title: Sling (weapon)

text: Almond-shaped leaden sling-bullets were typically about long and about wide, massing approximately . Very often, symbols or writings were moulded into lead sling-bullets. Many examples have been found including a collection of about 80 sling-bullets from the siege of Perusia in Etruria from 41 BC, to be found in the museum of modern Perugia. Examples of symbols include a stylized lightning bolt, a snake, and a scorpion – reminders of how a sling might strike without warning. Writing might include the name of the owning military unit or commander or might be more imaginative: "Take this", "Ouch", "get pregnant with this" and even "For Pompey's backside" added insult to injury, whereas "dexai" ('take this' or 'catch!') is merely sarcastic. In Yavne, a sling bullet with the Greek inscription "Victory of Heracles and Hauronas" was discovered, the two gods were the patrons of the city during the Hellenistic period.


title: Sling (weapon)

text: Julius Caesar writes in "De bello Gallico", book 5, about clay shot being heated before slinging, so that it might set fire to thatch.


title: Sling (weapon)

text: Some bullets have been found with holes drilled in them. It was thought the holes were to contain poison. John Reid of the Trimontium Trust, finding holed Roman bullets excavated at the Burnswark hillfort, has proposed that the holes would cause the bullets to "whistle" in flight and the sound would intimidate opponents. The holed bullets were generally small and thus not particularly dangerous. Several could fit into a pouch and a single slinger could produce a terrorizing barrage. Experiments with modern copies demonstrate they produce a whooshing sound in flight.


title: Sling (weapon)

text: The Bayeux Tapestry of the 1070s portrays the use of slings in a hunting context. Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor employed slingers during the Siege of Tortona in 1155 to suppress the garrison while his own men built siege engines. Indeed, slings seem to have been a fairly common weapon in Italy during the 11th and 12th centuries. Slings were also used by the Byzantines. On the Iberian peninsula, the Spanish and Portuguese infantry favoured it against light and agile Moorish troops. The staff sling continued to be used in sieges and the sling was used as a part of large siege engines.


title: Sling (weapon)

text: In ancient Andean civilizations such as the Inca Empire, slings were made from llama wool. These slings typically have a cradle that is long and thin and features a relatively long slit. Andean slings were constructed from contrasting colours of wool; complex braids and fine workmanship can result in beautiful patterns. Ceremonial slings were also made; these were large, non-functional and generally lacked a slit. To this day, ceremonial slings are used in parts of the Andes as accessories in dances and in mock battles. They are also used by llama herders; the animals will move away from the sound of a stone landing. The stones are not slung to hit the animals, but to persuade them to move in the desired direction.


title: Sling (weapon)

text: The sling was also used in the Americas for hunting and warfare. One notable use was in Incan resistance against the conquistadors. These slings were apparently very powerful; in "", historian Charles C. Mann quoted a conquistador as saying that an Incan sling "could break a sword in two pieces" and "kill a horse". Some slings spanned as much as long and weighed an impressive .


title: Sling (weapon)

text: The staff sling, also known as the stave sling, "fustibalus" (Latin), "fustibale" (French), consists of a staff (a length of wood) with a short sling at one end. One cord of the sling is firmly attached to the stave and the other end has a loop that can slide off and release the projectile. Staff slings are extremely powerful because the stave can be made as long as two meters, creating a powerful lever. Ancient art shows slingers holding staff slings by one end, with the pocket behind them, and using both hands to throw the staves forward over their heads.


title: Sling (weapon)

text: The staff sling has a similar or superior range to the shepherd's sling, and can be as accurate in practiced hands. It is generally suited for heavier missiles and siege situations as staff slings can achieve very steep trajectories for slinging over obstacles such as castle walls. The staff itself can become a close combat weapon in a melee. The staff sling is able to throw heavy projectiles a much greater distance and at a higher arc than a hand sling. Staff slings were in use well into the age of gunpowder as grenade launchers, and were used in ship-to-ship combat to throw incendiaries.


title: Sling (weapon)

text: "Piao Shi" (飃石, lit. 'whirlwind stone'), also known as "Shou Pao" (手砲, lit. hand cannon) during the Song period, is the Chinese name for staff sling. It consists of a shor cord tied to one end of a five chi bamboo pole, and is usually employed in siege defense alongside larger stone throwers. It is depicted and described in the "Ji Xiao Xin Shu" (紀效新書).


title: Sling (weapon)

text: The "kestros" (also known as the "kestrosphendone", "cestrus" or "cestrosphendone") is a sling weapon mentioned by Livy and Polybius. It seems to have been a heavy dart flung from a leather sling. It was invented in 168 BC and was employed by some of the Macedonian troops of King Perseus in Third Macedonian war.


title: Sling (weapon)

text: The traction trebuchet was a siege engine which uses the power of men pulling on ropes or the energy stored in a raised weight to rotate what was, again, a staff sling. It was designed so that, when the throwing arm of the trebuchet had swung forward sufficiently, one end of the sling would automatically become detached and release the projectile. Some trebuchets were small and operated by a very small crew; however, unlike the onager, it was possible to build the trebuchet on a gigantic scale: such giants could hurl enormous rocks at huge ranges. Trebuchets are, in essence, mechanized slings.


title: Sling (weapon)

text: Traditional slinging is still practiced as it always has been in the Balearic Islands, and competitions and leagues are common. In the rest of the world, the sling is primarily a hobby weapon, and a growing number of people make and practice with them. In recent years 'slingfests' have been held in Wyoming, USA, in September 2007 and in Staffordshire, England, in June 2008.


title: Sling (weapon)

text: According to the Guinness Book of World Records, the current record for the greatest distance achieved in hurling an object from a sling is , using a long sling and a ovoid stone, set by Larry Bray in Loa, Utah, on 21 August 1981.


title: Sling (weapon)

text: The principles of the sling may find use on a larger scale in the future; proposals exist for tether propulsion of spacecraft, which functionally is an oversized sling to propel a spaceship.


title: Sling (weapon)

text: The sling is used today as a weapon primarily by protestors, to launch either stones or incendiary devices, such as Molotov cocktails. Classic woolen slings are still in use in the Middle East by Arab nomads and Bedouins to ward off jackals and hyenas. International Brigades used slings to throw grenades during the Spanish Civil War. Similarly, the Finns made use of sling-launched Molotov cocktails in the Winter War against Soviet tanks. Slings were used during the various Palestinian riots against modern army personnel and riot police. They were also used in the 2008 disturbances in Kenya.


title: Maxis

text: Maxis is an American video game developer and a division of Electronic Arts (EA). The studio was founded in 1987 by Will Wright and Jeff Braun, and acquired by EA in 1997. Maxis is best known for its simulation games, including "The Sims", "Spore" and "SimCity".


title: Maxis

text: In the late 2010s, Maxis suffered from a series of studio closures and layoffs. This included the shutdown of Maxis Emeryville in 2015, EA Salt Lake in 2017, and a wave of layoffs at Redwood Shores in 2018. With the remainder of Maxis reorganised under EA Mobile, and EA opening new studios under the label from 2019, some commentators have suggested that only the brand name from the original studio survives.


title: Maxis

text: Maxis was founded in 1987 by Will Wright and Jeff Braun to help publish "SimCity" on home computers. Before then, the game was only available on a limited basis on the Commodore 64 due to few publishers showing any interest in porting a non-traditional game without definite "win" and "lose" conditions. The title went on to become one of the most popular and successful video games of all time. The "SimCity" series became a staple for the company and spawned multiple sequels and spin-offs. To name the company, Braun required that the name was "from 5-7 letters, mean nothing, be easy to remember and contain a x,z or q"; the name "Maxis" was presented by Braun's father. Following the broad success of "SimCity 2000", Maxis moved from Orinda, California, to Walnut Creek in 1994.


title: Maxis

text: One of the unintended successes of "SimCity" was recognition of the means to gamify the intersection of multiple real-world systems that could be used for planning and development, such as using "SimCity"-type simulations for urban planning. Around 1992, Maxis was approached by corporations and government agencies who wanted the company to use the same system simulation principles of "SimCity" to develop non-game simulations that they could manipulate for similar planning purposes. To support this, Maxis bought a small company, Delta Logic, and its owner John Hiles, who had been focused on more immediate business simulation software, and rebranded it as Maxis Business Simulations (MBS) for this work. Among works developed under this included "SimRefinery" for the Chevron Corporation, and "SimHealth" for the Markle Foundation. In 1994, Maxis decided to let this division go on its own; MBS rebranded itself as Thinking Tools Inc. and continued to produce similar simulation tools, but eventually closed down in 1998. Most of the information on MBS and Thinking Tools has been lost as upon being told of the company's closure, the few remaining employees burned most of the company's archives and only remnants of MBS' output exists.


title: Maxis

text: In what "Kotaku" later referred to as the "era of scattergun experimentation", Maxis released numerous titles throughout the 1990s, including "sim" titles as well as some non-simulation titles, such as "RoboSport" (1991) and "3D Pinball for Windows" (1995), which was included as one of the standard system games in several Windows releases. However, these newer games were not successful. On June 1, 1995, Maxis became a public company. Heavy losses and lack of direction led Maxis to begin considering acquisition offers.


title: Maxis

text: In 1997, Maxis agreed to be acquired by Electronic Arts by means of a stock swap which valued Maxis at $125 million. In a press release, Maxis stated it agreed to the acquisition in order to take advantage of Electronic Arts' strong distribution channel. The transaction was complete on July 28, 1997, and triggered major changes at the company. Jeff Braun left, having received a sizeable amount of money during the purchase, and nearly half of the Maxis staff were laid off.


title: Maxis

text: Over 1998, Maxis was allowed to finish "SimCity 3000" on its own time; following this, Wright's efforts were thrown into "The Sims", at the time seen as a major gamble for the company, as the dollhouse game was not seen as a match for the video game market's demographics. EA however backed the title on the basis of the economic potential for expansion releases. In 2000, Maxis South (Austin, Texas) was closed. "The Sims" was released in February 2000 to widespread success, and would become one of Maxis' core focuses until a 2006 reorganisation shifted it away from their core team. "SimCity 4" was released in 2003, the first title in the series to implement true 3D, as well as the first where Wright was not directly involved with work. In 2004, Maxis' longtime studios in Walnut Creek were closed, and the staff moved to EA offices in Redwood City and Emeryville.


title: Maxis

text: As "The Sims" became a steady success, Will Wright began to focus on "Spore". The three years between its public announcement and its release were protracted enough to attract use of the term "vaporware" by some, and upon its 2008 release, found itself subject to harsh criticism and the target of a consumer protest against Electronic Arts. Despite the poor launch publicity, "Spore" sold 1 million units in its first month.


title: Maxis

text: Will Wright left Maxis in 2009, with Maxis going on to produce the poorly received spinoff "Darkspore" in 2011. During this time, Maxis.com redirected to the "Spore" website, then later once more to the website for "The Sims". At the 2012 Game Developers Conference, EA announced a new "SimCity" along with a new logo for the Maxis brand. Maxis became one of four primary labels at EA, replacing the "EA Play" brand. A Mobile focused Maxis studio was opened in Helsinki by EA in 2012. Development of "The Sims" continued, and Maxis branding returned in 2013 with the launch of "", and "SimCity". While Maxis were focusing on graphical improvements with the "SimCity" reboot, EA wanted to make the title a multiplayer, always-online title- in part to combat piracy. The game was subject to "one of the most disastrous launches in history", as the game was released in a highly buggy state, with server failures plaguing players, and the open regions swiftly filling with abandoned cities. Maxis would continue to support the game with patches, but it remained buggy even a year after launch. The reboot effectively ended the "SimCity" franchise, and was the last game to be developed by Maxis' core location in Emeryville.


title: Maxis

text: In the wake of the "SimCity" launch, Maxis went through a series of layoffs and studio closures, which continued throughout the late 2010s. This began with the 2014 restructure of EA Salt Lake- dissolving the Maxis group that had been headquartered there. A number of Maxis devs were migrated to the Redwood Shores studio. Maxis' principle studio in Emeryville was closed in 2015, leaving only the smaller Redwood Shores team and a newly opened mobile developer in Helsinki under the Maxis name.


title: Maxis

text: In September 2015, EA announced that the consolidated Maxis team would work alongside the EA Mobile division under Samantha Ryan. However, EA indicated that the "collaboration" would still see most of Maxis' future products available for personal computers. The group was then reorganised under EA Worldwide Studios in 2016, with the rest of Salt Lake shut down in 2017. Redwood Shores faced further layoffs in 2018, which included 15-20 Maxis staff. Development of "The Sims Mobile" was relocated away from the remaining Maxis developers in 2019, with Firemonkeys taking over. This left continued support for the Sims 4 as the sole Maxis-fronted project at EA.


title: Maxis

text: The closure of Emeryville in particular—as Maxis' long-lived core location—was described by commentators as the end of Maxis as it had been known in the past, with only the brand name persisting.


title: Maxis

text: EA announced two new studios that would bear the Maxis name over the following years – Maxis Texas in 2019 and Maxis Europe in 2021. The announcements only came in the form of job postings on the EA careers website. The Texas team was set up at the existing EA offices in Austin to work on a new IP, while the Europe studio was created specifically to support "The Sims 4". Unlike the Texas office, Maxis Europe is a "distributed development team", composed of staff working remotely.


title: Maxis

text: The move came amid a number of job postings at the Redwood Shores studio for a new "The Sims" title, as well as EA CEO Andrew Wilson hinting at an online multiplayer-focused iteration of the franchise. However, in 2021, EA reaffirmed their commitment to long term support for "The Sims 4", for "ten years, fifteen years, or more", citing a "shift across the entire games industry to support and nurture our communities long-term".


title: Maxis

text: Maxis is regarded for its innovative simulation games, in which there is no specific goal to the player, making its games almost endless.


title: Maxis

text: "SimCity", released in 1989, was Maxis' first release. The player is a mayor that may, at their leisure, take a city from a single village to a successful metropolis, laying down zones, taking care of the public services and stimulating the city's economy. The series includes six main games ("SimCity", "SimCity 2000", "SimCity 3000", "SimCity 4", "SimCity Societies" and SimCity) and three spin-offs, "", "SimCopter" and "Streets of SimCity". "SimCity Societies", the fifth main release, was not produced by Maxis, but by Tilted Mill Entertainment, being described as a 'social engineering simulator' and criticized for the lack of "SimCity"s traditional formula. In 2013, Maxis Emeryville released a reboot, simply titled "SimCity", to mixed reviews, due to technical issues at launch surrounding its mandatory online connectivity. TrackTwenty (formerly Maxis Helsinki) developed in 2014.


title: Maxis

text: Maxis' most successful series to date and one of the best-selling PC games of all time is "The Sims" (2000). Maxis has developed seven expansion packs for the game, as well as an online spin-off titled "The Sims Online". Maxis released "The Sims 2" in 2004, a sequel title that features a full 3D environment, as opposed to the original's dimetric engine. From 2006 to 2013, all "The Sims" games and expansion packs were developed by The Sims Studio, and the Maxis logo was not included on "The Sims" game covers until 2013, with the release of "".


title: Maxis

text: On May 6, 2013, it was announced that Maxis would be developing "The Sims 4", and the game was released internationally in September 2014. Maxis also developed "The Sims Mobile", until development was transferred to Firemonkeys in February 2019.


title: Maxis

text: "Spore" was released in September 2008. Players create species starting at the single cell level, and develop them into sentient life. The goal is for them to eventually gain the intelligence to create spaceships. The "Spore Creature Creator" allows users to create species for later use in the game. This is one of few Maxis' games to feature goals on its plot as the player must complete five different phases and reach the space-traveling technology. There is also an ultimate goal, which is entering the galactic core, a massive black hole surrounded by a powerful and hostile cyborg species called the Grox. However, the player can stay in a single phase as long as they wish, even after completing it.


title: Maxis

text: The game received a critic score of 84% on Metacritic, indicating generally positive reviews from critics. Electronic Arts confirmed the production of expansion packs due to "Spore"s financial success, later releasing "Spore Galactic Adventures" in 2009, as well as several spin-offs such as "Darkspore".


title: Adrian Paul

text: Adrian Paul Hewett (born 29 May 1959) is an English actor best known for the titular role of Duncan MacLeod on the television series "". In 1997, he founded the Peace Fund charitable organisation.


title: Adrian Paul

text: mother and a British father. Paul first became a model, then a dancer and choreographer. As a teenager, he was a capable football player and made several appearances for Cray Wanderers in the London Spartan League between 1976 and 1978. In 1985, Paul moved to the United States to pursue careers in dance and modeling.


title: Adrian Paul

text: Paul spent time in the theatre, appearing in numerous plays, and has stated that these, along with an early television appearance on "Beauty and the Beast" (1987), helped to shape his acting abilities.


title: Adrian Paul

text: Paul's first role was on the ABC television series "The Colbys" in 1986, as ballet dancer Nikolai "Kolya" Rostov. This was followed by guest appearances on various television shows, including the aforementioned "Beauty and the Beast" (1987), two episodes of "Tarzán" (1991), "Murder, She Wrote" (1992), "Relic Hunter" (1999), and as himself in "WWE SmackDown" (1999). He also appeared in a January 2003 episode of "Charmed" and in the Off-Broadway play "Bouncers" (1987), as well as in the television films "Shooter" (1988) and "The Cover Girl Murders" (1993), the latter of which starred Lee Majors.


title: Adrian Paul

text: Paul's first film appearance was in the 1988 film "Last Rites", which starred Tom Berenger. He starred in the remake "Masque of the Red Death", a re-telling of the Edgar Allan Poe tale. He also appeared in Sheena Easton's "Days Like This" music video as her love interest and Duran Duran's "My Own Way" music video as a dancer.


title: Adrian Paul

text: In 1989, he appeared in a regular role in the second season of the television series "War of the Worlds" as John Kincaid, three episodes of the 1991 "Dark Shadows" remake as Jeremiah Collins, and made a pilot for CBS Television for a series called "The Owl" (1991). In 2001, he starred in "Tracker".


title: Adrian Paul

text: In 1992, Paul was cast in his most widely known role of Duncan MacLeod in the syndicated television series "", which first aired in October 1992. He would portray the role on and off for the next 15 years, also starring in the big screen sequel "" (2000), and the television film "", released on the Sci-Fi Channel on 15 September 2007.


title: Adrian Paul

text: Other films in which he has starred or co-starred are "Dance to Win" (1989), "Love Potion No. 9" (1992), "Dead Men Can't Dance" (1997), "Susan's Plan" (1998), "" (1999) as Lancelot, "Convergence" (1999), "The Void" (2001), "The Breed" (2001), "Storm Watch" (2002), "Nemesis Game" (2003) "Throttle" (2005), and "Phantom Below" (2005). In 2006, he co-starred in the horror film "Séance" and in "Little Chicago". A year later, Paul appeared as Ananias Dare in the Sci-Fi Channel original film "Wraiths of Roanoke" (2007).


title: Adrian Paul

text: Also in 2007 Adrian Paul played the lead role in a TV movie "Tides of War" where he plays the role of Commander Frank Habley, a gay officer in charge of a submarine that infiltrates North Korean waters where he instinctively discovers a secret stealth North Korean submarine and destroys it. The fleeting moments of Commander Habley and fellow officer Tom Palatonia's relationship, played by Mike Doyle come to an abrupt end due to a fire aboard the submarine where Tom is killed while fighting the blaze. "Tides of War" also costars Matthew St. Patrick of "Six Feet Under" fame as Lieutenant Commander Steven Barker.


title: Adrian Paul

text: In 2008, Paul began voice acting the character of Patrick O'Brien in the animated "War of the Worlds" television show. He starred as Sir Francis Drake in the Sci-Fi Channel original film "The Immortal Voyage of Captain Drake" (2009), the futuristic thriller "Eyeborgs" (2009), and the thriller-drama "The Heavy" (2010). In 2012, Paul did a character voice-over in the Malaysian animated science fiction film "". Paul starred in the 2013 science fiction film "", a post-apocalyptic action-adventure film.


title: Adrian Paul

text: In 2015, he made a guest appearance as Commandant Leitner in "Strike Back". In March 2019, he joined the CW series "Arrow" in a recurring role, playing a villainous character named Dante.


title: Adrian Paul

text: Paul married actress Meilani Figalan in 1990. The couple divorced in 1997. Paul married long-time girlfriend Alexandra Tonelli in 2009. They have three children, a daughter born in 2009, and two sons born in 2012 and 2020.


title: Adrian Paul

text: Since the late 1980s, he has studied a range of martial arts, including Taekwondo, Choy Li Fut, and Hung Gar Kung Fu, and has been featured on the covers of "Impact" (three times), "Inside Kung Fu", "Karate International" (four times) and "Martial Arts Insider".


title: Adrian Paul

text: Paul is also involved in the development and production side of the entertainment industry. In 2008, he joined with Zoltan Furedi and founded Filmblips, an independent film and television media production company.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Plant nutrition is the study of the chemical elements and compounds necessary for plant growth and reproduction, plant metabolism and their external supply. In its absence the plant is unable to complete a normal life cycle, or that the element is part of some essential plant constituent or metabolite. This is in accordance with Justus von Liebig’s law of the minimum. The total essential plant nutrients include seventeen different elements: carbon, oxygen and hydrogen which are absorbed from the air, whereas other nutrients including nitrogen are typically obtained from the soil (exceptions include some parasitic or carnivorous plants).


title: Plant nutrition

text: These elements stay beneath soil as salts, so plants absorb these elements as ions. The macronutrients are taken-up in larger quantities; hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon contribute to over 95% of a plant's entire biomass on a dry matter weight basis. Micronutrients are present in plant tissue in quantities measured in parts per million, ranging from 0.1 to 200 ppm, or less than 0.02% dry weight.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Most soil conditions across the world can provide plants adapted to that climate and soil with sufficient nutrition for a complete life cycle, without the addition of nutrients as fertilizer. However, if the soil is cropped it is necessary to artificially modify soil fertility through the addition of fertilizer to promote vigorous growth and increase or sustain yield. This is done because, even with adequate water and light, nutrient deficiency can limit growth and crop yield.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are the basic nutrients plants receive from air and water. Justus von Liebig proved in 1840 that plants needed nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus. Liebig's law of the minimum states that a plant's growth is limited by nutrient deficiency. Plant cultivation in media other than soil was used by Arnon and Stout in 1939 to show that molybdenum was essential to tomato growth.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Plants take up essential elements from the soil through their roots and from the air through their leaves. Nutrient uptake in the soil is achieved by cation exchange, wherein root hairs pump hydrogen ions (H) into the soil through proton pumps. These hydrogen ions displace cations attached to negatively charged soil particles so that the cations are available for uptake by the root. In the leaves, stomata open to take in carbon dioxide and expel oxygen. The carbon dioxide molecules are used as the carbon source in photosynthesis.


title: Plant nutrition

text: The root, especially the root hair, is the essential organ for the uptake of nutrients. The structure and architecture of the root can alter the rate of nutrient uptake. Nutrient ions are transported to the center of the root, the stele, in order for the nutrients to reach the conducting tissues, xylem and phloem. The Casparian strip, a cell wall outside the stele but in the root, prevents passive flow of water and nutrients, helping to regulate the uptake of nutrients and water. Xylem moves water and mineral ions in the plant and phloem accounts for organic molecule transportation. Water potential plays a key role in a plant's nutrient uptake. If the water potential is more negative in the plant than the surrounding soils, the nutrients will move from the region of higher solute concentration—in the soil—to the area of lower solute concentration - in the plant.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Nutrients can be moved in plants to where they are most needed. For example, a plant will try to supply more nutrients to its younger leaves than to its older ones. When nutrients are mobile in the plant, symptoms of any deficiency become apparent first on the older leaves. However, not all nutrients are equally mobile. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are mobile nutrients while the others have varying degrees of mobility. When a less-mobile nutrient is deficient, the younger leaves suffer because the nutrient does not move up to them but stays in the older leaves. This phenomenon is helpful in determining which nutrients a plant may be lacking.


title: Plant nutrition

text: The Earth's atmosphere contains over 78 percent nitrogen. Plants called legumes, including the agricultural crops alfalfa and soybeans, widely grown by farmers, harbour nitrogen-fixing bacteria that can convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogen the plant can use. Plants not classified as legumes such as wheat, corn and rice rely on nitrogen compounds present in the soil to support their growth. These can be supplied by mineralization of soil organic matter or added plant residues, nitrogen fixing bacteria, animal waste, through the breaking of triple bonded N molecules by lightning strikes or through the application of fertilizers.


title: Plant nutrition

text: At least 17 elements are known to be essential nutrients for plants. In relatively large amounts, the soil supplies nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur; these are often called the macronutrients. In relatively small amounts, the soil supplies iron, manganese, boron, molybdenum, copper, zinc, chlorine, and cobalt, the so-called micronutrients. Nutrients must be available not only in sufficient amounts but also in appropriate ratios.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Plant nutrition is a difficult subject to understand completely, partially because of the variation between different plants and even between different species or individuals of a given clone. Elements present at low levels may cause deficiency symptoms, and toxicity is possible at levels that are too high. Furthermore, deficiency of one element may present as symptoms of toxicity from another element, and vice versa. An abundance of one nutrient may cause a deficiency of another nutrient. For example, K uptake can be influenced by the amount of NH available.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Nitrogen is plentiful in the Earth's atmosphere, and a number of commercially-important agricultural plants engage in nitrogen fixation (conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to a biologically useful form). However, plants mostly receive their nitrogen through the soil, where it is already converted in biological useful form. This is important because the nitrogen in the atmosphere is too large for the plant to consume, and takes a lot of energy to convert into smaller forms. These include soybeans, edible beans and peas as well as clovers and alfalfa used primarily for feeding livestock. Plants such as the commercially-important corn, wheat, oats, barley and rice require nitrogen compounds to be present in the soil in which they grow.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Carbon and oxygen are absorbed from the air while other nutrients are absorbed from the soil. Green plants ordinarily obtain their carbohydrate supply from the carbon dioxide in the air by the process of photosynthesis. Each of these nutrients is used for a different essential function.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Carbon forms the backbone of most plant biomolecules, including proteins, starches and cellulose. Carbon is fixed through photosynthesis; this converts carbon dioxide from the air into carbohydrates which are used to store and transport energy within the plant.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Hydrogen is necessary for building sugars and building the plant. It is obtained almost entirely from water. Hydrogen ions are imperative for a proton gradient to help drive the electron transport chain in photosynthesis and for respiration.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Oxygen is a component of many organic and inorganic molecules within the plant, and is acquired in many forms. These include: O and CO (mainly from the air via leaves) and HO, NO, HPO and SO (mainly from the soil water via roots). Plants produce oxygen gas (O) along with glucose during photosynthesis but then require O to undergo aerobic cellular respiration and break down this glucose to produce ATP.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Nitrogen is a major constituent of several of the most important plant substances. For example, nitrogen compounds comprise 40% to 50% of the dry matter of protoplasm, and it is a constituent of amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. It is also an essential constituent of chlorophyll. In many agricultural settings, nitrogen is the limiting nutrient for rapid growth.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Like nitrogen, phosphorus is involved with many vital plant processes. Within a plant, it is present mainly as a structural component of the nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), as well as a constituent of fatty phospholipids, that are important in membrane development and function. It is present in both organic and inorganic forms, both of which are readily translocated within the plant. All energy transfers in the cell are critically dependent on phosphorus. As with all living things, phosphorus is part of the Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is of immediate use in all processes that require energy with the cells. Phosphorus can also be used to modify the activity of various enzymes by phosphorylation, and is used for cell signaling. Phosphorus is concentrated at the most actively growing points of a plant and stored within seeds in anticipation of their germination.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Unlike other major elements, potassium does not enter into the composition of any of the important plant constituents involved in metabolism, but it does occur in all parts of plants in substantial amounts. It is essential for enzyme activity including enzymes involved in primary metabolism. It plays a role in turgor regulation, effecting the functioning of the stomata and cell volume growth.


title: Plant nutrition

text: It seems to be of particular importance in leaves and at growing points. Potassium is outstanding among the nutrient elements for its mobility and solubility within plant tissues.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Processes involving potassium include the formation of carbohydrates and proteins, the regulation of internal plant moisture, as a catalyst and condensing agent of complex substances, as an accelerator of enzyme action, and as contributor to photosynthesis, especially under low light intensity. Potassium regulates the opening and closing of the stomata by a potassium ion pump. Since stomata are important in water regulation, potassium regulates water loss from the leaves and increases drought tolerance. Potassium serves as an activator of enzymes used in photosynthesis and respiration. Potassium is used to build cellulose and aids in photosynthesis by the formation of a chlorophyll precursor. The potassium ion (K) is highly mobile and can aid in balancing the anion (negative) charges within the plant. A relationship between potassium nutrition and cold resistance has been found in several tree species, including two species of spruce. Potassium helps in fruit coloration, shape and also increases its brix. Hence, quality fruits are produced in potassium-rich soils.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Research has linked K transport with auxin homeostasis, cell signaling, cell expansion, membrane trafficking and phloem transport.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Sulfur is a structural component of some amino acids (including cystein and methionine) and vitamins, and is essential for chloroplast growth and function; it is found in the iron-sulfur complexes of the electron transport chains in photosynthesis. It is needed for N fixation by legumes, and the conversion of nitrate into amino acids and then into protein.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Calcium in plants occurs chiefly in the leaves, with lower concentrations in seeds, fruits, and roots. A major function is as a constituent of cell walls. When coupled with certain acidic compounds of the jelly-like pectins of the middle lamella, calcium forms an insoluble salt. It is also intimately involved in meristems, and is particularly important in root development, with roles in cell division, cell elongation, and the detoxification of hydrogen ions. Other functions attributed to calcium are; the neutralization of organic acids; inhibition of some potassium-activated ions; and a role in nitrogen absorption. A notable feature of calcium-deficient plants is a defective root system. Roots are usually affected before above-ground parts. Blossom end rot is also a result of inadequate calcium.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Calcium regulates transport of other nutrients into the plant and is also involved in the activation of certain plant enzymes. Calcium deficiency results in stunting. This nutrient is involved in photosynthesis and plant structure. It is needed as a balancing cation for anions in the vacuole and as an intracellular messenger in the cytosol.


title: Plant nutrition

text: The outstanding role of magnesium in plant nutrition is as a constituent of the chlorophyll molecule. As a carrier, it is also involved in numerous enzyme reactions as an effective activator, in which it is closely associated with energy-supplying phosphorus compounds.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Plants are able sufficiently to accumulate most trace elements. Some plants are sensitive indicators of the chemical environment in which they grow (Dunn 1991), and some plants have barrier mechanisms that exclude or limit the uptake of a particular element or ion species, e.g., alder twigs commonly accumulate molybdenum but not arsenic, whereas the reverse is true of spruce bark (Dunn 1991). Otherwise, a plant can integrate the geochemical signature of the soil mass permeated by its root system together with the contained groundwaters. Sampling is facilitated by the tendency of many elements to accumulate in tissues at the plant's extremities. Some micronutrients can be applied as seed coatings.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Iron is necessary for photosynthesis and is present as an enzyme cofactor in plants. Iron deficiency can result in interveinal chlorosis and necrosis.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Iron is not a structural part of chlorophyll but very much essential for its synthesis. Copper deficiency can be responsible for promoting an iron deficiency.


title: Plant nutrition

text: As with other biological processes, the main useful form of iron is that of iron(II) due to its higher solubility in neutral pH. However, plants are also capable of using iron(III) via citric acid, using the photo-reduction of ferric citrate. In the field, as with many other transitional metal elements, iron fertilizer is supplied as a chelate.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Molybdenum is a cofactor to enzymes important in building amino acids and is involved in nitrogen metabolism. Molybdenum is part of the nitrate reductase enzyme (needed for the reduction of nitrate) and the nitrogenase enzyme (required for biological nitrogen fixation). Reduced productivity as a result of molybdenum deficiency is usually associated with the reduced activity of one or more of these enzymes.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Boron has many functions in a plant: it affects flowering and fruiting, pollen germination, cell division, and active salt absorption. The metabolism of amino acids and proteins, carbohydrates, calcium, and water are strongly affected by boron. Many of those listed functions may be embodied by its function in moving the highly polar sugars through cell membranes by reducing their polarity and hence the energy needed to pass the sugar. If sugar cannot pass to the fastest growing parts rapidly enough, those parts die.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Copper is important for photosynthesis. Symptoms for copper deficiency include chlorosis. It is involved in many enzyme processes; necessary for proper photosynthesis; involved in the manufacture of lignin (cell walls) and involved in grain production. It is also hard to find in some soil conditions.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Manganese is necessary for photosynthesis, including the building of chloroplasts. Manganese deficiency may result in coloration abnormalities, such as discolored spots on the foliage.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Sodium is involved in the regeneration of phosphoenolpyruvate in CAM and C4 plants. Sodium can potentially replace potassium's regulation of stomatal opening and closing.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Zinc is required in a large number of enzymes and plays an essential role in DNA transcription. A typical symptom of zinc deficiency is the stunted growth of leaves, commonly known as "little leaf" and is caused by the oxidative degradation of the growth hormone auxin.


title: Plant nutrition

text: In higher plants, nickel is absorbed by plants in the form of Ni ion. Nickel is essential for activation of urease, an enzyme involved with nitrogen metabolism that is required to process urea. Without nickel, toxic levels of urea accumulate, leading to the formation of necrotic lesions. In lower plants, nickel activates several enzymes involved in a variety of processes, and can substitute for zinc and iron as a cofactor in some enzymes.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Chlorine, as compounded chloride, is necessary for osmosis and ionic balance; it also plays a role in photosynthesis.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Cobalt has proven to be beneficial to at least some plants although it does not appear to be essential for most species. It has, however, been shown to be essential for nitrogen fixation by the nitrogen-fixing bacteria associated with legumes and other plants.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Silicon is not considered an essential element for plant growth and development. It is always found in abundance in the environment and hence if needed it is available. It is found in the structures of plants and improves the health of plants.


title: Plant nutrition

text: In plants, silicon has been shown in experiments to strengthen cell walls, improve plant strength, health, and productivity. There have been studies showing evidence of silicon improving drought and frost resistance, decreasing lodging potential and boosting the plant's natural pest and disease fighting systems. Silicon has also been shown to improve plant vigor and physiology by improving root mass and density, and increasing above ground plant biomass and crop yields. Silicon is currently under consideration by the Association of American Plant Food Control Officials (AAPFCO) for elevation to the status of a "plant beneficial substance".


title: Plant nutrition

text: Vanadium may be required by some plants, but at very low concentrations. It may also be substituting for molybdenum.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Selenium is probably not essential for flowering plants, but it can be beneficial; it can stimulate plant growth, improve tolerance of oxidative stress, and increase resistance to pathogens and herbivory.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Nitrogen is transported via the xylem from the roots to the leaf canopy as nitrate ions, or in an organic form, such as amino acids or amides. Nitrogen can also be transported in the phloem sap as amides, amino acids and ureides; it is therefore mobile within the plant, and the older leaves exhibit chlorosis and necrosis earlier than the younger leaves. Because phosphorus is a mobile nutrient, older leaves will show the first signs of deficiency. Magnesium is very mobile in plants, and, like potassium, when deficient is translocated from older to younger tissues, so that signs of deficiency appear first on the oldest tissues and then spread progressively to younger tissues.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Because calcium is phloem immobile, calcium deficiency can be seen in new growth. When developing tissues are forced to rely on the xylem, calcium is supplied by transpiration only.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Boron is not relocatable in the plant via the phloem. It must be supplied to the growing parts via the xylem. Foliar sprays affect only those parts sprayed, which may be insufficient for the fastest growing parts, and is very temporary.


title: Plant nutrition

text: In plants, sulfur cannot be mobilized from older leaves for new growth, so deficiency symptoms are seen in the youngest tissues first. Symptoms of deficiency include yellowing of leaves and stunted growth.


title: Plant nutrition

text: The effect of a nutrient deficiency can vary from a subtle depression of growth rate to obvious stunting, deformity, discoloration, distress, and even death. Visual symptoms distinctive enough to be useful in identifying a deficiency are rare. Most deficiencies are multiple and moderate. However, while a deficiency is seldom that of a single nutrient, nitrogen is commonly the nutrient in shortest supply.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Chlorosis of foliage is not always due to mineral nutrient deficiency. Solarization can produce superficially similar effects, though mineral deficiency tends to cause premature defoliation, whereas solarization does not, nor does solarization depress nitrogen concentration.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Nitrogen deficiency most often results in stunted growth, slow growth, and chlorosis. Nitrogen deficient plants will also exhibit a purple appearance on the stems, petioles and underside of leaves from an accumulation of anthocyanin pigments.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Phosphorus deficiency can produce symptoms similar to those of nitrogen deficiency, characterized by an intense green coloration or reddening in leaves due to lack of chlorophyll. If the plant is experiencing high phosphorus deficiencies the leaves may become denatured and show signs of death. Occasionally the leaves may appear purple from an accumulation of anthocyanin. As noted by Russel: “Phosphate deficiency differs from nitrogen deficiency in being extremely difficult to diagnose, and crops can be suffering from extreme starvation without there being any obvious signs that lack of phosphate is the cause”. Russell's observation applies to at least some coniferous seedlings, but Benzian found that although response to phosphorus in very acid forest tree nurseries in England was consistently high, no species (including Sitka spruce) showed any visible symptom of deficiency other than a slight lack of lustre. Phosphorus levels have to be exceedingly low before visible symptoms appear in such seedlings. In sand culture at 0 ppm phosphorus, white spruce seedlings were very small and tinted deep purple; at 0.62 ppm, only the smallest seedlings were deep purple; at 6.2 ppm, the seedlings were of good size and color.


title: Plant nutrition

text: The root system is less effective without a continuous supply of calcium to newly developing cells. Even short term disruptions in calcium supply can disrupt biological functions and root function. A common symptom of calcium deficiency in leaves is the curling of the leaf towards the veins or center of the leaf. Many times this can also have a blackened appearance. The tips of the leaves may appear burned and cracking may occur in some calcium deficient crops if they experience a sudden increase in humidity. Calcium deficiency may arise in tissues that are fed by the phloem, causing blossom end rot in watermelons, peppers and tomatoes, empty peanut pods and bitter pits in apples. In enclosed tissues, calcium deficiency can cause celery black heart and "brown heart" in greens like escarole.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Researchers found that partial deficiencies of K or P did not change the fatty acid composition of phosphatidyl choline in "Brassica napus L." plants. Calcium deficiency did, on the other hand, lead to a marked decline of polyunsaturated compounds that would be expected to have negative impacts for integrity of the plant membrane, that could effect some properties like its permeability, and is needed for the ion uptake activity of the root membranes.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Potassium deficiency may cause necrosis or interveinal chlorosis. Deficiency may result in higher risk of pathogens, wilting, chlorosis, brown spotting, and higher chances of damage from frost and heat. When potassium is moderately deficient, the effects first appear in the older tissues, and from there progress towards the growing points. Acute deficiency severely affects growing points, and die-back commonly occurs. Symptoms of potassium deficiency in white spruce include: browning and death of needles (chlorosis); reduced growth in height and diameter; impaired retention of needles; and reduced needle length.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Mo deficiency is usually found on older growth. Fe, Mn and Cu effect new growth, causing green or yellow veins, Zn ca effect old and new leaves, and B will be seem on terminal buds. A plant with zinc deficiency may have leaves on top of each other due to reduced internodal expansion.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Zinc is the most widely deficient micronutrient for industrial crop cultivation, followed by boron. Acidifying N fertilizers create micro-sites around the granule that keep micronutrient cations soluble for longer in alkaline soils, but high concentrations of P or C may negate these effects.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Boron deficiencies effecting seed yields and pollen fertility are common in laterite soils. Boron is essential for the proper forming and strengthening of cell walls. Lack of boron results in short thick cells producing stunted fruiting bodies and roots. Deficiency results in the death of the terminal growing points and stunted growth. Inadequate amounts of boron affect many agricultural crops, legume forage crops most strongly. Boron deficiencies can be detected by analysis of plant material to apply a correction before the obvious symptoms appear, after which it is too late to prevent crop loss. Strawberries deficient in boron will produce lumpy fruit; apricots will not blossom or, if they do, will not fruit or will drop their fruit depending on the level of boron deficit. Broadcast of boron supplements is effective and long term; a foliar spray is immediate but must be repeated.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Boron concentration in soil water solution higher than one ppm is toxic to most plants. Toxic concentrations within plants are 10 to 50 ppm for small grains and 200 ppm in boron-tolerant crops such as sugar beets, rutabaga, cucumbers, and conifers. Toxic soil conditions are generally limited to arid regions or can be caused by underground borax deposits in contact with water or volcanic gases dissolved in percolating water.


title: Plant nutrition

text: There is an abundant supply of nitrogen in the earth's atmosphere — N gas comprises nearly 79% of air. However, N is unavailable for use by most organisms because there is a triple bond between the two nitrogen atoms in the molecule, making it almost inert. In order for nitrogen to be used for growth it must be “fixed” (combined) in the form of ammonium (NH) or nitrate (NO) ions. The weathering of rocks releases these ions so slowly that it has a negligible effect on the availability of fixed nitrogen. Therefore, nitrogen is often the limiting factor for growth and biomass production in all environments where there is a suitable climate and availability of water to support life.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Microorganisms have a central role in almost all aspects of nitrogen availability, and therefore for life support on earth. Some bacteria can convert N into ammonia by the process termed "nitrogen fixation"; these bacteria are either free-living or form symbiotic associations with plants or other organisms (e.g., termites, protozoa), while other bacteria bring about transformations of ammonia to nitrate, and of nitrate to N or other nitrogen gases. Many bacteria and fungi degrade organic matter, releasing fixed nitrogen for reuse by other organisms. All these processes contribute to the nitrogen cycle.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Nitrogen enters the plant largely through the roots. A “pool” of soluble nitrogen accumulates. Its composition within a species varies widely depending on several factors, including day length, time of day, night temperatures, nutrient deficiencies, and nutrient imbalance. Short day length promotes asparagine formation, whereas glutamine is produced under long day regimes. Darkness favors protein breakdown accompanied by high asparagine accumulation. Night temperature modifies the effects due to night length, and soluble nitrogen tends to accumulate owing to retarded synthesis and breakdown of proteins. Low night temperature conserves glutamine; high night temperature increases accumulation of asparagine because of breakdown. Deficiency of K accentuates differences between long- and short-day plants. The pool of soluble nitrogen is much smaller than in well-nourished plants when N and P are deficient since uptake of nitrate and further reduction and conversion of N to organic forms is restricted more than is protein synthesis. Deficiencies of Ca, K, and S affect the conversion of organic N to protein more than uptake and reduction. The size of the pool of soluble N is no guide "per se" to growth rate, but the size of the pool in relation to total N might be a useful ratio in this regard. Nitrogen availability in the rooting medium also affects the size and structure of tracheids formed in the long lateral roots of white spruce (Krasowski and Owens 1999).


title: Plant nutrition

text: Phosphorus is most commonly found in the soil in the form of polyprotic phosphoric acid (HPO), but is taken up most readily in the form of HPO. Phosphorus is available to plants in limited quantities in most soils because it is released very slowly from insoluble phosphates and is rapidly fixed once again. Under most environmental conditions it is the element that limits growth because of this constriction and due to its high demand by plants and microorganisms. Plants can increase phosphorus uptake by a mutualism with mycorrhiza. On some soils, the phosphorus nutrition of some conifers, including the spruces, depends on the ability of mycorrhizae to take up, and make soil phosphorus available to the tree, hitherto unobtainable to the non-mycorrhizal root. Seedling white spruce, greenhouse-grown in sand testing negative for phosphorus, were very small and purple for many months until spontaneous mycorrhizal inoculation, the effect of which was manifested by a greening of foliage and the development of vigorous shoot growth.


title: Plant nutrition

text: When soil-potassium levels are high, plants take up more potassium than needed for healthy growth. The term "luxury consumption" has been applied to this. Potassium intake increases with root temperature and depresses calcium uptake. Calcium to boron ratio must be maintained in a narrow range for normal plant growth. Lack of boron causes failure of calcium metabolism which produces hollow heart in beets and peanuts.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Calcium and magnesium inhibit the uptake of trace metals. Copper and zinc mutually reduce uptake of each other. Zinc also effects iron levels of plants. These interactions are dependent on species and growing conditions. For example, for clover, lettuce and red beet plants nearing toxic levels of zinc, copper and nickel, these three elements increased the toxicity of the others in a positive relationship. In barley positive interaction was observed between copper and zinc, while in French beans the positive interaction occurred between nickel and zinc. Other researchers have studied the synergistic and antagonistic effects of soil conditions on lead, zinc, cadmium and copper in radish plants to develop predictive indicators for uptake like soil pH.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Calcium absorption is increased by water-soluble phosphate fertilizers, and is used when potassium and potash fertilizers decrease the uptake of phosphorus, magnesium and calcium. For these reasons, imbalanced application of potassium fertilizers can markedly decrease crop yields.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Boron is available to plants over a range of pH, from 5.0 to 7.5. Boron is absorbed by plants in the form of the anion BO. It is available to plants in moderately soluble mineral forms of Ca, Mg and Na borates and the highly soluble form of organic compounds. It is mobile in the soil, hence, it is prone to leaching. Leaching removes substantial amounts of boron in sandy soil, but little in fine silt or clay soil. Boron's fixation to those minerals at high pH can render boron unavailable, while low pH frees the fixed boron, leaving it prone to leaching in wet climates. It precipitates with other minerals in the form of borax in which form it was first used over 400 years ago as a soil supplement. Decomposition of organic material causes boron to be deposited in the topmost soil layer. When soil dries it can cause a precipitous drop in the availability of boron to plants as the plants cannot draw nutrients from that desiccated layer. Hence, boron deficiency diseases appear in dry weather.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Most of the nitrogen taken up by plants is from the soil in the forms of NO, although in acid environments such as boreal forests where nitrification is less likely to occur, ammonium NH is more likely to be the dominating source of nitrogen. Amino acids and proteins can only be built from NH, so NO must be reduced.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Nutrient status (mineral nutrient and trace element composition, also called ionome and nutrient profile) of plants are commonly portrayed by tissue elementary analysis. Interpretation of the results of such studies, however, has been controversial. During recent decades the nearly two-century-old “law of minimum” or “Liebig's law” (that states that plant growth is controlled not by the total amount of resources available, but by the scarcest resource) has been replaced by several mathematical approaches that use different models in order to take the interactions between the individual nutrients into account.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Later developments in this field were based on the fact that the nutrient elements (and compounds) do not act independently from each other; Baxter, 2015, because there may be direct chemical interactions between them or they may influence each other's uptake, translocation, and biological action via a number of mechanisms as exemplified for the case of ammonia.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Boron is highly soluble in the form of borax or boric acid and is too easily leached from soil making these forms unsuitable for use as a fertilizer. Calcium borate is less soluble and can be made from sodium tetraborate. Boron is often applied to fields as a contaminant in other soil amendments but is not generally adequate to make up the rate of loss by cropping. The rates of application of borate to produce an adequate alfalfa crop range from 15 pounds per acre for a sandy-silt, acidic soil of low organic matter, to 60 pounds per acre for a soil with high organic matter, high cation exchange capacity and high pH. Application rates should be limited to a few pounds per acre in a test plot to determine if boron is needed generally. Otherwise, testing for boron levels in plant material is required to determine remedies. Excess boron can be removed by irrigation and assisted by application of elemental sulfur to lower the pH and increase boron solubility. Foliar sprays are used on fruit crop trees in soils of high alkalinity.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Selenium is, however, an essential mineral element for animal (including human) nutrition and selenium deficiencies are known to occur when food or animal feed is grown on selenium-deficient soils. The use of inorganic selenium fertilizers can increase selenium concentrations in edible crops and animal diets thereby improving animal health.


title: Plant nutrition

text: It is useful to apply a high phosphorus content fertilizer, such as bone meal, to perennials to help with successful root formation.


title: Plant nutrition

text: Hydroponics is a method for growing plants in a water-nutrient solution without the use of nutrient-rich soil or substrates. It allows researchers and home gardeners to grow their plants in a controlled environment. The most common artificial nutrient solution is the Hoagland solution, developed by D. R. Hoagland and W. C. Snyder in 1933. The solution (known as "A-Z solution") consists of all the essential macro- and micronutrients in the correct proportions necessary for most plant growth. An aerator is used to prevent an anoxic event or hypoxia. Hypoxia can affect nutrient uptake of a plant because, without oxygen present, respiration becomes inhibited within the root cells. The nutrient film technique is a hydroponic technique in which the roots are not fully submerged. This allows for adequate aeration of the roots, while a "film" thin layer of nutrient-rich water is pumped through the system to provide nutrients and water to the plant.


title: Race Gurram

text: Race Gurram () is a 2014 Indian Telugu-language action comedy film directed by Surender Reddy and produced by Nallamalupu Srinivas under his banner Sri Lakshmi Narasimha Productions. The film stars Allu Arjun and Shruti Haasan while Shaam and Ravi Kishan play supporting roles. S. Thaman composed the music.


title: Race Gurram

text: Principal photography began on 13 May 2013 in Hyderabad with the entire shoot completed on 22 February 2014. The film released worldwide on 11 April 2014 to positive reviews. The film marked Allu Arjun's first film to gross over 100 crore. With a distributor's share of , the film emerged as highest grossing Telugu film of that year. It went on to earn Filmfare Awards for Best Actor, Best Actress and Best Playback Singer – Male.


title: Race Gurram

text: Ram Prasad and Lakshman "Lucky" Prasad are brothers and polar opposites. While the former is an honorable ACP, the latter is a happy-guy who is constantly at odds with his brother. Madhali Shiva Reddy is a mercenary turned politician, who along with his henchman hold a squad of cops at gunpoint, and force Rajeev to kill his commanding officer, ACP Sameer, to save the lives of the rest of the officers. Ram is motivated to prevent Shiva Reddy's participation in the upcoming elections. Lucky falls for Spandana, daughter of the wealthy Bheem Prakash.


title: Race Gurram

text: After meeting Lucky on a regular basis, she reciprocates his love. Ram learns of Lucky's relationship and tells Prakash that Lucky is lazy and spoilt brat as retribution for a previous prank, and Prakash tells Lucky he cannot marry his daughter. Lucky confronts Ram, and they start fighting. When Lucky doesn't stop, he's slapped by his mother for the first time in his life. Emotionally shaken and enraged at Ram, he steals Ram's jeep, in which Ram was transporting files that incriminated Shiva Reddy in numerous crimes. Lucky is then attacked by Shiva Reddy's men, and the Jeep goes up in flames along with the files. Lucky beats up the goons, who then reveal they meant to kill Ram and dispose of the files on orders from Shiva Reddy. Lucky becomes infuriated and abducts Shiva Reddy from his nomination parade. He lets him live since Ram was not killed, but severely injures and leaves him hanging from a tree.


title: Race Gurram

text: Lucky then visits Shiva Reddy's father Peddi Reddy and confesses that he was the one who attacked Shiva Reddy. Pedda Reddy that starts motivating Shiva Reddy to attack and take revenge on Lucky. After recovering and being elected a MLA, Shiva Reddy is sworn in as State Deputy-Minister for Industries and Labour. He uses his influence and starts to take revenge on Lucky and his family. After hiring people to publicly shame Ram with false stories of harassment and get him suspended from the police force, Shiva Reddy pulls strings and has the government demolish the family's house, claiming that it was illegally built. Ram is then informed that it was Lucky that stole his Jeep. Lucky admits to his mistake but says that Ram would've been killed if Lucky hadn't stolen the Jeep. Ram retorts that Lucky wasn't trying to save his life, and kicks Lucky out of the family after berating him for what his mistake has cost them.


title: Race Gurram

text: Lucky is abducted by Shiva Reddy, who brutally beats and leaves him hanging from the same tree Lucky hung him from. Lucky escapes and plans to take revenge on Shiva Reddy with the help of Home Minister Govardhan, who owes Lucky for his promotion from MLA to Home Minister. Lucky fools Govardhan by staging a hospital room where he seems to be dying from cancer and a fake doctor claims he has one day to live. Govardhan says he will grant any wish Lucky asks, and Lucky requests to be instated as a special officer and that Govardhan do a solitary 12-hour prayer so that there might be a chance of his survival. His requests are reluctantly accepted, and, for one day, he is put in charge of a team of frustrated police officers headed by Inspector Kill Bill Pandey. Lucky first arrests Ram, knowing that his brother would prevent him from bringing justice to Shiva Reddy illegally.


title: Race Gurram

text: When meeting with Shiva Reddy's auditor, Lucky learns of a few of Shiva Reddy's factories and raids them. When Shiva Reddy calls Lucky's special forces team to berate them, they claim ignorance and Lucky sends Pandey to Shiva Reddy in person to get a list of his factories under the pretense that they'll know which factories to not raid. Using the list and the media, the special forces team invades and exposes Shiva Reddy's illegal operations. Govardhan's prayer finishes and after the CM scolds him of his mistake, he releases and reinstates Ram. Lucky fights and defeats Shiva Reddy, but after he cuffs him, Ram appears and cuffs Lucky. Govardhan and the CM want to publicly hang Lucky for illegally arresting a government official and humiliating them, but Ram tells them that people wouldn't take well to killing the man who exposed Shiva Reddy.


title: Race Gurram

text: He turns on the TV and shows them that the media believes that Govardhan and the CM orchestrated the successful one-day operation to take down Shiva Reddy and that the public plan on re-electing them because of their heroics. Govardhan and the CM are satisfied with the golden opportunity they've received, but Lucky, threatening to reveal the truth to the media, blackmails them into also installing his special forces team full-time with Pandey as its leader and giving independent powers to sincere officers like Ram. Realizing Shiva Reddy has been listening to them, they let him run free out into the street, where he is shot and killed by Rajeev. Lucky steps down as a special officer with his involvement not known to the media, and Pandey speaks to the media as Lucky reunites with his brother and his family.


title: Race Gurram

text: It was reported in the early September 2012 that Surender Reddy would direct Allu Arjun in this film which was announced to be produced by Nallamalupu Bujji. It was titled "Race Gurram" in the end of October 2012. This was the first film for Allu Arjun with Surender Reddy and S. Thaman. The film was launched on 24 October 2012, the day of Vijayadasami, at Ramanaidu Studios in Hyderabad. Chiranjeevi, Allu Aravind, Nallamalupu Srinivas (Bujji), Dr. Venkateswara Rao, D. Ramanaidu, K. Raghavendra Rao, Nagababu, Ali, V. V. Vinayak, Rana Daggubati, Shyam Prasad Reddy, Vakkantham Vamsi graced the event. D. Ramanaidu did the formal pooja and Chiranjeevi gave the clap. V. V. Vinayak directed the first shot while Shyam Prasad Reddy switched on the Camera. One of the producers, Dr. Venkateshwar Rao said that the Regular shoot would start in December after the Completion of Allu Arjun's "Iddarammayilatho". During the film's launch, it was reported that Vijayan would provide the fights and thrills in the film. Initially Samantha was approached for female lead in it, but later Shruti Haasan was selected as the Heroine, which was confirmed by the actress in her Twitter. It was declared that the regular shooting would start from 2 May 2013 aiming a Vijaya Dasami Release. However, due to some delay, the regular shooting started from 13 May 2013 in Hyderabad.


title: Race Gurram

text: After completing the first schedule in Hyderabad, the team headed to Norway for canning some important scenes including some of the songs, making it a long schedule. At that point of time, it was reported that Surender Reddy roped in Shaam after he worked with him in "Kick" and "Oosaravelli". Meanwhile, after the completion of the shoot at Norway, the unit proceeded to Europe (Switzerland, Italy) where 2 songs were scheduled to be canned in a period of 8 days ranging from 1 July 2013 after which the regular shoot would continue in Hyderabad. However, the shooting resumed in Geneva which later continued in Milan. At this point of time, Saloni was selected as the second heroine in the film which marks her first collaboration with Allu Arjun and Surender Reddy. Later on the unit returned to Hyderabad and Allu Arjun and Shruti Haasan participated in the shooting at Annapurna Studios 7 Acres. There the song "Cinema Choopista Maava" was shot under the choreography of Johnny Master. After the completion of the song shoot, Allu Arjun participated in a fight scene shoot which was choreographed by noted fight masters Ram-Lakshman. In early September 2013, it was confirmed that Bhojpuri Superstar Ravi Kishan was roped in as the antagonist thus marking this film his Telugu Debut.


title: Race Gurram

text: Later in September, some scenes were canned on Allu Arjun and others at Golconda Fort in Hyderabad. Later on some fight scenes were canned in and around Hyderabad in which the leads participated. On the night of 28 October 2013 scenes between Allu Arjun and Shaam were shot at Hell pad Junction in Ramoji Film City at Hyderabad. In early November 2013, shooting continued in Ramoji Film City where some comedy scenes were shot. From 16 November 2013 some action sequences were canned in which Allu Arjun participated. The shooting continued in Ramoji Film City and the unit shot some more fight sequences at the outskirts of Hyderabad from 19 November 2013. The shooting continued in Jadcherla where scenes on Allu Arjun, Brahmanandam and Ravi Kishan were shot. Later some crucial scenes were shot near Charminar area in Hyderabad. After wrapping up a chase sequence on Allu Arjun and Shruti Haasan there, the unit yet again continued its shooting at Ramoji Film City. By then Surender Reddy revealed that most of the film's shoot had been wrapped up. On 24 December, it was announced that the film's talkie part was completed and 2 songs were left to be shot which would start form the new schedule which would commence from 5 January 2014.


title: Race Gurram

text: On 5 January, the new schedule yet again began at Ramoji Film City, Hyderabad where some crucial scenes and an item number will be shot. It was said that the last song's shoot was said to be held from 20 to 25 January with which the filming would come to an end. Later on 13 January 2014 a song was shot on Allu Arjun and Kaira Dutta in which Thagubothu Ramesh and Srinivas Reddy also participated. It was said to be the introduction song of Allu Arjun in the film which was composed by Dinesh Master. A song was planned to be shot on Allu Arjun and Shruti Haasan from 15 February. However, since the latter had a surgery, the filming of the song was shifted to 17 February. In February 2014, it was reported that Veteran Kannada and Telugu actress Pavitra Lokesh is playing the role of Allu Arjun's Mother in this film. Meanwhile, on 20 February Shruti Haasan announced that she wrapped up her part of the shoot. The song's shoot came to an end on 22 February 2014 thus ending the film's shoot. In mid March 2014, it was reported that Brahmanandam would play the role of a police officer in this film. In an interview to the IANS, Brahmanandam told that he and Allu Arjun play the roles of partners in Police Department. He said "I play his assistant in the film and scenes between us are a laugh riot. I'm extremely happy with the character because it's something I haven't played in a long time. I'm sure audiences are going to love watching us together on screen". Sunil gave voice-over for the film.


title: Race Gurram

text: The post production activities commenced during the final phase of shooting and by the end of March, it was reported that the film's post production activities are in full swing at Chennai B2h Studios. On 29 March, it was reported that Thaman completed the re-recording work for the first half of the film and the second half's re-recording work is in progress. At the same time, it was also reported that film's unit is striving hard to ensure that the film's first cut is ready by 31 March. It was said that as soon as the activities come to an end, the film's first copy would be screened for undergoing censor certification. On 4 April 2014 the film was certified a U/A certificate by Central Board of Film Certification with the film's length being 163 minutes. The final copy of the film was ready on 4 April 2014.


title: Race Gurram

text: The film's first look was released on 7 December 2013. The teaser was released on the same day at 10:00 AM in the Morning on the occasion of Surender Reddy's birthday in YouTube. The Teaser was of 30 seconds in which Arjun runs in a Black shirt and Black Trousers with Black Goggles with the Background Music notching the word "Boochodu" (Bogeyman) with Ravi Kishan's eyes highlighted twice. The teaser received positive response from fans of Arjun as well as common audience. The Audio release poster featuring Allu Arjun and Shruti Haasan was released on 13 March 2014 in High Quality version after the low quality version released into the Internet. That poster received viral response from all corners. On 16 March 2014 the teasers of all the six songs were released into YouTube officially by the makers.


title: Race Gurram

text: The hot pose featuring Allu Arjun and Shruti Haasan went viral. Before the music launch was held in a low key affair at Park Hyatt, it was reported that the makers opted for organizing a big fanfare event before the film's release. After the Audio released into the market, it was reported that the film's theatrical trailer would be launched in a function held at Rajahmundry on 22 March 2014. The venue was confirmed on 21 March 2014 as the GIET college youth fest in Rajamundry. The trailer received positive response from all corners. It was reported that the producers ordered unique light based standees featuring a dancing still of Allu Arjun and each of these standees costed around 10,000. It was said that the producer has ordered around 50 standees and keep it prominently in all multiplexes and important single screens.


title: Race Gurram

text: S. Thaman composed the Music and Background Score for this film which marks his first collaboration with Allu Arjun and second collaboration with Surender Reddy. In January 2014, Lahari Music purchased the Audio rights for an amount of . Later in early March 2014, Thaman confirmed that the film's audio would be launched on 16 March at Hyderabad. The film's Soundtrack Album was released in a simple and formal promotional event on 16 March 2014 at Park Hyatt hotel in Hyderabad. The Audio received predominant positive response from all corners and many celebrities praised Thaman for his work. The soundtrack also debuted as one among the top ten albums in iTunes along with "Maan Karate" and "Kochadaiiyaan".


title: Race Gurram

text: The film's first look was released on 7 December 2013. The teaser trailer was released on the same day at 10:00 AM in the morning on the occasion of Surender Reddy's birthday in YouTube. The Teaser was of 30 seconds in which Arjun runs in a Black shirt and Black Trousers with Black Goggles with the Background Music notching the word "Boochodu" (Bogeyman) with Ravi Kishan's eyes highlighted twice. The teaser received positive response from fans of Arjun as well as common audience. The Audio release poster featuring Allu Arjun and Shruti Haasan was released on 13 March 2014 in High Quality version after the low quality version released into the Internet. That poster received viral response from all corners. On 16 March 2014 the teasers of all the six songs were released into YouTube officially by the makers.


title: Race Gurram

text: The still featuring Allu Arjun and Shruti Haasan went viral. Before the music launch was held in a low key affair at Park Hyatt, it was reported that the makers opted for organizing a big fanfare event before the film's release. After the Audio released into the market, it was reported that the film's theatrical trailer would be launched in a function held at Rajahmundry on 22 March 2014. The venue was confirmed on 21 March 2014 as the GIET college youth fest in Rajamundry. The trailer received positive response from all corners. It was reported that the producers ordered unique light based standees featuring a dancing still of Allu Arjun and each of these standees costed around 10,000. It was said that the producer has ordered around 50 standees and keep it prominently in all multiplexes and important single screens.


title: Race Gurram

text: Initially, the film was planned as a Vijayadashami release viz. 13 October 2013. However it was later shifted to 11 January 2014 as a Sankranti special along with Mahesh Babu's "1 – Nenokkadine". In the end of November 2013, it was confirmed that the film would be using the Auro 11.1 Audio file format by Barco Sounds thus making it the third Telugu movie to adopt this next-generation three-layer sound technology from Auro Technologies, powered by Barco Sounds which was succeeded by Mahesh Babu's "1 – Nenokkadine". But in early December 2013, it was confirmed that the film's release postponed again thus exiting the Sankranti race. Then it was declared that it would hit the screens in February 2014. In the end of December 2013, Reports emerged that the film postponed yet again from February and was slated as a Summer Release.


title: Race Gurram

text: In the end of January 2014, it was reported that the film would release worldwide on 4 April 2014. In mid February 2014, it was reported that the film is expected to release on 11 April 2014. But on the last day of February 2014, it was reported that the film would release on 28 March 2014 clashing with Nandamuri Balakrishna's "Legend" which was also slated for a 28 March 2014 release worldwide. On 13 March 2014 FICUS Inc released a press note which stated that they purchased the entire overseas theatrical screening rights of the film. During the theatrical trailer launch at Rajahmundry, Allu Arjun confirmed that the film would release on 11 April 2014. In association with FICUS Inc, European Telugu Colors purchased the theatrical screening rights of the film in Europe except in UK. The film was later dubbed and released in Hindi as "Main Hoon Lucky: The Racer" in 2015 which grossed more than 121 million views on YouTube.


title: Race Gurram

text: The film's satellite and digital rights were sold to Sun TV Network. The film's world television premiere took place on 23 October 2014, through Gemini TV.


title: Race Gurram

text: "The Times of India" gave the film a rating of three-and-a-half out of five stars and stated that "All in all it’s the ideal Tollywood masala package loaded with the right doses of entertainment, brotherly love, and Brahmanandam. You can’t ask for more can you?". "Sify" gave the film rating of three-and-a-quarter out of five stars and noted that "'Race Gurram' is a regular commercial entertainer with a dose of comedy in the second half. Allu Arjun and 'Kill Bill' Pandey steal the show". idlebrain.com gave a review stating "Plus points of the movie are Allu Arjun, Brahmanandam, Cinematography, second half screenplay, all round orientation and production values. On the flip side, eccentric villain characterization and uneven tempo of the film should have been taken care of. On a whole, Race Gurram with its allround commercial elements should do well at box office! And watch out for Brahmi as ‘kill bill pandey’!" and rated the film 3.25/5. According to all the reviews and critics Allu Arjun Police Introduction scene is the highlight scene from the entire movie .


title: Race Gurram

text: Oneindia Entertainment gave a review stating "Race Gurram has excellent performances by lead actors, engrossing narration and rich production values, but lacks a fresh plot. It is a good family entertainer that will also impress the mass audience. It is a must watch movie for Bunny and Surender fans" and rated the film 3.5/5. IndiaGlitz gave a review stating "Race Gurram, for all the powerful imagery it stands for, is not an all-out Allu Arjun film. Although his heroism is enough to captivate the young audience, it's more the very many characters and brother-brother conflict that keep the proceedings interesting. Race Gurram is watchable for the little doses of heroism, romance, and comedy" and rated the film 3.5/5. The Hindu wrote "Race Gurram makes no pretensions to be a hatke film. It is an out and out Allu Arjun film and it makes no bones of that. Directed by Surender Reddy, Race Gurram is a family entertainer with its fair share of action and comedy and a generous dose of Allu Arjun’s dancing skills".


title: Race Gurram

text: "Race Gurram" collected a share of in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana in its first day. The film became first Allu Arjun film to earn $1 million in USA. The film collected nett in 4 weeks, becoming the biggest hit for Allu Arjun. The Malayalam dubbed version "Lucky: The Racer" was also received good reception at the box office. "Race Gurram" completed 50 days in 159 centres and 100 days in 26 centres. In its full theatrical run "Race Gurram" earned over 59.4 crore distributor share and emerged as the highest grossing Telugu film of 2014.


title: Race Gurram

text: Kapil Dev praised Allu Arjun's work in this film when Allu Arjun and his wife Sneha Reddy met him. Kapil told him that he watches his Hindi-dubbed films.


title: Empress Nara

text: Step Empress of the Nara clan (; 11 March 1718 – 19 August 1766) was the wife and second empress consort of Hongli, the Qianlong Emperor. She was Empress consort of Qing from 1750 until her death in 1766.


title: Empress Nara

text: Originally a concubine, she was elevated to empress rank after Empress Xiaoxianchun's death in 1748. In her role as empress consort, she accompanied the Qianlong Emperor on many trips, ancestral worship ceremonies, and hunts.


title: Empress Nara

text: Historical records give little information about her life, and even her appearance. It’s suspected that was due to the Qianlong Emperor destroying all her records and portraits. Although never officially deposed, she lost her authority as chief of the imperial harem in 1765, believed to be because she cut her hair and this action was considered a grave "faux pas" according to Manchurian custom. The Qianlong Emperor ordered that her four written edicts that bestowed her various imperial titles, as well as the accompanying gifts, be confiscated. In addition, her maid workforce was reduced to two.


title: Empress Nara

text: In the "Draft History of Qing", the future Step Empress is noted as being a member of the Ula-Nara clan. However, the "Draft History of Qing" is noted to be riddled with errors, due to a hasty publication that precluded an editing process.


title: Empress Nara

text: Empress's father, Narbu, is noted in the book "Genealogy of the Manchu Clans" () as being a descendant of Wangginu (), a leader of the Hoifa clan, and the family's ancestors are listed under the section "People with the surname Nara in the Hoifa area" () as having lived in the Hoifa area for generations. Therefore, some modern publications have stated the Step Empress is a member of the Hoifa-Nara tribe. But due to the fact that the Ula-Nara clan is the most ancient Nara clan, the Step Empress's ancestors might have changed their last name to Ula Nara to make their name more noble.


title: Empress Nara

text: However, at least one author has noted that with members of the Nara clan, the name that comes before "Nara" merely denotes the geographical area in which the family resided in, and that all members of the clan share the same last name, regardless of their area of residence. In the "Factual Record of Qing" (), when the Step Empress, at the time the secondary consort of Qianlong, was elevated to Consort Xian, she was referred to as being of the Nara clan, rather than as a member of the Ula-Nara or Hoifa-Nara tribe.


title: Empress Nara

text: The debate over the Empress's maiden name has manifested itself in two 2018 media portrayals of the Empress's life. In the "Story of Yanxi Palace", the character based on the Step Empress was named Hoifa-Nara Shushen, while in "Ruyi's Royal Love in the Palace", the character based on the Step Empress was named Ula-Nara Ruyi/Qingying.


title: Empress Nara

text: The date of the Step Empress's birth is a matter of debate, with the book "Four Genealogies of the Qing Royal House" stating that she was born some time in the second lunar month of an unknown year, and at least one modern book stating that she was born on the 10th day of the 2nd month of the 57th year of Kangxi Emperor's reign. She was born to Narbu, a "Niru ejen", or assistant captain. The family is of the Bordered Blue Banner.


title: Empress Nara

text: Before Hongli's enthronement in 1735, his father the Yongzheng Emperor, appointed Lady Nara as his secondary consort. Lady Nara was noted to have gained Hongli's favour during this time. After the death of Yongzheng, Hongli succeeded him as the Qianlong Emperor, and Lady Nara was granted the title "Consort Xian" () on 23 January 1738. Her pleasant character also won the favour of Qianlong's mother, the Empress Dowager Chongqing, and on 9 December 1745, she was promoted to "Noble Consort Xian" ().


title: Empress Nara

text: Qianlong's first empress, Empress Xiaoxianchun, died on the 8th day of the 3rd month of the 13th year of Qianlong at the age of 37, on board a boat in Dezhou under circumstances that were not well documented by historical sources.


title: Empress Nara

text: The emperor's mother, posthumously known as Empress Xiaoshengxian, selected Lady Nara to administrate the affairs of the six palaces. The emperor duly objected, because he was still grieving the loss of his first beloved empress, and was thus reluctant to take her as his second wife. But he was also hard-pressed to disobey his mother's wishes. As a compromise, he promoted Lady Nara to the position of "Imperial Noble Consort" () via an edict issued on the 5th day of the 4th month of the 13th year of his reign, and gave her administrative powers over the harem as an acting Empress.


title: Empress Nara

text: Two years later, an edict to appoint the Imperial Noble Consort as the new empress was issued on the 12th day of the 7th month of the 15th year of Qianlong. The decision was made following a mourning period for Empress Xiaoxianchun. From then on, Empress Nara accompanied Qianlong on many trips, ancestral worship ceremonies, and hunts. From the 17th year of Qianlong to the 20th year, the Step Empress gave birth to three children: 12th prince, Yongji (), an unnamed 5th daughter and the 13th prince, Yongjing (), respectively.


title: Empress Nara

text: According to the "Draft History of Qing", in 1765, during the 30th year of Qianlong's reign, the Step Empress accompanied the emperor on a tour to Southern China. As the group arrived at Hangzhou, the Step Empress cut her hair, and was ordered by the emperor to return to the capital. The Emperor ordered Fulong'an (), the husband of his fourth daughter, to escort the Step Empress to Beijing via waterways.


title: Empress Nara

text: Contemporary Qing customs held that a Manchurian (typically not held true for other ethnic groups) cannot shave the hair on the top of his or her head until a hundred days after a funeral, and that hair on a queue is cut as a sign of deep mourning. The Step Empress' action was considered a grave "faux pas", as it was taken as a gesture to curse the Emperor and the Empress Dowager.


title: Empress Nara

text: Chinese author Li Shu, in her 2019 book on Qing imperial cuisine, made a claim on the exact moment the incident happened, using Qing dynasty records of the portions of food an Emperor gave to his concubines and arguing that a granting of food portion represents an act of honor and love by the Emperor to his concubine. She postulated that the incident happened at some point following breakfast on the 18th day of the leap 2nd month of the 30th year of Qianlong, when the Step Empress received a portion of assorted meat, and before dinner that same day, when the Step Empress was not mentioned as having received any portion of food from the Emperor. In addition, starting from that dinner and thereafter, the Step Empress's name was covered up with yellow paper on records of food portion grants.


title: Empress Nara

text: After the incident and following the Step Empress' return to the capital, she was still given the same amount of daily food and charcoal rations as would be accorded to an Empress, and she was given five eunuchs and two cooks. On the 14th day of the 5th month of the 30th year of Qianlong, following the Emperor's return to Beijing, the Emperor ordered that the Step Empress' four written edicts that bestowed her various imperial titles, as well as the accompanying gifts, be confiscated. In addition, the Step Empress' maid workforce was reduced to two, the same amount of maids that a Second Attendant (; the lowest concubine) is allowed to have. In addition, the Qianlong Emperor conferred the title of Imperial Noble Consort on Noble Consort Ling, half a month after his return to the capital. Under Qing dynasty’s ranking of consorts, an Imperial Noble Consort is only a step below the Empress, meaning that while Noble Consort Ling was not explicitly granted administrative powers over the harem, it definitely meant that the Step Empress has fallen out with the Emperor.


title: Empress Nara

text: The Step Empress died on the 7th month of the 31st year of Qianlong. However, the exact date of her death is a matter of debate. The "Draft History of Qing", which has accuracy and reliability concerns, stated that she died on the "Jiawu", while modern works have listed her death as having happened on the 14th day of the 7th month.


title: Empress Nara

text: The Step Empress was already seriously ill on the 6th month of that same year, but Qianlong did not otherwise delay a trip to the summer residence in Chengde.


title: Empress Nara

text: At the time of the Step Empress's death, the Qianlong Emperor was on an annual hunting excursion at the Mulan Hunting Grounds (木蘭圍場, in the present-day Weichang Manchu and Mongol Autonomous County). He did not end his excursion immediately and head back to the Forbidden City. Instead, he ordered his 12th son, Yongji (the Step Empress's biological son) to return to the palace to handle the funerary affairs.


title: Empress Nara

text: By the Qianlong Emperor's order, the Step Empress's funeral was treated as that of an Imperial Noble Consort, but in reality, the ceremony was a much more scaled down affair, with the cancellation of imperial cabinet meetings for five days not carried out, and the cancellation of requirements for princesses, nobles, and high-ranking court officials to attend the mourning sessions. In addition, the casket used for the Step Empress was of a much lower quality. For her burial, the Step Empress was laid to rest in the Yu Mausoleum of the Eastern Qing tombs, next to Imperial Noble Consort Chunhui, instead of being entombed next to the Emperor's future resting place.


title: Empress Nara

text: Many historical materials on the Step Empress utilize the ancient Chinese lunisolar calendar, coupled with the Chinese era name system. The following Gregorian calendar dates were derived, using developed by the Academia Sinica in Taiwan.


title: Ultra-wideband

text: Ultra-wideband (UWB, ultra wideband, ultra-wide band and ultraband) is a radio technology that can use a very low energy level for short-range, high-bandwidth communications over a large portion of the radio spectrum. UWB has traditional applications in non-cooperative radar imaging. Most recent applications target sensor data collection, precise locating, and tracking. UWB support started to appear in high-end smartphones 2019.


title: Ultra-wideband

text: Ultra-wideband is a technology for transmitting information across a wide bandwidth (>500 MHz). This allows for the transmission of a large amount of signal energy without interfering with conventional narrowband and carrier wave transmission in the same frequency band. Regulatory limits in many countries allow for this efficient use of radio bandwidth, and enable high-data-rate personal area network (PAN) wireless connectivity, longer-range low-data-rate applications, and the transparent co-existence of radar and imaging systems with existing communications systems.


title: Ultra-wideband

text: Ultra-wideband was formerly known as "pulse radio", but the FCC and the International Telecommunication Union Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R) currently define UWB as an antenna transmission for which emitted signal bandwidth exceeds the lesser of 500 MHz or 20% of the arithmetic center frequency. Thus, pulse-based systems—where each transmitted pulse occupies the UWB bandwidth (or an aggregate of at least 500 MHz of a narrow-band carrier; for example, orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM))—can access the UWB spectrum under the rules.


title: Ultra-wideband

text: A significant difference between conventional radio transmissions and UWB is that conventional systems transmit information by varying the power level, frequency, and/or phase of a sinusoidal wave. UWB transmissions transmit information by generating radio energy at specific time intervals and occupying a large bandwidth, thus enabling pulse-position or time modulation. The information can also be modulated on UWB signals (pulses) by encoding the polarity of the pulse, its amplitude and/or by using orthogonal pulses. UWB pulses can be sent sporadically at relatively low pulse rates to support time or position modulation, but can also be sent at rates up to the inverse of the UWB pulse bandwidth. Pulse-UWB systems have been demonstrated at channel pulse rates in excess of 1.3 billion pulses per second using a continuous stream of UWB pulses (Continuous Pulse UWB or C-UWB), while supporting forward error-correction encoded data rates in excess of 675 Mbit/s.


title: Ultra-wideband

text: A UWB radio system can be used to determine the "time of flight" of the transmission at various frequencies. This helps overcome multipath propagation, since some of the frequencies have a line-of-sight trajectory, while other indirect paths have longer delays. With a cooperative symmetric two-way metering technique, distances can be measured to high resolution and accuracy.


title: Ultra-wideband

text: UWB is useful for real-time location systems, and its precision capabilities and low power make it well-suited for radio-frequency-sensitive environments, such as hospitals. UWB is also useful for peer-to-peer fine ranging, which allows many applications based on relative distance between two entities.


title: Ultra-wideband

text: The omlox technology standard enables the provision of location data independent of technology and manufacturer. The UWB part is based on the IEEE 802.15.4.z standard.


title: Ultra-wideband

text: Apple launched the first three phones with ultra-wideband capabilities in September 2019, namely, the iPhone 11, iPhone 11 Pro, and iPhone 11 Pro Max. Apple also launched Series 6 of Apple Watch in September 2020, which features UWB, and their AirTags featuring this technology was revealed at a press event on April 20, 2021. The Samsung Galaxy Note 20 Ultra and Galaxy S21 Ultra and S21+ also support UWB, along with the Samsung Galaxy SmartTag+.


title: Ultra-wideband

text: The Xiaomi MIX 4 released in August 2021 supports UWB, and offers the capability of connecting to select AIoT devices.


title: Ultra-wideband

text: The FiRa Consortium was founded in August 2019 to develop interoperable UWB ecosystems including mobile phones. Samsung, Xiaomi, & Oppo are currently members of the FiRa Consortium. In November 2020, Android Open Source Project received first patches related to an upcoming UWB API; feature-complete UWB support is expected in later versions of Android.


title: Ultra-wideband

text: A small number of UWB integrated circuits focused on location systems are in production or planned for production .


title: Ultra-wideband

text: Ultra-wideband gained widespread attention for its implementation in synthetic aperture radar (SAR) technology. Due to its high resolution capacities using lower frequencies, UWB SAR was heavily researched for its object-penetration ability. Starting in the early 1990s, the U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) developed various stationary and mobile ground-, foliage-, and wall-penetrating radar platforms that served to detect and identify buried IEDs and hidden adversaries at a safe distance. Examples include the railSAR, the boomSAR, the SIRE radar, and the SAFIRE radar. ARL has also investigated the feasibility of whether UWB radar technology can incorporate Doppler processing to estimate the velocity of a moving target when the platform is stationary. While a 2013 report highlighted the issue with the use of UWB waveforms due to target range migration during the integration interval, more recent studies have suggested that UWB waveforms can demonstrate better performance compared to conventional Doppler processing as long as a correct matched filter is used.


title: Ultra-wideband

text: Ultra-wideband pulse Doppler radars have also been used to monitor vital signs of the human body, such as heart rate and respiration signals as well as human gait analysis and fall detection. It serves as a potential alternative to continuous-wave radar systems since it involves less power consumption and a high-resolution range profile. However, its low signal-to-noise ratio has made it vulnerable to errors. A commercial example of this application is RayBaby, which is a baby monitor that detects breathing and heart rate to determine whether a baby is asleep or awake. Raybaby has a detection range of five meters and can detect fine movements of less than a millimeter.