title: Archimedes' screw

text: Some researchers have proposed this device was used to irrigate the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. A cuneiform inscription of Assyrian King Sennacherib (704–681 BC) has been interpreted by Stephanie Dalley to describe casting water screws in bronze some 350 years earlier. This is consistent with classical author Strabo, who describes the Hanging Gardens as irrigated by screws.


title: Archimedes' screw

text: The screw pump was later introduced from Egypt to Greece. It was described by Archimedes, on the occasion of his visit to Egypt, circa 234 BC. This tradition may reflect only that the apparatus was unknown to the Greeks before Hellenistic times. Archimedes never claimed credit for its invention, but it was attributed to him 200 years later by Diodorus, who believed that Archimedes invented the screw pump in Egypt. Depictions of Greek and Roman water screws show them being powered by a human treading on the outer casing to turn the entire apparatus as one piece, which would require that the casing be rigidly attached to the screw.


title: Archimedes' screw

text: German engineer Konrad Kyeser equipped the Archimedes screw with a crank mechanism in his "Bellifortis" (1405). This mechanism quickly replaced the ancient practice of working the pipe by treading.


title: Archimedes' screw

text: The Archimedes screw consists of a screw (a helical surface surrounding a central cylindrical shaft) inside a hollow pipe. The screw is usually turned by windmill, manual labor, cattle, or by modern means, such as a motor. As the shaft turns, the bottom end scoops up a volume of water. This water is then pushed up the tube by the rotating helicoid until it pours out from the top of the tube.


title: Archimedes' screw

text: It is important to note that the screw volume must not be completely filled with water; there must be a fair amount of air "scooped up" together with each scoop of water. For this reason, the pump ceases to function if the bottom of the pipe is completely submerged, so that no air can be sucked in. This is because the individual pockets of water need to be separated from each other by pockets of air, or else there would be no difference between an Archimedean screw and a (curled up) pipe, which would let the water back-flow from the top basin to the bottom basin, just like a siphon.


title: Archimedes' screw

text: The contact surface between the screw and the pipe does not need to be perfectly watertight, as long as the amount of water being scooped with each turn is large compared to the amount of water leaking out of each section of the screw per turn. If water from one section leaks into the next lower one, it will be transferred upwards by the next segment of the screw.


title: Archimedes' screw

text: In some designs, the screw is fused to the casing and they both rotate together, instead of the screw turning within a stationary casing. The screw could be sealed to the casing with pitch resin or other adhesive, or the screw and casing could be cast together as a single piece in bronze.


title: Archimedes' screw

text: The design of the everyday Greek and Roman water screw, in contrast to the heavy bronze device of Sennacherib, with its problematic drive chains, has a powerful simplicity. A double or triple helix was built of wood strips (or occasionally bronze sheeting) around a heavy wooden pole. A cylinder was built around the helices using long, narrow boards fastened to their periphery and waterproofed with pitch.


title: Archimedes' screw

text: Studies shows that the volume of flow passes through Archimedes screws is a function of inlet depth, diameter and rotation speed of the screw. Therefore, the following analytical equation could be used to design Archimedes screws:


title: Archimedes' screw

text: Based on the common standards that the Archimedes screw designers use this analytical equation could be simplified as:


title: Archimedes' screw

text: The value of η could simply determinate using the formula_10 graph or formula_11 graph. By determination of formula_4, other design parameters of Archimedes screws can be calculated using a step-by-step analytical method.


title: Archimedes' screw

text: The screw was used predominantly for the transport of water to irrigation systems and for dewatering mines or other low-lying areas. It was used for draining land that was underneath the sea in the Netherlands and other places in the creation of polders.


title: Archimedes' screw

text: Archimedes screws are used in sewage treatment plants because they cope well with varying rates of flow and with suspended solids. An auger in a snow blower or grain elevator is essentially an Archimedes screw. Concrete mixer trucks use Archemedes screws on the inside of their drum to mix or unload material.


title: Archimedes' screw

text: The principle is also found in pescalators, which are Archimedes screws designed to lift fish safely from ponds and transport them to another location. This technology is used primarily at fish hatcheries, where it is desirable to minimize the physical handling of fish.


title: Archimedes' screw

text: An Archimedes screw was used in the successful 2001 stabilization of the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Small amounts of subsoil saturated by groundwater were removed from far below the north side of the tower, and the weight of the tower itself corrected the lean.


title: Archimedes' screw

text: Archimedes Screws Turbines (ASTs) are a new form of generators for small hydroelectric powerplants that could be applied even in low head sites. The low rotation speed of ASTs reduces negative impacts on aquatic life and fish.


title: Archimedes' screw

text: A "screw conveyor" is an Archimedes screw contained within a tube and turned by a motor so as to deliver material from one end of the conveyor to the other. It is particularly suitable for transport of granular materials such as plastic granules used in injection moulding, and cereal grains. It may also be used to transport liquids. In industrial control applications the conveyor may be used as a rotary feeder or variable rate feeder to deliver a measured rate or quantity of material into a process.


title: Archimedes' screw

text: A variant of the Archimedes screw can also be found in some injection moulding machines, die casting machines and extrusion of plastics, which employ a screw of decreasing pitch to compress and melt the material. It is also used in a rotary-screw air compressor. On a much larger scale, Archimedes's screws of decreasing pitch are used for the compaction of waste material.


title: Archimedes' screw

text: If water is fed into the top of an Archimedes screw, it will force the screw to rotate. The rotating shaft can then be used to drive an electric generator. Such an installation has the same benefits as using the screw for pumping: the ability to handle very dirty water and widely varying rates of flow at high efficiency. Settle Hydro and Torrs Hydro are two reverse screw micro hydro schemes operating in England. The screw works well as a generator at low heads, commonly found in English rivers, including the Thames, powering Windsor Castle.


title: Archimedes' screw

text: In 2017, the first reverse screw hydropower in the United States opened in Meriden, Connecticut. The Meriden project was built and is operated by New England Hydropower having a nameplate capacity of 193 kW and a capacity factor of approximately 55% over a 5-year running period.


title: Comedy horror

text: Comedy horror, also known as horror comedy, is a literary, television, and film genre that combines elements of comedy and horror fiction. Comedy horror has been described as able to be categorized under three types: "black comedy, parody and spoof." It often crosses over with the black comedy genre. Comedy horror can also parody or subtly spoof horror clichés as its main source of humour or use those elements to take a story in a different direction, for example in "The Cabin in the Woods", "Tucker & Dale vs. Evil", "Shaun of the Dead" or the "Evil Dead" franchise.


title: Comedy horror

text: Author Bruce G. Hallenbeck cites the short story "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" by Washington Irving as "the first great comedy horror story". The story made readers "laugh one moment and scream the next" and its premise was based on mischief typically found during the holiday Halloween.


title: Comedy horror

text: Horror and comedy have been associated with each other since the early days of horror novels. Shortly after the publication of "Frankenstein", comedic parodies appeared. Edgar Allan Poe put humor and horror on the same continuum, and many nineteenth century authors used black humor in their horror stories. Author Robert Bloch called them "opposite sides of the same coin".


title: Comedy horror

text: In comedy horror film, gallows humor is a common element. While comedy horror films provide scares for audiences, they also provide something that dramatic horror films do not: "the permission to laugh at your fears, to whistle past the cinematic graveyard and feel secure in the knowledge that the monsters can't get you".


title: Comedy horror

text: In the era of silent film, the source material for early comedy horror films came from stage performances instead of literature. One example, "The Ghost Breaker" (1914), was based on a 1909 play, though the film's horror elements were more interesting to the audience than the comedy elements. In the United States following the trauma of World War I, film audiences sought to see horror on screen but tempered with humor. The "pioneering" comedy horror film was "One Exciting Night" (1922), written, directed and produced by D. W. Griffith, who noticed the stage success of the genre and foresaw a cinematic translation. While the film included comedic blackface performances, Griffith also included footage of a hurricane for a climactic storm. As an early experiment, the various genres were not well-balanced with horror and comedy, and later films improved the balance and took more sophisticated approaches. Charles Bramesco of Vulture.com identifies "Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein" as the first commercially successful comedy horror film. Its success legitimized the genre and established it as commercially viable.


title: Comedy horror

text: Some comedy horror movies, such as the "Scary Movie" series or "A Haunted House" also function as parodies of popular horror films.


title: Comedy horror

text: Examples of horror comedy on television date back to sitcoms "The Munsters" and "The Addams Family" and more recently include gruesome slapsticks "Ash vs Evil Dead" and "Stan Against Evil", mockumentary "What We Do In The Shadows", drama "iZombie", comedies "Shining Vale" and "Santa Clarita Diet", and cartoons "Beetlejuice", "Courage the Cowardly Dog", "Scooby-Doo", "The Owl House", Wednesday, and more recently, "Don't Hug Me I'm Scared".


title: FACEIT

text: FACEIT is an esports platform founded in London in 2012. The company has administered leagues for games such as "", "League of Legends", "Rocket League", Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege, "Dota 2" and "Team Fortress 2".


title: FACEIT

text: In 2022, it was announced that FACEIT and esports company ESL were being acquired by Savvy Games Group (SGG), a holding company owned by Saudi Arabia's Public Investment Fund. As part of the acquisition, the two companies are set to merge and form the ESL FaceIt Group.


title: FACEIT

text: In April 2016, FACEIT announced the launch of their "" tournament, known as the Esports Championship Series (ECS). In April 2017, the company partnered with the video sharing platform YouTube for the series. ECS was one of the two premier Counter-Strike leagues, along with ESL Pro League.


title: FACEIT

text: The series was discontinued in 2020, replaced by a franchise-based league called Flashpoint. It features 12 teams and a US$2,000,000 buy in spot, and offers co-ownership and revenue sharing to competing teams.


title: FACEIT

text: In May 2022, FACEIT announced a multi-million dollar partnership agreement with the cryptocurrency fintech platform Cake DeFi. The agreement sees players participating in FACEIT matchups and tournaments to receive cryptocurrency rewards, with plans to pay more than half a million dollars to FACEIT users.


title: FACEIT

text: On 22 February 2018 Valve, the developers and owners of the Counter-Strike series, announced that FACEIT would host the thirteenth Global Offensive major, the FACEIT Major: London 2018. The event began in mid-September and concluded on 23 September 2018. It was the first Major hosted by FACEIT and the first Major hosted in the United Kingdom. It had a 1,000,000 prize pool and the playoff stage was held in Wembley Arena. In the finals, Astralis defeated Natus Vincere to win its second Major title.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The Chicago Tribune is a daily newspaper based in Chicago, Illinois, United States, owned by Tribune Publishing. Founded in 1847, and formerly self-styled as the "World's Greatest Newspaper" (a slogan for which WGN radio and television are named), it remains the most-read daily newspaper in the Chicago metropolitan area and the Great Lakes region. It had the sixth-highest circulation for American newspapers in 2017.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In the 1850s, under Joseph Medill, the "Chicago Tribune" became closely associated with the Illinois-born Abraham Lincoln, and the Republican Party's progressive wing. In the 20th century under Medill's grandson, Robert R. McCormick, it achieved a reputation as a crusading paper with a decidedly more American-conservative anti-New Deal outlook, and its writing reached other markets through family and corporate relationships at the "New York Daily News" and the "Washington Times-Herald." The 1960s saw its corporate parent owner, Tribune Company, reach into new markets. In 2008, for the first time in its over century-and-a-half history, its editorial page endorsed a Democrat, Illinoisan Barack Obama, for U.S. president.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: Originally published solely as a broadsheet, the "Tribune" announced on January 13, 2009 that it would continue publishing as a broadsheet for home delivery, but would publish in tabloid format for newsstand, news box, and commuter station sales. This change, however, proved to be unpopular with readers, and in August 2011, the "Tribune" discontinued the tabloid edition, returning to its established broadsheet format through all distribution channels.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The "Tribune"s masthead displays the American flag, in reference to the paper's former motto, "An American Paper for Americans". The motto is no longer displayed on the masthead, where it was placed below the flag.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The "Tribune" was owned by parent company, "Tribune Publishing". In May 2021 Tribune Publishing was acquired by Alden Global Capital, which operates its media properties through Digital First Media.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The "Tribune" was founded by James Kelly, John E. Wheeler, and Joseph K. C. Forrest, publishing the first edition on June 10, 1847. Numerous changes in ownership and editorship took place over the next eight years. Initially, the "Tribune" was not politically affiliated, but tended to support either the Whig or Free Soil parties against the Democrats in elections. By late 1853, it was frequently running xenophobic editorials that criticized foreigners and Roman Catholics. About this time it also became a strong proponent of temperance. However nativist its editorials may have been, it was not until February 10, 1855, that the "Tribune" formally affiliated itself with the nativist American or Know Nothing party, whose candidate Levi Boone was elected Mayor of Chicago the following month.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: By about 1854, part-owner Capt. J. D. Webster, later General Webster and chief of staff at the Battle of Shiloh, and Dr. Charles H. Ray of Galena, Illinois, through Horace Greeley, convinced Joseph Medill of Cleveland's "Leader" to become managing editor. Ray became editor-in-chief, Medill became the managing editor, and Alfred Cowles, Sr., brother of Edwin Cowles, initially was the bookkeeper. Each purchased one third of the "Tribune". Under their leadership, the "Tribune" distanced itself from the Know Nothings, and became the main Chicago organ of the Republican Party. However, the paper continued to print anti-Catholic and anti-Irish editorials, in the wake of the massive Famine immigration from Ireland.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The "Tribune" absorbed three other Chicago publications under the new editors: the "Free West" in 1855, the "Democratic Press" of William Bross in 1858, and the "Chicago Democrat" in 1861, whose editor, John Wentworth, left his position when elected as Mayor of Chicago. Between 1858 and 1860, the paper was known as the "Chicago Press & Tribune". On October 25, 1860, it became the "Chicago Daily Tribune". Before and during the American Civil War, the new editors strongly supported Abraham Lincoln, whom Medill helped secure the presidency in 1860, and pushed an abolitionist agenda. The paper remained a force in Republican politics for years afterwards.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In 1861, the "Tribune" published new lyrics by William W. Patton for the song "John Brown's Body". These rivaled the lyrics published two months later by Julia Ward Howe. Medill served as mayor of Chicago for one term after the Great Chicago Fire of 1871.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: Under the 20th-century editorship of Colonel Robert R. McCormick, who took control in the 1920s, the paper was strongly isolationist and aligned with the Old Right in its coverage of political news and social trends. It used the motto "The American Paper for Americans". From the 1930s to the 1950s, it excoriated the Democrats and the New Deal of Franklin D. Roosevelt, was resolutely disdainful of the British and French, and greatly enthusiastic for Chiang Kai-shek and Sen. Joseph McCarthy.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: When McCormick assumed the position of co-editor (with his cousin Joseph Medill Patterson) in 1910, the "Tribune" was the third-best-selling paper among Chicago's eight dailies, with a circulation of only 188,000. The young cousins added features such as advice columns and homegrown comic strips such as "Little Orphan Annie" and "Moon Mullins". They promoted political "crusades", with their first success coming with the ouster of the Republican political boss of Illinois, Sen. William Lorimer. At the same time, the "Tribune" competed with the Hearst paper, the "Chicago Examiner", in a circulation war. By 1914, the cousins succeeded in forcing out Managing Editor William Keeley. By 1918, the "Examiner" was forced to merge with the "Chicago Herald".


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In 1919, Patterson left the "Tribune" and moved to New York to launch his own newspaper, the New York "Daily News". In a renewed circulation war with Hearst's "Herald-Examiner", McCormick and Hearst ran rival lotteries in 1922. The "Tribune" won the battle, adding 250,000 readers to its ranks. Also in 1922, the "Chicago Tribune" hosted an international design competition for its new headquarters, the Tribune Tower. The competition worked brilliantly as a publicity stunt, and more than 260 entries were received. The winner was a neo-Gothic design by New York architects John Mead Howells and Raymond Hood.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The newspaper sponsored a pioneering attempt at Arctic aviation in 1929, an attempted round-trip to Europe across Greenland and Iceland in a Sikorsky amphibious aircraft. But, the aircraft was destroyed by ice on July 15, 1929, near Ungava Bay at the tip of Labrador, Canada. The crew were rescued by the Canadian science ship CSS "Acadia".


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The "Tribune"s reputation for innovation extended to radio—it bought an early station, WDAP, in 1924 and renamed it WGN (AM), the station call letters standing for the paper's self-description as the "World's Greatest Newspaper". WGN Television was launched on April 5, 1948. These broadcast stations remained "Tribune" properties for nine decades and were among the oldest newspaper/broadcasting cross-ownerships in the country. (The "Tribune"s East Coast sibling, the New York "Daily News", later established WPIX television and radio.)


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The "Tribune"s legendary sports editor Arch Ward created the Major League Baseball All-Star Game in 1933 as part of the city's Century of Progress exposition.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: From 1940 to 1943, the paper supplemented its comic strip offerings with "The Chicago Tribune Comic Book", responding to the new success of comic books. At the same time, it launched the more successful and longer-lasting "The Spirit Section", which was also an attempt by newspapers to compete with the new medium.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: Under McCormick's stewardship, the "Tribune" was a champion of modified spelling for simplicity (such as spelling "although" as "altho"). McCormick, a vigorous campaigner for the Republican Party, died in 1955, just four days before Democratic boss Richard J. Daley was elected mayor for the first time.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: One of the great scoops in "Tribune" history came when it obtained the text of the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919. Another was its revelation of United States war plans on the eve of the Pearl Harbor attack. The "Tribune"s June 7, 1942, front page announcement that the United States had broken Japan's naval code was the revelation by the paper of a closely guarded military secret. The story revealing that Americans broke the enemy naval codes was not cleared by censors, and had U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt so enraged that he considered shutting down the "Tribune".


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The paper is well known for a mistake it made during the 1948 presidential election. At that time, much of its composing room staff was on strike. The early returns led editors to believe (along with many in the country) that the Republican candidate Thomas Dewey would win. An early edition of the next day's paper carried the headline "Dewey Defeats Truman", turning the paper into a collector's item. Democrat Harry S. Truman won and proudly brandished the newspaper in a famous picture taken at St. Louis Union Station. Beneath the headline was a false article, written by Arthur Sears Henning, which purported to describe West Coast results although written before East Coast election returns were available.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: Colonel McCormick prevented the "Tribune" for years from participating in the Pulitzer Prize competition. But it has won 28 of the awards over the years, including many for editorial writing. The "Tribune" won its first post-McCormick Pulitzer in 1961, when Carey Orr won the award for editorial cartooning. Reporter George Bliss won a Pulitzer the following year for reporting, and reporter Bill Jones another in 1971 for reporting. A reporting team won the award in 1973, followed by reporter William Mullen and photographer Ovie Carter, who won a Pulitzer for international reporting in 1975. A local reporting team won the award in 1976, and architecture critic Paul Gapp won a Pulitzer in 1979. In 2022, Cecilia Reyes, "Chicago Tribune", and Madison Hopkins, Better Government Association, won a Pulitzer Prize in local reporting for a piercing examination of the city’s long history of failed building- and fire-safety code enforcement, which let scofflaw landlords commit serious violations that resulted in dozens of unnecessary deaths.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In 1969, under the leadership of publisher Harold Grumhaus and editor Clayton Kirkpatrick (1915–2004), the "Tribune" began reporting from a wider viewpoint. The paper retained its Republican and conservative perspective in its editorials, but it began to publish perspectives in wider commentary that represented a spectrum of diverse opinions, while its news reporting no longer had the conservative slant it had in the McCormick years.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: On May 1, 1974, in a major feat of journalism, the "Tribune" published the complete 246,000-word text of the Watergate tapes, in a 44-page supplement that hit the streets 24 hours after the transcripts' release by the Nixon White House. Not only was the "Tribune" the first newspaper to publish the transcripts, but it beat the U.S. Government Printing Office's published version, and made headlines doing so.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: A week later, after studying the transcripts, the paper's editorial board observed that "the high dedication to grand principles that Americans have a right to expect from a President is missing from the transcript record." The "Tribune"s editors concluded that "nobody of sound mind can read <nowiki>[the transcripts]</nowiki> and continue to think that Mr. Nixon has upheld the standards and dignity of the Presidency," and called for Nixon's resignation. The "Tribune" call for Nixon to resign made news, reflecting not only the change in the type of conservatism practiced by the paper, but as a watershed event in terms of Nixon's hopes for survival in office. The White House reportedly perceived the "Tribune"s editorial as a loss of a long-time supporter and as a blow to Nixon's hopes to weather the scandal.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: On December 7, 1975, Kirkpatrick announced in a column on the editorial page that Rick Soll, a "young and talented columnist" for the paper, whose work had "won a following among many "Tribune" readers over the last two years", had resigned from the paper. He had acknowledged that a November 23, 1975 column he wrote contained verbatim passages written by another columnist in 1967 and later published in a collection. Kirkpatrick did not identify the columnist. The passages in question, Kirkpatrick wrote, were from a notebook where Soll regularly entered words, phrases and bits of conversation which he had wished to remember. The paper initially suspended Soll for a month without pay. Kirkpatrick wrote that further evidence was revealed came out that another of Soll's columns contained information which he knew was false. At that point, "Tribune" editors decided to accept the resignation offered by Soll when the internal investigation began.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: After leaving, Soll married Pam Zekman, a Chicago newspaper (and future TV) reporter. He worked for the short-lived "Chicago Times" magazine in the late 1980s.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In March 1978, the "Tribune" announced that it hired columnist Bob Greene from the "Chicago Sun-Times".


title: Chicago Tribune

text: Kirkpatrick stepped down as editor in 1979 and was succeeded by Maxwell McCrohon (1928–2004), who served as editor until 1981. He was transitioned to a corporate position. McCrohon held the corporate position until 1983, when he left to become editor-in-chief of the United Press International. James Squires served as the paper's editor from July 1981 until December 1989.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: Jack Fuller served as the "Tribune"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s editor from 1989 until 1993, when he became the president and chief executive officer of the "Chicago Tribune". Howard Tyner served as the "Tribune"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s editor from 1993 until 2001, when he was promoted to vice president/editorial for Tribune Publishing.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The "Tribune" won 11 Pulitzer prizes during the 1980s and 1990s. Editorial cartoonist Dick Locher won the award in 1983, and editorial cartoonist Jeff MacNelly won one in 1985. Then, future editor Jack Fuller won a Pulitzer for editorial writing in 1986. In 1987, reporters Jeff Lyon and Peter Gorner won a Pulitzer for explanatory reporting, and in 1988, Dean Baquet, William Gaines and Ann Marie Lipinski won a Pulitzer for investigative reporting. In 1989, Lois Wille won a Pulitzer for editorial writing and Clarence Page snagged the award for commentary. In 1994, Ron Kotulak won a Pulitzer for explanatory journalism, while R. Bruce Dold won it for editorial writing. In 1998, reporter Paul Salopek won a Pulitzer for explanatory writing, and in 1999, architecture critic Blair Kamin won it for criticism.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In September 1981, baseball writer Jerome Holtzman was hired by the "Tribune" after a 38-year career at the "Sun-Times".


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In September 1982, the "Chicago Tribune" opened a new $180 million printing facility, Freedom Center.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In November 1982, "Tribune" managing editor William H. "Bill" Jones, who had won a Pulitzer Prize in 1971, died at age 43 of cardiac arrest as a result of complications from a long battle with leukemia.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In May 1983, "Tribune" columnist Aaron Gold died at age 45 of complications from leukemia. Gold had coauthored the Tribune's "Inc." column with Michael Sneed and prior to that had written the paper's "Tower Ticker" column.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The "Tribune" scored a coup in 1984 when it hired popular columnist Mike Royko away from the rival "Sun-Times".


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In 1986, the "Tribune" announced that film critic Gene Siskel, the "Tribune"s best-known writer, was no longer the paper's film critic, and that his position with the paper had shifted from being that of a full-time film critic to that of a freelance contract writer who was to write about the film industry for the Sunday paper and also provide capsule film reviews for the paper's entertainment sections. The demotion occurred after Siskel and longtime Chicago film critic colleague Roger Ebert decided to shift the production of their weekly movie-review show—then known as "At the Movies with Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert" and later known as "Siskel & Ebert & The Movies"—from Tribune Entertainment to The Walt Disney Company's Buena Vista Television unit. "He has done a great job for us," editor James Squires said at the time. "It's a question of how much a person can do physically. We think you need to be a newspaper person first, and Gene Siskel has always tried to do that. But there comes a point when a career is so big that you can't do that." Siskel declined to comment on the new arrangement, but Ebert publicly criticized Siskel's "Tribune" bosses for punishing Siskel for taking their television program to a company other than Tribune Entertainment. Siskel remained in that freelance position until he died in 1999. He was replaced as film critic by Dave Kehr.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In February 1988, Tribune foreign correspondent Jonathan Broder resigned after a February 22, 1988, Tribune article written by Broder contained a number of sentences and phrases taken, without attribution, from a column written by another writer, Joel Greenberg, that had been published 10 days earlier in "The Jerusalem Post".


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In August 1988, "Chicago Tribune" reporter Michael Coakley died at age 41 of complications from AIDS.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In November 1992, "Tribune" associate subject editor Searle "Ed" Hawley was arrested by Chicago police and charged with seven counts of aggravated criminal sexual abuse for allegedly having sex with three juveniles in his home in Evanston, Illinois. Hawley formally resigned from the paper in early 1993, and pleaded guilty in April 1993. He was sentenced to 3 years in prison.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In an unusual move at that time, the "Tribune" in October 1993 fired its longtime military-affairs writer, retired-Marine David Evans, with the public position that the post of military affairs was being dropped in favor of having a national security writer.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In December 1993, the "Tribune"s longtime Washington, D.C. bureau chief, Nicholas Horrock, was removed from his post after he chose not to attend a meeting that editor Howard Tyner requested of him in Chicago. Horrock, who shortly thereafter left the paper, was replaced by James Warren, who attracted new attention to the "Tribune"s D.C. bureau through his continued attacks on celebrity broadcast journalists in Washington.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: Also in December 1993, the "Tribune" hired Margaret Holt from the "South Florida Sun-Sentinel" as its assistant managing editor for sports, making her the first female to head a sports department at any of the nation's 10 largest newspapers. In mid-1995, Holt was replaced as sports editor by Tim Franklin and shifted to a newly created job, customer service editor.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In 1994, reporter Brenda You was fired by the "Tribune" after free-lancing for supermarket tabloid newspapers and lending them photographs from the "Tribune"s photo library. You later worked for the "National Enquirer" and as a producer for "The Jerry Springer Show" before committing suicide in November 2005.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In April 1994, the "Tribune"s new television critic, Ken Parish Perkins, wrote an article about then-WFLD morning news anchor Bob Sirott in which Perkins quoted Sirott as making a statement that Sirott later denied making. Sirott criticized Perkins on the air, and the "Tribune" later printed a correction acknowledging that Sirott had never made that statement. Eight months later, Perkins stepped down as TV critic, and he left the paper shortly thereafter.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In December 1995, the alternative newsweekly "Newcity" published a first-person article by the pseudonymous Clara Hamon (a name mentioned in the play "The Front Page") but quickly identified by "Tribune" reporters as that of former "Tribune" reporter Mary Hill that heavily criticized the paper's one-year residency program. The program brought young journalists in and out of the paper for one-year stints, seldom resulting in a full-time job. Hill, who wrote for the paper from 1992 until 1993, acknowledged to the "Chicago Reader" that she had written the diatribe originally for the Internet, and that the piece eventually was edited for "Newcity".


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In 1997, the "Tribune" celebrated its 150th anniversary in part by tapping longtime reporter Stevenson Swanson to edit the book "Chicago Days: 150 Defining Moments in the Life of a Great City".


title: Chicago Tribune

text: On April 29, 1997, popular columnist Mike Royko died of a brain aneurysm. On September 2, 1997, the "Tribune" promoted longtime City Hall reporter John Kass to take Royko's place as the paper's principal Page Two news columnist.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: On June 1, 1997, the "Tribune" published what ended up becoming a very popular column by Mary Schmich called "Advice, like youth, probably just wasted on the young", otherwise known as "Wear Sunscreen" or the "Sunscreen Speech". The most popular and well-known form of the essay is the successful music single released in 1999, accredited to Baz Luhrmann.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In 1998, reporter Jerry Thomas was fired by the "Tribune" after he wrote a cover article on boxing promoter Don King for "Emerge" magazine at the same time that he was writing a cover article on King for the "Chicago Tribune" Sunday magazine. The paper decided to fire Thomas—and suspend his photographer on the "Emerge" story, Pulitzer Prize-winning "Tribune" photographer Ovie Carter for a month—because Thomas did not tell the "Tribune" about his outside work and also because the "Emerge" story wound up appearing in print first.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: On June 6, 1999, the "Tribune" published a first-person travel article from freelance writer Gaby Plattner that described a supposed incident in which a pilot for Air Zimbabwe who was flying without a copilot inadvertently locked himself out of his cockpit while the plane was flying on autopilot and as a result needed to use a large ax to chop a hole in the cockpit door. An airline representative wrote a lengthy letter to the paper calling the account "totally untrue, unprofessional and damaging to our airline" and explaining that Air Zimbabwe does not keep axes on its aircraft and never flies without a full crew, and the paper was forced to print a correction stating that Plattner "now says that she passed along a story she had heard as something she had experienced."


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The "Tribune" has been a leader on the Internet, acquiring 10 percent of America Online in the early 1990s, then launching such web sites as Chicagotribune.com (1995), Metromix.com (1996), ChicagoSports.com (1999), ChicagoBreakingNews.com (2008), and ChicagoNow (2009). In 2002, the paper launched a tabloid edition targeted at 18- to 34-year-olds known as "RedEye".


title: Chicago Tribune

text: Ann Marie Lipinski was the paper's editor from February 2001 until stepping down on July 17, 2008. Gerould W. Kern was named the paper's editor in July 2008. In early August 2008, managing editor for news Hanke Gratteau resigned, and several weeks later, managing editor for features James Warren resigned as well. Both were replaced by Jane Hirt, who previously had been the editor of the "Tribune"s "RedEye" tabloid.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In June 2000, Times Mirror merged with Tribune Company making "The Baltimore Sun" and its community papers Baltimore Sun Media Group / Patuxent Publishing a subsidiary of Tribune.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In July 2000, Tribune outdoors columnist John Husar, who had written about his need for a new liver transplant, died at age 63, just over a week after receiving part of a new liver from a live donor.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: Tribune's Baltimore Community papers include "Arbutus Times", "Baltimore Messenger", "Catonsville Times", "Columbia Flier", "Howard County Times", "The Jeffersonian", "Laurel Leader", "Lifetimes", "North County News", "Northeast Booster", "Northeast Reporter", "Owings Mills Times", and "Towson Times".


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The "Howard County Times" was named 2010 Newspaper of the Year by the Suburban Newspaper Association.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The "Towson Times" expands coverage beyond the Towson area and includes Baltimore County government and politics.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The "Tribune" won five Pulitzer prizes in the first decade of the 21st century. Salopek won his second Pulitzer for the "Tribune" in 2001 for international reporting, and that same year an explanatory reporting team—lead writers of which were Louise Kiernan, Jon Hilkevitch, Laurie Cohen, Robert Manor, Andrew Martin, John Schmeltzer, Alex Rodriguez and Andrew Zajac—won the honor for a profile of the chaotic U.S. air traffic system. In 2003, editorial writer Cornelia Grumman snagged the award for editorial writing. In 2005, Julia Keller won a Pulitzer for feature reporting on a tornado that struck Utica, Illinois. And, in 2008, an investigative reporting team including Patricia Callahan, Maurice Possley, Sam Roe, Ted Gregory, Michael Oneal, Evan Osnos and photojournalist Scott Strazzante won the Pulitzer for its series about faulty government regulation of defective toys, cribs and car seats.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In late 2001, sports columnist Michael Holley announced he was leaving the "Tribune" after just two months because he was homesick. He ultimately returned to "The Boston Globe", where he had been working immediately before the "Tribune" had hired him.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: On September 15, 2002, Lipinski wrote a terse, page-one note informing readers that the paper's longtime columnist, Bob Greene, resigned effective immediately after acknowledging "engaging in inappropriate sexual conduct some years ago with a girl in her late teens whom he met in connection with his newspaper column." The conduct later was revealed to have occurred in 1988 with a woman who was of the age of consent in Illinois. "Greene's behavior was a serious violation of "Tribune" ethics and standards for its journalists," Lipinski wrote. "We deeply regret the conduct, its effect on the young woman and the impact this disclosure has on the trust our readers placed in Greene and this newspaper."


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In January 2003, Mike Downey, formerly of the "Los Angeles Times", was hired as new "Tribune" sports columnist. He and colleague Rick Morrissey would write the "In the Wake of the News Column" originated by Ring Lardner.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In March 2004, the "Tribune" announced that freelance reporter Uli Schmetzer, who retired from the "Tribune" in 2002 after 16 years as a foreign correspondent, had fabricated the name and occupation of a person he had quoted in a story. The paper terminated Schmetzer as a contract reporter and began a review of the 300 stories that Schmetzer had written over the prior three years.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In May 2004, the "Tribune" revealed that freelance reporter Mark Falanga was unable to verify some facts that he inserted in a lifestyle-related column that ran on April 18, 2004, about an expensive lunch at a Chicago restaurant—namely, that the restaurant charged $15 for a bottle of water and $35 for a pasta entree. "Upon questioning, the freelance writer indicated the column was based on an amalgam of three restaurants and could not verify the prices," the paper noted. After the correction, the "Tribune" stopped using Falanga.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In October 2004, "Tribune" editor Ann Marie Lipinski at the last minute spiked a story written for the paper's WomanNews section by freelance reporter Lisa Bertagnoli titled "You c_nt say that (or can you?)," about a noted vulgarism. The paper ordered every spare body to go to the "Tribune"s printing plant to pull already-printed WomanNews sections containing the story from the October 27, 2004, package of preprinted sections in the "Tribune".


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In September 2008, the "Tribune" considered hiring controversial sports columnist Jay Mariotti, shortly after his abrupt resignation from "Tribune" archrival "Chicago Sun-Times". Discussions ultimately ended, however, after the "Sun-Times" threatened to sue for violating Mariotti's noncompete agreement, which was to run until August 2009. Sports columnist Rick Morrissey defected to the "Sun-Times" in December 2009.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In April 2009, 55 Tribune reporters and editors signed their names to an e-mail sent to Kern and managing editor Jane Hirt, questioning why the newspaper's marketing department had solicited subscribers' opinions on stories before they were published, and suggesting that the practice raised ethical questions as well as legal and competitive issues. Reporters declined to speak on the record to the Associated Press about their issues. "We'll let the e-mail speak for itself," reporter John Chase told the AP. In the wake of the controversy, Kern abruptly discontinued the effort, which he described as "a brief market research project".


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In the first decade of the 21st century, the "Tribune" had multiple rounds of reductions of staff through layoffs and buyouts as it has coped with the industrywide declines in advertising revenues:


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The "Tribune" broke the story on May 29, 2009, that several students had been admitted to the University of Illinois based upon connections or recommendations by the school's Board of Trustees, Chicago politicians, and members of the Rod Blagojevich administration. Initially denying the existence of a so-called "Category I" admissions program, university President B. Joseph "Joe" White and Chancellor Richard Herman later admitted that there were instances of preferential treatment. Although they claimed the list was short and their role was minor, the "Tribune", in particular, revealed emails through a FOIA finding that White had received a recommendation for a relative of convicted fundraiser Tony Rezko to be admitted. The Tribune also later posted emails from Herman pushing for underqualified students to be accepted. The "Tribune" has since filed suit against the university administration under the Freedom of Information Act to acquire the names of students benefited by administrative clout and impropriety.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: On February 8, 2010, the "Chicago Tribune" shrank its newspaper's width by an inch. They said that the new format was becoming the industry standard and that there would be minimal content changes.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In July 2011, the "Chicago Tribune" underwent its first round of layoffs of editorial employees in more than two years, letting go about 20 editors and reporters. Among those let go were DuPage County reporter Art Barnum, Editorial Board member Pat Widder and photographer Dave Pierini.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: On March 15, 2012, the "Tribune" laid off 15 editorial staffers, including security guard Wendell Smothers (Smothers then died on November 12, 2012). At the same time, the paper gave buyouts to six editorial staffers, including Pulitzer Prize-winning reporter William Mullen, Barbara Mahany and Nancy Reese.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In June 2012, the "Tribune"s Pulitzer Prize-winning cultural critic Julia Keller left the paper to join the faculty of Ohio University and to pursue a career as a novelist.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In September 2012, "Tribune" education reporter Joel Hood resigned from the paper to become a real estate broker, City Hall reporter Kristen Mack left the paper to become press secretary for Cook County Board President Toni Preckwinkle, and the "Tribune" hired Pulitzer Prize-winning photographer John J. Kim from the "Chicago Sun-Times".


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In October 2012, the "Tribune"s science and medicine reporter, Trine Tsouderos, quit to join a public relations firm.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: Also in October 2012, the "Tribune" announced plans to create a paywall for its website, offering digital-only subscriptions at $14.99 per month, starting on November 1, 2012. Seven-day print subscribers would continue to have unlimited online access at no additional charge.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In late February 2013, the "Tribune" agreed to pay a total of $660,000 to settle a class-action lawsuit that had been filed against the paper by 46 current and former reporters of its TribLocal local-news reporting group over unpaid overtime wages. The suit had been filed in federal court on behalf of Carolyn Rusin, who had been a TribLocal staff reporter from July 2010 until October 2011. The paper's TribLocal unit had been formed in 2007 and uses staff reporters, freelance writers and user-generated content to produce hyperlocal Chicago-area community news.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: On June 12, 2013, the Boston Marathon bombing moving tribute was posted again, which showed the words "We are Chicago" above the names of Boston sports teams. On the graphic on June 12, the word "Bruins" was ripped off and the comment was added, "Yeah, not right now we're not", in a reference to the 2013 Stanley Cup Finals, which play the Chicago Blackhawks against the Boston Bruins. Gerould Kern tweeted later that the "Tribune" "still supports [Boston] after all you've been through. We regret any offense. Now let's play hockey."


title: Chicago Tribune

text: On April 6, 2014, the "Tribune" increased the newsstand price of its Sunday/Thanksgiving Day paper by 50 percent to $2.99 for a single copy. The newsrack price increased $0.75, or 42.9%, to $2.50. By January 2017 the price increased again, up $1 or 40% at newsracks, to $3.50. At newsstands it went up also $1, or 33.3%, to $3.99.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: On January 28, 2015, metropolitan editor Peter Kendall was named managing editor, replacing Jane Hirt, who had resigned several months earlier. Colin McMahon was named associate editor.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: On February 18, 2016, the Tribune announced the retirement of editor Gerould Kern and the immediate promotion of the paper's editorial page editor, R. Bruce Dold, to be the Tribune's editor.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: On Jun 9, 2018 the Tribune ended their 93-year stint at Tribune Tower and moved to One Prudential Plaza. The tower was later converted to condo's.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: On February 27, 2020, the Tribune announced that publisher and editor Bruce Dold will leave the Tribune on April 30, 2020, and would step down immediately as editor in chief. His replacement as editor was Colin McMahon. Also, the paper announced that one of the two managing editors of the paper, Peter Kendall, would leave the Tribune on February 28, 2020.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In January 2021, the Chicago Tribune moved out of One Prudential Plaza, and relocated their offices and newsroom to Freedom Center.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In May 2021 the paper was purchased by Alden Global Capital. Alden immediately launched a round of employee buyouts, reducing the newsroom staff by 25 percent, and the cuts continued. A former reporter said the paper is being "snuffed out, quarter after quarter after quarter". A report in "The Atlantic" said that Alden's business model is simple: "Gut the staff, sell the real estate, jack up subscription prices, and wring as much cash as possible out of the enterprise until eventually enough readers cancel their subscriptions that the paper folds, or is reduced to a desiccated husk of its former self."


title: Chicago Tribune

text: Mitch Pugh was named the "Tribune's" executive editor on Aug. 20, 2021, after eight years in the same role at The Post and Courier in Charleston, South Carolina.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In a 2007 statement of principles published in the "Tribune"s print and online editions, the paper's editorial board described the newspaper's philosophy, from which is excerpted the following:


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The "Chicago Tribune" believes in the traditional principles of limited government; maximum individual responsibility; minimum restriction of personal liberty, opportunity and enterprise. It believes in free markets, free will and freedom of expression. These principles, while traditionally conservative, are guidelines and not reflexive dogmas.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The "Tribune" places great emphasis on the integrity of government and the private institutions that play a significant role in society. The newspaper does this in the belief that the people cannot consent to be governed unless they have knowledge of, and faith in, the leaders and operations of government. The "Tribune" embraces the diversity of people and perspectives in its community. It is dedicated to the future of the Chicago region.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The "Tribune" has remained economically conservative, being widely skeptical of increasing the minimum wage and entitlement spending. Although the "Tribune" criticized the Bush administration's record on civil liberties, the environment, and many aspects of its foreign policy, it continued to support his presidency while taking Democrats, such as Illinois Governor Rod Blagojevich and Cook County Board President Todd Stroger, to task and calling for their removal from office.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In 2004, the "Tribune" endorsed President George W. Bush for re-election, a decision consistent with its longstanding support for the Republican Party. In 2008, it endorsed Democratic candidate and Illinois junior U.S. Senator Barack Obama—the first time that it had ever endorsed a Democrat for president. The "Tribune" endorsed Obama once again for reelection in 2012, and in 2020 would endorse another Democrat, Joe Biden, who had served as vice president under Obama.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The "Tribune" has occasionally backed independent candidates for president. In 1872, it supported Horace Greeley, a former Republican Party newspaper editor, and in 1912 the paper endorsed Theodore Roosevelt, who ran on the Progressive Party slate against Republican President William Howard Taft. In 2016, the Tribune endorsed the Libertarian Party candidate, former New Mexico Governor Gary Johnson, for president, over Republican Donald Trump and Democrat Hillary Clinton.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: Over the years, the "Tribune" has endorsed some Democrats for lesser offices, including recent endorsements of Bill Foster, Barack Obama for the Senate and Democrat Melissa Bean, who defeated Philip Crane, the House of Representatives' longest-serving Republican. Although the "Tribune" endorsed George Ryan in the 1998 Illinois gubernatorial race, the paper subsequently investigated and reported on the scandals surrounding Ryan during his preceding years as Secretary of State. Ryan declined to run for re-election in 2002 and was subsequently indicted, convicted and imprisoned as a result of the scandal.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: , the "Chicago Tribune" and "Los Angeles Times" have taken down their websites in most European countries due to GDPR.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The "Chicago Tribune" is the founding business unit of Tribune Company (since renamed "Tribune Media"), which included many newspapers and television stations around the country. In Chicago, Tribune Media owns the WGN radio station (720 AM) and WGN-TV (Channel 9). Tribune Company also owned the "Los Angeles Times"—which displaced the Tribune as the company's largest property—and the Chicago Cubs baseball team. The Cubs were sold in 2009;the newspapers spun off in 2014 as Tribune Publishing.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: Tribune Company owned the New York "Daily News" from its 1919 founding until its 1991 sale to British newspaper magnate Robert Maxwell. The founder of the "News"Capt. Joseph Medill Patterson, was a grandson of Joseph Medill and a cousin of "Tribune" editor Robert McCormick. Both Patterson and McCormick were enthusiasts of simplified spelling, another hallmark of their papers for many years. In 2008, the Tribune Company sold the Long Island newspaper "Newsday"—founded in 1940 by Patterson's daughter (and Medill's great-granddaughter), Alicia Patterson—to Long Island cable TV company Cablevision.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: From 1925 to 2018, the Chicago Tribune was housed in the Tribune Tower on North Michigan Avenue on the Magnificent Mile. The building is neo-Gothic in style, and the design was the winner of an international competition hosted by the Tribune. The Chicago Tribune moved in June 2018 to the Prudential Plaza office complex overlooking Millennium Park after Tribune Media sold Tribune Tower to developers.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The September 2008 redesign (discussed on the "Tribune"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s web site) was controversial and is largely regarded as an effort in cost-cutting. Since then the newspaper has returned to a more toned down style. The style is more a mix of the old style and a new modern style.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In December 2007, the Tribune Company was bought out by Chicago real estate magnate Sam Zell in an $8.2 billion deal. Zell was the company's new chairman. A year after going private, following a $124 million third-quarter loss, the Tribune Company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection on December 8, 2008. The company made its filing with the U.S. Bankruptcy Court for the District of Delaware, citing a debt of $13 billion and assets of $7.6 billion.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: Sam Zell originally planned to turn the company into a private company through the creation of an ESOP (employee stock ownership plan) within the company, but due to poor management that existed prior to his ownership, this did not work out as well as he intended.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: As part of its bankruptcy plan, owner Sam Zell intended to sell the Cubs to reduce debt. This sale has become linked to the corruption charges leading to the December 9, 2008, arrest of former Illinois Governor Rod Blagojevich. Specifically, the ex-governor was accused of exploiting the paper's financial trouble in an effort to have several editors fired.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: In the bankruptcy, unsecured bondholders of Tribune Co. essentially claimed that ordinary Tribune shareholders participated in a "fraudulent transfer" of wealth.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The law firm Brown Rudnick, representing the Aurelius group of junior creditors, filed fraudulent transfer claims and fraud claims against 33,000 to 35,000 stockholders who bought Tribune stock. Prolonged due to these claims against former officers, directors, and every former stockholder of the Chicago Tribune Company, the Tribune's bankruptcy-related legal and professional fees of $500 million were more than twice the usual amount for that size of company.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: The Tribune Co. emerged from bankruptcy in January 2013, partially owned by private equity firms which had speculated on its distressed debt. The reorganized company's plan included selling off many of its assets.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: Tribune Publishing, owning the "Chicago Tribune", "Los Angeles Times", and eight other newspapers, was spun off as a separate publicly traded company in August 2014. The parent Tribune Company was renamed Tribune Media. Tribune Publishing started life with a $350 million loan, $275 million of which was paid as a dividend to Tribune Media. The publishing company was also due to lease its office space from Tribune Media for $30 million per year through 2017.


title: Chicago Tribune

text: Spinning off Tribune Publishing avoided the capital gains taxes that would accrue from selling those assets. The shares in Tribune Publishing were given tax-free to stakeholders in Tribune Media, the largest shareholder was Oaktree Capital Management with 18.5%. Tribune Media, retaining the non-newspaper broadcasting, entertainment, real estate, and other investments, also sold off some of the non-newspaper properties.


title: La Cucaracha

text: La Cucaracha ("The Cockroach") is a popular Mexican folk song about a cockroach who cannot walk. The song's origins are unclear, but it dates back at least to the 1910s during the Mexican Revolution. The song belongs to the Mexican genre. The song's melody is widely known and there are many alternative stanzas.


title: La Cucaracha

text: The song consists of verse-and-refrain (strophe-antistrophe) pairs, with each half of each pair consisting of four lines featuring an ABCB rhyme scheme.


title: La Cucaracha

text: The song's earliest lyrics, from which its name is derived, concern a cockroach that has lost one of its six legs and struggles to walk with the remaining five. The cockroach's uneven, five-legged gait is imitated by the song's original, 5/4 meter, formed by removing one upbeat (corresponding to the missing sixth leg) from the second half of a 6/4 measure:


title: La Cucaracha

text: Many later versions of the song, especially those whose lyrics do not mention the cockroach's missing leg(s), extend the last syllable of each line to fit the more familiar 6/4 meter. Almost all modern versions, however, use a 4/4 meter instead with a clave rhythm to give the feeling of three pulses.


title: La Cucaracha

text: The song's verses fit a traditional melody separate from that of the refrain but sharing the refrain's meter (either 5/4, 6/4, or 4/4 clave as discussed above). In other respects, they are highly variable, usually providing satirical commentary on contemporary political or social problems or disputes.


title: La Cucaracha

text: The origins of "La Cucaracha" are obscure. The refrain's lyrics make no explicit reference to historical events; it is difficult, if not impossible, therefore, to date. Because verses are improvised according to the needs of the moment, however, they often enable a rough estimate of their age by mentioning contemporary social or political conditions (thus narrowing a version's possible time of origin to periods in which those conditions prevailed) or referring to specific current or past events (thus setting a maximum boundary for a version's age).


title: La Cucaracha

text: Francisco Rodríguez Marín records in his book "Cantos Populares Españoles" (1883) with lyrics referencing the then recent Hispano-Moroccan War (1859–1860), being probably developed during the campaign by the troops to boost their morale, on an already existing melody:


title: La Cucaracha

text: Some early versions of the lyrics refer to the confrontation between Moroccan (referred popularly as 'Moors' by the Spanish) and Spanish troops, during the Hispano-Moroccan War that marked the Spanish popular imagery during its development from 1859 to 1860.


title: La Cucaracha

text: One of the earliest written references to the song appears in Mexican writer and political journalist José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi's 1819 novel "La Quijotita y su Prima", where it is suggested that:


title: La Cucaracha

text: Other early stanzas detail such incidents as the Carlist Wars (1833–1876) in Spain and the French intervention in Mexico (1861).


title: La Cucaracha

text: During the Mexican Revolution of the early 20th century, "La Cucaracha" saw the first major period of verse production as rebel and government forces alike invented political lyrics for the song. Many stanzas were added during this period that today it is associated mostly with Mexico.


title: La Cucaracha

text: The Mexican Revolution, from 1910 to about 1920, was a period of great political upheaval during which the majority of the stanzas known today were written. Political symbolism was a common theme in these verses, and explicit and implicit references were made to events of the war, major political figures, and the effects of the war on the civilians in general. Today, few pre-Revolution verses are known, and the most commonly quoted portion of the song are the two Villist anti-Huerta stanzas:


title: La Cucaracha

text: This version, popular among Villist soldiers, contains hidden political meanings, as is common for revolutionary songs. In this version, the cockroach represents President Victoriano Huerta, a notorious drunk who was considered a villain and traitor due to his part in the death of revolutionary President Francisco Madero.


title: La Cucaracha

text: Due to the multi-factional nature of the Mexican Revolution, competing versions were also common at the time, including the Huertist, anti-Carranza stanza:


title: La Cucaracha

text: Among Mexican civilians at the time, "La Cucaracha" was also a popular tune, and there are numerous examples of non-aligned political verses. Many such verses were general complaints about the hardships created by the war, and these were often written by pro-Zapatistas. Other non-aligned verses contained references to multiple factions in a non-judgmental manner:


title: La Cucaracha

text: Soldiering has been a life experience for women in Mexico since pre-Columbian times. Among the nicknames for women warriors and camp followers were "Soldaderas", "Adelitas", "Juanas", and "Cucarachas".


title: La Cucaracha

text: Soldiers in Porfirio Diaz's army sang "La cucaracha" about a "soldadera" who wanted money to go to the bullfights. For the Villistas, "'La cucaracha' wanted money for alcohol and marijuana. She was often so drunk or stoned that she could not walk straight," writes Elizabeth Salas in "Mexican Military: Myth and History". "Unlike corridos about male revolutionaries like Villa and Zapata, none of the well-known "corridos" about "soldaderas" give their real names or are biographical. Consequently, there are very few stanzas that ring true about women in battle or the camps," Salas writes.


title: La Cucaracha

text: Male artists often depicted the "soldaderas" as semi-disrobed hookers. One etching, by muralist José Clemente Orozco, "The dance of the cucaracha," is especially insulting.


title: La Cucaracha

text: Apart from verses making explicit or implicit reference to historical events, hundreds of other verses exist. Some verses are new, and others are ancient; however, the lack of references and the largely oral tradition of the song makes dating these verses difficult, if not impossible. Examples follow:


title: La Cucaracha

text: In the novel "Animal Farm" by George Orwell, the animals' rebellion song, "Beasts of England", is described as blend of the tunes of "La Cucaracha" and "Oh My Darling, Clementine".


title: Tango Gameworks

text: Tango Gameworks is a Japanese video game developer based in Tokyo. Founded in March 2010 by Shinji Mikami, previously of Capcom, the company was acquired by ZeniMax Media in October that year after suffering financial issues. Tango developed "The Evil Within", a survival horror game released in 2014, its sequel, "The Evil Within 2", released in 2017, and "", an action-adventure game released in 2022.


title: Tango Gameworks

text: Shinji Mikami had been with video game developer Capcom since 1989, working on several of its franchises and creating the "Resident Evil" series of horror video games. Over time, Capcom grew too large for Mikami, who also wished to develop games based around concepts other than horror, as he had for Capcom. For some time, he worked on a freelance basis, directing the action game "Vanquish" for PlatinumGames and producing the action-horror game "Shadows of the Damned" for Grasshopper Manufacture. He was repeatedly inquired by Sega to develop a horror game for them, which he rejected. On 1 March 2010, a 44-year-old Mikami and a team of twelve developers founded Tango in Odaiba, Tokyo, where he moved to from his previous office in Osaka. Shigenori Nishikawa, the director of "MadWorld" for PlatinumGames, joined the company in May 2010. Tango immediately began work on multiple projects, with a small team working for six months on a joke game that would have starred a cockroach standing on two legs and shooting a gun.


title: Tango Gameworks

text: Their primary project was "Noah", a sci-fi open world survival-adventure game inspired by the 1984 film "Dune". In this game, Earth had become mostly uninhabitable and humankind moved to other planets, where one colony loses contact with the others and a research team is tasked with finding them. Shortly after development on this game began, Tango ran into financial issues; according to Mikami, "something happened". American video game publisher Bethesda Softworks stepped in to assist and had its parent company, ZeniMax Media, acquire the studio. That deal was announced on 28 October 2010. For the acquisition, ZeniMax used a part of the it had previously raised in private funding. Mikami agreed to the acquisition because he felt Bethesda and ZeniMax would provide the "most independent" development environment for Tango. The studio was merged into ZeniMax Asia K.K., ZeniMax's Asia-Pacific branch based in Tokyo's Aomi area, and reorganised as a division called Tango Gameworks. In November 2010, composer Masafumi Takada (formerly of Grasshopper Manufacture), as well as artist Naoki Katakai and programmer Shinichiro Ishikawa (both formerly of Capcom), joined Tango. By March 2012, the studio had 65 employees, with Mikami expecting to eventually grow to 100 staffers.


title: Tango Gameworks

text: Following the acquisition by ZeniMax, Mikami envisioned Tango to continue developing multiple games at a time. "Noah" was cancelled and development on another AAA project, "Zwei", commenced. Initially, this game saw a man and woman chained together hunting down a vampire, with either two players controlling each character individually, or one player both simultaneously. "Zwei" was formally announced in April 2012. Over time, the game evolved into a single-player survival horror game and was retitled "The Evil Within", which was announced in April 2013. In August 2014, Tango moved from Aomi to the Shibaura district. "The Evil Within" was released by Bethesda in October 2014. It was the last game directed by Mikami, who stepped back from this role to have future Tango games provide opportunities for other people. A sequel to "The Evil Within", "The Evil Within 2", was announced at E3 2017 and released by Bethesda in October 2017. In June 2019, during Bethesda's press conference at E3 2019, Mikami and creative director Ikumi Nakamura announced "", an action-adventure game with horror elements. Nakamura resigned from Tango in September 2019, leaving the studio after nine years.


title: Tango Gameworks

text: ZeniMax Media was acquired by Microsoft for in March 2021 and became part of Xbox Game Studios. In March 2022, Tango released the mobile game "Hero Dice" and shut it down five months later.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: Legitimacy, in traditional Western common law, is the status of a child born to parents who are legally married to each other, and of a child conceived before the parents obtain a legal divorce. Conversely, "illegitimacy", also known as "bastardy", has been the status of a child born outside marriage, such a child being known as a bastard, a love child, a natural child, or illegitimate. In Scots law, the terms natural son and natural daughter bear the same implications.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: The importance of legitimacy has decreased substantially in Western countries since the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 1970s and the declining influence of conservative Christian churches in family and social life.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: Births outside marriage now represent a large majority in many countries of Western Europe and the Americas, as well as in many former European colonies. In many Western-influenced cultures, stigma based on parents' marital status, and use of the word "bastard", are now widely considered offensive.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: England's Statute of Merton (1235) stated, regarding illegitimacy: "He is a bastard that is born before the marriage of his parents." This definition also applied to situations when a child's parents could not marry, as when one or both were already married or when the relationship was incestuous.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: The Poor Law of 1576 formed the basis of English bastardy law. Its purpose was to punish a bastard child's mother and putative father, and to relieve the parish from the cost of supporting mother and child. "By an act of 1576 (18 Elizabeth C. 3), it was ordered that bastards should be supported by their putative fathers, though bastardy orders in the quarter sessions date from before this date. If the genitor could be found, then he was put under very great pressure to accept responsibility and to maintain the child."


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: Under English law, a bastard could not inherit real property and could not be legitimized by the subsequent marriage of father to mother. There was one exception: when his father subsequently married his mother, and an older illegitimate son (a "bastard eignè") took possession of his father's lands after his death, he would pass the land on to his own heirs on his death, as if his possession of the land had been retroactively converted into true ownership. A younger non-bastard brother (a "mulier puisnè") would have no claim to the land.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: There were many "natural children" of Scotland's monarchy granted positions which founded prominent families. In the 14th century, Robert II of Scotland gifted one of his illegitimate sons estates in Bute, founding the Stewarts of Bute, and similarly a natural son of Robert III of Scotland was ancestral to the Shaw Stewarts of Greenock.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: In Scots law an illegitimate child, a "natural son" or "natural daughter", would be legitimated by the subsequent marriage of his parents, provided they were free to marry at the date of the conception. The Legitimation (Scotland) Act 1968 extended legitimation by the subsequent marriage of the parents to children conceived when their parents were not free to marry, but this was repealed in 2006 by the amendment of section 1 of the Law Reform (Parent and Child) (Scotland) Act 1986 (as amended in 2006) which abolished the status of illegitimacy stating that "(1) No person whose status is governed by Scots law shall be illegitimate ...".


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: The "Legitimacy Act 1926" of England and Wales legitimized the birth of a child if the parents subsequently married each other, provided that they had not been married to someone else in the meantime. The "Legitimacy Act 1959" extended the legitimization even if the parents had married others in the meantime and applied it to putative marriages which the parents incorrectly believed were valid. Neither the 1926 nor 1959 Acts changed the laws of succession to the British throne and succession to peerage and baronetcy titles. In Scotland children legitimated by the subsequent marriage of their parents have always been entitled to succeed to peerages and baronetcies and The Legitimation (Scotland) Act 1968 extended this right to children conceived when their parents were not free to marry. The "Family Law Reform Act" 1969 (c. 46) allowed a bastard to inherit on the intestacy of his parents. In canon and in civil law, the offspring of putative marriages have also been considered legitimate.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: Since December 2003 in England and Wales, April 2002 in Northern Ireland and May 2006 in Scotland, an unmarried father has parental responsibility if he is listed on the birth certificate.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: In the United States, in the early 1970s a series of Supreme Court decisions held that most common-law disabilities imposed upon illegitimacy were invalid as violations of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Still, children born out of wedlock may not be eligible for certain federal benefits (e.g., automatic naturalization when the father becomes a US citizen) unless the child has been legitimized in the appropriate jurisdiction.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: Many other countries have legislatively abolished any legal disabilities of a child born out of wedlock.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: In France, legal reforms regarding illegitimacy began in the 1970s, but it was only in the 21st century that the principle of equality was fully upheld (through Act no. 2002-305 of 4 March 2002, removing mention of "illegitimacy" — "filiation légitime" and "filiation naturelle"; and through law no. 2009-61 of 16 January 2009). In 2001, France was forced by the European Court of Human Rights to change several laws that were deemed discriminatory, and in 2013 the Court ruled that these changes must also be applied to children born before 2001.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: In some countries, the family law itself explicitly states that there must be equality between the children born outside and inside marriage: in Bulgaria, for example, the new 2009 Family Code lists "equality of the born during the matrimony, out of matrimony and of the adopted children" as one of the principles of family law.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: The "European Convention on the Legal Status of Children Born out of Wedlock" came into force in 1978. Countries which ratify it must ensure that children born outside marriage are provided with legal rights as stipulated in the text of this convention. The convention was ratified by the UK in 1981 and by Ireland in 1988.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: In later years, the inheritance rights of many illegitimate children have improved, and changes of laws have allowed them to inherit properties. More recently, the laws of England have been changed to allow illegitimate children to inherit entailed property, over their legitimate brothers and sisters.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: Despite the decreasing legal relevance of illegitimacy, an important exception may be found in the nationality laws of many countries, which do not apply "jus sanguinis" (nationality by citizenship of a parent) to children born out of wedlock, particularly in cases where the child's connection to the country lies only through the father. This is true, for example, of the United States, and its constitutionality was upheld in 2001 by the Supreme Court in "Nguyen v. INS". In the UK, the policy was changed so that children born after 1 July 2006 could receive British citizenship from their father if their parents were unmarried at the time of the child's birth; illegitimate children born before this date cannot receive British citizenship through their father.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: Legitimacy also continues to be relevant to hereditary titles, with only legitimate children being admitted to the line of succession. Some monarchs, however, have succeeded to the throne despite the controversial status of their legitimacy. For example, Elizabeth I succeeded to the throne though she was legally held illegitimate as a result of her parents' marriage having been annulled after her birth. Her older half-sister Mary I had acceded to the throne before her in a similar circumstance: her parents' marriage had been annulled in order to allow her father to marry Elizabeth's mother.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: Annulment of marriage does not currently change the status of legitimacy of children born to the couple during their putative marriage, "i.e.", between their marriage ceremony and the legal annulment of their marriage. For example, canon 1137 of the Roman Catholic Church's Code of Canon Law specifically affirms the legitimacy of a child born to a marriage that is declared null following the child's birth.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: The Catholic Church is also changing its attitude toward unwed mothers and baptism of the children. In criticizing the priests who refused to baptize out-of-wedlock children, Pope Francis argued that the mothers had done the right thing by giving life to the child and should not be shunned by the church:


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: The proportion of children born outside marriage has been rising since the turn of the 21st century in most European Union countries, North America, and Australia. In Europe, besides the low levels of fertility rates and the delay of motherhood, another factor that now characterizes fertility is the growing percentage of births outside marriage. In the EU, this phenomenon has been on the rise in recent years in almost every country; and in eight EU countries, mostly in northern Europe, as well as in Iceland outside of the EU, it already accounts for the majority of births.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: In 2009, 41% of children born in the United States were born to unmarried mothers, a significant increase from the 5% of half a century earlier. That includes 73% of non-Hispanic black children, 53% of Hispanic children (of all races), and 29% of non-Hispanic white children. In 2020, the proportion was almost similar, with 40.5% of children born in the US being born to unmarried mothers.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: In April 2009, the National Center for Health Statistics announced that nearly 40 percent of American infants born in 2007 were born to an unwed mother; that of 4.3 million children, 1.7 million were born to unmarried parents, a 25 percent increase from 2002. Most births to teenagers in the USA (86% in 2007) are nonmarital; in 2007, 60% of births to women 20–24, and nearly one-third of births to women 25–29, were nonmarital. In 2007, teenagers accounted for just 23% of nonmarital births, down steeply from 50% in 1970.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: In 2014, 42% of all births in the 28 EU countries were nonmarital. The percentage was also 42% in 2018. In 2018, births outside of marriage represented the majority of births in eight EU member states: France (60%), Bulgaria (59%), Slovenia (58%), Portugal (56%), Sweden (55%), Denmark and Estonia (both 54%), and the Netherlands (52%). The lowest percentage were in Greece, Cyprus, Croatia, Poland and Lithuania, with a percentage of under 30%.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: To a certain degree, religion (the religiosity of the population - see Religion in Europe) correlates with the proportion of nonmarital births (e.g., Greece, Cyprus, Croatia have a low percentage of births outside marriage), but this is not always the case: Portugal (56% in 2018) is among the most religious countries in Europe.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: The proportion of nonmarital births is also approaching half in the Czech Republic (48.5%. in 2021), the United Kingdom (48.2% as of 2017) and Hungary (46.7% as of 2016).


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: The prevalence of births to unmarried women varies not only between different countries, but also between different geographical areas of the same country: for example, in Germany, there are very strong differences between the regions of former West Germany and East Germany with a non-religious majority. Significantly more children are born out of wedlock in eastern Germany than in western Germany. In 2012, in eastern Germany 61.6% of births were to unmarried women, while in western Germany only 28.4% were. In the UK, in 2014, 59.4% of births were nonmarital in North East of England, 58.9% in Wales, 54.2% in North West England, 52.4% in Yorkshire and the Humber, 52% in East Midlands, 50.8% in Scotland, 50.4% in West Midlands, 48.5% in South West England, 45.5% in East of England, 43.2% in Northern Ireland, 42.9% in South East England, and 35.7% in London.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: In France, in 2012, 66.9% of births were nonmarital in Poitou-Charentes, while only 46.6% were in Ile-de-France (which contains Paris). One of the reasons for the lower prevalence of nonmarital births in the metropolis is the high number of immigrants from conservative world regions. In Canada, in Quebec, the majority of births since 1995 onwards have been outside marriage. As of 2015, 63% of births were outside marriage in Quebec.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: Traditionally conservative Catholic countries in the EU now also have substantial proportions of nonmarital births, as of 2016 (except where otherwise stated): Portugal (52.8% ), Spain (45.9%), Austria (41.7%), Luxembourg (40.7%) Slovakia (40.2%), Ireland (36.5%), Malta (31.8%)


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: The percentage of first-born children born out of wedlock is considerably higher (by roughly 10%, for the EU), as marriage often takes place after the first baby has arrived. For example, for the Czech Republic, whereas the total nonmarital births are less than half, 47.7%, (third quarter of 2015) the percentage of first-born outside marriage is more than half, 58.2%.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: In Australia, in 1971, only 7% of births were outside of marriage, compared to 36% in 2020. The proportion of births outside of marriage was the highest in the Northern Territory (59%) and the lowest in the ACT (28%).


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: Latin America has the highest rates of non-marital childbearing in the world (55–74% of all children in this region are born to unmarried parents). In most countries in this traditionally Catholic region, children born outside marriage are now the norm. Recent figures from Latin America show non-marital births to be 74% in Colombia, 70% in Paraguay, 69% in Peru, 63% in the Dominican Republic, 58% in Argentina, 55% in Mexico. In Brazil, non-marital births increased to 65.8% in 2009, up from 56.2% in 2000. In Chile, non-marital births increased to 70.7% in 2013, up from 48.3% in 2000.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: Even in the early 1990s, the phenomenon was very common in Latin America. For example, in 1993, out-of-wedlock births in Mexico were 41.5%, in Chile 43.6%, in Puerto Rico 45.8%, in Costa Rica 48.2%, in Argentina 52.7%, in Belize 58.1%, in El Salvador 73%, in Suriname 66% and in Panama 80%.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: Out-of-wedlock births are less common in Asia: in 1993 the rate in Japan was 1.4%; in Israel, 3.1%; in China, 5.6%; in Uzbekistan, 6.4%; in Kazakhstan, 21%; in Kyrgyzstan, 24%. However, in the Philippines, the out-of-wedlock birth rate was 37% in 2008–9, which skyrocketed to 52.1% by 2015.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: Covert illegitimacy is a situation which arises when someone who is presumed to be a child's father (or mother) is in fact not the biological father (or mother). Frequencies as high as 30% are sometimes assumed in the media, but research by sociologist Michael Gilding traced these overestimates back to an informal remark at a 1972 conference.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: The detection of unsuspected illegitimacy can occur in the context of medical genetic screening, in genetic family name research, and in immigration testing. Such studies show that covert illegitimacy is in fact less than 10% among the sampled African populations, less than 5% among the sampled Native American and Polynesian populations, less than 2% of the sampled Middle Eastern population, and generally 1%-2% among European samples.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: The rise in illegitimacy noted in Britain throughout the eighteenth century has been associated with the rise of new employment opportunities for women, making them less dependent upon a husband's earnings. However, the Marriage Act 1753 sought to curb this practice, by combining the spousals and nuptials; and by the start of the 19th century, social convention prescribed that brides be virgins at marriage, and illegitimacy became more socially discouraged, especially during the Victorian era. Later in the 20th century, the social changes of the 1960s and 1970s started to reverse this trend, with an increase in cohabitation and alternative family formation. Elsewhere in Europe and Latin America, the increase in nonmarital births from the late 20th century on has been linked to secularization, enhanced women's rights and standing in society, and the fall of authoritarian dictatorships.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: Before the dissolution of Marxist-Leninist regimes in Europe, women's participation in the workforce was actively encouraged by most governments, but socially conservative regimes such as that of Nicolae Ceausescu practiced restrictive and natalist policies regarding family reproduction, such as total bans on contraception and abortion, and birth rates were tightly controlled by the state. After the dissolution of those regimes, the population was given more choices on how to organize their personal lives, and in regions such as former East Germany, the rate of births outside marriage increased dramatically: as of 2012, 61.6% of births there were outside marriage. Far-right regimes such as those of Francoist Spain and Portugal's "Estado Novo" also fell, leading to the democratization and liberalization of society. In Spain and Portugal, important legal changes throughout the 1970s and 1980s included legalization of divorce, decriminalization of adultery, introduction of gender equality in family law, and removal of the ban on contraception.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: In many countries there has been a dissociation between marriage and fertility, with the two no longer being closely associated—with births to unmarried couples, as well as childless married couples, becoming more common and more socially acceptable. Contributions to these societal changes have been made by the weakening of social and legal norms that regulate peoples' personal lives and relations, especially in regard to marriage, secularization and decreased church control of reproduction, increased participation of women in the labor force, changes in the meaning of marriage, risk reduction, individualism, changing views on female sexuality, and availability of contraception. New concepts have emerged, such as that of reproductive rights, though these concepts have not been accepted by all cultures. Under the notions of reproductive and sexual rights, individuals—not the state, church, community, etc.—shall decide whether and when individuals shall have children, their number and spacing, the circumstances under which individuals will or will not be sexually active, and their choice of intimate partners and type of relationship.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: It is argued that in some places where the control of the church (especially the Roman Catholic Church) was traditionally very strong, the social changes of the 1960s and 1970s have led to a negative reaction of the population against the lifestyles promoted by the church. One of the explanations of the current high rates of unmarried cohabitation in Quebec is that the traditionally strong social control of the church and the Catholic doctrine over people's private relations and sexual morality has led the population to rebel against traditional and conservative social values; since 1995 the majority of births in this province are outside marriage, and as of 2015, in Quebec, 63% of children were born to unmarried women. The past few decades have seen decreased marriage rates in most Western countries, and this decrease has been accompanied by increased emergence of non-traditional family forms. Average marriage rates across OECD countries have fallen from 8.1 marriages per 1,000 people in 1970 to 5.0 in 2009.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: Certainty of paternity has been considered important in a wide range of eras and cultures, especially when inheritance and citizenship were at stake, making the tracking of a man's estate and genealogy a central part of what defined a "legitimate" birth. The ancient Latin dictum, ""Mater semper certa est"" ("The [identity of the] mother is always certain", while the father is not), emphasized the dilemma.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: In English common law, Justice Edward Coke in 1626 promulgated the "Four Seas Rule" ("extra quatuor maria") asserting that, absent impossibility of the father being fertile, there was a presumption of paternity that a married woman's child was her husband's child. That presumption could be questioned, though courts generally sided with the presumption, thus expanding the range of the presumption to a "Seven Seas Rule". But it was only with the Marriage Act 1753 that a formal and public marriage ceremony at civil law was required, whereas previously marriage had a safe haven if celebrated in an Anglican church. Still, many "clandestine" marriages occurred.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: In many societies, people born out of wedlock did not have the same rights of inheritance as those within it, and in some societies, even the same civil rights. In the United Kingdom and the United States, as late as the 1960s and in certain social strata even up to today, nonmarital birth has carried a social stigma. In previous centuries unwed mothers were forced by social pressure to give their children up for adoption. In other cases nonmarital children have been reared by grandparents or married relatives as the "sisters", "brothers" or "cousins" of the unwed mothers.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: In most national jurisdictions, the status of a child as a legitimate or illegitimate heir could be changed—in either direction—under the civil law: A legislative act could deprive a child of legitimacy; conversely, a marriage between the previously unmarried parents, usually within a specified time, such as a year, could retroactively legitimate a child's birth.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: Fathers of illegitimate children often did not incur comparable censure or legal responsibility, due to social attitudes about sex, the nature of sexual reproduction, and the difficulty of determining paternity with certainty.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: By the final third of the 20th century, in the United States, all the states had adopted uniform laws that codified the responsibility of both parents to provide support and care for a child, regardless of the parents' marital status, and gave nonmarital as well as adopted persons equal rights to inherit their parents' property. In the early 1970s, a series of Supreme Court decisions abolished most, if not all, of the common-law disabilities of nonmarital birth, as being violations of the equal-protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Generally speaking, in the United States, "illegitimate" has been supplanted by the phrase "born out of wedlock."


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: In contrast, other jurisdictions (particularly western continental European countries) tend to favour social parentage over the biological parentage. Here a man (not necessarily the biological father) may voluntarily recognise the child to be identified as the father, thus giving legitimacy to the child; the biological father does not have any special rights in this area. In France a mother may refuse to recognise her own child (see anonymous birth).


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: A contribution to the decline of the concept of illegitimacy had been made by increased ease of obtaining divorce. Before this, the mother and father of many children had been unable to marry each other because one or the other was already legally bound, by civil or canon law, in a non-viable earlier marriage that did not permit divorce. Their only recourse, often, had been to wait for the death of the earlier spouse(s). Thus Polish political and military leader Józef Piłsudski (1867–1935) was unable to marry his second wife, Aleksandra, until his first wife, Maria, died in 1921; by this time, Piłsudski and Aleksandra had two out-of-wedlock daughters.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: Nonmarital birth has affected not only the individuals themselves. The stress that such circumstances of birth once regularly visited upon families is illustrated in the case of Albert Einstein and his wife-to-be, Mileva Marić, who—when she became pregnant with the first of their three children, Lieserl—felt compelled to maintain separate domiciles in different cities.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: Some persons born outside of marriage have been driven to excel in their endeavors, for good or ill, by a desire to overcome the social stigma and disadvantage that attached to it. Nora Titone, in her book "My Thoughts Be Bloody", recounts how the shame and ambition of actor Junius Brutus Booth's two actor sons born outside of marriage, Edwin Booth and John Wilkes Booth, spurred them to strive, as rivals, for achievement and acclaim—John Wilkes, the assassin of Abraham Lincoln, and Edwin, a Unionist who a year earlier had saved the life of Lincoln's son, Robert Todd Lincoln, in a railroad accident.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: Historian John Ferling, in his book "Jefferson and Hamilton: The Rivalry That Forged a Nation", makes the same point: that Alexander Hamilton's nonmarital birth spurred him to seek accomplishment and distinction.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: The Swedish artist Anders Zorn (1860–1920) was similarly motivated by his nonmarital birth to prove himself and excel in his métier.


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: Similarly, T. E. Lawrence's biographer Flora Armitage writes about being born outside of marriage: "The effect on [T. E.] Lawrence of this discovery was profound; it added to the romantic urge for heroic conduct—the dream of the Sangreal—the seed of ambition, the desire for honor and distinction: the redemption of the blood from its taint." Another biographer, John E. Mack, writes in a similar vein: "[H]is mother required of him that he "redeem" her fallen state by his own special achievements, by being a person of unusual value who accomplishes great deeds, preferably religious and ideally on an heroic scale. Lawrence did his best to fulfill heroic deeds. But he was plagued, especially after the events of the war activated his inner conflicts, by a deep sense of failure. Having been deceived as a child he was later to feel that he himself was a deceiver—that he had deceived the Arabs..." "Mrs. Lawrence's original hope that her sons would provide her personal redemption by becoming Christian missionaries was fulfilled only by [Lawrence's brother] Robert." Mack elaborates further: "Part of his creativity and originality lies in his 'irregularity,' in his capacity to remain outside conventional ways of thinking, a tendency which... derives, at least in part, from his illegitimacy. Lawrence's capacity for invention and his ability to see unusual or humorous relationships in familiar situations come also... from his illegitimacy. He was not limited to established or 'legitimate' solutions or ways of doing things, and thus his mind was open to a wider range of possibilities and opportunities. [At the same time] Lawrence's illegitimacy had important social consequences and placed limitations upon him, which rankled him deeply... At times he felt socially isolated when erstwhile friends shunned him upon learning of his background. Lawrence's delight in making fun of regular officers and other segments of 'regular' society... derived... at least in part from his inner view of his own irregular situation. His fickleness about names for himself [he changed his name twice to distance himself from his "Lawrence of Arabia" persona] is directly related... to his view of his parents and to his identification with them [his father had changed his name after running off with T. E. Lawrence's future mother]."


title: Legitimacy (family law)

text: Christopher Columbus' first son, Diego Columbus (born between 1474 and 1480; died 1526), by Columbus' wife, Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, followed in his father's footsteps to become the 2nd Admiral of the Indies, 2nd Viceroy of the Indies, and 4th Governor of the Indies.