of miscarriages, countermeasures to drive aswang away and prevent them from prowling during childbirth were developed. One method is for the husband of the child-bearing wife to remain under the house naked while furiously waving a sword. Sharp sticks or bolos should be inserted between the bamboos of the house floor to prevent aswang from lurking under the house. Additionally, sick people should not stay in houses with holes and are told not to groan in order not to attract aswang.


title: Aswang

text: There is also a special anti-aswang oil that can be developed. To make this oil, select a particular coconut and watch it grow. Pick it at twilight during a full moon when it is wet and gloomy; the breeze should also be chilly. The coconut should be grated and its juice must be squeezed out. Boil the mixture until it becomes oil. Recite secret prayers and throw all the waste into the ocean so that aswang cannot trace whoever made the oil. Once complete, the oil should be hung at the door of the house; it will boil when an aswang is near.


title: Aswang

text: There are other methods of detecting aswang without the use of the special oil. Scratching noises heard from the ceiling of a house is often a sign of a nearby aswang. Aswang in disguise can be detected by seeing if your reflection in the creature's eye is inverted. Additionally, dogs, cats, and pigs with no tails are said to be aswang in disguise. During holy masses, aswang will also attempt to dodge the blessings.


title: Aswang

text: To kill a witch aswang, a bolo knife can be used to strike the middle of the witch's back; if that area is not struck, the witch can lick its wounds to heal its injuries. After slaying an aswang with a bolo, the bolo must be planted under the ground. Firearms are not advised for killing aswang and it is useless to stab and slash at an aswang while it is in the form of an animal. Magic prayers can be used to make the aswang vulnerable; while it is in this helpless state, its body must be cut into pieces. If the aswang is cut into two pieces, each piece must be separated and taken to opposite river banks.


title: Aswang

text: Because of the archipelagic geography of the Philippines, and the primarily oral mode of inheriting and imparting narratives from the past for preservation or didactic purposes, stories about the aswang have evolved and adapted according to the locality in question.


title: Aswang

text: The aswang was born out of Philippine folklore, with stories of this terrifying creature dating back to at least the 16th century, when Spanish explorers created the first written record of the monster. The explorers noted that of all the monsters in their folklore, the aswang was the most feared by native people.


title: Aswang

text: One of the most famous origins of the term aswang came from the aswang tradition in the Bicol region during the sixteenth century. The Bicolanos believed in the God named Gugurang, who was the good God that acted as the beneficent of their region, the defender and guardian of their homes, and their protector against the evil of the God Asuang. The God Asuang, however, was the evil God and rival, who attempted to always cause harm to Gugurang and found pleasure in doing so. Gugurang was always praised by the Bicolanos, and Asuang shunned and cursed.


title: Aswang

text: However, in another story, Gugurang is portrayed as a fire-wielding God who, if displeased with the humans, would cause Mt. Mayon to erupt. The aswang had no control over the people and became jealous of Gugurang's power. As the aswang begged for Gugurang's fire, Gugurang felt that the aswang was only trying to have fire to win the favor of the people, and the two began to argue for centuries. But the aswang was able to steal fire by turning himself invisible and hiding the fire in a coconut shell. However, the aswang was unable to control the power and caused the entire world to catch flames. Gugurang followed the flames which led him to the aswang and took the fire back. He called the Gods to help him put out the fire with rain and take revenge on the aswang by making thunder and lightning to strike the mountains. The act brought upon all the evils and destruction in the land, which the people had never forgotten the aswang for.


title: Aswang

text: Aswang are most commonly associated with the province of Capiz, which lies on the island of Panay at the Western Visayas region, so much so that Capiz has come to be dubbed as the creature's "hometown". In an April 29, 2019, documentary of "Kapuso Mo, Jessica Soho" (KMJS), aswang are also allegedly sighted in Himamaylan, Negros Occidental, which also lies at Western Visayas, where several residents have been reportedly terrorized by the appearance of the aswang at night. The KMJS team tried to substantiate the resident's claim by installing cameras to capture the alleged creature, but to no avail.


title: Aswang

text: From the lens of social anthropology, what inspired the legends of the aswang can be traced back to two possible sources: the behaviour of the wildlife within the region, and the prominence of X-linked dystonia parkinsonism within the region.


title: Aswang

text: Sounds attributed to the aswang's hunting calls ("tiktik" and "wakwak") are similar to the sounds of nocturnal forest wildlife such as bats and Philippine flying lemurs (which is locally called "kagwang"). The sounds they make have resulted in their being hunted, under the suspicions that these creatures are aswang in disguise.


title: Aswang

text: X-linked dystonia parkinsonism (XDP) is a genetic form of dystonia found almost entirely among males of Filipino descent (XDP Canada). It is also known as the Dystonia of Panay, due to the fact that most current cases today can be traced back to a common ancestor in Panay. According to most recent studies, 93% of current cases today are located on Panay Island, with 63% of those being located in Capiz.


title: Aswang

text: Individuals diagnosed with this disease exhibit debilitating symptoms that put them in a "transforming state", which results in their "bod[ies] twisting, tongue[s] protruding from their mouth[s], [and] salivating." With the disorder being endemic to the region for generations, the visible symptoms have been interpreted as a major contribution to the prevalence of narratives surrounding Capiz as the home of the aswang. Individuals afflicted with this disease are branded as aswang and are socially ostracized, which prevent their families from seeking effective medical treatment and forcing them to isolate themselves from the larger community.


title: Aswang

text: The folklore of the aswang has been interpreted as having influenced certain idiosyncrasies of the Filipino people. Maximo Ramos, focusing on the ghoul-aspect and viscera-sucker aspect of the aswang, proposes that certain behaviours of modern-day Filipinos can be traced back to older traditions and customs that were geared towards protecting themselves from the aswang. Some of the contemporary behaviours he mentions include:


title: Muffuletta

text: The muffuletta or muffaletta is both a type of round Sicilian sesame bread and a popular sandwich that originated among Italian immigrants in New Orleans, Louisiana, using the same bread.


title: Muffuletta

text: The muffuletta sandwich is said to have been created in 1906 at Central Grocery Co. on Decatur Street, New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S., by its delicatessen owner Salvatore Lupo, a Sicilian immigrant. Sicilian immigrant Biaggio Montalbano (), who was a delicatessen owner in New Orleans, is credited with invention of the Roma Sandwich, which may have been a forerunner of the Muffuletta. Another Italian-style New Orleans delicatessen, Progress Grocery Co., originally opened in 1924 by the Perrone family, claims the origin of the muffuletta is uncertain.


title: Muffuletta

text: The traditional-style muffuletta sandwich consists of a muffuletta loaf split horizontally and covered with layers of marinated muffuletta-style olive salad, salami, ham, Swiss cheese, provolone, and mortadella. Quarter, half, and full-sized muffulettas are sold.


title: Muffuletta

text: The signature olive salad consists of olives diced with the celery, cauliflower and carrot found in a jar of giardiniera, seasoned with oregano and garlic, covered in olive oil, and allowed to combine for at least 24 hours.


title: Muffuletta

text: The name is believed to be a diminutive form of "muffe" ("mold", "mushroom"), perhaps due to the round sandwich bread being reminiscent of a mushroom cap; or from "muffola", "muff, mitten,". The forms "muffoletta" and its iterations are modern Italianisms of the original Sicilian. Like many of the foreign-influenced terms found in New Orleans, pronunciation has evolved from a phonetic forebear.


title: Muffuletta

text: There are similarities between the muffuletta and the pan bagnat sandwich which comes from Nice, France.


title: Social status

text: Social status is the level of social value a person is considered to possess. More specifically, it refers to the relative level of respect, honour, assumed competence, and deference accorded to people, groups, and organizations in a society. Status is based in widely shared "beliefs" about who members of a society think holds comparatively more or less social value, in other words, who they believe is better in terms of competence or moral traits. Status is determined by the possession of various characteristics culturally believed to indicate superiority or inferiority (e.g., confident manner of speech or race). As such, people use status hierarchies to allocate resources, leadership positions, and other forms of power. In doing so, these shared cultural beliefs make unequal distributions of resources and power appear natural and fair, supporting systems of social stratification. Status hierarchies appear to be universal across human societies, affording valued benefits to those who occupy the higher rungs, such as better health, social approval, resources, influence, and freedom.


title: Social status

text: The sociologist Max Weber outlined three central aspects of stratification in a society: class, status, and power. In his scheme, which remains influential today, people possess status in the sense of honor because they belong to specific groups with unique lifestyles and privileges. Modern sociologists and social psychologists broadened this understanding of status to refer to one's relative level of respectability and honor more generally.


title: Social status

text: Some writers have also referred to a socially valued role or category a person occupies as a "status" (e.g., gender, social class, ethnicity, having a criminal conviction, having a mental illness, etc.). As social network analysts, Stanley Wasserman and Katherine Faust Stanley cautioned "there is considerable disagreement among social scientists about the definitions of the related concepts of social position, social status, and social role." They note that while many scholars differentiate those terms, they can define those terms in a way that clashes with the definitions of another scholar; for example they state that "[Ralph] Linton uses the term 'status' in a way that is identical to our use of the term "position".


title: Social status

text: Status hierarchies depend primarily on the possession and use of status symbols. These are cues or characteristics that people in a society agree indicate how much status a person holds and how they should be treated. Such symbols can include the possession of valued attributes, like being conventionally beautiful or having a prestigious degree. Other status symbols include wealth and its display through conspicuous consumption. Status in face-to-face interaction can also be conveyed through certain controllable behaviors, such as assertive speech, posture, and emotional displays. Social network analysts have also shown that one's affiliations can also be a source of status. Several studies document that being popular or demonstrating dominance over peers increases a person's status. Analyses of private companies also find that organizations can gain status from having well-respected corporate partners or investors.


title: Social status

text: Because status is always relative to others, that means a person can enter many situations throughout their life or even a single day in which they hold high, equal, or low status depending on who is around them. For instance, a doctor holds high status when interacting with a patient, equal status in a meeting with fellow doctors, and low status when meeting with their hospital's chief of medicine. A person can also be a 'big fish in a small pond' such that they have higher status than everyone else in their organization, but low or equal status relative to professionals in their entire field.


title: Social status

text: Some perspectives on status emphasize its relatively fixed and fluid aspects. Ascribed statuses are fixed for an individual at birth, while achieved status is determined by social rewards an individual acquires during his or her lifetime as a result of the exercise of ability and/or perseverance. Examples of ascribed status include castes, race, and beauty among others. Meanwhile, achieved statuses are akin to one's educational credentials or occupation: these things require a person to exercise effort and often undergo years of training. The term master status has been used to describe the status most important for determining a person's position in a given context, like possessing a mental illness.


title: Social status

text: However, the concept of a master status is controversial. Status characteristics theory argues members of a task group will listen to whomever they believe will most help them solve a problem. One's external status in society (e.g., race or gender) determines influence in small groups, but so does a person's known ability on the task (e.g., mechanical ability when a car breaks down). This implies that known ability would attenuate the effect of external status, implying a given external status characteristic is not a master status. The program of research finds characteristics assumed to be master statuses (e.g., mental illness) are, in fact, attenuated by known ability. Moreover, status affects group members' assertiveness only when characteristics differentiate group members (i.e., groups are mixed-race or mixed-gender). With respect to gender, experimental tests repeatedly found that women are highly deferential only in the presence of men. Although for disadvantaged groups, status disadvantage is not completely negated by valued characteristics, their social status does not depend predominantly on any one group membership. As such, status characteristics research has yet to identify a social characteristic that operates like a robust cross-situational master status.


title: Social status

text: Although a person's status does not always correspond to merit or actual ability, it does allow the members of a group to coordinate their actions and quickly agree on who among them should be listened to. When actual ability does correspond to status, then status hierarchies can be especially useful. They allow leaders to emerge who set informed precedents and influence less knowledgeable group members, allowing groups to use the shared information of their group to make more correct decisions. This can be especially helpful in novel situations where group members must determine who is best equipped to complete a task.


title: Social status

text: In addition, groups accord more respect and esteem to members who help them succeed, which encourages highly capable members to contribute in the first place. This helps groups motivate members to contribute to a collective good by offering respect and esteem as a kind of compensation for helping everyone in the group succeed. For instance, people recognized as achieving great feats for their group or society are sometimes accorded legendary status as heroes.


title: Social status

text: Finally--for good or ill--status maintains social inequality. Because status is based on beliefs about social worth and esteem, sociologists argue it can then appear only natural that higher-status people have more material resources and power. Status makes it appear that a person's rank or position in society is due to their relative merit, and therefore deserved. For instance, if a society holds that the homeless are unworthy of respect or dignity, then their poor material conditions are not evaluated as unjust by members of that society, and therefore are not subject to change.


title: Social status

text: Whether formal or informal, status hierarchies are present in all societies. In a society, the relative honor and prestige accorded to individuals depends on how well an individual is perceived to match a society's values and ideals (e.g., being pious in a religious society or wealthy in a capitalist society). Status often comes with attendant rights, duties, and lifestyle practices.


title: Social status

text: In modern societies, occupation is usually thought of as the main determinant of status, but other memberships or affiliations (such as ethnic group, religion, gender, voluntary associations, fandom, hobby) can have an influence. Achieved status, when people are placed in the stratification structure based on their individual merits or achievements like education or training, is thought to be reflective of modern developed societies. Consequently, achieved status implies that social mobility in a society is possible, as opposed to caste systems characterized by immobility based solely on ascribed status.


title: Social status

text: In pre-modern societies, status differentiation is widely varied. In some cases it can be quite rigid, such as with the Indian caste system. In other cases, status exists without class and/or informally, as is true with some Hunter-Gatherer societies such as the Khoisan, and some Indigenous Australian societies. In these cases, status is limited to specific personal relationships. For example, a Khoisan man is expected to take his wife's mother quite seriously (a non-joking relationship), although the mother-in-law has no special "status" over anyone except her son-in-law—and only then in specific contexts.


title: Social status

text: Status maintains and stabilizes social stratification. Mere inequality in resources and privileges is perceived as unfair and thus prompts retaliation and resistance from those of lower status, but if some individuals are seen as better than others (i.e., have higher status), then it seems natural and fair that high-status people receive more resources and privileges. Historically, Max Weber distinguished status from social class, though some contemporary empirical sociologists combine the two ideas to create socioeconomic status or SES, usually operationalized as a simple index of income, education and occupational prestige.


title: Social status

text: Social status hierarchies have been documented in a wide range of animals: apes, baboons, wolves, cows/bulls, hens, even fish, and ants. Natural selection produces status-seeking behavior because animals tend to have more surviving offspring when they raise their status in their social group. Such behaviors vary widely because they are adaptations to a wide range of environmental niches. Some social dominance behaviors tend to increase reproductive opportunity, while others tend to raise the survival rates of an individual’s offspring. Neurochemicals, particularly serotonin, prompt social dominance behaviors without need for an organism to have abstract conceptualizations of status as a means to an end. Social dominance hierarchy emerges from individual survival-seeking behaviors.


title: Social status

text: Status inconsistency is a situation where an individual's social positions have both positive and negative influences on his or her social status. For example, a teacher may have a positive societal image (respect, prestige) which increases their status but may earn little money, which simultaneously decreases their status. In task-focused interpersonal encounters, people unconsciously combine this information to develop impressions of their own and others' relative rank. At one time, researchers thought status inconsistency would be a source of stress, though evidence for this hypothesis proved inconsistent, leaving some to conclude conflicting expectations through occupying incompatible roles may be the true stressor.


title: Social status

text: Status is one of the major components of social stratification, the way people are hierarchically placed in a society. The members of a group with similar status interact mainly within their own group and to a lesser degree with those of higher or lower status in a recognized system of social stratification. Although the determinants of status are specific to different cultures, some of the more common bases for status-based stratification include:


title: Social status

text: The German sociologist Max Weber argued stratification is based on three factors: property, status, and power. He claimed that social stratification is a result of the interaction of wealth (class), prestige status (or in German "Stand") and power (party).


title: Social status

text: Max Weber developed the idea of "status group" which is a translation of the German "Stand" (pl. "Stände"). Status groups are communities that are based on ideas of lifestyles and the honor the status group both asserts, and is given by others. Status groups exist in the context of beliefs about relative prestige, privilege, and honor. People in status groups are only supposed to engage with people of like status, and in particular, marriage inside or outside the group is discouraged. Status groups in some societies include professions, club-like organizations, ethnicity, race, and any other socially (de)valued group that organizes interaction among relative equals.


title: Fresnel equations

text: The Fresnel equations (or Fresnel coefficients) describe the reflection and transmission of light (or electromagnetic radiation in general) when incident on an interface between different optical media. They were deduced by Augustin-Jean Fresnel () who was the first to understand that light is a transverse wave, even though no one realized that the "vibrations" of the wave were electric and magnetic fields. For the first time, polarization could be understood quantitatively, as Fresnel's equations correctly predicted the differing behaviour of waves of the "s" and "p" polarizations incident upon a material interface.


title: Fresnel equations

text: When light strikes the interface between a medium with refractive index "n" and a second medium with refractive index "n", both reflection and refraction of the light may occur. The Fresnel equations give the ratio of the "reflected" wave's electric field to the incident wave's electric field, and the ratio of the "transmitted" wave's electric field to the incident wave's electric field, for each of two components of polarization. (The "magnetic" fields can also be related using similar coefficients.) These ratios are generally complex, describing not only the relative amplitudes but also the phase shifts at the interface.


title: Fresnel equations

text: The equations assume the interface between the media is flat and that the media are homogeneous and isotropic. The incident light is assumed to be a plane wave, which is sufficient to solve any problem since any incident light field can be decomposed into plane waves and polarizations.


title: Fresnel equations

text: There are two sets of Fresnel coefficients for two different linear polarization components of the incident wave. Since any polarization state can be resolved into a combination of two orthogonal linear polarizations, this is sufficient for any problem. Likewise, unpolarized (or "randomly polarized") light has an equal amount of power in each of two linear polarizations.


title: Fresnel equations

text: The s polarization refers to polarization of a wave's electric field "normal" to the plane of incidence (the direction in the derivation below); then the magnetic field is "in" the plane of incidence. The p polarization refers to polarization of the electric field "in" the plane of incidence (the plane in the derivation below); then the magnetic field is "normal" to the plane of incidence.


title: Fresnel equations

text: Although the reflection and transmission are dependent on polarization, at normal incidence ("θ" = 0) there is no distinction between them so all polarization states are governed by a single set of Fresnel coefficients (and another special case is mentioned below in which that is true).


title: Fresnel equations

text: In the diagram on the right, an incident plane wave in the direction of the ray IO strikes the interface between two media of refractive indices "n" and "n" at point O. Part of the wave is reflected in the direction OR, and part refracted in the direction OT. The angles that the incident, reflected and refracted rays make to the normal of the interface are given as "θ", "θ" and "θ", respectively.


title: Fresnel equations

text: The behavior of light striking the interface is solved by considering the electric and magnetic fields that constitute an electromagnetic wave, and the laws of electromagnetism, as shown below. The ratio of waves' electric field (or magnetic field) amplitudes are obtained, but in practice one is more often interested in formulae which determine "power" coefficients, since power (or irradiance) is what can be directly measured at optical frequencies. The power of a wave is generally proportional to the square of the electric (or magnetic) field amplitude.


title: Fresnel equations

text: We call the fraction of the incident power that is reflected from the interface the "reflectance" (or reflectivity, or power reflection coefficient) "R", and the fraction that is refracted into the second medium is called the "transmittance" (or transmissivity, or power transmission coefficient) "T". Note that these are what would be measured right "at" each side of an interface and do not account for attenuation of a wave in an absorbing medium "following" transmission or reflection.


title: Fresnel equations

text: We assume that the media are non-magnetic (i.e., "μ" = "μ" = "μ"), which is typically a good approximation at optical frequencies (and for transparent media at other frequencies). Then the wave impedances are determined solely by the refractive indices "n" and "n":


title: Fresnel equations

text: where is the impedance of free space and =1,2. Making this substitution, we obtain equations using the refractive indices:


title: Fresnel equations

text: The second form of each equation is derived from the first by eliminating "θ" using Snell's law and trigonometric identities.


title: Fresnel equations

text: As a consequence of conservation of energy, one can find the transmitted power (or more correctly, irradiance: power per unit area) simply as the portion of the incident power that isn't reflected:


title: Fresnel equations

text: Note that all such intensities are measured in terms of a wave's irradiance in the direction normal to the interface; this is also what is measured in typical experiments. That number could be obtained from irradiances "in the direction of an incident or reflected wave" (given by the magnitude of a wave's Poynting vector) multiplied by cos"θ" for a wave at an angle "θ" to the normal direction (or equivalently, taking the dot product of the Poynting vector with the unit vector normal to the interface). This complication can be ignored in the case of the reflection coefficient, since cos"θ" = cos"θ", so that the ratio of reflected to incident irradiance in the wave's direction is the same as in the direction normal to the interface.


title: Fresnel equations

text: Although these relationships describe the basic physics, in many practical applications one is concerned with "natural light" that can be described as unpolarized. That means that there is an equal amount of power in the "s" and "p" polarizations, so that the "effective" reflectivity of the material is just the average of the two reflectivities:


title: Fresnel equations

text: For low-precision applications involving unpolarized light, such as computer graphics, rather than rigorously computing the effective reflection coefficient for each angle, Schlick's approximation is often used.


title: Fresnel equations

text: For the case of normal incidence, and there is no distinction between s and p polarization. Thus, the reflectance simplifies to


title: Fresnel equations

text: For common glass ("n" ≈ 1.5) surrounded by air ("n"=1), the power reflectance at normal incidence can be seen to be about 4%, or 8% accounting for both sides of a glass pane.


title: Fresnel equations

text: At a dielectric interface from to , there is a particular angle of incidence at which goes to zero and a p-polarised incident wave is purely refracted, thus all reflected light is s-polarised. This angle is known as Brewster's angle, and is around 56° for "n"=1 and "n"=1.5 (typical glass).


title: Fresnel equations

text: When light travelling in a denser medium strikes the surface of a less dense medium (i.e., ), beyond a particular incidence angle known as the "critical angle", all light is reflected and . This phenomenon, known as total internal reflection, occurs at incidence angles for which Snell's law predicts that the sine of the angle of refraction would exceed unity (whereas in fact sin"θ" ≤ 1 for all real "θ"). For glass with "n"=1.5 surrounded by air, the critical angle is approximately 42°.


title: Fresnel equations

text: The above equations relating powers (which could be measured with a photometer for instance) are derived from the Fresnel equations which solve the physical problem in terms of electromagnetic field complex amplitudes, i.e., considering phase shifts in addition to their amplitudes. Those underlying equations supply generally complex-valued ratios of those EM fields and may take several different forms, depending on the formalism used. The complex amplitude coefficients for reflection and transmission are usually represented by lower case "r" and "t" (whereas the power coefficients are capitalized). As before, we are assuming the magnetic permeability, of both media to be equal to the permeability of free space as is essentially true of all dielectrics at optical frequencies.


title: Fresnel equations

text: In the following equations and graphs, we adopt the following conventions. For "s" polarization, the reflection coefficient is defined as the ratio of the reflected wave's complex electric field amplitude to that of the incident wave, whereas for "p" polarization is the ratio of the waves complex "magnetic" field amplitudes (or equivalently, the "negative" of the ratio of their electric field amplitudes). The transmission coefficient is the ratio of the transmitted wave's complex electric field amplitude to that of the incident wave, for either polarization. The coefficients and are generally different between the "s" and "p" polarizations, and even at normal incidence (where the designations "s" and "p" do not even apply!) the sign of is reversed depending on whether the wave is considered to be "s" or "p" polarized, an artifact of the adopted sign convention (see graph for an air-glass interface at 0° incidence).


title: Fresnel equations

text: The equations consider a plane wave incident on a plane interface at angle of incidence a wave reflected at angle and a wave transmitted at angle In the case of an interface into an absorbing material (where "n" is complex) or total internal reflection, the angle of transmission does not generally evaluate to a real number. In that case, however, meaningful results can be obtained using formulations of these relationships in which trigonometric functions and geometric angles are avoided; the inhomogeneous waves launched into the second medium cannot be described using a single propagation angle.


title: Fresnel equations

text: One can see that and . One can write very similar equations applying to the ratio of the waves' magnetic fields, but comparison of the electric fields is more conventional.


title: Fresnel equations

text: Because the reflected and incident waves propagate in the same medium and make the same angle with the normal to the surface, the power reflection coefficient R is just the squared magnitude of "r":


title: Fresnel equations

text: On the other hand, calculation of the power transmission coefficient is less straightforward, since the light travels in different directions in the two media. What's more, the wave impedances in the two media differ; power (irradiance) is given by the square of the electric field amplitude "divided by" the characteristic impedance of the medium (or by the square of the magnetic field "multiplied by" the characteristic impedance). This results in:


title: Fresnel equations

text: using the above definition of . The introduced factor of is the reciprocal of the ratio of the media's wave impedances. The factors adjust the waves' powers so they are reckoned "in the direction" normal to the interface, for both the incident and transmitted waves, so that full power transmission corresponds to "T"=1.