title: Johnny Gill

text: Gill has had over 80 television and film appearances as a singer and actor. He had a cameo role on the TV show "Family Matters", and sang "You For Me" in the 2006 movie "Madea's Family Reunion". Gill starred in the 2009 stage play "A Mother's Prayer", alongside Robin Givens, Shirley Murdock, and Jermaine Crawford.


title: Johnny Gill

text: In 1991, Gill won two Soul Train Awards: for Best R&B/Urban Contemporary Album of the Year – Male (for "Johnny Gill") and for Best R&B/Urban Contemporary Single (for "My My My").


title: Johnny Gill

text: In 2019, Gill won the SoulTracks Readers' Choice Award for Album of the Year (for "Game Changer II").


title: Marlène Jobert

text: Jobert was born in Algiers, Algeria, to a Sephardic Jewish and Pied-Noir family, the daughter of Eliane Azulay and Charles Jobert, who served in the French Air Force. She came to Metropolitan France aged eight.


title: Marlène Jobert

text: Jobert debuted as an actress on stage and television. In 1968, she achieved stardom by playing starring roles in the successful comedies "Faut pas prendre les enfants du bon Dieu pour des canards sauvages" and "L'Astragale". She co-starred with Charles Bronson in "Rider on the Rain" and with Jean-Paul Belmondo in "The Married Couple of the Year Two". During the 1970s, Jobert was one of France's popular movie actresses. But during the next decade, she gradually withdrew from film work and concentrated on a new career in children's literature. She is the author and/or narrator of (mainly children's) audio books. She also has written a series of books which cautiously lead on to the appreciation of classical music, e.g. of Mozart, Chopin, and Tchaikovsky.


title: Marlène Jobert

text: Jobert and spouse Swedish dental surgeon Dr Walter Green have twin daughters: Eva Green, who is also an actress, and Joy Green, who is a horse breeder in Italy. Her niece Joséphine Jobert is an actress known for the television show "Death in Paradise".


title: Carlism

text: Carlism (; ; ; ) is a Traditionalist and Legitimist political movement in Spain aimed at establishing an alternative branch of the Bourbon dynasty – one descended from Don Carlos, Count of Molina (1788–1855) – on the Spanish throne.


title: Carlism

text: The movement was founded in consequence of a dispute over the succession laws and widespread dissatisfaction with the Alfonsine line of the House of Bourbon. It was at its strongest in the 1830s but experienced a revival following Spain's defeat in the Spanish–American War in 1898, when Spain lost its last remaining significant overseas territories of the Philippines, Cuba, Guam, and Puerto Rico to the United States.


title: Carlism

text: Carlism was a significant force in Spanish politics from 1833 until the end of the Francoist regime in 1975. In this capacity, it was the cause of the Carlist Wars of the 19th century and an important factor in the Spanish Civil War in the 1930s. Today, Carlists are a minor party.


title: Carlism

text: Traditionally, all but one of the Spanish kingdoms allowed the succession of daughters in the absence of sons and of sisters in the absence of brothers (male-preference primogeniture). The one exception, Aragon, tended to favor semi-Salicism. The most elaborate rules formed the "Seven-part code" ("Siete partidas") of the late 13th century.


title: Carlism

text: On 1 November 1700 a French Bourbon prince, Philip V, acceded to the Spanish throne. In the French royal house, Salic law applied, which did not permit female succession. Accordingly, the traditional Spanish order of succession had to give way to a semi-Salic system, which excluded women from the crown unless all males in the agnatic descent from Philip, in any branch, became extinct. This change was probably forced by external pressure to avoid any possible personal union of the Crown of Spain with a foreign monarchy like France. (The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) had broken out to prevent Spain and France from uniting the two realms under the same king.)


title: Carlism

text: Although the Spanish government made several attempts to revert to the traditional order, as in the Decree of 1789 by Charles IV of Spain (see below), the succession question became pressing only when, by 1830, Ferdinand VII found himself ailing, without any issue, but with a pregnant wife. He decided in 1830 to promulgate the 1789 decree, securing the crown for the unborn child even if female. The law placed the child, Princess Isabel, ahead of Ferdinand's brother Infante Carlos, who until then had been heir presumptive.


title: Carlism

text: Many contemporaries (starting with the King's brother and the cadet Bourbon branches) saw the changed succession as illegal on various counts. They formed the basis for the dynastic Carlist party, which only recognized the semi-Salic succession law that gave Infante Carlos precedence over Ferdinand's daughter, the future Isabella II.


title: Carlism

text: As in many European countries, after the Napoleonic occupation, the Spanish political class was split between the "absolutists", supporters of the ancien régime, and the Liberals, influenced by the ideas of the French Revolution.


title: Carlism

text: The long war for Spain's independence from the Napoleonic Empire left a large supply of experienced guerrilla fighters and an oversized military officialdom—for the most part, staunch Liberals. The perceived success of the uprising of 1808 against Napoleon left also a broad, if unconscious, belief in the validity of the right of rebellion, with long-lasting effects on the politics of Spain and Spanish America, extending through the 19th century and beyond.


title: Carlism

text: The reign of Ferdinand VII proved unable to overcome the political divide or to create stable institutions. The so-called Liberal Triennium (1820–1823) re-instated the 1812 constitution after a military "pronunciamiento", but was followed by the Ominous Decade (1823–1833), ten years of absolute rule by the king, that left bitter memories of persecution in both parties.


title: Carlism

text: While in power, both groups had divided themselves into moderate and radical branches. The radical branch of the absolutists (or royalists), known as the "Apostólicos", looked upon the heir presumptive, Don Carlos, as its natural head, as he was profoundly devout and, especially after 1820, staunchly anti-liberal.


title: Carlism

text: In 1827, Catalonia was shaken by the rebellion of the "Agreujats" or "Agraviados" ("the Aggrieved"), an ultra-absolutist movement, which, for a time, controlled large parts of the region. The infante was for the first time then hailed as king. He denied any involvement.


title: Carlism

text: The last years of King Ferdinand saw a political realignment due to the troubles surrounding his succession. In October 1832, the King formed a moderate royalist government under Francisco Cea Bermúdez, which almost succeeded in curbing the Apostolic party and, through an amnesty, in gaining liberal support for Isabella's right to succeed under the regency of her mother, Maria Christina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies. If only to get rid of Don Carlos, the Liberals accepted the new Princess of Asturias.


title: Carlism

text: Moreover, the first years of the 1830s were influenced by the failure of the French Restoration, which meant the end of Bourbon rule in France, and the civil war in Portugal between both legitimist and liberal parties.


title: Carlism

text: Beside this political evolution, the years before the Carlist wars were marked by a deep economic crisis in Spain, partly spurred by the loss of the continental American provinces, and by the bankruptcy of the state. The last triggered enhanced tax pressures which further fueled social unrest.


title: Carlism

text: Certain economic measures proposed by the Liberals (such as the "Desamortización", i.e. the takeover, division and sale of the commons and Church property, initiated in 1821) were directly threatening the viability of many small farms, whose residents were accustomed to rely on the common pasture lands to feed, at little or no cost, their mules and oxen. Widespread poverty followed, as did the closure of most hospitals, schools and other charities.


title: Carlism

text: An important factor was the 'religious' question. The radical liberals ("progresistas") after 1820 had grown more and more anticlerical, strongly opposing religious institutes. They were suspected of being adherents of Freemasonry. This policy alienated them from many sectors of the (mostly deeply Catholic) Spanish people, especially in rural areas.


title: Carlism

text: The only institution abolished in the "Liberal Triennium", that was not restored by Ferdinand VII, was the Inquisition. One of the demands of the radical absolutist party was its reinstitution. Liberals had been, while in power, quite doctrinaire, pursuing centralization and uniform administration.


title: Carlism

text: Besides the Basque Country, in many regions of Spain there were intense particularist feelings, which were thus hurt. While only a secondary factor at the outbreak of the first Carlist war, this anti-uniformist localism, exemplified in the defense of the "fueros", would become in time one of the more important banners of Carlism. This won Carlism support in the Basque territories (Navarre, Gipuzkoa, Biscay and Araba), as well as the old realms of the Crown of Aragon (Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia), as those areas resented the abolition of their ancient self-government privileges by issuance of the Nueva Planta Decrees.


title: Carlism

text: The history of Carlism can be usefully divided into four different stages, whose dates are only approximate (thus the overlap is intentional):


title: Carlism

text: The period of the Carlist Wars, during which the party tried to attain power mainly through military means, is both classical Carlism, because the wars – or the threat of them – placed Carlism on the center stage of Spain's political history, and formative, as Carlism evolved the cultural and sociological form it would retain for well over a hundred years.


title: Carlism

text: At the beginning of each war, no regular army unit was on the Carlist side, and only the third was the result of a planned uprising.


title: Carlism

text: The first war was noteworthy for being, on both sides, extremely brutal. The Liberal army mistreated the population, most of whom it suspected of being Carlist sympathizers, to the point of, sometimes, attempted extermination; Carlists, very often, treated Liberals no better than they had treated Napoleonic soldiers and agents, to such an extent that the international powers forced the warring parties to recognize some rules of war, namely the "Lord Eliot Convention". Brutality did not disappear completely, and giving no quarter to one's enemy was not uncommon.


title: Carlism

text: The areas over which Carlism could establish some sort of territorial authority during the first war (Navarre, Rioja, the rural Basque Country, inner Catalonia and northern Valencia) would remain the main bulwarks of Carlism throughout its history, although there were active supporters of the movement everywhere else in Spain. Especially in Navarre, Asturias, and parts of the Basque Provinces Carlism remained a significant political force until the late 1960s.


title: Carlism

text: The loss of prestige and subsequent fall of Isabel II in 1868, plus the staunch support of Carlism by Pope Pius IX, led a sizable number of former Isabelline conservative Catholics (e.g., Francisco Navarro Villoslada, Antonio Aparisi, Cándido Nocedal, Alejandro Pidal) to join the Carlist cause. For a time, even beyond the start of the third war (1872), it became the most important, and best organized, "right-wing" opposition group to the revolutionary regime, with some 90 members of parliament in 1871.


title: Carlism

text: After the defeat, a group (led by Alejandro Pidal) left Carlism to form a moderate, non-dynastic Catholic party in Spain, which latter merged with the conservatives of Antonio Cánovas del Castillo.


title: Carlism

text: In 1879 Cándido Nocedal was charged with the reorganization of the party. His main weapon was a very aggressive press (in 1883 Pope Leo XIII published the encyclical "Cum multa", trying to moderate it). His stance was an uncompromising adherence to the Carlists' political and, especially, religious principles (hence the term "integrist"). This tendency became so radical that in 1888, Carlos VII had to expel the group centered around Ramón Nocedal, Cándido's son, which thus gave rise to another small, but in clerical circles influential, Integrist Party.


title: Carlism

text: Meanwhile, Marquis de Cerralbo built up a modern mass party, centered around the local assemblies (called "Círculos", of which several hundred existed throughout Spain in 1936) and their social action programmes, and in active opposition to the political system of the Restoration (participating even in broad coalitions, such as 1907's "Solidaritat Catalana", with regionalists and republicans). During electoral campaigns the Carlists, except Navarre, achieved little success.


title: Carlism

text: From 1893 to 1918, Juan Vázquez de Mella was its most important parliamentary leader and ideologue, seconded by Víctor Pradera, who had wide influence on Spanish conservative thinking beyond the party.


title: Carlism

text: World War I had a special influence on Carlism. As the Carlist claimant, then Jaime, Duke of Madrid, had close ties to the Russian Imperial Family, had been mistreated by Austrian Emperor Franz Josef, and was also Head of the House of Bourbon, he favoured the Allies, but was living under house-arrest in Austria, at Schloss Frohsdorf, with almost no communication with the political leadership in Spain. As the war ended and Don Jaime could again freely communicate with Spain, a crisis erupted, and Vázquez de Mella and others had to leave the party's leadership (the so-called "Mellists").


title: Carlism

text: In 1920, Carlism helped to found the "Sindicatos Libres" (Catholic Labour Unions) to counter the increased influence of leftist trade unions over the working class, clinging to a difficult balance between labour claims and the interests of the upper-class, to whom Carlism was so attached.


title: Carlism

text: Miguel Primo de Rivera's dictatorship (1923–1930) was opposed but ambiguously viewed by Carlism, which, like most parties, entered a period of slumber, only to be awakened by the coming of the Second Republic in 1931. In the run-up to the proclamation of the Republic, the Carlists got together with the re-founded Basque Nationalist Party within the pro-"charters" "Coalición Católico Fuerista" in the core areas of Carlism, the Basque region, thus providing the springboard for the draft Basque Statute.


title: Carlism

text: In October 1931, Carlist claimant to the Spanish throne Duke Jaime died. He was succeeded by the 82-year-old claimant Alfonso Carlos de Borbón, reuniting under him the integrists led by Olazábal and the "Mellists". They represented a region-based Spanish nationalism with an entrenched identification of Spain and Catholicism. The ensuing radicalized Carlist scene overshadowed the "Jaimists" with a Basque inclination. The Basque(-Navarrese) Statute failed to take off over disagreements on the centrality of Catholicism in 1932, with the new Carlist party "Comunión Tradicionalista" opting for an open confrontation with the Republic. The Republic established a secular approach of the regime, a division of Church and state, as well as freedom of cults, as France did in 1905, an approach traditionalists could not stand.


title: Carlism

text: The "Comunión Tradicionalista" (1932) showed an ultra-Catholic, anti-secular position, and plotted for a military takeover, while adopting far-right apocalyptic views and talking of a final clash with an alliance of alleged anti-Christian forces. The most extreme proponent of these views was Juan Vazquez de Mella, who argued that Jewish capital had financed the liberal revolution and was now behind the Communist revolution in order, in union with the "Muslim hordes" (even the native tribesmen of the Rif fighting for their freedom), to destroy Christian civilization and impose a "Jewish tyranny on the world". At the time, a Rothschild-Marx link and a bridgehead laid over Spain was being cited in the far-right circles to found these claims.


title: Carlism

text: In Navarre, the main Carlist stronghold, the movement revolved around the newspaper "El Pensamiento Navarro", read almost exclusively by the clergy and second in circulation to "El Diario de Navarra", another ultra-Conservative daily with an anti-Basque streak. The dormant paramilitary "Requeté" of the early 20th century was activated. As early as May 1931, Jaime del Burgo (father of the 1979 UPN namesake party leader) and other "Jaimist" young members organized arms smuggling from Eibar to distribute them among "defence" parties called "Decurias", counting on the financing of wealthy personalities (big landowners, etc.). In 1932, the first coup d'état attempt took place against the Republic in the "Sanjurjada", with a Carlist inspiration.


title: Carlism

text: The October 1934 Revolution cost the life of the Carlist deputy Marcelino Oreja Elósegui, with Manuel Fal Condé taking over from young Carlists clustering around the AET (Jaime del Burgo and Mario Ozcoidi) in their pursuit to overthrow the Republic. The Carlists started to prepare for an armed definite clash with the Republic and its different leftist groups. From the initial defensive "Decurias" of Navarre (deployed in party seats and churches), the "Requeté" grew into a well-trained and strongest offensive paramilitary group in Spain when Manuel Fal Condé took the reins. It numbered 30,000 "red berets" (8,000 in Navarre and 22,000 in Andalusia).


title: Carlism

text: The Carlist militia, the "Requetés", had been receiving military training during the Second Spanish Republic but had significant ideological differences with many of the conspiring generals. With the July 1936 revolt and the ensuing Spanish Civil War, the Carlists fell naturally if uneasily on the side of the Nationalist rebels. General Mola, known for his openness on his no-holds-barred, criminal approach, had just been relocated away to Pamplona by the Republican authorities, ironically to the very heart of the far-right rebellion.


title: Carlism

text: In May 1936, the General met with Ignacio Baleztena, a Navarrese Carlist figure at the head of the "Requetés", offering the participation of 8,400 voluntaries to support the uprising, turned into a counter-revolutionary reaction. The principles divide between Manuel Fal Conde and Mola (basically a Falangist) almost broke the understanding for a Carlist allegiance to the coup on 4 July 1936. However, rebellious cooperation against the legitimate Republican government was restored by the intervention of Tomás Domínguez Arévalo, count of Rodezno.


title: Carlism

text: The highest Carlist authority, the Duke Alfonso Carlos, did not approve of the pact, but all the same, by then Mola was negotiating directly with the Carlist Navarre Council ("Junta Navarra"), one that opted for the support to the uprising. On 19 July, the state of war was declared in Pamplona and the Carlist corps ("tercio") in the city took over. In a few days time, just about all Navarre was occupied by the military and the "Requetés". There was no front.


title: Carlism

text: Immediately the rebels, with a direct participation of the "Requetés" and the clergy (the Carlist core in Navarre), engaged in a brutal repression to stamp out dissent that affected all inconvenient, mildly progressive, or Basque nationalist inhabitants and personalities. The killing in the rearguard took a direct death toll (extrajudicial executions) ranging from 2,857 to 3,000 to circa 4,000. A bleak scene of social humiliation and submission ensued for those surviving.


title: Carlism

text: The Carlists' prospects in Gipuzkoa and Biscay were not auspicious. The military coup failed, and Carlist units were overwhelmed by forces loyal to the Republic, i.e. different leftist forces and the Basque nationalists. Many crossed the front-line to make themselves safe in the rebel zone, and added to the Carlist regiments in Álava and Navarre. Pamplona became the rebel launching point for the War in the North.


title: Carlism

text: On 8 December 1936, Fal Conde had to leave temporarily for Portugal after a major clash with Franco. On 19 April 1937 the Carlist political bloc was "unified" with the Falange under the pro-Franco, umbrella nationalist party, "Falange Española Tradicionalista de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista" or "FET de las JONS". Unwilling to leave the Nationalist movement, but unhappy with the merger, the new Carlist claimant Javier, prince de Borbón-Parma, condemned those Carlists who joined the new party.


title: Carlism

text: He was expelled from the country, while Fal Conde was not allowed to return to Spain until after the war. Low-level Carlists, with the notable exception of those in Navarre, generally distanced themselves from the workings of the new party and in many cases never joined at all.


title: Carlism

text: Henceforth, the mainstream kept an uncomfortable minority position inside the regime, more often than not at odds with its official policy, although the ministry of Justice was thrice given to a loyal "Carlist" (who was accordingly expelled from the Traditionalist Communion). This time was also marred by the problem of succession and internal strife over Francoism.


title: Carlism

text: Carlist ministers in Franco's August 1939 cabinet included General José Enrique Varela at army, and Esteban Bilbao at justice. At the same time, two of nine seats in the Junta Política were given to Carlists. Of the hundred-member National Council of the FET, seven seats were occupied by Carlists.


title: Carlism

text: Carlists continued to clash with Falangists, notably in an incident at Bilbao's Basilica of Begoña on 16 August 1942. Accounts of the violence vary, but a Carlist rally (where some allegedly shouted anti-Franco slogans) was targeted by two grenades hurled by Falangists. While alleged fatalities and the number of those injured have long been disputed, the incident led to a shakeup of the Franco cabinet and the judicial conviction of six Falangists (one, Juan José Domínguez, was executed for the crime).


title: Carlism

text: In 1955 Fal Conde resigned as Jefe Delegado of the movement and was replaced by José María Valiente, who formally assumed the title in 1960. The change marked a shift from opposition to collaboration with Francoism, and the rapprochement ended in 1968, when Valiente left office.


title: Carlism

text: Franco recognized both the titles of nobility conceded by the Carlist claimants and those of the Isabelline branch. At his death, the movement was badly split, and unable to get wide public attention again.


title: Carlism

text: In 1971, Don Carlos Hugo, prince de Borbón-Parma founded the new Carlist Party based on the confederalist vision for "Las Españas" ("the Spains") and socialist autogestion (then promoted in Yugoslavia). At Montejurra, on 9 May 1976, adherents of the old and new versions of Carlism brawled. Two Hugo supporters were killed by far-right militants, among whom was Stefano Delle Chiaie. The Carlist Party accused Hugo's younger brother, Don Sixto Enrique de Borbón-Parma, of aiding the militants, which collaboration the Traditionalist Communion denies.


title: Carlism

text: In the first democratic elections on 15 June 1977, only one Carlist senator was elected, journalist and writer Fidel Carazo from Soria, who ran as an independent candidate. In the parliamentary elections of 1979, rightist Carlists integrated in the far-right coalition "Unión Nacional", that won a seat in the Cortes for Madrid; but the elected candidate was not himself a Carlist. The Carlists have since remained extra-parliamentary, obtaining only town council seats.


title: Carlism

text: In 2002 Carlos Hugo donated the House's archives to the "Archivo Histórico Nacional", which was protested by his brother Don Sixto Enrique and by all Carlist factions.


title: Carlism

text: While they were not proclaimed kings, they made use of some titles associated with the Spanish throne.


title: Carlism

text: At the death of Alfonso Carlos in 1936 most Carlists supported Prince Xavier of Bourbon-Parma whom Alfonso Carlos had named as regent of the Carlist Communion.


title: Carlism

text: A minority of Carlists supported Archduke Karl Pius of Austria, Prince of Tuscany, a grandson through the female line of Carlos VII.


title: Carlism

text: A fringe movement of Carlists supported Alfonso XIII, the exiled constitutional king of Spain, who was the senior male descendant of King Charles IV. The majority of Carlists, however, considered Alfonso disqualified because he did not share the Carlist ideals (and, importantly, because Spanish law excluded from succession the descendants of those who commit treason against the king, as Carlists deem Alfonso's male-line ancestors to have done once Francisco de Paula recognized the reign of Isabella II). Many also regarded his descent as illegitimate, believing that Alfonso XII's biological father was a lover of Queen Isabella's rather than her husband.


title: Carlism

text: Most of the following events happened under the regime of Francisco Franco, who skillfully played each faction off against the others.


title: Carlism

text: Prince Xavier of Bourbon-Parma (25 May 1889 – 7 May 1977), known in Spain as "Don Javier de Borbón", had been named regent of the Carlist Communion by Alfonso Carlos in 1936 as the nearest member of the House of Bourbon who shared the Carlist ideals.


title: Carlism

text: During the Second World War, Prince Xavier returned to the Belgian army, where he had served during World War I. He was demobilized and joined the French maquis. He was taken prisoner by the Nazis and sent to Natzweiler and Dachau concentration camp, where American troops liberated him in 1945. In 1952, Javier was proclaimed King of Spain, asserting Carlist legitimacy. Since the death of Alfonso Carlos, his successor by right of agnatic primogeniture had yet to be determined. To do so, it was necessary to trace the patriline of Philip V to his seniormost descendant who was not excluded from the throne by law (for treason, morganatic marriage, birth out-of-wedlock and other reasons legally established in the "Novísima Recopilación" of 1805, in force at the time of the First Carlist War). In 1952, when all lines senior to the House of Bourbon-Parma were deemed excluded, the claim was taken up by Don Javier (descended from Duke Philip of Parma, third son of Philip V). Even though he was raised in the Carlist camp and named regent of the Carlist Communion in 1936, his proclamation as king later in 1956 was, it was asserted, not a political move based on ideology, but the consequence of dynastic legitimacy. He remained the Carlist claimant until his renunciation in 1975.


title: Carlism

text: Changes in the views of some in the Carlist movement polarized Javier's supporters between his two sons, Carlos Hugo and Sixto Enrique (and many more endorsing neither) in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Carlos Hugo turned organized Carlism into a socialist movement, while his brother Sixto Enrique (supported by his mother Madeleine de Bourbon-Busset) followed a far rightist course.


title: Carlism

text: In 1977 Sixto Enrique's supporters published a manifesto from Javier condemning Carlos Hugo. Several days later Carlos Hugo's supporters published a manifesto from Javier recognising Carlos Hugo as his heir.


title: Carlism

text: Carlos Hugo, Duke of Parma (8 April 1930 – 18 August 2010) was the elder son of Xavier. He was Carlist claimant from 1977 until his death. After alienating many Carlists by his attempts to approach Franco (1965–1967), Carlos Hugo switched to a leftist Titoist, workers' self-management socialist movement. In 1979 he accepted Spanish citizenship from King Juan Carlos I and in 1980 he renounced his membership in the Partido Carlista, which he had created. Carlos Hugo had the support of a minority of Carlists including the Partido Carlista. He also excluded the Luxembourger branch of the family from Carlist succession due to unequal marriages by princes of that branch that were recognized as dynastic by the Grand Duke.


title: Carlism

text: Prince Carlos, Duke of Parma (born 27 January 1970) is the elder son of Carlos Hugo. He inherited the Carlist claim on his father's death in 2010. Carlos has the support of a minority of Carlists including the Partido Carlista.


title: Carlism

text: Prince Sixto Enrique of Bourbon-Parma (born 22 July 1940) claims to be the current regent of the Carlist Communion. He is known as the Duke of Aranjuez.


title: Carlism

text: Sixto Enrique is supported by the minority "Comunión Tradicionalista", and some others who believe that his elder brother Carlos Hugo was rightful heir, but ineligible for the succession on account of his socialism. Sixto Enrique has never claimed to be Carlist king, in the hopes that one of his nephews will one day accept traditional Carlist values.


title: Carlism

text: The eldest daughter of Carlos, Duke of Madrid was Bianca de Borbón y Borbón-Parma (1868–1949). She married Archduke Leopold Salvator of Austria (1863–1931). In 1943, one of their sons presented himself as Carlist claimant in succession to his great-uncle Alfonso Carlos. Since this claim comes through a female line, it is rejected by most Carlists.


title: Carlism

text: In 2012, Senator Iñaki Anasagasti of the Basque Country proposed the idea of creating a united Basque-Navarrese-Catalan monarchy with Archduke Dominic of Austria its king.


title: Carlism

text: Alfonso XIII became the senior representative by primogeniture of the House of Bourbon at the death of Alfonso Carlos in 1936. He had reigned as the constitutional king of Spain as Alfonso XIII until his exile in 1931. He was the son of King Alfonso XII, son of Francisco de Asis de Borbón, son of Infante Francisco de Paula, the younger brother of Charles V. He was recognised as Carlist claimant by a small amount of Carlists who considered the death of Alfonso Carlos an opportunity to reunite Spanish monarchists, both Carlist and Isabelline. Nonetheless, despite this apparently attractive opportunity, Francisco de Paula and his descendants were considered legally and morally excluded from the line of succession by many Carlists as traitors, according to the Spanish laws of succession as they stood in 1833 (and as defended by Carlists since then). In 1941 Alfonso abdicated; he died two months later.


title: Carlism

text: Carlism's intellectual landscape was a reaction against the basic tenets of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution of 1789; laicism, individualism, egalitarianism, rationalism. In this sense, it is akin to the French Reactionaries (Legitimism) and Joseph de Maistre's thinking.


title: Carlism

text: While Carlism and Falangism had certain similarities—social conservatism, Catholicism and anti-Communism—there were also stark differences between the two movements. Most significant was the fact that whereas Falangism subscribed to a strongly centralising form of Spanish nationalism, Carlism was more supportive of the "fueros", preserving local culture and regional autonomy as was one of their main tenets.


title: Carlism

text: These four words (which can be translated as God, Fatherland, Local Rule, and King), have been the motto and cornerstone of Carlism throughout its existence. What Carlism understood by these was:


title: Carlism

text: Carlism was a true "mass movement" and drew its rank and file from all social classes, with a majority of peasant and working class elements. Thus, it is no surprise that Carlism was involved in the creation of Catholic trade unions. It was also a family tradition, later Carlists would be descendants of earlier Carlists.


title: Carlism

text: The term "carlistas" when applied to followers of Carlos Maria Isidro emerged in the mid-1820s and has even filtered out to public discourse overseas. Following outbreak of the civil war in 1833 the liberal and pro-government press started to use the denomination commonly, though initially also the name of "carlinos" remained in circulation, along expressions like "facciosos", "rebeldes", somewhat less frequent "absolutistas" and other denominations, often intended as insults. The followers of Carlos Maria initially did not use the term, and preferred to refer to themselves in general terms as defenders of faith, monarchy, traditional order and/or legitimism; they cautiously started to accept the name in the 1840s. Gradually in the Isabelline period the term became common and used universally, also by the Carlists themselves. In 1909-1931 the movement was often referred to as "Jaimismo"/"Jaimistas", as the claimant Don Jaime exceptionally did not bear the iconic name of Carlos.


title: Carlism

text: In the late 19th century a related but not equivalent term "tradicionalistas" entered into circulation and was also applied either to the movement in general or to some of its factions in particular; however, in press usage until the fall of the monarchy in 1931 "carlistas"/"carlismo" was 7 times more popular than "tradicionalistas"/"tradicionalismo". During the republican period of 1931-1936 public usage changed; "tradicionalistas"/"tradicionalismo" were used 2-3 times more frequently than "carlistas"/"carlismo", though the former assumed somewhat broader connotation. In the Francoist era of 1939-1975 the press, tightly censored especially until the mid-1960s, gave slight precedence to "carlistas" vs "tradicionalistas" and to "tradicionalismo" vs "carlismo". For the post-Francoist period there is no representative statistics available. Currently in historiography and political science there is little agreement as to mutual relationship between "traditionalism" and "carlism".


title: Carlism

text: Until the late 1860s the Carlist movement did not assume a formal structure. Shortly prior to outbreak of the Third Carlist War the first Carlist political organization emerged; during the following 160 years the mainstream movement was embodied into various political entities, some of them loose and with somewhat different names adopted locally. Relatively little significance was attached to organization, as Carlists considered themselves a broad social movement which in a sense was antithetical to a party. Splinter factions used to build their own structures, and the names of these evolved as well, some names were re-cycled and in popular discourse various alternate, informal or incorrect formal names have been used. Differences between informal and formal names have been often disregarded. The result was naming confusion, e.g. in the early 20th century 48% of press references featured "partido carlista" or "Partido Carlista", 18% featured "Partido Tradicionalista", 15% featured "Partido Jaimista" and 13% "Comunión Tradicionalista", plus at least 4 other denominations in circulation. In the mid-1930s the claimant Alfonso Carlos intended to introduce some discipline and declared that the only formal name be this of "Comunión Tradicionalista Carlista", but he later himself referred to "Comunión Católico-Monárquico-Legitimista". Statistical summary of frequency of various names as in press usage is reviewed in the below table.


title: Carlism

text: The liberal Spanish journalist Mariano José de Larra opposed Carlism and published several lampoons against it.


title: Carlism

text: Ernest Hemingway refers to Carlism in For Whom the Bell Tolls. He mentions two fascists and says, "They were Carlists from Navarra..."


title: Carlism

text: Francisco Navarro-Villoslada was a Carlist writer that published a historic novel, "Amaya o los vascos en el siglo VIII", in the fashion of Walter Scott, presenting the legendary origins of Spanish monarchy as the start of Reconquista.


title: Carlism

text: Ramón María del Valle-Inclán, novelist, poet and playwright, was a member of the Spanish Generation of 1898.


title: Carlism

text: Pío Baroja wrote a novel, "Zalacaín el aventurero" ("Zalacain the Adventurer"), set during the Third Carlist War, and referred to Carlism in a not very favourable light (as he generally referred to nearly everybody) in several other works.


title: Carlism

text: The Spanish philosopher Miguel de Unamuno suffered as a child the siege of Bilbao during the Third Carlist War.


title: Carlism

text: In 1895 he wrote to Joaquín Costa about his plans for an essay on the "intrahistoric" element of rural socialism within the Carlist masses.


title: Carlism

text: The American conservative writer and National Review columnist, L. Brent Bozell Jr., sympathized with Carlism and Francoism and considered Spanish Catholic authoritarianism to be preferable to American democracy.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: The Deutschland" class was a series of three Panzerschiffe" (armored ships), a form of heavily armed cruiser, built by the "Reichsmarine" officially in accordance with restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. The ships of the class, , , and , were all stated to displace in accordance with the Treaty, though they actually displaced at standard displacement. The design for the ships incorporated several radical innovations, including the first major use of welding in a warship and all-diesel propulsion. Due to their heavy armament of six guns and lighter weight, the British began referring to the vessels as "pocket battleships". The "Deutschland"-class ships were initially classified as "Panzerschiffe", but the "Kriegsmarine" reclassified them as heavy cruisers in February 1940.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: The three ships were built between 1929 and 1936 by the Deutsche Werke in Kiel and the "Reichsmarinewerft" in Wilhelmshaven, seeing much service with the German Navy. All three vessels served on non-intervention patrols during the Spanish Civil War. While on patrol, "Deutschland" was attacked by Republican bombers, and in response, "Admiral Scheer" bombarded the port of Almería. In 1937, "Admiral Graf Spee" represented Germany at the Coronation Review for Britain's King George VI. For the rest of their peacetime careers, the ships conducted a series of fleet maneuvers in the Atlantic and visited numerous foreign ports in goodwill tours.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: Before the outbreak of World War II, "Deutschland" and "Admiral Graf Spee" were deployed to the Atlantic to put them in position to attack Allied merchant traffic once war was declared. "Admiral Scheer" remained in port for periodic maintenance. "Deutschland" was not particularly successful on her raiding sortie, during which she sank or captured three ships. She then returned to Germany, where she was renamed "Lützow". "Admiral Graf Spee" sank nine vessels in the South Atlantic before she was confronted by three British cruisers at the Battle of the River Plate. Although she damaged the British ships, she was herself damaged and her engines were in poor condition. Coupled with deceptive false British reports of reinforcements, the state of the ship convinced Hans Langsdorff, her commander, to scuttle the ship outside Montevideo, Uruguay.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: "Lützow" and "Admiral Scheer" were deployed to Norway in 1942 to join the attacks on Allied convoys to the Soviet Union. "Admiral Scheer" conducted Operation Wunderland in August 1942, a sortie into the Kara Sea to attack Soviet merchant shipping, though it ended without significant success. "Lützow" took part in the Battle of the Barents Sea in December 1942, a failed attempt to destroy a convoy. Both ships were damaged in the course of their deployment to Norway and eventually returned to Germany for repairs. They ended their careers bombarding advancing Soviet forces on the Eastern Front; both ships were destroyed by British bombers in the final weeks of the war. "Lützow" was raised and sunk as a target by the Soviet Navy, and "Admiral Scheer" was partially broken up in situ, with the remainder of the hulk buried beneath rubble.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: Following Germany's defeat in World War I, the size of the German Navy, renamed the "Reichsmarine", was limited by the Treaty of Versailles. The Navy was permitted a force of six pre-dreadnought battleships and six light cruisers; the ships could not be replaced until they were twenty years old. To replace the battleships, new vessels were to displace at most ; Germany's potential rivals were at this time limited to building vessels of by the Washington Naval Treaty and subsequent agreements. The gun caliber of any new ship was not regulated by the Treaty itself, though the Naval Inter-Allied Commission of Control (NIACC) created by the Treaty did have authority to regulate the armament of all new warships. The Allies assumed that with these limitations, only coastal defense ships similar to those operated by the Scandinavian navies could be built.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: The "Reichsmarine"s oldest battleship, , was laid down in 1902 and could therefore be replaced legally in 1922. Design studies were considered starting in 1920, with two basic options: the Navy could build a heavily armored, slow, and small warship similar to a monitor, or a large, fast, and lightly armored vessel similar to a cruiser. Actual design work on the new type of armored ship began in 1923, but the German economy collapsed in 1924, forcing a temporary halt to the work. Admiral Hans Zenker, the commander in chief of the "Reichsmarine", pushed hard for the navy to resume design work, and in 1925 three new proposals were drafted. In addition to two sketches prepared in 1923, this totaled five different designs. Of the first two designs, "I/10" was a cruiser armed with eight guns while "II/10" was a , heavily armored ship armed with four guns. The three designs prepared in 1925—"II/30", "IV/30", and "V/30"—were armed with six guns with varying levels of armor protection. The "Reichsmarine" eventually opted for guns to avoid provoking the Allies and to ease pressures on the design staff.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: The "Reichsmarine" held a conference to evaluate the designs in May 1925, though the results were inconclusive. Of particular importance was the continued French occupation of the Ruhr industrial area, which prevented Germany from quickly building large-caliber artillery. Nevertheless, the design staff prepared another set of designs, "I/35", a heavily armored ship with a single triple turret forward, and "VIII/30", a more lightly-armored ship with a pair of twin turrets. The "Reichsmarine" initially intended to lay down the first armored ship in 1926, but the design had not yet been finalized. The 1926 maneuvers informed the design staff that greater speed was desirable, and that year, a further two designs were submitted to Zenker. The initial design for "Deutschland", ordered as ""Panzerschiff" A", was prepared in 1926 and finalized by 1928. Zenker announced on 11 June 1927 that the Navy had settled on one of several proposals for the new warships. The "Reichsmarine" had decided that the new ships would be armed with two triple turrets mounting 28 cm guns.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: Political opposition to the new ships was significant. The "Reichsmarine" therefore decided to delay ordering the ship until after the "Reichstag" elections in 1928. The question over whether to build the new ships was a major issue in elections, particularly with the Social Democrats, who strongly opposed the new ships and campaigned with the slogan "Food not "Panzerkreuzer"." In May 1928, the elections were concluded and enough of a majority in favor of the new ships was elected; this included twelve seats won by Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party. An October 1928 attempt by the Communist Party of Germany to initiate a referendum against the construction failed. The first of the new ships was authorized in November 1928.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: When the particulars of the design became known by the Allies, they attempted to prevent Germany from building them. The "Reichsmarine" offered to halt construction on the first ship in exchange for admittance to the Washington Treaty with a ratio of to Britain's allotment of of capital ship tonnage. In doing so, this would effectively abrogate the clauses in the Treaty of Versailles that limited Germany's naval power. Britain and the United States favored making concessions to Germany, but France refused to allow any revisions to the Treaty of Versailles. Since the ships did not violate the terms of the Treaty, the Allies could not prevent Germany from building them after a negotiated settlement proved unattainable.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: The three "Deutschland"-class ships varied slightly in dimensions. All three ships were long at the waterline, and as built, long overall. "Deutschland" and "Admiral Scheer" had clipper bows installed in 1940–1941; their overall length was increased to . "Deutschland" had a beam of , "Admiral Scheer"s beam was , while "Admiral Graf Spee"s was . "Deutschland" and "Admiral Scheer" had a standard draft of and a full-load draft of . "Admiral Graf Spee"s draft was and , respectively. The displacement of the three ships increased over the class. Standard displacement grew from for "Deutschland" to for "Admiral Scheer" and for "Admiral Graf Spee". The ships' full load displacements were significantly higher, at for "Deutschland", for "Admiral Scheer", and for "Admiral Graf Spee". The ships were officially stated to be within the limit of the Treaty of Versailles, however.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: The ships' hulls were constructed with transverse steel frames; over 90 percent of the hulls used welding instead of the then standard riveting, which saved 15 percent of their total hull weight. These savings allowed the armament and armor to be increased. The hulls contained twelve watertight compartments and were fitted with a double bottom that extended for 92 percent of the length of the keel. As designed, the ship's complement comprised 33 officers and 586 enlisted men. After 1935, the crew was dramatically increased, to 30 officers and 921–1,040 sailors. While serving as a squadron flagship, an additional 17 officers and 85 enlisted men augmented the crew. The second flagship had an additional 13 officers and 59 sailors. The ships carried a number of smaller boats, including two picket boats, two barges, one launch, one pinnace, and two dinghies.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: The "Kriegsmarine" considered the ships to be good sea boats, with a slight roll. As built, they were wet in a head sea, though this was significantly improved by the installation of a clipper bow in 1940–1941. The ships were highly maneuverable, particularly when the maneuvering setting for the diesel engines was used, in which half of the engines for each shaft were run in reverse. The ships heeled over up to 13 degrees with the rudder hard over. The low stern was wet in a stern sea, and equipment stored there was frequently lost overboard.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: The "Deutschland"-class ships were equipped with two sets of four 9-cylinder, double-acting, two-stroke diesel engines built by MAN. The adoption of an all-diesel propulsion system was a radical innovation at the time and contributed to significant savings in weight. Each set was controlled by transmissions built by AG Vulcan. The engines were paired on two propeller shafts, which were attached to three-bladed screws that were in diameter. "Deutschland" was initially fitted with diameter screws, before they were replaced with the larger screws. The engines were rated at and a top speed of . They did not meet the expected shaft-horsepower on trials, though they did exceed their design speeds. "Deutschland"s engines reached and , and "Admiral Scheer"s engines reached and . Horsepower figures for "Admiral Graf Spee" are not recorded, though her top speed on trials was .


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: "Deutschland" could carry up to of fuel oil, which provided a maximum range of at a speed of . An increase in speed by one knot reduced the range slightly to . At a higher speed of , the range fell to . "Admiral Scheer" carried and had a correspondingly shorter range of at 20 kn. "Admiral Graf Spee" stored of fuel, which enabled a range of . Electricity was supplied by four electric generators powered by two diesel engines. Their total output was 2,160 kW for "Deutschland", 2,800 kW for "Admiral Scheer", and 3,360 kW for "Admiral Graf Spee", all at 220 volts. Steering was controlled by a single rudder.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: The three "Deutschland"-class ships were armed with a main battery of six 28 cm SK C/28 guns mounted in two triple turrets, one on either end of the superstructure. The turrets were the Drh LC/28 type and allowed elevation to 40 degrees, and depression to −8 degrees. This provided the guns with a maximum range of . They fired a projectile at a muzzle velocity of . The guns were initially supplied with a total 630 rounds of ammunition, and this was later increased to 720 shells.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: The secondary battery comprised eight 15 cm SK C/28 guns, each in single MPLC/28 mountings arranged amidships. These mountings allowed elevation to 35 degrees and depression to −10 degrees, for a range of . They were supplied with a total of 800 rounds of ammunition, though later in their careers this was increased to 1,200 rounds. These shells weighed and had a muzzle velocity of . The ships were also equipped with eight torpedo tubes placed in two quadruple launchers mounted on their stern.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: As built, the ships' anti-aircraft battery consisted of three 8.8 cm SK L/45 anti-aircraft guns in single mounts. These were replaced in 1935 with six 8.8 cm SK C/31 guns in twin mounts. "Admiral Graf Spee" and "Deutschland" were rearmed in 1938 and 1940, respectively, with six 10.5 cm L/65 guns, four 3.7 cm SK C/30 guns and initially ten 2 cm Flak guns—the number of 2 cm guns on "Deutschland" was eventually increased to 28. "Admiral Scheer" had been rearmed by 1945 with six guns, eight 3.7 cm guns, and thirty-three 2 cm guns.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: The ships' main armored belt was thick amidships and reduced to on either end of the central citadel. The bow and stern were unarmored at the waterline. This belt was inclined to increase its protective qualities and supplemented by a longitudinal splinter bulkhead. The upper edge of the belt on "Deutschland" and "Admiral Scheer" was at the level of the armored deck. On "Admiral Graf Spee", it was extended one deck higher. "Deutschland"s underwater protection consisted of a thick torpedo bulkhead; "Admiral Scheer"s and "Admiral Graf Spee"s bulkheads were reduced to . "Deutschland" had a thick upper deck and a main armored deck that ranged in thickness from 18–40 mm. "Admiral Scheer" and "Admiral Graf Spee" had main decks and armored decks that ranged in thickness from 17–45 mm. The armored deck in "Deutschland" and "Admiral Scheer" did not extend over the entire width of the ship due to weight; this matter was rectified in "Admiral Graf Spee". Likewise, the torpedo bulkheads for "Deutschland" and "Admiral Scheer" stopped at the inside of the double-bottom but in "Admiral Graf Spee" extended to the outer hull. The ships' forward conning tower had thick sides with a thick roof, while the aft conning tower was less well protected, with 50 mm thick sides and a thick roof. The main battery turrets had thick faces and thick sides. Their roofs ranged in thickness from . The 15 cm guns were armored with gun shields for splinter protection.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: "Admiral Scheer" and "Admiral Graf Spee" had some improvements in armor thickness. The barbettes, 100 mm thick in "Deutschland", became 125 mm for the two sisters. "Admiral Scheer" had the belt somewhat improved, and "Admiral Graf Spee" had a much more improved 100 mm belt, instead of 50–80 mm. The armored deck was improved as well, and some places had up to 70 mm thickness.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: The "Kriegsmarine" initially classified the ships as ""Panzerschiffe"" (armored ships), but in February 1940 it reclassified the two survivors of the class as heavy cruisers. Due to their heavy armament of six 28 cm (11 in) guns, high speed and long cruising range, the class was more capable of high seas operation than the old pre-dreadnought battleships they replaced; for this reason, they were referred to as "pocket battleships", particularly in the British press. In 1938 "Jane's Fighting Ships" stated the "Deutschland"-class "[a]re officially rated as 'Armoured Ships' ("Panzerschiffe") and popularly referred to as 'Pocket Battleships'. Actually, they are equivalent to armoured cruisers of an exceptionally powerful type."


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: "Deutschland" was laid down at the Deutsche Werke shipyard in Kiel on 5 February 1929, under the contract name "Panzerschiff A", as a replacement for the old battleship "Preussen". Work began under construction number 219. The ship was launched on 19 May 1931; at her launching, she was christened by German Chancellor Heinrich Brüning. The ship accidentally started sliding down the slipway while Brüning was giving his christening speech. After the completion of fitting out work, initial sea trials began in November 1932. The ship was commissioned into the Reichsmarine on 1 April 1933.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: Serious political opposition to the ships continued after the authorization for "Deutschland", and a political crisis over the second ship, "Admiral Scheer", was averted only after the Social Democrats abstained from voting. As a result of the opposition, "Panzerschiff B" was not authorized until 1931. A replacement for the old battleship , her keel was laid on 25 June 1931 at the "Reichsmarinewerft" shipyard in Wilhelmshaven, under construction number 123. The ship was launched on 1 April 1933; at her launching, she was christened by Marianne Besserer, the daughter of Admiral Reinhard Scheer, after whom the ship was named. She was completed slightly over a year and a half later on 12 November 1934, the day she was commissioned into the German fleet.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: "Admiral Graf Spee", the third and final member of the class, was also ordered by the "Reichsmarine" from the "Kriegsmarinewerft" shipyard in Wilhelmshaven. She was ordered under the contract name "Panzerschiff C" to replace the battleship . Her keel was laid on 1 October 1932, under construction number 125. The ship was launched on 30 June 1934; at her launching, she was christened by the daughter of Admiral Maximilian von Spee, after whom the ship was named. She was completed slightly over a year and a half later on 6 January 1936, the day she was commissioned into the German fleet.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: After Hitler had given the order in late January 1943 for the two remaining ships to be scrapped, the possibility of instead converting them into aircraft carriers was discussed. The hulls would have been lengthened by approximately , which would have used 2,000 tons of steel and employed 400 workmen. Conversion time was estimated at two years. Their flight deck would have been only shorter than that of the "Hipper"-class heavy cruiser , which had been prepared for conversion in 1942, and they would still have attained 28 knots. This plan was not pursued.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: "Deutschland" saw significant action with the "Kriegsmarine", including several non-intervention patrols, during which she was attacked by Republican bombers. At the outbreak of World War II, she was cruising the North Atlantic, prepared to attack Allied merchant traffic. Bad weather hampered her efforts, and she sank or captured only three vessels before returning to Germany, after which she was renamed "Lützow". She then participated in Operation Weserübung, the invasion of Norway. Damaged at the Battle of Drøbak Sound, she was recalled to Germany for repairs. While en route, she was torpedoed by a British submarine and seriously damaged.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: Repairs were completed by March 1941, and in June "Lützow" steamed to Norway. While en route, she was torpedoed by a British bomber, necessitating significant repairs that lasted until May 1942. She returned to Norway to join the forces arrayed against Allied shipping to the Soviet Union. She ran aground during a planned attack on convoy PQ 17, which necessitated another return to Germany for repairs. She next saw action at the Battle of the Barents Sea with the heavy cruiser , which ended with a failure to destroy the convoy JW 51B. Engine problems forced a series of repairs culminating in a complete overhaul at the end of 1943, after which the ship remained in the Baltic. Sunk in the Kaiserfahrt in April 1945 by Royal Air Force (RAF) bombers, "Lützow" was used as a gun battery to support German troops fighting the Soviet Army until 4 May 1945, when she was disabled by her crew. Raised by the Soviet Navy in 1947, she was reportedly broken up for scrap over the next two years, according to Western works that did not have access to Soviet documents at the time. The historian Hans Georg Prager examined the former Soviet archives in the early 2000s, and discovered that "Lützow" actually had been sunk in weapons tests in July 1947.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: "Admiral Scheer" saw heavy service with the German Navy, including several deployments to Spain during the Spanish Civil War, to participate in non-intervention patrols. While off Spain, she bombarded the port of Almería following the Republican attack on her sister "Deutschland". At the outbreak of World War II, she remained in port for a periodic refit. Her first operation during World War II was a commerce raiding operation into the southern Atlantic Ocean that started in late October 1940. While on the operation, she also made a brief foray into the Indian Ocean. During the raiding mission, she sank of shipping, making her the most successful capital ship surface raider of the war.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: Following her return to Germany, she was deployed to northern Norway to interdict shipping to the Soviet Union. She was part of the abortive attack on Convoy PQ 17 with the battleship ; the operation was broken off after surprise was lost. She also conducted Operation Wunderland, a sortie into the Kara Sea. After returning to Germany at the end of 1942, the ship served as a training ship until the end of 1944, when she was used to support ground operations against the Soviet Army. She was sunk by British bombers on 9 April 1945 and partially scrapped; the remainder of the wreck lies buried beneath a quay.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: "Admiral Graf Spee" conducted extensive training in the Baltic and Atlantic before participating in five non-intervention patrols during the Spanish Civil War in 1936–1938. She also represented Germany during the Coronation Review for King George VI in May 1937. "Admiral Graf Spee" was deployed to the South Atlantic in the weeks before the outbreak of World War II, to be positioned in merchant sea lanes once war was declared. Between September and December 1939, the ship sank nine ships totaling ; in response, the British and French navies formed several hunter-killer groups to track her down. These forces included four aircraft carriers, two battleships, and one battlecruiser.


title: Deutschland-class cruiser

text: "Admiral Graf Spee" operated in concert with the supply ship . "Admiral Graf Spee" was eventually confronted by three British cruisers off Uruguay at the Battle of the River Plate on 13 December 1939. She inflicted heavy damage on the British ships, but suffered damage as well, and was forced to put into port at Montevideo. Convinced by false reports of superior British naval forces approaching his ship and the poor state of his own engines, Hans Langsdorff, the commander of the ship, ordered the vessel to be scuttled. Langsdorff committed suicide three days after the scuttling. The ship was partially broken up in situ, though part of the ship remains visible above the surface of the water.


title: Berlin Syndrome (film)

text: Berlin Syndrome is a 2017 psychological horror thriller film directed by Cate Shortland from a screenplay by Shaun Grant, based on the 2012 novel of the same name by Melanie Joosten. The film follows a young Australian photographer (Teresa Palmer) who travels to Germany, where she meets an attractive young English teacher (Max Riemelt). Waking up after a stormy night of passion with him, the photographer is suddenly taken hostage by her would-be lover.


title: Berlin Syndrome (film)

text: "Berlin Syndrome" had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on 20 January 2017 and was released in Australia on 20 April 2017 by Entertainment One. The film received very positive reviews from critics, with many praising the atmosphere, and the performances of Palmer and Riemelt.


title: Berlin Syndrome (film)

text: In Berlin, Australian backpacker and photographer Clare meets local English teacher Andi. They spend the day together, then have sex in Andi's apartment. The following morning, Clare finds herself locked in. Upon Andi's return, he says he forgot to leave a key, and she spends another night after they go out dancing.


title: Berlin Syndrome (film)

text: The next day, Clare finds he has written "" (German for 'mine') on her shoulder and taken the SIM card from her phone. Attempting to smash her way out the windows, she finds they are double paned and reinforced with plexiglass. It dawns on her that the other apartments in the building are abandoned. When Andi returns, Clare begs him to let her go but he begins restraining her to the bed while he is at work, leaving her to soil herself.


title: Berlin Syndrome (film)

text: At dinner with his father, Erich, Andi tells him he is dating Clare. Erich asks what happened to his previous girlfriend Natalie, and Andi says she returned to Canada. That night, Andi lets Clare shower and she finds a clump of long blonde hair in the drain. Andi texts Clare's mother posing as her, informing her she is well.


title: Berlin Syndrome (film)

text: Clare finds a screwdriver under the sofa and, when Andi comes home, she stabs him in the hand and flees the apartment. Andi catches her in the courtyard downstairs, breaking her fingers and bringing her back inside. Andi's student Franka shows up and flirts with him, but when she briefly spots Clare, Andi says she is his girlfriend and threatens to report her behaviour, causing her to leave.


title: Berlin Syndrome (film)

text: Andi's bizarre behaviour continues, including taking pictures of Clare in disturbing positions, cutting off pieces of her hair, and retreating to a locked room. Depressed on finding his father has died, he spends a week at his father's house, leaving Clare in the apartment with the power off. When he returns, she comforts him and they have sex. As the holidays approach, Clare's mood seems to brighten; she learns to play the accordion and bakes treats for Andi. He gifts her his father's dog, but days later becomes jealous of their bond and kills him.


title: Berlin Syndrome (film)

text: Andi takes Clare outside for the first time in months, to a forest where he plans to kill her with an axe. They are interrupted by two young boys, one of whom has injured his leg. Clare quietly begs the other to get help but he doesn't understand English. On New Years Eve, Andi attends a work party and Clare breaks into the locked room and finds photo albums of a blonde woman. A man outside shines a flashlight at the windows; she screams for help and he attempts to rescue her, but Andi returns and kills him with a crowbar. Andi has Clare help him wrap the body in plastic, saying it's her fault he is dead. He burns the body in a dumpster in the courtyard.


title: Berlin Syndrome (film)

text: More time passes and Clare apparently enjoys life with Andi. When she sees him grading student's workbooks, she hides a photograph in Franka's. Franka finds the picture of Clare bound and gagged. She flees the room and drops the picture, which is passed around by the other students. When Andi realises what is happening, he leaves the school in a panic. He arrives home to find the courtyard door open and the locked box of Clare's possessions open and empty. Franka has ridden her bike to the apartment and found Clare just before Andi arrives. Clare lures Andi in, hiding on the floor above his apartment. When he goes into the apartment, she calls his name and, before he can react, she locks him inside. Clare rescues Franka from upstairs.


title: Berlin Syndrome (film)

text: The film is based on the novel of the same name by Melanie Joosten, and the title is a reference to Stockholm syndrome. According to director Cate Shortland, the character of Andi had romanticised and idealised the East Germany of his childhood, and wanted to recreate a utopia in his own life.


title: Berlin Syndrome (film)

text: In May 2015, Teresa Palmer and Max Riemelt joined the cast. Riemelt was chosen from a shortlist of 10 male actors.


title: Berlin Syndrome (film)

text: Production began in September 2015 in Berlin. For two weeks prior to filming, Palmer and Riemelt stayed together in a small apartment similar to the one on the set.


title: Berlin Syndrome (film)

text: The film had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on 20 January 2017. Prior to Entertainment One, Curzon Artificial Eye, Vertical Entertainment and Netflix acquired Australian, United Kingdom, and United States distribution rights, respectively. It was released in Australia on 20 April, in the United States on 26 May, and in the United Kingdom on 9 June 2017.


title: Berlin Syndrome (film)

text: "Berlin Syndrome" has grossed $28,660 in the United States and Canada, and $759,531 in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $788,191. Sales of its DVD/Blu-ray releases have cashed $22,663.


title: Berlin Syndrome (film)

text: "Berlin Syndrome" was met with positive reviews. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 76% based on 90 reviews, and an average rating of 6.5/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Berlin Syndrome" offers thriller fans an uncommonly well-written descent into dangerous obsession, enlivened by taut direction and a committed performance from Teresa Palmer." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 70 out of 100, based on 17 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Njörðr

text: In Norse mythology, Njörðr (Old Norse: ) is a god among the Vanir. Njörðr, father of the deities Freyr and Freyja by his unnamed sister, was in an ill-fated marriage with the goddess Skaði, lives in Nóatún and is associated with the sea, seafaring, wind, fishing, wealth, and crop fertility.


title: Njörðr

text: Njörðr is attested in the "Poetic Edda", compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, the "Prose Edda", written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, in euhemerized form as a beloved mythological early king of Sweden in "Heimskringla", also written by Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century, as one of three gods invoked in the 14th century "Hauksbók" ring oath, and in numerous Scandinavian place names. Veneration of Njörðr survived into the 18th or 19th century Norwegian folk practice, where the god is recorded as Njor and thanked for a bountiful catch of fish.


title: Njörðr

text: Njörðr has been the subject of an amount of scholarly discourse and theory, often connecting him with the figure of the much earlier attested Germanic goddess Nerthus, the hero Hadingus, and theorizing on his formerly more prominent place in Norse paganism due to the appearance of his name in numerous place names. "Njörðr" is sometimes modernly anglicized as Njord, Njoerd, or Njorth.


title: Njörðr

text: The name "Njörðr" corresponds to that of the older Germanic fertility goddess "Nerthus" (early 1st c. AD). Both derive from the Proto-Germanic theonym "*Nerþuz".


title: Njörðr

text: The original meaning of the name is contested, but it may be related to the Irish word "nert" which means "force" and "power". It has been suggested that the change of sex from the female "Nerthus" to the male "Njörðr" is due to the fact that feminine nouns with u-stems disappeared early in Germanic language while the masculine nouns with u-stems prevailed. However, other scholars hold the change to be based not on grammatical gender but on the evolution of religious beliefs; that *Nerþuz and Njörðr appear as different genders because they are to be considered separate beings. The name "Njörðr" may be related to the name of the Norse goddess Njörun.


title: Njörðr

text: Njörðr's name appears in various place names in Scandinavia, such as "Nærdhæwi" (now Nalavi, Närke), "Njærdhavi" (now Mjärdevi, Linköping; both using the religious term vé), "Nærdhælunda" (now Närlunda, Helsingborg), "Nierdhatunum" (now Närtuna, Uppland) in Sweden, Njarðvík in southwest Iceland, Njarðarlög and Njarðey (now Nærøy) in Norway. Njörðr's name appears in a word for sponge; "Njarðarvöttr" (Old Norse: , "Njörðr's glove"). Additionally, in Old Icelandic translations of Classical mythology the Roman god Saturn's name is glossed as "Njörðr."


title: Njörðr

text: Njörðr is described as a future survivor of Ragnarök in stanza 39 of the poem "Vafþrúðnismál". In the poem, the god Odin, disguised as "Gagnráðr" faces off with the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir in a battle of wits. While Odin states that Vafþrúðnir knows all the fates of the gods, Odin asks Vafþrúðnir "from where Njörðr came to the sons of the Æsir," that Njörðr rules over quite a lot of temples and hörgrs (a type of Germanic altar), and further adds that Njörðr was not raised among the Æsir. In response, Vafþrúðnir says:


title: Njörðr

text: In stanza 16 of the poem "Grímnismál", Njörðr is described as having a hall in Nóatún made for himself. The stanza describes Njörðr as a "prince of men," that he is "lacking in malice," and that he "rules over the "high-timbered temple." In stanza 43, the creation of the god Freyr's ship Skíðblaðnir is recounted, and Freyr is cited as the son of Njörðr. In the prose introduction to the poem "Skírnismál", Freyr is mentioned as the son of Njörðr, and stanza 2 cites the goddess Skaði as the mother of Freyr. Further in the poem, Njörðr is again mentioned as the father of Freyr in stanzas 38, 39, and 41.


title: Njörðr

text: In the late flyting poem "Lokasenna", an exchange between Njörðr and Loki occurs in stanzas 33, 34, 35, and 36. After Loki has an exchange with the goddess Freyja, in stanza 33 Njörðr states:


title: Njörðr

text: Loki responds in the stanza 34, stating that "from here you were sent east as hostage to the gods" (a reference to the Æsir-Vanir War) and that "the daughters of Hymir used you as a pisspot, and pissed in your mouth." In stanza 35, Njörðr responds that:


title: Njörðr

text: Loki tells Njörðr to "stop" and "keep some moderation," and that he "won't keep it a secret any longer" that Njörðr's son Freyr was produced with his unnamed sister, "though you'd expect him to be worse than he is." The god Tyr then interjects and the flyting continues in turn.


title: Njörðr

text: Njörðr is referenced in stanza 22 of the poem "Þrymskviða", where he is referred to as the father of the goddess Freyja. In the poem, the jötunn Þrymr mistakenly thinks that he will be receiving the goddess Freyja as his bride, and while telling his fellow jötunn to spread straw on the benches in preparation for the arrival of Freyja, he refers to her as the daughter of Njörðr of Nóatún. Towards the end of the poem "Sólarljóð", Njörðr is cited as having nine daughters. Two of the names of these daughters are given; the eldest Ráðveig and the youngest Kreppvör.


title: Njörðr

text: In the "Prose Edda", Njörðr is introduced in chapter 23 of the book "Gylfaginning". In this chapter, Njörðr is described by the enthroned figure of High as living in the heavens at Nóatún, but also as ruling over the movement of the winds, having the ability to calm both sea and fire, and that he is to be invoked in seafaring and fishing. High continues that Njörðr is very wealthy and prosperous, and that he can also grant wealth in land and valuables to those who request his aid. Njörðr originates from Vanaheimr and is devoid of Æsir stock, and he is described as having been traded with Hœnir in hostage exchange with between the Æsir and Vanir.


title: Njörðr

text: High further states that Njörðr's wife is Skaði, that she is the daughter of the jötunn Þjazi, and recounts a tale involving the two. High recalls that Skaði wanted to live in the home once owned by her father called Þrymheimr ("Thunder Home"). However, Njörðr wanted to live nearer to the sea. Subsequently, the two made an agreement that they would spend nine nights in Þrymheimr and then next three nights in Nóatún (or nine winters in Þrymheimr and another nine in Nóatún according to the "Codex Regius" manuscript). However, when Njörðr returned from the mountains to Nóatún, he says:


title: Njörðr

text: High states that afterward Skaði went back up to the mountains to Þrymheimr and recites a stanza where Skaði skis around, hunts animals with a bow, and lives in her fathers old house. Chapter 24 begins, which describes Njörðr as the father of two beautiful and powerful children: Freyr and Freyja. In chapter 37, after Freyr has spotted the beautiful jötunn Gerðr, he becomes overcome with sorrow, and refuses to sleep, drink, or talk. Njörðr then sends for Skírnir to find out who he seems to be so angry at, and, not looking forward to being treated roughly, Skírnir reluctantly goes to Freyr.


title: Njörðr

text: Njörðr is introduced in "Skáldskaparmál" within a list of 12 Æsir attending a banquet held for Ægir. Further in "Skáldskaparmál", the skaldic god Bragi recounts the death of Skaði's father Þjazi by the Æsir. As one of the three acts of reparation performed by the Æsir for Þjazi's death, Skaði was allowed by the Æsir to choose a husband from amongst them, but given the stipulation that she may not see any part of them but their feet when making the selection. Expecting to choose the god Baldr by the beauty of the feet she selects, Skaði instead finds that she has picked Njörðr.


title: Njörðr

text: In chapter 6, a list of kennings is provided for Njörðr: "God of chariots," "Descendant of Vanir," "a Van," father of Freyr and Freyja, and "the giving God." This is followed by an excerpt from a composition by the 11th century skald Þórðr Sjáreksson, explained as containing a reference to Skaði leaving Njörðr:


title: Njörðr

text: Gundrun became her son's slayer; the wise god-bride [Skadi] could not love the Van; Kialar [Odin] trained horses pretty well; Hamdir is said not to have held back sword-play.


title: Njörðr

text: Chapter 7 follows and provides various kennings for Freyr, including referring to him as the son of Njörðr. This is followed by an excerpt from a work by the 10th-century skald Egill Skallagrímsson that references Njörðr (here anglicized as "Niord"):


title: Njörðr

text: In chapter 20, "daughter of Njörðr" is given as a kenning for Freyja. In chapter 33, Njörðr is cited among the gods attending a banquet held by Ægir. In chapter 37, Freyja is again referred to as Njörðr's daughter in a verse by the 12th century skald Einarr Skúlason. In chapter 75, Njörðr is included in a list of the Æsir. Additionally, "Njörðr" is used in kennings for "warrior" or "warriors" various times in "Skáldskaparmál".


title: Njörðr

text: Njörðr appears in or is mentioned in three Kings' sagas collected in "Heimskringla"; "Ynglinga saga", the "Saga of Hákon the Good" and the "Saga of Harald Graycloak". In chapter 4 of "Ynglinga saga", Njörðr is introduced in connection with the Æsir-Vanir War. When the two sides became tired of war, they came to a peace agreement and exchanged hostages. For their part, the Vanir send to the Æsir their most "outstanding men"; Njörðr, described as wealthy, and Freyr, described as his son, in exchange for the Æsir's Hœnir. Additionally, the Æsir send Mímir in exchange for the wise Kvasir.


title: Njörðr

text: Further into chapter 4, Odin appoints Njörðr and Freyr as priests of sacrificial offerings, and they became gods among the Æsir. Freyja is introduced as a daughter of Njörðr, and as the priestess at the sacrifices. In the saga, Njörðr is described as having once wed his unnamed sister while he was still among the Vanir, and the couple produced their children Freyr and Freyja from this union, though this custom was forbidden among the Æsir.


title: Njörðr

text: Chapter 5 relates that Odin gave all of his temple priests dwelling places and good estates, in Njörðr's case being Nóatún. Chapter 8 states that Njörðr married a woman named Skaði, though she would not have intercourse with him. Skaði then marries Odin, and the two had numerous sons.


title: Njörðr

text: In chapter 9, Odin dies and Njörðr takes over as ruler of the Swedes, and he continues the sacrifices. The Swedes recognize him as their king, and pay him tribute. Njörðr's rule is marked with peace and many great crops, so much so that the Swedes believed that Njörðr held power over the crops and over the prosperity of mankind. During his rule, most of the Æsir die, their bodies are burned, and sacrifices are made by men to them. Njörðr has himself "marked for" Odin and he dies in his bed. Njörðr's body is burnt by the Swedes, and they weep heavily at his tomb. After Njörðr's reign, his son Freyr replaces him, and he is greatly loved and "blessed by good seasons like his father."


title: Njörðr

text: In chapter 14 of "Saga of Hákon the Good" a description of the pagan Germanic custom of Yule is given. Part of the description includes a series of toasts. The toasts begin with Odin's toasts, described as for victory and power for the king, followed by Njörðr and Freyr's toast, intended for good harvests and peace. Following this, a beaker is drank for the king, and then a toast is given for departed kin. Chapter 28 quotes verse where the kenning "Njörðr-of-roller-horses" is used for "sailor". In the "Saga of Harald Graycloak", a stanza is given of a poem entitled "Vellekla" ("Lack of Gold") by the 10th century Icelandic skald Einarr skálaglamm that mentions Njörðr in a kenning for "warrior."


title: Njörðr

text: In chapter 80 of the 13th century Icelandic saga "Egils saga", Egill Skallagrímsson composes a poem in praise of Arinbjörn ("Arinbjarnarkviða"). In stanza 17, Egill writes that all others watch in marvel how Arinbjörn gives out wealth, as he has been so endowed by the gods Freyr and Njörðr.


title: Njörðr

text: Veneration of Njörðr survived into 18th or 19th century Norwegian folk practice, as recorded in a tale collected by Halldar O. Opedal from an informant in Odda, Hordaland, Norway. The informant comments on a family tradition in which the god is thanked for a bountiful catch of fish:


title: Njörðr

text: The old folk [folk in the olden days?] were always rather lucky when they went fishing. One night old Gunnhild Reinsnos (born in 1746) and Johannes Reinsnos were fishing in the Sjosavatn. They had taken a torch and were fishing with live bait. The fish bit well, and it wasn't long before Gunnhild had a week's supply of fish for her pot. So she wound her line around her rod with the words: "Thanks be to him, to Njor, for this time."


title: Njörðr

text: Scholar Georges Dumézil further cites various tales of "havmennesker" (Norwegian: "sea people") who govern over sea weather, wealth, or, in some incidents, give magic boats, and proposes that they are historically connected to Njörðr.


title: Njörðr

text: Njörðr is often identified with the goddess Nerthus, whose reverence by various Germanic tribes is described by Roman historian Tacitus in his 1st CE century work "Germania". The connection between the two is due to the linguistic relationship between "Njörðr" and the reconstructed "*Nerþuz", "Nerthus" being the feminine, Latinized form of what "Njörðr" would have looked like around 1 CE. This has led to theories about the relation of the two, including that Njörðr may have once been a hermaphroditic god or, generally considered more likely, that the name may indicate an otherwise unattested divine brother and sister pair such as Freyr and Freyja. Consequently, Nerthus has been identified with Njörðr's unnamed sister with whom he had Freyja and Freyr, which is mentioned in "Lokasenna".


title: Njörðr

text: In Saami mythology, Bieka-Galles (or Biega-, Biegga-Galles, depending on dialect; "The Old Man of the Winds") is a deity who rules over rain and wind, and is the subject of boat and wooden shovel (or, rather, oar) offerings. Due to similarities in between descriptions of Njörðr in "Gylfaginning" and descriptions of Bieka-Galles in 18th century missionary reports, Axel Olrik identified this deity as the result of influence from the seafaring North Germanic peoples on the landbound Saami.


title: Njörðr

text: Parallels have been pointed out between Njörðr and the figure of Hadingus, attested in book I of Saxo Grammaticus' 13th century work "Gesta Danorum". Some of these similarities include that, in parallel to Skaði and Njörðr in "Skáldskaparmál", Hadingus is chosen by his wife Ragnhild after selecting him from other men at a banquet by his lower legs, and, in parallel to Skaði and Njörðr in "Gylfaginning", Hadingus complains in verse of his displeasure at his life away from the sea and how he is disturbed by the howls of wolves, while his wife Regnhild complains of life at the shore and states her annoyance at the screeching sea birds. Georges Dumézil theorized that in the tale Hadingus passes through all three functions of his trifunctional hypothesis, before ending as an Odinic hero, paralleling Njörðr's passing from the Vanir to the Æsir in the Æsir-Vanir War.


title: Njörðr

text: In stanza 8 of the poem "Fjölsvinnsmál", Svafrþorinn is stated as the father of Menglöð by an unnamed mother, who the hero Svipdagr seeks. Menglöð has often been theorized as the goddess Freyja, and according to this theory, Svafrþorinn would therefore be Njörðr. The theory is complicated by the etymology of the name "Svafrþorinn" ("þorinn" meaning "brave" and "svafr" means "gossip") (or possibly connects to "sofa" "sleep"), which Rudolf Simek says makes little sense when attempting to connect it to Njörðr.


title: Njörðr

text: Njörðr has been the subject of an amount of artistic depictions. Depictions include "Freyr und Gerda; Skade und Niurd" (drawing, 1883) by K. Ehrenberg, "Njörðr" (1893) by Carl Frederick von Saltza, "Skadi" (1901) by E. Doepler d. J., and "Njörd's Desire of the Sea" (1908) by W. G. Collingwood.


title: Njörðr

text: Njörðr is one of the incarnated gods in the New Zealand comedy/drama "The Almighty Johnsons". The part of "Johan Johnson/Njörðr" is played by Stuart Devenie.


title: Leslie Landon

text: Leslie Landon Matthews ( Landon) is an American former actress. She had a supporting role on the "Little House on the Prairie" television series, in which her father, Michael Landon, played the lead.


title: Leslie Landon

text: Born in Los Angeles, Matthews is notable for her portrayal of schoolteacher Etta Plum on "Little House on the Prairie" from 1982 to 1984. She also made small guest appearances in four other episodes of "Little House" between 1975 and 1981.


title: Leslie Landon

text: Landon's parents are actor-director Michael and Lynn Landon. Landon has eight siblings. Two brothers, Michael Landon Jr. and Christopher Landon, and a sister, Shawna Leigh Landon, from her parents' marriage. From her mother's first marriage, Landon has another half-sister, Cheryl Lynn Landon. From her father's marriage to Cindy Landon, she has a half-sister, Jennifer Landon, and a half-brother, Sean Matthew Landon. She has an adopted brother, Mark Landon (now deceased) as well as a half-brother, Josh Landon, both from her father's first marriage to Dodie Fraser. Her paternal grandfather was Jewish, whereas her paternal grandmother was Catholic, although her father was raised Jewish.


title: Leslie Landon

text: Landon married Brian Matthews in 1990. Her eldest daughter, born in 1993, Rachel Matthews, is also an actress, with her film debut in "Happy Death Day" that was directed by her uncle Christopher.


title: Leslie Landon

text: Landon obtained a BA in psychology and an MA in clinical psychology from Pepperdine University and a Ph.D. in marriage and family therapy from the California Graduate Institute.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: Iván Rodríguez Torres (born November 27, 1971), nicknamed "Pudge" and "I-Rod", is a Puerto Rican former Major League Baseball catcher. He played for the Texas Rangers (in two separate stints, comprising the majority of his career), Florida Marlins, Detroit Tigers, New York Yankees, Houston Astros and Washington Nationals. Rodríguez was awarded the AL MVP award in 1999 and is widely regarded as one of the greatest catchers in MLB history.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: Rodríguez won the 2003 World Series with the Florida Marlins over the Yankees, and also played in the 2006 World Series while with the Tigers. He is second on the major league career leader list in putouts by catchers. On June 17, 2009, Rodríguez set an MLB record by catching his 2,227th game, passing Carlton Fisk (coincidentally also known by the nickname "Pudge"). During his career, he had the best caught stealing percentage of any major league catcher, at 45.68% (versus a league average of 31%), and he had nine seasons with a caught stealing rate of 50% or higher.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: On January 18, 2017, he was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum in Cooperstown in his first year of eligibility, receiving 76% of the votes cast, and was officially inducted on July 30, 2017.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: Rodríguez was born in Manatí, Puerto Rico and raised in Vega Baja, Puerto Rico. His father, Juan, worked for a U.S.-based construction company, and his mother, Eva Torres, was an elementary school teacher. Iván's first job involved delivering flyers in the shopping malls in Puerto Rico.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: He learned baseball at an early age, his biggest rival being Juan González, whom he often played against in his youth. As a Little League player and just 8 years old, he moved from pitcher and third baseman (his favorite position) to catcher because his father, who was also his coach, thought he was throwing too hard and scaring opposing players with his pitches. His favorite player growing up was Johnny Bench, even before he was changed to the catcher position. The reason for this was that, according to Rodríguez, the Big Red Machine teams for whom Bench played were constantly on TV in Puerto Rico, and he saw how good Bench was. Rodríguez attended Lino Padron Rivera High School, where he was discovered by scout Luis Rosa. Rosa reported that "He showed leadership at 16 that I'd seen in few kids. He knew where he was going." Rodríguez signed a contract with the Texas Rangers in July 1988, at the age of 16, and began his professional baseball career.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: Rodríguez made his professional debut in 1989 at the age of 17 as catcher for the Gastonia Rangers of the South Atlantic League. In his first game, he went 3-for-3 at the plate against Spartanburg. Playing in the Florida State League in 1990, Rodríguez was selected the best catcher in the league and named to the All-Star team. He placed 15th in the league in batting at .287, and led his team in runs batted in, with 55. He also played in the Liga de Béisbol Profesional Roberto Clemente (LBPRC) over the offseason.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: At the beginning of the 1991 season, Rodriguez played 50 games with the Tulsa Drillers, a AA team, where he batted .274 in 175 at-bats. He was considered the number one prospect of the Texas League. Before the middle of the season, he was called up to the Texas Rangers, thus bypassing AAA.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: Making his debut with the Texas Rangers on June 20, 1991, he became the youngest player to catch in a major league game that season at 19 years of age. He immediately established himself as an excellent hitter who was also proficient in throwing out would-be base-stealers. No other catcher in the past 35 years has been as successful at this aspect of the game, with Rodríguez throwing out 48% of attempted basestealers through May 2006. He started many of the Rangers games at the end of the season, including 81 of the last 102. Rodríguez became the youngest player in the history of the Texas Rangers to hit a home run, on August 30, 1991, facing the Kansas City Royals and right-hander Storm Davis. He was named to the Major League Baseball (MLB) Rookie All-Star team by both Topps and Baseball America and finished in fourth place in the AL Rookie of the Year voting. He also placed first in throwing out runners, catching 48.6 percent of runners attempting to steal.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: In 1992, Rodríguez started 112 games behind the plate and was the youngest player in the major leagues for the second year in a row. Playing in the Puerto Rico Winter League, he had a .262 batting average playing in 17 games for Mayagüez. In the 1993 season, Rodríguez batted .273, had 66 runs batted in and hit 10 home runs, ranking fourth, fifth, and fifth on his team respectively. He had a stretch of eight straight hits over two games facing the Kansas City Royals on July 26 and July 28. He played the final month of the regular season in the Puerto Rican Winter league, where he had a .425 batting average and 14 runs batted in for Mayagüez. Rodríguez was named to the Puerto Rican Winter League all-star team and was also the league Most Valuable Player (MVP).


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: In 1994, Rodríguez led the American League in batting average among catchers, at .298. He placed high on his team in many statistics, placing second in batting average (.298), tied for third in doubles (19), and fourth in hits, total bases, runs, home runs, walks, games, and at bats. He also caught Kenny Rogers' perfect game on July 28. Rodríguez played in the Puerto Rican Winter League over the winter, but he suffered a severe knee injury which kept him from playing for the rest of the season.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: In 1996, Rodríguez set an MLB record for most doubles by a catcher, amassing 47 over the course of the season. This broke the previous mark of 42, set by Mickey Cochrane in 1930. He also set the major league record for at-bats by a catcher in a single season, with 639, which surpassed Johnny Bench's record of 621 in 1970. He led the Texas Rangers in doubles, at bats, hits, and runs scored. He was selected to the Major League Baseball All-Star team that played a series in Japan against the Japanese all-stars after the season was over. He again played in the Puerto Rican Winter League this season. In the 1997 season, Rodríguez also placed first among catchers in many categories in Major League Baseball. These categories were hits, runs, runs batted in, and doubles. He placed second in home runs among catchers, below only Sandy Alomar Jr. of the Cleveland Indians, who had 20 home runs. He appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated on the week of August 4. This marked the fourth time a player from the Texas Rangers had been on the cover of Sports Illustrated. Rodríguez played in the Puerto Rican Winter League yet again, where he had a .285 batting average, four home runs, and 18 runs batted in over the course of 32 games playing for Caguas.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: In the 1998 season, Rodríguez led the Texas Rangers in batting average at .325, which placed eighth in the American League. He also had 75 multi-hit games and 186 hits, finishing seventh and ninth in MLB respectively. He finished second on the Rangers in hits, total bases, triples, and slugging percentage. Rodríguez was third on the team in doubles, home runs, and stolen bases, and fourth in runs batted in. He recorded his 1,000th career hit in a game facing the Cleveland Indians on May 10 of that season. Rodríguez also became the first catcher in the history of Major League Baseball to have two or more seasons with 40 or more doubles. He was selected to the American League All-Star Team again, and he was also named to all-star teams by the Associated Press, The Sporting News, and Baseball America.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: In 1999, Rodríguez was selected as the American League MVP. He set a new American League record for home runs in a single season among catchers with 35. Rodríguez was also the first catcher to have more than 30 home runs, 100 runs batted in, and 100 runs scored in the history of Major League Baseball. In addition, he holds the distinction of being the first catcher in the history of the league to amass more than 20 home runs and 20 stolen bases. From May 8 to June 1, 1999, Rodríguez had a career-high 20-game hitting streak. He had 25 stolen bases, which was fifth most among catchers in the history of the league. He led the league in times grounded into a double play, with 31. Rodríguez was only the ninth catcher in the history of Major League Baseball to win the Most Valuable Player award, and he was the first to win it since Thurman Munson in 1976. He was named on all of the ballots, getting seven first place votes and six second place votes. Rodríguez was the sixth Puerto Rican to win the award, and the fourth player from the Texas Rangers to win it. He also won the Silver Slugger Award for the sixth time in a row and was selected Most Valuable Player by "Baseball Digest". He was again named to all-star teams by the Associated Press, The Sporting News, and Baseball America. While he was hitting home runs, he rarely drew walks. He is one of only six players active in 2009 who have had at least 30 home runs in a season in which they had more homers than walks (34 home runs, 24 walks in 1999). The others are Alfonso Soriano (39–23 in 2002, 36–33 in 2005, 33–31 in 2007), Garret Anderson (35–24 in 2000), Ryan Braun (34–29 in 2007), Joe Crede (30–28 in 2006), and José Guillén (31–24 in 2003).


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: In 2000, Rodríguez suffered a season-ending injury in a game against the Anaheim Angels. While trying to make a throw to second base, his thumb made contact with the swing of Mo Vaughn's bat. He fractured his right thumb and underwent surgery the next day. This injury caused him to miss the rest of the season. Rodríguez appeared in just 91 games, which was the fewest that he appeared in since his first season in the league, 1991. His nine home runs in April matched a team record that was shared (through 2008) with Alex Rodriguez (2002), Carl Everett (2003), and Ian Kinsler (2007). Even though he was injured, he was still named to the second-team of Baseball America's Major League Baseball All-Star Team.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: Rodríguez returned to full action in 2001 and had another all-star season. He was selected to his ninth straight MLB All-Star Game, which tied the all-time record set by Johnny Bench. He also tied Bench's record of ten straight Rawlings Gold Glove Awards in a row. He batted .308, making 2001 his seventh straight season with a batting average of over .300. He had 25 home runs, 136 hits, and 65 RBI. He also posted a career-best 60.3% caught stealing rate, in a year when the league average was 29%.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: Rodríguez's final year with the Texas Rangers came in 2002. His .314 batting average was seventh best among American League players. This was his eighth season in a row with batting average of .300 or above. He also had 32 doubles, two triples, and 60 runs batted in while playing in 108 games for the Rangers. Rodríguez was placed on the disabled list on April 23 after suffering a herniated disk on April 15. The injury did not require surgery, and he rehabilitated while playing for Class-A Charlotte. He later returned to the Rangers and played there for the remainder of the season. After the 2002 season, his contract with Texas expired and he became a free agent.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: On January 22, 2003, Rodríguez signed a one-year, $10 million contract with the Florida Marlins. By then a major-league veteran of over a decade, he helped lead the young team to victory in the World Series. During the 2003 regular season, he set many Marlins single season records for a catcher, such as batting average, at .297, and runs batted in, at 85. On March 31, Rodríguez became the tenth Marlins player ever to hit a home run in the team's first game of the season. On April 8, he set a Marlins single game record by drawing five walks in a game against the New York Mets. He had a nine-game hitting streak from June 24 to July 2, during which he batted .500 with seven doubles, two triples, and four home runs. From June 24 to July 1, he drove in a run in eight consecutive games, another single season record for the Marlins. In the postseason, he was named National League Championship Series Most Valuable Player for the first time in his career. He also closed out the National League Division Series by holding onto the ball during a dramatic game-ending collision at the plate with J. T. Snow in Game 4. He chose not to return to the Marlins following the 2003 season.


title: Iván Rodríguez

text: Before the 2004 season, Rodríguez signed a four-year, $40 million contract with the Detroit Tigers. In 2004, he was selected to the MLB All-Star Game for the 11th time in his career and for his 10th time as a starting player, joining Johnny Bench and Mike Piazza as the only Major League Baseball catchers to start an All-Star game 10 times or more in their career. During the month of June, he batted .500 and was named the American League Player of the Month. He also won his 10th consecutive Rawlings Gold Glove Award, making him the first player on the Detroit Tigers to win the award since Gary Pettis won it in 1989. He won his seventh career Silver Slugger Award, tied with Víctor Martínez of the Cleveland Indians. He was fourth in the American League in batting average and fourth among all Major League Baseball catchers. On October 1, he recorded his 1,000th career RBI in a game against the Tampa Bay Devil Rays.