title: Propositional calculus

text: For formula_169 distinct propositional symbols there are formula_170 distinct possible interpretations. For any particular symbol formula_171, for example, there are formula_172 possible interpretations:


title: Propositional calculus

text: Since formula_166 has formula_183, that is, denumerably many propositional symbols, there are formula_184, and therefore uncountably many distinct possible interpretations of formula_166.


title: Propositional calculus

text: If and are formulas of formula_166 and formula_187 is an interpretation of formula_166 then the following definitions apply:


title: Propositional calculus

text: It is possible to define another version of propositional calculus, which defines most of the syntax of the logical operators by means of axioms, and which uses only one inference rule.


title: Propositional calculus

text: Let , , and stand for well-formed formulas. (The well-formed formulas themselves would not contain any Greek letters, but only capital Roman letters, connective operators, and parentheses.) Then the axioms are as follows:


title: Propositional calculus

text: Let a demonstration be represented by a sequence, with hypotheses to the left of the turnstile and the conclusion to the right of the turnstile. Then the deduction theorem can be stated as follows:


title: Propositional calculus

text: This deduction theorem (DT) is not itself formulated with propositional calculus: it is not a theorem of propositional calculus, but a theorem about propositional calculus. In this sense, it is a meta-theorem, comparable to theorems about the soundness or completeness of propositional calculus.


title: Propositional calculus

text: On the other hand, DT is so useful for simplifying the syntactical proof process that it can be considered and used as another inference rule, accompanying modus ponens. In this sense, DT corresponds to the natural conditional proof inference rule which is part of the first version of propositional calculus introduced in this article.


title: Propositional calculus

text: The converse of DT has powerful implications: it can be used to convert an axiom into an inference rule. For example, by axiom AND-1 we have,


title: Propositional calculus

text: is admissible. This inference rule is conjunction elimination, one of the ten inference rules used in the first version (in this article) of the propositional calculus.


title: Propositional calculus

text: The preceding alternative calculus is an example of a Hilbert-style deduction system. In the case of propositional systems the axioms are terms built with logical connectives and the only inference rule is modus ponens. Equational logic as standardly used informally in high school algebra is a different kind of calculus from Hilbert systems. Its theorems are equations and its inference rules express the properties of equality, namely that it is a congruence on terms that admits substitution.


title: Propositional calculus

text: Classical propositional calculus as described above is equivalent to Boolean algebra, while intuitionistic propositional calculus is equivalent to Heyting algebra. The equivalence is shown by translation in each direction of the theorems of the respective systems. Theorems formula_231 of classical or intuitionistic propositional calculus are translated as equations formula_232 of Boolean or Heyting algebra respectively. Conversely theorems formula_233 of Boolean or Heyting algebra are translated as theorems formula_234 of classical or intuitionistic calculus respectively, for which formula_235 is a standard abbreviation. In the case of Boolean algebra formula_233 can also be translated as formula_237, but this translation is incorrect intuitionistically.


title: Propositional calculus

text: In both Boolean and Heyting algebra, inequality formula_238 can be used in place of equality. The equality formula_233 is expressible as a pair of inequalities formula_238 and formula_241. Conversely the inequality formula_238 is expressible as the equality formula_243, or as formula_244. The significance of inequality for Hilbert-style systems is that it corresponds to the latter's deduction or entailment symbol formula_65. An entailment


title: Propositional calculus

text: The difference between implication formula_250 and inequality or entailment formula_238 or formula_249 is that the former is internal to the logic while the latter is external. Internal implication between two terms is another term of the same kind. Entailment as external implication between two terms expresses a metatruth outside the language of the logic, and is considered part of the metalanguage. Even when the logic under study is intuitionistic, entailment is ordinarily understood classically as two-valued: either the left side entails, or is less-or-equal to, the right side, or it is not.


title: Propositional calculus

text: Similar but more complex translations to and from algebraic logics are possible for natural deduction systems as described above and for the sequent calculus. The entailments of the latter can be interpreted as two-valued, but a more insightful interpretation is as a set, the elements of which can be understood as abstract proofs organized as the morphisms of a category. In this interpretation the cut rule of the sequent calculus corresponds to composition in the category. Boolean and Heyting algebras enter this picture as special categories having at most one morphism per homset, i.e., one proof per entailment, corresponding to the idea that existence of proofs is all that matters: any proof will do and there is no point in distinguishing them.


title: Propositional calculus

text: It is possible to generalize the definition of a formal language from a set of finite sequences over a finite basis to include many other sets of mathematical structures, so long as they are built up by finitary means from finite materials. What's more, many of these families of formal structures are especially well-suited for use in logic.


title: Propositional calculus

text: For example, there are many families of graphs that are close enough analogues of formal languages that the concept of a calculus is quite easily and naturally extended to them. Many species of graphs arise as "parse graphs" in the syntactic analysis of the corresponding families of text structures. The exigencies of practical computation on formal languages frequently demand that text strings be converted into pointer structure renditions of parse graphs, simply as a matter of checking whether strings are well-formed formulas or not. Once this is done, there are many advantages to be gained from developing the graphical analogue of the calculus on strings. The mapping from strings to parse graphs is called "parsing" and the inverse mapping from parse graphs to strings is achieved by an operation that is called "traversing" the graph.


title: Propositional calculus

text: Propositional calculus is about the simplest kind of logical calculus in current use. It can be extended in several ways. (Aristotelian "syllogistic" calculus, which is largely supplanted in modern logic, is in "some" ways simpler – but in other ways more complex – than propositional calculus.) The most immediate way to develop a more complex logical calculus is to introduce rules that are sensitive to more fine-grained details of the sentences being used.


title: Propositional calculus

text: First-order logic (a.k.a. first-order predicate logic) results when the "atomic sentences" of propositional logic are broken up into terms, variables, predicates, and quantifiers, all keeping the rules of propositional logic with some new ones introduced. (For example, from "All dogs are mammals" we may infer "If Rover is a dog then Rover is a mammal".) With the tools of first-order logic it is possible to formulate a number of theories, either with explicit axioms or by rules of inference, that can themselves be treated as logical calculi. Arithmetic is the best known of these; others include set theory and mereology. Second-order logic and other higher-order logics are formal extensions of first-order logic. Thus, it makes sense to refer to propositional logic as ""zeroth-order logic"", when comparing it with these logics.


title: Propositional calculus

text: Modal logic also offers a variety of inferences that cannot be captured in propositional calculus. For example, from "Necessarily " we may infer that . From we may infer "It is possible that ". The translation between modal logics and algebraic logics concerns classical and intuitionistic logics but with the introduction of a unary operator on Boolean or Heyting algebras, different from the Boolean operations, interpreting the possibility modality, and in the case of Heyting algebra a second operator interpreting necessity (for Boolean algebra this is redundant since necessity is the De Morgan dual of possibility). The first operator preserves 0 and disjunction while the second preserves 1 and conjunction.


title: Propositional calculus

text: Many-valued logics are those allowing sentences to have values other than "true" and "false". (For example, "neither" and "both" are standard "extra values"; "continuum logic" allows each sentence to have any of an infinite number of "degrees of truth" between "true" and "false".) These logics often require calculational devices quite distinct from propositional calculus. When the values form a Boolean algebra (which may have more than two or even infinitely many values), many-valued logic reduces to classical logic; many-valued logics are therefore only of independent interest when the values form an algebra that is not Boolean.


title: Propositional calculus

text: Deciding satisfiability of propositional logic formulas is an NP-complete problem. However, practical methods exist (e.g., DPLL algorithm, 1962; Chaff algorithm, 2001) that are very fast for many useful cases. Recent work has extended the SAT solver algorithms to work with propositions containing arithmetic expressions; these are the SMT solvers.


title: Tommy James

text: Tommy James (born Thomas Gregory Jackson; April 29, 1947), also known as Tommy Tadger, is an American musician, singer, songwriter, and record producer, widely known as frontman of the 1960s rock band Tommy James and the Shondells, who were known for their hits including "Mony Mony" and "Crimson and Clover".


title: Tommy James

text: Born in Dayton, Ohio, James and his family later moved to Niles, Michigan. He was a child model at the age of four. In 1959, at the age of twelve, he formed the band "The Echoes", which eventually became "Tom and the Tornadoes". In 1964 the band changed its name to The Shondells. That same year, Jack Douglas, a local DJ at WNIL radio station in Niles, formed his own record label, Snap Records. The Shondells were one of the local bands he recorded at WNIL Studios. One of the songs was the Jeff Barry and Ellie Greenwich ditty "Hanky Panky", which the pair had recorded under the name The Raindrops. The song was a hit locally, but the label had no resources for national promotion, and it was soon forgotten.


title: Tommy James

text: In 1965, a local dance promoter, Bob Mack, found a copy of "Hanky Panky" in a used record bin and started playing it at his Pittsburgh dance clubs. Soon after, a Pittsburgh area bootlegger made a copy of the song and began pressing copies of it, speeding it up slightly in the process. Sales of the bootleg were estimated at 80,000 in ten days. It became a number one on Pittsburgh radio stations in early 1966. Douglas heard about the record's sudden popularity in Pittsburgh because his name and contact information appeared on Snap Records labels. Numerous calls from Pittsburgh convinced James to go to Pennsylvania, where he met Mack and Chuck Rubin, who handled the talent bookings for Mack's dance clubs. Before long, all three major music trade papers, "Billboard", "Cashbox" and "Record World", were listing "Hanky Panky" as a regional breakout hit. Rubin, who had music industry connections, said it was a good time for the trio to travel to New York City in search of a record deal.


title: Tommy James

text: The men made the rounds of the major recording labels, getting initial potential offers from most companies they visited. One label, Roulette Records, gave no initial response because its head, Morris Levy, was out of town until that evening; Roulette was one of the last stops on their visit. By the next morning, Mack, Rubin, and James were now receiving polite refusals from the major record companies after the enthusiasm for the record the day before. James said, "We didn't know what in the world was going on, and finally Jerry Wexler over at Atlantic leveled with us and said, 'Look, Morris Levy and Roulette called up all the other record companies and said, "This is my freakin' record." (laughs) and scared 'em all away – even the big corporate labels.'" Their only option would be to sign with Roulette.


title: Tommy James

text: Since the band had broken up two years before, James was the only Shondell left. Mack made his dance club bands available to James, but nothing seemed to fit until one of the bands' guitarists took James to the Thunderbird Lounge in Greensburg, Pennsylvania. James sang with the house band, the Raconteurs. The Raconteurs became the new Shondells, and Jackson acquired the professional name of Tommy James. By the third week of June 1966, "Hanky Panky" had become the top single at WLS. By the third week of July 1966, "Hanky Panky" had become the top single in the United States.


title: Tommy James

text: After a few comings and goings of members, the classic lineup of James, Eddie Gray (guitar), Mike Vale (bass), Ron Rosman (keyboards) and Pete Lucia (drums) was formed. The group recorded a follow-up song to "Hanky Panky". When Bob Mack's attempt at finding some Shondells worked out in an inadvertent way, he told James about another record he found in the same used record bin "Hanky Panky" came from: "Say I Am" by Jimmy Gilmer and the Fireballs. The only thing James and his new Shondells were aware of when they entered the recording studio for the first time is that whatever they recorded should sound similar to "Hanky Panky", although the two songs sound nothing alike. Mack played The Fireballs record for the group, and they decided to record their version of the song. Mack was credited as the producer for the group's first album, "Hanky Panky".


title: Tommy James

text: Songwriter Richie Cordell wrote (or co-wrote) and produced many of the group's hits, among them "I Think We're Alone Now", "Mirage", and "Mony Mony". The creation of "Mony Mony" was a group effort involving Cordell, James, Shondells band member Peter Lucia, producer Bo Gentry, and Bobby Bloom. James and Cordell set out to create a party rock single, working out everything except the song's title, which eluded them even after much effort. When they took a break from their creative endeavors on James' apartment terrace, they looked up at the Mutual of New York Insurance Company's large neon sign bearing the abbreviation for the company: M-O-N-Y, which provided the song's name.


title: Tommy James

text: Tommy James and the Shondells also produced a "Mony Mony" video when the song was a hit. Even though a number of musical groups had already produced videos by that time, there was no market at all for that film in the US. Television stations would not air it, and it was originally shown between double features in movie theaters in Europe. The film was not seen in the US until the creation of MTV.


title: Tommy James

text: James was contacted by Beatle George Harrison, who was working with a group called Grapefruit at the time. Harrison and the group had written some songs they wanted James to consider recording. Since the group had made a decision to change their musical style (and would do so with "Crimson and Clover": see below) and the material Harrison and Grapefruit provided was in the style of "Mony Mony", James turned down their offer.


title: Tommy James

text: The music business changed after the success of "Mony Mony". Top 40 program formatting, based on 45 RPM single records, drove popular music on the radio. Few stations played cuts from record albums, so radio was, in effect, "selling" single records for the record companies. In August 1968, James and the Shondells went on the campaign trail for three months with presidential candidate Vice President Hubert Humphrey. Meanwhile, popular music had become album-driven, displacing many performers whose singles had been top sellers. James realized he and the Shondells needed to become an album-oriented group if they were to survive in the business, necessitating a change in their style.


title: Tommy James

text: After working out a marketing strategy for their new sound, James visited WLS when the group was in Chicago to play a concert, bringing along a rough cut of "Crimson and Clover" to the station. WLS secretly recorded the music when James played his tape for them. By the time James was out of the building and in the car, its radio was playing the station's dub of the not-yet-finished song. "Crimson and Clover" had to be pressed the way it was heard on the radio station, and the marketing plan was now wasted time and effort.


title: Tommy James

text: "Crimson and Clover" was a huge success, and the group would have two follow-up hits that also reached the Hot 100's top 10, "Sweet Cherry Wine" and "Crystal Blue Persuasion". James, who co-wrote all three of those songs, and his band did well enough with the transition to be invited to perform at Woodstock. James describes Artie Kornfeld's invitation like this: "Artie was up and asked if you could play at this pig farm up in upstate New York." I said, "What?!?" "Well, they say it's gonna be a lot of people there, and it's gonna be a really important show." At the time James was in Hawaii and was incredulous about being asked to travel 6,000 miles to play a show on an upstate New York pig farm, telling the Roulette Records secretary, "If I'm not there, start without us, will you please?"


title: Tommy James

text: In March 1970, after four more hits, drugs almost killed James when, at a concert, he collapsed, and was pronounced dead. However, he survived, decided to take a break from the recording studio, and moved up into the country to recuperate. The Shondells, without James, recorded two albums under the new group name Hog Heaven (one "self titled" on Roulette Records in 1970 and the second in 1971 but unreleased until 2008), but disbanded soon afterwards.


title: Tommy James

text: Tommy James and The Shondells were voted into the Michigan Rock and Roll Legends online Hall of Fame in 2006. Four of the band's biggest hits have been voted Legendary Michigan Songs: "Crimson & Clover" in 2010, and "Hanky Panky", "I Think We're Alone Now", and "Mony Mony" in 2011.


title: Tommy James

text: James went solo later in 1970 and released his first two solo albums on Roulette, "Tommy James" (September 1970) and "Christian of the World" (August 1971). He had two further Billboard Hot 100 top 20 chart hits with "Draggin' the Line" (co-written by Bob King) (#4 in 1971) and "Three Times in Love" (#19 in 1980), plus eleven much smaller Hot 100 chartings. "Hanky Panky" has been James' one RIAA certified gold single. He also wrote and produced the million-selling 1970 hit "Tighter, Tighter" for the group Alive 'N Kickin' (co-written by Bob King). In 1971 James spent time in Nashville at the recommendation of friends when a "mob war" erupted among organized crime families in New York, and threats against James were intimated due to his connection to Morris Levy. He recorded an album there with top Nashville musicians, "My Head, My Bed and My Red Guitar" (January 1972), which received critical acclaim but sold poorly. He left Roulette Records in 1974 and two more albums, "In Touch" (July 1976) and "Midnight Rider" (January 1978), followed on Fantasy Records, with yet another, "Three Times in Love", appearing on Millennium Records in late 1979. The independent label Aegis Records put out his "Hi-Fi" album in the summer of 1990.


title: Tommy James

text: To date, over 300 musicians have recorded versions of James' music. Covers of three of James' songs went top ten on the Hot 100 (the last two as consecutive No. 1s) in the 1980s: Joan Jett with "Crimson and Clover", Tiffany with "I Think We're Alone Now", and Billy Idol with "Mony Mony".


title: Tommy James

text: In October 2008 James and the three surviving members of the original Shondells (Pete Lucia died in 1987) reunited in a New Jersey studio to record again after 37 years. The group recorded an album, "I Love Christmas".


title: Tommy James

text: In February 2010, an autobiography "Me, The Mob, and The Music" was published. James announced that deals were in hand to turn the story into both a film and a Broadway play. Barbara De Fina was said to be producing the film.


title: Tommy James

text: It was evident when James first met Morris Levy, the head of Roulette Records, that Levy was willing to strong-arm others when necessary. Those signed to Roulette were there to produce money for the company, having their needs met only when it pleased Levy. Asking to be paid meant intimidation; to survive, those under contract to Roulette needed to find a means of generating income that did not involve the record company, such as personally booked tours. While a Roulette artist had great creative control when recording for the company, the lack of payment for those efforts was difficult to take.


title: Tommy James

text: James estimates the company owed him $30 to $40 million in royalties. Roulette was used as a front for organized crime, also functioning as a money laundering operation, as Levy was closely allied with the Genovese crime family. In the early 1970s, the Genovese outfit found itself in a bloody gang war with the Gambino family, which saw victims not only among mobsters (such as Levy's close friend and business partner Thomas Eboli), but increasingly among non-mob figures on the periphery of the organizations. Levy had taken a somewhat fatherly shine to James, and worried that he might be a target for those who wanted to get at the Genovese family through Levy, so he warned James to flee New York for an extended period until the war was over. James settled in Nashville, Tennessee, where the Mafia had little presence or influence. While there he began jamming with local country music session players, and was inspired to record a country-rock record in 1971.


title: Tommy James

text: James did not feel comfortable writing his book until all those deeply involved with the record company had died. It was only after Roulette Records and Levy's Big Seven Music publishing company were sold (the record company to an EMI and Rhino Records partnership, the music publishing company to Windswept Pacific Music which was later sold to EMI) that James began to receive large royalty checks from sales of his records.


title: Tommy James

text: In February 2018, James became host of weekly radio program 'Gettin Together with Tommy James' on Sirius XM Radio channel 73, 60s Gold.


title: Tommy James

text: James can also be seen on late-night informercials selling collections of music from the Woodstock era for Time Life.


title: Tommy James

text: James moved to Clifton, New Jersey in the mid 1970s and circa 2000 to nearby Cedar Grove. He has been married three times and has one child. On February 23, 2022, his wife Lynda died after a prolonged illness.


title: Brian Greene

text: Brian Randolph Greene (born February 9, 1963) is a American theoretical physicist, mathematician, and string theorist. Greene was a physics professor at Cornell University from 19901995, and has been a professor at Columbia University since 1996 and chairman of the World Science Festival since co-founding it in 2008. Greene has worked on mirror symmetry, relating two different Calabi–Yau manifolds (concretely relating the conifold to one of its orbifolds). He also described the flop transition, a mild form of topology change, showing that topology in string theory can change at the conifold point.


title: Brian Greene

text: Greene has become known to a wider audience through his books for the general public, "The Elegant Universe", "Icarus at the Edge of Time", "The Fabric of the Cosmos", "The Hidden Reality", and related PBS television specials. He also appeared on "The Big Bang Theory" episode "The Herb Garden Germination", as well as the films "Frequency" and "The Last Mimzy". He is currently a member of the Board of Sponsors of the "Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists".


title: Brian Greene

text: Greene was born in New York City of Jewish background. His father, Alan Greene, was a one-time vaudeville performer and high school dropout who later worked as a voice coach and composer. After attending Stuyvesant High School, Greene entered Harvard University in 1980 to concentrate in physics. After completing his BA degree with "summa cum laude" honors in 1984, Greene earned his DPhil degree in theoretical physics at Magdalen College, Oxford, graduating in 1987. While at Oxford, Greene also studied piano with the concert pianist Jack Gibbons.


title: Brian Greene

text: Greene joined the physics faculty of Cornell University in 1990 and was appointed to a full professorship in 1995. The following year, he joined the faculty of Columbia University as a full professor. At Columbia, Greene is co-director of the university's Institute for Strings, Cosmology, and Astroparticle Physics (ISCAP) and is leading a research program applying superstring theory to cosmological questions. With co-investigators David Albert and Maulik Parikh he is a FQXi large-grant awardee for his project entitled "Arrow of Time in the Quantum Universe".


title: Brian Greene

text: Greene's area of research is string theory, a candidate for a theory of quantum gravity. He is known for his contribution to the understanding of the different shapes the curled-up dimensions of string theory can take. The most important of these shapes are so-called Calabi–Yau manifolds; when the extra dimensions take on those particular forms, physics in three dimensions exhibits an abstract symmetry known as supersymmetry.


title: Brian Greene

text: Greene has worked on a particular class of symmetry relating two different Calabi–Yau manifolds, known as mirror symmetry and is known for his research on the flop transition, a mild form of topology change, showing that topology in string theory can change at the conifold point.


title: Brian Greene

text: Currently, Greene studies string cosmology, especially the imprints of trans-Planckian physics on the cosmic microwave background, and brane-gas cosmologies that could explain why the space around us has three large dimensions, expanding on the suggestion of a black hole electron, namely that the electron may be a black hole.


title: Brian Greene

text: In 2008, together with Tracy Day (former ABC News producer), Greene co-founded the World Science Festival, whose mission is to cultivate a general public informed by science, inspired by wonder, convinced of its value, and prepared to engage with its implications for the future.


title: Brian Greene

text: The World Science Festival's signature event is a five-day festival in New York City, typically falling in May. Held at a variety of museums, galleries, and outdoor venues, the festival has surpassed 2 million attendees. Hailed as a "new cultural institution", by "The New York Times", the festival has featured Stephen Hawking, Edward O. Wilson, Sir Paul Nurse, James Watson, Anna Deavere Smith, Francis Collins, Philip Glass, Yo-Yo Ma, Oliver Sacks, Mary-Claire King, William Phillips, Paul Davies, Elizabeth Vargas, Steven Weinberg, Sir Roger Penrose, Charlie Rose, Lisa P. Jackson, John Lithgow, Vinton Cerf, Glenn Close, Jeffrey Eugenides, Bill T. Jones, Joyce Carol Oates and Elaine Fuchs.


title: Brian Greene

text: Greene is well known to a wider audience for his work on popularizing theoretical physics, in particular string theory and the search for a unified theory of physics. His first book, "The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory", published in 1999, is a popularization of superstring theory and M-theory. It was a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize in nonfiction, and winner of "The Aventis Prizes for Science Books" in 2000. "The Elegant Universe" was later made into a PBS television special of the same name, hosted and narrated by Greene, which won a 2003 Peabody Award.


title: Brian Greene

text: Greene's second book, "The Fabric of the Cosmos: Space, Time, and the Texture of Reality" (2004), is about space, time, and the nature of the universe. Aspects covered in this book include non-local particle entanglement as it relates to special relativity and basic explanations of string theory. It is an examination of the very nature of matter and reality, covering such topics as spacetime and cosmology, origins and unification, and including an exploration into reality and the imagination. "The Fabric of the Cosmos" was later made into a PBS television special of the same name, hosted and narrated by Greene.


title: Brian Greene

text: Greene's third book, "", published in January 2011, deals in greater depth with multiple universes, or, as they are sometimes referred to collectively, the multiverse.


title: Brian Greene

text: A book for a younger audience, "Icarus at the Edge of Time", which is a futuristic re-telling of the Icarus myth, was published September 2, 2008. In addition to authoring popular-science books, Greene is an occasional op-ed contributor for "The New York Times", writing on his work and other scientific topics.


title: Brian Greene

text: The popularity of his books and his natural on-camera demeanor have resulted in many media appearances, including "Charlie Rose", "The Colbert Report", "The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer", "The Century with Peter Jennings", CNN, "Time", "Nightline in Primetime", "Late Night with Conan O'Brien", and the "Late Show with David Letterman". It has also led to Greene helping John Lithgow with scientific dialogue for the television series "3rd Rock from the Sun", and becoming a technical consultant for the film "Frequency", in which he also had a cameo role. He was a consultant on the 2006 time-travel movie "Déjà Vu". He also had a cameo appearance as an Intel scientist in 2007's "The Last Mimzy". Greene was also mentioned in the 2002 "Angel" episode "Supersymmetry" and in the 2008 "Stargate Atlantis" episode "Trio". In April 2011 he appeared on "The Big Bang Theory" in the episode "The Herb Garden Germination" as himself, speaking to a small crowd about the contents of his most recent book.


title: Brian Greene

text: Greene has lectured outside of the collegiate setting, at both a general and a technical level, in more than twenty-five countries. In 2012 his teaching prowess was recognized when he received the Richtmyer Memorial Award, which is given annually by the American Association of Physics Teachers.


title: Brian Greene

text: In May 2013, the Science Laureates of the United States Act of 2013 (H.R. 1891; 113th Congress) was introduced into Congress. Brian Greene was listed by one commentator as a possible nominee for the position of Science Laureate, if the act were to pass.


title: Brian Greene

text: In March 2015, an Australian spider that uses waves to hunt prey, "Dolomedes briangreenei", was to be named in honor of Brian Greene.


title: Brian Greene

text: He was interviewed at length by Jim Al-Khalili on the BBC radio program "The Life Scientific" on 28 April 2020.


title: Brian Greene

text: Greene is married to former ABC producer Tracy Day. They have one son, Alec, and one daughter, Sophia.


title: Brian Greene

text: Greene has stated that he regards science as being incompatible with literalist interpretations of religion and that there is much in the New Atheism movement which resonates with him because he personally does not feel the need for religious explanation. However, he is uncertain of its efficacy as a strategy for spreading a scientific worldview. In an interview with "The Guardian" he says "When I'm looking to understand myself as a human, and how I fit in to the long chain of human culture that reaches back thousands of years, religion is a deeply valuable part of that story."


title: Transgender pregnancy

text: Transgender pregnancy is the gestation of one or more embryos or fetuses by transgender people. Currently, the possibility is restricted to those born with female reproductive systems, and transition-related treatments may impact fertility. Transgender men and nonbinary people who are or wish to become pregnant face social, medical, legal, and psychological concerns. As uterus transplantations are currently experimental, and none have successfully been performed on trans women, they cannot become pregnant.


title: Transgender pregnancy

text: Pregnancy is possible for transgender men who retain functioning ovaries and a uterus, such as in the case of Thomas Beatie. Regardless of prior hormone replacement therapy (HRT) treatments, the progression of pregnancy and birthing procedures are typically the same as those of cisgender women. It has been shown that historical HRT use may not negatively impact ovarian stimulation outcomes, with no significant differences in the markers of follicular function or oocyte maturity between transgender men with and without a history of testosterone use. However, some trans men who carry pregnancies are subjected to discrimination, which can include a variety of negative social, emotional, and medical experiences, as pregnancy is regarded as an exclusively feminine or female activity. According to the study "Transgender Men Who Experienced Pregnancy After Female-to-Male Gender Transitioning" by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, there is a lack of awareness, services, and medical assistance available to pregnant trans men. Inaccessibility to these services may lead to difficulty in finding comfortable and supportive services concerning prenatal care, as well as an increased risk for unsafe or unhealthy practices. Additionally, the study showed that some individuals reported having gender dysphoria and feelings of isolation due to the public reception of their gender identity and drastic changes in appearance which occur during pregnancy, such as enlarged breasts.


title: Transgender pregnancy

text: Testosterone therapy affects fertility, but many trans men who have become pregnant were able to do so within six months of stopping testosterone. Testosterone has been shown to be an ineffective form of contraception. Exposing a fetus to high levels of exogenous testosterone may damage an unborn child. This is particularly impactful in the first trimester of development when many pregnancies haven’t been discovered yet. Additionally, patients experiencing amenorrhea (a common side effect of exogenous testosterone exposure) may experience additional challenges in identifying early pregnancies due to the lack of regular menstrual cycling that could indicate a pregnancy if missed, for example. For this reason, it is important for patients and healthcare practitioners to comprehensively discuss fertility goals, family planning and contraceptive options during gender-affirming care. Previous studies of pregnancies in women suggest that high levels of endogenous androgens are associated with reduced birth weight, although it is unclear how prior testosterone in a childbearing trans person may affect birth weight. Future pregnancies can be achieved by oophyte banking, but the process may increase gender dysphoria or may not be accessible due to lack of insurance coverage. Testosterone therapy is not a sufficient method of contraception, and trans men may experience unintended pregnancy, especially if they miss doses. Unintended pregnancies can result in transgender men or nonbinary people considering or attempting self-induced abortion. Delivery options include conventional methods such as vaginal delivery and cesarean section, and patient preference should be taken into consideration in order to reduce gender dysphoric feelings associated with certain physical changes and sensations. According to the National Transgender Discrimination Survey, postpartum rates of suicide and depression in trans individuals has been found to be higher than the adult average. This may be attributed to factors such as lack of social support, discrimination, and lack of adequate healthcare practitioner training. Another important postpartum consideration for trans men is whether to resume testosterone therapy. There is currently no evidence that testosterone enters breast milk in a significant quantity. However, elevated testosterone levels may suppress lactation and healthcare guidelines have previously recommended that trans men do not undergo testosterone therapy while chest feeding. Trans men who undergo chest reconstruction surgery may maintain the ability to chest feed.


title: Transgender pregnancy

text: Among the wide array of transgender-related therapies available, including surgical and medical interventions, some offer the option of preserving fertility while others may compromise one’s ability to become pregnant (including bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy and/or total hysterectomy).


title: Transgender pregnancy

text: Special consideration of the mental health of transgender people during pregnancy is important. It has previously been shown that transgender individuals often experience higher rates of suicidality than cisgender people and lesser degrees of social support from their environment and familial relationships. Relatedly, many transgender individuals experiencing pregnancy reported that choices of healthcare providers were substantially impacted by the views of the healthcare worker, and many transgender people prefer midwifery services rather than experience labor and delivery in a hospital.


title: Transgender pregnancy

text: According to figures compiled by Medicare for Australia, one of the few national surveys as of 2020, 75 male-identified people gave birth naturally or via C-section in the country in 2016, and 40 in 2017.


title: Transgender pregnancy

text: Non-binary people with a functioning female reproductive system can give birth. Non-binary people who are assigned female at birth are more likely than binary trans people to become pregnant since they are less likely to seek gender-affirming medical procedures that interfere with their fertility.


title: Transgender pregnancy

text: Not all non-binary people (or trans people of any gender identity) medically transition through hormone replacement therapy (HRT) or any kind of surgeries due to various factors ranging from medical conditions, accessibility and/or expenses, but those that do have to interrupt their HRT in order to carry the pregnancy. Unintended pregnancies by non-binary people on testosterone therapy may be more common if they are on a low dose of testosterone. Non-binary parents choose whether to be called "mom" or "dad", or to utilize newly-coined gender-neutral or non-binary titles.


title: Transgender pregnancy

text: Non-binary people who have written or been profiled about their experiences of pregnancy include Rory Mickelson, Braiden Schirtzinger, and Mariah MacCarthy.


title: Transgender pregnancy

text: Pregnancy is not possible for transgender women as they lack a female reproductive system. As of 2019, uterus transplantation has not been successfully performed in transgender women. The Danish transgender painter Lili Elbe died in 1931 from surgical complications following an attempt at such an operation.


title: Transgender pregnancy

text: Uterine transplantation, or UTx, is in its infancy and is not yet publicly available. As of 2019, in cisgender women, more than 42 UTx procedures had been performed, with 12 live births resulting from the transplanted uteruses as of publication. The International Society of Uterine Transplantation (ISUTx) was established internationally in 2016, with 70 clinical doctors and scientists, and currently has 140 intercontinental delegates.


title: Transgender pregnancy

text: In 2012, McGill University published the "Montreal Criteria for the Ethical Feasibility of Uterine Transplantation", a proposed set of criteria for carrying out uterine transplants, in "Transplant International". Under these criteria, and because no research has been conducted in non-females, only a genetic female could ethically be considered a transplant recipient. The exclusion of trans women from candidacy is justified by the lack of research to determine how to conduct the surgery, rather than an inherent bar.


title: Transgender pregnancy

text: In 1583, an intersex person that had masculine gender expression reportedly became pregnant in Beaumaris, Wales. Unicode introduced "pregnant man" and "pregnant person" emojis in version 14.0, approved September 2021.


title: Cherry Chevapravatdumrong

text: Cherry T. Chevapravatdumrong (; born 1977), also known as Cherry Cheva, is an American author, screenwriter, comedian, and producer. She serves as an executive producer of "Family Guy" and a co-executive producer of "The Orville" and "Resident Alien".


title: Cherry Chevapravatdumrong

text: Chevapravatdumrong, a Thai American, was born in Columbus, Ohio, and raised in Ann Arbor, Michigan, graduating from Huron High School in 1995. She majored in psychology at Yale University, where she wrote for "The Yale Record", Yale's humor magazine. She later earned a Juris Doctor degree from New York University Law School, where she wrote for the comedic Law Revue. During law school, she spent her summers working at law firms and her winter breaks waiting tables at her parents' restaurant.


title: Cherry Chevapravatdumrong

text: She then moved to Los Angeles to pursue writing. Before working on "Family Guy", she was a writer's assistant on "Listen Up!" She released two young adult novels, "She's So Money" and "DupliKate", under the name Cherry Cheva.


title: Cherry Chevapravatdumrong

text: She is now the only female writer on "Family Guy" (a fact mentioned in the episode "Roasted Guy"), and also a co-executive producer. Her last name was used in its entirety in the episode "And I'm Joyce Kinney" as the real last name of Joyce Kinney.


title: Cherry Chevapravatdumrong

text: In the episode "Jesus, Mary and Joseph!", Peter breaks the fourth wall by rearranging the letters of her name in the opening credits to say "Chemotherapy vanguard vCr" (with one "r" left over, which he throws at Lois in a childlike tantrum when she points this out).


title: Cherry Chevapravatdumrong

text: In the episode "Dead Dog Walking", Peter again breaks the fourth wall by saying that her address is 11700 Hollywood Way, North Hollywood, CA 91065, and that she is also a lawyer; this address does not exist.


title: Cherry Chevapravatdumrong

text: In the episode "No Giggity, No Doubt", Peter lists her name among examples of people (mainly other "Family Guy" characters, increasing in obscurity) who should go on an excursion with Meg: "Cherry Chevapravatdumrong, that's how that name is pronounced."


title: Taken (franchise)

text: Taken is a series of English-language French action films, beginning with "Taken" in 2008, created by producer Luc Besson and American screenwriter Robert Mark Kamen. The dialogue of all three films is primarily English, and all three feature Liam Neeson as Bryan Mills. The first film received mixed reviews from critics but a positive response from audiences with commercial success, the series grossed a combined $929,451,015 worldwide.


title: Taken (franchise)

text: A prequel television series based on a similar storyline and starring Clive Standen as Bryan Mills premiered in February 2017.


title: Taken (franchise)

text: A retired CIA operative named Bryan Mills crosses the globe to rescue his 17-year-old daughter after she is kidnapped by a group of Albanian smugglers while traveling in France.


title: Taken (franchise)

text: Mafia boss and terrorist Murad, the father of Marko, whom Bryan had killed by electrocution in the first film of the trilogy, plans to capture Bryan, who is vacationing with his family in Istanbul, and avenge his son's death.


title: Taken (franchise)

text: Bryan has been framed for the murder of his ex-wife, Lenore. He then sets out to clear his name by going after the real killers, while also eluding capture from U.S. authorities for whom he formerly worked.


title: Taken (franchise)

text: In September 2015, NBC ordered a "Taken" television series depicting a young Bryan Mills. In February 2016, "Vikings" actor Clive Standen was announced to play the young Bryan Mills, with Alex Carey as the showrunner.


title: Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani

text: Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani () is a 2009 Indian Hindi-language romantic comedy film directed by Rajkumar Santoshi. The film stars Ranbir Kapoor and Katrina Kaif. Upon release, it was a critical and commercial success grossing worldwide, becoming the third-highest grossing Hindi film of the year.


title: Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani

text: The film opens with a reporter entering into a small town that looks abandoned, with a statue that speaks. The reporter asks the statue where the people of the town are, and the statue then narrates the story behind it.


title: Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani

text: Prem Shankar Sharma (Ranbir Kapoor) is a free-loader who, while helping his friend elope, meets a beautiful girl, Jennifer "Jenny" Pinto (Katrina Kaif). They both share the trait of stammering when they are emotional; in such a moment, the stammering Jenny induces a spontaneous stammer in Prem, but she misinterprets his stammer as a mockery on her. Although this makes her dislike Prem initially, she reconciles with him after realizing that his stammer is real. Prem eventually falls in love with Jenny, although she is oblivious to this and only considers him a friend. When he tries to tell Jenny his feelings, he finds out that Jenny is in love with her college friend Rahul Jalan (Upen Patel).


title: Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani

text: He then meets Rahul and finds out that Rahul loves Jenny more than his family, so helps them board a train to escape. However, Rahul disappears at the train station, and Jenny returns to Prem so Prem can help her find Rahul.


title: Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani

text: Rahul's father, Pitambar Jalan, a politician, does not like Jenny and completely opposes a relationship between Jenny and Rahul, mainly due to the religious barrier, Jenny being a Christian and Rahul a Hindu. When Prem visits Rahul's house for Jenny's proposal with Rahul, he is insulted by Pitambar. Prem convinces his mother Sharda (Smita Jaykar) to let Jenny hide in their house while Jenny's family search for her, but they are eventually caught by the police. Jenny lies that she and Prem are in love, to save Rahul's name. While Prem corroborates Jenny's lie, he gets emotional and spurts out his true feelings for Jenny, which she mistakes for over-acting.


title: Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani

text: Prem and Jenny successfully go to a club where Rahul's birthday party is being held so that Jenny and Rahul can be reunited and eventually convince Pitambar to support the relationship. Rahul then tells Prem that he and Jenny are going to prepare for the wedding in two days.


title: Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani

text: Unfortunately, a day before the wedding, Jenny gets kidnapped by Sajid Don (Zakir Hussain) who is seeking a ransom from Pitambar in exchange for her. Prem and his buddies find her in Sajid Don's warehouse. A hilarious fight ensues between Prem's and Sajid Don's gangs. Prem's father, Shiv Shankar Sharma (Darshan Jariwala) joins the fight and Sajid Don, a wanted criminal, gets arrested.


title: Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani

text: Rahul and a contesting Pitambar tell the media that it was they who were the ones involved in the fight with Sajid Don, intending to buy a good name for Pitambar before the elections. On Jenny and Rahul's wedding day, Jenny finds out that Prem actually gave consent to Rahul and Pitambar to publicize their false story. This and her past recollections of Prem's selfless caring for her make her realize that she truly loves Prem and that Rahul and his family are actually very selfish, prompting her to become a runaway bride. Meanwhile, Prem, who is about to leave the town is stopped by an actor in the get up of Jesus (Behzaad Khan), who asks him to guide him to an address, further driving him back to the church, where he finds Jenny as the actor disappears and it is revealed that he was actually Jesus Christ, who took a human form to unite Prem with Jenny after hearing her prayers in the Church. She is united with Prem and the two happily get married, in a small celebration at a marriage registration office.


title: Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani

text: The statue, in the beginning, reveals that the entire town is attending their wedding and asks the reporter to visit the registration office.


title: Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani

text: "Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani" received positive reviews from critics upon release. Subhash K. Jha (film critic and author of "The Essential Guide to Bollywood") states: "If you've ever wondered what on earth is on-screen chemistry here's your one-stop all-purpose encyclopedia on celluloid magic. Fasten your 'see'-it belts, as veteran filmmaker Rajkumar Santoshi sheds all his "lajja", and pulls out all stops to do a wacky goofy edgeless weightless comedy of characters who walk in and walk out of frames leaving behind fumes of old-fashioned funnies. "Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani" is an airtight trapeze down that familiar romantic lane." Nikhat Kazmi of the "Times of India" gave it four stars out of five and states: "The newly formented Ranbir-Katrina chemistry sets the screen on fire in this mad hatter's tea party. Adding to this is Pritam's peppy music score with Neeraj Shridhar, Atif Aslam, Hard Kaur, Sunidhi Chauhan and Mika raising a toast to a high-spirited song and dance and Raj Kumar Santoshi penning some of the funniest dialogues in recent times and you have a great escape awaiting you at your favourite audi this weekend. Go, have a ball." Taran Adarsh of "Bollywood Hungama" gave the film four out of five stars arguing that it "entertains majorly" and that "the romantic moments are endearing. Most importantly, the on-screen chemistry is electrifying. Ranbir and Katrina look great together!" Noyon Jyoti Parasara of "AOL India" gave 3 out of 5 stars saying, "Its strong point, apart from Ranbir, happens to be its clichéd settings." Omar Qureshi of "Zoom" gave 3.5 out of five stars saying that "The main point to be noted in the film is that, the film is totally dedicated to loving and all the things that are related to love and so, it will leave an ever lasting impression on youth." Minty Tejpal of "Mumbai Mirror" gave 3.5 out of five stars, saying that "It seems that Ranbir Kapoor can do nothing wrong. He is just fantastic through the film." Mayank Shekhar of the "Hindustan Times" gave it one star and said that "The film has no comic bone at all. There is certainly no romance either." Rajeev Masand of "CNN-IBN" gave it 2.5 out of five stars and said that ""Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani" is a silly comedy that goes for slapstick gags and juvenile jokes that are hard to appreciate."


title: Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani

text: "Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani" collected a nett India gross of on its opening day, and 38 crore in its opening week. It had a lifetime gross collection of in India, including a nett income of , and from overseas box office, thus making a worldwide total of . It was the third highest-grossing Bollywood film of 2009 behind "3 Idiots" and "Love Aaj Kal".


title: Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani

text: The soundtrack was composed by Pritam while lyrics were penned by Irshad Kamil and Ashish Pandit. The songs are remixed by DJ Suketu and arranged by Aks.


title: Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani

text: The soundtrack received generally favorable reviews from critics. Samir Dave of "Planet Bollywood" gave it a rating of 7.5/10 and said, "If you are looking for an enjoyable potpourri of different musical styles, and melody, then you will love what Pritam has served up for, ""Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani"". It deserves to be at the top of the charts". Joginder Tuteja of "Bollywood Hungama" rated it 3.5/5 and praised the music composer saying, "This is Pritam's year, delivering chartbusters by dozens all through the year, he can now look forward to another bountiful of hit songs up his sleeves with "Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani". Also, Ranbir and Katrina can enjoy a hugely popular track for themselves in the form of 'Main Tera Dhadkan Teri'. Go, pick this one up from the shelves!". The songs 'Tu Jaane Na', 'Tera Hone Laga Hoon', 'Prem Ki Naiya' and 'Mein Tera Dhadkan Teri' became chartbusters.


title: Government of the Philippines

text: The Government of the Philippines () has three interdependent branches: the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The Philippines is governed as a unitary state under a presidential representative and democratic constitutional republic in which the president functions as both the head of state and the head of government of the country within a pluriform multi-party system.


title: Government of the Philippines

text: The powers of the three branches are vested by the Constitution of the Philippines in the following: Legislative power is vested in the two-chamber Congress of the Philippines—the Senate is the upper chamber and the House of Representatives is the lower chamber. Executive power is exercised by the government under the leadership of the president. Judicial power is vested in the courts with the Supreme Court of the Philippines as the highest judicial body.


title: Government of the Philippines

text: The legislative power is vested in the Congress of the Philippines which consists of the Senate of the Philippines and the House of Representatives. The upper house is located in Pasay, while the lower house is located in Quezon City; both are in Metro Manila. The district and sectoral representatives are elected for a term of three years; they can be re-elected but they may not run for a fourth consecutive term.


title: Government of the Philippines

text: Senators are elected to a term of six years; they can be re-elected but may not run for a third consecutive term. The House of Representatives may opt to pass for a vacancy of a legislative seat, which leads to a special election. The winner of the special election will serve the unfinished term of the previous district representative, and will be considered as one elective term. The same rule also applies in the Senate; however, it only applies if the seat was vacated before a regular legislative election.


title: Government of the Philippines

text: The current president of the Senate is Juan Miguel Zubiri, and the speaker of the House of Representatives is Martin Romualdez.


title: Government of the Philippines

text: The president and vice president are elected separately by national popular vote. The vice president is first in line to succession if the president resigns, is removed after impeachment, or dies. The vice president is usually, though not always, a member of the president's cabinet. If there is a vacancy in the position of vice-president, the president will appoint any member of Congress (usually a party member) as the new vice president. The appointment must then be validated by a three-fourths vote of the Congress.


title: Government of the Philippines

text: The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court of the Philippines and lower courts established by law. The Supreme Court, which has a chief justice as its head and 14 associate justices, occupies the highest tier of the judiciary. The justices serve until the age of 70. The justices are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the Judicial and Bar Council of the Philippines. The sitting chief justice is Alexander Gesmundo, the 27th to serve in that position.


title: Government of the Philippines

text: Article 9 of the Constitution of the Philippines establishes three independent constitutional commissions: the Civil Service Commission, the Commission on Elections, and the Commission on Audit.


title: Government of the Philippines

text: The Civil Service Commission is the central personnel agency of the Philippine government. It is responsible for strengthening employment and a conducive work environment in the civil service sector and overseeing the Civil Service Exam, a civil service entrance examination to assess qualifications and work integrity for employment in the sector.


title: Government of the Philippines

text: The Commission on Elections enforces and administers all laws and regulations related to the conducting of elections, plebiscites, initiatives, referendums, and recalls. It decides on all decisions surrounding election protests and contests and has the right to deputize and take control of law enforcement and state security forces to ensure the free and orderly conduct of elections.


title: Government of the Philippines

text: The Commission on Audit is responsible for examining, auditing, and settling all revenues and expenditures of public funds and properties used by the government or its attached agencies.


title: Government of the Philippines

text: The Philippine government or three of its branches are independently monitored by the office of the ombudsman (). The ombudsman is given the mandate to investigate and prosecute any government official allegedly guilty of crimes, especially graft and corruption. The ombudsman is assisted by six deputies: the overall deputy, the deputy for Luzon, the deputy for Visayas, the deputy for Mindanao, the deputy for the armed forces, and the special prosecutor.


title: Government of the Philippines

text: The Philippines has four main classes of elected administrative divisions, often lumped together as local government units (LGUs). They are, from the highest to the lowest division:


title: Ravi Varman

text: S. Ravi Varman (born 9 May 1972) is an Indian cinematographer, filmmaker, producer and writer. He has predominantly worked in films of Indian languages such as Tamil, Malayalam and Hindi. Known for his realistic and poetic framing sense, Ravi Varman began his career in Malayalam films. He has directed a romantic film in Tamil titled "Moscowin Kavery" and also filmed the music video for the song "Bird Flu" by British Tamil songwriter M.I.A.


title: Ravi Varman

text: He started his career by assisting cinematographer Ravi K Chandran. After working in Malayalam films since 1999 for three years, he worked in Bollywood for the film "Yeh Dil" in 2003. He later worked in the Telugu film "Jai" and received more offers in Hindi, such as "Armaan", "Bee Busthar", "Ramji Londonwale", and "Phir Milenge", His next project is going to be with Maniratnam.


title: Ravi Varman

text: It was not until 2002 when he started to work in Tamil films, with his first one being Susi Ganeshan's "Five Star". He continued to work with popular directors as cinematographer in Tamil films, including S. Shankar's "Anniyan", Gautham Vasudev Menon's "Vettaiyaadu Vilaiyaadu", K. S. Ravikumar's "Dasavathaaram" and "Villu", which was directed by Prabhu Deva. Besides feature films, he has credit of working on more than 500 Television Commercials, Music Albums, Short Films and Documentary. Nonetheless, his flair for literature has led him to embark on writing for an on-line literary magazine 'Yavarum kelir' for Tamiz studio.


title: American Red Cross

text: The American Red Cross (ARC), also known as the American National Red Cross, is a non-profit humanitarian organization that provides emergency assistance, disaster relief, and disaster preparedness education in the United States. It is the designated US affiliate of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and the United States movement to the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.


title: American Red Cross

text: Clara Barton established the American Red Cross in Dansville, New York on May 21, 1881, and was the organization's first president. She organized a meeting on May 12 of that year at the house of Senator Omar D. Conger (R, MI). Fifteen people were present at the meeting, including Barton, Conger and Representative William Lawrence (R, OH) (who became the first vice president). The first local chapter was established in 1881 at the English Evangelical Lutheran Church of Dansville.


title: American Red Cross

text: Barton founded the American chapter after learning of the Red Cross in Geneva, Switzerland. In 1869, she went to Europe and became involved in the work of the International Red Cross during the Franco-Prussian War. She was determined to bring the organization to America.


title: American Red Cross

text: Barton became President of the American branch of the society, known as the American National Red Cross in May 1881 in Washington. The first chapters opened in upstate New York, where she had connections. John D. Rockefeller and four others donated money to help create a national headquarters near the White House. The abolitionist Frederick Douglass, a friend of Barton's, offered advice and support as she sought to establish the American chapter of Red Cross. As Register of Deeds for the District of Columbia, Douglass also signed the American Red Cross's original Articles of Incorporation.


title: American Red Cross

text: Barton led one of the group's first major relief efforts, a response to the 1881 Thumb Fire in Michigan's Thumb region. Over 5,000 people were left homeless. The next major disaster was the Johnstown Flood on May 31, 1889. Over 2,209 people died and thousands more were injured in or near Johnstown, Pennsylvania, in one of the worst disasters in U.S. history.


title: American Red Cross

text: Barton was unable to build up a staff she trusted and her fundraising was lackluster. She was forced out in 1904. Professional social work experts took control and made the group a model of Progressive Era scientific reform. New leader Mabel Thorp Boardman consulted with senior government officials, military officers, social workers, and financiers. William Howard Taft was especially influential. They imposed an ethos of "managerialism", transforming the agency from Barton's cult of personality to an "organizational humanitarianism" ready for expansion.


title: American Red Cross

text: Among the notable disasters of the Progressive Era that featured American Red Cross involvement was the sinking of the "RMS Titanic" in 1912. The New York City chapter joined with the Charity Organization Society to provide funds to survivors and the dependents of those who perished.


title: American Red Cross

text: Recent presidents and CEO s include Gail McGovern, Elizabeth Dole, Bernadine Healy, Mary S. Elcano, Mark W. Everson and John F. McGuire. In 2007, U.S. legislation clarified the role for the Board of Governors and that of the senior management in the wake of difficulties following Hurricane Katrina. Members of the board of governors other than the chairman are elected at the annual meeting of chapter delegates. The board appoints the chief executive officer.


title: American Red Cross

text: As of November 2017, the American Red Cross scores three out of four stars at Charity Navigator and A− at CharityWatch.


title: American Red Cross

text: In 1996, the "Chronicle of Philanthropy", an industry magazine, released the results of the largest study of charitable and nonprofit organization popularity and credibility. The study showed that ARC was ranked as the third "most popular charity/non-profit in America" of over 100 charities researched, with 48% of Americans over age 12 choosing "Love" or "Like A lot" to describe it.


title: American Red Cross

text: ARC supplies roughly 45% of the donated blood in the United States, which it sells to hospitals and regional suppliers. Community-based blood centers supply nearly 50% and approximately 5% is collected directly by hospitals. In December 2004, ARC completed its largest blood processing facility in the United States in Pomona, California, on the campus grounds of California State Polytechnic University, Pomona.


title: American Red Cross

text: For more than 50 years, ARC provided allograft tissue for transplant through sales in its Tissue Services Program. It cared for thousands of donor families who donated tissue and sold the tissue to more than 1 million transplant recipients. At the end of January 2005, ARC ended its Tissue Services program to focus on its primary missions of Disaster Relief and Blood Services.


title: American Red Cross

text: A leader in the plasma industry, ARC provides more than one quarter of the nation's plasma products. Red Cross Plasma Services provides plasma products that are reliable, cost-effective and as safe as possible.


title: American Red Cross

text: In February 1999, ARC completed its "Transformation", a $287 million program that re engineered Red Cross Blood Services' processing, testing, and distribution system and established a new management structure.


title: American Red Cross

text: As of 2011, ARC was no longer in the Plasma Services industry. It supplies Baxter BioSciences with items for manufacturing plasma products.


title: American Red Cross

text: On March 1, 1999, ARC became the first U.S. blood bank to implement a nucleic acid testing (NAT) study. This process is different from traditional testing because it looks for the genetic material of HIV and hepatitis C (HCV), rather than the body's response to the disease.


title: American Red Cross

text: The NAT tests for HIV and HCV has been licensed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). These tests detect the genetic material of a transfusion-transmitted virus like HIV without waiting for the body to form antibodies, potentially offering an important time advantage over current techniques.


title: American Red Cross

text: Leukocytes (white blood cells) help fight off foreign substances such as bacteria, viruses, and abnormal cells. In fact, these foreign leukocytes in transfused red blood cells and platelets are often not well tolerated and have been associated with some types of transfusion complications. Leukocytes in stored blood products can have a variety of biological effects, including depression of immune function, which can result in organ failure and death. Because whole blood is rarely used for transfusion and not kept in routine inventory, leukoreduced red blood supplies are critical. After collection, the whole blood is separated into red cells and plasma by centrifugal. A preservative solution is mixed with the red cells and the component is filtered with a leukoreduction filter. The shelf life of this product is 42 days.


title: American Red Cross

text: ARC is moving toward system-wide universal prestorage leukocyte reduction to improve patient care. From 1976 to 1985, the FDA received reports of 355 fatalities associated with transfusion, 99 of which were excluded from further review because they were unrelated to transfusion or involved hepatitis or HIV/AIDS. While the FDA has not yet made leukoreduction a requirement, ARC took a leading role in implementing this procedure with a goal of leukoreducing all blood products. More than 70% of ARC red blood cell components undergo prestorage leukoreduction, a filtering process performed soon after blood is donated.


title: American Red Cross

text: ARC operates the Jerome H. Holland blood laboratory in Rockville, Maryland. Each year, it invests more than $25 million in research activities at the Holland Laboratory and in the field.


title: American Red Cross

text: ARC offers cellular therapies; this treatment involves collecting and treating blood cells from a patient or other blood donor. The treated cells are introduced into a patient to help revive normal cell function, replace cells that are lost as a result of disease, accidents or aging, or to prevent illnesses from appearing.


title: American Red Cross

text: Training Services is one of the five divisions of the American Red Cross, responsible for providing health and safety training to the general public as well as the workforce. In fiscal year 2017 the American Red Cross trained 2.28 million people how to save lives through their First Aid, CPR or AED courses, water safety and care giving programs. There are a wide variety of course offerings available:


title: American Red Cross

text: In addition to basic level certifications in the above courses the American Red Cross also offers Instructor level courses and Instructor Trainer (IT) level courses. Instructor level courses are designed to teach participants how to become instructors for American Red Cross courses, whereas Instructor Trainer courses (also known as Instructor Trainer Academies) are designed to certify current instructors to become Instructor Trainers, or people who can teach Instructor level courses.


title: American Red Cross

text: Training Services has an online store where you can purchase supplies including First Aid Kits, CPR key chains, flashlights, and emergency radios.


title: American Red Cross

text: In early 2018 all courses offered by the American Red Cross switched to BigRed mannequin. The investment cost $1.8 million and increased participants' understanding of the purpose of compressions during CPR.


title: American Red Cross

text: There are three entities that can run American Red Cross courses; The American Red Cross, Authorized Providers, and Licensed Training Providers. The American Red Cross runs many of its own courses that can be conducted on land such as First Aid/CPR/AED and Basic Life Support for Healthcare Providers. There are a number of courses that require aquatic facilities to run, such as Lifeguarding and Water Safety Instructor. These courses are generally left to Authorized Providers (colleges, government agencies, fire departments, community centers) and to Licensed Training Providers (LLC. or Inc.).


title: American Red Cross

text: The Scientific Advisory Council is a panel including over 50 nationally recognized medical, scientific, aquatics, and academic experts from across the United States.


title: American Red Cross

text: Each year, ARC responds to more than 60,000 disasters, including house or apartment fires (making up the majority), hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, tornadoes, hazardous materials spills, transportation accidents, explosions and other natural and man-made disasters.


title: American Red Cross

text: Although ARC is not a government agency, its authority to provide disaster relief was formalized when, in 1905, it was granted a congressional charter to "carry on a system of national and international relief in time of peace and apply the same in mitigating the sufferings caused by pestilence, famine, fire, floods, and other great national calamities, and to devise and carry on measures for preventing the same." The charter is not only a grant of power but also an imposition of duties and obligations to the nation, to disaster victims and to the people who support its work with their donations.


title: American Red Cross

text: Disaster relief focuses on emergency disaster-caused needs. When a disaster threatens or strikes, ARC provides shelter, food and health and mental health services (Psychological First Aid) to address basic human needs. The core of American Red Cross disaster relief is assistance to individuals and families to enable them to resume their normal daily activities. The organization provides translation and interpretation when necessary, and maintains a database of multilingual volunteers.


title: American Red Cross

text: ARC feeds emergency workers of other agencies, handles inquiries from concerned family members outside the disaster area, provides blood and blood products to disaster victims and helps those affected by a disaster to access other resources. It is a member of National Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster (VOAD) and works closely with other agencies such as Salvation Army and Amateur Radio Emergency Service with whom it has memorandums of understanding.


title: American Red Cross

text: ARC works to encourage preparedness by providing important literature on readiness. Many chapters also offer free classes to the general public.


title: American Red Cross

text: A major misconception among the general public is that ARC provides medical facilities, engages in search and rescue operations or deploys ambulances. Instead, first responder roles are left to government agencies as dictated by the National Response Framework. Red Cross societies outside the U.S. may provide such functions; for example, the "Cruz Roja Mexicana" (Mexican Red Cross) runs a national ambulance service. Furthermore, American Red Cross Emergency Response Vehicles (ERVs) look similar to ambulances. These ERVs instead are designed for bulk distribution of relief supplies, such as meals, drinks and other relief supplies. Although ARC shelters usually assign a nurse to the facility, they are not equipped to provide medical care beyond first aid.


title: American Red Cross

text: The Disaster Services Workforce (DSW) system enrolls volunteers from ARC chapters into a national database of responders, classified by their ability to serve in one or more activities within groups. Services include feeding and sheltering ("mass care") to warehousing, damage assessment, accounting, communications, public affairs and counseling. Responders complete training requirements specific to the services they want to offer, backgrounds, and first aid training.


title: American Red Cross

text: As a National Response Framework support agency, ARC shelters, feeds and provides other types of emergency relief to victims of disasters. ARC is a co-lead with the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) for the mass care portion of Emergency Support Function 6. ARC and FEMA share responsibility for planning and coordinating mass care services with FEMA. ARC has responsibilities for other Emergency Support Functions, such as providing health and mental health services.


title: American Red Cross

text: In 1908 an earthquake and tsunami devastated the area surround the Strait of Messina. The American public donated nearly $1 million to the American Red Cross which was sent to Italy via the State Department, alongside $800,000 in public funds. The decision to use the State Department to distribute funds, rather than sending them directly to the Italian Red Cross, was indicative of the organization's shift away from the International Red Cross movement and towards US interests. This was the ARC's first major response to an international civilian disaster.


title: American Red Cross

text: In December of that year two Americans, Harry Bowdoin and Charles King Wood, were in Taormina when the earthquake occurred. Mr. Bowdoin was spending the winter in Taormina with his invalid mother and Mr. Wood was an artist who had lived in Taormina for several years. These two men entered upon the work of relief answering the call of the Red Cross.[110] Afterwards, the Italian government conferred upon the two men the honorific of "Cavaliere" [111]. Bowdoin and Wood were two of the twenty-one recipients of the American Red Cross silver medal for "specially meritorious service" for that year.[112]


title: American Red Cross

text: Before 1908, the U.S. Congress had only rarely allocated funds for natural disasters; likewise, the level of funding given to Italy was also unprecedented. The ARC's aid to Italy carried important diplomatic meaning for the U.S. due to the large number of Italian emigrants who left for the U.S. every year, and Italy's growing importance within Europe. ARC leaders viewed relief efforts in Italy as a way to demonstrate U.S. care for the nation. Alongside this, disaster relief was seen as a tool for social reform. A fundamental goal of the ARC's assistance was to address the perceived threat of pulverization within an area that a large proportion of U.S. immigrants came from.


title: American Red Cross

text: As a response to the Nicaraguan resentment of the United States Occupation of Nicaragua, U.S. officials employed the use of humanitarian relief in attempt to improve relations. $10,000 dollars was given to the ARC by Philander Knox to provide relief in the form of blankets, clothing, and food to captured soldiers from José Santos Zelaya's army. ARC leaders believed that humanitarian relief would be more effective in fostering goodwill and creating stability than any other action. In 1912 the State and War Department became concerned with increasing reports of hunger within the country. As a result, Knox asked the ARC to supply food for non-combatants as well. American forces worked with the ARC to open railroads to distribute humanitarian supplies to Managua, Granada, Léon, and other key cities.


title: American Red Cross

text: Although the ARC was a non-governmental agency, its humanitarian efforts lined up with American foreign policy, becoming a useful diplomatic mechanism for softening the effects of American military intervention and securing its political interests.


title: American Red Cross

text: Prior to the United States entry into World War One, the American Red Cross was a neutral organization aiding both the allied and central powers. However, when the United States joined the allied powers, the American Red Cross aid to the central powers ended immediately. On May 10, 1917, President Wilson created the American Red Cross War Council to aid funding initiatives and direct the activities of the organization. Throughout the war, the Council raised $400 million.


title: American Red Cross

text: The American Red Cross in the war was a quasi-state organization and a non-governmental organization, as it was not officially part of the United States Government. The American Red Cross in the war focused principally on overseas civilian aid and not domestic disaster relief. The American Red Cross spent "less than one million dollars on domestic disaster relief, in comparison to the $120 million devoted to relief overseas." The American Red Cross during the war provided food, employment, housing, and medical assistance to millions of civilians displaced by the war. During the course of the war, over one-third of the population of the United States joined the organization and in 1917 and 1918 alone around $400 million was raised. Amongst its initiatives was the Pisa Village in Italy, a humanitarian housing project begun in 1918.


title: American Red Cross

text: The power of the American Red Cross was soon recognized by the Government which began to see "the value of overseas aid as a tool of statecraft". The American Red Cross was increasingly being used as an arm of the state to facilitate the realization of American foreign policy objects. Principally, the American Red Cross enhanced America's image abroad while also disseminating American practices and values throughout Europe. It intervened in European health and welfare practices by introducing American methods. Moreover, after the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia, President Wilson used the American Red Cross as a diplomacy tool to aid the White forces. Wilson believed that food was the "real thing" to combat Bolshevism and ordered the American Red Cross to distribute food and material relief to Bolshevik opponents in the Russian civil war. The American Red Cross, therefore, served the dual functions of assisting the realization of United States foreign policy objectives and promoting international humanitarianism.


title: American Red Cross

text: At the end of the war the League of Red Cross Societies was created. This international society of national Red Cross organizations was spearheaded by the United States and sought the "improvement of health, the prevention of disease, and the mitigation of suffering throughout the world."


title: American Red Cross

text: Unlike European relief organization, which had to invest much of their time in fund-raising efforts, the American Red Cross's collaboration with Herbert Hoover's American Relief Administration had funding on a different scale and well as popular and governmental support at its disposal. With its membership of over 33 million Americans in 1918 (20% of the U.S. population) and its designation as the official U.S. organization for foreign relief by the Geneva Treaty and Congressional mandate, the ARC was neither wholly private nor an official governmental organization. This quasi-governmental support allowed the ARC to secure credibility and support that was unattainable for other relief organizations such as the YMCA or Knights of Columbus.


title: American Red Cross

text: The ARC's private funding allowed for more flexibility than government organizations, its leaders chose to support U.S. foreign policy in many ways but also often pursued aims that differed from that of the military or political policymakers. Hundreds of ARC workers pursued permanent reform of Italian social politics, rather than emergency relief they founded nursing schools, developed child welfare projects and waged anti-tuberculosis crusades. In introducing these American ideas about public health and social welfare, the ARC acted as what historian Daniel T. Rodgers had referred to as 'brokers of ideas', who facilitated transatlantic exchange on the methods and philosophies of social reform. Work in the ARC allowed American citizens to contribute to transatlantic social reform discourse. ARC workers built upon and expanded the already existing Italian efforts for social reform. ARC reformers embraced a strategic cultural sensitivity as they attempted to work with Italians and help them to take control of their own social institutions. By presenting their reforms as mutual exchange rather than imposed change, ARC workers hoped Italians would willingly accept them. U.S. reformers in the ARC continued to believe in the necessity of American intervention in 'reforming' Italy.


title: American Red Cross

text: In July 1918 the ARC established a hospital at the entrance of Vladivostok harbor, followed by eight more hospitals during that year. Vladivostok Refugee hospital was opened in early 1919 in former naval barracks and had up to 250 beds. The ARC provided drugs and medical supplies to Russian hospitals during the civil war.


title: American Red Cross

text: In the 1940s during World War II, the Red Cross enrolled 7.5 million volunteers along with 39,000 paid staff and more than 104,000 nurses for military service, prepared 27 million packages for prisoners of war, shipped more than 300,000 tons of supplies, and collected 13.3 million pints of blood plasma for the armed forces. By the time World War II ended in September 1945, American society contributed over $784 million in support of the American Red Cross.


title: American Red Cross

text: Forecasting a major disaster before the landfall of Hurricane Katrina, ARC enlisted 2,000 volunteers to be on a "stand by" deployment list.


title: American Red Cross

text: According to ARC, during and after hurricanes Katrina, Wilma and Rita, they opened 1,470 shelters and registered 3.8 million overnight stays. 300,000 American Red Cross workers (82% unpaid) provided sheltering, casework, communication and assessment services throughout these events. In addition, 346,980 comfort kits (which contain hygiene essentials such as toothpaste, soap, washcloths and toys for children) and 205,360 cleanup kits (containing brooms, mops and bleach) were distributed. The organization served 68 million snacks and meals. Disaster Health services provided 596,810 contacts, and Disaster Mental Health services 826,590 contacts. Emergency financial assistance was provided to 1.4 million families, including 4 million people. Katrina was the first natural disaster in the United States that ARC utilized their "Safe and Well" family location website.


title: American Red Cross

text: Following the crash of commuter aircraft Comair Flight 5191, the Bluegrass Area Chapter and ARC Critical Response Team (CRT) members were dispatched. This was the worst air disaster in the United States since American Airlines Flight 587. Family and Friends reception centers were established near the arrival and departure airports and in Cincinnati, site of the Comair headquarters. Local chapters in Georgia, Alabama, Kentucky and California provided health and mental health services to family and friends not present in Lexington. Volunteers also staffed the local Emergency Operations Center (EOC) in Lexington, Kentucky.


title: American Red Cross

text: In response to the Central Florida Tornado of February 2007, ARC began a large scale disaster relief operation. At least seven shelters were opened. 40,000 pre-packaged meals were sent by ARC, and across the nation, almost 400 American Red Cross volunteers were deployed to assist with local relief efforts. The organization deployed more than 30 Emergency Response Vehicles for community food and supply distribution.


title: American Red Cross

text: ARC immediately responded to the May 2007 Tornado Outbreak in central Kansas by setting up emergency shelters for displaced residents and started the distribution of food, water and relief supplies.


title: American Red Cross

text: Following the collapse of the I-35W Mississippi River bridge, the Twin Cities Area Chapter responded with their Disaster Action Team to provide food, information and comfort. A family service center was set up, and mental health counselors deployed to numerous locations. Donations contributed for this cause totaled US$138,368 and covered the cost of services but not $65,000 in unexpected expenses. Weather and the collapse placed 70% of Minnesota counties in federal primary or contiguous disaster areas during that August.


title: American Red Cross

text: ARC, as part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and its nearly 100 million volunteers, educates and mobilizes communities to overcome life-threatening vulnerabilities. ARC International Services Department focuses on global health, disaster preparedness and response, Restoring Family Links and international humanitarian law dissemination. ARC is involved with international projects such as the measles Initiative, malaria programs in Africa, disaster response and relief efforts in response to the 2004 South Asia tsunami.


title: American Red Cross

text: ARC international disaster response and preparedness programs provide relief and development assistance to millions of people annually who suffer as a result of natural and human-made disasters. To respond quickly and effectively, ARC has pre-positioned emergency relief supplies in three warehouses managed by the International Federation in Dubai, Malaysia, and Panama that are used to respond to disasters. An Emergency Response Unit (ERU) is another method with which ARC responds to international emergencies. An ERU is made up of trained personnel and pre-packaged equipment that is crucial in responding to sudden, large-scale disasters and emergencies in remote locations. American Red Cross ERUs specialize in providing emergency relief supplies and IT and Telecommunications for American Red Cross response operations.


title: American Red Cross

text: In 1911, the ARC initiated its first international disaster-prevention project in the Huai River Valley. The ARC hired engineers to redirect the Huai River to prevent the yearly flooding that ruined crops and caused famine. Key engineer within the project, C.D. Jameson, recommended a financial commitment to drainage, flood prevention, and land reclamation which he promised would result in 'the elimination of the suffering, starvation, and degeneration of several millions of people', which would substantially reduce 'unrest and lawlessness'. The plan's ambition to re-engineer the Chinese landscape was representative of the increasingly global ambitions of the ARC and the new direction the organization was taking prior to World War I.


title: American Red Cross

text: On January 12, 2010, a magnitude 7.0 M earthquake struck the Haitian coast 10 miles from the capital of Port-au-Prince, causing massive damage, more than 200,000 deaths and displacing nearly 2 million people.


title: American Red Cross

text: As of March 2011, ARC announced it had allocated $314 million for Haiti earthquake relief and recovery. ARC funded recovery projects to provide transitional homes, health services, disaster preparedness, water and sanitation improvements and livelihoods development. It provided funds for school fees for affected families. As of June 2011, ARC had raised approximately $484 million for Haiti relief and recovery efforts.


title: American Red Cross

text: A series of reports by NPR and ProPublica found that much of the money Americans donated never made it to help people in Haiti and promises to rebuild neighborhoods were never met.


title: American Red Cross

text: ARC International Services global health initiatives focus on preventing and combating infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS and measles on a large scale. Through cost-effective, community-based health interventions, ARC targets people in need and focuses on accessibility and equity of care, community participation, and integration with other community development initiatives, such as water and sanitation projects and food and nutrition programs.


title: American Red Cross

text: An example of ARC International Services health programming is the Measles Initiative, launched in 2001, as a partnership committed to reducing measles deaths globally. The initiative provides technical and financial support to governments and communities on vaccination campaigns and disease surveillance worldwide. Leading these efforts are ARC, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the United Nations Foundation, UNICEF and the World Health Organization. The Measles Initiative has supported vaccination campaigns in more than 60 countries, mostly in Africa and Asia. Since 2001, the initiative has helped vaccinate one billion children in more than 60 developing countries. The initiative supported the distribution of more than 37 million insecticide-treated mosquito nets for malaria prevention, 81 million doses of de-worming medicine, 95 million doses of polio vaccine, and 186 million doses of vitamin A.


title: American Red Cross

text: In December 2006, ARC became a founding partner of the Malaria No More campaign. The campaign was formed by leading non-governmental organizations to inspire individuals, institutions, and organizations in the private sector to support a comprehensive approach to end malaria, a devastating but preventable disease. ARC supported local Red Cross and Red Crescent volunteers in Africa who educated families and communities about malaria prevention and treatment, such as the proper and consistent use of insecticide-treated bed nets. ARC provided technical assistance and capacity-building support to its partners in difficult-to-reach communities.


title: American Red Cross

text: ARC handles international tracing requests and searches for families who have been separated. This service attempts to re-establish contact between separated family members. Restoring Family Links services provide the exchange of hand-written Red Cross Messages between individuals and their relatives who may be refugees or prisoners of war. At any given time, ARC Restoring Family Links program is handling the aftermath of 20–30 wars and conflicts. The worldwide structure of Red Cross and Red Crescent National Societies and the International Committee of the Red Cross make this service possible. When new information from former Soviet Union archives became available in the 1990s, a special unit was created to handle World War II and Holocaust tracing services.


title: American Red Cross

text: ARC International Services educates the American public about the guiding principles of international humanitarian law (IHL) for conduct in warfare as set forth by the Geneva Conventions of 1949. In doing so, ARC International Services provides support to ARC chapters in their IHL dissemination efforts, offering courses and providing instructor training.


title: American Red Cross

text: ARC provides emergency and non-emergency services to the United States military. The most notable service is emergency family communications, where families can contact the Red Cross to send important family messages (such as a death in the family, or new birth). ARC can also act as a verifying agency. The agency operates call centers to provide these services. ARC works closely with other military societies, such as the Department of Veterans Affairs, to provide other services to service members and their families. ARC is not involved with prisoners of war; these are monitored by the International Committee of the Red Cross, the international body.


title: American Red Cross

text: One criticism of American Red Cross services to the military stems from stories about ARC charging troops during the Second World War and Korean War token fees for "comfort items" such as toothpaste, coffee, donuts, and cigarettes and for off-base food and lodging. The fee suggestion had been made in a letter dated March 1942 from the Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson to Norman H. Davis, the chairman of ARC. The suggestion was that Allied soldiers were being charged money so Americans should be charged too so as to "ensure an equitable distribution among all service personnel of American Red Cross resources". The American Red Cross adopted the Secretary's suggestion as policy.


title: American Red Cross

text: During World War II, ARC operated the American Red Cross Clubmobile Service to provide servicemen with food, entertainment and "a connection home." In a June 18, 1945, address to Congress, General Dwight D. Eisenhower said of the American Red Cross service in World War II, "The Red Cross, with its clubs for recreation, its coffee and doughnuts in the forward areas, its readiness to meet the needs of the well and to help minister to the wounded has often seemed the friendly hand of this nation, reaching across the sea to sustain its fighting men." An account of one World War II American Red Cross Girl is recorded in "Destination Unknown" by Kathleen Cox; her mother, LeOna Cox, was recruited to American Red Cross Service by a fellow teacher at Allegheny College. Another account of an American Red Cross World War II worker is related in letters by Evelyn Merritt Welden, compiled in the book "How to Play During a War: A Free Spirit's Life in Letters", by her son, Lynne Whelden.


title: American Red Cross

text: During the Vietnam War 627 American women served in the ARC Supplemental Recreation Overseas Program. At the invitation of the United States Army the "Donut Dollies" provided morale-boosting games to soldiers. Due to the mobility of the UH-1 Iroquois, Vietnam Donut Dollies were able to visit troops in forwarding operating positions. The 2008 documentary film "" tells the story of these women. ARC also provided services to entertain wounded soldiers at the Great Lakes Naval Hospital during the Vietnam War.


title: American Red Cross

text: In 2011, the Service to the Armed Forces (SAF) unit was reorganized and began receiving $24 million per year from Congress for operating expenses. Along with being downsized there was a consolidation into four regional locations (San Diego, California, Ft. Sill, Oklahoma, Louisville, Kentucky, and Springfield, Massachusetts). In 2012 the first stories began breaking about long call times and the poor quality of response from call takers, along with questions about whether money was being used appropriately. In 2015, the San Diego and Springfield locations were closed because an online option for families was implemented.


title: American Red Cross

text: On August 7, 2007, Johnson & Johnson (J&J) filed suit against ARC over its sub licensing of the International Red Cross image for the production of first aid kits and similar products, which it alleged competed with the company's products. The suit also asked for the destruction of all non-Johnson & Johnson Red Cross Emblem bearing products and demanded that ARC pay punitive damages and J&J's legal fees.


title: American Red Cross

text: The American Red Cross' position was that it had licensed its name to first aid kit makers in an effort to encourage readiness for disasters and that license revenues supported humanitarian work. J&J claimed that the American Red Cross's commercial ventures were outside the scope of historically well-agreed usage and were in direct violation of federal statutes.


title: American Red Cross

text: On May 14, 2008, a federal judge ruled against J&J. In June 2008, the two organizations announced a settlement had been reached allowing both parties to use the symbol.


title: American Red Cross

text: The FDA took court action against ARC in response to deficiencies in their procedures for ensuring blood supply safety. The resulting consent decree outlines violations of federal law that ARC engaged in before 1993. ARC paid millions of dollars in fines.


title: American Red Cross

text: ARC Biomedical Services instituted a standardized computer system to maintain the blood donor database; five National Testing Laboratories (NTLs) that test some six million units of blood annually; the Charles Drew Biomedical Institute, which provides training and other educational resources to Red Cross Blood Services' personnel; a Quality Assurance/Regulatory Affairs Department, which helps to ensure regulatory compliance; and, a centrally managed blood inventory system.


title: American Red Cross

text: The FDA continued to apply pressure and fines to ARC in order to enforce compliance with regulations, including a $1.7 million fine in June 2008.


title: American Red Cross

text: ARC worked closely with the FDA to develop a more robust system. The systems resulted in a five-year period of sustained compliance that led to the release from the Consent Decree as of December 4, 2015.