title: Sewanee: The University of the South

text: The Sewanee campus overlooks the Tennessee Valley and consists of 13,000 acres on the Cumberland Plateau. It includes many buildings constructed of various materials faced with local stone, most done in the Gothic style. In September 2011, it was named by "Travel + Leisure" as one of the most beautiful college campuses in the United States.


title: Sewanee: The University of the South

text: The "Sewanee Review", founded in 1892, is the oldest continuously published literary magazine in the United States, and has published many distinguished authors. Its success has helped launch the Sewanee Writers' Conference, held each summer. The School of Letters, offering an M.A. in English and M.F.A. in Creative Writing, was established in 2006. The current editor is Adam Ross (author).


title: Sewanee: The University of the South

text: Sewanee and its environs have been the (temporary or full-time) residence of authors such as Allen Tate, Andrew Lytle, William Alexander Percy, Walker Percy, Shelby Foote, Caroline Gordon, and Robert Lowell. In 1983 playwright and Pulitzer Prize winner Tennessee Williams left his literary rights to the University of the South. Royalties have helped build the Tennessee Williams Center, a performance venue and teaching facility, and to create the Tennessee Williams teaching fellowships, which bring well-known figures in the arts to the campus.


title: Sewanee: The University of the South

text: """", the university's motto, is taken from the opening of Psalm 133: "Behold how good and how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in unity."


title: Sewanee: The University of the South

text: Since Fall 2008, the university has held an annual Sustainability Week, which featured speakers, feasts of local foods, and environmentally themed documentaries. The campus is also home to an environmental sustainability house, The Green House, and residence halls have environmental sustainability representatives. In 2007, the university became a signatory to the President's Climate Commitment. As of 2011, the university received a "B" on the College Sustainability Report Card.


title: Sewanee: The University of the South

text: The school is rich in distinctive traditions, many of which are tied to Southern culture. For example, male students have historically worn coats and ties to classes—this tradition has generally been continued, though the coat and tie are often combined with casual pants and sometimes shorts. However, this tradition is currently in decline. Faculty and student members of the primary honor society and main branch of student government, the Order of Gown (changed after controversy surrounding the exclusivity of the title "order of the gownsmen"), may wear academic gowns to teach or attend class—one of the last vestiges of this historically English practice in North America. Furthermore, the Order is charged with the maintenance of this and other traditions of the university. Similarly, both genders enjoy drinking societies and secret societies and the ribbon societies continue to thrive. At major events, members of the former two groups display their distinctive ceremonial garb, kilts and capes. There are the Red Ribbon and Green Ribbon Societies for men (including membership in the faculty) and the Pink Ribbon and White Ribbon for women. While most drinking societies will accept sophomores, the Ribbons are for juniors and seniors. In addition to the more established societies, there are numerous drinking societies and secret societies that exist in the college. The vice-chancellor on formal occasions assumes the "cappa clausa" (cope) as the vice-chancellor at Cambridge University still does.


title: Sewanee: The University of the South

text: The university's honor code is one of the most cherished traditions since the university's inception. The honor code states that "I will not lie, cheat, or steal" along with a number of amended premises such as a toleration clause for academic offenses (it is a violation of the honor code to not report cheating), and other specifics meant to guide the student body. Each new student entering the university must sign the honor code at a formal service in All Saints Chapel. The honor code and system is administered by a student-run, student-elected honor council. Only the vice-chancellor may overturn a decision through an appeals process. Although the honor council was once governed by the Order of Gown, the honor council is now an independent body whose procedures and rules are their sole governance. The associate dean of the college is the faculty adviser to the council as well as the university's general counsel.


title: Sewanee: The University of the South

text: In the early 2000s, some alumni and students expressed a concern that the school was trying to downplay the university's traditions, particularly its historical and cultural ties with Southern culture. As a result, some traditions came under special scrutiny.


title: Sewanee: The University of the South

text: The university saw the installation of its first fraternity in 1877 with the founding of the Tennessee Omega chapter of Alpha Tau Omega. In 1880, that chapter became the first of any fraternity in the South to have its own chapter house or lodge, which belonged to the fraternity until its closure in 2021. As of 2022, slightly over half of Sewanee male students are members of fraternities, and slightly over two-thirds of female students belong to sororities.


title: Sewanee: The University of the South

text: The university mace, an unsolicited gift dedicated to early Ku Klux Klan leader Nathan Bedford Forrest, which prominently featured a Confederate battle flag, has been a point of interest in the debate over the university's identity, because of its association with Forrest and its implications for attitudes toward African Americans. Forrest had no connection with the university; the mace had been commissioned in 1964 by Louise Claiborne-Armstrong, whose brother attended the university. (A portrait of her by Amanda Brewster Sewell is in the University Art Gallery.)


title: Sewanee: The University of the South

text: It was given to the university in 1965 and was carried by the president of the Order of Gownsmen at academic processions until it disappeared in 1997. Upon its rediscovery, various alumni offered to pay for the mace's repair but the university declined their offer.


title: Sewanee: The University of the South

text: Each year around the second week of Advent on the church calendar, the university choir, along with other members of the Sewanee community, holds the Festival of Lessons and Carols at All Saints' Chapel. Based on a service originally offered at Truro Cathedral in England in 1880, the service combines readings about the Christmas story from prophecy of a messiah to the fulfillment of the prophecy in the gospel texts. The service is also punctuated with traditional Anglican hymns and music. Sewanee has been holding this event for over 50 years.


title: Sewanee: The University of the South

text: Sewanee was a charter member of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association in 1894. The Sewanee Tigers were pioneers in American intercollegiate athletics and possessed the Deep South's preeminent football program in the 1890s. The 1899 football team had perhaps the best season in college football history, winning all 12 of their games, 11 by shutout, and outscoring their opponents 322–10. Five of those wins, all shutouts, came in a six-day period while on a trip by train. In 2012, the College Football Hall of Fame held a vote of the greatest historic teams of all time, where the 1899 Iron Men beat the 1961 Alabama Crimson Tide as the greatest team of all time.


title: Sewanee: The University of the South

text: Sewanee was also a charter member of the Southeastern Conference upon its formation in 1932. By this time, however, its athletic program had declined precipitously and Sewanee never won a conference football game in the eight years it was an SEC member. The Tigers were shut out 26 times in their 37 SEC games, and were outscored by a combined total of 1163–84.


title: Sewanee: The University of the South

text: When Vice Chancellor Benjamin Ficklin Finney, who had reportedly objected to Sewanee joining the SEC, left his position in 1938, the leading candidate was Alexander Guerry, a former president of the University of Chattanooga. According to a university historian, Guerry agreed to come to Sewanee only if the school stopped awarding athletic scholarships. In 1940, two years after Guerry's arrival, Sewanee withdrew from the SEC and subsequently deemphasized varsity athletics. Guerry's stance is sometimes credited as an early step toward the 1973 creation of NCAA Division III, which prohibits athletic scholarships.


title: Sewanee: The University of the South

text: Sewanee went on to become a charter member of the College Athletic Conference in 1962. The conference, now the Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference (SCAC), consists of small, academically focused private liberal arts colleges such as Sewanee.


title: Sewanee: The University of the South

text: Sewanee is now a member of the Southern Athletic Association (SAA), offering 11 varsity sports for men and 13 for women. As is the case for all of its previous conferences, Sewanee is a charter member of its current conference—it was one of the seven SCAC members that announced their departure from that conference at the 2011 annual meeting of SCAC presidents. The seven were joined by Berry College, another small private school in Georgia.


title: Sewanee: The University of the South

text: Sewanee has over 12,000 alumni from all 50 states and 40 countries and has produced 26 Rhodes Scholars, as well as 34 NCAA Postgraduate Fellows, 46 Watson Fellowships, and dozens of Fulbright Scholars. The School of Theology's alumni include bishops, including three of the last five presiding bishops of the Episcopal Church.


title: Alias Grace (miniseries)

text: Alias Grace is a Canadian television miniseries directed by Mary Harron and written by Sarah Polley, based on Margaret Atwood's 1996 novel of the same name. It stars Sarah Gadon, Edward Holcroft, Rebecca Liddiard, Zachary Levi, Kerr Logan, David Cronenberg, Paul Gross, and Anna Paquin. The series consists of six episodes. It premiered on CBC on September 25, 2017, and appeared on Netflix on November 3, 2017.


title: Alias Grace (miniseries)

text: In advance of the series premiere, the first two episodes received a preview screening at the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival in its Primetime lineup of selected television programming.


title: Alias Grace (miniseries)

text: The series was the third adaptation of an Atwood novel broadcast on television in 2017, after "The Handmaid's Tale" (adapted for Hulu) and "Wandering Wenda" (adapted for CBC Television's CBC Kids lineup).


title: Alias Grace (miniseries)

text: Public domain paintings from Statens Museum for Kunst (SMK - the national gallery of Denmark) decorate central locations in the series, among them the house of the Parkinson family where Grace Marks works as a maid, and the governor's mansion where she meets with Dr. Jordan. SMK provides free access to its public domain collection, and the scenographers have used a range of the museum's paintings, primarily from the 18th and 19th centuries.


title: Alias Grace (miniseries)

text: The prison scenes were shot on location at Kingston Penitentiary in Kingston, Ontario where the real Grace Marks, who formed the basis of Atwood's character, was incarcerated. Scenes were also filmed at the Correctional Service of Canada Museum in the old Warden's residence.


title: Alias Grace (miniseries)

text: On Metacritic, the series received a score of 81 out of 100 based on 30 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". The miniseries has a 99% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of 8.00 out of 10 based on 82 reviews. The site's critical consensus is: "Biting social commentary and Sarah Gadon's hypnotic performance make "Alias Grace" a worthy addition to the Margaret Atwood adaptation catalog".


title: Sonny with a Chance

text: Sonny with a Chance is an American teen sitcom created by Steve Marmel that aired on Disney Channel for two seasons between February 2009 and January 2011. The series centers on Sonny Munroe (portrayed by Demi Lovato), a teenage comedian from Wisconsin who joins the cast of a sketch comedy television series titled "So Random!" after moving to Hollywood, Los Angeles. Episodes deal with Sonny's attempts to develop relationships with her castmates and establish her role within the group, focusing on her life working on the show's set, as well as coming to terms with her newfound fame. The main themes depicted include the focus on friendships and adolescence. The series also stars Tiffany Thornton, Sterling Knight, Brandon Mychal Smith, Doug Brochu and Allisyn Ashley Arm. "Sonny with a Chance" also contains fully-produced comedy sketches from the show-within-a-show. These elements draw inspiration from the Nickelodeon series "All That", which executive producers Brian Robbins and Sharla Sumpter Bridgett previously worked on, as well as "30 Rock".


title: Sonny with a Chance

text: The Walt Disney Company created the series to follow on from its successful comedy programs of the 2000s, including "Hannah Montana" and "Wizards of Waverly Place", starring Miley Cyrus and Selena Gomez respectively. Lovato was cast to continue her affiliation with the network after her role in the television film "Camp Rock" (2008) and the release of music through Disney-owned label Hollywood Records. This cross-promotion was intended in a similar manner to both Cyrus and Gomez. Varsity Pictures and It's a Laugh Productions produced the program and it premiered on Disney Channel on February 8, 2009. "Sonny with a Chance" experienced high viewership in the United States on broadcast television. The series did not receive wide critical coverage. The program last aired on January 2, 2011; both seasons have been distributed through digital download and on the Disney+ streaming service.


title: Sonny with a Chance

text: Initially renewed for a third season, the series entered uncertainty when Lovato underwent treatment for personal struggles in November 2010 and was unable to continue filming for the show. The season entered production without Lovato, with a focus on the elements of the show-within-a-show (sketches, musical performances, and guest stars) as a temporary solution until her return. After it was reported that Lovato would not return to the series in April 2011, the episodes which had been produced were rebranded into a spin-off series entitled "So Random!", which aired for one season from 2011 to 2012.


title: Sonny with a Chance

text: Sonny Munroe is a cheerful and ambitious fifteen-year-old from Wisconsin who has experienced success by uploading comedic videos to the internet. After she is discovered in a nationwide casting call, she moves to Hollywood, Los Angeles to join the cast of a popular sketch comedy series for teenagers titled "So Random!". The series centers on Sonny's life working on the program as well as her home life. She comes to terms with the difficulties of working on a television set alongside her castmates, in particular the self-centered Tawni Hart, who is unkind to Sonny. The "So Random!" cast also includes the suave Nico Harris and his best friend Grady Mitchell, as well as the cunning Zora Lancaster. Comedy sketches from "So Random!" are included within the series. The cast of "So Random!" work at the same television studio as their rival television program, "Mackenzie Falls", a drama series which stars the teen idol Chad Dylan Cooper. "Sonny with a Chance" explores the portrayal of a teenager with an ambitious dream, in the same style as other teen series such as "Hannah Montana" and "iCarly". The theme of following dreams is recognized as a prominent attribute of shows produced by Disney Channel.


title: Sonny with a Chance

text: The series was officially announced in May 2008 as an upcoming half-hour live-action comedy entitled "Welcome to Mollywood" to premiere within the 2008–09 television season, in which the title character would be called Molly. Gary Marsh, the president of Disney Channels Worldwide, identified the idea of "following your dream" as a core attribute of Disney Channel, which would be present in the series. He also described the series as a "hybrid show"; fully-produced comedy sketches from the show-within-a-show "So Random!" would also appear. Another working title for the series was "Welcome to Holliwood". The "Los Angeles Times"s Robert Lloyd speculated that the final title, "Sonny with a Chance", makes reference to the phrase "chance of rain".


title: Sonny with a Chance

text: "Sonny with a Chance" was created by Steve Marmel, who had previously written for and produced cartoons. Brian Robbins served as an executive producer on the series; he was the co-creator of the Nickelodeon sketch comedy series "All That". Sharla Sumpter Bridgett, who also worked on "All That", joined the series as an executive producer; Robbins and Bridgett's joint production company, Varsity Pictures produced the program alongside It's a Laugh Productions in association with the network. Michael Feldman was an executive producer. The premise of the show was also influenced by "30 Rock".


title: Sonny with a Chance

text: Demi Lovato portrays the central character of Sonny Munroe; the character was originally named Molly, and later Holli. Lovato's affiliation with the network began with her lead role in the series "As the Bell Rings" and continued with her breakout role in the musical television film "Camp Rock", which debuted in 2008, and was originally designed as a vehicle for the Jonas Brothers. Lovato had auditioned for both "Camp Rock" and "Sonny with a Chance" simultaneously in the summer of 2007 and secured both roles; Marsh described her as a "gifted comedian". Lovato's work in the company continued with her debut album "Don't Forget", released to the Disney-owned label Hollywood Records in 2008. She also filmed the television film "Princess Protection Program" alongside fellow Disney Channel star Selena Gomez, and toured with the Jonas Brothers before "Sonny with a Chance" premiered. Lovato's cross-promotion within the network followed that of predecessors Miley Cyrus and Gomez, but differed in that her movie and album came before her leading role in a sitcom. Lovato sings the series' theme song, "So Far So Great". Fellow Disney actor Bridgit Mendler had also auditioned for the role of Sonny before Lovato won the role.


title: Sonny with a Chance

text: The remaining main cast members were revealed in May 2008; Tiffany Thornton as Tawni Hart, Brandon Mychal Smith as Nico Harris, Doug Brochu as Grady Mitchell and Allisyn Ashley Arm as Zora Lancaster. The series also stars Sterling Knight as Chad Dylan Cooper. Nancy McKeon, who was a teenage actor herself, recurs as Sonny's mother, Connie Munroe.


title: Sonny with a Chance

text: Production of the series began in September 2008. Marmel and Feldman wrote the original unaired pilot, which was directed by Lee Shallat Chemel. The series debuted on February 8, 2009. "Sonny with a Chance" was renewed for a second season on June 1, 2009. Marsh stated that the episodes would include more comedy and the addition of music.


title: Sonny with a Chance

text: In November 2010, Disney Channel indicated that production on the third season, which was scheduled to begin in January 2011, would be dependant on Lovato who was reported to be undergoing "mental health issues". This followed her withdrawing from a Jonas Brothers tour and entering a treatment facility for "emotional and physical issues". Later that month, the network made public their plan to begin production on the season without Lovato, reworking the premise to focus on the "So Random!" sketches. Writers of the series planned for the third season to focus on sketch comedy, musical performances, and include guest stars, as a temporary solution until Lovato returned. The style of standalone "So Random!" episodes had been trialled within the show's second season, and network executives were pleased with the performance of these episodes, which led to the decision to rework the program for its third season. In April 2011, "People" reported that Lovato would not be returning to "Sonny with a Chance", and that "So Random!" would continue, which had been in production for months. Lovato stated that she would be focusing on her music career as well as her recovery; the network supported the decision. The episodes which had been produced during this time formed the first season of the spin-off "So Random!", which premiered in June 2011, and aired until March 2012.


title: Sonny with a Chance

text: "Sonny with a Chance" did not receive wide critical coverage. Lloyd stated that the show-within-a-show "So Random!" poessesses an authenticity with "Sonny with a Chance" does not achieve. He described the set as "violently designed" and with "riots of colour"; Natalie Finn of E! referred to the colour palette of the show as "eye-popping". Finn described the actors' performances as exaggerated, while Lloyd praised Lovato's acting ability as "very good". Kelvin Cedeno from "DVDizzy.com" said that the series has an "outrageous tone" and feels more like a Nickelodeon show, rather than a product of Disney Channel. He wrote that the series does not feature a lesson in each episode, and that it is not funny. Emily Ashby wrote for Common Sense Media that the series does not attempt to promote lessons or positive messages. However, she continued that Sonny's confidence and leadership qualities make her a worthwhile role model.


title: Sonny with a Chance

text: Walt Disney Records released a soundtrack album for the series on October 5, 2010, including songs from, and inspired by, the series. Disney Interactive Studios released a video game based on the series for the Nintendo DS, "Sonny with a Chance", in 2010. The video game is composed of over 40 minigames inspired by the plots of episodes and "So Random!" sketches. Characters and locations from the series are also featured. A DVD compilation entitled "Sonny's Big Break" was released on August 25, 2009. The release contains four episodes as well as a bonus episode, and bonus features including a clip from "Mackenzie Falls".


title: Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party

text: The Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party (DFL) is the Minnesota affiliate of the U.S. Democratic Party. As of 2022, it controls four of Minnesota's eight U.S. House seats, both of its U.S. Senate seats, the Minnesota House of Representatives, and all other statewide offices, including the governorship. Beginning in 2023, the party will also control the Minnesota Senate, giving it full control of state government.


title: Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party

text: The party was formed by a merger between the Minnesota Democratic Party and the Minnesota Farmer–Labor Party in 1944.


title: Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party

text: The DFL is one of two state Democratic Party affiliates with a different name to the national party, the other being the North Dakota Democratic–Nonpartisan League Party.


title: Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party

text: The DFL was created on April 15, 1944, with the merger of the Minnesota Democratic Party and the larger Farmer–Labor Party. Leading the merger effort were Elmer Kelm, the head of the Minnesota Democratic Party and the founding chairman of the DFL; Elmer Benson, effectively the head of the Farmer–Labor Party by virtue of his leadership of its dominant left-wing faction; and rising star Hubert H. Humphrey, who chaired the Fusion Committee that accomplished the union and then went on to chair its first state convention.


title: Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party

text: By the party's second convention in 1946, tensions had re-emerged between members of the two former parties. While the majority of delegates supported left-wing policies, Humphrey managed to install a more conservative ally, Orville Freeman, as party secretary. Some Farmer–Labor leaders such as Benson moved to the Progressive Party.


title: Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party

text: Freeman was elected the state's first DFL governor in 1954. Important members of the party have included Humphrey and Walter Mondale, who each went on to be United States senators, vice presidents of the United States, and unsuccessful Democratic nominees for president; Eugene McCarthy, a U.S. senator who ran for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1968 as an anti-Vietnam War candidate; and Paul Wellstone, a U.S. senator from 1991 to 2002 who became an icon of populist progressivism.


title: Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party

text: Out of the eight seats Minnesota is apportioned in the U.S. House of Representatives, four are held by Democrats:


title: Sol (Roman mythology)

text: Sol is the personification of the Sun and a god in ancient Roman religion. It was long thought that Rome actually had two different, consecutive sun gods: The first, Sol Indiges (), was thought to have been unimportant, disappearing altogether at an early period. Only in the late Roman Empire, scholars argued, did the solar cult re-appear with the arrival in Rome of the Syrian Sol Invictus (), perhaps under the influence of the Mithraic mysteries. Publications dating back to the mid 90s have challenged the notion of two different sun gods in Rome, pointing to the abundant evidence for the continuity of the cult of Sol, and the lack of any clear differentiation – either in name or depiction – between the "early" and "late" Roman sun god.


title: Sol (Roman mythology)

text: The Latin "sol" for "Sun" is believed to originate in the Proto-Indo-European language, as a continuation of the heteroclitic "*Sehul- / *Sh-en-", and thus cognate to other solar deities in other Indo-European languages: Germanic "Sol", Sanskrit "Surya", Greek "Helios", Lithuanian "Saulė". Also compare Latin "sol" to Etruscan "usil". Today, Romance languages still use reflexes of "sol" (e.g., Italian "sole" and French "soleil") as the main word for "sun".


title: Sol (Roman mythology)

text: According to Roman sources, the worship of Sol was introduced by Titus Tatius shortly after the foundation of Rome. In Virgil he is the grandfather of Latinus, the son of Sol's daughter Circe who lived not far from Rome at Monte Circeo. A shrine to Sol stood on the banks of the Numicius, near many important shrines of early Latin religion.


title: Sol (Roman mythology)

text: In Rome Sol had an "old" temple in the Circus Maximus according to Tacitus (56–117 CE), and this temple remained important in the first three centuries CE. There was also an old shrine for Sol on the Quirinal, where an annual sacrifice was offered to Sol Indiges on August 9 to commemorate Caesar's victory at Pharsala (48 BCE). The Roman ritual calendars or fasti also mention a feast for Sol Indiges on December 11, and a sacrifice for Sol and Luna on August 28. Traditionally, scholars have considered "Sol Indiges" to represent an earlier, more agrarian form in which the Roman god Sol was worshipped, and considered him to be very different from the late Roman Sol Invictus, who they believed was a predominantly Syrian deity. Neither the epithet "indiges" (which fell out of use sometime after Caesar) nor the epithet "invictus" are used with any consistency however, making it impossible to differentiate between the two.


title: Sol (Roman mythology)

text: "Sol Invictus" (English translated as "Unconquered Sun") was long thought to have been a foreign state-supported sun god introduced from either Emesa or Palmyra in Syria by the emperor Aurelian in 274 and overshadowing other Eastern cults in importance, until the abolition of classical Roman religion under Theodosius I. However the evidence for this is meager at best, and the notion that Aurelian introduced a new cult of the sun ignores the abundant evidence on coins, in images, in inscriptions, and in other sources for a strong presence of the sun god in Rome throughout the imperial period. Tertullian (died 220 CE) writes that the Circus Maximus was dedicated primarily to Sol. During the reign of Aurelian, a new college of pontiffs for Sol was established. There is some debate over the significance of the date December 21 for the cult of Sol. According to a single, late source, the Romans held a festival on December 21 of "Dies Natalis Invicti", "the birthday of the unconquered one." Most scholars assume Sol Invictus was meant, although our source for this festival does not state so explicitly.


title: Sol (Roman mythology)

text: December 25 was commonly indicated as the date of the winter solstice, with the first detectable lengthening of daylight hours. The Philocalian calendar of AD 354, part VI, gives a festival of on 25 December. There is limited evidence that this festival was celebrated before the mid-4th century. The same Philocalian calendar, part VIII, also mentions the birth of Jesus Christ, stating that the "Lord Jesus Christ was born eight days before the calends of January" (that is, on December 25). Since the 12th century, there have been speculations that the near-solstice date of 25 December for Christmas was selected because it was the date of the festival of , but historians of late antiquity make no mention of this, and others speculate Aurelian chose December 25 to shadow early Christian celebrations already on the rise. When the festival on December 25 was instituted is not clear, which makes it hard to assess what impact (if any) it had on the establishment of Christmas.


title: Sol (Roman mythology)

text: There were also festivals on other days in December, including the 11th (mentioned above), as well as August. Gordon points out that none of these other festivals are linked to astronomical events.


title: Sol (Roman mythology)

text: Throughout the 4th century the cult of Sol continued to be maintained by high-ranking pontiffs, including the renowned Vettius Agorius Praetextatus.


title: Sol (Roman mythology)

text: According to the "Historia Augusta", Elagabalus, the teenaged Severan heir, adopted the name of his deity and brought his cult image from Emesa to Rome. Once installed as emperor, he neglected Rome's traditional State deities and promoted his own as Rome's most powerful deity. This ended with his murder in 222. The "Historia Augusta" equates the deity Elagabalus with Jupiter and Sol: "fuit autem Heliogabali vel Iovis vel Solis sacerdos", "He was also a priest of Heliogabalus, or Jove, or Sol". While this has been seen as an attempt to import the Syrian sun god to Rome, the Roman cult of Sol had existed in Rome at least since the early Republic.


title: Sol (Roman mythology)

text: As the Cult of Sol grew and Sol took on attributes of other deities, Sol began to be used as a way to display imperial power. The radiate crown shown on some emperor's portraits on coins minted in the 3rd Century was associated with Sol, and may have been influenced by earlier depictions of Alexander the Great. Some coins minted in the 4th Century depict Sol on one side. Constantine I wore the "radiate crown" though some argue that it was intended to represent the "Holy Nails" and not Sol.


title: Sol (Roman mythology)

text: Sol was most notably identified with Phoebus Apollo; such equation famously occurs in Ovid's works. The Greek assimilation of Apollo and Helios was already established in Rome by the end of the republic.


title: Sol (Roman mythology)

text: Various Roman philosophers speculated on the nature of the sun, without arriving at any consensus. A typical example is Nigidius, a scholar of the 1st century BCE. His works have not survived, but writing five centuries later, Macrobius reports that Nigidius argued that Sol was to be identified with Janus and that he had a counterpart, Jana, who was Luna. As such, they were to be regarded as the highest of the gods, receiving their sacrifices before all the others. Such speculations appear to have been restricted to an erudite elite and had no impact on the well-attested cult of Sol as independent deity: No ancient source aside from Macrobius mentions the equation of Sol with Janus.


title: Sol (Roman mythology)

text: Sol appears many times in depictions of Mithras, such as the Tauroctony of Mithras killing the bull, and looking at Sol over his shoulder. They appear in other scenes together from Mithras ascending behind Sol's chariot, shaking hands and some depictions of Sol kneeling to Mithras. Mithras was known as Sol Invictus even though Sol is a separate deity, a paradoxical relationship where they are each other but separate. They are separate deities but due to some similarities a connection between them can be created which can lead to one over taking the other.


title: Boltzmann distribution

text: In statistical mechanics and mathematics, a Boltzmann distribution (also called Gibbs distribution) is a probability distribution or probability measure that gives the probability that a system will be in a certain state as a function of that state's energy and the temperature of the system. The distribution is expressed in the form:


title: Boltzmann distribution

text: where is the probability of the system being in state , is the energy of that state, and a constant of the distribution is the product of the Boltzmann constant and thermodynamic temperature . The symbol formula_2 denotes proportionality (see for the proportionality constant).


title: Boltzmann distribution

text: The term "system" here has a very wide meaning; it can range from a collection of 'sufficient number' of atoms or a single atom to a macroscopic system such as a natural gas storage tank. Therefore the Boltzmann distribution can be used to solve a very wide variety of problems. The distribution shows that states with lower energy will always have a higher probability of being occupied.


title: Boltzmann distribution

text: The "ratio" of probabilities of two states is known as the Boltzmann factor and characteristically only depends on the states' energy difference:


title: Boltzmann distribution

text: The Boltzmann distribution is named after Ludwig Boltzmann who first formulated it in 1868 during his studies of the statistical mechanics of gases in thermal equilibrium. Boltzmann's statistical work is borne out in his paper “On the Relationship between the Second Fundamental Theorem of the Mechanical Theory of Heat and Probability Calculations Regarding the Conditions for Thermal Equilibrium"


title: Boltzmann distribution

text: The distribution was later investigated extensively, in its modern generic form, by Josiah Willard Gibbs in 1902.


title: Boltzmann distribution

text: The Boltzmann distribution should not be confused with the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution or Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. The Boltzmann distribution gives the probability that a system will be in a certain "state" as a function of that state's energy, while the Maxwell-Boltzmann distributions give the probabilities of particle "speeds" or "energies" in ideal gases. The distribution of energies in a one-dimensional gas however, does follow the Boltzmann distribution.


title: Boltzmann distribution

text: The Boltzmann distribution is a probability distribution that gives the probability of a certain state as a function of that state's energy and temperature of the system to which the distribution is applied. It is given as


title: Boltzmann distribution

text: where "p" is the probability of state "i", "ε" the energy of state "i", "k" the Boltzmann constant, "T" the absolute temperature of the system and "M" is the number of all states accessible to the system of interest. The normalization denominator "Q" (denoted by some authors by "Z") is the canonical partition function


title: Boltzmann distribution

text: subject to the normalization constraint and the constraint that formula_7 equals a particular mean energy value (which can be proven using Lagrange multipliers).


title: Boltzmann distribution

text: The partition function can be calculated if we know the energies of the states accessible to the system of interest. For atoms the partition function values can be found in the NIST Atomic Spectra Database.


title: Boltzmann distribution

text: The distribution shows that states with lower energy will always have a higher probability of being occupied than the states with higher energy. It can also give us the quantitative relationship between the probabilities of the two states being occupied. The ratio of probabilities for states "i" and "j" is given as


title: Boltzmann distribution

text: where "p" is the probability of state "i", "p" the probability of state "j", and "ε" and "ε" are the energies of states "i" and "j", respectively. The corresponding ratio of populations of energy levels must also take their degeneracies into account.


title: Boltzmann distribution

text: The Boltzmann distribution is often used to describe the distribution of particles, such as atoms or molecules, over bound states accessible to them. If we have a system consisting of many particles, the probability of a particle being in state "i" is practically the probability that, if we pick a random particle from that system and check what state it is in, we will find it is in state "i". This probability is equal to the number of particles in state "i" divided by the total number of particles in the system, that is the fraction of particles that occupy state "i".


title: Boltzmann distribution

text: where "N" is the number of particles in state "i" and "N" is the total number of particles in the system. We may use the Boltzmann distribution to find this probability that is, as we have seen, equal to the fraction of particles that are in state i. So the equation that gives the fraction of particles in state "i" as a function of the energy of that state is


title: Boltzmann distribution

text: This equation is of great importance to spectroscopy. In spectroscopy we observe a spectral line of atoms or molecules undergoing transitions from one state to another. In order for this to be possible, there must be some particles in the first state to undergo the transition. We may find that this condition is fulfilled by finding the fraction of particles in the first state. If it is negligible, the transition is very likely not observed at the temperature for which the calculation was done. In general, a larger fraction of molecules in the first state means a higher number of transitions to the second state. This gives a stronger spectral line. However, there are other factors that influence the intensity of a spectral line, such as whether it is caused by an allowed or a forbidden transition.


title: Boltzmann distribution

text: The Boltzmann distribution is a special case of the generalized Boltzmann distribution. The generalized Boltzmann distribution is used in statistical mechanics to describe canonical ensemble, grand canonical ensemble and isothermal–isobaric ensemble. The generalized Boltzmann distribution is usually derived from principle of maximum entropy, but there are other derivations.


title: Boltzmann distribution

text: The Boltzmann distribution appears in statistical mechanics when considering closed systems of fixed composition that are in thermal equilibrium (equilibrium with respect to energy exchange). The most general case is the probability distribution for the canonical ensemble. Some special cases (derivable from the canonical ensemble) show the Boltzmann distribution in different aspects:


title: Boltzmann distribution

text: Although these cases have strong similarities, it is helpful to distinguish them as they generalize in different ways when the crucial assumptions are changed:


title: Boltzmann distribution

text: In more general mathematical settings, the Boltzmann distribution is also known as the Gibbs measure. In statistics and machine learning, it is called a log-linear model. In deep learning, the Boltzmann distribution is used in the sampling distribution of stochastic neural networks such as the Boltzmann machine, restricted Boltzmann machine, energy-based models and deep Boltzmann machine. In deep learning, the Boltzmann machine is considered to be one of the unsupervised learning models. In the design of Boltzmann machine in deep learning , as the number of nodes are increased the difficulty of implementing in real time applications becomes critical, so a different type of architecture named Restricted Boltzmann machine is introduced.


title: Boltzmann distribution

text: The Boltzmann distribution can be introduced to allocate permits in emissions trading. The new allocation method using the Boltzmann distribution can describe the most probable, natural, and unbiased distribution of emissions permits among multiple countries.


title: Boltzmann distribution

text: The Boltzmann distribution has the same form as the multinomial logit model. As a discrete choice model, this is very well known in economics since Daniel McFadden made the connection to random utility maximization.


title: 2027 FIFA Women's World Cup

text: The 2027 FIFA Women's World Cup is scheduled to be the tenth edition of the FIFA Women's World Cup, the quadrennial international women's association football championship contested by the national teams of the member associations of FIFA. The tournament will involve 32 national teams, including that of the host nation, after FIFA announced the expansion of the tournament in July 2019.


title: 2027 FIFA Women's World Cup

text: The bidding process has not started yet, but there have been some proposed bids for the World Cup. The host is expected to be announced in Summer 2024.


title: 2027 FIFA Women's World Cup

text: On 19 October 2020, the football associations of Belgium, Germany, and the Netherlands announced their intention to jointly bid for the 2027 FIFA Women's World Cup. The intention is for the three countries to make further agreements about the organization before the end of this year and to record this in a covenant. Belgium and the Netherlands jointly hosted the UEFA European Championship in 2000, with Belgium having previously hosted in 1972. Germany hosted the FIFA Women's World Cup in 2011 and the UEFA European Women's Championship in 2001. Germany also hosted the FIFA Men's World Cup in 1974 and 2006, the men's Euro in 1988, and will do so again in 2024. Germany and the Netherlands co-hosted several matches in the multi-national UEFA Euro 2020. The Netherlands hosted the Women's Euro in 2017.


title: 2027 FIFA Women's World Cup

text: Motivated by the success of the country's recent participation in FIFA women's tournaments, the South African Football Association previously submitted a bid for the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup, but withdrew its bid in December 2019. SAFA CEO Hay Mokoena stated that South Africa would consider bidding for 2027 after the women's league and national team become more competitive. South Africa has hosted the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup and the 2010 FIFA World Cup and could use the infrastructure that was built for the tournament. In September 2022, South Africa announced its bid to host the 2027 women's edition.


title: 2027 FIFA Women's World Cup

text: After the successful participation at the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup in France, then-sports minister Pauline Kantor, announced the intention to propose a bid for 2027 edition, saying, "Particularly, yes. Absolutely. It is a dream for all the development that implies. The World Cup is not just an event. The World Cup also leaves infrastructure and leaves interest. I believe that a Women's World Cup would leave an interest in all the girls, who continue and do it, but who could see themselves even more identified with their referents." To enhance the bid, Chile officially made its women's domestic league fully professional after 2022–23 season, with the first professional season to be played in 2023. Chile has hosted the 1962 FIFA World Cup, 1987 FIFA World Youth Championship, 2008 FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup and the 2015 FIFA U-17 World Cup. Santiago will host the 2023 Pan American Games and Parapan American Games from October to November of that year. The country is also co-bidding to host the 2030 FIFA World Cup. By the time Chile showed interests to bid, the Women's World Cup has never been hosted by a South American nation.


title: 2027 FIFA Women's World Cup

text: The Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden) have expressed interest in a combined bid to host the World Cup, with a statement from Norwegian Football Federation president Terje Svendsen saying, "We have a good Nordic co-operation and the Nordic countries have a leading position in women's football." Sweden hosted the 1958 FIFA World Cup and the 1995 FIFA Women's World Cup, becoming the first country to host both men's and women's World Cups. The 2003 FIFA U-17 World Championship was held in Finland. In June 2019, the Nordic Council declared its support. If successful, it will be the second Women's World Cup to be held in multiple countries after Australia and New Zealand in 2023. These countries have 10 stadiums over 20,000 seats planned to be in place for this event, so there is likely no venue cutting needs and all of the countries have at least one stadium suitable for FIFA size demands in the event. Denmark hosted one of the matches in the multi-national UEFA Euro 2020.


title: 2027 FIFA Women's World Cup

text: On 17 February 2021, President of the Italian Football Federation, Gabriele Gravina, hinted that Italy might seek to host the 2027 Women's World Cup, and has underlined a prolonged plan to improve the status of women's football in Italy, including the professionalisation of the Serie A from autumn 2022 and making Italian female footballers full time professional for the first time. Italy has hosted the men's World Cup twice, in 1934 and 1990, the men's UEFA Euro 1968, UEFA Euro 1980 and UEFA Euro 2020, as well as the UEFA Women's Euro 1993.


title: 2027 FIFA Women's World Cup

text: On 21 June 2022, the president of the Mexican Football Federation, Yon de Luisa, announced interests in hosting the 2027 edition and would seek to make a bid for it. Mexico has never hosted a FIFA Women's World Cup, but has hosted the men's World Cup twice in 1970 and 1986, before going to do it again as joint-host for the 2026 FIFA World Cup.


title: 2027 FIFA Women's World Cup

text: Before his resignation, former U.S. Soccer president Carlos Cordeiro expressed an interest in having the U.S. host the tournament, stating "I believe we can and should host the FIFA Women's World Cup in 2027." However, it was not known where current president Cindy Parlow Cone could have stood on a possible bid. If it had been successful, this would have seen the U.S. hosting the Women's World Cup one year after co-hosting the 2026 FIFA World Cup and one year before Los Angeles hosts the Summer Olympics again. The United States has previously hosted the 1994 FIFA World Cup and this tournament twice in a row in 1999 and 2003. It was reported on 6 August 2021 that U.S. Soccer was considering a bid for the 2031 Women's World Cup as an alternative before reinstating its plan for 2027 on 17 June 2022. The United States will also host the 2031 Rugby World Cup, meaning that bidding for the same year's FIFA Women's World Cup could cause a scheduling conflict.


title: 2027 FIFA Women's World Cup

text: The Women's World Cup, starting from the 2023 edition, will open with a group stage consisting of eight groups of four teams, with the top two teams progressing from each group to a knockout tournament starting with a round of 16 teams. The number of games played overall is 64. The tournament will replicate the format of the Men's FIFA World Cup used between 1998 and 2022.


title: Arditi

text: Arditi (from the Italian verb "ardire", lit. "to dare", and translates as "The Daring [Ones]") was the name adopted by a Royal Italian Army elite special force of World War I. They and the opposing German "Stormtroopers" were the first modern shock troops, and they have been defined "the most feared corps by opposing armies".


title: Arditi

text: "Reparti d'assalto" (Assault Units) were formed in the summer of 1917 by Colonel Bassi, and were assigned the tactical role of shock troops, breaching enemy defenses in order to prepare the way for a broad infantry advance. The "Arditi" were not units within infantry divisions, but were considered a separate combat arm.


title: Arditi

text: The "Reparti d'assalto" were successful in bringing in a degree of movement to what had previously been a war of entrenched positions. They won numerous engagements armed mainly with daggers and hand grenades, which proved very effective in the confined space of a trench. Their exploits on the battlefield were exemplary and they gained an illustrious place in Italian military history. They were demobilized by 1920.


title: Arditi

text: The name "Arditi" was later used in 1919–20 by the Italian occupiers of Fiume who were led by Gabriele D'Annunzio, most of whom had been members of the Royal Italian Army. Their use of a uniform with black shirts and black fez was later taken up by Benito Mussolini's paramilitary forces, the Blackshirts.


title: Arditi

text: From 1 October 1975 the flag of X Arditi Regiment (formed in 1942 in imitation of the IX Assault unit of the First World War) was adopted by the 9th Paratroopers Assault Regiment "Col Moschin". To this day, operatives of Col Moschin and Italian commando frogmen are known as "Arditi Incursori" and are viewed as the heirs of the Arditi of World War I.


title: Arditi

text: The "ardito" concept can be traced back to 1914 when every regiment of the Royal Army was ordered to create a group of explorers trained to act behind enemy lines. The first Arditi units were formed and trained in Sdricca di Manzano, in the province of Udine, where the event is still celebrated on the last Sunday in July.


title: Arditi

text: Others argue that the so-called "Compagnie della morte" ("Companies of death"), special patrols of infantry and engineers engaged in cutting or blasting enemy barbed wire, should be considered as precursors of the Arditi. They were easily recognizable by their use of armor and "Farina" helmets.


title: Arditi

text: The task of Arditi units was not to clear the way for regular infantry to attack enemy lines, but to completely overrun enemy positions. The most daring volunteers were chosen, particularly those who were not bothered by loud incoming artillery fire close by. The men also studied fencing and were masters of hand-to-hand combat. Once ready, they were sent to the front armed with light assault weapons such as carbines, pistols, daggers and hand grenades. Many did not carry rifles and carbines because they would be cumbersome to fire in the confined spaces of a trench. The Arditi approached enemy trenches while they were being shelled by Italian artillery. Just as the barrage was lifted they would jump inside the trench while the enemy was huddling down, and use their daggers at close quarters to suppress enemy resistance. These primitive tactics were surprisingly effective. Arditi had to hold the positions they conquered for 24 hours and then would be replaced by the regular infantry. Arditi might lose 25% to 30% of their numbers during such an attack. Their motto was "O la vittoria, o tutti accoppati" meaning "Either victory, or everyone dies". The typical unit had 13 officers and 400 soldiers selected on a voluntary basis. One such unit was completely wiped out while attacking Monte Osvaldo in April 1916.


title: Arditi

text: In 1916 the supreme command decided to award special status to Arditi units but was reluctant to create new units. The Arditi badge, to be carried on the left arm, included the monogram VE (for Victor Emmanuel III of Italy), and was designed exclusively as a symbol of distinction for these soldiers. This was the first official use of the word "Ardito" by the Italian army.


title: Arditi

text: In 1917 as a result of proposals put forward by young officers who were tired of the gruesome bloodshed of trench life, assault units were formed within the 48th Division of the VIII Army Corps, commanded by Captain Giuseppe Bassi. As early as March 1917 the Italian Supreme Command had sent a circular communication giving information about the constitution of Austro-Hungarian special units.


title: Arditi

text: Following a positive evaluation it was decided to establish the new special units, but disagreements on equipment and training delayed the start of operations until July 29, 1917, when King Victor Emmanuel officially sanctioned the creation of Arditi units.


title: Arditi

text: The new assault units were formed and then developed independently with training different from that of ordinary soldiers. The better trained German army was the first to adopt the concept of shock assault troops with the Stormtroopers, but the Italians followed their example. A training school was established, as noted above, at Sdricca di Manzano, in Friuli. The first units were created in the 2nd Army, and by the time of Caporetto there were 27 units, although only a few actually saw combat. In all, approximately 18,000 men made up the Arditi units. Many of these men saw combat on the river Piave, where the advance of Austro-Hungarian troops was halted. Arditi used to swim across the Piave, clenching a dagger between their teeth and assault the Austrian and German positions on the other bank of the river Piave. These men came to be known as "Caimani del Piave" ("the Caimans of the Piave"). Because Austrian uniforms had a stiff collar, the "Caimani" preferred to use a "resolza" knife, typical of Sardinia (Pattada), as this blade could easily penetrate the collar of the enemy uniform (other arditi formations used a simple dagger). Today, the badge worn by COMSUBIN commandoes shows a caiman clenching a dagger in its jaws. This is an emblem chosen to honor the memory of the "Caimani del Piave".


title: Arditi

text: In June 1918 an entire division of assault troops with nine units was placed under the command of Major General Ottavio Zoppi, and then was expanded to become an Army Corps with twelve units in two divisions. By the end of the war there were 25 assault units, mostly classified as Bersaglieri.


title: Arditi

text: The Arditi contributed in a major way to the breakthrough on the Piave that in November 1918 made possible the final victory over Austrian armies.


title: Arditi

text: Initially the soldiers were volunteers, but later on unit commanders designated suitable soldiers for transfer to Arditi units. Arditi were usually drawn from Bersaglieri or Alpini (two Italian military specialties whose soldiers were renowned for their stamina and physical prowess). After undergoing tests of strength, skill and nerve, the recruits were trained in the use of weapons and innovative tactics of attack. They also received hand-to-hand fighting instruction with or without weapons (according to the "Flower of Battle" techniques developed in the Middle Ages), all supported by continuous physical training.


title: Arditi

text: In particular, Arditi were trained with hand grenades, marksmanship and the use of the flamethrower and machine gun. Training was very realistic, and several men were killed during basic training: in particular, victims were caused by splinters from hand grenades, because their operating procedure provided for a direct assault immediately after throwing a grenade. The rigorous training, team spirit and contempt of danger, but also the privileges they enjoyed, made the Arditi an elite corps, but also created a climate of distrust and jealousy with officers belonging to other units of the regular army. Their military skill, however, earned them respect for the ability to resolve on the battlefield situations tactically impossible for regular army units.


title: Arditi

text: While teaching at Naples Eastern University in 1917, Japanese writer Harukichi Shimoi enlisted in the Italian army and became an Ardito, teaching his fellow soldiers some karate.


title: Arditi

text: Reginaldo Giuliani, a Catholic priest and an Ardito, wrote several books on his experiences including "Croce e spada" ("Cross and Sword").


title: Arditi

text: The uniform of the Arditi drawn from regular infantry units consisted of a Bersagliere cyclist coat with black flames as a lapel patch. Arditi drawn from Alpini units would instead wear green flames on their lapel patch, and Arditi drawn from Bersaglieri units would wear crimson flames. They would also wear a dark green sweater and a black fez (a hat) identical to that of the Bersaglieri infantry (although Bersaglieri wore a crimson fez, rather than a black one) and trousers. From these uniforms and other insignia, indicative of the army unit of origin, was born a distinction between the Red Flames (Bersaglieri Arditi), Black Flames (Arditi Infantry) and Green Flames (Arditi Alpini). The Red Flames were sometimes called Crimson Flames.


title: Arditi

text: Many of the Arditi badges and symbols were later adopted by the fascist regime, for example a badge depicting a skull with a dagger clenched between the teeth. The anti-fascist Arditi del Popolo also had their own badge (skull with red eyes and dagger). Their battle cry was "A Noi!" ('to us'), which was later adopted as one of the phrases commonly used when making the Roman salute and originated as a duelling challenge during the Renaissance.


title: Arditi

text: Typical equipment of the Arditi was the dagger for hand-to-hand combat, and hand grenades. The grenades were used to create panic and confusion as well as for their disruptive effect. The Thevenot hand grenade frequently used by the Arditi was well suited for assaults, not being overly powerful, but very noisy so as to provoke fear in the opponents. Other weapons included machine guns and flame throwers. The carbines used by the Arditi were the Carcano "Moschetto 91" and "Moschetto 91 TS". The Arditi also used 37 mm and 65 mm cannons against pillboxes and fortifications.


title: Arditi

text: In the "Museo del Risorgimento" in Turin, the hall is dedicated to the resistance against Fascism. There are on display a dagger and a hand grenade belonging to the Arditi del Popolo. Due to lack of resources the first daggers were manufactured from surplus stock of the bayonets from the Vetterli rifle. Each bayonet was cut in half and fashioned into two daggers.


title: Arditi

text: In the post-World War I period, many Arditi joined the 'National Association Arditi d'Italia' (ANAI), founded by captain Mario Carli, then involved in the Futurist movement in art. Carli wrote the essay "Arditi are not gendarmes" in collaboration with Filippo Tommaso Marinetti.


title: Arditi

text: A large number of Arditi joined the fascist movement, but support was not unanimous, as is clear from the "Arditi del Popolo", a fringe breakaway movement of the ANAI, politically leaning to the maximalist wing of socialism. In any case, most Arditi who joined the ANAI transferred their allegiance to the FNAI (National Federation Arditi D'Italia), founded on 23 October 1922 by Mussolini. The ANAI was later dissolved.


title: Arditi

text: The Arditi were active participants in Gabriele D'Annunzio's coup in the city of Fiume (now Rijeka, in Croatia). When his original plan for Italian annexation was rebuffed by the government in Rome, D'Annunzio proclaimed the founding of the "Italian Regency of Carnaro". With the trade unionist De Ambris, D'Annunzio promulgated a constitution, the Charter of Carnaro, containing strongly progressive or even radical elements. On December 25, 1920, regular Italian army troops put an end to the short-lived "regency," after brief clashes.


title: Arditi

text: The Roman section of the Italian Arditi, in contrast to the strong but not yet consolidated movement of fascist squadrismo, became the "Arditi del Popolo", a paramilitary group that was clearly anti-fascist. Its members came from anarchist, communist, and socialist movements. The Communists constituted the majority, but there were also components such as Republican Vincenzo Baldazzi (who was one of the leaders), and sometimes, as in the defense of Parma, also militants of the (Catholic) Popular Party, such as the adviser Corazza who was killed in Parma in clashes with fascist forces. The movement was born in the summer of 1921 through the work of Argo Secondari, a former lieutenant of the "Black Flame" infantry and an anarchist. The strength of these paramilitary formations were 20,000 men enrolled, among them war veterans, who were neutral or strongly anti-fascist.


title: Arditi

text: Perhaps the most resonant event was the defense of Parma against fascist squadrismo in 1922: around 10,000 squadristi, first under the command of Roberto Farinacci, then Italo Balbo, had to withdraw from the city after five days of clashes against a group consisting of socialists, anarchists and communists, controlled by the heads of the "Arditi del Popolo" (350 took part in the battle against the fascists) Antonio Cieri and Guido Picelli. The Fascist lost 39 men, the "Arditi del Popolo" five.


title: Arditi

text: In the following months, many heads of the Arditi del Popolo were jailed or killed by fascist squadristi, sometimes with the collusion of police agencies.


title: Simplex

text: In geometry, a simplex (plural: simplexes or simplices) is a generalization of the notion of a triangle or tetrahedron to arbitrary dimensions. The simplex is so-named because it represents the simplest possible polytope in any given dimension. For example,


title: Simplex

text: Specifically, a "k"-simplex is a "k"-dimensional polytope which is the convex hull of its "k" + 1 vertices. More formally, suppose the "k" + 1 points formula_1 are affinely independent, which means formula_2 are linearly independent.


title: Simplex

text: A regular simplex is a simplex that is also a regular polytope. A regular "k"-simplex may be constructed from a regular ("k" − 1)-simplex by connecting a new vertex to all original vertices by the common edge length.


title: Simplex

text: The standard simplex or probability simplex is the "k - 1" dimensional simplex whose vertices are the "k" standard unit vectors, or


title: Simplex

text: In topology and combinatorics, it is common to "glue together" simplices to form a simplicial complex. The associated combinatorial structure is called an abstract simplicial complex, in which context the word "simplex" simply means any finite set of vertices.


title: Simplex

text: The concept of a simplex was known to William Kingdon Clifford, who wrote about these shapes in 1886 but called them "prime confines".


title: Simplex

text: In 1902 Pieter Hendrik Schoute described the concept first with the Latin superlative "simplicissimum" ("simplest") and then with the same Latin adjective in the normal form "simplex" ("simple").


title: Simplex

text: The regular simplex family is the first of three regular polytope families, labeled by Donald Coxeter as "α", the other two being the cross-polytope family, labeled as "β", and the hypercubes, labeled as "γ". A fourth family, the tessellation of "n"-dimensional space by infinitely many hypercubes, he labeled as "δ".


title: Simplex

text: The convex hull of any nonempty subset of the "n" + 1 points that define an "n"-simplex is called a face of the simplex. Faces are simplices themselves. In particular, the convex hull of a subset of size "m" + 1 (of the "n" + 1 defining points) is an "m"-simplex, called an "m"-face of the "n"-simplex. The 0-faces (i.e., the defining points themselves as sets of size 1) are called the vertices (singular: vertex), the 1-faces are called the edges, the ("n" − 1)-faces are called the facets, and the sole "n"-face is the whole "n"-simplex itself. In general, the number of "m"-faces is equal to the binomial coefficient formula_5. Consequently, the number of "m"-faces of an "n"-simplex may be found in column ("m" + 1) of row ("n" + 1) of Pascal's triangle. A simplex "A" is a coface of a simplex "B" if "B" is a face of "A". "Face" and "facet" can have different meanings when describing types of simplices in a simplicial complex; see simplical complex for more detail.


title: Simplex

text: The number of 1-faces (edges) of the "n"-simplex is the "n"-th triangle number, the number of 2-faces of the "n"-simplex is the ("n" − 1)th tetrahedron number, the number of 3-faces of the "n"-simplex is the ("n" − 2)th 5-cell number, and so on.


title: Simplex

text: In layman's terms, an "n"-simplex is a simple shape (a polygon) that requires "n" dimensions. Consider a line segment "AB" as a "shape" in a 1-dimensional space (the 1-dimensional space is the line in which the segment lies). One can place a new point "C" somewhere off the line. The new shape, triangle "ABC", requires two dimensions; it cannot fit in the original 1-dimensional space. The triangle is the 2-simplex, a simple shape that requires two dimensions. Consider a triangle "ABC", a shape in a 2-dimensional space (the plane in which the triangle resides). One can place a new point "D" somewhere off the plane. The new shape, tetrahedron "ABCD", requires three dimensions; it cannot fit in the original 2-dimensional space. The tetrahedron is the 3-simplex, a simple shape that requires three dimensions. Consider tetrahedron "ABCD", a shape in a 3-dimensional space (the 3-space in which the tetrahedron lies). One can place a new point "E" somewhere outside the 3-space. The new shape "ABCDE", called a 5-cell, requires four dimensions and is called the 4-simplex; it cannot fit in the original 3-dimensional space. (It also cannot be visualized easily.) This idea can be generalized, that is, adding a single new point outside the currently occupied space, which requires going to the next higher dimension to hold the new shape. This idea can also be worked backward: the line segment we started with is a simple shape that requires a 1-dimensional space to hold it; the line segment is the 1-simplex. The line segment itself was formed by starting with a single point in 0-dimensional space (this initial point is the 0-simplex) and adding a second point, which required the increase to 1-dimensional space.


title: Simplex

text: More formally, an ("n" + 1)-simplex can be constructed as a join (∨ operator) of an "n"-simplex and a point, ( ). An ("m" + "n" + 1)-simplex can be constructed as a join of an "m"-simplex and an "n"-simplex. The two simplices are oriented to be completely normal from each other, with translation in a direction orthogonal to both of them. A 1-simplex is the join of two points: ( ) ∨ ( ) = 2 ⋅ ( ). A general 2-simplex (scalene triangle) is the join of three points: ( ) ∨ ( ) ∨ ( ). An isosceles triangle is the join of a 1-simplex and a point: { } ∨ ( ). An equilateral triangle is 3 ⋅ ( ) or {3}. A general 3-simplex is the join of 4 points: ( ) ∨ ( ) ∨ ( ) ∨ ( ). A 3-simplex with mirror symmetry can be expressed as the join of an edge and two points: { } ∨ ( ) ∨ ( ). A 3-simplex with triangular symmetry can be expressed as the join of an equilateral triangle and 1 point: 3.( )∨( ) or {3}∨( ). A regular tetrahedron is 4 ⋅ ( ) or {3,3} and so on.


title: Simplex

text: In some conventions, the empty set is defined to be a (−1)-simplex. The definition of the simplex above still makes sense if "n" = −1. This convention is more common in applications to algebraic topology (such as simplicial homology) than to the study of polytopes.


title: Simplex

text: These Petrie polygons (skew orthogonal projections) show all the vertices of the regular simplex on a circle, and all vertex pairs connected by edges.


title: Simplex

text: The simplex Δ lies in the affine hyperplane obtained by removing the restriction "t" ≥ 0 in the above definition.


title: Simplex

text: There is a canonical map from the standard "n"-simplex to an arbitrary "n"-simplex with vertices ("v", ..., "v") given by


title: Simplex

text: The coefficients "t" are called the barycentric coordinates of a point in the "n"-simplex. Such a general simplex is often called an affine "n"-simplex, to emphasize that the canonical map is an affine transformation. It is also sometimes called an oriented affine "n"-simplex to emphasize that the canonical map may be orientation preserving or reversing.


title: Simplex

text: More generally, there is a canonical map from the standard formula_8-simplex (with "n" vertices) onto any polytope with "n" vertices, given by the same equation (modifying indexing):


title: Simplex

text: These are known as generalized barycentric coordinates, and express every polytope as the "image" of a simplex: formula_10


title: Simplex

text: A commonly used function from R to the interior of the standard formula_8-simplex is the softmax function, or normalized exponential function; this generalizes the standard logistic function.


title: Simplex

text: This yields the alternative presentation by "order," namely as nondecreasing "n"-tuples between 0 and 1:


title: Simplex

text: Geometrically, this is an "n"-dimensional subset of formula_14 (maximal dimension, codimension 0) rather than of formula_15 (codimension 1). The facets, which on the standard simplex correspond to one coordinate vanishing, formula_16 here correspond to successive coordinates being equal, formula_17 while the interior corresponds to the inequalities becoming "strict" (increasing sequences).


title: Simplex

text: A key distinction between these presentations is the behavior under permuting coordinates – the standard simplex is stabilized by permuting coordinates, while permuting elements of the "ordered simplex" do not leave it invariant, as permuting an ordered sequence generally makes it unordered. Indeed, the ordered simplex is a (closed) fundamental domain for the action of the symmetric group on the "n"-cube, meaning that the orbit of the ordered simplex under the "n"! elements of the symmetric group divides the "n"-cube into formula_18 mostly disjoint simplices (disjoint except for boundaries), showing that this simplex has volume formula_19 Alternatively, the volume can be computed by an iterated integral, whose successive integrands are formula_20


title: Simplex

text: A further property of this presentation is that it uses the order but not addition, and thus can be defined in any dimension over any ordered set, and for example can be used to define an infinite-dimensional simplex without issues of convergence of sums.


title: Simplex

text: Especially in numerical applications of probability theory a projection onto the standard simplex is of interest. Given formula_21 with possibly negative entries, the closest point formula_22 on the simplex has coordinates


title: Simplex

text: The sorting approach takes formula_28 complexity, which can be improved to formula_29 complexity via median-finding algorithms. Projecting onto the simplex is computationally similar to projecting onto the formula_30 ball.


title: Simplex

text: Finally, a simple variant is to replace "summing to 1" with "summing to at most 1"; this raises the dimension by 1, so to simplify notation, the indexing changes:


title: Simplex

text: This yields an "n"-simplex as a corner of the "n"-cube, and is a standard orthogonal simplex. This is the simplex used in the simplex method, which is based at the origin, and locally models a vertex on a polytope with "n" facets.


title: Simplex

text: One way to write down a regular "n"-simplex in R is to choose two points to be the first two vertices, choose a third point to make an equilateral triangle, choose a fourth point to make a regular tetrahedron, and so on. Each step requires satisfying equations that ensure that each newly chosen vertex, together with the previously chosen vertices, forms a regular simplex. There are several sets of equations that can be written down and used for this purpose. These include the equality of all the distances between vertices; the equality of all the distances from vertices to the center of the simplex; the fact that the angle subtended through the new vertex by any two previously chosen vertices is formula_32; and the fact that the angle subtended through the center of the simplex by any two vertices is formula_33.


title: Simplex

text: It is also possible to directly write down a particular regular "n"-simplex in R which can then be translated, rotated, and scaled as desired. One way to do this is as follows. Denote the basis vectors of R by e through e. Begin with the standard -simplex which is the convex hull of the basis vectors. By adding an additional vertex, these become a face of a regular -simplex. The additional vertex must lie on the line perpendicular to the barycenter of the standard simplex, so it has the form for some real number "α". Since the squared distance between two basis vectors is 2, in order for the additional vertex to form a regular "n"-simplex, the squared distance between it and any of the basis vectors must also be 2. This yields a quadratic equation for "α". Solving this equation shows that there are two choices for the additional vertex:


title: Simplex

text: The above regular "n"-simplex is not centered on the origin. It can be translated to the origin by subtracting the mean of its vertices. By rescaling, it can be given unit side length. This results in the simplex whose vertices are:


title: Simplex

text: Note that there are two sets of vertices described here. One set uses formula_38 in each calculation. The other set uses formula_39 in each calculation.


title: Simplex

text: A different rescaling produces a simplex that is inscribed in a unit hypersphere. When this is done, its vertices are


title: Simplex

text: A highly symmetric way to construct a regular -simplex is to use a representation of the cyclic group by orthogonal matrices. This is an orthogonal matrix such that is the identity matrix, but no lower power of is. Applying powers of this matrix to an appropriate vector will produce the vertices of a regular -simplex. To carry this out, first observe that for any orthogonal matrix , there is a choice of basis in which is a block diagonal matrix


title: Simplex

text: where each is orthogonal and either or . In order for to have order , all of these matrices must have order dividing . Therefore each is either a matrix whose only entry is or, if is odd, ; or it is a matrix of the form


title: Simplex

text: where each is an integer between zero and inclusive. A sufficient condition for the orbit of a point to be a regular simplex is that the matrices form a basis for the non-trivial irreducible real representations of , and the vector being rotated is not stabilized by any of them.


title: Simplex

text: and, for every , the entries of upon which acts are not both zero. For example, when , one possible matrix is


title: Simplex

text: When is odd, the condition means that exactly one of the diagonal blocks is , equal to , and acts upon a non-zero entry of ; while the remaining diagonal blocks, say , are , there is an equality of sets


title: Simplex

text: and each diagonal block acts upon a pair of entries of which are not both zero. So, for example, when , the matrix can be


title: Simplex

text: where each column of the "n" × "n" determinant is a vector that points from vertex to another vertex . This formula is particularly useful when formula_54 is the origin.


title: Simplex

text: employs a Gram determinant and works even when the "n"-simplex's vertices are in a Euclidean space with more than "n" dimensions, e.g., a triangle in formula_56.


title: Simplex

text: Another common way of computing the volume of the simplex is via the Cayley–Menger determinant, which works even when the n-simplex's vertices are in a Euclidean space with more than n dimensions.


title: Simplex

text: This can be understood as follows: Assume that "P" is an "n"-parallelotope constructed on a basis formula_59 of formula_60.


title: Simplex

text: (so there are "n"! "n"-paths and formula_65 does not depend on the permutation). The following assertions hold:


title: Simplex

text: If "P" is the unit "n"-hypercube, then the union of the "n"-simplexes formed by the convex hull of each "n"-path is "P", and these simplexes are congruent and pairwise non-overlapping. In particular, the volume of such a simplex is


title: Simplex

text: If "P" is a general parallelotope, the same assertions hold except that it is no longer true, in dimension > 2, that the simplexes need to be pairwise congruent; yet their volumes remain equal, because the "n"-parallelotope is the image of the unit "n"-hypercube by the linear isomorphism that sends the canonical basis of formula_60 to formula_68. As previously, this implies that the volume of a simplex coming from a "n"-path is:


title: Simplex

text: Conversely, given an "n"-simplex formula_70 of formula_71, it can be supposed that the vectors formula_72 form a basis of formula_71. Considering the parallelotope constructed from formula_54 and formula_68, one sees that the previous formula is valid for every simplex.


title: Simplex

text: From this formula, it follows immediately that the volume under a standard "n"-simplex (i.e. between the origin and the simplex in R) is


title: Simplex

text: as can be seen by multiplying the previous formula by "x", to get the volume under the "n"-simplex as a function of its vertex distance "x" from the origin, differentiating with respect to "x", at formula_79  (where the "n"-simplex side length is 1), and normalizing by the length formula_80 of the increment, formula_81, along the normal vector.


title: Simplex

text: Any two ("n" − 1)-dimensional faces of a regular "n"-dimensional simplex are themselves regular ("n" − 1)-dimensional simplices, and they have the same dihedral angle of cos(1/"n").


title: Simplex

text: This can be seen by noting that the center of the standard simplex is formula_82, and the centers of its faces are coordinate permutations of formula_83. Then, by symmetry, the vector pointing from formula_82 to formula_83 is perpendicular to the faces. So the vectors normal to the faces are permutations of formula_86, from which the dihedral angles are calculated.


title: Simplex

text: An "orthogonal corner" means here that there is a vertex at which all adjacent edges are pairwise orthogonal. It immediately follows that all adjacent faces are pairwise orthogonal. Such simplices are generalizations of right triangles and for them there exists an "n"-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem:


title: Simplex

text: The sum of the squared ("n" − 1)-dimensional volumes of the facets adjacent to the orthogonal corner equals the squared ("n" − 1)-dimensional volume of the facet opposite of the orthogonal corner.


title: Simplex

text: where formula_88 are facets being pairwise orthogonal to each other but not orthogonal to formula_89, which is the facet opposite the orthogonal corner.


title: Simplex

text: For a 2-simplex the theorem is the Pythagorean theorem for triangles with a right angle and for a 3-simplex it is de Gua's theorem for a tetrahedron


title: Simplex

text: The Hasse diagram of the face lattice of an "n"-simplex is isomorphic to the graph of the ("n" + 1)-hypercube's edges, with the hypercube's vertices mapping to each of the "n"-simplex's elements, including the entire simplex and the null polytope as the extreme points of the lattice (mapped to two opposite vertices on the hypercube). This fact may be used to efficiently enumerate the simplex's face lattice, since more general face lattice enumeration algorithms are more computationally expensive.


title: Simplex

text: The "n"-simplex is also the vertex figure of the ("n" + 1)-hypercube. It is also the facet of the ("n" + 1)-orthoplex.


title: Simplex

text: Topologically, an "n"-simplex is equivalent to an "n"-ball. Every "n"-simplex is an "n"-dimensional manifold with corners.


title: Simplex

text: In probability theory, the points of the standard "n"-simplex in ("n" + 1)-space form the space of possible probability distributions on a finite set consisting of "n" + 1 possible outcomes. The correspondence is as follows: For each distribution described as an ordered ("n" + 1)-tuple of probabilities whose sum is (necessarily) 1, we associate the point of the simplex whose barycentric coordinates are precisely those probabilities. That is, the "k"th vertex of the simplex is assigned to have the "k"th probability of the ("n" + 1)-tuple as its barycentric coefficient. This correspondence is an affine homeomorphism.


title: Simplex

text: In algebraic topology, simplices are used as building blocks to construct an interesting class of topological spaces called simplicial complexes. These spaces are built from simplices glued together in a combinatorial fashion. Simplicial complexes are used to define a certain kind of homology called simplicial homology.


title: Simplex

text: A finite set of "k"-simplexes embedded in an open subset of R is called an affine "k"-chain. The simplexes in a chain need not be unique; they may occur with multiplicity. Rather than using standard set notation to denote an affine chain, it is instead the standard practice to use plus signs to separate each member in the set. If some of the simplexes have the opposite orientation, these are prefixed by a minus sign. If some of the simplexes occur in the set more than once, these are prefixed with an integer count. Thus, an affine chain takes the symbolic form of a sum with integer coefficients.


title: Simplex

text: Note that each facet of an "n"-simplex is an affine ("n" − 1)-simplex, and thus the boundary of an "n"-simplex is an affine ("n" − 1)-chain. Thus, if we denote one positively oriented affine simplex as


title: Simplex

text: It follows from this expression, and the linearity of the boundary operator, that the boundary of the boundary of a simplex is zero:


title: Simplex

text: More generally, a simplex (and a chain) can be embedded into a manifold by means of smooth, differentiable map formula_96. In this case, both the summation convention for denoting the set, and the boundary operation commute with the embedding. That is,


title: Simplex

text: where the formula_98 are the integers denoting orientation and multiplicity. For the boundary operator formula_99, one has:


title: Simplex

text: where ρ is a chain. The boundary operation commutes with the mapping because, in the end, the chain is defined as a set and little more, and the set operation always commutes with the map operation (by definition of a map).


title: Simplex

text: A continuous map formula_101 to a topological space "X" is frequently referred to as a singular "n"-simplex. (A map is generally called "singular" if it fails to have some desirable property such as continuity and, in this case, the term is meant to reflect to the fact that the continuous map need not be an embedding.)


title: Simplex

text: Since classical algebraic geometry allows one to talk about polynomial equations but not inequalities, the "algebraic standard n-simplex" is commonly defined as the subset of affine ("n" + 1)-dimensional space, where all coordinates sum up to 1 (thus leaving out the inequality part). The algebraic description of this set is


title: Simplex

text: By using the same definitions as for the classical "n"-simplex, the "n"-simplices for different dimensions "n" assemble into one simplicial object, while the rings formula_106 assemble into one cosimplicial object formula_107 (in the category of schemes resp. rings, since the face and degeneracy maps are all polynomial).


title: Scott Stuber

text: Scott Stuber (born December 13, 1968) is an American film producer and head of original films at Netflix.


title: Scott Stuber

text: After graduating from University of Arizona with a film degree, Stuber worked at Universal Pictures as a publicity assistant to Lew Wasserman.


title: Scott Stuber

text: Stuber was co-president of production at Universal with Mary Parent and in 2004, Stuber and Parent were named Vice Chairman of Worldwide Production for Universal Pictures. In 2005, Universal signed a production contract with the duo under the shingle Stuber/Parent Productions.


title: Scott Stuber

text: In November 2008, it was announced that Stuber signed a five-year contract through 2013 with Universal Studios under his vanity card, Stuber Pictures. He has been credited with producing such films as "Role Models" (2008), "Welcome Home, Roscoe Jenkins" (2008), "The Kingdom" (2007), "You, Me and Dupree" (2006), "The Break-Up" (2006), and "Ted" (2012). In 2012, Stuber Pictures was renamed to Bluegrass Films and Stuber's television unit renamed to Bluegrass Television.


title: Scott Stuber

text: He married Molly Sims, on September 24, 2011, at a Napa Valley Vineyard. The couple have three children: sons, Brooks Alan Stuber (born June 19, 2012) and Grey Douglas Stuber (born January 10, 2017), and daughter, Scarlett May Stuber (born March 25, 2015).


title: Frogger

text: "Frogger" was positively received as one of the greatest video games ever made and followed by several clones and sequels. By 2005, 20 million copies of its various home video game incarnations had been sold worldwide. It entered popular culture, including television and music.


title: Frogger

text: The objective of the game is to guide a frog to each of the empty homes at the top of the screen. The game starts with three, five, or seven frogs, depending on the machine's settings. Losing all frogs is game over. The player uses the 4-direction joystick to hop the frog once. "Frogger" is either single-player or two players alternating.


title: Frogger

text: The frog starts at the bottom of the screen, which contains a horizontal road occupied by speeding cars, trucks, and bulldozers. The player must guide the frog between opposing lanes of traffic to avoid becoming roadkill and losing a life. After the road, a median strip separates the two major parts of the screen. The upper part consists of a river with logs, alligators, and turtles, all moving horizontally across the screen. By jumping on swiftly moving logs and the backs of turtles and alligators, the player can guide the frog to safety. The player must avoid snakes, otters, and the open mouths of alligators. A brightly colored female frog is sometimes on a log and may be carried for bonus points. The top of the screen contains five "frog homes". These sometimes contain bonus insects or deadly alligators.


title: Frogger

text: The opening tune is the first verse of a Japanese children's song called "Inu No Omawarisan" ("The Dog Policeman"). Other Japanese tunes include the themes to the anime series "Hana no Ko Lunlun" and "Rascal the Raccoon". The American release has the same opening song plus "Yankee Doodle".


title: Frogger

text: In 1982, "Softline" stated that ""Frogger" has earned the ominous distinction of being 'the arcade game with the most ways to die'." There are many different ways to lose a life (illustrated by a skull and crossbones symbol where the frog was), including being hit by a road vehicle; jumping into the river; running into snakes, otters, or an alligator's jaws; staying on top of a diving turtle; riding a log, alligator, or turtle off the side of the screen; jumping into a home already occupied by a frog; jumping into the side of a home or the bush; or running out of time.


title: Frogger

text: When all five frogs are in their homes, the game progresses to the next level with increased difficulty. After five levels, the difficulty briefly eases and yet again progressively increases after each level. The timer gives 30 seconds to guide each frog into one of the homes, and resets whenever a life is lost or a frog reaches home safely.


title: Frogger

text: Every forward step scores 10 points, and every frog arriving safely home scores 50 points. 10 points are also awarded per each unused ½ second of time. Guiding a lady frog home or eating a fly scores 200 points each, and when all 5 frogs reach home to end the level the player earns 1,000 points. A single bonus frog is 20,000 points. 99,990 points is the maximum high score that can be achieved on an original arcade cabinet. Players may exceed this score, but the game only keeps the last 5 digits.


title: Frogger

text: The game was developed by Konami. On July 22, 1981, Sega gained the exclusive rights to manufacture the game worldwide.


title: Frogger

text: Sega/Gremlin was skeptical about "Frogger"s earning potential in North America. This was because no other company licensed the game. Also, an earlier game called "Frogs" that was developed there had flopped. It was believed that "Eliminator" would be the company's next big hit. Elizabeth Falconer, a market researcher at Sega/Gremlin, was tasked by Gremlin founder Frank Fogleman to check Gremlin's library of video presentations to see if there was anything worth licensing, and she stumbled across "Frogger".


title: Frogger

text: Thinking the game deserved a chance though being "cute", she requested a licensing window for playtesting. She reminded executives who denigrated "Frogger" as a "women and kids game" by reminding them of "Pac-Man". Sega/Gremlin agreed to pay Konami $3,500 per day for a 60-day licensing window. A prototype was playtested in a San Diego bar and was so successful that distributors agreed to resell the game based on the test alone.


title: Frogger

text: Wanting to broaden the player base demographics, Jack Gordon, the director of video game sales at Sega/Gremlin, noted that women shied away from the "shoot em' ups" on the market and that games like "Frogger" "filled the void".


title: Frogger

text: "Frogger" was ported to many contemporary home systems. Several platforms such as the Commodore 64 support both ROM cartridges and magnetic media, so they received multiple versions of the game.


title: Frogger

text: Sierra On-Line gained the magnetic media rights and sublicensed them to developers who published for systems not normally supported by Sierra. Cornsoft published the official TRS-80/Dragon 32, Timex Sinclair 1000, and Timex Sinclair 2068 ports. Because of that, even the Atari 2600 received multiple releases: a standard cartridge and a cassette for the Starpath Supercharger. Sierra released disk or tape versions for the Commodore 64, Apple II, original Macintosh, IBM PC, and Supercharger-equipped 2600, and cartridge versions for the TRS-80 Color Computer


title: Frogger

text: Parker Brothers received the license from Sega for cartridge versions which it released for the Atari 2600, Intellivision, Atari 5200, ColecoVision, Atari 8-bit family, TI-99/4A, VIC-20, and Commodore 64. Parker Brothers spent $10 million on advertising "Frogger". The Atari 2600 version was programmed by Ed English.


title: Frogger

text: Coleco released stand-alone Mini-Arcade tabletop versions of "Frogger", which, along with "Pac-Man", "Galaxian", and "Donkey Kong", had three million sales combined.


title: Frogger

text: The game was ported to systems such as the PC-6001 and Game Boy. "Frogger" is one of the 6 launch games for the 1983 Gakken Compact Vision TV Boy.


title: Frogger

text: "Frogger"s appeal was seen to lack barriers of age or gender. Its success increased production, becoming one of the top-grossing arcade games in North America during 1981. The arcade game earned over (equivalent to $ in ) for Sega/Gremlin in US cabinet sales, becoming the most successful Sega/Gremlin release. In Japan, "Frogger" was the 12th highest-grossing arcade game of 1981.


title: Frogger

text: Home versions of "Frogger" had high sales. The 1982 Atari 2600 version earned its publisher Parker Brothers in orders upon launch. By the end of the year, Atari 2600 cartridges were sold with in wholesale revenue. It became the company's most successful first-year product, beating the sales and revenues of its previous best-seller, "Merlin". By 2005, copies of the various home versions had been sold worldwide, including in the United States.


title: Frogger

text: In 1981, "Computer and Video Games" reviewed the arcade game as "one of the popular new generation of arcade games which are getting way from space themes". In his 1982 book "Video Invaders", Steve Bloom described "Frogger" as a "climbing game" along with "Space Panic" (1980) and Nintendo's "Donkey Kong" (1981). He said it was one of the "most exciting variations" on "Pac-Man"s maze theme along with "Donkey Kong" due to how players need to "scale from the bottom of the screen to the top" which make them "more like obstacle courses than mazes" since "you always know where you're going — up." Brett Alan Weiss of "AllGame" later reviewed the arcade game, calling it one of "the most beloved videogames ever created" and "pure, undiluted gaming at its finest". He said the "graphics are cute and detailed, the sound effects are crisp and clear, and the controls are sharp and responsive".


title: Frogger

text: "Arcade Express" reviewed the Atari VCS version in 1982, calling it "a highly authentic translation of the coin-op hit" that combines "great graphics with sophisticated play action". Ed Driscoll reviewed the Atari VCS version in "The Space Gamer", commenting that, "All in all, if you liked the arcade version, this should save you a lot of quarters. The price is in line with most cartridges. It also proves that Atari isn't the only one making home versions of the major arcade games for the VCS." Danny Goodman of "Creative Computing Video & Arcade Games" wrote in 1983 that the Atari 2600 version "is one of the most detailed translations I have seen", noting the addition of the wraparound screen. In 2013, "Entertainment Weekly" named "Frogger" one of the top ten games for the Atari 2600.


title: Frogger

text: In 1997, Hasbro Interactive released "Frogger", a vastly expanded remake of the original for Windows and the PlayStation. Unlike the original, it consists of multiple different levels. It was a commercial success, with Windows sales alone at nearly one million units in less than four months. In 1998, Hasbro released a series of versions of the original game for the Sega Genesis, Super NES, Game com, Game Boy, and Game Boy Color. Each version has different graphics, with the Genesis version having the same as the original arcade game. The Genesis and SNES versions are the last games released for those consoles in North America. Though using the same box art, they are otherwise unrelated to the 1997 remake.


title: Frogger

text: In 2005, InfoSpace worked with Konami Digital Entertainment to create the mobile game "Frogger for Prizes", in which players across the U.S. competed in multiplayer tournaments to win daily and weekly prizes. In 2006, the mobile game version of "Frogger" grossed over $10 million in the United States. A Java version was released for compatible mobile phones.


title: Frogger

text: "Frogger" was released on the Xbox Live Arcade for the Xbox 360 on July 12, 2006. It was developed by Digital Eclipse and published by Konami. It has two new gameplay modes: versus speed mode and co-op play. Some of the music was replaced, including the familiar "Frogger" theme. This version is in the compilation "Konami Classics Vol. 1".


title: Frogger

text: The original 1981 arcade version joined the Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4 "Arcade Archives" on December 12, 2019.


title: Frogger

text: Unofficial clones include "Ribbit" for the Apple II (1981), Acornsoft's "Hopper" (1983) for the BBC Micro and Acorn Electron, A&F Software's "Frogger" (1983) for BBC Micro and ZX Spectrum, PSS's (Personal Software Services) "Hopper" for the ORIC 1 in the UK (1983) and a later release for the ORIC Atmos, "Froggy" for the ZX Spectrum released by DJL Software (1984), Solo Software's "Frogger" for the Sharp MZ-700 (1984) in the UK, and "Leap Frog" for the NewBrain.


title: Frogger

text: Several clones retain the basic gameplay of "Frogger" and change the style or plot. "Pacific Coast Highway" (1982), for the Atari 8-bit family, splits the gameplay into two alternating screens: one for the highway, one for the water. "Preppie!" (1982), for the Atari 8-bit family, changes the frog to a preppy retrieving golf balls at a country club. "Frostbite" (1983), for the Atari 2600, uses the "Frogger" river gameplay with an arctic theme. "Crossy Road" (2014), for iOS, Android and Windows Phone, has a randomly generated series of road and river sections in one endless level, with only one life and a single point given for each forward hop.


title: Frogger

text: Konami announced that a "Frogger" game show was in production for Peacock, produced by Konami Cross Media NY and Eureka Productions. It debuted on September 9, 2021.


title: Frogger

text: On November 26, 1999, Rickey's World Famous Sauce offered $10,000 to the first person who could score 1,000,000 points on "Frogger" or $1,000 for a new world record prior to January 1, 2000. On March 25, 2005, Robert Mruczek offered $1,000 for beating the fictitious world record of 860,630 as set by George Costanza in an episode of "Seinfeld" or $250 for a new world record by the end of that year. On December 1, 2006, John Cunningham offered $250 for exceeding the same fictitious world record of 860,630 points by February 28, 2007. These scores were surpassed only after the bounties had all expired.


title: Frogger

text: The first score to have been verified as having beaten George Costanza's fictional score of 860,630 points was set by Pat Laffaye on December 22, 2009, with 896,980 points. This was surpassed by Michael Smith of Springfield, Virginia, with a score of 970,440 points on July 15, 2012. On August 15, 2017 Pat Laffaye reclaimed the record, scoring 1,029,990 points, becoming the first person to break one million points on an original arcade machine. The current "Frogger" world record holder is Michael Smith, now of Durham, North Carolina, after scoring 1,356,520 on February 27, 2022.


title: Buffet

text: A buffet can be either a sideboard (a flat-topped piece of furniture with cupboards and drawers, used for storing crockery, glasses, and table linen) or a system of serving meals in which food is placed in a public area where the diners serve themselves. A form of "service à la française", buffets are offered at various places including hotels, restaurants, and many social events. Buffet restaurants normally offer all-you-can-eat food for a set price, but some measure prices by weight or by number of dishes. Buffets usually have some hot dishes, so the term cold buffet (see Smörgåsbord) has been developed to describe formats lacking hot food. Hot or cold buffets usually involve dishware and utensils, but a finger buffet is an array of foods that are designed to be small and easily consumed only by hand, such as cupcakes, slices of pizza, foods on cocktail sticks, etc.