title: Black people and Mormonism

text: From 1849 to 1978, the LDS Church prohibited anyone with real or suspected black ancestry from taking part in ordinances in its temples, serving in any significant church callings, serving missions, attending priesthood meetings, being ordained to any priesthood office, speaking at firesides, or receiving a lineage in their patriarchal blessing. In 1978, the church's First Presidency declared in a statement which is known as "Official Declaration 2" that the temple and priesthood bans had both been lifted by the Lord. Before 1849, a few black men had been ordained to the priesthood under Joseph Smith. Non-black spouses of black people were also prohibited from entering temples. Over time, the ban was relaxed so that black people could attend priesthood meetings and people with a "questionable lineage" were given the priesthood, such as Fijians, Indigenous Australians, Egyptians, as well as Brazilians and South Africans with an unknown heritage who did not appear to have any black heritage.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: During that time, the church stated that the ban was instituted by God and it officially offered several race-based explanations for the ban, including the belief that Cain and his descendants are cursed, Ham's marriage to Egyptus, a curse on the descendants of Canaan, and that black people were less valiant in their pre-mortal life. They used LDS scriptures to justify their explanations, including the Book of Abraham which teaches that the descendants of Canaan were black and Pharaoh could not have the priesthood because he was a descendant of Canaan. In 1978, the church issued a declaration that the Lord had revealed that the day had come in which all worthy males could receive the priesthood. This was later adopted as scripture. They also taught that the ancient curse was lifted and that the Quorum of the Twelve heard the voice of the Lord. Today, none of these explanations are accepted as official church doctrine, and the church espouses anti-racism.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: During the early years of the Latter Day Saint movement, at least two black men held the priesthood and became priests: Elijah Abel and Walker Lewis. Elijah Abel received both the priesthood office of elder and the office of , evidently in the presence of Joseph Smith himself. Later, the person who ordained Abel, Zebedee Coltrin stated that in 1834, Joseph Smith had told Coltrin that "the Spirit of the Lord saith the Negro had no right nor cannot hold the Priesthood," and that Abel should be dropped from the Seventies because of his lineage; while in 1908, President Joseph F. Smith, Joseph Smith's nephew, said that Abel's ordination had been declared null and void by his uncle personally, though, prior to this statement, he had previously denied any connection between the priesthood ban and Joseph Smith. Historians Armand Mauss and Lester Bush, however, found that all references to Joseph Smith supporting a priesthood ban on blacks were made long after his death and seem to be the result of an attempted reconciliation of the contrasting beliefs and policies of Brigham Young and Joseph Smith by later church leaders. No evidence from Smith's lifetime suggests that he ever prohibited blacks from receiving the priesthood. Sources suggest that there were several other black priesthood holders in the early church, including Peter Kerr and Joseph T. Ball, a Jamaican immigrant. Other prominent black members of the early church included Jane Manning James, Green Flake, and Samuel D. Chambers, among others.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: After Smith's death in 1844, Brigham Young became president of the main body of the church and led the Mormon pioneers to what would become the Utah Territory. Like many Americans at the time, Young, who was also the territorial governor, promoted discriminatory views about black people. On January 16, 1852, Young made a pronouncement to the Utah Territorial Legislature, stating that "any man having one drop of the seed of [Cain] ... in him [could not] hold the priesthood." At the same time, however, Young also said that at some point in the future, black members of the church would "have [all] the privilege and more" that was enjoyed by other members of the church. Some scholars have suggested that the actions of William McCary, a half-black man who also called himself a prophet and the successor to Joseph Smith, led to Young's decision to ban blacks from receiving the priesthood. McCary went as far as once claiming to be Adam from the Bible, and was excommunicated from the church for apostasy. As recorded in the "Journal of Discourses", Young taught that black people's position as "servant of servants" was a law under heaven and it was not the church's place to change God's law.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Under the racial restrictions that lasted from Young's presidency until 1978, persons with any black African ancestry could not receive church priesthood or any temple ordinances including the endowment and eternal marriage or participate in any proxy ordinances for the dead. An important exception to this temple ban was that (except for a complete temple ban period from the mid-1960s until the early 70s under McKay) black members had been allowed a limited use recommend to act as proxies in baptisms for the dead. The priesthood restriction was particularly limiting, because the LDS Church has a lay priesthood and most male members over the age of 12 have received the priesthood. Holders of the priesthood officiate at church meetings, perform blessings of healing, and manage church affairs. Excluding black people from the priesthood meant that men could not hold any significant church leadership roles or participate in many important events such as performing a baptism, blessing the sick, or giving a baby blessing. Between 1844 and 1977, most black people were not permitted to participate in ordinances performed in the LDS Church temples, such as the endowment ritual, celestial marriages, and family sealings. These ordinances are considered essential to enter the highest degree of heaven, so this meant that they could not enjoy the full privileges enjoyed by other Latter-day Saints during the restriction.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: For Latter-day Saints, a celestial marriage is not required to get into the celestial kingdom, but is required to obtain a fullness of glory or exaltation within the celestial kingdom. The righteous who do not have a celestial marriage would still live eternally with God, but they would be "appointed angels in heaven, which angels are ministering servants." As black people were banned from entering celestial marriage prior to 1978, some interpreted this to mean that they would be treated like unmarried whites, being limited to living forever in God's presence only as a ministering servant. Apostles George F. Richards and Mark E. Petersen taught that blacks could not achieve exaltation because of their priesthood and temple restrictions. Several leaders, including Joseph Smith, Brigham Young, Wilford Woodruff, George Albert Smith, David O. McKay, Joseph Fielding Smith, and Harold B. Lee taught that black people would eventually be able to receive a fullness of glory in the celestial kingdom. In 1973 church spokesperson Wendell Ashton stated that Mormon prophets have stated that the time will come when black Mormon men can receive the priesthood.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: In the LDS Church, a patriarch gives patriarchal blessings to members to help them know their strengths and weaknesses and what to expect in their future life. The blessings also tell members which tribe of Israel they are descended from. Members who are not literally descended from the tribes are adopted into a tribe, usually Ephraim. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, members were more likely to believe they were literally descended from a certain tribe. The LDS Church keeps copies of all patriarchal blessings. In Elijah Abel's 1836 patriarchal blessing, no lineage was declared, and he was promised that in the afterlife he would be equal to his fellow members, and his "soul be white in eternity". Jane Manning James's blessing in 1844 gave the lineage of Ham. Later, it became church policy to declare no lineage for black members. In 1934, patriarch James H. Wallis wrote in his journal that he had always known that black people could not receive a patriarchal blessing because of the priesthood ban, but that they could receive a blessing without a lineage. In Brazil, this was interpreted to mean that if a patriarch pronounced a lineage, then the member was not a descendant of Cain and was therefore eligible for the priesthood, despite physical or genealogical evidence of African ancestry.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Actual patriarchs did not strictly adhere to Wallis's statement. In 1961, the Church Historian's Office reported that other lineages had been given, including from Cain. In 1971, the Presiding Patriarch stated that non-Israelite tribes should not be given as a lineage in a patriarchal blessing. In a 1980 address to students at Brigham Young University, James E. Faust attempted to assure listeners that if they had no declared lineage in their patriarchal blessing, that the Holy Ghost would "purge out the old blood, and make him actually of the seed of Abraham." After the 1978 revelation, patriarchs sometimes declared lineage in patriarchal blessings for black members, but sometimes they did not declare a lineage. Some black members have asked for and received new patriarchal blessings including a lineage.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Church leaders taught for decades that the priesthood ordination and temple ordinance ban was commanded by God. Brigham Young taught it was a "true eternal principle the Lord Almighty has ordained." In 1949, the First Presidency under George Albert Smith officially stated that it "remains as it has always stood" and was "not a matter of the declaration of a policy but of direct commandment from the Lord". A second First Presidency statement (this time under McKay) in 1969 re-emphasized that this "seeming discrimination by the Church towards the Negro is not something which originated with man; but goes back into the beginning with God". As president of the church, Kimball also emphasized in a 1973 press conference that the ban was "not my policy or the Church's policy. It is the policy of the Lord who has established it." On the topic of doctrine and policy for the race ban lifting, the apostle Dallin H. Oaks stated in 1988, "I don't know that it's possible to distinguish between policy and doctrine in a church that believes in continuing revelation and sustains its leader as a prophet. ... I'm not sure I could justify the difference in doctrine and policy in the fact that before 1978 a person could not hold the priesthood and after 1978 they could hold the priesthood." The research of historians Armand Mauss, Newell G. Bringhurst, and Lester E. Bush weakened the idea that the ban was doctrinal. Bush noted that there was, in fact, no record of any revelation received by Brigham Young concerning the ban. Justification for Young's policies were developed much later by scholars of the church, and Bush identified and commentated on the many ungrounded assumptions that led to such justification. The church has since refuted earlier justification for the priesthood ban and no longer teaches it as doctrine.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: On June 8, 1978, the LDS Church's First Presidency released an official declaration which would allow "all worthy male members of the church [to] be ordained to the priesthood without regard to race or color", and which allowed black men and women access to endowments and sealings in the temple. According to the accounts of several of those present, while praying in the Salt Lake Temple, the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles received the revelation relating to the lifting of the temple and priesthood ban. The apostle McConkie wrote that all present "received the same message" and were then able to understand "the will of the Lord". There were many factors that led up to the publication of this declaration: trouble from the NAACP because of priesthood inequality, the announcement of the first LDS temple in Brazil, and other pressures from members and leaders of the church. After the publication of Lester Bush's seminal article in "Dialogue", "Mormonism's Negro Doctrine: An Historical Overview", BYU vice-president Robert K. Thomas feared that the church would lose its tax exemption status. The article described the church's racially discriminatory practices in detail. The article inspired internal discussion among church leaders, weakening the idea that the priesthood ban was doctrinal.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: The 1978 lifting of the restrictions did not explain a reason for them, and neither did the announcement renounce, apologize or present new theological underpinnings for the restrictions. Because these ideas were not officially and explicitly repudiated the justifications, ideas, and beliefs that had sustained the restrictions for generations continue to persist. Apostle Bruce R. McConkie continued to teach that Black people were descended from Cain and Ham until his death, that the curse came from God, but that it had been lifted by God in 1978. His influential book "Mormon Doctrine", published by LDS Church owned Deseret Book, perpetuated these racial teachings, going through 40 printings and selling hundreds of thousands of copies until it was pulled from shelves in 2010.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: In 2012, Randy L. Bott, a BYU professor, suggested that God denied the priesthood to black men in order to protect them from the lowest rung of hell, since one of few damnable sins is to abuse the exercise of the priesthood. Bott compared the priesthood ban to a parent denying young children the keys to the family car, stating: "You couldn't fall off the top of the ladder, because you weren't on the top of the ladder. So, in reality the blacks not having the priesthood was the greatest blessing God could give them." The church responded to these comments by stating the views do not represent the church's doctrine or teachings, nor do BYU professors speak on its behalf.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: In a 2016 landmark survey, almost two-thirds of 1,156 self-identified Latter-day Saints reported believing the pre-1978 temple and priesthood ban was "God's will".


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Non-white members of the church were almost 10% more likely to believe that the ban was "God's will" than white members.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: In 2022 a speech from BYU professor and Young Men general presidency member Brad Wilcox was criticized for downplaying and disrespecting concerns of latter-day saints over the priesthood and temple ban against Black members of the church. Though Wilcox issued two apologies, reporter Jana Riess stated that Wilcox's speech and scornful tone revealed that he "felt disdainful toward women" and believed that "God is a racist", and that his subsequent "not-quite-apologies" did not go far enough. Videos have surfaced of at least two other instances of Wilcox making similar speeches. W. Paul Reeve stated on the controversy that as of 2022 church leaders had still not clarified whether or not the original ban was divinely inspired and have not disavowed the actual racial restrictions themselves leading to incidents where people, like Wilcox, make controversial remarks.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Initial Mormon converts were from the north and opposed slavery. This caused contention in the slave state of Missouri, and the church leadership began distancing itself from abolitionism and sometimes justifying slavery based on the Bible. During this time, several slave owners joined the church and brought their slaves with them when they moved to Nauvoo. The church adopted scriptures which teach against influencing slaves to be "dissatisfied with their condition". Eventually, contention between the mostly-abolitionist Latter-day Saints and slave-owning Southerners led to the Mormon expulsion from Jackson County, Missouri in the Missouri Mormon War.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Joseph Smith began his presidential campaign on a platform for the government to buy slaves into freedom over several years. He called for "the break down of slavery" and the removal of "the shackles from the poor black man." He was killed during his presidential campaign.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: After the murder of Joseph Smith by a violent mob, fearful Latter-day Saints fled to Utah, then part of the Mexican province of Alta California, under the direction of Brigham Young. Some slave owners brought their slaves with them to Utah, though several slaves escaped. The church put out a statement of neutrality towards slavery, stating that it was between the slave owner and God. A few years later, Brigham Young began teaching that slavery was ordained of God, but remained opposed to creating a slave-based economy in Utah like that seen in the South.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: In 1852, the Utah Territory, under the governance of Brigham Young, legalized the slave trade for both Blacks and Native Americans. Under his direction, Utah passed laws supporting slavery and making it illegal for blacks to vote, hold public office, join the Nauvoo Legion, or marry whites. Overall, "An Act in Relation to Service", the law that legalized slavery in the Utah Territory, contrasted with the existing statutes of the Southern states, in that it only allowed for a form of heavily-regulated slavery more similar to indentured servitude than to the mass plantation slavery of the South. The law also contained passages that required slaveowners to prove that their slaves came to the territory "of their own free will and choice" and ensured that slaves could not be sold or moved without the consent of the slave themselves. The Legislature demanded that slaves be declared free if there was any evidence they were abused by their masters. Twenty-six African slaves were reported in the Utah Territory in the 1850 census, and twenty-nine were reported in the 1860 census. Similar to the policies of other territories, one objective of the law was to prevent Black people from settling in Utah. Young told the legislature, "...the law of the last session so far proves a salutory measure, as it has nearly freed the territory, of the colored population; also enabling the people to control all who see proper to remain, and cast their lot among us."


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Many prominent members of the church owned or used slaves, including William H. Hooper, Abraham O. Smoot, Charles C. Rich, Brigham Young and Heber C. Kimball. Members bought and sold slaves as property, gave the church slaves as tithing, and recaptured escaped slaves. In California, slavery was openly tolerated in the Mormon community of San Bernardino, despite being a free state. The US government freed the slaves and overturned laws prohibiting blacks from voting.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) criticized the church's position on civil rights, led anti-discrimination marches and filed a lawsuit against the church in response to its practice of not allowing black children to be Boy Scout troop leaders. Several athletes protested against BYU's discriminatory practices and they also protested against the LDS Church's policy not to give the priesthood to black men. In response, the Church issued a statement in support of civil rights and it also changed its policy on Boy Scouts. Apostle Ezra Taft Benson criticized the civil rights movement and challenged accusations of police brutality. African-American athletes at other schools protested against BYU's discriminatory practices by refusing to play against them. After the reversal of the priesthood ban in 1978, the LDS church stayed relatively silent on matters of civil rights for a time, but eventually began meeting with and has formed a partnership with the NAACP.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Beginning in 2017, local church leaders in Mississippi and the NAACP closely worked on projects to restore the NAACP office where Medgar Evers had worked. This cooperation received support from Jeffrey R. Holland of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. In 2018, it was announced that the Church and the NAACP would be starting a joint program that provided for the financial education of inner-city residents. In 2019, Russell M. Nelson, president of the church, spoke at the national convention of the NAACP in Detroit.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: In June 2020, a spokesman for the NAACP stated that there was "no willingness on the part of the church to do anything material. ... It's time now for more than sweet talk."


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: In the church's October 2020 general conference, multiple leaders spoke out against racism and they also called on church members to act against it. Church president Russell M. Nelson asked church members to "lead out in abandoning attitudes and actions of prejudice." On October 27, 2020, in an address to the Brigham Young University student body, Dallin H. Oaks broadly denounced racism, endorsed the message of "black lives matter" while discouraging its use to advance controversial proposals, and called on students there and church members generally to work to root out racist attitudes, behaviors and policies.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: During the first century of its existence, the church discouraged social interaction with blacks and encouraged racial segregation. Joseph Smith supported segregation, stating, "I would confine them [black people] by strict law to their own species". Until 1963, many church leaders supported legalized racial segregation. David O. McKay, J. Reuben Clark, Henry D. Moyle, Ezra Taft Benson, Joseph Fielding Smith, Harold B. Lee, and Mark E. Peterson were leading proponents of segregation. In the late 1940s First Presidency members publicly and privately condemned white-black marriage calling it "repugnant", "forbidden", and a "wicked virus".


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: During the years, different black families were either told by church leadership not to attend church or chose not to attend church after white members complained. The church began considering segregated congregations, and sent missionaries to southern United States to establish segregated congregations.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: In 1947, mission president, Rulon Howells, decided to segregate the branch in Piracicaba, Brazil, with white members meeting in the chapel and black members meeting in a member's home. When the black members resisted, arguing that integration would help everyone, Howells decided to remove the missionaries from the black members and stop visiting them. The First Presidency under Heber J. Grant sent a letter to stake president Ezra Taft Benson in Washington, D.C., advising that if two black Mormon women were "discreetly approached" they should be happy to sit at the back or side so as not to upset some white women who had complained about sitting near them in Relief Society. At least one black family was forbidden from attending church after white members complained about their attendance. In 1956, Mark E. Petersen suggested that a segregated chapel should be created for places where a number of black families joined.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: The church also advocated for segregation laws and enforced segregation in its facilities. Hotel Utah, a church-run hotel, banned black guests, even when other hotels made exceptions for black celebrities. Blacks were prohibited from performing in the Salt Lake Tabernacle, and the "Deseret News" did not allow black people to appear in photographs with white people. Church leaders urged white members to join civic groups and opened up LDS chapels "for meetings to prevent Negroes from becoming neighbors", even after a 1948 Supreme Court decision against racial covenants in housing. They counseled members to buy homes so black people would not move next to LDS chapels. In the 1950s, the San Francisco mission office took legal action to prevent black families from moving into the church neighborhood. A black man living in Salt Lake City, Daily Oliver, described how, as a boy in the 1910s, he was excluded from an LDS-led boy scout troop because they did not want blacks in their building. In 1954, apostle Mark E. Petersen taught that segregation was inspired by God, arguing that "what God hath separated, let not man bring together again". He used examples of the Lamanites and Nephites, the curse of Cain, Jacob and Esau, and the Israelites and Canaanites as scriptural precedence for segregation.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Church leaders advocated for the segregation of donated blood, concerned that giving white members blood from black people might disqualify them from the priesthood. In 1943, the LDS Hospital opened a blood bank which kept separate blood stocks for whites and blacks. It was the second-largest in-hospital blood bank. After the 1978 ending of the priesthood ban, Consolidated Blood Services agreed to supply hospitals with connections to the LDS Church, including LDS Hospital, Primary Children's and Cottonwood Hospitals in Salt Lake City, McKay-Dee Hospital in Ogden, and Utah Valley Hospital in Provo. Racially segregated blood stocks reportedly ended in the 1970s, although white patients worried about receiving blood from a black donor were reassured that this would not happen even after 1978.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Church leaders opposed desegregation in schools. After Dr. Robinson wrote an editorial in the Deseret News, President McKay deleted portions that indicated support for desegregation in schools, explaining it would not be fair to force a white child to learn with a black child. Decades earlier as a missionary he had written that he did "not care much for a negro". Apostle J. Rueben Clark instructed the Relief Society general president to keep the National Council of Women from supporting going on record in favor of school desegregation.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: The church's stance against interracial marriage held consistent for over a century while attitudes towards black people and the priesthood and equal rights saw considerable changes. Nearly every decade beginning with the church's formation until the 1970s saw some denunciation against miscegenation. Church leaders' views stemmed from the priesthood policy and racist "biological and social" principles of the time.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: One of the first times that anti-miscegenation feelings were mentioned by church leaders, occurred on February 6, 1835. An assistant president of the church, W. W. Phelps, wrote a letter theorizing that Ham's wife was a descendant of Cain and that Ham "himself" was cursed for "marrying a black wife". Joseph Smith wrote that he felt that black peoples should be "confined by strict law to their own species", which some have said directly opposes Smith's advocacy for all other civil rights. In Nauvoo, it was against the law for black men to marry whites, and Joseph Smith fined two black men for violating his prohibition of intermarriage between blacks and whites.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: In 1852, the Utah legislature passed Act in Relation to Service which carried penalties for whites who had sexual relations with blacks. The day after it passed, church president Brigham Young explained that if someone mixes their seed with the seed of Cain, that both they and their children will have the Curse of Cain. He then prophesied that if the Church were approve of intermarriage with blacks, that the Church would go on to destruction and the priesthood would be taken away. The seed of Cain generally referred to those with dark skin who were of African descent. In 1863 during a sermon criticizing the federal government, Young said that the penalty for interracial reproduction between whites and blacks was death.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: In 1946, J. Reuben Clark called racial intermarriage a "wicked virus" in an address in the church's official "Improvement Era" magazine. The next year, a California stake president Virgil H. Sponberg asked if members of the church are "required to associate with [Negroes]". The First Presidency under George Albert Smith sent a reply on May 5 stating that "social intercourse ... should certainly not be encouraged because of leading to intermarriage, which the Lord has forbidden." Two months later in a letter to Utah State sociology professor Lowry Nelson, the First Presidency stated that marriage between a black person and a white person is "most repugnant" and "does not have the sanction of the Church and is contrary to church doctrine". Two years later in response to inquiries from a member Mrs. Guy B. Rose about whether white members were required to associate with black people the apostle Clark wrote that the church discouraged social interaction with black people since it could lead to marriage with them and interracial children.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Church apostle Mark E. Petersen said in a 1954 address that he wanted to preserve the purity of the white race and that blacks desired to become white through intermarriage. The speech was circulated among BYU religion faculty, much to embarrassment of fellow LDS scholars. Over twenty years later Petersen denied knowing if the copies of his speech being passed around were authentic or not, apparently out of embarrassment.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: In 1958, church general authority Bruce R. McConkie published "Mormon Doctrine" in which he stated that "the whole negro race have been cursed with a black skin, the mark of Cain, so they can be identified as a caste apart, a people with whom the other descendants of Adam should not intermarry." The quote remained, despite many other revisions, until the church's Deseret Book ceased printing the book in 2010.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Utah's anti-miscegenation law was repealed in 1963 by the Utah state legislature. In 1967, the Supreme Court ruling on the case of "Loving v. Virginia" determined that any prohibition of interracial marriages in the United States was unconstitutional.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: In a 1965 address to BYU students, apostle Spencer W. Kimball advised BYU students on interracial marriage: "Now, the brethren feel that it is not the wisest thing to cross racial lines in dating and marrying. There is no condemnation. We have had some of our fine young people who have crossed the lines. We hope they will be very happy, but experience of the brethren through a hundred years has proved to us that marriage is a very difficult thing under any circumstances and the difficulty increases in interrace marriages." A church lesson manual for boys 12–13, published in 1995, contains a 1976 quote from Spencer W. Kimball that recommended the practice of marrying others of similar racial, economic, social, educational, and religious backgrounds. In 2003, the church published the Eternal Marriage Student Manual, which used the same quote.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Even after the temple and priesthood ban was lifted for black members in 1978, the church still officially discouraged any marriage across ethnic lines, though it no longer banned or punished it.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Until 2013 at least one official church manual in use had continued encouraging members to marry other members of the same race. Speaking on behalf of the church, Robert Millet wrote in 2003: "[T]he Church Handbook of Instructions ... is the guide for all Church leaders on doctrine and practice. There is, in fact, no mention whatsoever in this handbook concerning interracial marriages. In addition, having served as a Church leader for almost 30 years, I can also certify that I have never received official verbal instructions condemning marriages between black and white members."


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: The first African-American called as a general authority of the church, Peter M. Johnson, had a white wife, as did Ahmad Corbitt, the first African-American called as a general officer of the church.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Church leaders supported segregation at Brigham Young University. Apostle Harold B. Lee protested an African student who was given a scholarship, believing it was dangerous to integrate blacks on BYU's campus. In 1960 the NAACP reported that the predominantly LDS landlords of Provo, Utah would not rent to a BYU black student, and that no motel or hotel there would lodge hired black performers. Later that year BYU administrators hired a black man as a professor without the knowledge of its president Ernest Wilkinson. When Wilkinson found out he wrote that it was a "serious mistake of judgement", and "the danger in doing so is that students ... assume that there is nothing improper about mingling with other races", and the man was promptly reassigned to a departmental advisory position to minimize the risk of mingling.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: A few months later, BYU leaders were "very much concerned" when a male black student received a large number of votes for student vice president. Subsequently, Lee told Wilkinson he would hold him responsible if one of his granddaughters ever went to "BYU and bec[a]me engaged to a colored boy". Later the BYU Board of Trustees decided in February 1961 to officially encourage black students to attend other universities for the first time.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: In 1965, administrators began sending a rejection letter to black applicants which cited BYU's discouragement of interracial courtship and marriage as the motive behind the decision. By 1968, there was only one African American student on campus, though, Wilkinson wrote that year when responding to criticism that "all Negroes who apply for admission and can meet the academic standards are admitted." BYU's dean of athletics Milton Hartvigsen called the Western Athletic Conference's 1969 criticism of BYU's ban on black athletes bigotry towards a religious group, and the next month Wilkinson accused Stanford University of bigotry for refusing to schedule athletic events with BYU over its discrimination towards black athletes.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Between the 19th and mid-20th centuries, some Mormons held racist views, and exclusion from priesthood was not the only discrimination practiced toward black people. With Joseph Smith as the mayor of Nauvoo, blacks were prohibited from holding office or joining the Nauvoo Legion. Brigham Young taught that equality efforts were misguided, claiming that those who fought for equality among blacks were trying to elevate them "to an equality with those whom Nature and Nature's God has indicated to be their masters, their superiors", but that instead they should "observe the law of natural affection for our kind."


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: A 1959 report by the US Commission found that blacks experienced the most wide-spread inequality in Utah, and Mormon teachings on blacks were used to explain racist teachings on blacks. During the 1960s and 1970s, Mormons in the western United States were close to averages in the United States in racial attitudes. In 1966, Armand Mauss surveyed Mormons on racial attitudes and discriminatory practices. He found that "Mormons resembled the rather 'moderate' denominations (such as Presbyterian, Congregational, Episcopalian), rather than the 'fundamentalists' or the sects." Negative racial attitudes within Mormonism varied inversely with education, occupation, community size of origin, and youth, reflecting the national trend. Urban Mormons with a more orthodox view of Mormonism tended to be more tolerant. The American racial attitudes caused difficulties when the church tried to apply the one-drop rule to other areas. For example, many members in Brazil did not understand American classifications of race and how it applied to the priesthood ban, causing a rift between the missionaries and members.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Anti-black jokes commonly circulated among Mormons before the 1978 revelation. In the early 1970s, apostle Spencer W. Kimball began preaching against racism. In 1972, he said: "Intolerance by church members is despicable. A special problem exists with respect to black people because they may not now receive the priesthood. Some members of the Church would justify their own un-Christian discrimination against black people because of that rule with respect to the priesthood, but while this restriction has been imposed by the Lord, it is not for us to add burdens upon the shoulders of our black brethren. They who have received Christ in faith through authoritative baptism are heirs to the celestial kingdom along with men of all other races. And those who remain faithful to the end may expect that God may finally grant them all blessings they have merited through their righteousness. Such matters are in the Lord's hands. It is for us to extend our love to all." In a study covering 1972 to 1996, church members in the United States has been shown to have lower rates of approval of segregation than others from the United States, as well as a faster decline in approval of segregation over the periods covered, both with statistical significance.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Today, the church actively opposes racism among its membership. It is currently working to reach out to black people, and has several predominantly black wards inside the United States. It teaches that all are invited to come unto Christ and it speaks against those who harbor ill feelings towards another race. In 2006, church president Gordon B. Hinckley said in a General Conference of the church that those who use racial slurs can not be called disciples of Christ.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: In the July 1992 edition of the "New Era", the church published a MormonAd promoting racial equality in the church. The photo contained several youth of a variety of ethic backgrounds with the words "Family Photo" in large print. Underneath the picture are the words "God created the races—but not racism. We are all children of the same Father. Violence and hatred have no place in His family. (See Acts 10:34.)"


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: In August 2017, the LDS Church released a statement about the Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, condemning racism in general through its Public Relations Department. Following the statement, the LDS Church released an additional statement, specifically condemning white supremacy as morally wrong. Black Mormon blogger Tami Smith said that she joyfully heard the statement and felt that the church was standing with black church members. Alt-right Mormon blogger Ayla Stewart argues that the statement is non-binding since it came from the Public Relations Department, rather than the First Presidency.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: In the second half of the 20th century some white LDS Church members protested against church teachings and policies excluding black members from temple ordinances and the priesthood. For instance, three members, John Fitzgerald, Douglas A. Wallace, and Byron Marchant, were all excommunicated by the LDS Church in the 1970s for publicly criticizing these teachings (in the years 1973, 1976, and 1977 respectively). On April 2, 1976, Wallace, a high priest in the Church ordained a black man, Larry Lester, as an Aaronic priest, without authorization, as an effort to force the LDS church to review its doctrines. The ordination was declared void because Wallace had not sought prior authorization for ordination of a person to the priesthood. The next day, he attempted to enter the general conference to stage a demonstration. After he was legally barred from the following October conference, his house was put under surveillance during the April 1977 conference by police at the request of the LDS church and the FBI. Marchant was excommunicated for signaling the first vote in opposition to sustaining the church president in modern history during the April 1977 general conference. His vote was motivated by the temple and priesthood ban. He had also received previous media attention as an LDS scoutmaster of a mixed-faith scout troop involved in a 1974 lawsuit that changed the church's policy banning even non-Mormon black Boy Scouts from acting as patrol leaders as church-led scouting troop policy had tied scouting position with Aaronic Priesthood authority.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Other white members who publicly opposed church teachings and policies around black people included Grant Syphers and his wife, who were denied access to the temple over their objections, with their San Francisco bishop stating that "Anyone who could not accept the Church's stand on Negroes ... could not go to the temple." Their stake president agreed and they were denied the temple recommend renewal. Additionally, Prominent LDS politician Stewart Udall, who was then acting as the United States Secretary of the Interior, wrote a strongly worded public letter in 1967 criticizing LDS policies around black members to which he received hundreds of critical response letters, including ones from apostles Delbert Stapley and Spencer Kimball.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: LDS historian Wayne J. Embry interviewed several black LDS Church members in 1987 and reported that all the participants reported "incidents of aloofness on the part of white members, a reluctance or a refusal to shake hands with them or sit by them, and racist comments made to them." Embry further reported that one black church member attended church for three years, despite being completely ignored by fellow church members. Embry reports that "she [the same black church member] had to write directly to the president of the LDS Church to find out how to be baptized" because none of her fellow church members would tell her.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Despite the end of the priesthood ban in 1978, and proclamations from church leadership extolling diversity, racist beliefs in the church prevailed. White church member Eugene England, a professor at Brigham Young University, wrote in 1998 that most Mormons still held deeply racist beliefs, including that blacks were descended from Cain and Ham and subject to their curses. England's students at BYU who reported these beliefs learned them from their parents or from instructors at church, and had little insight into how these beliefs contradicted gospel teachings. In 2003, black LDS Church member Darron Smith noticed a similar problem, and wrote in "Sunstone" about the persistence of racist beliefs in the LDS church. Smith wrote that racism persisted in the church because church leadership had not addressed the ban's origins. This racism persisted in the beliefs that blacks were descendants of Cain, that they were neutral in the war in heaven, and that skin color was tied to righteousness. In 2007, journalist and church member, Peggy Fletcher Stack, wrote that black Mormons still felt separate from other church members because of how other members treat them, ranging from calling them the "n-word" at church and in the temple to small differences in treatment. The dearth of blacks in LDS Church leadership also contributes to black members' feelings of not belonging.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: in June 2016, Alice Faulkner Burch—a women's leader in the Genesis Group, an LDS-sponsored organization for black Mormons in Utah—said black Mormons "still need support to remain in the church—not for doctrinal reasons but for cultural reasons." Burch added that "women are derided about our hair ... referred to in demeaning terms, our children mistreated, and callings withheld." When asked what black women today want, Burch recounted that one woman had told her she wished "to be able to attend church once without someone touching my hair."


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: In 2020, a printed Sunday school manual accompanying an LDS course studying the Book of Mormon (titled ""Come, Follow Me"") contained teachings about "dark skin" being "the sign of [a] curse", which "curse was the withdrawal of the Spirit of the Lord". While the statement explicitly limited the sign to the people and events spoken of and stated that "Dark skin ... is no longer to be considered a sign of the curse," public complaints led the Church to change the manual's digital version. A few days later, Elder Gary E. Stevenson told a Martin Luther King Day gathering of the NAACP that he was "saddened" by the "error", adding that the Church was "asking members to disregard the paragraph in the printed manual." BYU law professor Michalyn Steele, a Native American, later expressed concern about the church's editorial practice and dismay that church educators continue to perpetuate racism.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: In the summer of 2020, Russell M. Nelson issued a joint statement with three top leaders of the NAACP condemning racism and calling for all institutions to work to remove any lingering racism. In the October 2020 general conference, Nelson, his first counselor Dallin H. Oaks, and apostle Quentin L. Cook all denounced racism in their talks.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: In response to a 2016 survey of self-identified Mormons, over 60% expressed that they either know (37 percent) or believe (25.5 percent) that the priesthood/temple ban was God's will, with another 17 percent expressing that it might be true, and 22 percent saying they know or believe it is false.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: The first statement regarding proselyting towards blacks was about slaves. In 1835, the Church's policy was to not proselyte to slaves unless they had permission from their masters. This policy was changed in 1836, when Smith wrote that slaves should not be taught the gospel at all until after their masters were converted. Though the church had an open membership policy for all races, they avoided opening missions in areas with large black populations, discouraged people with black ancestry from investigating the church, counseled members to avoid social interactions with black people, and instructed black members to segregate when white members complained of having to worship with them. Relatively few black people who joined the church retained active membership prior to 1978.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Bruce R. McConkie stated in his 1966 "Mormon Doctrine" that the "gospel message of salvation is not carried affirmatively to them, although sometimes negroes search out the truth." Despite interest from a few hundred Nigerians, proselyting efforts were delayed in Nigeria in the 1960s. After the Nigerian government stalled the church's visa, apostles did not want to proselyte there. In Africa, there were only active missionaries among whites in South Africa. Blacks in South Africa who requested baptism were told that the church was not working among the blacks. In the South Pacific, the church avoiding missionary work among native Fijians until 1955 when the church determined they were related to other Polynesian groups. In Brazil, LDS officials discouraged individuals with black ancestry from investigating the church. Prior to WWII, proselytization in that country was limited to white German-speaking immigrants. The church instituted a mission-wide genealogy program to discover black ancestry, and their official records were marked if any black ancestry was discovered. In the 1970s, "lineage lessons" were added to determine that interested persons were eligible for teaching. After 1978, there were no restrictions against proselytizing to blacks. Shortly after, missionaries began entering areas of Africa that were more predominately black.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: The church does not currently keep official records on the race of its membership, so exact numbers are unknown. Black people have been members of Mormon congregations since its foundation, but in 1964 its black membership was small, with about 300 to 400 black members worldwide. In 1970, the officially sanctioned black LDS support group, the Genesis Group, was formed in Salt Lake City, Utah. In 1997, there were approximately 500,000 black members of the church (about 5% of the total membership), mostly in Africa, Brazil and the Caribbean. Since then, black membership has grown, especially in West Africa, where two temples have been built, doubling to about 1 million black members worldwide by 2008. In 1990, Helvécio Martins became the first black general authority of the LDS Church.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: In April 2017, the LDS Church announced plans to build a temple in Nairobi, Kenya, bringing the number of temples planned or built in Africa outside South Africa to six. In 2017, two black South African men were called to serve as mission presidents. Under President Russell M. Nelson, the pace of announcement of new temples across Africa picked up. During his first two years as president of the Church, five additional temples were announced for Africa, including two in Nigeria (bringing that country to a total of three temples in some stage of operation or planning), one in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (which was the quickest announcement of a second temple after the dedication of the first for any country other than the United States), and the first temples in Sierra Leone and Cape Verde. Nelson also announced temples in San Juan, Puerto Rico and Salvador, Brazil, both places where large percentages of both church members and the overall population were of African descent.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Professor Philip Jenkins noted in 2009 that LDS growth in Africa has been slower than that of other churches due to a number of reasons: one being the white face of the church due to the priesthood ban, and another being the church's refusal to accommodate local customs like polygamy.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: As of 2020, there had been six men of African descent called as general authorities and one called as a general officer of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Of these seven men, one was called while Ezra Taft Benson was president of the Church, two during Thomas S. Monson's ten-year tenure as president of the church and four during the first two years Russell M. Nelson was president of the Church.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Joseph Smith III, the son of Joseph Smith, founded the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints in 1860, now known as the Community of Christ. Smith was a vocal advocate of abolishing the slave trade, and a supporter of Owen Lovejoy, an anti-slavery congressman from Illinois, and Abraham Lincoln. He joined the Republican Party and advocated its antislavery politics. He rejected the fugitive slave law, and openly stated that he would assist slaves who tried to escape. He was a strong opponent of slavery, yet a single blog states he viewed whites as superior to blacks, and held the view that they must not "sacrifice the dignity, honor and prestige that may be rightfully attached to the ruling races." The priesthood has always been open to men of all races, and it has also been open to women since 1984. The Community of Christ rejects the Pearl of Great Price, especially its teachings on priesthood restrictions.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Warren Jeffs, President of the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints since 2002, has made several documented statements on black people including the following:


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: The Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite) has advocated full racial integration throughout all aspects of the church since its organization in 1862. While America was engaged in disputes over the issues of civil liberties and racial segregation, the church said that its message was open to members of all races. In 1905, the church suspended an elder for opposing the full integration of all races.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Historian Dale Morgan wrote in 1949: "An interesting feature of the Church's doctrine is that it discriminates in no way against ... members of other racial groups, who are fully admitted to all the privileges of the priesthood. It has taken a strong stand for human rights, and was, for example, uncompromisingly against the Ku Klux Klan during that organization's period of ascendancy after the First World War."


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: At a time when racial segregation or discrimination was commonplace in most institutions throughout America, two of the most prominent leaders of The Church of Jesus Christ were African American. Apostle John Penn, a member of the Quorum of the Twelve from 1910 to 1955, conducted missionary work among Italian Americans, and he was often referred to as "The Italian's Doctor". Matthew Miller, who was ordained an evangelist in 1937, traveled throughout Canada and established missions to Native Americans.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: The Church does not report any mission involvement or congregations in predominantly black countries.


title: Black people and Mormonism

text: Strangites welcomed African Americans into their church during a time when some other factions denied them the priesthood, and certain other benefits that come with membership in it. Strang ordained at least two African Americans to his church's eldership during his lifetime.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: β-lactam antibiotics (beta-lactam antibiotics) are antibiotics that contain a beta-lactam ring in their chemical


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: structure. This includes penicillin derivatives (penams), cephalosporins and cephamycins (cephems), monobactams, carbapenems and carbacephems. Most β-lactam antibiotics work by inhibiting cell wall biosynthesis in the bacterial organism and are the most widely used group of antibiotics. Until 2003, when measured by sales, more than half of all commercially available antibiotics in use were β-lactam compounds. The first β-lactam antibiotic discovered, penicillin, was isolated from a strain of "Penicillium rubens" (named as "Penicillium notatum" at the time).


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: Bacteria often develop resistance to β-lactam antibiotics by synthesizing a β-lactamase, an enzyme that attacks the β-lactam ring. To overcome this resistance, β-lactam antibiotics can be given with β-lactamase inhibitors such as clavulanic acid.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: β-lactam antibiotics are indicated for the prevention and treatment of bacterial infections caused by susceptible organisms. At first, β-lactam antibiotics were mainly active only against Gram-positive bacteria, yet the recent development of broad-spectrum β-lactam antibiotics active against various Gram-negative organisms has increased their usefulness.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: Common adverse drug reactions for the β-lactam antibiotics include diarrhea, nausea, rash, urticaria, superinfection (including candidiasis).


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: Infrequent adverse effects include fever, vomiting, erythema, dermatitis, angioedema, pseudomembranous colitis.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: Pain and inflammation at the injection site is also common for parenterally administered β-lactam antibiotics.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: Immunologically mediated adverse reactions to any β-lactam antibiotic may occur in up to 10% of patients receiving that agent (a small fraction of which are truly IgE-mediated allergic reactions, see amoxicillin rash). Anaphylaxis will occur in approximately 0.01% of patients. There is perhaps a 5–10% cross-sensitivity between penicillin-derivatives, cephalosporins, and carbapenems; but this figure has been challenged by various investigators.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: Nevertheless, the risk of cross-reactivity is sufficient to warrant the contraindication of all β-lactam antibiotics in patients with a history of severe allergic reactions (urticaria, anaphylaxis, interstitial nephritis) to any β-lactam antibiotic. Rarely, allergic reactions have been triggered by exposure from kissing and sexual contact with a partner who is taking these antibiotics.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: A Jarisch–Herxheimer reaction may occur after initial treatment of a spirochetal infection such as syphilis with a β-lactam antibiotic.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: β-lactam antibiotics are bactericidal, and act by inhibiting the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls. The peptidoglycan layer is important for cell wall structural integrity, especially in Gram-positive organisms, being the outermost and primary component of the wall. The final transpeptidation step in the synthesis of the peptidoglycan is facilitated by DD-transpeptidases, also known as penicillin binding proteins (PBPs). PBPs vary in their affinity for penicillin and other β-lactam antibiotics. The number of PBPs varies between bacterial species.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: β-lactam antibiotics are analogues of -alanyl--alanine—the terminal amino acid residues on the precursor NAM/NAG-peptide subunits of the nascent peptidoglycan layer. The structural similarity between β-lactam antibiotics and -alanyl--alanine facilitates their binding to the active site of PBPs. The β-lactam nucleus of the molecule irreversibly binds to (acylates) the Ser residue of the PBP active site. This irreversible inhibition of the PBPs prevents the final crosslinking (transpeptidation) of the nascent peptidoglycan layer, disrupting cell wall synthesis.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: β-lactam antibiotics block not only the division of bacteria, including cyanobacteria, but also the division of cyanelles, the photosynthetic organelles of the glaucophytes, and the division of chloroplasts of bryophytes. In contrast, they have no effect on the plastids of the highly developed vascular plants. This is supporting the endosymbiotic theory and indicates an evolution of plastid division in land plants.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: Under normal circumstances, peptidoglycan precursors signal a reorganisation of the bacterial cell wall and, as a consequence, trigger the activation of autolytic cell wall hydrolases. Inhibition of cross-linkage by β-lactams causes a build-up of peptidoglycan precursors, which triggers the digestion of existing peptidoglycan by autolytic hydrolases without the production of new peptidoglycan. As a result, the bactericidal action of β-lactam antibiotics is further enhanced.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: Another possibility that has been proposed to account for much of the cytotoxicity of beta lactams focuses on the oxidation of the guanine nucleotide in the bacterial nucleotide pool. The incorporation of oxidized guanine nucleotide into DNA could cause cytotoxicity. Bacterial cytotoxicity could arise from incomplete repair of closely spaced 8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine lesions in the DNA resulting in double-strand breaks.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: Two structural features of β-lactam antibiotics have been correlated with their antibiotic potency. The first is known as "Woodward's parameter", "h", and is the height (in angstroms) of the pyramid formed by the nitrogen atom of the β-lactam as the apex and the three adjacent carbon atoms as the base. The second is called "Cohen's parameter", "c", and is the distance between the carbon atom of the carboxylate and the oxygen atom of the β-lactam carbonyl. This distance is thought to correspond to the distance between the carboxylate-binding site and the oxyanion hole of the PBP enzyme. The best antibiotics are those with higher "h" values (more reactive to hydrolysis) and lower "c" values (better binding to PBPs).


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: By definition, all β-lactam antibiotics have a β-lactam ring in their structure. The effectiveness of these antibiotics relies on their ability to reach the PBP intact and their ability to bind to the PBP. Hence, there are two main modes of bacterial resistance to β-lactams:


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: If the bacterium produces the enzyme β-lactamase or the enzyme penicillinase, the enzyme will hydrolyse the β-lactam ring of the antibiotic, rendering the antibiotic ineffective. (An example of such an enzyme is New Delhi metallo-beta-lactamase 1, discovered in 2009.) The genes encoding these enzymes may be inherently present on the bacterial chromosome or may be acquired via plasmid transfer (plasmid-mediated resistance), and β-lactamase gene expression may be induced by exposure to β-lactams.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: The production of a β-lactamase by a bacterium does not necessarily rule out all treatment options with β-lactam antibiotics. In some instances, β-lactam antibiotics may be co-administered with a β-lactamase inhibitor. For example, Augmentin (FGP) is made of amoxicillin (a β-lactam antibiotic) and clavulanic acid (a β-lactamase inhibitor). The clavulanic acid is designed to overwhelm all β-lactamase enzymes, and effectively serve as an antagonist so that the amoxicillin is not affected by the β-lactamase enzymes.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: Other β-lactamase inhibitors such as boronic acids are being studied in which they irreversibly bind to the active site of β-lactamases. This is a benefit over clavulanic acid and similar beta-lactam competitors, because they cannot be hydrolysed, and therefore rendered useless. Extensive research is currently being done to develop tailored boronic acids to target different isozymes of beta-lactamases.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: However, in all cases where infection with β-lactamase-producing bacteria is suspected, the choice of a suitable β-lactam antibiotic should be carefully considered prior to treatment. In particular, choosing appropriate β-lactam antibiotic therapy is of utmost importance against organisms which harbor some level of β-lactamase expression. In this case, failure to use the most appropriate β-lactam antibiotic therapy at the onset of treatment could result in selection for bacteria with higher levels of β-lactamase expression, thereby making further efforts with other β-lactam antibiotics more difficult.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: As a response to the use of β-lactams to control bacterial infections, some bacteria have evolved penicillin binding proteins with novel structures. β-lactam antibiotics cannot bind as effectively to these altered PBPs, and, as a result, the β-lactams are less effective at disrupting cell wall synthesis. Notable examples of this mode of resistance include methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" (MRSA) and penicillin-resistant "Streptococcus pneumoniae". Altered PBPs do not necessarily rule out all treatment options with β-lactam antibiotics.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: By convention, the bicyclic β-lactams are numbered starting with the position occupied by sulfur in the penams and cephems, regardless of which atom it is in a given class. That is, position 1 is always adjacent to the β-carbon of β-lactam ring. The numbering continues clockwise from position one until the β-carbon of β-lactam is reached, at which point numbering continues counterclockwise around the lactam ring to number the remaining to carbons. For example, the nitrogen atom of all bicyclic β-lactams fused to five-membered rings is labelled position 4, as it is in penams, while in cephems, the nitrogen is position 5.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: The numbering of monobactams follows that of the IUPAC; the nitrogen atom is position 1, the carbonyl carbon is 2, the α-carbon is 3, and the β-carbon 4.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: To date, two distinct methods of biosynthesizing the β-lactam core of this family of antibiotics have been discovered. The first pathway discovered was that of the penams and cephems. This path begins with a nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS), ACV synthetase (ACVS), which generates the linear tripeptide δ-(-α-aminoadipyl)--cysteine--valine (ACV). ACV is oxidatively cyclized (two cyclizations by a single enzyme) to bicyclic intermediate isopenicillin N by isopenicillin N synthase (IPNS) to form the penam core structure. Various transamidations lead to the different natural penicillins.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: The biosynthesis of cephems branch off at isopenicillin N by an oxidative ring expansion to the cephem core. As with the penams, the variety of cephalosporins and cephamycins come from different transamidations, as is the case for the penicillins.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: While the ring closure in penams and cephems is between positions 1 and 4 of the β-lactam and is oxidative, the clavams and carbapenems have their rings closed by two-electron processes between positions 1 and 2 of the ring. β-lactam synthetases are responsible for these cyclizations, and the carboxylate of the open-ring substrates is activated by ATP. In clavams, the β-lactam is formed prior to the second ring; in carbapenems, the β-lactam ring is closed second in sequence.


title: Beta-lactam antibiotics

text: The biosynthesis of the β-lactam ring of tabtoxin mirrors that of the clavams and carbapenems. The closure of the lactam ring in the other monobactams, such as sulfazecin and the nocardicins, may involve a third mechanism involving inversion of configuration at the β-carbon.


title: Multiplexing

text: In telecommunications and computer networking, multiplexing (sometimes contracted to muxing) is a method by which multiple analog or digital signals are combined into one signal over a shared medium. The aim is to share a scarce resource - a physical transmission medium. For example, in telecommunications, several telephone calls may be carried using one wire. Multiplexing originated in telegraphy in the 1870s, and is now widely applied in communications. In telephony, George Owen Squier is credited with the development of telephone carrier multiplexing in 1910.


title: Multiplexing

text: The multiplexed signal is transmitted over a communication channel such as a cable. The multiplexing divides the capacity of the communication channel into several logical channels, one for each message signal or data stream to be transferred. A reverse process, known as demultiplexing, extracts the original channels on the receiver end.


title: Multiplexing

text: A device that performs the multiplexing is called a multiplexer (MUX), and a device that performs the reverse process is called a demultiplexer (DEMUX or DMX).


title: Multiplexing

text: Inverse multiplexing (IMUX) has the opposite aim as multiplexing, namely to break one data stream into several streams, transfer them simultaneously over several communication channels, and recreate the original data stream.


title: Multiplexing

text: In computing, I/O multiplexing can also be used to refer to the concept of processing multiple input/output events from a single event loop, with system calls like poll and select (Unix).


title: Multiplexing

text: Multiple variable bit rate digital bit streams may be transferred efficiently over a single fixed bandwidth channel by means of statistical multiplexing. This is an asynchronous mode time-domain multiplexing which is a form of time-division multiplexing.


title: Multiplexing

text: Digital bit streams can be transferred over an analog channel by means of code-division multiplexing techniques such as frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) and direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).


title: Multiplexing

text: In wireless communications, multiplexing can also be accomplished through alternating polarization (horizontal/vertical or clockwise/counterclockwise) on each adjacent channel and satellite, or through phased multi-antenna array combined with a multiple-input multiple-output communications (MIMO) scheme.


title: Multiplexing

text: In wired communication, space-division multiplexing, also known as space-division multiple access (SDMA) is the use of separate point-to-point electrical conductors for each transmitted channel. Examples include an analogue stereo audio cable, with one pair of wires for the left channel and another for the right channel, and a multi-pair telephone cable, a switched star network such as a telephone access network, a switched Ethernet network, and a mesh network.


title: Multiplexing

text: In wireless communication, space-division multiplexing is achieved with multiple antenna elements forming a phased array antenna. Examples are multiple-input and multiple-output (MIMO), single-input and multiple-output (SIMO) and multiple-input and single-output (MISO) multiplexing. An IEEE 802.11g wireless router with "k" antennas makes it in principle possible to communicate with "k" multiplexed channels, each with a peak bit rate of 54 Mbit/s, thus increasing the total peak bit rate by the factor "k". Different antennas would give different multi-path propagation (echo) signatures, making it possible for digital signal processing techniques to separate different signals from each other. These techniques may also be utilized for space diversity (improved robustness to fading) or beamforming (improved selectivity) rather than multiplexing.


title: Multiplexing

text: Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is inherently an analog technology. FDM achieves the combining of several signals into one medium by sending signals in several distinct frequency ranges over a single medium. In FDM the signals are electrical signals.


title: Multiplexing

text: One of the most common applications for FDM is traditional radio and television broadcasting from terrestrial, mobile or satellite stations, or cable television. Only one cable reaches a customer's residential area, but the service provider can send multiple television channels or signals simultaneously over that cable to all subscribers without interference. Receivers must tune to the appropriate frequency (channel) to access the desired signal.


title: Multiplexing

text: A variant technology, called wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is used in optical communications.


title: Multiplexing

text: Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital (or in rare cases, analog) technology which uses time, instead of space or frequency, to separate the different data streams. TDM involves sequencing groups of a few bits or bytes from each individual input stream, one after the other, and in such a way that they can be associated with the appropriate receiver. If done sufficiently quickly, the receiving devices will not detect that some of the circuit time was used to serve another logical communication path.


title: Multiplexing

text: Consider an application requiring four terminals at an airport to reach a central computer. Each terminal communicated at 2400 baud, so rather than acquire four individual circuits to carry such a low-speed transmission, the airline has installed a pair of multiplexers. A pair of 9600 baud modems and one dedicated analog communications circuit from the airport ticket desk back to the airline data center are also installed. Some web proxy servers (e.g. polipo) use TDM in HTTP pipelining of multiple HTTP transactions onto the same TCP/IP connection.


title: Multiplexing

text: Carrier sense multiple access and multidrop communication methods are similar to time-division multiplexing in that multiple data streams are separated by time on the same medium, but because the signals have separate origins instead of being combined into a single signal, are best viewed as channel access methods, rather than a form of multiplexing.


title: Multiplexing

text: TD is a legacy multiplexing technology still providing the backbone of most National fixed line Telephony networks in Europe, providing the 2m/bit voice and signalling ports on Narrow band Telephone exchanges such as the DMS100. Each E1 or 2m/bit TDM port provides either 30 or 31 speech timeslots in the case of CCITT7 signalling systems and 30 voice channels for customer connected Q931, DASS2, DPNSS, V5 and CASS signalling systems.


title: Multiplexing

text: Polarization-division multiplexing uses the polarization of electromagnetic radiation to separate orthogonal channels. It is in practical use in both radio and optical communications, particularly in 100 Gbit/s per channel fiber optic transmission systems.


title: Multiplexing

text: Differential Cross-Polarized Wireless Communications is a novel method for polarized antenna transmission utilizing a differential technique.


title: Multiplexing

text: Orbital angular momentum multiplexing is a relatively new and experimental technique for multiplexing multiple channels of signals carried using electromagnetic radiation over a single path. It can potentially be used in addition to other physical multiplexing methods to greatly expand the transmission capacity of such systems. it is still in its early research phase, with small-scale laboratory demonstrations of bandwidths of up to 2.5 Tbit/s over a single light path. This is a controversial subject in the academic community, with many claiming it is not a new method of multiplexing, but rather a special case of space-division multiplexing.


title: Multiplexing

text: Code-division multiplexing (CDM), code-division multiple access (CDMA) or spread spectrum is a class of techniques where several channels simultaneously share the same frequency spectrum, and this spectral bandwidth is much higher than the bit rate or symbol rate. One form is frequency hopping, another is direct sequence spread spectrum. In the latter case, each channel transmits its bits as a coded channel-specific sequence of pulses called chips. Number of chips per bit, or chips per symbol, is the spreading factor. This coded transmission typically is accomplished by transmitting a unique time-dependent series of short pulses, which are placed within chip times within the larger bit time. All channels, each with a different code, can be transmitted on the same fiber or radio channel or other medium, and asynchronously demultiplexed. Advantages over conventional techniques are that variable bandwidth is possible (just as in statistical multiplexing), that the wide bandwidth allows poor signal-to-noise ratio according to Shannon-Hartley theorem, and that multi-path propagation in wireless communication can be combated by rake receivers.


title: Multiplexing

text: A multiplexing technique may be further extended into a multiple access method or channel access method, for example, TDM into time-division multiple access (TDMA) and statistical multiplexing into carrier-sense multiple access (CSMA). A multiple access method makes it possible for several transmitters connected to the same physical medium to share its capacity.


title: Multiplexing

text: Multiplexing is provided by the Physical Layer of the OSI model, while multiple access also involves a media access control protocol, which is part of the Data Link Layer.


title: Multiplexing

text: The Transport layer in the OSI model, as well as TCP/IP model, provides statistical multiplexing of several application layer data flows to/from the same computer.


title: Multiplexing

text: Code-division multiplexing (CDM) is a technique in which each channel transmits its bits as a coded channel-specific sequence of pulses. This coded transmission typically is accomplished by transmitting a unique time-dependent series of short pulses, which are placed within chip times within the larger bit time. All channels, each with a different code, can be transmitted on the same fiber and asynchronously demultiplexed. Other widely used multiple access techniques are time-division multiple access (TDMA) and frequency-division multiple access (FDMA).


title: Multiplexing

text: Code-division multiplex techniques are used as an access technology, namely code-division multiple access (CDMA), in Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) standard for the third-generation (3G) mobile communication identified by the ITU.


title: Multiplexing

text: The earliest communication technology using electrical wires, and therefore sharing an interest in the economies afforded by multiplexing, was the electric telegraph. Early experiments allowed two separate messages to travel in opposite directions simultaneously, first using an electric battery at both ends, then at only one end.


title: Multiplexing

text: Émile Baudot developed a time-multiplexing system of multiple Hughes machines in the 1870s. In 1874, the quadruplex telegraph developed by Thomas Edison transmitted two messages in each direction simultaneously, for a total of four messages transiting the same wire at the same time. Several researchers were investigating acoustic telegraphy, a frequency-division multiplexing technique, which led to the invention of the telephone.


title: Multiplexing

text: In telephony, a customer's telephone line now typically ends at the remote concentrator box, where it is multiplexed along with other telephone lines for that neighborhood or other similar area. The multiplexed signal is then carried to the central switching office on significantly fewer wires and for much further distances than a customer's line can practically go. This is likewise also true for digital subscriber lines (DSL).


title: Multiplexing

text: Fiber in the loop (FITL) is a common method of multiplexing, which uses optical fiber as the backbone. It not only connects POTS phone lines with the rest of the PSTN, but also replaces DSL by connecting directly to Ethernet wired into the home. Asynchronous Transfer Mode is often the communications protocol used.


title: Multiplexing

text: Cable TV has long carried multiplexed television channels, and late in the 20th century began offering the same services as telephone companies. IPTV also depends on multiplexing.


title: Multiplexing

text: In video editing and processing systems, multiplexing refers to the process of interleaving audio and video into one coherent data stream.


title: Multiplexing

text: In digital video, such a transport stream is normally a feature of a container format which may include metadata and other information, such as subtitles. The audio and video streams may have variable bit rate. Software that produces such a transport stream and/or container is commonly called a multiplexer or muxer. A demuxer is software that extracts or otherwise makes available for separate processing the components of such a stream or container.


title: Multiplexing

text: In digital television systems, several variable bit-rate data streams are multiplexed together to a fixed bit rate transport stream by means of statistical multiplexing. This makes it possible to transfer several video and audio channels simultaneously over the same frequency channel, together with various services. This may involve several standard-definition television (SDTV) programmes (particularly on DVB-T, DVB-S2, ISDB and ATSC-C), or one HDTV, possibly with a single SDTV companion channel over one 6 to 8 MHz-wide TV channel. The device that accomplishes this is called a statistical multiplexer. In several of these systems, the multiplexing results in an MPEG transport stream. The newer DVB standards DVB-S2 and DVB-T2 has the capacity to carry several HDTV channels in one multiplex.


title: Multiplexing

text: In digital radio, a multiplex (also known as an ensemble) is a number of radio stations that are grouped together. A multiplex is a stream of digital information that includes audio and other data.


title: Multiplexing

text: On communications satellites which carry broadcast television networks and radio networks, this is known as multiple channel per carrier or MCPC. Where multiplexing is not practical (such as where there are different sources using a single transponder), single channel per carrier mode is used.


title: Multiplexing

text: In FM broadcasting and other analog radio media, multiplexing is a term commonly given to the process of adding subcarriers to the audio signal before it enters the transmitter, where modulation occurs. (In fact, the stereo multiplex signal can be generated using time-division multiplexing, by switching between the two (left channel and right channel) input signals at an ultrasonic rate (the subcarrier), and then filtering out the higher harmonics.) Multiplexing in this sense is sometimes known as MPX, which in turn is also an old term for stereophonic FM, seen on stereo systems since the 1960s.


title: Multiplexing

text: In spectroscopy the term is used to indicate that the experiment is performed with a mixture of frequencies at once and their respective response unravelled afterwards using the Fourier transform principle.


title: Multiplexing

text: In computer programming, it may refer to using a single in-memory resource (such as a file handle) to handle multiple external resources (such as on-disk files).


title: Multiplexing

text: Some electrical multiplexing techniques do not require a physical "multiplexer" device, they refer to a "keyboard matrix" or "Charlieplexing" design style:


title: Multiplexing

text: In high-throughput DNA sequencing, the term is used to indicate that some artificial sequences (often called "barcodes" or "indexes") have been added to link given sequence reads to a given sample, and thus allow for the sequencing of multiple samples in the same reaction.


title: Multiplexing

text: In sociolinguistics, multiplexity is used to describe the number of distinct connections between individuals who are part of a social network. A multiplex network is one in which members share a number of ties stemming from more than one social context, such as workmates, neighbors, or relatives.


title: Federico Macheda

text: Federico Macheda (; born 22 August 1991) is an Italian professional footballer who plays as a forward for Süper Lig club Ankaragücü.


title: Federico Macheda

text: Born in Rome, Macheda began his career with local club Lazio, but joined Manchester United when he turned 16 in 2007. He turned professional in 2008, before scoring on his first-team debut in April 2009. Macheda spent the next couple of years on the fringe of the United first-team, before twice going out on loan – first to Sampdoria in his native Italy in 2011, and then to Queens Park Rangers in 2012, the latter of which was curtailed by injury. He spent further spells on loan, at VfB Stuttgart, Doncaster Rovers and Birmingham City. Having failed to break into the Manchester United first team, Macheda was released at the end of his contract in June 2014, leaving him free to sign for Cardiff City. He spent two years there before being released, also having a short loan at Nottingham Forest, and then spent 18 months with Novara of Serie B.


title: Federico Macheda

text: Macheda is a former Italian youth international, having made appearances for the national under-16, under-17, under-19 and under-21 teams. When he made his under-21 debut in August 2009 in a friendly against Russia, he was the youngest player to do so at the age of . He scored his first goals for the team just over a year later in a match against Turkey.


title: Federico Macheda

text: Macheda was born in Rome, Lazio. He began his football career with Lazio's youth team after being spotted at the local Atletico Prenestino club in Rome. However, due to Italian football regulations preventing under-18s from signing professional contracts, he was not permanently tied to the club, and shortly after his 16th birthday, he was signed by Manchester United of England, where regulations permit the signing of players aged 16 and over. Following his family's relocation to England, he officially joined the club as a trainee on 16 September 2007.


title: Federico Macheda

text: Macheda went straight into the Manchester United Under-18 side, and scored the only goal of the game on his debut, a 1–0 away win over Barnsley on 15 September 2007. In his first season with the club, he finished as the Under-18s' top scorer with a total of 12 goals in 21 appearances, and also made his debut for the reserves on 26 February 2008, when he came on as a 68th-minute substitute for Gerard Piqué in a 2–0 away defeat to Liverpool. On 12 May 2008, Macheda earned a Manchester Senior Cup winners' medal when he was named as an unused substitute for the 2–0 win over Bolton Wanderers in the final.


title: Federico Macheda

text: Macheda signed his first professional contract with Manchester United on his 17th birthday in August 2008. In the 2008–09 season, he continued in the under-18 side, while also making a few appearances for the reserves. Towards the end of the season, Macheda enjoyed an extended run in the reserve team, scoring eight goals in eight games, including a hat-trick in a 3–3 draw with Newcastle United on 30 March 2009, and he was rewarded by being selected for the first team for the match against Aston Villa on 5 April. With United 2–1 down heading into the final third of the game, manager Alex Ferguson brought Macheda on to replace Nani just after the hour mark. After Cristiano Ronaldo equalised for United in the 80th minute, Macheda won the match with a turn to evade his marker followed by a curling effort from just inside the penalty area in the third minute of injury time.


title: Federico Macheda

text: Macheda was named on the bench for United's next two games – first against Porto in the first leg of their Champions League quarter-final, and then against Sunderland in the league – making his second appearance for the club in the latter game. Just 46 seconds after taking to the field in place of Dimitar Berbatov, Macheda had the ball in the back of the net for the second time in his United career, deflecting a Michael Carrick shot past Craig Gordon in the Sunderland goal. With Alex Ferguson opting to rest his big-name players for the FA Cup semi-final against Everton on 19 April 2009, Macheda was handed his first start in a Manchester United shirt. However, for the first time in his United career, Macheda failed to score and was substituted for Dimitar Berbatov at the start of extra time. He started his first Premier League game in a 2–0 win over Middlesbrough on 2 May 2009; he was involved in the build-up to Park Ji-Sung's goal, but he failed to get on the scoresheet himself and was substituted ten minutes into the second half. At the end of his first season in the Manchester United first team, Macheda was named as the Jimmy Murphy Academy Player of the Year in recognition of his performances in the under-18s, the reserves and the first team.


title: Federico Macheda

text: Macheda's 2009–10 season began with appearances in the third and fourth rounds of the League Cup, against Wolverhampton Wanderers and Barnsley respectively. He made his Champions League debut against CSKA Moscow on 3 November, followed by another appearance in the 1–0 defeat to Beşiktaş on 25 November, in which he forced a save from the goalkeeper in the last minute. He came on as a substitute for Dimitar Berbatov in the League Cup fifth round on 1 December, before signing a four-year contract the next day that would tie him to the club until June 2014.


title: Federico Macheda

text: Towards the end of the year, Macheda suffered an injury that kept him out until 21 January, when he returned for a reserve match against Sunderland. However, he picked up another injury soon after, meaning that he missed out on the win over Aston Villa in the League Cup Final. He made his first Premier League appearance of the season in the 4–0 win over Bolton on 27 March, replacing Ryan Giggs in the 84th minute. With Wayne Rooney suffering ankle ligament damage against Bayern Munich in the Champions League, Macheda was named on the bench for United's top-of-the-table clash at home to Chelsea on 3 April. With United 1–0 down, Macheda came on for Paul Scholes in the 72nd minute; Chelsea scored a second goal in the 79th minute, before Macheda scored a consolation goal for the home side two minutes later, although there was a suspicion of handball as he turned the ball into the net.


title: Federico Macheda

text: On 28 July 2010, Macheda scored his first goals of United's pre-season tour of North America as he netted twice in the 2010 MLS All-Star Game. The first came after just 21 seconds as he capitalised on a poor back-pass and the second came in the 13th minute with a header from a Nani corner kick. On 13 November 2010, Macheda scored his first goal of the season, netting United's first goal in a 2–2 away draw against Aston Villa.


title: Federico Macheda

text: On 8 January 2011, Sampdoria confirmed Macheda had joined on loan until the end of the season. He was seen as a temporary replacement for Antonio Cassano who had left to join Milan. Macheda made his debut for Sampdoria on 9 January in a 2–1 home victory over Roma. On 19 January, Macheda scored his first and only Sampdoria goal on his first start for the club, as he opened the scoring in their Coppa Italia tie against Udinese. Sampdoria won 5–4 in a penalty shootout as the game had ended 2–2 after extra-time. Unfortunately, the club's poor performances led to their relegation to Serie B. Following their relegation, Macheda's agent said he could make a return to Sampdoria, but the player himself ruled out a return to Italy in the 2011–12 season and stated that he would remain at Manchester United.


title: Federico Macheda

text: Macheda returned to Manchester United at the end of the season having made 14 appearances in Sampdoria's unsuccessful battle against relegation. Upon his return, he expressed his wish to continue his football education in England, saying "For a youngster, England is a better place to play." Macheda then scored two goals against the New England Revolution in the first game of Manchester United's 2011 tour of the United States. Macheda played his first game of the 2011–12 season in Manchester United's 3–0 win over Leeds United in the League Cup, and scored from the penalty spot in the 2–1 loss to Crystal Palace in the quarter-final of that competition.


title: Federico Macheda

text: On 2 January 2012, Macheda was loaned out to fellow Premier League club Queens Park Rangers for the rest of the season. On the same day, he played his first game, coming on as a substitute for Heiðar Helguson in the 80th minute in the 2–1 loss to Norwich City at Loftus Road. On 28 March, Macheda returned to Manchester United for treatment after an ankle injury which ended his season.


title: Federico Macheda

text: Macheda returned to Manchester United for pre-season training and was chosen to take part in the club's tour of South Africa. He scored the only goal in a 1–0 victory over AmaZulu at the start of the tour. Since then, he did not feature in any league games for United.


title: Federico Macheda

text: On 24 January 2013, Macheda was loaned to VfB Stuttgart until the end of the season. The German club's sporting director Fredi Bobic announced that Manchester United promised Stuttgart an option of purchase, but they did not use any such option.


title: Federico Macheda

text: On 16 September 2013, Macheda joined Doncaster Rovers on a one-month loan. He made his debut the following day in Doncaster Rovers' away loss to Watford, coming on as a substitute for David Cotterill in the 58th minute. He scored his first goals for Doncaster when he struck twice against Nottingham Forest on 21 September 2013 in a 2–2 draw. This was the first time he scored since November 2010. The following week, he scored again, the only goal in the derby against local rivals Sheffield Wednesday; this made it three goals in as many appearances for his new club. On 8 October 2013, Macheda returned to Manchester United after a hamstring injury. After recovering from his injury, Macheda returned to Doncaster for a separate loan spell, lasting until the end of December 2013.


title: Federico Macheda

text: On 31 January 2014, Macheda became the third Manchester United youngster to join Championship club Birmingham City on loan until the end of the 2013–14 season, after Tyler Blackett and Tom Thorpe. He replaced Lee Novak after an hour of the following day's match, at home to Derby County, and scored in stoppage time after Emyr Huws' shot had hit the post, to make the final score 3–3. At home to Burnley on 12 March, Macheda replaced Olly Lee after 60 minutes with Birmingham 1–0 down. He equalised four minutes later, and his 94th-minute second gave his team a 3–3 draw, despite opposition claims that he had used his arm to control the ball. He finished the season as Birmingham's top league goalscorer, with ten goals from just ten starts and eight appearances as a substitute.


title: Federico Macheda

text: After being released from Manchester United, Macheda signed for newly relegated Championship club Cardiff City on a free transfer on 27 May 2014. He was signed by Ole Gunnar Solskjær, his former manager at United's reserves. He made his Cardiff debut in the second round of the League Cup away to Port Vale on 26 August 2014, and marked the occasion with his first two competitive goals for the club, as they progressed to the third round with a 3–2 victory. Macheda received his first red card for Cardiff on 14 March 2015 against Brentford for a second yellow after scoring an equaliser earlier in the match.


title: Federico Macheda

text: Having made no league starts and very few substitute appearances in 2015–16, Macheda joined fellow Championship club Nottingham Forest on loan until the end of the season; the move was completed on 15 March, and he went straight into the starting eleven for that night's game, a 1–1 draw away to Hull City.


title: Federico Macheda

text: Upon his return, he was left out of the pre-season tour of Germany and was placed on the transfer list by new manager Paul Trollope. On 30 August 2016, Macheda's contract was cancelled by mutual consent.


title: Federico Macheda

text: On 14 December 2016, he joined Serie B side Novara Calcio on an 18-month contract; he was awarded the club's number 10 shirt. On 25 February 2017, Macheda scored his first goal for Novara in Serie B in a 2–1 home win over Spezia; this was his first Italian league goal, and the first goal he had managed for an Italian team since 2011, when he scored for Sampdoria in the Coppa Italia. On 17 April, he scored his first brace in six years in a 3–2 away win over Frosinone. Macheda left the club when his contract expired at the end of the 2017–18 season.


title: Federico Macheda

text: Macheda signed a three-year contract with Superleague Greece club Panathinaikos in September 2018. He scored 11 goals in 28 appearances (10 in the league and 1 in the Greek Cup against Panetolikos).


title: Federico Macheda

text: He started the 2019–20 season with a goal in a 1–1 away draw against Lamia and a week later he added another one in a 3–1 home defeat against OFI. On 1 March 2020, he scored a brace against Volos, equalling his personal best for a single season with 13 goals in all competitions.


title: Federico Macheda

text: On 7 June 2020, Federico scored after a precise pass from Dominik Nagy in a 1-1 away draw game against AEK Athens in the 2019–20 Superleague playoffs after an 80-day enforced COVID-19 pandemic break.


title: Federico Macheda

text: On 28 November 2021, he scored a brace in a 2-0 home win game against Panetolikos F.C. On 19 December 2021, in a 2-0 Super League Greece home win game against PAS Giannina, Federico Macheda completed 100 appearances with the club and became just the 13th foreign player out of 202 who have played with Panathinaikos that achieved this milestone.


title: Federico Macheda

text: Ahead of the 2009 UEFA European Under-21 Championship, Macheda was named in Italy's preliminary 40-man squad; however, he was ultimately not named in the final 23-man squad. On 12 August 2009, Macheda made his debut for the Italy U21s in a friendly against Russia. Macheda scored his first goals for the U21s as he netted twice in a 2–1 victory over Turkey on 17 November 2010. Macheda scored the only goal in a 1–0 win over England, netting a late penalty on 8 February 2011. The following game saw Macheda score Italy's third in a 3–1 win over Sweden on 24 March.


title: Federico Macheda

text: Nicknamed "Kiko", Macheda is a quick and versatile forward, who is capable of playing in a central role as a main striker, or in more of a supporting role as a second striker or attacking midfielder. Although naturally right-footed, he possesses an accurate and powerful shot with both feet, and is known in particular for his clinical finishing, intelligent movement, and ability to curl shots on goal from outside the area. He has been described as a "modern striker", as his technical skills, ability to read the game, and positional sense in the box, combined with his tall, large and strong physique, allow him to hold up the ball with his back to goal, retain possession under pressure, and create space for himself even in limited spaces and when being heavily marked by more physical opponents. Regarded as one of Italy's most promising prospects in his youth, in 2010 "Don Balón" included him in their list of the 100 best young players born after 1989; in recent seasons, however, he has often struggled to live up to his potential.


title: Federico Macheda

text: Early in the morning of 12 July 2009, Macheda's home in Sale, Greater Manchester was targeted by burglars, who stole cash and jewellery. A friend of his received a minor head wound during the burglary.


title: Federico Macheda

text: While on loan at Queens Park Rangers in 2012, Macheda was involved in two cases of misconduct on Twitter.


title: The Blackcoat's Daughter

text: The Blackcoat's Daughter (also known as February) is a 2015 supernatural psychological horror film written and directed by Osgood Perkins. The film stars Emma Roberts, Kiernan Shipka, Lucy Boynton, Lauren Holly, and James Remar.