title: Potawatomi

text: The French period of contact began with early explorers who reached the Potawatomi in western and northern Michigan. They also found the tribe located along the Door Peninsula of Wisconsin. By the end of the French period, the Potawatomi had begun a move to the Detroit area, leaving the large communities in Wisconsin. The French helped to solidify their alliance with the Potawatomi by helping them raid numerous Sauk villages and Fox villages in the early 1700s as well as by compelling the Kickapoo nation to make many concessions to the Potawatomi.


title: Potawatomi

text: The British period of contact began when France ceded its lands after the defeat in the French and Indian War (or Seven Years' War). Pontiac's Rebellion was an attempt by Native Americans to push the British and other European settlers out of their territory. The Potawatomi captured every British frontier garrison but the one at Detroit.


title: Potawatomi

text: The Potawatomi nation continued to grow and expanded westward from Detroit, most notably in the development of the St. Joseph villages adjacent to the Miami in southwestern Michigan. The Wisconsin communities continued and moved south along the Lake Michigan shoreline.


title: Potawatomi

text: The United States treaty period of Potawatomi history began with the Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the American Revolutionary War and established the United States' interest in the lower Great Lakes. It lasted until the treaties for Indian Removal were signed. The US recognized the Potawatomi as a single tribe. They often had a few tribal leaders whom all villages accepted. The Potawatomi had a decentralized society, with several main divisions based on geographic locations: Milwaukee or Wisconsin area, Detroit or Huron River, the St. Joseph River, the Kankakee River, Tippecanoe and Wabash Rivers, the Illinois River and Lake Peoria, and the Des Plaines and Fox Rivers.


title: Potawatomi

text: The removal period of Potawatomi history began with the treaties of the late 1820s when the United States created reservations. Billy Caldwell and Alexander Robinson negotiated for the United Nations of Chippewa, Ottawa, and Potowatomi in the Second Treaty of Prairie du Chien (1829), by which they ceded most of their lands in Wisconsin and Michigan. Some Potawatomi became religious followers of the "Kickapoo Prophet", Kennekuk. Over the years, the US reduced the size of the reservations under pressure for land by invading European Americans.


title: Potawatomi

text: The final step followed the 1833 Treaty of Chicago, negotiated for the tribes by Caldwell and Robinson. In return for land cessions, the US promised new lands, annuities, and supplies to enable the peoples to develop new homes. The Illinois Potawatomi were removed to Nebraska and the Indiana Potawatomi to Kansas, both west of the Mississippi River. Often, annuities and supplies were reduced or late in arrival, and the Potawatomi suffered after their relocations. Those in Kansas later were removed to Indian Territory, now Oklahoma. The removal of the Indiana Potawatomi was documented by a Catholic priest, Benjamin Petit, who accompanied the Indians on the Potawatomi Trail of Death. Petit died while returning to Indiana. His diary was published in 1941 by the Indiana Historical Society.


title: Potawatomi

text: Many Potawatomi found ways to remain, primarily those in Michigan. Others fled to their Odawa neighbors or to Canada to avoid removal to the west.


title: Potawatomi

text: They regard "Epigaea repens" as their tribal flower and consider it to have come directly from their divinity. "Allium tricoccum "is consumed in traditional Potawatomi cuisine. They mix an infusion of the root of "Uvularia grandiflora" with lard and use it as salve to massage sore muscles and tendons. They use "Symphyotrichum novae-angliae" as a fumigating reviver. "Vaccinium myrtilloides" is part of their traditional cuisine, and is eaten fresh, dried, and canned. They also use the root bark of the plant for an unspecified ailment. The Potawatomi use the needles of "Abies balsamea" to make pillows, believing that the aroma prevented one from getting a cold. They also use the balsam gum of "Abies balsamea" as a salve for sores, and take an infusion of the bark for tuberculosis and other internal afflictions.


title: Potawatomi

text: The Potawatomi first lived in lower Michigan, then moved to northern Wisconsin, and eventually settled into northern Indiana and central Illinois. In the early 19th century, major portions of Potawatomi lands were seized by the U.S. government. Following the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, by which the tribe ceded its lands in Illinois, most of the Potawatomi people were removed to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. Many perished en route to new lands in the west on their journey through Iowa, Kansas, and Indian Territory (now Oklahoma), following what became known as the "Trail of Death".


title: Potawatomi

text: Potawatomi (also spelled Pottawatomie; in Potawatomi "Bodéwadmimwen" or "Bodéwadmi Zheshmowen" or "Neshnabémwen") is a Central Algonquian language spoken around the Great Lakes in Michigan and Wisconsin. It is also spoken by Potawatomi in Kansas, Oklahoma, and southern Ontario. Fewer than 1300 people speak Potawatomi as a first language, most of them elderly. The people are working to revitalize the language.


title: Potawatomi

text: The Potawatomi language is most similar to the Odawa language; it also has borrowed a considerable amount of vocabulary from Sauk. Like the Odawa language, or the Ottawa dialect of the Anishinaabe language, the Potawatomi language exhibits a great amount of vowel syncope.


title: Potawatomi

text: Many places in the Midwest have names derived from the Potawatomi language, including Waukegan, Muskegon, Oconomowoc, Pottawattamie County, Kalamazoo, and Skokie.


title: Praetor

text: Praetor ( , ), also pretor, was the title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to a man acting in one of two official capacities: (i) the commander of an army, and (ii) as an elected "magistratus" (magistrate), assigned to discharge various duties. The functions of the magistracy, the "praetura" (praetorship), are described by the adjective: the "praetoria potestas" (praetorian power), the "praetorium imperium" (praetorian authority), and the "praetorium ius" (praetorian law), the legal precedents established by the "praetores" (praetors). "Praetorium", as a substantive, denoted the location from which the praetor exercised his authority, either the headquarters of his "castra", the courthouse (tribunal) of his judiciary, or the city hall of his provincial governorship.


title: Praetor

text: The status of the "praetor" in the early republic is unclear. The traditional account from Livy claims that the praetorship was created by the Sextian-Licinian Rogations in 367 BC, but it was well known both to Livy and other Romans in the late republic that the chief magistrates were first called "praetor". For example, Festus "refers to 'the praetors, who are now consuls'".


title: Praetor

text: The form of the republic changed substantially over its history and the accounts of the republic's development in the early imperial period are marred with anachronisms projecting then-current practices into the past. In the earliest periods of the republic, "praetor" "may not have meant anything more than leader in the most basic sense", deriving from "praeire" (to proceed) or "praeesse" (to be preeminent). These early praetors may have simply been clan leaders leading "military forces privately and free from state control" with a multitude of private leaders leading private armies.


title: Praetor

text: These early military leaders were eventually institutionalised into fixed magistrate bodies elected by the people with clear state control over military activities. This was also probably assisted by "the use of "recuperatores" to mediate disputes and fetial priests to control the declaration of war". The effect to make it more difficult for private individuals to start wars against Rome's neighbours. Reforms in 449 BC also may have required "for the first time that all military commanders be confirmed by a popular assembly [representing] the Roman people".


title: Praetor

text: The emergence of the classical praetorship was a long process in which definitely started by 367 BC, when the Sextian-Licinian Rogations were passed, giving the Roman people substantially more power over the selection of their military commanders. While Livy claims that the rogations created the praetorship in 367 BC to relieve the consuls of their judicial responsibilities, "few modern historians would accept [this] account as written". Beyond the ancient knowledge that a title of praetor dated to the beginning of the republic, what became the classical praetorship was initially a military office with imperium and "virtually identical in authority and capacity to the consulship". Furthermore, a fully-formed praetorship without colleague, as Livy's account implies, would be a "tremendous violation of Roman practice in which all regular magistracies were created in colleges consisting of at least two".


title: Praetor

text: "Scholars increasingly view the [rogations] as establishing a college of three (and only three) praetors, two of whom eventually developed into the historical consuls". What became the classical praetorship in its early years also was not viewed as being less than the consuls, as "it was common practice for men to hold the praetorship after a consulship... since [doing so] was simply a method of holding "imperium" for a second year".


title: Praetor

text: Livy reports that until 337 BC the praetor was chosen only from among the patricians. In that year, eligibility for the "praetura" was opened to the plebeians, and one of them, Quintus Publilius Philo, won the office.


title: Praetor

text: Only in the 125 years after the election of three military leaders did a clear distinction emerge between what became the consuls and what became the praetors due to the "normal Roman practice to reserve one commander in or near the city for purposes of defence and (eventually) for civilian administration". The glory and prestige won by the praetors fighting foreign wars, then still in Italy, is what led to the higher prestige of the consulship. Only in 180 BC with the passage of the "lex Villia annalis" was holding the praetorship after the consulship prohibited. Even after the consulship emerged from the praetorship with higher prestige and desirability, praetorian "imperium" was still not legally distinct (or inferior to consular "imperium") until the very end of the republic.


title: Praetor

text: Starting in 241 BC, praetors started to be prorogued, allowing former praetors to act in the place of a praetor (ie "pro praetore") with power only "to conduct war in his assigned "provincia" [with] no other concerns or duties". Prorogation, in effect, granted private individuals a legally fictitious power to act in the place of the normal magistrates, allowing them to continue to act within their assigned task ("provincia"). Prorogation allowed a magistrate, whose "imperium" did not expire with his term until crossing the pomerium or being stripped by the people, to continue in his assigned task or "provincia".


title: Praetor

text: The elected praetor was a "magistratus curulis", exercised "imperium", and consequently was one of the "magistratus majores". He had the right to sit in the "sella curulis" and wear the "toga praetexta". He was attended by six lictors. A praetor was a magistrate with "imperium" within his own sphere, subject only to the veto of the consuls (who outranked him).


title: Praetor

text: The "potestas" and "imperium" (power and authority) of the consuls and the praetors under the Republic should not be exaggerated. They did not use independent judgment in resolving matters of state. Unlike today's executive branches, they were assigned high-level tasks directly by senatorial decree under the authority of the SPQR.


title: Praetor

text: Livy describes the assignments given to either consuls or praetors in some detail. As magistrates, they had standing duties to perform, especially of a religious nature. However, a consul or praetor could be taken away from his current duties at any time to head a task force, and there were many, especially military. Livy mentions that, among other tasks, these executive officers were told to lead troops against perceived threats (domestic or foreign), investigate possible subversion, raise troops, conduct special sacrifices, distribute windfall money, appoint commissioners and even exterminate locusts. Praetors could delegate at will. The one principle that limited what could be assigned to them was that their duties must not concern them with "minima", "little things". They were by definition doers of "maxima". This principle of Roman law became a principle of later European law: "Non curat minima praetor", that is, the details do not need to be legislated, they can be left up to the courts.


title: Praetor

text: A second praetorship was created around 241 BC, more clearly separating this office from that of the consulship. There were two reasons for this: to relieve the weight of judicial business and to give the Republic a magistrate with "imperium" who could field an army in an emergency when both consuls were fighting a far-off war.


title: Praetor

text: By the end of the First Punic War, a fourth magistrate entitled to hold "imperium" appears, the "praetor qui inter peregrinos ius dicit" ("the praetor who administers justice among foreigners"). Although in the later Empire the office was titled "praetor inter cives et peregrinos" ("among citizens and foreigners", that is, having jurisdiction in disputes between citizens and noncitizens), by the time of the 3rd century BC, Rome's territorial annexations and foreign populations were unlikely to require a new office dedicated solely to this task. T. Corey Brennan, in his two-volume study of the praetorship, argues that during the military crisis of the 240s the second praetorship was created to make another holder of "imperium" available for command and provincial administration "inter peregrinos". During the Hannibalic War, the "praetor peregrinus" was frequently absent from Rome on special missions. The urban praetor more often remained in the city to administer the judicial system.


title: Praetor

text: The "praetor urbanus" presided in civil cases between citizens. The Senate required that some senior officer remain in Rome at all times. This duty now fell to the "praetor urbanus". In the absence of the consuls, he was the senior magistrate of the city, with the power to summon the Senate and to organize the defense of the city in the event of an attack. He was not allowed to leave the city for more than ten days at a time. He was therefore given appropriate duties in Rome. He superintended the Ludi Apollinares and was also the chief magistrate for the administration of justice and promulgated the Praetor's Edict. These Edicts were statements of praetor's policy as to judicial decisions to be made during his term of office. The praetor had substantial discretion regarding his Edict, but could not legislate. In a sense the continuing Edicts came to form a corpus of precedents. The development and improvement of Roman Law owes much to the wise use of this praetorial discretion.


title: Praetor

text: The expansion of Roman authority over other lands required the addition of praetors. Two were created in 227 BC, for the administration of Sicily and Sardinia, and two more when the two Hispanic provinces were formed in 197 BC. The dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla transferred administration of the provinces to former consuls and praetors, simultaneously increasing the number of praetors elected each year to eight, as part of his constitutional reforms. Julius Caesar raised the number to ten, then fourteen, and finally to sixteen.


title: Praetor

text: Augustus made changes that were designed to reduce the Praetor to being an imperial administrator rather than a magistrate. The electoral body was changed to the Senate, which was now an instrument of imperial ratification. To take a very simplistic view, the establishment of the principate can be seen as the restoration of monarchy under another name. The Emperor therefore assumed the powers once held by the kings, but he used the apparatus of the republic to exercise them. For example, the emperor presided over the highest courts of appeal.


title: Praetor

text: The need for administrators remained just as acute. After several changes, Augustus fixed the number at twelve. Under Tiberius, there were sixteen. As imperial administrators, their duties extended to matters that the republic would have considered "minima". Two praetors were appointed by Claudius for matters relating to Fideicommissa (trusts), when the business in that department of the law had become considerable, but Titus reduced the number to one; and Nerva added a Praetor for the decision of matters between the Fiscus (treasury) and individuals. Marcus Aurelius appointed a Praetor for matters relating to "tutela" (guardianship).


title: Praetor

text: Roman court cases fell into the two broad categories of civil or criminal trials. The involvement of a Praetor in either was as follows.


title: Praetor

text: In an "actio", which was civil, the Praetor could either issue an "interdictum" (interdict) forbidding some circumstance or appoint a "iudex" (judge). Proceedings before the praetor were technically said to be "in iure". At this stage, the Praetor would establish a "formula" directing the "iudex" as to the remedy to be given if he found that certain circumstances were satisfied; for instance, "Let X be "iudex". If it appears that the defendant ought to pay 10,000 sesterces to the plaintiff, let the "iudex" condemn the defendant to pay 10,000 sesterces to the plaintiff. If it does not so appear, let the plaintiff absolve him." After they were handed over to the "iudex", they were no longer "in iure" before the Praetor, but "apud iudicem". The "iudicium" of the "iudex" was binding. By the time of Diocletian, however, this two-stage process had largely disappeared, and the Praetor would either hear the whole case in person or appoint a delegate (a "iudex pedaneus"), taking steps for the enforcement of the decision; the "formula" was replaced by an informal system of pleadings.


title: Praetor

text: During the time of the Roman Republic, the Urban Praetor allegedly issued an annual edict, usually on the advice of jurists (since the Praetor himself was not necessarily educated in the law), setting out the circumstances under which he would grant remedies. The legal provisions arising from the Praetor's Edict were known as "ius honorarium"; in theory the Praetor did not have power to alter the law, but in practice the Edict altered the rights and duties of individuals and was effectively a legislative document. In the reign of Hadrian, however, the terms of the Edict were made permanent and the Praetor's "de facto" legislative role was abolished.


title: Praetor

text: The Praetors also presided at the "quaestiones perpetuae" (which were criminal proceedings), so-called because they were of certain types, with a Praetor being assigned to one type on a permanent basis. The Praetors appointed judges who acted as jurors in voting for guilt or innocence. The verdict was either acquittal or condemnation.


title: Praetor

text: These quaestiones looked into "crimina publica", "crimes against the public", such as were worthy of the attention of a Praetor. The penalty on conviction was usually death, but sometimes other severe penalties were used. In the late Republic, the public crimes were:


title: Praetor

text: When the Praetor administered justice in a tribunal, he sat on a "sella curulis", which was that part of the court reserved for the Praetor and his assessors and friends, as opposed to the "subsellia", the part occupied by the "iudices" (judges) and others who were present. In court, the Praetor was referred to as acting "e tribunali" or "ex superiore loco" (lit. from a raised platform or from a higher place) but he could also perform ministerial acts out of court, in which case he was said to be acting "e plano" or "ex aequo loco" (lit. from the flat ground or from an equal or level place). For instance, he could in certain cases give validity to the act of manumission when he was out-of-doors, such as on his way to the bath or to the theatre.


title: Praetor

text: By 395 AD, the praetors' responsibilities had been reduced to a purely municipal role. Their sole duty was to manage the spending of money on the exhibition of games or on public works. However, with the decline of the other traditional Roman offices such as that of tribune the praetorship remained an important portal through which aristocrats could gain access to either the Western or Eastern Senates. The Praetorship was a costly position to hold as praetors were expected to possess a treasury from which they could draw funds for their municipal duties.


title: Praetor

text: Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565) undertook a major administrative reform beginning in 535, which involved the reunification of civil and military authority in the hands of the governor in certain provinces, and the abolition of the dioceses. The Diocese of Thrace had already been abolished by the end of the 5th century by Anastasius, and its "vicarius" became the new "praetor Justinianus" of Thrace, with authority over all the former Thracian provinces except for Lower Moesia and Scythia Minor, which became part of the "quaestura exercitus". Similarly, the governors of Pisidia and Lycaonia, as well as Paphlagonia (enlarged by merging it with Honorias) were upgraded to "praetores Justiniani", and received the rank of "vir spectabilis". In addition, in Constantinople he replaced the "praefectus vigilum", who was hitherto responsible for security, by a "praetor populi" (in Greek πραίτωρ [τῶν] δήμων, "praitōr [tōn] dēmōn"), with wide-ranging police powers.


title: Praetor

text: In the early 9th century, the "praitōr" was a junior administrative official in the "themata", subordinate to the governing "stratēgos". Gradually however, the civil functionaries assumed greater power, and by the late 10th century, the "praitores" (or "kritai", "judges") were placed at the head of the civil administration of a "thema". This division of civil and military duties was often abandoned in the 12th century, when the posts of civil "praitōr" and military "doux" were frequently held in tandem. The provincial post fell out of use after the collapse of the Empire in 1204.


title: Praetor

text: According to Helene Ahrweiler, Emperor Nikephoros II (r. 963–969) reinstituted a praetor in Constantinople, as a high-ranking judge. He is possibly identical to the Palaiologan-era post of the "praitōr tou demōu", whose holders are attested until 1355. According to the "Book of Offices" of pseudo-Kodinos, compiled around the same time, the "praitōr tou demōu" occupied the 38th place in the imperial hierarchy, between the "megas tzaousios" and the "logothetēs tōn oikeiakōn", but held no official function. His court uniform consisted of a gold-brocaded hat ("skiadion"), a plain silk "kabbadion" tunic, and a plain, smooth wooden staff ("dikanikion").


title: Praetor

text: Classical Latin Praetor became medieval Latin Pretor; Praetura, Pretura, etc. During the interwar period the 71 counties of Romania were divided into a various numbers of "plăși" (singular: "plasă"), headed by a "Pretor", appointed by the Prefect. The institution headed by the Pretor was called "Pretură". Currently, this office has survived only in the Republic of Moldova, where praetors are the heads of Chişinău's five sectors.


title: Praetor

text: The Italian-speaking Swiss canton of Ticino has "preturi" (singular: "preture") which is the chief magistrate (civil branch) of a district, heading a "pretura" (a court). The "preturi" are appointed by the canton's parliament.


title: Praetor

text: In the "New Phyrexia" expansion of the "" collectible card game, the five Phyrexian rulers were labeled as praetors.


title: Praetor

text: In the 2017 game "Xenoblade Chronicles 2", one of the central antagonists Amalthus holds the title of Praetor in the Praetorium of Indol.


title: Praetor

text: In the popular book series by Rick Riordan, "The Heroes of Olympus", there is a Senate with two Praetors, one male and one female.


title: Praetor

text: In the 2022 game "Elden Ring", one of the antagonists Rykard holds the title of Praetor among his fellow demi-gods in the Lands Between.


title: Orsini family

text: The House of Orsini is an Italian noble family that was one of the most influential princely families in medieval Italy and Renaissance Rome. Members of the Orsini family include five popes: Stephen II (752-757), Paul I (757-767), Celestine III (1191–1198), Nicholas III (1277–1280), and Benedict XIII (1724–1730). In addition, the family included 34 cardinals, numerous "condottieri", and other significant political and religious figures.


title: Orsini family

text: According to their own family legend, the Orsini are descended from the Julio-Claudian dynasty of ancient Rome. The Orsini carried on a political feud with the Colonna family for centuries in Rome, until it was stopped by Papal Bull in 1511. In 1571, the heads of both families married nieces of Pope Sixtus V as an act of reconciliation. Ironically the Colonna family also claims descent from the Julio-Claudian dynasty of ancient Rome.


title: Orsini family

text: The Orsini descend from Cajo Orso Orsini who lived c. 600 CE. Five popes are descended from him: Stephen II, Paul I, Celestine III, Nicholas III and Benedict XIII. Some members used the surname of Bobone-Orsini. One member by the name Bobone, lived during the early 11th century, father of Pietro, who was in turn father of Giacinto Bobone (1110–1198), who in 1191 became pope as Celestine III. One of the first great nepotist popes, he made two of his nephews cardinals and allowed his cousin Giovanni Gaetano (Giangaetano, died 1232) to buy the fiefs of Vicovaro, Licenza, Roccagiovine and Nettuno, which formed the nucleus of the future territorial power of the family.


title: Orsini family

text: The Bobone surname was lost with his children, who were called "de domo filiorum Ursi". Two of them, Napoleone and Matteo Rosso the Great (1178–1246), considerably increased the prestige of the family. The former was the founder of the first southern line, which died out with Camillo Pardo in 1553. He obtained the city of Manoppello, later a countship, and was "gonfaloniere" of the Papal States. Matteo Rosso, called the Great, was the effective lord of Rome from 1241, when he defeated the Imperial troops, until 1243, holding the title of Senator. Two of his sons, and Napoleone, were also Senators. Matteo ousted the family's traditional rivals, the Colonna family, from Rome and extended the Orsini territories southwards down to Avellino and northwards to Pitigliano. During his life, the family was firmly in the Guelph faction. He had some ten sons, who divided the fiefs after his deaths: Gentile (died 1246) originated the Pitigliano line and the second southern line, Rinaldo that of Monterotondo, Napoleone (died 1267) that of Bracciano, and another Matteo Rosso that of Montegiordano, from the name of the district in Rome housing the family's fortress. The most distinguished of his sons was Giovanni Gaetano (died 1280): elected pope as Nicholas III, he named his nephew Bertoldo (d. 1289) as count of Romagna, and had two nephews and a brother created cardinals.


title: Orsini family

text: The rise of the Orsini did not stop after Nicholas' death. Bertoldo's son, Gentile II (1250–1318), was two times Senator of Rome, podestà of Viterbo and, from 1314, "Gran Giustiziere" ("Great Justicer") of the Kingdom of Naples. He married Clarice Ruffo, daughter of the counts of Catanzaro, forming an alliance of the most powerful Calabrian dynasty. His son Romano (1268–1327), called Romanello, was Royal Vicar of Rome in 1326, and inherited the countship of Soana through his marriage with Anastasia de Montfort, Countess of Nola. Romano's stance was markedly Guelph. After his death, his two sons divided his fiefs, forming the Pitigliano and the second southern line.


title: Orsini family

text: Roberto (1295–1345), Gentile II's grandson, married Sibilla del Balzo, daughter of the Great Senechal of the Kingdom of Naples. Among his sons, Giacomo (died 13 August 1379; Dean of Salisbury, Archdeacon of Leicester and Archdeacon of Durham) was created cardinal by Gregory XI in 1371, while Nicola (August 27, 1331 – February 14, 1399) obtained the counties of Ariano and Celano. The latter was also Senator of Rome and enlarged the family territories in Lazio and Tuscany.


title: Orsini family

text: His second son, Raimondello Orsini del Balzo, supported Charles III' "coup d'état" in Naples against Queen Joan I. Under king Ladislaus he was among the few Neapolitan feudataries who were able to maintain their territorial power after the royal war against them. However, at his death in 1406 the southern Orsini fiefs were confiscated. Relationships with the royal family remained cold under Joan II; However, when Raimondello's son Giannantonio (1386–1453) sent his troops to help her against the usurpation attempt of James of Bourbon, he received in exchange the Principality of Taranto.


title: Orsini family

text: The links with the court increased further under Sergianni Caracciolo, Joan's lover and Great Senechal. A younger brother of Giannantonio married one of Sergianni's daughters. However, the Orsini changed side when Alfonso V of Aragon started his conquest of the Kingdom of Naples. Giannantonio was awarded with the duchy of Bari, the position of Great Connestable and an appanage of 100,000 "ducati". Giannantonio remained faithful to Alfonso's heir, Ferdinand I, but was killed during a revolt of nobles. Having died without legitimate sons, much of his possessions were absorbed into the Royal Chamber.


title: Orsini family

text: This line was initiated by Guido Orsini, second son of Romano, who inherited the county of Soana, on the western side of Lake Bolsena in southern Tuscany. He and his descendants ruled over the fiefs of Soana, Pitigliano and Nola, but in the early 15th century wars against the Republic of Siena and the Colonnas caused the loss of several territories. Bertoldo (died 1417) managed to keep only Pitigliano, while his grandson Orso (died July 5, 1479) was count of Nola and fought as condottiere under the Duke of Milan and the Republic of Venice. Later he entered the service of Ferdinand I of Naples, but, not having taken part in the Barons' conspiracy, he was rewarded with the fiefs of Ascoli and Atripalda. He took part in the Aragonese campaign in Tuscany and was killed at the siege of Viterbo.


title: Orsini family

text: The most outstanding member of the Pitigliano line was Niccolò, one of the major condottiere of the time. His son Ludovico (died January 27, 1534) and his nephew Enrico (died 1528) participated in the Italian Wars at the service of both France and Spain, often changing side with the typical ease of the Italian military leaders of the time. Two of Ludovico's daughters married relevant figures: Geronima to Pier Luigi Farnese, illegitimate son of Pope Paul III and Marzia to Gian Giacomo Medici of Marignano, an important general of the Spanish army.


title: Orsini family

text: The line started to decay after the loss of Nola by Ludovico, who was also forced to accept the Sienese suzerainty over Pitigliano. Under his son Giovan Francesco (died May 8, 1567) the county entered the orbit of the Grand Duke of Tuscany. Later, the attempt of Alessandro (died February 9, 1604) to obtain the title of Monterotondo was thwarted by Pope Gregory XIII. His son Giannantonio (March 25, 1569 – 1613) sold Pitigliano to Tuscany, in exchange for the marquisate of Monte San Savino.


title: Orsini family

text: This line was founded by Rinaldo, third son of Matteo Rosso the Great. His son, Napoleone, became a cardinal in 1288 and remained a prominent member of the Curia until his death at Avignon in 1342.


title: Orsini family

text: This branch of the family was often involved in the baronial struggles of the Late Middle Ages Rome, at least three members of the family being elected as Senators, while others fought as condottieri. Francesco in 1370 took part to the war of Florence against the Visconti of Milan. Orso (died July 24, 1424) died fighting for the king of Naples in the Battle of Zagonara against the Milanese. His sons Giacomo (died 1482) and Lorenzo (1452) battled for the Papal States, Naples and Florence. One of Giacomo's daughters, Clarice (1453–July 30, 1488) became Lorenzo de' Medici's wife. Franciotto Orsini was created cardinal by Leo X in 1517.


title: Orsini family

text: The most important member of the Monterotondo Orsinis was Giovani Battista Orsini, who became cardinal under Sixtus IV (1483). He was probably among the promoters of the failed plot against Cesare Borgia in 1502, being assassinated on February 22 of 1503 as retaliation, together with other members of the family : Giulio survived captivity under Cesare, and Paolo and Francesco 4th Duke of Gravina were strangled to death on the 18th of January 1503.


title: Orsini family

text: The line decayed from the late 16th century, when several members were assassinated or lost their lands for various reasons. Its last representatives Enrico (died September 12, 1643) and Francesco (1592 - September 21, 1650) sold Monterotondo to the Barberini in 1641.


title: Orsini family

text: Napoleone, another son of Matteo Rosso the Great, received Bracciano, Nerola and other lands in what is now northern Lazio. In 1259 he was Senator of Rome. Thanks to the strategic positions of their fiefs, and to their famous castle built in Bracciano in 1426, they were the most powerful Orsini line in the Lazio. Count Carlo (died after 1485), son of another Napoleone (died October 3, 1480), was Papal Gonfaloniere. By his marriage with a Francesca Orsini of Monterotondo was born Gentile Virginio Orsini, one of the most prominent figures of Italian politics in the late 15th century. After Carlo's death, he enlarged the family's tenure with lands inherited by his wife, another Orsini from Salerno, and most of all he was amongst the favourites of Ferdinand I of Naples, who appointed him as Great Constable of Naples. Together with his cousin, the Cardinal Giovanni Battista, he was among the fiercest opponents of popes Innocent VIII and Alexander VI. In 1492 Gentile Virginio bought the county of Anguillara from Franceschetto Cybo.


title: Orsini family

text: During Charles VIII of France's descent into Italy, he managed to keep Bracciano. Ferdinand II had his fiefs confiscated and imprisoned him in Castel dell'Ovo, where he was poisoned in 1497. The family recovered this setback under the more friendly Medici popes of the early 16th century. His son Giangiordano was Prince Assistant to the Papal Throne. His nephew Virginio was a famous admiral for the Papal States and France, but in 1539 he had his fiefs confiscated under the charge of treason.


title: Orsini family

text: Paolo Giordano was created first Duke of Bracciano in 1560. The son of Girolamo Orsini and Francesca Sforza, he was grandson, on his father's side, of Felice della Rovere (illegitimate daughter of Pope Julius II) and Gian Giordano Orsini and, on his mother's side, of Count Bosio Sforza and Costanza Farnese, an illegitimate daughter of Pope Paul III. An accomplished condottiero, he was however also a ruthless figure who had his wife Isabella de' Medici murdered. For this and other homicides he had to flee to northern Italy. He was succeeded by Virginio, whose heir Paolo Giordano II married the princess of Piombino and was created Prince of the Holy Roman Empire. His brother Alessandro was cardinal and Papal legate, and another brother, Ferdinando (died March 4, 1660) acquired the assets of the other line of San Gemini. In the 17th century the Dukes of Bracciano moved their residence to Rome. This, along with a general economical decadence, damaged the dukedom, and last Duke and Prince, Flavio (March 4, 1620 – April 5, 1698) was forced by the huge debts to sell it to Livio Odescalchi.


title: Orsini family

text: The line of Gravina, from the name of the eponymous city in Apulia, is the only existing line of the Orsini. It descends from Francesco (died 1456), a son of Count Carlo of Bracciano. Most of his fief was located in northern Lazio, but he entered in the Neapolitan orbit when in 1418 he was called by Sergianni Caracciolo to fight against the Angevine troops, which he defeated. By marriage, he obtained the title of Count of Gravina. He was made Duke of Gravina by King Alfonso, a title definitely assigned to his son Giacomo (died 1472), to which had been added the counties of Conversano, Campagna and Copertino. Two of Francesco's sons, Marino (died 1471) and Giovanni Battista (died June 8, 1476), were respectively archbishop of Taranto and Grand Master of the Knights of Rhodes.


title: Orsini family

text: The fourth duke, Francesco, was part of a conspiracy along with his brothers Giulio and Paolo against Cesare Borgia but were found out, and Francesco was strangled to death on 18 January 1503 along with his brother Paolo. One of Francesco's nephews, Flavio Orsini, was created cardinal in 1565. The fifth duke, Ferdinando (died December 6, 1549), had all his fiefs confiscated by the Spaniards, but he regained them after a 40,000 scudi payment.


title: Orsini family

text: After the heirless death of Duke Michele Antonio (January 26, 1627), his lands passed to his cousin Pietro Orsini, count of Muro Lucano (died 1641). The latter's nephew Pier Francesco, who had renounced the succession in favour of his brother Domenico to become a Dominican, was later elected pope with the name of Benedict XIII.


title: Orsini family

text: His successor raised Benedict XIII's nephew, Prince Beroaldo Orsini, to the dignity of Prince Assistants to the Papal Throne (title held until 1958), after the emperor Charles VI had already, in 1724, made him a prince of the Holy Roman Empire. The last cardinal from the family was Domenico.


title: Orsini family

text: This branch of the family moved to Rome in the 18th century, where Duke Domenico (November 23, 1790 – April 28, 1874), married Maria Luisa Torlonia in 1823. In 1850, he was Minister of War and General Lieutenant of the Papal Armies, and also Senator of Rome.


title: Orsini family

text: The remaining princely family is represented by Prince Domenico Napoleone Orsini, Duke of Gravina (b. 1948). With no sons or male-line descendants, the heir to the dukedom of Gravina is his unmarried brother Don Benedetto Orsini (b. 1956), followed by his cousin Prince Lelio Orsini d'Aragona (b. 1981), whose mother is Princess Khetevan Bagration-Mukhransky.


title: Orsini family

text: Apart from the Bracciano castle, other notable buildings and structures associated with the Orsini include:


title: Orsini family

text: The Orsini family was briefly mentioned in Boccaccio's book "The Decameron" in the 5th day, 3rd story. In the woods, it is described that soldiers from a rival family's soldiers attacked a fictional character in the book named Pietro while they had become lost in the woods about eight miles from Rome. Boccaccio describes the soldiers acting to spite of the Orsini's. Furthermore, a castle named Campo de' Fiori, was included in the text. "L'Idole" (R. Merle) also has Paolo and Lodovico Orsini as main protagonists, since the book is about Vittoria Accoramboni's life.


title: 1996–97 UEFA Champions League

text: The 1996–97 UEFA Champions League was the 42nd season of UEFA's premier European club football tournament, the fifth since its rebranding as the UEFA Champions League, and the last involving only clubs that were champions of their domestic leagues. Due to the Bosman ruling, restrictions on foreign players in matchday squads were lifted from this season.


title: 1996–97 UEFA Champions League

text: The tournament was won by Borussia Dortmund in a 3–1 final victory against defending champions Juventus. It was their only title in the tournament to date, and the first title for Germany since its reunification in 1990.


title: 1996–97 UEFA Champions League

text: 24 teams entered the competition: the national champions of each of the top 23 nations in the UEFA coefficient rankings, and UEFA Champions League holders, Juventus. The national champions of the associations ranked 1–7, plus the title holders, all received a bye to the group stage, while the national champions of the associations ranked 8–23 entered in the qualifying round. The remaining national champions from the associations ranked 24–48 were only allowed to participate in UEFA Cup.


title: 1996–97 UEFA Champions League

text: The winners of each tie in the preliminary round entered the Champions League group stage, whilst the losers entered the UEFA Cup first round.


title: 1996–97 UEFA Champions League

text: Atlético Madrid, Auxerre, Fenerbahçe, Rapid Wien and Widzew Łódź made their debut in the group stage.


title: Chae Jong-hyeop

text: Chae Jong-hyeop (; born May 19, 1993) is a South Korean actor. He is known for his role in television series "Webtoon Hero - Tundra Show Season 2" (2016), "Hot Stove League" (2019), and "" (2021). In addition, he is known for his role in web series "Nevertheless" (2021) and "The Witch's Diner" (2021).


title: Chae Jong-hyeop

text: Chae made his debut with MBC every1 drama "Webtoon Hero - Tundra Show Season 2" which appeared a little.


title: Chae Jong-hyeop

text: In 2019–2020, Chae made his debut through the SBS successful sport-themed drama "Hot Stove League" as a baseball pitcher named "Yoo Min-ho". "Hot Stove League" gained high viewership rating throughout its run, therefore he gained a lot of public recognition through this drama.


title: Chae Jong-hyeop

text: In April 2021, Chae joined the JTBC drama "" with Cho Seung-woo and Park Shin-hye and brought him attention. Later in June, he appeared in the JTBC drama "Nevertheless" along with Song Kang and Han So-hee. In July, he appeared in TVING's original drama "The Witch's Diner" with Song Ji-hyo and Nam Ji-hyun.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Hindustani classical music is the classical music of northern regions of the Indian subcontinent. It may also be called North Indian classical music or, in Hindustani, shastriya sangeet (). It is played in instruments like the violin, sitar and sarod. Its origins from the 12th century CE, when it diverged from Carnatic music, the classical tradition in South India. Hindustani classical music arose in the Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb, a period of great influence of Perso-Arabic arts in the subcontinent, especially the Northern parts. This music combines the Indian classical music tradition with Perso-Arab musical knowledge, resulting in a unique tradition of gharana system of music education.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Around the 12th century, Hindustani classical music diverged from what eventually came to be identified as Carnatic classical music.The central notion in both systems is that of a melodic musical mode or "raga", sung to a rhythmic cycle or "tala". It is melodic music, with no concept of harmony. These principles were refined in the musical treatises "Natya Shastra", by Bharata (2nd–3rd century CE), and "Dattilam" (probably 3rd–4th century CE).


title: Hindustani classical music

text: In medieval times, the melodic systems were fused with ideas from Persian music, particularly through the influence of Sufi composers like Amir Khusro, and later in the Mughal courts, noted composers such as Tansen flourished, along with religious groups like the Vaishnavites. Artists such as Dalptaram, Mirabai, Brahmanand Swami and Premanand Swami revitalized classical Hindustani music in the 16-18th century.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: After the 16th century, the singing styles diversified into different gharanas patronized in different princely courts. Around 1900, Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande consolidated the musical structures of Hindustani classical music, called ragas, into a few thaats based on their notes. This is a very flawed system but is somewhat useful as a heuristic.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Distinguished musicians who are Hindu may be addressed as "Pandit" and those who are Muslim as "Ustad". An aspect of Hindustani music going back to Sufi times is the tradition of religious neutrality: Muslim ustads may sing compositions in praise of Hindu deities, and Hindu pandits may sing similar Islamic compositions.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Vishnu Digambar Paluskar in 1901 founded the Gandharva Mahavidyalaya, a school to impart formal training in Hindustani classical music with some historical Indian Music. This was a school open to all and one of the first in India to run on public support and donations, rather than royal patronage. Many students from the School's early batches became respected musicians and teachers in North India. This brought respect to musicians, who were treated with disdain earlier. This also helped spread of Hindustani classical music to masses from royal courts.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Ravana and Narada from Hindu mythology are accomplished musicians; Saraswati with her veena is the goddess of music. Gandharvas are presented as spirits who are musical masters, and the gandharva style looks to music primarily for pleasure, accompanied by the soma rasa. In the "Vishnudharmottara Purana", the Naga king Ashvatara asks to know the swaras from Saraswati.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: While the term "raga" is articulated in the "Natya Shastra" (where its meaning is more literal, meaning "color" or "mood"), it finds a clearer expression in what is called "Jati" in the "Dattilam", a text composed shortly after or around the same time as "Natya Shastra". The Dattilam is focused on Gandharva music and discusses scales (swara), defining a tonal framework called "grama" in terms of 22 micro-tonal intervals (shruti) comprising one octave. It also discusses various arrangements of the notes ("Murchhana"), the permutations and combinations of note-sequences ("tanas"), and "alankara" or elaboration. Dattilam categorizes melodic structure into 18 groups called "Jati", which are the fundamental melodic structures similar to the raga. The names of the Jatis reflect regional origins, for example "Andhri" and "Oudichya".


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Music also finds mention in a number of texts from the Gupta period; Kalidasa mentions several kinds of veena (Parivadini, Vipanchi), as well as percussion instruments (mridang), the flute ("Vamshi") and conch ("Shankha"). Music also finds mention in Buddhist and Jain texts from the earliest periods of the common era.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Narada's "Sangita Makarandha" treatise, from about 1100 CE, is the earliest text where rules similar to those of current Hindustani classical music can be found. Narada actually names and classifies the system in its earlier form before the Persian influences introduced changes in the system. Jayadeva's "Gita Govinda" from the 12th century was perhaps the earliest musical composition sung in the classical tradition called Ashtapadi music.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: In the 13th century, Sharangadeva composed the "Sangita Ratnakara", which has names such as the "Turushka Todi" ("Turkish Todi"), revealing an influx of ideas from Islamic culture. This text is the last to be mentioned by both the Carnatic and the Hindustani traditions and is often thought to date the divergence between the two.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: The advent of Islamic rule under the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire over northern India caused considerable cultural interchange. Increasingly, musicians received patronage in the courts of the new rulers, who in their turn, started taking an increasing interest in local musical forms. While the initial generations may have been rooted in cultural traditions outside India, they gradually adopted many aspects from the Hindu culture from their kingdoms. This helped spur the fusion of Hindu and Muslim ideas to bring forth new forms of musical synthesis like qawwali and khyal.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: The most influential musician of the Delhi Sultanate period was Amir Khusrau (1253–1325), a composer in Persian, Turkish, Arabic, as well as Braj Bhasha. He is credited with systematizing some aspects of Hindustani music, and also introducing several ragas such as Yaman Kalyan, Zeelaf and Sarpada. He created six genres of music: khyal, tarana, Naqsh, Gul, Qaul, and Qalbana. A number of instruments (such as the sitar) were also introduced in his time.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Amir Khusrau is sometimes credited with the origins of the khyal form, but the record of his compositions do not appear to support this. The compositions by the court musician Sadarang in the court of Muhammad Shah bear a closer affinity to the modern khyal. They suggest that while khyal already existed in some form, Sadarang may have been the father of modern khyal.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Much of the musical forms innovated by these pioneers merged with the Hindu tradition, composed in the popular language of the people (as opposed to Sanskrit) in the work of composers like Kabir or Nanak. This can be seen as part of a larger Bhakti tradition, (strongly related to the Vaishnavite movement) which remained influential across several centuries; notable figures include Jayadeva (11th century), Vidyapati (fl. 1375 CE), Chandidas (14th–15th century), and Meerabai (1555–1603 CE).


title: Hindustani classical music

text: As the Mughal Empire came into closer contact with Hindus, especially under Jalal ud-Din Akbar, music and dance also flourished. In particular, the musician Tansen introduced a number of innovations, including ragas and particular compositions. Legend has it that upon his rendition of a night-time raga in the morning, the entire city fell under a hush and clouds gathered in the sky and that he could light fires by singing the raga "Deepak".


title: Hindustani classical music

text: At the royal house of Gwalior, Raja Mansingh Tomar (1486–1516 CE) also participated in the shift from Sanskrit to the local idiom (Hindi) as the language for classical songs. He himself penned several volumes of compositions on religious and secular themes and was also responsible for the major compilation, the "Mankutuhal" ("Book of Curiosity"), which outlined the major forms of music prevalent at the time. In particular, the musical form known as dhrupad saw considerable development in his court and remained a strong point of the Gwalior gharana for many centuries.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: After the dissolution of the Mughal empire, the patronage of music continued in smaller princely kingdoms like Awadh, Patiala, and Banaras, giving rise to the diversity of styles that is today known as gharanas. Many musician families obtained large grants of land which made them self-sufficient, at least for a few generations (e.g. the Sham Chaurasia gharana). Meanwhile, the Bhakti and Sufi traditions continued to develop and interact with the different gharanas and groups.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Until the late 19th century, Hindustani classical music was imparted on a one-on-one basis through the guru-shishya ("mentor-protégé") tradition. This system had many benefits, but also several drawbacks; in many cases, the shishya had to spend most of his time serving his guru with a hope that the guru might teach him a "cheez" (piece or nuance) or two. In addition, the system forced the music to be limited to a small subsection of the Indian community. To a large extent, it was limited to the palaces and dance halls. It was shunned by the intellectuals, avoided by the educated middle class, and in general, looked down upon as a frivolous practice.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: First, as the power of the maharajahs and nawabs declined in the early 20th century, so did their patronage. With the expulsion of Wajid Ali Shah to Calcutta after 1857, the Lucknavi musical tradition came to influence the music of the renaissance in Bengal, giving rise to the tradition of "Ragpradhan gan" around the turn of the century. Raja Chakradhar Singh of Raigarh was the last of the modern era Maharajas to patronize Hindustani classical musicians, singers and dancers.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Also, at the turn of the century, Vishnu Digambar Paluskar and Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande spread Hindustani classical music to the masses in general by organizing music conferences, starting schools, teaching music in classrooms, devising a standardized grading and testing system, and standardizing the notation system.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Vishnu Digambar Paluskar emerged as a talented musician and organizer despite having been blinded at age 12. His books on music, as well as the "Gandharva Mahavidyalaya" music school that he opened in Lahore in 1901, helped foster a movement away from the closed gharana system.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Paluskar's contemporary (and occasional rival) Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande recognized the many rifts that had appeared in the structure of Indian classical music. He undertook extensive research visits to a large number of gharanas, Hindustani as well as Carnatic, collecting and comparing compositions. Between 1909 and 1932, he produced the monumental four-volume work "Hindustani Sangeeta Paddhati", which suggested a transcription for Indian music, and described the many traditions in this notation. Finally, it suggested a possible categorization of ragas based on their notes into a number of thaats (modes), subsequent to the Melakarta system that reorganized Carnatic tradition in the 17th century. The ragas that exist today were categorized according to this scheme, although there are some inconsistencies and ambiguities in Bhatkande's system.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: In modern times, the government-run All India Radio, Bangladesh Betar and Radio Pakistan helped to bring the artists to public attention, countering the loss of the patronage system. The first star was Gauhar Jan, whose career was born out of Fred Gaisberg's first recordings of Indian music in 1902. With the advance of films and other public media, musicians started to make their living through public performances. A number of Gurukuls, such as that of Alauddin Khan at Maihar, flourished. In more modern times, corporate support has also been forthcoming, as at the ITC Sangeet Research Academy. Meanwhile, Hindustani classical music has become popular across the world through the influence of artists such as Ravi Shankar and Ali Akbar Khan.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Indian classical music has seven basic notes with five interspersed half-notes, resulting in a 12-note scale. Unlike the 12-note scale in Western music, the base frequency of the scale is not fixed, and intertonal gaps (temperament) may also vary. The performance is set to a melodic pattern called a "raga" characterized in part by specific ascent (aroha) and descent (avaroha) sequences, "king" (vadi) and "queen" (samavadi) notes and characteristic phrases (pakad).


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Ragas may originate from any source, including religious hymns, folk tunes, and music from outside the Indian subcontinent. For example, raga Khamaj and its variants have been classicized from folk music, while ragas such as Hijaz (also called Basant Mukhari) originated in Persian maqams.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: The Gandharva Veda is a Sanskrit scripture describing the theory of music and its applications in not just musical form and systems but also in physics, medicine and magic. It is said that there are two types of sound: "āhata" (struck/audible) and "anāhata" (unstruck/inaudible). The inaudible sound is said to be the principle of all manifestation, the basis of all existence.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: There are three main 'Saptak' which resemble to the 'Octaves' in Western Music except they characterize total seven notes or 'swaras' instead of eight. These are- low ("mandra)," medium ("madhya)" and high ("tāra")"." Each octave resonates with a certain part of the body, low octave in the heart, medium octave in the throat and high octave in the head.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: The rhythmic organization is based on rhythmic patterns called tala. The melodic foundations are called ragas. One possible classification of ragas is into "melodic modes" or "parent scales", known as thaats, under which most ragas can be classified based on the notes they use.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Thaats may consist of up to seven scale degrees, or swara. Hindustani musicians name these pitches using a system called Sargam, the equivalent of the Western movable "do" solfege:


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Both systems repeat at the octave. The difference between sargam and solfege is that re, ga, ma, dha, and ni can refer to either "Natural" ("shuddha") or altered "Flat" ("komal") or "Sharp" ("teevra") versions of their respective scale degrees. As with movable do solfege, the notes are heard relative to an arbitrary tonic that varies from performance to performance, rather than to fixed frequencies, as on a xylophone. The fine intonational differences between different instances of the same swara are called srutis. The three primary registers of Indian classical music are mandra (lower), madhya (middle) and taar (upper). Since the octave location is not fixed, it is also possible to use provenances in mid-register (such as mandra-madhya or madhya-taar) for certain ragas. A typical rendition of Hindustani raga involves two stages:


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Tans are of several types like Shuddha, Koot, Mishra, Vakra, Sapaat, Saral, Chhoot, Halaq, Jabda, Murki


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Hindustani classical music is primarily vocal-centric, insofar as the musical forms were designed primarily for a vocal performance, and many instruments were designed and evaluated as to how well they emulate the human voice.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: The major vocal forms or styles associated with Hindustani classical music are dhrupad, khyal, and tarana. Light classical forms include dhamar, trivat, chaiti, kajari, tappa, tap-khyal, ashtapadis, thumri, dadra, ghazal and bhajan; these do not adhere to the rigorous rules of classical music.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Dhrupad is an old style of singing, traditionally performed by male singers. It is performed with a tambura and a pakhawaj as instrumental accompaniments. The lyrics, some of which were written in Sanskrit centuries ago, are presently often sung in brajbhasha, a medieval form of North and East Indian languages that were spoken in Eastern India. The rudra veena, an ancient string instrument, is used in instrumental music in dhrupad.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Dhrupad music is primarily devotional in theme and content. It contains recitals in praise of particular deities. Dhrupad compositions begin with a relatively long and acyclic alap, where the syllables of the following mantra is recited:


title: Hindustani classical music

text: The alap gradually unfolds into more rhythmic jod and jhala sections. These sections are followed by a rendition of bandish, with the pakhawaj as an accompaniment. The great Indian musician Tansen sang in the dhrupad style. A lighter form of dhrupad called dhamar, is sung primarily during the spring festival of Holi.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Dhrupad was the main form of northern Indian classical music until two centuries ago when it gave way to the somewhat less austere khyal, a more free-form style of singing. Since losing its main patrons among the royalty in Indian princely states, dhrupad risked becoming extinct in the first half of the twentieth century. However, the efforts by a few proponents, especially from the Dagar family, have led to its revival.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Some of the best known vocalists who sing in the Dhrupad style are the members of the Dagar lineage, including the senior Dagar brothers, Nasir Moinuddin and Nasir Aminuddin Dagar; the junior Dagar brothers, Nasir Zahiruddin and Nasir Faiyazuddin Dagar; and Wasifuddin, Fariduddin, and Sayeeduddin Dagar. Other leading exponents include the Gundecha Brothers and Uday Bhawalkar, who have received training from some of the Dagars. Leading vocalists outside the Dagar lineage include the Mallik family of Darbhanga tradition of musicians; some of the leading exponents of this tradition were Ram Chatur Mallick, Siyaram Tiwari, and Vidur Mallick. At present Prem Kumar Mallick, Prashant and Nishant Mallick are the Dhrupad vocalists of this tradition.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: A section of dhrupad singers of Delhi Gharana from Mughal emperor Shah Jahan's court migrated to Bettiah under the patronage of the Bettiah Raj, giving rise to the Bettiah Gharana.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Khyal is the modern Hindustani form of vocal music. Khyal, literally meaning "thought" or "imagination" in Hindustani and derived from the Persian/Arabic term, is a two- to eight-line lyric set to a melody. Khyal contains a greater variety of embellishments and ornamentations compared to dhrupad. Khyal's features such as "sargam" and "taan" as well as movements to incorporate dhrupad-style "alap" have led to it becoming popular.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: The importance of the khyal's content is for the singer to depict, through music in the set raga, the emotional significance of the khyal. The singer improvises and finds inspiration within the raga to depict the khyal.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: The origin of Khyal is controversial, although it is accepted that this style was based on dhrupad and influenced by other musical traditions. Many argue that Amir Khusrau created the style in the late 14th century. This form was popularized by Mughal Emperor Mohammad Shah through his court musicians; some well-known composers of this period were Sadarang, Adarang, and Manrang.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Another vocal form, taranas are medium- to fast-paced songs that are used to convey a mood of elation and are usually performed towards the end of a concert. They consist of a few lines of bols either from the rhythmic language of Tabla, Pakhawaj, or Kathak dance set to a tune. The singer uses these few lines as a basis for fast improvisation. The tillana of Carnatic music is based on the tarana, although the former is primarily associated with dance.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Tappa is a form of Indian semi-classical vocal music whose specialty is its rolling pace based on fast, subtle, knotty construction. It originated from the folk songs of the camel riders of Punjab and was developed as a form of classical music by Mian Ghulam Nabi Shori or Shori Mian, a court singer for Asaf-Ud-Dowlah, the Nawab of Awadh. "Nidhubabur Tappa", or tappas sung by Nidhu Babu were very popular in 18th and 19th-century Bengal.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Thumri is a semi-classical vocal form said to have begun in Uttar Pradesh with the court of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, (r. 1847–1856). There are three types of thumri: poorab ang, Lucknavi, and Punjabi thumri. The lyrics are primarily in older, more rural Hindi dialects such as Brij Bhasha, Awadhi, and Bhojpuri. The themes covered are usually romantic in nature, hence giving more importance to lyrics rather than Raag, and bringing out the storytelling qualities of music. The need to express these strong emotional aesthetics makes Thumri and Kathak a perfect match, which, before Thumri became a solo form, were performed together.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Some recent performers of this genre are Abdul Karim Khan, the brothers Barkat Ali Khan and Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, Begum Akhtar, Nirmala Devi, Girija Devi, Prabha Atre, Siddheshwari Devi, Shobha Gurtu, and Chhannulal Mishra.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: In the Indian sub-continent during Mughal rule, the Persian Ghazal became the most common poetic form in the Urdu language and was popularized by classical poets like Mir Taqi Mir, Ghalib, Daagh, Zauq and Sauda amongst the North Indian literary elite. The Ghazal genre is characterized by its romance, and its discourses on the various shades of love. Vocal music set to this mode of poetry is popular with multiple variations across Central Asia, the Middle East, as well as other countries and regions of the world.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Although Hindustani music clearly is focused on vocal performance, instrumental forms have existed since ancient times. In fact, in recent decades, especially outside South Asia, instrumental Hindustani music is more popular than vocal music, partly due to a somewhat different style and faster tempo, and partly because of a language barrier for the lyrics in vocal music.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Many musical instruments are associated with Hindustani classical music. The veena, a string instrument, was traditionally regarded as the most important, but few play it today and it has largely been superseded by its cousins the sitar and the sarod, both of which owe their origin to Persian influences. The tambura is also regarded as one of the most important instruments, due to its functioning as a fundamental layer that the rest of the instruments adhere to throughout a performance. Among bowed instruments, the sarangi and violin are popular. The bansuri, shehnai and harmonium are important wind instruments. In the percussion ensemble, the tabla and the pakhavaj are the most popular. Rarely used plucked or struck string instruments include the surbahar, sursringar, santoor, and various versions of the slide guitar. Various other instruments have also been used in varying degrees.


title: Hindustani classical music

text: Among the earliest modern music festivals focusing on Hindustani classical music was the Harballabh Sangeet Sammelan, founded in 1875 in Jallandhar. Dover Lane Music Conference notably debuted in 1952 in Kolkata and Sawai Gandharva Bhimsen Festival in 1953 in Pune, while festivals such as the ITC SRA Sangeet Sammelan appeared in the early 1970s.


title: Would You Rather (film)

text: Would You Rather is a 2012 American psychological horror thriller film directed by David Guy Levy and starring Brittany Snow and Jeffrey Combs. It is based on the party game "would you rather", and centers on a woman named Iris as she attends a dinner party, where she must partake in life-threatening games to help her sick younger brother secure a donor after he contracts leukaemia. The film premiered at Screamfest on October 14, 2012. It was released in the United States in select theaters and through video on demand on February 8, 2013, by IFC Midnight.


title: Would You Rather (film)

text: Iris, a young woman caring for her sick brother Raleigh, is unable to afford the costs of his treatment for leukaemia. Raleigh's oncologist Dr. Barden introduces Iris to Shepard Lambrick, a philanthropist who heads the Lambrick Foundation, which manages schools and hospitals in third world countries. He offers her a deal: if she wins a parlour game at a dinner party he is hosting, he will pay for Raleigh's treatment and use his foundation's influence to shortlist a bone marrow donor for him.


title: Would You Rather (film)

text: The following day at Shepard's manor, Iris is introduced to his son Julian and the other contestants: Lucas; Travis, a war veteran; Linda, a paralyzed elderly woman; Peter, a gambling addict; Amy; Conway, an alcoholic debtor; and Cal. A steak and foie gras dinner is served but Iris, a vegetarian, initially declines to eat it. Shepard then offers her $10,000 to compromise her principles; she reluctantly accepts his offer and eats the steak. When Shepard realizes Conway is a recovering alcoholic, he offers him $10,000 to drink a glass of wine. When Conway declines, Shepard offers him $50,000 to drink an entire decanter of Scotch, which Conway accepts.


title: Would You Rather (film)

text: After dinner ends, Shepard gives the guests an opportunity to leave if they wish. When none do so, the game begins. Shepard reveals it to be a version of the party game "would you rather" in which players must choose between two options. After Shepard's butler, a former MI5 agent named Bevans, wheels in an electric shock machine, Conway attempts to leave but is shot dead. The remaining contestants learn how serious and deadly the game is, and realize they can only win the game if they are the last surviving player. The first round is played by having two contestants connected to the shock machine, with one person deciding whether to shock themselves or the other person. The contestants take turns making the difficult decision, and the round ends with no one eliminated.


title: Would You Rather (film)

text: After a heated argument occurs between Travis and Shepard's unpleasant son Julian, the second round begins. In the second round, each contestant has 30 seconds to choose between stabbing the person next to them in the thigh with an ice pick or whipping Travis three times with a sjambok. Iris and Lucas choose to whip Travis, out of fear of killing someone, and Travis chooses to be whipped by Bevans. Ultimately, Travis is badly injured and Peter, knowing that Travis won't survive another lashing, stabs Linda in the leg, but he hits the femoral artery and she dies shortly after stabbing Amy. Amy is then given the choice to either whip Travis or choose any player to stab. She chooses to stab Iris, but in the side instead. Thanks to Lucas, Iris survives. Cal then whips Travis enough to have him incapacitated and removed from the game.


title: Would You Rather (film)

text: Lucas causes a distraction and everyone except Amy attempts to escape the room. Cal advances on Shepard with the sjambok as Lucas attacks the guards and Iris escapes. After Shepard shoots and kills Cal, the others surrender. Shepard sends Bevans and Julian after Iris; Julian finds her and attempts to rape her, but she stabs him with the ice pick. Dr. Barden, who has had second thoughts about sending Iris to Shepard, breaks into the manor to save her. Before they can escape, Bevans kills Dr. Barden and escorts Iris back to the game. Shepard sends Julian to his room for the remainder of the game and personally apologizes to Iris for his son's behavior.


title: Would You Rather (film)

text: The third round begins with each player having 30 seconds to choose between being submerged underwater in a barrel for two minutes, or an unknown task written on a card that is placed in front of them. Peter chooses a card, which requires him to light an M-80 firecracker in his hand; when it explodes, it causes him to have a heart attack and he dies. Lucas's card forces him to slit open his own eyeball; he does so and survives. Iris chooses the barrel and survives (her unpicked card is revealed: it would have required her to have all of her teeth extracted). Amy, who was witness to her husband drowning their daughter, then chooses her card and learns that she must be submerged underwater for four minutes; she drowns after being forced into the barrel without even being given the chance to take a breath.


title: Would You Rather (film)

text: With only Iris and Lucas in the final round, Iris is given the choice to either shoot and kill Lucas to win the game, or spare him, which would result in both walking away empty-handed. After some hesitation, Iris shoots Lucas in the chest, killing him. Shepard crowns her the champion and gives her a bag full of money that's more than enough to pay for her brother's treatment, pay off all her debt as well as enable her to go back to the university. He also explains that a donor has already been located for her brother in Romania.


title: Would You Rather (film)

text: When Iris arrives home, she discovers that Raleigh committed suicide by overdosing on pills while she was out, as he could not stand being a burden any longer, meaning there was no point in her playing the game.


title: Would You Rather (film)

text: Principal photography on "Would You Rather" began in July 2011. It was filmed on location in Pasadena, Woodland Hills, and Los Angeles, California.


title: Would You Rather (film)

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 59% of 22 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating is 5.17/10. The consensus reads, "Though restrained by most torture porn standards, "Would You Rather" brilliant premise is ultimately harmed by its tendency towards blood and guts." Metacritic rated it 20 out of 100, based on 11 reviews.


title: Corsi–Rosenthal Box

text: The Corsi–Rosenthal Box, also called a Corsi–Rosenthal Cube or a Comparetto Cube, is a design for a do-it-yourself air purifier that can be built comparatively inexpensively. It was designed during the COVID-19 pandemic with the goal of reducing the levels of airborne viral particles in indoor settings.


title: Corsi–Rosenthal Box

text: Since COVID-19 was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization on 11 March 2020, evidence, including increasing amounts of peer-reviewed research, has been accumulating that severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the virus causing COVID-19, . Superspreading events are generally associated with indoor gatherings. In response to the emerging evidence and recommendations of infectious disease researchers, engineers have begun to consider how improved ventilation may reduce indoor viral loads.


title: Corsi–Rosenthal Box

text: Air purification units with HEPA filtration can be expensive, often costing considerably more than . In August 2020, Richard Corsi, an environmental engineer and the incoming Dean of Engineering at the University of California, Davis (UC Davis), spoke with "Wired" reporter Adam Rogers about an idea he had for combining multiple store-bought filters with a box fan to improve the efficiency of home-made air filter designs. Rogers contacted Jim Rosenthal, the CEO of filter manufacturer Tex-Air Filters, who had collaborated with Corsi at the University of Texas and in the Texas chapter of the Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America, to run some tests on a single air filter attached to a box fan. Inspired by Corsi's idea to use multiple filters, Rosenthal later came up with a 5-filter design. Rosenthal named it after Corsi, although after a "New York Times" article mentioned the boxes by that name, Corsi tweeted that Rosenthal really deserved the credit, and that he preferred the name Corsi–Rosenthal Box.


title: Corsi–Rosenthal Box

text: The original Corsi–Rosenthal Box design consisted of five furnace filters, preferably of MERV13 or higher, which formed the sides and bottom of a cube. A box fan is placed on top and duct taped to the filters, sealing the system so that air is drawn through the filters, up and out of the box. An updated design, also known as a Comparetto Cube, uses four filters and a cardboard base that can sit directly on the floor. Rosenthal later improved the design further by adding shrouds made of cardboard or similar materials to cover the corners of the box fan to improve efficiency and reduce backflow.


title: Corsi–Rosenthal Box

text: The filtration units can be assembled in around fifteen minutes, last for months, and cost between US$50 and $150 in materials.


title: Corsi–Rosenthal Box

text: Airborne virus particulates range in size from 1 to 50 microns (μm). Rosenthal used his HVAC company's testing equipment to run an informal test of the design, in which he found that around 60% of 1 μm particles were removed by the system, and almost 90% of 10 μm particles were removed. Clean air delivery rates (CADR) of a US$75 design were estimated at between 165 and 239 (depending on fan speed) in an August 2021 case study by UC Davis researchers. In October 2021, Corsi told GBH News that "People are now reporting in clean air delivery rates. That's phenomenal. That's actually better than a lot of the more expensive HEPA-based portable air cleaners".


title: Corsi–Rosenthal Box

text: In April 2022, a team based at UC Davis published a study of a Corsi-Rosenthal box that used five 2-inch MERV-13 filters. They found that this design's "effective clean air delivery rate [CADR] increase[d] with fan speed, from about 600 to 850 ft min (1019 to 1444 m h)". Based on the cost of their design, this output amounted to $0.08 per CADR, or roughly ten times cheaper than commercial air purifiers, with quieter operation.


title: Corsi–Rosenthal Box

text: A study of a home-built air purifier to remove wildfire smoke, using a box fan and filter mounted in a window, showed that particulate matter between 1 and 10 μm in size was reduced by about 75%. "Wired" wrote that this study may be suggestive of the efficacy of similar filters to filter virus particles similar in size to the particles studied.


title: Kanna Hashimoto

text: As an actress, Hashimoto first appeared in "I Wish" (2011). Since 2013, Hashimoto has also starred in "" (2016), of which she also released her debut single for the film. She has also starred in the films "Haruta & Chika" (2017), "Gintama", "The Disastrous Life of Saiki K." (2017), "" (2019), "Kingdom" (2019), "Kiss Me at the Stroke of Midnight" (2019), and "Violence Action" (2022).


title: Kanna Hashimoto

text: In 2007, when Hashimoto was in third grade, she signed with the agency Active Hakata in her hometown, Fukuoka. She first worked in local commercials, and joined DVL, a co-ed dance and vocal unit under her agency, in 2009; she eventually joined DVL's all-female successor group Rev. from DVL. She made her stage debut after auditioning to be in Hirokazu Kore-eda's movie "I Wish." After that, she appeared in productions by a children's theater company operated by her agency and in dramas by a local TV station. She wrote in her elementary school yearbook that her dream for the future was to be an "actress".


title: Kanna Hashimoto

text: In 2013, Hashimoto gained national attention when a photo of her taken at Rev. from DVL's live performances from November 3 to November 4 went viral on 2channel and Twitter. Praised for her natural beauty, she was given titles such as "beyond cute local idol", "beyond angelic idol", and "a talent appearing once in a millennium." A post on "NAVER Summary" titled "Once in a millennium talent: A local idol in Hakata is making a big fuss on the internet when she is too cute (Image of Kanna Hashimoto)". By November 7 views on the post had exceeded 550,000, and the server for her agency's official website was temporarily down due to excessive access. In the corner of NHK's late-night news program "NEWS WEB", "Tsubuyaki Big Data", which introduces trends on Twitter and Google Trends, showed that the number of searches on Google had risen rapidly, and had also spread to Chinese users. The photo was also mentioned on "Good! Morning" (Asahi TV) and "Mezamashi TV" (Fuji TV). According to her agency, in response to her viral photo, there was a flood for offers from TV commercial appearances and interviews.


title: Kanna Hashimoto

text: Additionally, KADOKAWA representative director Shinichiro Inoue who saw the photo "fell in love at first sight" and sent an email to his company saying "I want to make a movie with her"; the next weekend he went to a live performance held at a train station in Fukuoka and, struck by the excitement of the stage, said "I definitely want you to star in my next movie", thus casting her in "Sailor Suit and Machine Gun: Graduation"; this story was revealed at the press conference for the production of the movie.


title: Kanna Hashimoto

text: Hashimoto herself said "I don't know even one millimeter of goodness" of the photo that triggered her breakthrough. She said, "there was frustration, and maybe I was showing it on my face".


title: Kanna Hashimoto

text: In April 2014, she was selected as a regular on the variety show "Minna no Seishun Nozokimi TV TEEN!TEEN!", becoming the host of the program alongside Naoki Matayoshi and Yuju Ayabe of the comedy duo Peace. Hashimoto, who became a high school student, said, "I'm excited for the start of my first regular program. I'm nervous because it's my first time as a host, but I'll do my best, so please watch it!". Additionally, she was appointed as the MC of Daiichi Kosho's online karaoke "DAM Channel", welcoming various artists as guests and serving as the 11th and also the youngest MC in the program's history. In the May issue of the fashion magazine "Popteen" which was released in April, she made her first cover appearance and also featured on the cover for five pages. She also featured on the cover and opening gravure of "Weekly Young Magazine", released at the same time, which was her first gravure activity. In July, she made her first appearance in a nationally broadcast serial drama with Fuji TV's "Water Polo Yankees." Producer Ryota Fujino said, "Having an overwhelming presence and a sense of transparency, I am confident that she will move the characters and the story." She costarred with Yuto Nakajima in Episode 6. Hashimoto said, "Yesterday and this morning, my hands were sweaty, and I was really nervous." When asked if there was a role that she would like to try in the future, she said, "I haven't done anything yet, so really anything can 'come on'!". In August, she was featured on "Too angelic MC in a town that is too exquisite! Full summer in Sacas SP" which was a live broadcast special program on TBS. In November, she was selected as the "2014 Hit Person" by "Nikkei Trendy" alongside actor Tsuyoshi Muro, who acted as the commentator for the "Best 30 Hit Products of 2014" and the facilitator at the presentation.


title: Kanna Hashimoto

text: In March of 2015 she appeared in the live action of "Assassination Classroom" as Ritsu, an autonomous thinking fixed gun battery. Juichi Uehara, a producer of Fuji TV, said, "To play the peculiar character of Ritsu who also has outstanding cuteness, it had to be someone who has a miraculous presence that combines perfection and cuteness." She appeared as the host of the variety show "Rev. from DVL's Afterschool" and "Magic that changes the world! Algorithm Institute". In a commercial for cup noodles, she showed her "bakakakkoii" technique, which is popular among high school students, becoming a hot topic. In Mentholatum's commercial, Hashimoto, a "bright and lively angel" played a "sexy and glossy devil" which quickly became a hot topic on the internet.


title: Kanna Hashimoto

text: In June, at a press conference to announce the production of the movie "Sailor Suit and Machine Gun: Graduation," a "spiritual sequel" to "Sailor Suit and Machine Gun", held at Shinagawa Prince Hotel, it was announced that she would play the role of the main character, the fourth head of the Medaka group, a high-schooler who was a former teenage delinquent and becomes the boss of a yakuza, Izumi Hoshi. Hashimoto, who was starring in the work for the first time, said, "This is a work performed by famous actress seniors, so I want to act like Kanna Hashimoto, not like someone, but like Kanna Hashimoto." "I would like to seal the film and face the filming with courage and a positive heart," she said. Also, when asked about her future goals, she said, "I want to become an actress who can play a wide range of roles without being bound by one image." The trailer, which was released in December, revealed that she would be making her solo debut with the theme song "Sailor Suit and Machine Gun", a cover of the original by Hiroko Yakushimaru and Masami Nagasawa. Starting February 3, 2016, the music video for the theme song began distributing exclusively on U-NEXT for one week. From the 11th of the following week, it would be available publicly on the "Rev. from DVL Official Channel". Also, on the 8th, a public recording on NHK General "MUSIC JAPAN" was held. Hashimoto, who would be performing solo, said, "I am very nervous to sing to everyone on such a big stage for MJ [MUSIC JAPAN], which everyone dreams of appearing on." "But I'm not alone, I have everyone involved in "Sailor Suit and Machine Gun: Graduation"." On the 20th, she performed in the theme song on Fuji TV's "Music Fair." The song ranked 1st on the Oricon Daily Chart. It also reached number 11 on Oricon's charts and charted for 7 weeks. On the first day of the movie's release on March 5, Hashimoto said, "Thanks to everyone involved in this movie, I've come to love movies and my job as an actress. I feel like I've taken my first step as an actress this time. "Sailor Suit and Machine Gun: Graduation" Izumi Hoshi will be graduating today, but I will take everything I learned from this work as an important lesson. I will also start walking towards new works and roles", sending a message of gratitude and determination to fans and related parties. In 2015, a web poll conducted by My Navi Student declared her the Cutest Idol from both the men's choices and women's choices list.


title: Kanna Hashimoto

text: On March 17, 2016, it was announced that she would play the double lead role with Katsutoshi Sato in "Haruchika." Hashimoto, who will be the second main character, said, "I entered high school again and caused a stir (laugh) I graduated and entered the school at a dizzying pace, but this time I will play a life-sized high school student. Please look forward to Chika, who will play a more natural Kanna Hashimoto!". In April, she appeared as a program moderator with TOKIO's Shigeru Joshima and Bakarhythm at "Hanamichi of Test: New Benzemi". She made a unique video of various study methods, acted as a moderator from the perspective of a current high school student, and Hashimoto herself participated in the video production. In August, it was revealed that she would play the role of the teenage alien girl Kagura in the "Gintama" live-action film. In expressing the world view of "Gintama", Hashimoto commented, "I'm going to shoot as a strong, lovely, self-paced Kagura. Please look forward to it!". She also became a hot topic for dying her natural hair orange. According to producer Shinzo Matsuhashi, the casting of the heroine Kagura was a bit of a headache: "Director Fukuda and Mr. Oguri told me that Kanna Hashimoto would be the only one, and I thought, 'I see,' and that's how it was decided". In October, the live-action of "The Disastrous Life of Saiki K" started shooting. It was revealed that she would play the role of Kokomi Teruhashi. On December 7, she appeared on the first night of 2015 FNS Music Festival, costarring with Hiroko Yakushimaru in the movie theme song "Sailor Suit and Machine Gun".


title: Kanna Hashimoto

text: On March 3, 2017, she won the Japan Academy New Actor Award for "Sailor Suit and Machine Gun: Graduation." She expressed her gratitude to the staff involved in the film, and said, "With this award an encouragement, I will continue to devote myself to the world of film and the path of acting with humility and sincerity."


title: Kanna Hashimoto

text: She portrayed Kokomi Teruhashi in the live-action "The Disastrous Life of Saiki K." film. She portrayed the title character Kaguya Shinomiya in the . On March 9, "Haruchika" was released. From that spring, she decided to focus solely on her acting career, saying "I hope that I can become someone who can give courage to others. I want to do each thing carefully and connect it to the next", setting goals for the future. That same month, she graduated from high school. On the 23rd of that month, "TEEN!TEEN!", of which she had been a regular MC for three years, ended broadcasting. She also graduated from "Hanamichi of Test: New Benzemi" with Bakarhythm on the 27th. On the 31st, she graduated from Rev. from DVL with her last live performance in Fukuoka.


title: Kanna Hashimoto

text: In April 2017 at an event in Tokyo, Hashimoto announced that she was preparing to move to Tokyo in order to get into full-scale acting. In May, she made a guest appearance on episode 3 of Fuji TV's series "Month 9" "Kizoku Kantei." In June, it was announced that she would play the role of Usuki Keiko, a new police officer who is an animal enthusiast and Sudo (Atsuro Watanebe)'s partner on Fuji TV's series "Day 9" "Metropolitan Police Department Ikimono Section" for July. Hashimoto, who will play the role of the heroine for the first time in a serial drama, said, "I will try to be able to speedily and comically interact with Mr. Watanabe, and I hope to create a good combination between Sudo and Keiko, just like in the original work." Satoko Kashikawa, the production producer, said that the reason for Hashimoto's casting was that "Keiko Usuki, who plays the partner, is quite a unique character for a heroine, but Kanna Hashimoto, who has the strongest cuteness and a strong core, will play it. I am confident that he will become an existence that should be." A Twitter post on the 5th by Hashimoto became a hot topic with about 485,000 likes in 9 days. At the Tokyo Metropolitan election PR event held on the 24th, she reported on Twitter that she lives in Tokyo and that she had voted for the Tokyo Metropolitan Assembly election. In July, the movie "Gintama" was released. Looking back to the filming, Hashimoto says that she was able to grow by playing Kagura. Costars Oguri and Suda have praised her earnestness in acting with her body and charm as a heroine. In September, "Metropolitan Police Department Ikimono Section" cranked up. From beginning to end, she thanked the staff and chairman Atsuro Watabe for their support as the first heroine of the serial drama and the mood maker of this work. In October, at the opening ceremony of the 30th Tokyo International Film Festival held at Roppongi Hills Arena in Tokyo, she served as the top batter of the ceremony as an ambassador to convey the charm of movies to the younger generation. In December, in her hometown of Fukuoka Prefecture, she served as the one-day chief of the Prefectural Police Central Police Station, and publicized special precautions for the year-end and New Year holidays.


title: Kanna Hashimoto

text: In January 2018 she appeared as the Fukuoka Central Police Station Chief Special Alert for One Day on "Tuesday 9" "FINAL CUT". She also participated in the popular corner of the variety show "Guru Guru Ninety-Nine" and was confirmed to be a new member of "I Will Become a Gourmet Chicken Race Gochi! 19”. In April, it was officially announced that the sequel to "Gintama", which was the number one box-office hit of the previous year's live-action Japanese film, would be continued with "Gintama 2: The Law is Surely There to be Broken." It was also announced that she would appear as the heroine Kyoko Hayakawa, a former Yankee gang leader, in the October NTV Sunday drama "Kyo Kara Ore wa!!". This is the fourth time that she has appeared in director Yuichi Fukuda's work. On November 3, at the Rikkyo University school festival, she was scheduled to make an appearance, but due to it being flooded with spectators and safety of the outdoor special stage not being assured, police guidance was given and her appearance was cancelled. On December 20, she graduated from the corner of "Guru Guru Ninety-Nine," only appearing as a regular for one year. On December 23, she was revealed to be part of the cast of "Twelve Children Who Want to Die" which was released on January 25 of the following year by Warner Bros.


title: Kanna Hashimoto

text: On July 15, 2019, her official fan club "Hashimoto Junjō Naika o Hossoku" was launched. The following month, she held her first fan meetings in Osaka and Tokyo. "Kaguya-sama: Love is War", which was released nationwide on September 6, became the number one weekend audience mobilization for the first time. On September 10, it was announced that she would be signing exclusively with Discovery Next. On December 10, Twitter Japan announced that she was ranked 8th in 2019 as the "actor that became a hot topic in the world".


title: Kanna Hashimoto

text: On January 17, 2020, it was announced that she had received the 2020 Elan d'or Award for Newcomer of the Year which is given to the most promising new actor who has been most active throughout the year. On February 6, the award ceremony was held at the Keo Plaza Hotel in Tokyo, and director Hiroazu Kore-eda of the movie "I Wish", her screen debut, was the presenter and congratulated her.


title: Kanna Hashimoto

text: On January 15, 2021, Video Research announced the "TV CM Bulletin", which summarizes the TV commercial trends of 5 commercial stations aired in the Kanto area. In the same year, it was reported that she had appeared most in the commercial broadcasts on the first three days of the new year. On February 18, according to video research, in 2020 (January 1-December 31), in the Kanto area on-air CM, she was ranked first in terms of the number of companies appointed and second in terms of number of advertisements after Ryoko Yonekura. On February 26, it was announced that Studio Ghibli and Hayao Miyazaki's animated film "Spirited Away" would be staged by John Caird in February 2022 as a work commemorating the 90th anniversary of Toho's founding, with Mone Kamishiraishi playing the role of the main character, Chihiro. It was reported that she would play with a double cast. On the variety program "130 million people's SHOW Channel" broadcast on June 12, she challenged "the largest number of facial tissues pulled out of the box in one minute", achieving the record of 157 and exceeding the previous record of 140, becoming the Guinness World Record holder. However, the record was later broken. On August 20, the movie "Kaguya-sama Final: Love is War" starring Hashimoto with Sho Hirano was released.


title: Kanna Hashimoto

text: Hashimoto was born on February 3, 1999, in Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan. Her family consists of her mother, father, an older brother seven years her senior, and her twin brother. Ryōko Morooka, an organist, is her aunt.


title: Túpac Amaru II

text: José Gabriel Condorcanqui ( – May 18, 1781)known as Túpac Amaru II was an indigenous Cacique who led a large Andean rebellion against the Spanish in Peru. He later became a mythical figure in the Peruvian struggle for independence and indigenous rights movement, as well as an inspiration to myriad causes in Spanish America and beyond.


title: Túpac Amaru II

text: Túpac Amaru II was born José Gabriel Condorcanqui Noguera about the year 1742 in Surimana, Tungasuca, in the province of Cusco, to Miguel Condorcanqui Usquionsa Túpac Amaru, "kuraka" of three towns in the Tinta district, and María Rosa Noguera. On May 1, Túpac Amaru II was baptized by Santiago José Lopez in a church in Tungasuca. Prior to his father's death, Amaru II spent his childhood in the Vilcamayu Valley; he accompanied his father to community functions, such as the temple, the market, and processions. Tupac's parents died when he was twelve years old, and he was raised by an aunt and uncle. At age sixteen, he received a Jesuit education at the "San Francisco de Borja" School, founded to educate the sons of "kurakas". The Jesuits "impressed upon him his social standing as future "kuraka" and someone of royal Inca blood." At age twenty-two, Túpac Amaru II married Micaela Bastidas. Shortly after his marriage, Amaru II succeeded his father as "kuraka", giving him rights to land. As with his father, he was both the head of several Quechua communities and a regional merchant and muleteer, inheriting 350 mules from his father's estate. His regional trading gave him contacts in many other indigenous communities and access to information about economic conditions. His personal contacts and knowledge of the region were useful in the rebellion of 1780–81.


title: Túpac Amaru II

text: His status in the colonial Spanish racial hierarchy has been discussed by scholars, whether he was of "pure indigenous blood" or a mixed-race mestizo, although his mother most likely had partial Spanish ancestry. He was recognized as an elite Quechua from a "kuraka" family and was educated at a school in Cuzco for sons of indigenous leaders. He spoke Quechua and Spanish, and learned Latin from the Jesuits. He was upwardly socially mobile, and in Cuzco he had connections with distinguished Spanish and Spanish American (creole) residents. "The upper classes in Lima saw him as a well-educated Indian," whatever European ancestry he might have had.


title: Túpac Amaru II

text: Between 1776 and 1780 Condorcanqui went into litigation with the Betancur family over the right of succession of the Marquisate of Oropesa and lost the case. In 1760, he married Micaela Bastidas Puyucahua of Afro-Peruvian and indigenous descent. Tupac Amaru II inherited the caciqueship, or hereditary chiefdom of Tungasuca and Pampamarca from his older brother, governing on behalf of the Spanish governor.


title: Túpac Amaru II

text: At the end of the 1770s, the trade relations between Buenos Aires and the Upper Peru ended with the commercial monopoly of Lima, which caused greater competition for the manufacturers of Cuzco. They needed to sell their merchandise in Potosí but had to compete with producers of Buenos Aires and even of Spain. On the other hand, the widespread overproduction throughout the Andes pushed prices down. Furthermore, in the years 1778 and 1779, extremely cold weather damaged crops and made travel difficult. In 1780, Túpac Amaru, who also experienced this crisis, had considerable resources but numerous debts, as well. He also witnessed the economic discomforts the others were going through, from merchants who were on the brink of bankruptcy to communities that could not afford the growing tribute.


title: Túpac Amaru II

text: Condorcanqui lived the typical situation of the "kurakas" (tribal chiefs): he had to mediate between the local commander and the indigenous people in his charge. However, he was affected, like the rest of the population, due to the establishment of customs and the rise of the "alcabalas" (taxes). He voiced his objection against these issues. He also demanded that the indigenous people be freed from compulsory work in the mines. claims directed through the regular channels to the colonial authorities in Tinta, Cusco and later in Lima, obtaining negatives or indifference.