title: Antrum (film)

text: "Antrum" was written, produced, and directed by David Amito and Michael Laicini. Development for the film began while Amito and Laicini were working on developing a separate project, which they described as a "horror love story". While working on that film's script, they began brainstorming possible scenarios that they could include in the film, specifically the ones that scared them. As they would later recall in an interview with "Rue Morgue", the central idea came from the concept of what it would be like to watch a purported "cursed" film with a history of harming the people who saw it. Feeling that the idea would make an excellent horror film, the filmmakers began developing a screenplay based on the initial concept. In an interview with "Rue Morge", both Amito and Laicini stated that the plot of the "cursed film" was deliberately made to appear as if it was "a dark fairy tale", with themes dealing with loss and moral ramifications of belief. Further inspiration came from a short film horror film titled "Dining Room or There is Nothing", which Laicini claimed to have viewed while in film school, which left a lasting impression on him. For "Antrum"s occult aspects, Amito, and Laicini studied various historical and cultural depictions of demons and the devil for inspiration, with their shared interests in religious imagery and the supernatural also factoring into the development of the film's script. Most of the symbols and runes depicted in the film were taken from a 17th Century text called "Lesser Key of Solomon".


title: Antrum (film)

text: American actress Nicole Tompkins was cast in the lead role of Oralee. Tompkins had previously starred in the 2016 films "Opening Night", and "The Amityville Terror". Tompkins was immediately drawn to the role after receiving the film's script during her audition, later recalling: "When I got the material it really clicked for me. I felt like I had something to say and something to bring to the role and apparently, the director’s felt the same because here we are!" Tompkins described her character as being incredibly smart, and creative, with her actions motivated by a strong bond towards her younger brother. American child actor Rowan Smyth, who had previously starred in the Christian drama film "I Believe" (2017), was cast as Oralee's young brother Nathan.


title: Antrum (film)

text: Principal photography for "Antrum" lasted for a period of one month in Southern California, was shot under a low budget with only a handful of production staff working on the film, with Amito later revealing in an interview with "Rue Morgue": "We were wildly understaffed, wildly underfunded and unprepared for this month long shoot… yet, somehow a number of elements just magically landed in our lap." Scenes involving Tompkins' and Smyth characters were filmed in a one-hundred acre, privately owned forest, where the filmmakers had been granted special permission to shoot at. Actress Tompkins spoke very positively of her experience working on the film, calling it both challenging and rewarding, and described her working relationship with filmmakers Amito, and Laicini as being very much "in sync" with one another.


title: Antrum (film)

text: "Antrum" made its world premiere at the Brooklyn Horror Film Festival on 14 October 2018. It was later screened at the Brussels International Fantastic Film Festival on 18 April 2019. On 1 September 2019, it was screened at the Horrible Imaginings Film Festival. It was a part of the official selection of films at the Sitges Film Festival, with the screening taking place on 1 October 2019. On 1 November 2019, it was screened at the Morbido Film Festival. It was screened at Night Visions International Film Festival, on 20 November 2019.


title: Antrum (film)

text: It was later announced that Uncork’d Entertainment had acquired North American distribution rights to "Antrum", and planned on releasing it via Video-on-Demand and streaming services in Fall 2019.


title: Antrum (film)

text: "Antrum" was released via Video-on-Demand, and VHS special edition in the United States and Canada on 12 November 2019. "Antrum" would later become the #1 trending film on Amazon Prime.


title: Antrum (film)

text: It was announced that the film would also be released in Japan in early February 2020, and would later have its home media release there on 7 February.


title: Antrum (film)

text: Critical response for "Antrum" has been mostly positive, with critics praising the film's unnerving atmosphere, retro 70s style, and blurring the lines between fiction and reality. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, "Antrum" holds an approval rating of , based on reviews, and an average rating of .


title: Antrum (film)

text: Anya Stanley from "Dread Central" rated the film three out of five stars, writing, ""Antrum" is a multilayered indulgence of the imagination that uses both internal narrative and a mockumentary structure to blur the line between fiction and reality." Dolores Quintana of "Nightmarish Conjurings" called it "a film both fascinating and deeply odd that crawls under your skin", praising the film's atmosphere, dreamlike style, cinematography, and performances. Kat Hughes from "The Hollywood News" awarded the film three out of five stars, praising the film's atmosphere, blurring of fiction and reality, growing sense of unease, and recreation of 1970s style cinema, while criticizing the film's character development. Martin Unsworth from "Starburst Magazine" gave the film a score of eight out of ten stars, praising the film's plot, performances, soundtrack, visuals, and authentic 70s style, calling it "an unsettling experience". Deirdre Crimmins of "Rue Morgue" offered the film similar praise, writing, "Tense and unnerving, unpredictable and mean spirited, "Antrum: The Deadliest Film Ever Made" adds layers to the terrifying power of cinema."


title: Antrum (film)

text: On his website, Kim Newman noted that, while the film was "technically ambitious" and commending some of its visuals, its thin plot, repetitiveness, and unconvincing documentary elements undermined it. Roger Moore of "Roger's Movie Nation" was highly critical of the film, stating, ""Antrum: The Deadliest Film Ever Made" isn’t amateurish enough to be charming or professional enough to pull off the con job." Mike Sprague from "Joblo" rated the film a mixed score of five out of ten, commending the film's intriguing premise, and soundtrack, but also stated that the film did not take full advantage of its premise, and criticized its "amateurish" qualities, and general lack of scares.


title: Daoguang Emperor

text: The Daoguang Emperor (; 16 September 1782 – 26 February 1850), also known by his temple name Emperor Xuanxong of Qing, born Mianning, was the seventh Emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the sixth Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigning from 1820 to 1850. His reign was marked by "external disaster and internal rebellion." These included the First Opium War and the beginning of the Taiping Rebellion which nearly brought down the dynasty. The historian Jonathan Spence characterizes the Daoguang Emperor as a "well meaning but ineffective man" who promoted officials who "presented a purist view even if they had nothing to say about the domestic and foreign problems surrounding the dynasty."


title: Daoguang Emperor

text: The Daoguang Emperor was born in the Forbidden City, Beijing, in 1782, and was given the name Mianning (). It was later changed to Minning () when he became emperor. The first character of his private name was changed from "Mian" to "Min" to avoid the relatively common character "Mian". This novelty was introduced by his grandfather, the reigning Qianlong Emperor, who thought it was inappropriate to use a common character in the emperor's private name due to the longstanding practice of naming taboo.


title: Daoguang Emperor

text: Mianning was the second son of Prince Yongyan, the 15th son and heir of the Qianlong Emperor. Even though he was Yongyan's second son, he was first in line after Prince Yongyan to his grandfather's throne. This was because according to the dishu system, his mother, Lady Hitara, was Yongyan's primary spouse whereas his elder brother was born to Yongyan's concubine. Mianning was favored by his grandfather, the Qianlong Emperor. He frequently accompanied his grandfather on hunting trips. On one such trip, at the age of nine, Mianning successfully hunted a deer, which greatly amused the Qianlong Emperor. The emperor would abdicate five years after that incident, in 1796, when Mianning was 14. Mianning’s father Prince Yongyan was then enthroned as the Jiaqing Emperor, after which he made Lady Hitara (Mianning's mother) his empress consort. The elderly Qianlong would live three more years in retirement before dying in 1799, aged 87, when Mianning was 17.


title: Daoguang Emperor

text: In 1813, while he was still a prince, Mianning also played a vital role in repelling and killing Eight Trigrams invaders who stormed the Forbidden City.


title: Daoguang Emperor

text: In September 1820, at the age of 38, Mianning inherited the throne after the Jiaqing Emperor died suddenly of unknown causes. He became the first Qing emperor who was the eldest legitimate son of his father. Now known as the Daoguang Emperor, he inherited a declining empire with Westerners encroaching upon the borders of China. His era name, "Daoguang", means "radiant path". The Daoguang Emperor had been ruling for six years when the exiled heir to the Khojas, Jahangir Khoja, attacked Xinjiang from Kokand in the Afaqi Khoja revolts. By the end of 1826, the former Qing cities of Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan, and Yangihissar had all fallen to the rebels. After a friend betrayed him in March 1827, Khoja was sent to Beijing in an iron litter and subsequently executed, while the Qing Empire regained control of their lost territory. The Uyghur Muslim Sayyid and Naqshbandi Sufi rebel of the Afaqi suborder, Jahangir Khoja was sliced to death (Lingchi) in 1828 by the Manchus for leading a rebellion against the Qing.


title: Daoguang Emperor

text: During the Daoguang Emperor's reign, China experienced major problems with opium, which was imported into China by British merchants. Opium had started to trickle into China during the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor, but was limited to approximately 200 chests annually. By the time of the Qianlong era, this amount had increased to 1,000 chests, 4,000 chests by the Jiaqing era and more than 30,000 chests during the Daoguang era.


title: Daoguang Emperor

text: The Daoguang Emperor issued many imperial edicts banning opium in the 1820s and 1830s, which were carried out by Lin Zexu, whom he appointed as an Imperial Commissioner to Canton. Lin Zexu's efforts to halt the spread of opium in China led directly to the First Opium War. With China losing the war, Lin Zexu was made a scapegoat. The Daoguang Emperor removed his authority and banished him to Yili. The loss in the war exposed Qing China's technological and military inferiority to European powers, this led China in being forced to cede Hong Kong to the British in the Treaty of Nanjing in August 1842, and also pay a hefty indemnity which led the treasury desperate for funds. Meanwhile, in the Himalayas, the Sikh Empire attempted an occupation of Tibet but was defeated in the Sino-Sikh war (1841–1842).


title: Daoguang Emperor

text: In 1811, a clause sentencing Europeans to death for spreading Catholicism had been added to the statute called "Prohibitions Concerning Sorcerers and Sorceresses" (禁止師巫邪術) in the Great Qing Legal Code. Protestants hoped that the Qing government would discriminate between Protestantism and Catholicism, since the law mentioned the latter by name, but after Protestant missionaries gave Christian books to Chinese people in 1835 and 1836, the Daoguang Emperor demanded to know who were the "traitorous natives" in Guangzhou who had supplied them with books.


title: Daoguang Emperor

text: The Daoguang Emperor died on 26 February 1850 at the Old Summer Palace, 8 km/5 miles northwest of Beijing, being the last Qing emperor to pass away in that Palace before it was burnt down by Anglo-French troops during the Second Opium War, a decade later. He was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, Yizhu, who was later enthroned as the Xianfeng Emperor. The Daoguang Emperor failed to understand the intention or determination of the Europeans, or the basic economics of a war on drugs. Although the Europeans were outnumbered and thousands of miles away from logistical support in their native countries, they could bring far superior firepower to bear at any point of contact along the Chinese coast. The Qing government was highly dependent on the continued flow of taxes from southern China via the Grand Canal, which the British expeditionary force easily cut off at Zhenjiang.


title: Daoguang Emperor

text: The Daoguang Emperor ultimately had a poor understanding of the British and the industrial revolution that Britain and Western Europe had undergone, preferring to turn a blind eye to the rest of the world, though the distance from China to Europe most likely played a part. It was said that the emperor did not even know where Britain was located in the world. His 30-year reign saw rising economic tensions, sectarian instability and foreign interventions which would eventually lead to the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911.


title: Daoguang Emperor

text: The Daoguang Emperor was interred in the Mu (慕; lit. "Longing" or "Admiration") mausoleum complex, which is part of the Western Qing Tombs, 120 km southwest of Beijing.


title: Flag of Mozambique

text: The flag of Mozambique is the national flag of the Republic of Mozambique that was adopted on 1 May 1983. It is a tricolor flag with white fimbriations and a red triangle. Teal stands for the riches of the land, the white fimbriations signify peace, black represents the African continent, yellow symbolises the country's minerals, and red represents the struggle for independence. It includes the image of a Kalashnikov rifle with a bayonet attached to the barrel crossed by a hoe, superimposed on an open book. The rifle stands for defence and vigilance, the open book symbolises the importance of education, the hoe represents the country's agriculture, and the star symbolizes the spirit of the international solidarity of the Mozambican people. It is one of four national flags among UN member states that feature a firearm, along with those of Guatemala, Haiti and Bolivia, but is the only one of the four to feature a modern firearm instead of cannons or muskets.


title: Flag of Mozambique

text: The flag is based on the flag of the Mozambican Liberation Front (FRELIMO), the leading political party in Mozambique. The FRELIMO flag, used for a brief period after the country gained its independence from Portugal, looks like the current flag but lacking the emblem, with green, black, and yellow horizontal stripes separated by white fimbriations and a red triangle in the hoist.


title: Flag of Mozambique

text: On independence the colours were rearranged to form the national flag, in diagonals emanating from the upper hoist. Over this was a white cogwheel containing the hoe, rifle, book, and star that appear on the present flag. The flag was altered in 1983; the colours were arranged in horizontal stripes, and the star was made larger. Later in the same year the cogwheel was removed, leading to the current form of the flag.


title: Flag of Mozambique

text: In 2005, a competition was held to design a new flag for Mozambique. This came in the context of a drive to create a new crest and anthem for the country. RENAMO, Mozambique's parliamentary opposition, specifically wanted to see two symbols removed from the flag: the star, which they saw as representative of the country's communist past; and the Kalashnikov assault rifle, which they argued is incompatible with a country trying to be peaceful after the Mozambican Civil War. FRELIMO, the ruling party, argued that the star's resemblance to the communist symbol was coincidental, and that the rifle represented the nation's struggle for independence.


title: Flag of Mozambique

text: 169 entries were received and a winning flag was selected, but was rejected by the FRELIMO-led parliament in December 2005. All 169 proposed flags were turned down, including the current flag without the rifle.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: The Buffalo crime family, also known as the Magaddino crime family, Buffalo Mafia, The Arm, the New York State crime family, the Upstate New York Mafia, and the Todaro crime family, is an Italian-American Mafia crime family based in Buffalo, New York. Criminal investigators claim that the family operates throughout Western New York, Erie, Pennsylvania, and Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. The Buffalo family is purported to hold strong connections with the Hamilton-based Luppino and Papalia families. According to the U.S. Department of Justice, the current boss of the Buffalo crime family is Joseph A. "Big Joe" Todaro Jr., having assumed the role after his father, Joseph E. "Lead Pipe Joe" Todaro Sr., retired.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: In the early 1900s, Angelo Palmeri emerged as the first Mafia boss in Buffalo, New York. By 1912, Palmeri stepped down, assuming the role of underboss which allowed Joseph DiCarlo to become the family's new boss.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: In 1921, Stefano Magaddino, an influential member of the Castellammarese clan, fled to Buffalo to avoid murder charges in Avon, New Jersey related to the death of Camillo Caizzo, the man who had killed Magaddino's brother Pietro. Magaddino had first immigrated to New York City from Castellammare del Golfo, Sicily, in 1902, and joined the Castellammarese clan in Brooklyn. The Castellammarese clan consisted of mobsters originating from Castellammare del Golfo, which included the Magaddino brothers and their cousins the Bonanno brothers. In 1922, Buffalo's crime family boss Joseph DiCarlo died and Magaddino quickly succeeded him as the new boss.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: The Buffalo crime family continued to gain power during the Prohibition era through bootlegging. In 1931, the family boss, Stefano Magaddino, became an original member of The Commission, the governing body of the American Mafia. Magaddino's strongest ally on the Commission was his cousin Joseph Bonanno; the two Mafia bosses were from the same Sicilian town of Castellammare del Golfo. The Commission decided in 1931 that Stefano Magaddino and his Buffalo family would control Ontario, Canada, and that Joseph Bonanno and his Bonanno family would control Quebec, Canada. The Buffalo family remained strong and relatively united until his leadership was challenged in the 1960s. It then split into factions as they tried to assassinate Magaddino.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: The internal war continued after Magaddino's death from natural causes on July 19, 1974 but ended in the early 1980s when Joseph Todaro Sr. became the boss.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: When Todaro Sr. took over the Buffalo family many members had been operating within the Laborers' International Union of North America Local 210 for years, while avoiding police scrutiny and continuing to operate illegal activities. In 1989, Joseph Todaro Sr. and his son Joseph Todaro Jr. were identified in an FBI gambling investigation as the leaders of the 45 made member Buffalo Mafia family. The FBI investigation claimed that Joseph Todaro Sr. and Joseph Todaro Jr. were in control of various criminal activities that included labor racketeering, bookmaking, loansharking and narcotics trafficking. It was also claimed that Joseph Todaro Jr. was running the Mafia family on behalf of his semi-retired father Joseph Todaro Sr. who was splitting time between his Tonawanda and Florida homes. The FBI stated that local 210 member Leonard F. Falzone controlled a loansharking operation for the Todaros and brothers Victor and Daniel Sansanese who were also members of local 210 controlled a bookmaking operation for the Todaros. It was also revealed that during the investigation the FBI had planted a recording device in Falzone's union-owned car in 1988, but that recording device was unable to provide any evidence linking the Todaros to any illegal gambling.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: The information provided by the listening device planted in Falzone's '87 Buick was responsible for the dismantling of Torina drug ring which was doing "more than $2 million in street sales of cocaine annually in the Buffalo area." Special Agent George Preston, chief of the DEA's Buffalo office told reporters, "This is a mob-controlled drug ring." G. Robert Langford, special agent in charge of the Buffalo FBI office said, "Conversations overheard in the car of Leonard Falzone indicated that this drug operation was being directed by the mob hierarchy in Buffalo," although there was not enough evidence to charge Falzone or Todaro in the ongoing investigation at that time. Early arrests in this case included known mob associates: Joseph "Pepe" Cannizzaro, Albino "Sha-Sha" Principe, and Salvatore "Sam Naples" Napoli.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: The investigation into the Torina drug ring revealed Todaro and Falzone were "involved in a Las Vegas-to-Buffalo pipeline for cocaine and other illegal activities." On March 20, 1990, Las Vegas police arrested three Buffalo natives Louis Giambrone, Joseph Amoia and Lawrence Panero, all three were identified as associates of the Buffalo mob. Charles Torina, a Buffalo native who was described as a key link in the drug pipeline from Buffalo to Las Vegas, had previously worked as a pit boss in a Las Vegas casino.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: In 1990, Canadian police arrested 14 suspects in a drug ring that had connections to organized crime in Buffalo and Niagara Falls. According to a law enforcement official who spoke under the condition of anonymity, "Any drug activity or any organized-crime activity in St. Catharines, Hamilton and Niagara Falls must be approved by the Buffalo family." The mob families in those cities, and in Toronto, answer to Buffalo." Those arrested were described as associates of a Niagara Falls, New York, businessman named John Anticoli, who was serving a 10-year term in federal prison. Law enforcement told reporters that "two of the suspects are considered high-ranking members of a Hamilton organized-crime family under the indirect control of the Buffalo mob." Anticoli was described by the FBI as "one of the biggest drug dealers ever arrested in Western New York." He pleaded guilty to possessing 270 pounds of marijuana, conspiracy to distribute cocaine, tax evasion, and failure to pay taxes on cocaine profits. Of the 14 suspects arrested, Carmen Barillaro, Nicodemo Bruzzese, and Dominic Vaccaro were said to be "made members" of a Hamilton-based Mafia family that reports to Buffalo organized crime leaders.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: In 1996, Joseph Todaro Sr. and his son Joseph Todaro Jr. were listed among 24 alleged organized crime figures who were accused of influencing the Laborers International Union of North America since the 1960s. The Laborers local 210 forced Joseph A. Todaro Jr., Frank Bifulco, Salvatore Cardinale, John Catanzaro, Leonard Falzone, Sam Frangiamore, Bart Mazzara, Robert Panaro, Donald Panepinto, John A. Pieri, Joseph R. Pieri, Charles Pusateri, Joseph Rosato, Danny Sansanese Jr., Victor Sansanese, Louis Sicurella and Vincent "Jimmy" Sicurella out of the union.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: In late 1996, the Buffalo family, along with the Los Angeles crime family, joined forces to take over a loan sharking and auto insurance fraud racket in Las Vegas controlled by Herbert Blitzstein, a Chicago Outfit associate. The L.A. Underboss Carmen Milano, along with L.A. soldiers Stephen Cino and Louis Caruso and L.A associates Johnny Branco and Peter Caruso, originally planned to rob and steal Herbert Blitzstein's jewelry. After robbing Blitzstein, the L.A. mobsters planned to have Buffalo family soldier Robert "Bobby" Panaro fence the stolen jewelry. Carmen Milano decided that Buffalo family boss Joseph Todaro Sr. would receive a piece of Blitzstein's Las Vegas rackets. The job of robbing Blitzstein was given to Peter Caruso, but Caruso changed the plan and decided to murder Blitzstein and take over his Las Vegas operations. On January 6, 1997, L.A. associates Antonio Davi and Richard Friedman shot and killed Blitzstein in his own home.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: In 1997, the Buffalo family's Canadian faction boss Johnny Papalia and his lieutenant Carmen Barillaro were murdered by Kenneth Murdock. When the police arrested Kenneth Murdock in 1999, he decided to become a government witness. Murdock told authorities that he was ordered by brothers Pasquale "Pat" Musitano and Angelo Musitano of the Musitano crew to murder both Johnny Papalia and Carmen Barillaro. According to Murdock, the Musitano brothers had been fed up with being a satellite (crew) of the Buffalo family and having to pay tribute money to the family. Murdock also claimed that he was waiting for Pat Musitano to approve the murders of four Luppino crew members, Natale Luppino and Vincenzo Luppino (the two sons of Giacomo Luppino) and Domenic Violi and Giuseppe Violi (the two sons of Paolo Violi). Also revealed by Murdock was that Pat Musitano had discussed with Quebec Mafia boss Vito Rizzuto and Gaetano Panepinto about Rizzuto investing in Ontario. The Canadian intelligence agencies had observed meetings in October 22–23, 1997, between Pat Musitano and Vito Rizzuto, which become more significant after the deaths of Johnny Papalia and Carmen Barillaro. Eventually, these agencies were convinced that the Musitano brothers did not act alone in the murders of Johnny Papalia, Carmen Barillaro, and Enio Mora.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: In 1998, these factors led Lee Coppola, veteran organized crime reporter for "The Buffalo News," to write an article titled "The Withered Arm." In it he stated: "Today’s Buffalo mob—disorganized and all but penniless—is a far cry from its heyday" and that the "last visible remnants of mob power in Buffalo disappeared." However, Coppola's pronouncement was premature.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: A 1999 article reported that Canadian intelligence indicated a new "crime lord" linked to the "powerful Todaro crime family" had been installed over the Golden Horseshoe region of Ontario. According to CISC intelligence, the new, yet unidentified, Buffalo boss had a strong relationship with outlaw bikers, unlike his predecessor Johny Papalia, who refused to work with them. As a result of this new, yet shaky, alliance, organized crime expert Detective Sergeant Peter Polcetti of the CISC said: "The Todaro family now controls Niagara, Hamilton, Toronto and Montreal." Gerald "Skinny" Ward was a locally powerful criminal in the Niagara Peninsula who purchased his cocaine from the Magaddino family, and in 1998 began his alliance with the Hells Angels. In 2000, Ward and his gang joined the Hells Angels. The police estimated in 2008 that Ward and the Niagara chapter of the Angels were responsible for selling about 75% of cocaine in the Niagara region. After the Hells Angels national president Walter Stadnick was arrested in 2001, Ward became one of the co-leaders of the Canadian Hells Angels.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: In 1999, Joseph E. Todaro Sr. along with his son Joseph A. Todaro Jr. and 16 others were named in a civil racketeering lawsuit for controlling local 210 through the years by various racketeering acts. The court complaint identified Joseph E. Todaro Sr. as boss and his son Joseph A. Todaro Jr. as underboss of the Buffalo family and the owners of La Nova Pizzeria. Todaro Sr., never belonged to local 210, but his son Todaro Jr. served as Local 210 business manager in 1990 before resigning. The charges were based on the testimony of Ronald M. Fino, a former business manager of Local 210 before he became an FBI informant.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: Over the course of the later part of the 20th century and the first part of the 21st, the Buffalo crime family declined in influence. Factors included older members slowly turning away from the organization, younger Italian-Americans showing no interest in its operations, an 11-year federal operation that forced the family out of Local 210 between 1995 and 2006, introduction of the New York Lottery depriving the family of a major revenue source (illegal gambling revenue), and the rise of Joe Todaro Jr.'s legitimate pizzeria business.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: Todaro Sr. allegedly retired in 2006, leaving many in law enforcement to believe Leonard Falzone had taken his place. However, others thought Falzone was only acting as the "front boss" for the Todaros and that Joseph Todaro Jr. was the acting boss while his father became the senior statesman for the family.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: The FBI continued to release the crime family's organizational charts until at least 2006. The Niagara Falls Reporter indicated Leonard Falzone was promoted to the top spot after Joe Todaro Sr. reportedly stepped down in 2006. After the deaths of Todaro Sr. in 2012 and Benjamin "Sonny" Nicoletti in 2013, rumors swirled about who would lead the family. In 2012, Matt Gryta, crime reporter for The Buffalo News, said that many believe the family had "expanded into the new millennium through telemarketing, pump and dump stock scams and internet pornography with the 'family' expanding its operations nationwide." That same year, Dan Herbeck wrote an article about Ronald Fino called "Life after Local 210 for the FBI’s inside guy." The article indicated Fino was "skeptical of the Justice Department’s claims that mob influences were totally removed from Local 210 and the Laborers international." Ronald believed the federal trusteeship the government established to clean the union "didn’t go far enough." Additionally, "The Toronto Star"s organized crime reporter Peter Edwards indicated that in 2013 the Buffalo Crime Family was seeking to revive itself from recent losses through loansharking at the Casino Niagara in Canada on the American border.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: In the late 2000s news broke about a homeowner association (HOA) scam alleged to have ties to the Buffalo mob. A witness told the FBI that the Silver Lining Construction company was controlled by the New York Mob and that its owner, Leon Benzer, thought of himself as a "Soprano" because of his association with attorney John V. Spilotro the nephew of Vegas mobster Tony Spilotro. "Investigators also disclosed a key player in one of the HOA takeovers," was Paul Citelli, who "was known to have ties to the Buffalo mob." According to George Knapp I-Team reporter for CBS news affiliate KLAS NewsNow channel 8 in Vegas the FBI said Citelli "is affiliated with the Buffalo mob." Joseph Bravo, another defendant in this HOA scam, was indicted with Paul Citelli for being a part of a Las Vegas to Niagara Falls cocaine trafficking ring run by the Buffalo mob from the late 1980s to mid 1990s when it was considered "the dominant La Cosa Nostra family on the streets of Las Vegas."


title: Buffalo crime family

text: In March 2017, nearly 20 years after Coppola's article "The Withered Arm", Dan Herbeck wrote a similar piece titled "The Mafia is all but dead in Western New York". In it the FBI field office in Buffalo stated that only "scattered remnants that are no longer believed to be active or organized remain." The piece also highlighted many of the same factors that Coppola's 1998 article cited for the decline of the Buffalo crime family.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: However, arrests by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police in Project OTremens indicate the pronouncements about the Buffalo Crime Family's demise were overstated. In November 2017 the FBI and Canadian newspapers indicated the family is still active.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: In November 2017, Giuseppe (Joe) and Domenico Violi, who have longstanding ties to the Buffalo Mob, were arrested on narcotics trafficking charges. These charges show a continuation of the long-established mafia drug trafficking triangle from Toronto/Hamilton, Ontario to Buffalo and Montreal to New York City established by Stefano Magaddino and his cousin, Joseph Bonanno. Michael McGarrity of the FBI said the Otremens operation "unearthed and dug up the roots of a partnership extending from New York City to Buffalo and Toronto to Montreal, proving once again that Italian organized crime groups have evolved far beyond the neighbourhood cliques of days gone by."


title: Buffalo crime family

text: Additionally, Peter Edwards in "The Toronto Star" wrote, "The arrests also hit members of the Buffalo crime family headed by the late Joe Todaro." The US Department of Justice said that Canadian law enforcement authorities had arrested various members and associates of the Bonanno, Gambino, and Todaro crime families on charges that include narcotics trafficking. In response to these arrests, Canadian journalist Adrian Humphries wrote:


title: Buffalo crime family

text: Among those arrested in Canada are members of the Todaro organized crime family, based in Buffalo, according to U.S. authorities. The Todaro crime group was built by the now-deceased Joseph Todaro Sr., who took over the Buffalo Mafia once led by the influential boss Stefano (The Undertaker) Magaddino.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: Further, in September 2018 Peter Edward reported that "the Buffalo Mob isn't dead, despite some media reports." According to his article the Buffalo/Todaro Crime family is strong enough to call the shots in the recent mob war between the Musitano and other crime families in the Hamilton underworld. This article reports:


title: Buffalo crime family

text: Reporters allege that Al Iavarone of Ancaster was killed in September 2018 in retaliation for the May 2017 murder of Angelo Musitano. Rumors circulated that the murder was related to "an unpaid debt and rivalries between Niagara mobsters and influence from the Buffalo mob." Revenge was another reason for Angelo's death. James Dubro indicates this hit wasn't just approved by the Buffalo crime family, but ordered by Domenico Violi, later to be revealed as the Buffalo mafia's underboss. Angelo's murder occurred "20 years to the month" after Musitano hitman Kenneth Murdock killed Johnny "Pops" Papalia (the long time Buffalo mob captain and head of the Papalia crime family) and his right-hand man Carman Barillaro (a Buffalo and Papalia crime family soldier).


title: Buffalo crime family

text: Additionally, the "Toronto Sun" claims that the current mob war in Southern Ontario has its roots in the mob conflict that had Paolo Violi and his brothers Francesco & Rocco (Domenico "Dom" and Giuseppe "Joe" Violi's dad and uncles) murdered in Montreal during the late 1970s by the Rizzuto crime family. This was suggested as early as 2010 when "Globe and Mail" article stated, "A general picture is emerging of the power struggle overwhelming the Rizzutos. It's likely that Calabrese families, largely based in Toronto and backed by big players in New York State, are seizing control after the Rizzutos pushed them aside." In 2019 Brad Hunter explained, "It may have taken years but the Violi family were not going to let sleeping dogs lie." Nicolo Rizzuto Jr. was gunned down on December 28, 2009, followed by the disappearance of his brother-in-law Paolo Renda on May 10, 2010. Renda was the Rizutto crime family consigliere at the time of his murder. Finally, Nicolo Rizzuto Sr. was killed by a sniper on November 10, 2010.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: Dr. Anna Sergi (lecturer in criminology at the Department of Sociology, University of Essex, United Kingdom, and deputy director of the Centre for Criminology) confirms the Otremens operation which resulted in the Violi brothers' arrests, indicates New York crime families are using drug trafficking routes they established long ago and that these families are being "reinvigorated" by their long established working relationships with the Calabrian mafia in Canada. However, her article calls into question the current affiliation of the Todaro Crime Family in Buffalo. She indicates it is a "Crime Syndicate" formerly aligned with the LCN (La Cosa Nostra) families of New York. See chart in linked article: New York Crime Families Survive and Collaborate.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: On December 3, 2018, Domenico Violi was sentenced to eight years in prison for his role in the mob drug trafficking ring unearthed by Project OTremens. During the investigation, police listened in as the agent and Violi discussed a variety of criminal activity and profit-making opportunities. Violi trafficked approximately 260,000 pills (including PCP, MDMA and meth) to the undercover RCMP agent for more than US$416,000 during which the agent was officially inducted as a "made" member of the Bonanno crime family in Canada. He also received another US$24,000 as his cut of the profit. Wiretaps indicated Violi was made the underboss of the Buffalo crime family by boss Joseph Todaro Jr. in October 2017 in a meeting in Florida; the first Canadian to hold the second-highest position in the American Mafia. After being promoted to underboss, Violi is heard on wiretaps boasting that "he had beaten out 30 other people for the position," indicating the Buffalo family had at least 30 made men, which included Canadian members such as the Violi brothers' uncles, Natale and Rocco Luppino. In his new role, Violi was to "assume control over the operations of the Luppino-Violi crime family and solidify his power base with further and greater collaboration with the New York-based Mafia families." The wiretaps also revealed the activity of The Commission (the governing body of the American Mafia), as Violi's promotion was so unusual that Buffalo crime family boss, Joe Todaro Jr., consulted with The Commission for permission to promote him as Buffalo's new underboss.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: On January 30, 2019, Cece Luppino, the son of Rocco Luppino, and grandson of Giacomo Luppino, was killed at his parents' Hamilton home. According to wiretaps from the Violi brothers' case, Giuseppe Violi told the undercover agent back in February 2015 that Cece Luppino had been approached about becoming a made member, but Cece had told his father that if he could make money he would be involved, but if not, he doesn't want to be involved; "that there are too many headaches". Hamilton Police have extended their search for Luppino's killer across the Canadian border into the United States, asking Buffalo area police and news agencies to disseminate pictures of the suspect taken from surveillance cameras.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: An attempt on Pasquale "Pat" Musitano's life was made outside the office of his lawyer, Joseph Irving, in Mississauga on the morning of April 25, 2019. According to reports Pat was shot four times, once in the head. The "Buffalo News" indicated that Musitano "had organized crime enemies in Montreal and Buffalo" and that crime reporter "Peter Edwards said, he was more convinced than ever that the Buffalo mob was a player in the shooting" after "a source kept repeating 'Buffalo' over and over while talking about the incident." Additionally, the CBC News in Canada reported Buffalo underboss Domenico Violi was recorded by a police informant in September 2017 as saying the murder of Angelo Musitano was meant to be a message to his brother Pat and that before Christmas Pat "would be gone" and that would be "one headache out of the way." On July 10, 2020, Pat Musitano was shot to death in Burlington.


title: Buffalo crime family

text: In 2020, the FBI and Royal Canadian Mounted Police reported that the murder of Albert Iavarone on September 13, 2018, is linked to the ongoing Mafia war in Hamilton, Canada. It was reported that Iavarone had been associated with the Musitano crime family bosses Angelo Musitano and Pasquale Musitano, before they were both assassinated. The investigation revealed that New York City mobsters arranged with Los Angeles family boss Tommy Gambino to induct Iavarone into Los Angeles family in 2017. The New York City mobsters wanted Iavarone to be a liaison between the U.S. and the Ontario crime group which upset members of the Buffalo family who oversee criminal activities in Western New York and Hamilton Canada.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Adolf Josef Ferdinand Galland (19 March 1912 – 9 February 1996) was a German Luftwaffe general and flying ace who served throughout the Second World War in Europe. He flew 705 combat missions, and fought on the Western Front and in the Defence of the Reich. On four occasions, he survived being shot down, and he was credited with 104 aerial victories, all of them against the Western Allies.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Galland, who was born in Westerholt, Westphalia became a glider pilot in 1929 before he joined the Luft Hansa. In 1932, he graduated as a pilot at the "Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule" (German Commercial Flyers' School) in Braunschweig before applying to join the Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic later in the year. Galland's application was accepted, but he never took up the offer. In February 1934, he was transferred to the Luftwaffe. In 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, he volunteered for the Condor Legion and flew ground attack missions in support of the Nationalists under Francisco Franco. After finishing his tour in 1938 Galland was employed in the Air Ministry writing doctrinal and technical manuals about his experiences as a ground-attack pilot. During this period Galland served as an instructor for ground-attack units. During the German invasion of Poland in September 1939, he again flew ground attack missions. In early 1940, Galland managed to persuade his superiors to allow him to become a fighter pilot.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Galland flew Messerschmitt Bf 109s during the Battle of France and the Battle of Britain. By the end of 1940, his tally of victories had reached 57. In 1941, Galland stayed in France and fought the Royal Air Force (RAF) over the English Channel and Northern France. By November 1941, his tally had increased to 96, by which time he had earned the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords. In November 1941, Werner Mölders, who commanded the German Fighter Force as the "General der Jagdflieger", was killed while a passenger in a flying accident and Galland succeeded him, staying in the position until January 1945. As "General der Jagdflieger", Galland was forbidden to fly combat missions.


title: Adolf Galland

text: In late January and early February 1942, Galland first planned and then commanded the Luftwaffe's air cover for the "Kriegsmarine" Operation Cerberus, which was a major success. It earned him the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds. Over the ensuing years, Galland's disagreements with "Reichsmarschall" Hermann Göring about how best to combat the Allied Air Forces bombing of Germany caused their relationship to deteriorate. The Luftwaffe fighter force was under severe pressure by 1944, and Galland was blamed by Göring for the failure to prevent the Allied strategic bombing of Germany in daylight. The relationship collapsed altogether in early January 1945, when Galland was relieved of his command because of his constant criticism of the Luftwaffe leadership. Galland was then put under house arrest following the so-called Fighter Pilots' Revolt, in which senior fighter pilots confronted Göring about the conduct of the air war.


title: Adolf Galland

text: In March 1945, Galland returned to operational flying and was permitted to form a jet fighter unit which he called Jagdverband 44. He flew missions over Germany until the end of the war in May. After the war, Galland was employed by Argentina's Government and acted as a consultant to the Argentine Air Force. Later, he returned to Germany and managed his own business. Galland also became friends with many former enemies, such as RAF aces Robert Stanford Tuck and Douglas Bader. Adolf Galland died on 9 February 1996.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Galland was born in Westerholt (now Herten), Westphalia on 19 March 1912 to a family with French Huguenot ancestry. The first Galland in Westerholt was a refugee from France in 1792 from Veynes. He became a bailiff to the count von Westerholt, beginning a tradition that was handed down from father to son. Adolf Galland (junior) was the second of four sons of Adolf Galland (senior) and his French wife Anna, née Schipper. Upholding the family tradition, Galland (senior) worked as the land manager or bailiff to the Count von Westerholt. Galland's older brother was Fritz and his two younger brothers were Wilhelm-Ferdinand and Paul. Their father had pet names for all his family members. His wife Anna was called "Anita". Fritz, his older brother, was called "Toby", Adolf was "Keffer", Wilhelm-Ferdinand was nicknamed "Wutz" and Paul was called "Paulinchen" or since they were expecting a girl, occasionally "Paula".


title: Adolf Galland

text: His two younger brothers also became fighter pilots and aces. Paul claimed 17 victories, before being shot down and killed on 31 October 1942. Wilhelm-Ferdinand, credited with 55 victories, was shot down and killed on 17 August 1943.


title: Adolf Galland

text: In 1927, Galland's lifelong interest in flying started when a group of aviation enthusiasts brought a glider club to Borkenberge, a heath east of the Haltern-Münster railway and part of the Westerholt estate. It was here that the "Gelsenkirchen Luftsportverein" (Air Sports Club of Gelsenkirchen) created an interest in flying among young Germans. Galland travelled by foot or horse-drawn wagon until his father bought him a motorcycle to help prepare the gliders for flight. By 19 Galland was a glider pilot. In 1932 he completed pilot training at the "Gelsenkirchen Luftsportverein".


title: Adolf Galland

text: Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was denied an air force. They were however allowed gliders and it became the way for fledgling pilots to begin their flying career. The sport became so popular that the Reichswehr set up ten schools, at least one in each of the seven military districts of Germany. The military also published a magazine, Flugsport (Flight Sport), to encourage an interest in aviation and began a series of glider competitions around the country. Galland had learned the basic laws of flight and how everything worked on paper but he found they did not always work in reality and his inexperience caused a few accidents. One of his tutors, Georg Ismer, taught him various techniques and in 1929 the 17-year-old Galland passed his A certificate. This was one of three certificates he needed for his professional license. When he eventually attained his B and C certificates, his father promised to buy him his own glider if he also passed his matriculations examinations, which he succeeded in doing. Galland became an outstanding glider pilot; he became an instructor before he had passed his "Abitur".


title: Adolf Galland

text: In February 1932, Galland graduated from Hindenburg Gymnasium (high school) in Buer and was among 20 personnel who were accepted to the aviation school of Germany's national airline, Luft Hansa. During the final years of the Weimar Republic, jobs were scarce and life was hard for the Galland family economically. Adolf had some experience of flying gliders so he applied to the "Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule" or DVS (German Commercial Flying School) which was heavily subsidised by Luft Hansa. He was one of 100 successful applicants out of 4,000. After ten days of evaluations, he was among just 18 selected for flight training. Adolf was then assessed on performance. Those that did not reach the standard were sent home.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Galland's first flight was in an Albatros L 101. Galland had two notable accidents; a heavy landing damaged the undercarriage of his aircraft and a collision. Galland was judged to have employed poor formation tactics in the latter incident. Galland applied to join the German Army in the belief he had failed to pass. In the meantime, he carried on with his flight training. Flights in an Albatros L 75 and the award of a B1 certificate allowed him to fly large aircraft over in weight. He discovered the Army accepted his application, but the flying school refused to release him. By Christmas 1932, he had logged 150 hours flying and had obtained a B2 certificate.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Early in 1933, Galland was sent to the Baltic Sea training base at Warnemünde to train on flying boats. Galland disliked learning what he perceived to be "seamanship", but logged 25 hours in these aircraft. Soon afterward, along with several other pilots, he was ordered to attend an interview at the "Zentrale der Verkehrsflieger Schule" (ZVSCentral Airline Pilot School). The group were interviewed by military personnel in civilian clothing. After being informed of a secret military training program being built that involved piloting high performance aircraft, all the pilots accepted an invitation to join the organisation.


title: Adolf Galland

text: In May 1933, Galland was ordered to a meeting in Berlin as one of 12 civilian pilots among 70 airmen who came from clandestine programmes, meeting Hermann Göring for the first time. Galland was impressed by Göring, and believed him to be a competent leader. In July 1933, Galland travelled to Italy to train with the "Regia Aeronautica" (Italian Air Force).


title: Adolf Galland

text: In September 1933, Galland returned to Germany and flew in some minor competitions as a glider pilot, winning some prizes. Soon afterwards he returned to the ZVS to learn instrument flying and receive training in piloting heavy transport aircraft logging another 50 hours. As a part of his training, beginning in October 1933, Galland flew "Lufthansa" airliners. Flying the Junkers G24 from Stuttgart to Barcelona in Spain, via Geneva and Marseilles. In December 1933, Galland was recalled to the ZVS headquarters and offered the chance to join the new Luftwaffe. Galland found the choice hard. He wanted the adventure of a military flying career, but as an airline pilot, Galland had enjoyed the life style of flying and visiting exotic places and was reluctant to give it up. Nevertheless, he decided to officially join the Luftwaffe.


title: Adolf Galland

text: After basic training in the Army, he was discharged from his barracks in Dresden in October 1934. In February 1935 Galland was now part of 900 airmen waiting to be inducted to the new "ReichsLuftwaffe". In March Galland was ordered to report to "Jagdgeschwader" 2 (Fighter Wing 2), arriving at its headquarters in Jüterbog-Damm on 1 April 1935. Galland's performance had not yet been impressive enough for a position as an instructor, so he was evaluated and deemed good enough for an operational posting.


title: Adolf Galland

text: In October 1935, during aerobatic manoeuvre training, he crashed a Focke-Wulf Fw 44 biplane and was in a coma for three days, other injuries were a damaged eye, fractured skull and broken nose. When Galland recovered, he was declared unfit for flying by the doctors. A friend, Major Rheital, kept the doctors report secret to allow Adolf to continue flying. The expansion of the Luftwaffe and his own "Geschwader" (wing) flooded the administration officers and Galland's medical report was overlooked. Within a year, Galland showed no signs of injury from his crash. In October 1936 he crashed an Arado Ar 68 and was hospitalised again, aggravating his injured eye. It was at this point his previous medical report came to light again and Galland's unfit certificate was discovered. Major Rheital was rumoured to have undergone a court-martial, but the investigators dropped the charges. Galland, however, was grounded. He admitted having fragments of glass in his eye, but convinced the doctors he was fit for flying duty. Galland was ordered to undergo eye tests to validate his claims. Before the testing could begin, one of his brothers managed to acquire the charts. Adolf memorised the charts passing the test and was permitted to fly again.


title: Adolf Galland

text: During the Spanish Civil War, Galland was appointed "Staffelkapitän" of a Condor Legion unit, 3. "Staffel" of "Jagdgruppe" 88 (J/88 – 88th Fighter Group), which was sent to support the Nationalist side under Franco at Ferrol from mid-1937. Galland flew ground attack missions in Heinkel He 51s.


title: Adolf Galland

text: In Spain, Galland first displayed his unique style: flying in swimming trunks with a cigar between his teeth in an aircraft decorated with a Mickey Mouse figure. When asked why he developed this style, he gave a simple answer:


title: Adolf Galland

text: Galland flew his first of 300 combat missions in Spain with the J/88 commander Gotthard Handrick, on 24 July 1937, near Brunete. During his time in Spain, Galland analysed the engagements, evaluated techniques and devised new ground-attack tactics which were passed on to the Luftwaffe. His experiences in pin-point ground assaults were used by Ernst Udet, a proponent of the dive bomber and leading supporter of the Junkers Ju 87 to push for "Stuka" wings. Wolfram von Richthofen, an opponent of Udet's, used them to push for the opposite: "Schlachtflieger" dual combination fighter-bombers. After trials with Henschel Hs 123s, Bf 109s and Ju 87s, the Junkers was selected to undergo trials for the dive bomber role.


title: Adolf Galland

text: During his time in Spain, he developed early gasoline and oil bombs, suggested the quartering of personnel on trains to aid in relocation, and following the Nationalist victory was awarded the ‘Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds' for his contributions. On 24 May 1938 Galland left Spain and was replaced by Werner Mölders. Before leaving he made ten flights in the Bf 109; deeply impressed with the performance of the aircraft, it persuaded him to change from a strike pilot to a fighter pilot. Galland's fellow student and friend at the "Kriegsschule" in Dresden, Johannes Janke, later said of him "a very good pilot and excellent shot, but ambitious and he wanted to get noticed. A parvenu. He was crazy about hunting anything, from a sparrow to a man."


title: Adolf Galland

text: From May to August 1938, Galland took leave and visited Spanish Morocco. On his return to Germany, he was ordered to the headquarters of the "Reichsluftfahrtministerium" (RLM – Ministry of Aviation) where he was tasked with preparing recommendations on the subject of close air support. Galland favoured the virtually simultaneous attack of the air force before the Army advance, leaving their opponents no time to recover. While this reasserted the lessons of World War I, some of the Officer Corps were still pessimistic as to whether that kind of coordination was possible. Galland also adopted the Italian suggestion of heavy armament and criticised the light machine guns in early German fighter aircraft and pointed to the advantages of multi-gun configurations (combining machine guns with cannon). These proved successful in the Bf 109 and Focke-Wulf Fw 190. He also recognised the innovation of drop tanks to extend the range of aircraft as well as the need for specialised tactics for escorting bomber fleets; Galland did not subscribe to the prevailing idea in the Luftwaffe (and RAF) that the bomber "would always get through" (alone). All of Galland's suggestions were adopted and proved successful in the early campaigns, 1939–41. During his time in the RLM, he instructed, trained and equipped ground-support wings for Fall Grün (Case Green), the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1938. However, the invasion did not take place.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Unluckily for Galland, his excellence at evaluation earned him a place at Tutow training facility where he was asked to test fly prototype reconnaissance and strike aircraft. This was not what he wanted, and he hoped to be returned to a fighter unit to fly the Bf 109. During his time there, he gave positive evaluations on types such as the Focke-Wulf Fw 189 and Henschel Hs 129. During his test piloting career at Tutow, Galland received unwelcome news; he was to become "Gruppenkommandeur" of II.(Schlacht)/"Lehrgeschwader" 2 (II.(S)/LG 2 – 2nd battle group of the 2nd Demonstration Wing). It was not a fighter unit, but a special mixed "Geschwader" of ground attack aircraft.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Just before the outbreak of war, Galland was promoted to "Hauptmann". During the invasion of Poland from 1 September 1939 onward, he flew with 4 "Staffel", II./"Lehrgeschwader" 2. Equipped with the Henschel Hs 123, nicknamed the "biplane Stuka," supporting the German Tenth Army. On 1 September, Galland flew alone in a Fieseler Fi 156 'Storch' on a reconnaissance mission and was nearly shot down. The next day he flew ground attack missions in support of the 1st "Panzer Division" advancing to the Warta River. Galland's "Geschwader" flew intensive sorties in support of the division and XVI Army Corps at Kraków, Radom, Dęblin and L'vov. The German Army had reached the Vistula river near Warsaw by 7 September. and the Luftwaffe had been executing the kind of close air support operations Galland had been advocating. Galland participated in the maximum effort by the Luftwaffe during the Battle of Bzura. On 11 September, during one of his visits to the front, Adolf Hitler arrived at LG 2 headquarters for lunch with the staff. Such was the state of the Polish Air Force and Polish Army, that by 19 September 1939 some German air units were withdrawn from the campaign. Galland ceased combat operations on this date, having flown 87 missions. After flying nearly 360 missions in two wars and averaging two missions per day, on 13 September 1939, Galland was awarded the Iron Cross Second Class.


title: Adolf Galland

text: After the end of the campaign, Galland claimed to be suffering from rheumatism and therefore unfit for flying in open-cockpit aircraft, such as the Hs 123. He tactfully suggested a transfer to a single-engine aircraft type with a closed cockpit would improve his condition. His request was accepted on medical grounds. Galland was removed from his post as a direct ground support pilot. Galland never explained whether open cockpits had caused the complaint or some other cause; given his performance with eye specialists, a certain amount of suspicion is reasonable. He was transferred to ""Jagdgeschwader" 27" (JG 27—Fighter Wing 27) on 10 February 1940 as the adjutant, restricting him from flying.


title: Adolf Galland

text: After his transfer to JG 27, Galland met Mölders again. Due to his injuries, Galland could never match Mölders' sharp eyesight; the shards of glass in his eyes denied him that capacity. However, Mölders, by that time a recognised ace shared what experiences he could with Galland; leadership in the air, tactics and organisation. Mölders was "Geschwaderkommodore" of "Jagdgeschwader" 53 at the time of their meeting. For Galland to gain experience on the Bf 109E, which he lacked, Mölders offered him the chance to join his unit. Galland learned Mölders' tactics, such as using spotter aircraft to indicate the position of enemy formation. Galland learned to allow a "Staffel" to operate freely in order to seize the initiative. Taking his experiences back to JG 27, its commander Max Ibel, agreed to their implementation. Galland gained further experience as a combat leader acting as "Gruppenkommandeur", when the officer commanding went on leave.


title: Adolf Galland

text: On 10 May 1940, the "Wehrmacht" invaded the Low Countries and France under the codename Fall Gelb. JG 27 supported German forces in the Battle for Belgium. On the third day of the offensive, 12 May 1940, west of Liège, Belgium, at a height of about , flying a Messerschmitt Bf 109, Galland, with Gustav Rödel as his wingman, claimed his first aerial victories, over two Royal Air Force (RAF) Hawker Hurricanes. Both aircraft were from No. 87 Squadron. The Hurricanes had been escorting Bristol Blenheim bombers to bomb bridges in the Netherlands. Galland remembered; "My first kill was child's play. An excellent weapon and luck had been on my side. To be successful, the best fighter pilot needs both"— Galland pursued one of the "scattering" Hurricanes and shot down another at low level. The pilot, a Canadian, Flying Officer Jack Campbell was killed.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Galland claimed his third Hurricane later that same day over Tienen. He had long believed that his opponents had been Belgian, not knowing that all of the Belgian Air Force's Hurricanes had been destroyed on the ground in the first two days, without seeing combat. On 19 May, Galland shot down a French Potez aircraft. During this flight he ran out of fuel short of the runway and landed nearby, at the base of a hill. With the help of soldiers from a German Flak battery, he pushed the Bf 109 up the hill and then half-flew, half-glided down to the Charleville-Mézières airfield in the valley below. He sent back a can of fuel for his wingman, who had also landed short of the runway. He continued flying and the next day, claimed another three more aircraft, making a total of seven. For this he was awarded the Iron Cross First Class from Erhard Milch on 22 May.


title: Adolf Galland

text: With the effective defeat of Belgium JG 27 was moved into forward airfields to support the invasion of France. During the Battle of Dunkirk, after encountering the Supermarine Spitfire for the first time, Galland was impressed with these aircraft and their pilots. On 29 May, Galland claimed he had shot down a Bristol Blenheim over the sea. Over Dunkirk, the Luftwaffe suffered its first serious rebuff of the war. As


title: Adolf Galland

text: Galland has noted, the nature and style of the air battles over the beaches should have provided a warning as to the inherent weaknesses of the Luftwaffe's force structure. On 3 June during Operation Paula, he claimed another French aircraft, a Morane-Saulnier M.S.406 for his 12th victory.


title: Adolf Galland

text: On 6 June 1940, Galland took over the command of III./"Jagdgeschwader" 26 "Schlageter" (III./JG 26–3rd group of the 26th Fighter Wing) with the position of "Gruppenkommandeur". Under his command were the 7., 8. and 9. "Staffels" with an establishment of 39 Bf 109Es. His "Staffelkapitäns" included Joachim Müncheberg, Wilhelm Balthasar and Gerhard Schöpfel. Balthasar, "Staffelkapitän" of 7. "Staffel" had mistakenly attacked Galland during Fall Rot (Case Red). Being on the same radio frequency, Galland was able to warn Balthasar before he opened fire. The remainder of the campaign passed without incident and on 26 June, Major Gotthard Handrick took over command of JG 26. Galland was pleased, having served under him during his Condor Legion days.


title: Adolf Galland

text: From June 1940 on, Galland flew as the "Gruppenkommandeur" of III./JG 26 (JG 26), fighting in the Battle of Britain. On 19 July 1940, he was promoted to Major and JG 26 moved to the Pas de Calais, where they were to remain for the next 18 months with III./JG 26 based at Caffiers.


title: Adolf Galland

text: On 24 July 1940, almost 40 Bf 109s of III./JG 26 took off for operations over the English Channel—a phase of the battle known as the "Kanalkampf". They were met by 12 54 Squadron Spitfires. The Spitfires forced the larger number of Bf 109s into a turning battle that ran down the Germans' fuel. Galland recalled being impressed by the Spitfire's ability to outmanoeuvre Bf 109s at low speed and to turn into the Bf 109s within little airspace. Only by executing a "Split S" (a half-roll onto his back, followed by pulling into a long, curving dive) that the Spitfire could not follow without its float carburettor causing a temporary loss of engine power, could his aircraft escape back to France at low altitude. The II./"Jagdgeschwader" 52 covered their retreat, losing two Bf 109s to Spitfires from No. 610 Squadron. During the action, two Spitfires were shot down for the loss of four Bf 109s. Galland was shocked by the aggression shown by pilots he initially believed to be relatively inexperienced. Galland later said he realised there would be no quick and easy victory.


title: Adolf Galland

text: As the battles over the Channel continued, Galland shot down Spitfires on 25 and 28 July. On 1 August 1940, Galland was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross () for his 17 victories. Galland continued to make fighter sweeps over southern England before the main assault opened. On 11 August, Galland's unit engaged 74 Squadron. In a brief dogfight, one Spitfire was shot down. During these battles the RAF seemed to know just where and when to send their aircraft. This made Galland suspect a high level of organisation was at work controlling RAF fighters. The cloudy skies of Britain were a dangerous environment to confront an enemy that had an effective ground control system. Galland resolved to fly higher, where he could see most things and where the Bf 109 performed at its best.


title: Adolf Galland

text: By 15 August, in two weeks' fighting over Britain, Galland had increased his own tally to 21. On this day he claimed three Spitfires. This put him to within three victories of Mölders, who had claimed the highest number of enemy aircraft destroyed and who was wounded and grounded with a damaged knee. One of Galland's claims was against 54 Squadron RAF that had surprised him with their aggressive attacks three weeks before. JG 26 claimed nine Spitfires in the air battle—Galland himself filing a claim for a Spitfire at 12:55 off Folkestone. Only two 54 Squadron Spitfires were lost in the late-morning early afternoon battle. Galland's claim matches the loss of a Spitfire piloted by Sergeant N. A Lawrence who was rescued with severe shock. In the afternoon of that same day, Galland claimed two more Spitfires from 64 Squadron. JG 26 claimed eight of the unit's Spitfires which were all officially "confirmed" by the Germans. However, only two of the RAF fighters were hit and both were destroyed. Pilot Officer C. J. D Andreae was killed in "R6990" and R. Roberts bailed out of "K9964". Galland and his pilots remained ignorant of the disastrous losses suffered by other German units and the defeat of their attacks by the RAF.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Galland was summoned to "Karinhall" on 18 August 1940, and missed the intense air battle that day, known as The Hardest Day. During the meeting, Göring insisted that, in combat, Bf 109 fighters escort Bf 110s, which could not survive against single-engine fighters. As high-scoring aces, both Galland and Mölders shared their concerns that close escort of Bf 110s and bombers robbed fighter pilots of their freedom to roam and engage the enemy on their own terms. They also pointed to the fact that German bombers flew at medium altitudes and low speed, the best height area and speed for the manoeuvrability of the Spitfire. Galland resented his pilots having to carry out a task unsuited to their equipment but Göring would not move from his position. Galland claimed that fighting spirit was also affected when his pilots were tasked with close-escort missions:


title: Adolf Galland

text: The worst disadvantage of this type of escort was not aerodynamic but lay in its deep contradiction of the basic function of fighter aircraft—to use speed and maneuverability to seek, find, and destroy enemy aircraft, in this case, those of Fighter Command. The [Bf 109s] were bound to the bombers and could not leave until attacked, thus giving their opponent the advantage of surprise, initiative, superior altitude, greater speed, and above all fighting spirit, the aggressive attitude which marks all successful fighter pilots.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Galland returned to action on 22 August 1940, replacing Gotthard Handrick as "Geschwaderkommodore" of JG 26. Major Handrick was an ineffective and indecisive combat commander by some accounts and took a passive role in leading his fighter pilots. Göring grew frustrated with the lack of aggressiveness of several of his fighter-wing commanders, and on 22 August, he replaced Handrick with Adolf Galland.


title: Adolf Galland

text: In the aftermath of Galland's appointment, he became aware his pilots were dissatisfied with themselves, the bombers, and particularly the leadership. Galland could not change Göring's mind with respect to the escort fighter mission, but he did take immediate actions to improve pilot morale. The first thing Galland did as Kommodore was to replace ineffective group and squadron commanders with younger, more aggressive, and more successful—in terms of aerial engagements—officers in the wing. He also increased the wing staff flight from Handrick's two-aircraft formation to a more lethal four-fighter formation. Galland was not content to lead from behind as his predecessor had been. Galland flew as often as possible and led the most difficult missions in order to encourage his men and gain respect.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Galland's appointment made no impact on his successes. From 25 August until 14 September, Galland filed claims for victories 23–32. This included three claims on 31 August, for two Spitfires and a Hurricane to take his tally to 27. His 25th victim may have been from 19 Squadron which was claimed south of Cambridge at 09:42. Klaus Mietusch also accounted for one for his 7th victory. Three 19 Squadron Spitfires were shot down in the morning near North Weald. Pilot Officer R. A. C Aeberhardt was killed in a crash-landing in Spitfire "R6912" while Flying Officer T. J. B Coward was wounded in the foot and F.N Brinsden was unhurt. He bailed out of "R6958". On 6 September, Galland claimed his 30th victory over a 610 Squadron Hurricane. JG 26 claimed two more of them shot down that morning; 610 lost four Hurricanes; Flying Officer W. H. Rhodes-Moorehouse and C. R. Davis were killed while Flying Officer J. Toplnicki and Pilot Officer H. T. Gilbert were wounded.


title: Adolf Galland

text: During the battle, the fighter pilots were criticised by Göring for the growing bomber losses. In a front line general officer briefing on Luftwaffe tactics, Göring asked what his fighter pilots needed to win the battle. Werner Mölders replied that he would like the Bf 109 to be fitted with more powerful engines. Galland replied: "I should like an outfit of Spitfires for my squadron." which left Göring speechless with rage. Galland still preferred the Bf 109 for offensive sweeps, but he regarded the Spitfire as a better defensive fighter, owing to its manoeuvrability.


title: Adolf Galland

text: During the Battle of Britain, the question of killing enemy pilots while in their parachutes was raised. In another conversation with Göring, Galland recalled: "Göring wanted to know if we had ever thought about this. "Jawohl, Herr Reichsmarschall!" He looked me straight in the eyes and said, 'What would you think of an order to shoot down pilots who were bailing out?' 'I should regard it as murder, Herr Reichsmarschall', I told him, 'I should do everything in my power to disobey such an order'. 'That is just the reply I had expected from you, Galland.'" Galland later stated that he thought Göring may have been asking him this question so as to have an answer if the question was ever posed to him, as opposed to the implication that Göring would be in favour of such an action. In practice, this act of mercy was not applied. German airmen in parachutes were lost as prisoners of war, but British airmen could live to fight again and were considered combatants. Hugh Dowding, air officer commanding, detested the practice but in his view it conformed to the laws of war at the time.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Galland passed another serious test on 15 September, the date known as Battle of Britain Day. In large-scale clashes Galland claimed his 33rd air victory over a Hurricane while leading JG 26. Over the Thames Estuary, Galland fought an unsuccessful battle with eight Hurricanes which caused a loss of altitude to . Galland spotted two more Hurricanes below and attacked in a classic ambush style from the enemy's blind spot. His wingman claimed the other. The two fighters were from the Czechoslovak No. 310 Squadron RAF. Galland's victim, Sergeant J. Hubacek reported that he did not see his assailant. The other pilot also survived.


title: Adolf Galland

text: On 23 September, Galland became the third member of the "Wehrmacht" to receive the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves for achieving his 39th and 40th aerial victories. On 25 September, he was summoned to Berlin to receive the award from Adolf Hitler. Galland was granted a personal audience with Hitler and during the meeting Galland reported to Hitler that the British had proven tough opponents, and that there were signs of declining morale in the German fighter force in the absence of operational success. Hitler expressed his regret for the war with the "Anglo-Saxons", who he admired, but resolved to fight until total destruction.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Morale and exhaustion became a problem in September. The Luftwaffe lacked the pilots and aircraft to maintain a constant presence over Britain. To compensate, commanders demanded three to four sorties per day by the most experienced men. Galland recognised the manifest fatigue of his pilots. By the end of September, Galland noticed that "the stamina of the superbly trained and experienced original [cadre of pilots] was down to a point where operational efficiency was being impaired." Several factors contributed to this situation; Göring's interference with tactics without regard for the situation or the capabilities of German aircraft; rapid adaptation to German tactics by the British; the poorer quality replacement pilots to JG 26. This situation led to a conflict between the two significant psychological needs of the fighter pilots: confidence in their aircraft and tactics.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Galland innovated tactically to improve the situation and found a partial solution to Göring's irrational order to maintain close escort. He developed a flexible escort system that allowed his pilots constantly to change altitude, airspeed, direction, and distance to the bombers during these close-escort missions. The results were better and acceptable to his pilots. By the end of the Battle of Britain, JG 26 had gained a reputation as one of only two fighter wings that performed escort duties with consistently low losses to the bombers.


title: Adolf Galland

text: The fighter-bomber mission was also a problem Galland had to deal with. Göring was committed to fitting one-third of all fighter wings to use modified Bf 109s to carry bombs. Galland accepted the mission but damaged the morale he had cultivated. Galland's response to the situation was to develop tactics that mixed the bomb-laden Bf 109s with the fighter escort in an effort to deceive the enemy and confound their intercept plans. This tactic slowed down the fighter-bomber losses, but the pilots still felt as though they were being wasted. Galland's leadership still made several errors; Galland did not capitalise on training opportunities to improve the bombing accuracy of his pilots; he did not discipline those pilots who were prone to jettison their bombs early; he only participated as an escort, violating his own dictum of not asking the men to do something that he would not, while failing to convey to his men these missions were worthy of his attention. Galland's decision was even more difficult to understand given his service as a ground attack pilot.


title: Adolf Galland

text: The Battle of Britain continued with large-scale dogfights well past 31 October, considered by some historians as the end of the campaign. A further eight victories—six Spitfires and two Hurricanes—were claimed in October including three on 30 October, which took his tally to 50—the last two victims were claimed at 16:00 CET and were likely from 41 Squadron. Pilot Officer G. G. F. Draper was wounded and Sergeant L. A. Garvey was killed. On 15 November, Galland flew his 150th combat mission and the following day claimed his 53rd and 54th successes against No. 17 Squadron RAF. The accuracy of Galland's claims have been assessed, and one source asserts that 44 of his 54 claims can be verified through British records and five definitely could not be reconciled with RAF losses.


title: Adolf Galland

text: In November, a further six victories including four Hurricanes were accounted for – to raise his recorded victories to 51–56, putting him level with the late Helmut Wick, who had been shot down and killed on 28 November. On 5 December, Galland recorded his 57th victory. This made him the most successful fighter pilot of the war at that point, putting him ahead of his colleague, friend and rival Werner Mölders. Analysis conducted by James Corum found that the number of leading fighter pilots were small, but they shared special and indefinable qualities in piloting, particularly marksmanship, hunting skills and situational awareness. Corum found that during the Battle of Britain, Galland accounted for 14% of all JG 26's aerial successes, from a unit of around 120 pilots. Four of the wing's fighter pilots claimed an astounding 31% of all aircraft shot down.


title: Adolf Galland

text: In March 1941, Göring held a major conference for units in the west. After describing in detail the coming air offensive against Britain, he secretly admitted to Adolf Galland and Werner Mölders that "there's not a word of truth in it." The Luftwaffe was to transfer to the Eastern Front. Although only approximately two fighter wings remained in the west for the next year and a half, many of the best fighter crews remained in that theatre. Similarly, the best equipment went to the west; industry supplied the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 to the western theatre first. Small in numbers (no more than 180 aircraft), the western fighter forces were among the best in the Luftwaffe.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Now, promoted to "Oberstleutnant", he continued to lead JG 26 in 1941 against the RAF fighter sweeps across northern Europe. In early 1941, most of the Luftwaffes fighter units were sent to the Eastern Front, or south to the Mediterranean Theater of Operations (MTO), leaving only JG 26 and "Jagdgeschwader" 2 (JG 2) as the sole single-engine fighter "Geschwader" in France. By this time, JG 26 were being re-equipped with the new Bf 109F, normally equipped with a 15 mm (or later a 20 mm) cannon firing through the propeller hub and two cowl-mounted 7.9 mm MG 17. Galland felt the model was grossly under-armed and so tested a series of 109 "specials" – one with a unique armament of an MG 151/20 cannon and two cowl-mounted 13 mm MG 131 machine guns, and another with integral wing-mounted 20 mm MG FF cannons.


title: Adolf Galland

text: On 15 April 1941, Galland took off with lobster and champagne to celebrate General Theo Osterkamp's birthday at Le Touquet, France. He made a detour with his wingman towards England, looking for RAF aircraft. Off the cliffs of Dover, he spotted a group of Spitfires. Galland attacked and claimed two confirmed and one unconfirmed shot down. The actual result was the destruction of one Spitfire; the other two were damaged in forced landings with both pilots wounded. During the combat, Galland's undercarriage had dropped causing one of the RAF pilots (Flight Lieutenant Paddy Finucane) to claim Galland's aircraft as destroyed, but Galland landed without incident at Le Touquet and presented Osterkamp with his gifts. Galland's success that day represented his 60th and 61st aerial victory.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Galland received a telephone call from Göring on 10 May 1941, requesting Galland to intercept a Messerschmitt Bf 110 flown by Rudolf Hess heading for Scotland. Galland was unable to launch a full fighter sweep. However, Hess' flight was far to the north and he reached Scotland crashing his aircraft. Galland sent out fighters to conduct some sweeps so he could honestly claim to have carried out his orders but it was nearly dark and Galland ordered his pilots unused to night flying to stand down.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Galland continued his successes in the summer. On 13 June, he led a small number of Bf 109s on a patrol off the English coast and attacked a pair of No. 258 Squadron RAF Hurricanes claiming both shot down. One can be confirmed through British records as crash landing at RAF Hawkinge. It took his tally to 63. From this point on, the RAF mounted a non-stop offensive with Fighter Command over France. The Germans did not see the point in these operations and soon labeled it the "nonsense offensive." Galland intended to engage the British and inflict maximum damage while incurring small losses. To do this he only engaged JG 26 in "staffel" or "gruppe" strength. The fighters were to scramble quickly gain height and make use of the sun and cloud to attack the enemy formation that was most vulnerable. Under these tactics many JG 26 pilots began to emerge as aces and effective commanders. On 16 June 1941, for example, JG 26 accounted for 15 enemy aircraft. Josef Priller was among those to score bringing his tally to 22. Priller later rose to command JG 26. Galland claimed a Hurricane this day for victory number 64—though the loss cannot be confirmed in British records. On 17 June, he accounted for two Hurricanes, one from 56 and another from 242 Squadron. The following day he accounted for a No. 145 Squadron Spitfire which inflated his tally to 67—then the highest recorded tally against the Western Allies.


title: Adolf Galland

text: On the morning of 21 June, he accounted for two Bristol Blenheims but was shot down by the Spitfire escorts, crash-landing near Calais. At 16:00 that same afternoon, Galland shot down a No. 611 Squadron Spitfire, but watching his victim for too long, he was himself shot down in "Werknummer" (Factory number) 6713, code "<- + -", by a 145 Squadron Spitfire flown by Sergeant R.J.C. Grant. Galland bailed out and tugged at what he thought was his parachute ripcord, but was actually pulling at his parachute release harness. With a "sickening" feeling, he composed himself and pulled the ripcord which opened. Theo Osterkamp drove over to the hospital where Galland was being treated for his wounds and informed him his 69 victories had now earned him the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ().


title: Adolf Galland

text: On 2 July 1941, Galland led JG 26 into combat against a formation of No. 226 Squadron Blenheim bombers. Galland's fighter was hit by a 20 mm round from one of the bombers escort fighters. The armour plate fitted to the Bf 109 just days earlier saved Galland's life. Wounded in the head he managed to land and was again hospitalised for the second time in a few days. Just earlier that week, when the armour plate was installed, he severely berated his mechanic, Gerhard Meyer, who welded it in, when he hit his head on the canopy upon entering his aircraft. That same mechanic received "a grateful slap on the back". Galland had been shot up and shot down twice in the space of four days. The Blenheim brought his tally to 70.


title: Adolf Galland

text: On 9 August 1941, RAF ace Douglas Bader bailed out over St Omer, France. Bader was well known to the Luftwaffe and at the time of his capture had been credited with 22 aerial victories. Galland himself claimed two Spitfires on that date. Galland and JG 26 entertained Bader over the next few days. Owing to the significant stature of the prisoner, Galland permitted Bader, under escort, to sit in the cockpit of a Bf 109. Apparently, despite having lost one of his tin legs in the aircraft, Bader, in a semi-serious way, asked if they wouldn't mind if he took it on a test flight around the airfield. Galland replied that he feared Douglas would attempt to escape and they would have to give chase and shoot at each other again, and declined the request.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Throughout the summer, Galland claimed another 14 Spitfires in battles against Fighter Command over France. On 23 July 1941, he accounted for three Spitfires (Nos. 71–73)—one in the afternoon and two in the evening. JG 26 claimed 13 enemies for three losses under Galland's command this day. Two on 7 August was sufficient to reach 75 aerial victories. On 19 August, he claimed two Spitfires and one Hurricane to surpass the World War I ace Manfred von Richthofen's tally of 80. His 80th and 81st victims were from 111 and 71 Squadrons. Galland also flew the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 in the autumn 1941 when the "Geschwader" converted to the type though he retained and flew Bf 109s himself. On 21 October he repeated his successes with a trio of Spitfires to reach 92. Galland's opponents were No. 611 Squadron RAF Pilot Officers J F Reeves and N J Smith. Both men were killed, but Fighter Command reported their demise as a collision with each other during the dogfight.


title: Adolf Galland

text: His 96th victim—yet another Spitfire—was claimed on 18 November 1941. It proved to be his last official victory for three years as he was about to be forbidden to fly combat missions. The RAF fighter probably came from 611 Squadron.


title: Adolf Galland

text: In November 1941, he was chosen by Göring to command Germany's fighter force as "General der Jagdflieger", succeeding Werner Mölders who had just been killed in an air crash en route to attend the funeral of Ernst Udet. Galland was not enthusiastic about his promotion, seeing himself as a combat leader and not wanting to be "tied to a desk job". He was the youngest General in the armed forces.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Soon afterward, on 28 January 1942, Galland was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds () for his service as "Geschwaderkommodore" of JG 26. Although not keen on a staff position, soon after Galland's appointment, he planned and executed the German air superiority plan (Operation Donnerkeil) for the "Kriegsmarine"s (German navy, or War Marine) Operation Cerberus, from his headquarters at Jever. The German battleships , and heavy cruiser sailed from Brest, France, up the English Channel to Kiel, Germany. The operation caught the British off guard. The RAF attempted to intercept with the forces available, but the German fighter defences were able to shoot down 43 RAF aircraft with 247 British casualties. The Luftwaffe had prevented any damage on the ships by air attack.


title: Adolf Galland

text: A strong proponent of the day fighter force and the defence of Germany, Galland used his position to improve the position of the "Jagdwaffe". The need was now pressing, as Germany had declared war on the United States on 11 December 1941, and Galland was keen to build up a force that could withstand the resurgence of the Western Allied Air Forces in preparation for what became known as the Defence of the Reich campaign. Galland was outspoken, something that was not often tolerated by Göring. Yet, by earning and cultivating the support of other powerful personalities in the Luftwaffe, like Erhard Milch and Günther Korten, and personalities in the industrial sector such as Albert Speer and even Adolf Hitler, Galland was able to survive in his position for three years.


title: Adolf Galland

text: The Circus offensive of Fighter Command, now magnified by USAAF fighters in large numbers, had combined with Eighth Air Force's bomber operations to make Western Europe the critical theatre of air operations by


title: Adolf Galland

text: the late summer, 1943. Neither Göring nor many of his commanders expected this development. In January 1943 Göring suggested increases in the day fighter forces, but not because of concerns over Allied aircraft production, rather the emphasis was on fighters for the fighter-bomber mission. Galland, who was pushing for a major increase in his fighter force, did not appear to recognise the threat in the west at that time either. In January, he wrongly predicted that the main weight of the air war in 1943 would be the Mediterranean. The large fighter forces sent to Africa and Italy received support from Galland. Galland remarked in February 1943, that the fighter force had solved the problem of fighting four-engine bombers by day. Galland's confidence was misplaced; his airmen had not yet faced the hundreds of American bombers to fly over Germany in 1943, nor the thousands that joined the fight in 1944. Months later, Galland became one of the strongest advocates for more resources for Defence of the Reich duties.


title: Adolf Galland

text: The first major crisis for Galland's command, under his tenure, occurred in 1943. Galland had been supporting operations in the area since April 1943, but the Tunisian defeat caused a reorganisation of Axis air forces in the south. Luftflotte 2 was divided in two, with Luftflotte South East controlling the Balkans and a new Luftflotte 2 controlling Italy, Sardinia, Corsica, and Sicily. A general replacement of commanders also occurred. Wolfram von Richthofen arrived as Luftflotte 2 commander. Galland, went to Sicily to control fighter operations.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Galland's orders were to improve efficiency, morale and the supply of aircraft and pilots. Galland replaced the experienced Osterkamp as "JaFü Sizilien" (Fighter Leader Sicily) on 22 June after he had appointed his close associate Günther Lützow as "Inspekteur der Jadgflieger Süd" (Inspector of Fighter Pilots South) on 17 May. The challenge of a combat command was too tempting and Galland was "not" to prove a capable senior staff officer. Galland's failings delighted Richthofen who was content to allow Galland "enough rope to hang himself", which deflected attention from others.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Upon reaching the island, Galland found the state of German air forces shocking. The combat units were exhausted, short of spares, and under frequent attack—the 130 fighters on the island were the target. It was impossible to completely rebuild the squadrons. The resources available could not prevent the Allied air forces acting with impunity. Göring threatened to have one pilot from each unit stand trial by court martial, and if improvements were not forthcoming, they were to be sent as infantry to the Eastern Front. The commanders on the ground, recognising the true situation, disregarded the threat and the message. Specifically, Göring ordered pilots returning without claims and undamaged aircraft suffer court martial for cowardice. The threat was aimed at JG 77, which at the time was severely stretched. Galland parroted Göring's criticism. Under pressure from Göring, he also berated the wing which caused friction with the commanding officer Johannes Steinhoff.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Along with these changes, considerable reinforcements arrived. The number of fighters increased from 190 in mid-May to 450 in early July 1943. Close to 40 percent of all fighter production from 1 May to 15 July 1943 went to the Mediterranean Theatre and two new fighter wings, scheduled for Germany's defence, went south. The movement of fighters to redress Allied air superiority achieved only a rise in German losses, which reflected the superiority of Allied production. From 16 May to 9 July Allied forces flew 42,147 sorties and lost 250 aircraft to the Axis' 325 as the air offensive gradually rendered airfields in Sicily inoperable. The weak German bomber force made only a feeble attempt to support the defence of Sicily.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Losses too were high. In the first nine days of July 1943, Galland's command lost approximately 70 fighters. On the fourteenth day he was summoned to Berlin to explain the collapse of air defences on the island. As Galland departed the last dozen operational Axis aircraft departed Sicily on 22 July. Since the Allied invasion of Sicily, Galland had lost 273 German and 115 Italian aircraft and imposed a cost of only around 100 on Allied air forces.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Galland's position as "General der Jagdflieger" brought him into gradual conflict with Göring as the war continued. Galland was often at odds with Göring and Hitler on how to prosecute the air war. From 1942 to 1944, the German fighter forces on all fronts in the European Theatre of Operations (ETO) came under increasing pressure and Galland's relationship with Göring began to turn sour. The first distinct cracks began to appear in the spring of 1943. Galland suggested that the fighter forces defending Germany should limit the number of interceptions flown to allow sufficient time for re-grouping and to conserve air strength. Only by conserving its strength and its precious resources—the fighter pilots—could the Luftwaffe hope to inflict damage on the bombers. Göring found the suggestion unacceptable. He demanded every raid be countered in maximum strength regardless of the size of the Allied fighter escort. According to head of production and procurement Erhard Milch, who was also present at the meeting, "Göring just could not grasp it".


title: Adolf Galland

text: The combination of declining production and attrition left Galland with a thin resource-base with which to defend Germany. While the pressure eased somewhat in November, Galland and his command faced a formidable threat. The shadow of American escort fighters and the gradual extension of their range covered all of the zones occupied by German fighter units engaged in anti-bomber operations. By early October, German intelligence had reported that American fighters were accompanying bombers as far as Hamburg.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Several American fighter aircraft crashed near Aachen on the cusp of Germany's west border. Galland presented these wrecks as proof that the Luftwaffe was facing an enemy that could soon escort its heavy bombers with fighter aircraft to industrial targets inside Germany. Galland submitted his findings to Göring. Göring was livid with Galland and the fighter force. He called the report the "rantings of a worn-out defeatist", and gave Galland an "order", that no Allied fighters had crossed into Germany. Göring reasoned the only possible reason could have been that short range fighters ran out of fuel at high altitude and "they were shot down much further west... and glided quite a distance before they crashed." Galland questioned why an Allied pilot would choose to glide east instead of west. Both men also argued that they must increase fighter production to reach a three or fourfold advantage over the attackers immediately to prepare for this new threat. Göring even at this time, was biased in favour of bombers, to maintain the offensive on all fronts. It was a policy he persisted with until the autumn, 1943.


title: Adolf Galland

text: By October 1943, the fractious relationship came to the surface again. Galland met with Göring at Göring's estate, "Schloss Veldenstein". During the conversation the need for new and improved interceptor aircraft arose. Göring, demanded heavily cannon-armed fighters be used en masse. Göring, prompted by the desires of Hitler, wanted cannons of some in weight. Galland explained that such a weapon could not be used effectively in an aircraft; the cannon would be prone to jamming and the aircraft would be too difficult to manoeuvre. Galland also asserted the use of inappropriate weaponry such as the Messerschmitt Me 410, a favourite of Hitler's, had caused heavy losses. Galland argued such measures were deplorable and irresponsible. Göring disregarded Galland's arguments and continued his frequent attacks on the fighter force, accusing them of cowardice. Galland, as he always did, defended them, risking his career and, near the end of the war, his life in doing so. Galland stated that he could not agree to follow Göring's plans and requested to be dismissed from his post and sent back to his unit. Göring accepted, but two weeks later he apologised to Galland and attributed his behaviour to stress. Galland continued in his post.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Nonetheless, the arguments ultimately continued, mainly over aircraft procurement and armament for the defence of Germany from Allied bombing, and began to give rise to a growing personal rift between Göring and Galland. In November 1943 Galland issued a communique to the fighter forces, announcing the introduction of new weapons, such as heavily armed Fw 190s, to engage of destroy Allied bombers through the use of massed and formation-based attack tactics at close range. He also passed on Göring's dissatisfaction with wing and squadron commanders that did not press their attacks in this manner. For the first time, Göring ordered his units, through Galland, to use ramming methods, and risk sacrificing the pilot. It was not the first occasion Galland had ordered this; the General demanded the same from his men during the Channel Dash operation in 1942.


title: Adolf Galland

text: Galland found the appearance of American fighters at this range alarming. German losses were so heavy that Galland held a special meeting with I "Jagdkorps" division commanders on 4 November 1943. Contributing to the day fighter losses was the fact that many German fighters did not possess direction finders to locate their bases in bad weather. It was decided the single-engine fighters must engage in protecting the heavier fighters, such as the Messerschmitt Bf 110, from escorts, so the latter could attack the bombers. The only available unit to protect the heavy fighters was "Jagdgeschwader" 300, with heavily armed but slow variants of the Fw 190. At the end of December, Galland and the staff of "Jagdkorps" I concluded that their new tactics had failed with high losses. The causes were "(a) the weather, (b) the considerable inferiority of German strength, (c) the impossibility of gathering sufficient strength in an area because of time and distance limitations ; result : weak and dispersed fighter attack."


title: Adolf Galland

text: The situation deteriorated in February 1944, with Big Week, as the Combined Bomber Offensive gathered momentum. In mid-March 1944, shortages of skilled pilots caused Galland to send the following message asking for volunteers:


title: Adolf Galland

text: The strained manpower situation in units operating in Defence of the Reich demands urgently the further bringing up of experienced flying personnel from other arms of the service, in particular for the maintenance of fighting power to the air arm, tried pilots of the ground attack and bomber units, especially officers suitable as formation leaders, will now also have to be drawn on.