title: Spirit (band)

text: In December 1982, the original Spirit lineup re-formed and recorded several songs from their first four albums (as well as a few new tracks) live on a soundstage. The band was joined by several guests, including Jeff Baxter and Bob Welch. The resulting "Spirit of '84" (released internationally as "The Thirteenth Dream") was initially recorded for an audiophile label; however, Mercury Records re-signed the band (including a California solo deal) and released the album in 1984. The album was only a moderate critical success and failed to chart. While some of the original members went on to do other projects, California and Cassidy continued touring with new members Scott Monahan on keyboards and Dave Waterbury on bass.


title: Spirit (band)

text: California headed to England and recorded his third solo album, the contemporary hard rock effort "Restless", for which Heyman (who played on the track "Jack Rabbit") secured a deal with Phonogram for in late 1985. Following a few live dates in England, California returned to the United States and resumed touring extensively with Cassidy, Monahan, and Waterbury. There was one more solo album from California: a collection of material entitled "Shattered Dreams" that was released in 1986.


title: Spirit (band)

text: In 1988, California secured a deal for Spirit with prominent independent label I.R.S. Records (best known for cultivating R.E.M. and The Go-Go's), leading Locke to rejoin the band. They recorded an album entitled "Rapture in the Chambers" at the Malibu, California recording studio Nileland, where studio owner/engineer, bassist and vocalist Mike Nile was asked to join the band. Although the group (including California, Cassidy, Locke, Nile, Monahan, and George Valuck on keyboards) toured extensively in support, the album failed to chart. California, Cassidy, and Nile continued to tour as a power trio while self-releasing "Tent of Miracles" in 1990. Nile contributed heavily to the album, writing songs and sharing lead vocals.


title: Spirit (band)

text: Spirit continued working almost continually for the next six years. Although they only released one album after "Tent of Miracles", the group was always either recording or touring. California had his own home recording studio since the early 1980s, though he had been making home recordings for years prior to that. This came to an end on January 2, 1997, when California drowned off the coast of Hawaii. He had been surfing with his son, who got caught in a riptide. He managed to push his son to safety but ended up losing his own life.


title: Spirit (band)

text: While Cassidy played a few dates with Spirit alumni under the name "Spirit Revisited" in 1998, California's death was effectively the end of the group. Locke died of complications resulting from lymphoma in August 2006. Cassidy died on December 6, 2012, in San Jose, California, at age 89.


title: Spirit (band)

text: California's death, however, did not mark the end of the emergence of Spirit material. Starting in 2000, there have been five collections of previously unreleased studio and live material, four of which were two-CD sets. California had also prepared an anthology of material from the group's first stint with Mercury Records entitled "The Mercury Years". The two-CD set was released in early 1997, though it raised the ire of some fans who did not care for the fact that some of the material had been re-edited or featured overdubbing that was not present on the original releases.


title: Spirit (band)

text: Likewise, nearly all of Spirit's original albums are currently in print on CD. This is thanks to the efforts of Sony Music (with the Epic catalog, though Collector's Choice Music was the first to reissue "Feedback" on CD in the U.S., following a brief release on disc in France in the late 1990s) and Beat Goes On alongside Edsel, both UK labels (with the Mercury catalog, some of which had made it to CD prior to Beat Goes On and Edsel reissuing all of their Mercury albums). Their later independent albums are available through the group's website. The one album that is unavailable at this time is "Rapture In The Chambers", which has not been reissued since the original 1989 release, though it was released on CD at that time.


title: Spirit (band)

text: Spirit has also found its work sampled by modern artists several times. The most notable of these was the "Extra P. Remix" of the song "Resurrection" by Common (which samples "Ice" from "Clear)" and "Feel Good Time" by Pink (which samples the track "Fresh Garbage").


title: Spirit (band)

text: "I Got a Line On You" was most recently covered by Alice Cooper's super group the Hollywood Vampires on the album of the same name, released on September 11, 2015.


title: Spirit (band)

text: Spirit's music has been classified as rock, jazz, blues, psychedelic, psychedelic pop, folk rock, rock and roll, classical, country, blues rock and progressive rock.


title: Spirit (band)

text: Following "Sardonicus", many musicians passed through the group's ranks. Most of them did not make a huge contribution to the group's sound, but some did. The most important of the later group members are listed here:


title: Lapsang souchong

text: Lapsang souchong (; ) or Zhengshan xiaozhong () is a black tea consisting of leaves that are smoke-dried over a pinewood fire. This smoking is accomplished either as a cold smoke of the raw leaves as they are processed or as a hot smoke of previously processed (withered and oxidized) leaves. The intensity of the smoke aroma can be varied by locating the leaves closer or farther (or higher or lower in a multi-level facility) from the source of heat and smoke or by adjusting the duration of the process. The flavour and aroma of lapsang souchong is described as containing empyreumatic notes, including wood smoke, pine resin, smoked paprika, and dried longan; it may be mixed with milk but is not bitter and usually not sweetened with sugar. The tea originates from the Wuyi Mountains region of Fujian and is considered a Wuyi tea (or bohea). It is also produced in Taiwan. It has been labelled as smoked tea (熏茶), smoky souchong, tarry lapsang souchong and lapsang souchong crocodile. While the tea leaf grading system adopted the term "souchong" to refer to a particular leaf position, lapsang souchong may be made with any leaf of the plant, though it is not unusual for the lower leaves, which are larger and less flavourful, to be used as the smoking compensates for the lower flavour profile and the higher leaves are more valuable for use in unflavoured or unblended teas. In addition to its consumption as a tea, lapsang souchong is also used in stock for soups, stews and sauces or otherwise as a spice or seasoning.


title: Lapsang souchong

text: The lapsang souchong originated in the Wuyi Mountains during the Qing dynasty, although there are earlier examples of smoked teas. Purportedly, lapsang souchong was first created in 1646, as civilians in the Wuyi Mountain areas fled from Qing soldiers who were advancing through the area on their Manchu unification campaign against the Southern Ming. Before they fled, to avoid spoilage of newly plucked leaves, batches were quickly dried over fire and buried in sacks. Afterwards, despite the odour, the tea leaves were shipped and sold to the Dutch traders. At the time, the months-long journey from China to Europe necessitated preservation methods and the partial oxidation of this Wuyi tea, an oolong tea graded as bohea or souchong, was better able to preserve its quality. The smoky souchong tea sold and the Dutch returned to request more. There is an alternative story that soldiers during the Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864) interfered with tea processing by using sacks of freshly picked tea leaves as bedding and delaying the drying which had to be hastened by using heat from pinewood-fuelled fire.


title: Lapsang souchong

text: The trade name would later become "lapsang souchong" from the Fuzhou dialect: La (pine) Sang (wood) with souchong meaning "small sort" referring to the leaves used. Prior to the British East Indian Company's adoption of the terms "black" and "green" to categorize teas, the tea leaves coming from the Wuyi Mountains area were referred to as "bohea", with "souchong" (小种) referring to a different grade. Before "lapsang" came into use, the term "smoky souchong" was used to describe this tea leaf. Lapsang souchong that is produced in Taiwan is often referred to as "tarry lapsang souchong" or "lapsang souchong crocodile". The word "souchong" would later be integrated into the tea leaf grading system to refer to the fourth and fifth leaves which are the larger, broader leaves.


title: Lapsang souchong

text: Lapsang souchong is typically made with the larger, coarser leaves of the Bohea cultivar of the plant. The Bohea cultivar has been bred to more readily absorb the smoke flavouring. The coarseness of the lower leaves also allows the smoke to more readily adhere to the leaf. The addition of the smoke flavour makes the lower concentration of aromatic compounds in these larger leaves, relative to the younger leaves and the bud, less relevant to the taste of the final product. However, any leaf may be used in the production of lapsang souchong, and, indeed, the young leaves and bud are used in Zheng Shan Xiao Zhong. is used for smoking, though other woods such as cedar and cypress are sometimes used as well.


title: Lapsang souchong

text: Lapsang souchong is manufactured similar to black tea but with an intermediary step of smoking or the addition of an artificial smoke flavour. There are several ways this smoking may be accomplished. The traditional means, referred to as "Zheng Shan Xiao Zhong", is to entirely process the leaves within the smoke house, equivalent to a cold smoke, though most of the smoke flavouring is instilled during the final drying phase. The indoor withering is done with the leaves laid out on bamboo mats and turned at intervals, followed by a period of rolling to break cell walls and initiate oxidation. The leaves are transferred to cloth bags where they are allowed to oxidize for 5 to 6 hours with a quick pan-firing to the seal the cell walls and halt the oxidation. A second rolling (twisting) then occurs followed by 8 to 12 hours of drying in the presence of smoke.


title: Lapsang souchong

text: Generic lapsang souchong uses a similar process but with leaves collected from more distant farms. These leaves are partially processed (e.g. partially withered or oxidized) after plucking and then transported to a centralized smoking facility where they are hot smoked. Smoking may also provide a means to create a marketable product from older or less flavourful leaves. Customization can be accommodated by varying the duration of the smoking or placement of a batch relative to the source of heat and smoke, in addition to the leaf selection. The smoke shed has several upper floors or lofts made of wooden slats where leaves can be laid out, allowing batches to be closer or farther from the source heat and smoke. In addition to Fujian, tea smoking facilities are also located in Taiwan where the lapsang souchong is known for being more heavily smoked.


title: Lapsang souchong

text: Like other black teas, lapsang souchong is brewed with water at a temperature that is a little less than boiling, . It can be infused once, for 3 to 5 minutes, with 2 to 3 grams (one tablespoon) of loose-leaf tea per 150 millilitres ( cup) of water used, or through multiple infusions using 5 grams for 30 seconds to one minute at a time in 110 millilitres of water.


title: Lapsang souchong

text: The aroma of the dry leaves is described as having intense empyreumatic notes reminiscent of bacon while the liquor is known for its lingering smoky flavour. Other flavours associated with lapsang souchong include wood smoke, pine resin, smoked paprika, dried longan, and peated whisky. It lacks the bitterness that can come with other black tea so lapsang souchong is not sweetened with sugar or honey and can be brewed strongly. It is a full-bodied tea that can be prepared with or without milk.


title: Lapsang souchong

text: The aroma of lapsang souchong is derived from a variety of chemical compounds. The two most abundant constituents of the aroma are longifolene and α-terpineol. Many of the compounds making up the aroma of lapsang souchong, including longifolene, originate only in the pine smoke and are not found in other kinds of tea.


title: Lapsang souchong

text: Lapsang souchong is used in blends of black tea to provide a more full bodied flavour and a more robust aroma, for example it may be blended with an Earl Grey tea. The blend called Russian Caravan consists of approximately 60% Keemun, 20% lapsang souchong and the remainder being a roasted oolong; the blend is intended to invoke thoughts of camel caravans en route from China to Russia in the 19th century delivering goods such as black tea which could absorb some of the campfire smoke during their months-long journey. In British culture, lapsang souchong has been popularly associated with Winston Churchill who enjoyed the tea but it is used more in Russian-labelled blends, especially those sweetened with spices and citrus.


title: Lapsang souchong

text: With its wood-smoked flavour, lapsang souchong is used as a spice for flavouring or seasoning foods. In addition to being generally added to stock for soups, stews and sauces, lapsang souchong can also be used as a spice in cooking vegetarian recipes, used in meat rubs, and to flavour boiled eggs. As a tea, lapsang souchong is paired with meals of tuna, cod, game, eggs, or brunch.


title: Osnabrück

text: Osnabrück (; ; archaic "Osnaburg") is a city in the German state of Lower Saxony. It is situated on the river Hase in a valley penned between the Wiehen Hills and the northern tip of the Teutoburg Forest. With a population of 168,145 Osnabrück is one of the four largest cities in Lower Saxony. The city is the centrepoint of the Osnabrück Land region as well as the District of Osnabrück.


title: Osnabrück

text: The founding of Osnabrück was linked to its positioning on important European trading routes. Charlemagne founded the Diocese of Osnabrück in 780. The city was also a member of the Hanseatic League. At the end of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), one of the treaties comprising the Peace of Westphalia was negotiated in Osnabrück (the other being in nearby Münster). In recognition of its role as the site of negotiations, Osnabrück later adopted the title "Friedensstadt" ("city of peace"). The city is also known as the birthplace of anti-war novelist Erich-Maria Remarque and painter Felix Nussbaum.


title: Osnabrück

text: More recently Osnabrück has become well known for its industry. Numerous companies in the automobile, paper, steel and grocery sectors are located in the city and its surrounding area.<ref name="Staedtereport_Osnabrueck_okt_2009.pdf (application/pdf-Objekt)"></ref> In spite of the massive destruction inflicted on the city during World War II, the Altstadt (old town) was eventually reconstructed extensively with designs loyal to the original medieval architecture there. Osnabrück was also the home of the largest British garrison outside the United Kingdom. Osnabrück's modern, urban image is enhanced by the presence of more than 22,000 students studying at the University and the University of Applied Sciences. Although part of the state of Lower Saxony, historically, culturally and linguistically Osnabrück is considered part of the region of Westphalia.


title: Osnabrück

text: The origin of the name Osnabrück is disputed. The suffix "-brück" suggests a bridge over or to something (from German "Brücke" = bridge) but the prefix "Osna-" is explained in at least two different ways: the traditional explanation is that today's name is a corruption of "Ossenbrügge" (westphalian meaning "oxen bridge"), which is etymologically and historically impossible, because the town is older than this corruption of consonants (documented in 13th century, Osnabrück was founded in 8th century), but others state that it is derived from the name of the "Hase" River which is arguably derived from "Asen" (Æsir), thus giving Osnabrück the meaning "bridge to the gods", and previously Tacitus named people living near the grey river (Hase) Chasuarii. It may also be noted that Osnabrück is situated on the northern end of the Teutoburg Forest, which until the 19th century was known as the Osning. The way in which the city's name is pronounced can also serve as a means of telling if the speaker is a native of Osnabrück or a visitor: most locals stress the last syllable, while those from elsewhere tend to stress the first one.


title: Osnabrück

text: Osnabrück initially developed as a marketplace next to the bishopric founded by Charlemagne, King of the Franks, in 780. Some time prior to 803, the city became the seat of the Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück. Although the precise date is uncertain, it is likely that Osnabrück is the oldest bishopric in Lower Saxony.


title: Osnabrück

text: In the year 804 Charlemagne was said to have founded the Gymnasium Carolinum in Osnabrück. This would make it the oldest German Gymnasium school, but the charter date is disputed by historians, some of whom believe it could be a forgery.


title: Osnabrück

text: In 889 the town was given merchant, customs, and coinage privileges by King Arnulf of Carinthia. Osnabrück was first referred to in records as a "city" in 1147. A decade later, Emperor Frederick Barbarossa granted the city fortification privileges ("Befestigungsrecht"). Most of the towers which were part of the original fortifications are still visible in the city. Osnabrück became a member of the Hanseatic League in the 12th century, as well as a member of the Westphalian Federation of Cities.


title: Osnabrück

text: The history of the town in the later Middle Ages was recorded in a chronicle by Albert Suho, one of Osnabrück's most important clerics in the 15th century.


title: Osnabrück

text: From 1561 to 1639 there was a considerable amount of social unrest and tension in Osnabrück due to the Protestant Reformation, the Thirty Years' War and also witch hunting. In 1582, during the rule of Mayor Hammacher (1565–1588), 163 women were executed as alleged witches; most of them were burned alive. In total, 276 women were executed, along with 2 men who had been charged with wizardry.


title: Osnabrück

text: The first Lutheran services were held in Osnabrück in 1543. Over the next century, Lutheranism expanded in the city and several Protestant bishops were elected. However, the Catholic churches continued to operate, and the city never became completely Lutheran. After the Thirty Years' War broke out, a Catholic bishop was elected in 1623, and the city was occupied by troops of the Catholic League in 1628. The Gymnasium Carolinum was upgraded to a Jesuit university in 1632, but the university was closed a year later when the city was taken by Swedish troops and restored to Protestant control.


title: Osnabrück

text: Peace negotiations took place in Osnabrück and the nearby city of Münster from 1643 to 1648. The twin Treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, collectively known as the Peace of Westphalia, ended the Thirty Years' War. Osnabrück was officially recognized as bi-confessional Catholic and Lutheran. The prince-bishopric would be held alternately by a Catholic bishop and a Lutheran bishop. The Protestant bishop would be selected from the descendants of the Dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg, with priority given to the cadets of what became the House of Hanover. From 1667, prince-bishop Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, built the new baroque palace. His son, George I of Great Britain, died in the palace, at the time residence of his younger brother, prince-bishop Ernest Augustus, Duke of York and Albany, on a travel on 11 June 1727.


title: Osnabrück

text: In the early 18th century, renowned local jurist and social theorist Justus Möser wrote a highly influential constitutional history of the town, the "Osnabrücker Geschichte". Following the Seven Years' War, the town's population fell below 6,000, however an economic revival linked to the linen and tobacco industries caused it to rise again from the 1780s onwards.


title: Osnabrück

text: The French Revolutionary Wars brought Prussian troops into the city in 1795, followed by the French in 1803. As a result, the town's population was kept below 10,000 for the whole first decade of the 19th century. The Napoleonic period saw possession of the city change hands several times. Control of Osnabrück passed to the Electorate of Hanover in 1803 during the German Mediatisation, and then briefly to the Kingdom of Prussia in 1806. From 1807 to 1810 the city was part of the Kingdom of Westphalia, after which it passed to the First French Empire. After 1815, it became part of the Kingdom of Hanover.


title: Osnabrück

text: The town's first railway line was built in 1855, connecting it with Löhne. Further rail connections appeared over the following decades, connecting Osnabrück with Emden from 1856, Cologne from 1871 and Hamburg from 1874. In 1866, Osnabrück was annexed by Prussia after the Austro-Prussian War and administered as part of the Province of Hanover. Growth of the local economy and population was fuelled by expansion in the engineering and textile industries, with the Hammersen Weaving Mill established in 1869 and the "Osnabrücker Kupfer- und Drahtwerk" metallurgical firm following in 1873. The later 19th century also saw growth in the number of schools and the arrival of electricity and modern sanitation.


title: Osnabrück

text: By 1914, Osnabrück had over 70,000 inhabitants. The outbreak of the First World War necessitated food rationing; the Allied blockade and a harsh winter in 1917 led to further shortages. Following Germany's defeat in 1918, a council made up of workers and soldiers took control during the November Revolution, but were replaced by the new Weimar Republic the following year. Similarly to many other German cities, Osnabrück experienced considerable inflation and unemployment in the 1920s, with over 2,000 out of work by 1923 and nearly 14,000 receiving some form of government assistance by 1928.


title: Osnabrück

text: Politically, Osnabrück in the 1920s was a stronghold of support for the Social Democrats and the Catholic Centre Party. However, in the Reichstag elections of September 1930, the Nazi Party received the greatest percentage of votes in the city (nearly 28%) – a more than seven-fold increase from their electoral performance in Osnabrück two years prior. During the campaigns prior to the two federal elections in 1932, both Adolf Hitler and Joseph Goebbels made well-attended speeches in the city.


title: Osnabrück

text: Following the Nazis' seizure of power in January 1933, Osnabrück was subjected to the implementation of National Socialist economic, political, and social programmes. These resulted in economic growth for ethnic Germans who did not run afoul of the new regime, and the town went from having over 10,000 unemployed in early 1933 to actually having a labour shortage five years later. However, dissenters, supporters of opposition parties and German Jews (who had experienced centuries of discrimination in the city) did not share in this growth and found themselves discriminated against, imprisoned or forced to close their businesses and leave town. During World War II, both Jews and Romany were deported to concentration camps and extermination camps en masse.


title: Osnabrück

text: The war ended for Osnabrück on 4 April 1945, when the XVII Corps of Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery's Second Army entered the city with little resistance. By this time, the city had been extensively bombed and required major reconstructive programmes following the war's end. Leading Nazis fled the city and the British appointed a new mayor, Johannes Petermann. However, during the allied occupation of Germany a British military governor, Colonel Geoffrey Day was placed in charge of administering the city. Relations between the occupiers and the citizens of Osnabrück were generally peaceful, though tensions existed; some minor fights broke out between British soldiers and local youths and some Osnabrückers resented the relationships that developed between the occupiers and local women. Additionally, the British took over more than seventy homes for their own use by the middle of 1946. Amidst shortages, the black market thrived and became one of the main focuses of police activity.


title: Osnabrück

text: After World War II West Germany realigned its states; Osnabrück became part of the new state of Lower Saxony in 1946. The British continued to maintain Osnabrück Garrison, a garrison near the city, which at one point was the largest British garrison in the world, housing some 4,000 troops and employing around 500 local civilians. It was the target of a PIRA attack in 1996. Due to budget cuts, the troops were withdrawn in 2008 and the property returned to the local government.


title: Osnabrück

text: After three centuries, the city finally obtained its university when the government of Lower Saxony established the University of Osnabrück in 1974.


title: Osnabrück

text: There are two higher education institutions in Osnabrück, University of Osnabrück and Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences with more than 25,000 students. All of the types of German grammar schools are represented in the city, including seven Gymnasien. Gymnasium Carolinum claims to be the oldest still existing school in Germany. Another well-known Gymnasium is the Ursulaschule, a private school, located directly opposite the Carolinum. The University of Osnabrück invested heavily in infrastructure to take on more students for the following years.


title: Osnabrück

text: The city's football team is VfL Osnabrück, founded in 1899. Currently, the team starts in the 3. Liga. Its basketball team was founded the same year.


title: Osnabrück

text: Osnabrück Hauptbahnhof (central railway station) is an important rail travel hub. Travellers from the Netherlands heading to either Hamburg, Denmark, or Eastern Europe often have to change here.


title: Osnabrück

text: An extensive bus network operated by the Stadtwerke Osnabrück (public utility provider) provides public transport within the city and the surrounding region. The central hub is situated on Neumarkt close to the main shopping street, roughly 10 minutes' walk from the railway station.


title: Osnabrück

text: Previously Osnabrück had made contact with the British authorities as early as 1948, hoping to find an English twin town and therefore achieve greater understanding with their former enemies in the Second World War. Unfortunately, this attempt was unsuccessful and Osnabrück did not actively consider the idea again for another quarter-century. The twinning agreement with Derby was signed on 17 February 1976. Every year since then the two cities have exchanged envoys. Derby also has a square named after Osnabrück in honour of the twinning arrangement; this features an obelisk among other things.


title: Fontana, California

text: Fontana is a city in San Bernardino County, California. Founded by Azariel Blanchard Miller in 1913, it remained essentially rural until World War II, when entrepreneur Henry J. Kaiser built a large steel mill in the area. It is now a regional hub of the trucking industry, with the east–west Interstate 10 and State Route 210 crossing the city and Interstate 15 passing diagonally through its northwestern quadrant. The city is about 46 miles east of Los Angeles.


title: Fontana, California

text: It is home to a renovated historic theater, a municipal park, and the Auto Club Speedway, which is on the site of the old Kaiser Steel Mill just outside the city. Fontana also hosts the Fontana Days Half Marathon and 5K run. This race is the fastest half-marathon course in the world.


title: Fontana, California

text: The United States Census Bureau reported that Fontana's 2020 population was 208,393, making it the second-most-populous city in San Bernardino County and the 21st largest in the state.


title: Fontana, California

text: Fontana was founded in 1919 by Azariel Blanchard Miller. The name "fontana" is Italian for fountain or water source, being in close proximity to the Santa Ana River to the east. Within a few years it became an agricultural town of citrus orchards, vineyards and chicken ranches and astride U.S. Route 66 (now known as Foothill Boulevard). The Fontana area was radically transformed during World War II when Henry J. Kaiser built the Kaiser Steel plant, at the time one of only two steel mills west of the Mississippi River outside the city limits. To provide for the plant workers' health needs, Henry J. Kaiser constructed the Fontana Kaiser Permanente medical facility, now the largest managed care organization in the United States.


title: Fontana, California

text: In the 1950s and 1960s, Fontana was home to a drag racing strip that was a venue in the NHRA circuit. Mickey Thompson's Fontana International Dragway was also referred to as Fontana Drag City or Fontana Drag Strip. The original Fontana strip is gone, but the owners of NASCAR's new Auto Club Speedway opened a NHRA-sanctioned drag strip just oustside Fontana in mid-2006.


title: Fontana, California

text: Ro-Val's automobile museum, located on Foothill Boulevard on the western outskirts between Fontana and Cucamonga, was the home for many classic automobiles of the 1920s and 1930s, including a huge vehicle once owned by screen actor Fatty Arbuckle. When the Ro-Val museum closed, the vehicles were sold to Bill Harrah, a Nevada casino owner and automobile collector, who placed them on display in the museum located at his casino.


title: Fontana, California

text: As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 128,929, but the present population is now estimated to have exceeded 210,000. This rapid expansion has had much to do with the numerous large, new residential developments in the sparsely populated northern part of the city, as well as with the city's aggressive (and highly successful) campaign to annex several unincorporated, but developed, San Bernardino county island areas in 2006–2007.


title: Fontana, California

text: In 2019 the California Air Resources Board advised the City against housing people within 1,000 feet of industrial warehouses because of harmful truck pollution. The city was also sued by San Bernardino County, the Center for Biological Diversity, the Sierra Club and the Center for Community Action and Environmental Justice over the approval of West Valley Logistics Center for violating state environmental laws.


title: Fontana, California

text: In 2021, the City was sued by the State of California Attorney General's office for violation of the California Environmental Quality Act by encouraging warehouse development in low-income areas.


title: Fontana, California

text: In 2021, city leadership was criticized by the California State Controller’s Office for paying former city manager Ken Hunt $932,623 in 2020 though he hadn't worked a single day. The city mayor and city council declined to explain why such compensation was warranted for a city manager who hadn't worked in the city since 2019. The city council also failed to follow the Brown Act, which requires public agencies to specifically list closed-session items for terminations.


title: Fontana, California

text: Most of the city of Fontana, like its eastern neighbors Rialto and San Bernardino, is built atop a geologically young, gently southward-sloping alluvial fan from nearby Lytle Creek, deposited mainly during the Holocene and late-Pleistocene epochs. There are also sedimentary deposits of similar age from Etiwanda Creek on the western edge of the city. However, the northern and southern edges of the city are formed by the much older San Gabriel and Jurupa mountain ranges, respectively. The Jurupa Mountains are composed primarily of Cretaceous and Paleozoic-era rocks, as are the San Gabriels, which also include even older, Proterozoic formations. The most prominent of the San Gabriel Mountains visible from Fontana is Cucamonga Peak, elevation . Additionally, the Cucamonga Fault Zone, contiguous with the Sierra Madre Fault Zone, runs through the northern part of the city, along the base of the San Gabriels, notably through the Hunter's Ridge and Coyote Canyon planned communities. It is estimated to be capable of producing earthquakes approximately of magnitude 6.0-7.0.


title: Fontana, California

text: The city's listed elevation, measured from the northeast corner of the intersection of Upland Avenue and Sierra Avenue, downtown by City Hall, is . However, the highest elevation within the city limits is approximately , in the northernmost part of the Panorama neighborhood of Hunter's Ridge. The lowest point within the city limits is approximately , at the intersection of Etiwanda and Philadelphia avenues, in the extreme southwestern corner of the city. This difference in elevation is due to the southward slope of the Lytle Creek alluvial fan.


title: Fontana, California

text: The city is frequently affected by the strong, hot and dry Santa Ana winds as they blow through the nearby Cajon Pass of the San Gabriel Mountains, from the Mojave Desert. Fontana can also be extremely hot in summer, well over .


title: Fontana, California

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 128,929 people, 34,014 households, and 29,013 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,569.7 inhabitants per square mile (1,378.2/km). There were 35,908 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 45.0% White, 11.8% African American, 1.1% Native American, 4.4% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander, 31.9% from other races, and 5.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 57.7% of the population.


title: Fontana, California

text: There were 34,014 households, out of which 57.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.5% were married couples living together, 15.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 14.7% were non-families. 10.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 3.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.8 and the average family size was 4.0.


title: Fontana, California

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 37.8% under the age of 18, 10.3% from 18 to 24, 32.4% from 25 to 44, 14.7% from 45 to 64, and 4.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 26 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.2 males.


title: Fontana, California

text: The median income for a household in the city was $45,782, and the median income for a family was $46,957. Males had a median income of $36,062 versus $26,305 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,208. About 12.2% of families and 14.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.2% of those under age 18 and 10.3% of those age 65 or over.


title: Fontana, California

text: The 2010 United States Census reported that Fontana had a population of 196,069. The population density was . The racial makeup of Fontana was 92,978 (47.4%) White (15.4% Non-Hispanic White), 19,574 (10.0%) African American, 1,957 (1.0%) Native American, 12,948 (6.6%) Asian, 547 (0.3%) Pacific Islander, 58,449 (29.8%) from other races, and 9,616 (4.9%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 130,957 persons (66.8%).


title: Fontana, California

text: The Census reported that 195,625 people (99.8% of the population) lived in households, 216 (0.1%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 228 (0.1%) were institutionalized.


title: Fontana, California

text: There were 49,116 households, out of which 29,465 (60.0%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 30,245 (61.6%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 8,074 (16.4%) had a female householder with no husband present, 4,125 (8.4%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 3,447 (7.0%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 317 (0.6%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 4,801 households (9.8%) were made up of individuals, and 1,633 (3.3%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.98. There were 42,444 families (86.4% of all households); the average family size was 4.18.


title: Fontana, California

text: The population was spread out, with 64,521 people (32.9%) under the age of 18, 22,995 people (11.7%) aged 18 to 24, 57,646 people (29.4%) aged 25 to 44, 39,823 people (20.3%) aged 45 to 64, and 11,084 people (5.7%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 28.7 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.7 males.


title: Fontana, California

text: There were 51,857 housing units at an average density of , of which 33,862 (68.9%) were owner-occupied, and 15,254 (31.1%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.6%; the rental vacancy rate was 6.0%. 134,857 people (68.8% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 60,768 people (31.0%) lived in rental housing units.


title: Fontana, California

text: According to the 2010 United States Census, Fontana had a median household income of $64,195, with 15.0% of the population living below the federal poverty line.


title: Fontana, California

text: Fontana's current economy is driven largely by industrial uses, particularly trucking-based industries. Public funding assists in reducing the associated pollution impacts the community.


title: Fontana, California

text: According to the city's 2021 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:


title: Fontana, California

text: The Auto Club Speedway brings racing fans and dozens of teams to the region each year, bringing economic activity to the area's restaurants, motels, and hotels.


title: Fontana, California

text: Located next door to the Lewis Library on Sierra stands the Center Stage Theater. Built in the Art Deco style in 1937, and designed by architect C.H. Boller, the former Fontana (movie) Theater was recently renovated during 2004–2008 after several decades of various other uses, into a live dinner theater, with $6,000,000 in funds earmarked by the Fontana City Council. It reopened to the public on July 25, 2008.


title: Fontana, California

text: Next door to the Lewis Library and Technology Center, the Steelworkers' Auditorium houses events like Performance Tuesdays, theatre camps, acting classes, musical classes, summer reading programs, family movie nights, performance recitals and dance classes.


title: Fontana, California

text: The building is also available for rent for certain occasions such as: award ceremonies, dance recitals, talent competitions and much more.


title: Fontana, California

text: The Art Depot is one of Fontana's original community centers, and is a specialized Cultural Arts facility. Originally built as a freight depot of the Pacific Electric Railway in 1915, the Art Depot sits alongside the newly landscaped Pacific Electric Trail in the Helen Putnam Historical Plaza. The Art Depot offers art classes, open studio activities, and special events.


title: Fontana, California

text: Through the provision of quarterly artist showcases, Fontana residents are introduced to local artists.


title: Fontana, California

text: One of the objectives of the program is to introduce the process used by the artist to develop the art form, and methods used to bring the work to life. Each artist selected for the quarterly showcases is asked to exhibit their work for a three-month period in the City Council Chamber Foyer located at City Hall. The artist will also be showcased in a small presentation, invited to dine with the members of the Fontana Community and presented to City Council. Additionally, each artist selected will be awarded a nominal stipend from the local Fontana business community.


title: Fontana, California

text: Auto Club Speedway, a racetrack that plays host to the NASCAR Cup Series and Xfinity Series, along with former IndyCar Series events. It is located in an unincorporated area just outside of Fontana. It is built on the former site of the Kaiser Steel mill. The large smelting furnaces of the mill were sold to China, and the rest remains a working steel mill operated by California Steel Industries, which is owned by the Japanese company JFE Steel Corporation. The track is currently a low-banked 2-mile oval, but will be terraformed into a 0.5 mile long short track that is similar in style to the Bristol Motor Speedway by 2023 due to the COVID-19 pandemic forcing it to be pushed back a year.


title: Fontana, California

text: The Lewis Library and Technology Center, opened in 2008 at an estimated cost of over $60,000,000, is the largest library in the San Bernardino County Library System.


title: Fontana, California

text: Also referred to simply as Jurupa Hills Regional Park, this is a multi-use park at the northeastern end of Mount Jurupa. The park includes the Mary Vagle Museum & Nature Center, the Martin Tudor Splash Park, and a ancient Native American historic site.


title: Fontana, California

text: The Center opened its doors in the heart of downtown Fontana for over 30 years. Since then, it has undergone some renovations and changed some of its programming. It is a center devoted to bringing forth as many fun and unique programs to residents. The programming includes ballet, dance, karate, kickboxing, a Tiny Tot program, and much more.


title: Fontana, California

text: The Don Day Neighborhood Center is a community recreation center located in South Fontana. Attached to the center is an outside pool that is only opened for the summer. They have open rooms used for programs like mixed martial arts, dance, fitness, gymnastics, and much more. The rooms are also available for birthday parties, meetings, and other celebrations. There is a Tiny Tot Program affiliated with the center as well.


title: Fontana, California

text: The center is also combined with Southridge Park that features amenities such as tennis courts, basketball courts, mountain bike trails, baseball fields, playgrounds, and open spaces.


title: Fontana, California

text: Upon opening to the public on October 25, 2008, Fontana Park (located in the northern part of the city at Summit Avenue and Lytle Creek Road), is now the city's second largest municipal park, featuring a large community center (Jessie Turner Health and Fitness Community Center), aquatic center, skate park, dog park, basketball gym, sports pavilion, and several child-oriented play areas.


title: Fontana, California

text: Fontana is a general law city; it has no city charter. Led by a council composed of a mayor and four councilmembers, it uses a council-manager form of government. The mayor, council members, city clerk, and city treasurer are elected at-large to serve four-year terms.


title: Fontana, California

text: According to the city's most recent Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the city's various funds had $348.0 million in Revenues, $224.0 million in expenditures, $1,371.6 million in total assets, $754.1 million in total liabilities, and $251.3 million in cash and investments.


title: Fontana, California

text: In the United States House of Representatives, Fontana is split between California's 31st, and 35th districts, which are represented by and , respectively.


title: Fontana, California

text: While most residents of the city attend schools within the Fontana Unified School District, some areas of the city are served by neighboring school districts.


title: Fontana, California

text: There are two options for youth charter schools in Fontana. These schools are chartered through the Victor Valley Union High School District and offer an independent study program and small group classes to obtain a high school diploma.


title: Fontana, California

text: The Metrolink rail service to the greater Los Angeles area has a station here and runs through the center of town. The city of Fontana is ten minutes away from Ontario International Airport.


title: Fontana, California

text: Private transportation operators that serve the city of Fontana include FuturaNet, El Corre Caminos, TUFESA, Los Limosines, and Santiago Express which serve the predominately the Hispanic community seeking transportation to Tijuana, Gomez Palacio, Las Vegas and El Paso.


title: Fontana, California

text: Fontana receives electrical power through Southern California Edison. Gas service is provided by the Southern California Gas Company. Telephone and DSL Internet service are through AT&T and Frontier Communications, though Frontier serves a smaller portion of the city. Charter Communications also provides cable television and cable Internet access. Burrtec Waste provides rubbish and trash collection throughout the city. Burrtec offers both regular waste and green waste recycling programs. Fontana is served by five different water companies, but none of their service areas overlap. These companies are: Fontana Water; the Cucamonga Valley Water District; Marygold Mutual Water; and West Valley Water District, and the city of Rialto. Sewage service in the city is provided by the Inland Empire Utilities Agency, but is billed out by the city of Fontana itself. The Fontana community is serviced by KFON-TV (commonly known as Fontana Community Television), a Government-access television (GATV) station.


title: Fontana, California

text: Fontana is home to the Kaiser Permanente-Fontana Hospital. Located on Sierra Avenue, and occupying most of the block between Sierra, Marygold, and Palmetto Avenues, and Valley Boulevard, The campus is one of the largest healthcare facilities in the Inland Empire Region. The various facilities are also among the tallest and largest buildings in the city (other than industrial distribution centers).


title: Fontana, California

text: Also, located in the north end of the city, along the "Miracle Mile" of Sierra Lakes Parkway and the 210 freeway, is the Sierra San Antonio Medical Plaza, a outpatient center and medical office building supported by San Antonio Community Hospital. Services currently available from SSAMP are urgent care, diagnostic radiology, physician offices, and a pharmacy.


title: Fontana, California

text: The facility also boasts a educational suite where community lectures, health screenings, awareness campaigns, maternity and CPR classes are held.


title: Fontana, California

text: The Fontana Police Department employs 207 sworn officers, as well as civilian personnel. The department was established in October 1952.


title: Fontana, California

text: The Hells Angels Motorcycle Club was founded in Fontana, in 1948. The founding charter is known as the Berdoo Charter, in reference to the slang name for San Bernardino.


title: Ethnic groups in Indonesia

text: There are 1,340 recognised ethnic groups in Indonesia. The vast majority of those belong to the Austronesian peoples.


title: Ethnic groups in Indonesia

text: Based on ethnic classification, the largest ethnic group in Indonesia is the Javanese who make up about 40% of the total population. The Javanese are concentrated on the island of Java, particularly in the central and eastern parts. The Sundanese are the next largest group; their homeland is located in the western part of the island of Java and the southern edge of Sumatra. The Sunda Strait is named after them. The Malays, Batak, Madurese, Betawi, Minangkabau, and Bugis are the next largest groups in the country.


title: Ethnic groups in Indonesia

text: Many ethnic groups, particularly in Kalimantan and Papua, have only hundreds of members. Most of the local languages belong to the Austronesian language family, although a significant number of people, particularly in eastern Indonesia, speak unrelated Papuan languages. Indonesians of Chinese, Arab and Indian descent each make up less than 1% of the total Indonesian population.


title: Ethnic groups in Indonesia

text: The classification of ethnic groups in Indonesia is not rigid and in some cases unclear due to migrations, cultural and linguistic influences; for example, some may consider the Bantenese to be members of the Sundanese people; however, others argue that they are different ethnic groups altogether since they have their own distinct dialects. This is also the case with the Baduy people, who share many cultural similarities with the Sundanese people. An example of hybrid ethnicity is the Betawi people, descended not only from marriages between different peoples native to Indonesia, but also intermarriages with Arab, Chinese and Indian migrants since the era of colonial Batavia (modern-day Jakarta).


title: Ethnic groups in Indonesia

text: Number and percentage of population of ethnic groups with more than a million members according to the 2010 census.


title: Ethnic groups in Indonesia

text: The proportions of Indonesian ethnic groups according to the (2000 census) are as follows: Some ethnic groups which are now recognized as being distinct were subsumed under larger umbrella groups up until 2001. Since the 2010 census, they are counted separately.


title: Ethnic groups in Indonesia

text: Some ethnic groups are "indigenous" to certain regions of Indonesia. Due to migration within Indonesia (as part of government transmigration programs or otherwise), significant proportions of those ethnic groups reside outside of their traditional regions.


title: Ethnic groups in Indonesia

text: Throughout Indonesian history, various ethnic groups of foreign origin spread throughout Indonesia in several migration waves, and usually established themselves in urban centres, seldom settling rural parts of the country.


title: Ethnic groups in Indonesia

text: Currently, they have lived together peacefully with the local ethnicities such as the Betawi, Malay, Javanese, and Sundanese; and also, few cities in Indonesia have significant Chinese populations that preserve their heritage links to China. They are spread throughout Indonesian archipelagoes, and significant numbers can be found in Palembang, Jakarta, Surabaya and other coastal cities.


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: Hitchcock is a 2012 American biographical romantic drama film directed by Sacha Gervasi and based on Stephen Rebello's 1990 non-fiction book "Alfred Hitchcock and the Making of Psycho". "Hitchcock" tells the story of the relationship between Alfred Hitchcock and his wife Alma Reville during the filming of "Psycho" in 1959.


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: "Hitchcock" premiered at the AFI Fest on November 1, 2012 and was released in the United States on November 23 by Fox Searchlight Pictures. It grossed $27 million against a $15 million budget.


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: In 1959, Alfred Hitchcock opens his latest film, "North by Northwest", to both critical and commercial success, but is troubled by a reporter's insinuation that he should retire. Seeking to reclaim the artistic daring of his youth, Hitchcock turns down film proposals, including "Casino Royale" and "The Diary of Anne Frank", in favor of a horror novel called "Psycho" by Robert Bloch, based on the real-life crimes of murderer Ed Gein. Gein appears in sequences throughout the film, in which he seems to prompt Hitchcock's imagination regarding the "Psycho" story, or act as some function of Hitchcock's subconscious mind (for instance, drawing Hitchcock's attention to sand on his bathroom floor, the quantity of which reveals how much time his wife Alma has been spending at the beachhouse with Whitfield Cook).


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: Hitchcock's wife and artistic collaborator, Alma, is no more enthusiastic about the idea than his colleagues, especially since she is being lobbied by their writer friend, Whitfield Cook, to look at his own screenplay. However, she warms to Hitchcock's proposal, suggesting the innovative plot turn of killing the female lead early in the film. The studio heads at Paramount prove more difficult to persuade, forcing Hitchcock to finance the film personally and use his "Alfred Hitchcock Presents" television crew (over at competitor Revue/Universal) to shoot the film, his last with Paramount.


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: The pressures of the production, such as dealing with Geoffrey Shurlock of the Motion Picture Production Code, and Hitchcock's lecherous habits, such as when they confer with the female lead, Janet Leigh, annoy Alma. She begins a personal writing collaboration with Whitfield Cook on his screenplay at his beach house without Hitchcock's knowledge. Hitchcock eventually discovers what she has been doing and suspects her of having an affair. This concern affects Hitchcock's work on "Psycho". Hitchcock eventually confronts Alma and asks her if she is having an affair. Alma angrily denies it.


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: Alma temporarily takes over production of the film when Hitchcock is bedridden after collapsing from overwork, working on a sequence which included a complicated process shot showing Detective Arbogast's demise, with Alma's specification of a 35mm lens, instead of the 50mm lens preferred by Hitchcock for this film.


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: Meanwhile, Hitchcock expresses his disappointment to Vera Miles at how she didn't follow through on his plan to make her the next biggest star after Grace Kelly, but Miles says she is happy with her family life.


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: Hitchcock's cut of "Psycho" is poorly received by the studio executives, while Alma discovers Whitfield having sex with a younger woman at his beach house. Hitchcock and Alma reconcile and set to work on improving the film. Their renewed collaboration yields results, culminating in Alma persuading Hitchcock to accept their composer's suggestion for adding Bernard Herrmann's harsh strings score to the shower scene.


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: After maneuvering Shurlock into leaving the film's content largely intact, Hitchcock learns the studio is only going to open the film in two theaters. Hitchcock arranges for special theater instructions to pique the public's interest such as forbidding admittance after the film begins. At the film's premiere, Hitchcock first views the audience from the projection booth, looking out through its small window at them. Hitchcock then waits in the lobby for the audience's reaction, conducting slashing motions to their reactions as they scream on cue. The film is rewarded with an enthusiastic reception.


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: With the film's screening so well received, Hitchcock publicly thanks his wife for helping make it possible and they affirm their love and partnership. At the conclusion at his home, Hitchcock addresses the audience noting "Psycho" proved a major high point of his career and he is currently pondering his next project. A raven lands on his shoulder hinting at his next motion picture, "The Birds".


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: The final title cards say that Hitchcock directed six more films after "Psycho", none of which would eclipse its commercial success, and although he never won an Oscar, the American Film Institute awarded him its Life Achievement Award in 1979: an award that he claimed he shared, as he had his life, with his wife, Alma.


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: In 2005, it was reported that A&E would produce a television film or miniseries based on Stephen Rebello's book "Alfred Hitchcock and the Making of Psycho". Subsequently, the book was optioned as a major motion picture. In 2007, The Montecito Picture Company, owned by Ivan Reitman and Tom Pollock, set up a first-look deal with Paramount Pictures, the original distributor of "Psycho". However, after four years of development at Paramount, production moved to Fox Searchlight Pictures.


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: Sacha Gervasi was in negotiations to direct the dramatic motion picture in November 2011. Early the next month, Gervasi signed on as director with Anthony Hopkins and Helen Mirren attached to star as Alfred Hitchcock and Alma Reville, respectively. "Black Swan" co-writer John J. McLaughlin wrote the first screenplay drafts; subsequently, Rebello wrote additional uncredited drafts that shifted the story's focus away from Ed Gein and instead toward the complex personal and professional relationship of Hitchcock and his wife, Reville, during the filming of "Psycho".


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: Much of the film's casting was announced in March 2012. Scarlett Johansson and James D'Arcy played the stars of "Psycho", Janet Leigh and Anthony Perkins. Later that month Jessica Biel was cast as Vera Miles. Additional cast members included Toni Collette as the director's trusted assistant, Danny Huston as screenwriter-playwright Whitfield Cook, Michael Stuhlbarg as powerful agent and studio boss Lew Wasserman, Michael Wincott as serial killer Ed Gein, Ralph Macchio as screenwriter Joseph Stefano, Richard Portnow as Paramount Pictures boss Barney Balaban, and Wallace Langham as graphic designer Saul Bass.


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: Principal photography for the film began on April 13 in Los Angeles, with the film retitled as "Hitchcock". Filming was wrapped up on May 31 after the completion of a scene set during "Psycho"s New York City premiere on June 16, 1960.


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: Danny Elfman composed the film's score. Elfman had previously rerecorded Bernard Herrmann's original score to "Psycho" in 1998 for Gus Van Sant's 1998 shot-for-shot remake.


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: "Hitchcock" had a limited release on November 23, 2012, in order for the film to contend during Oscar season. The film had its world premiere as the opening film of AFI Fest 2012 on November 1 with a gala at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood.


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: "Hitchcock" was released onto DVD and Blu-ray on March 12, 2013 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment. The home media releases contain several making-of featurettes as well as commentary between director Sacha Gervasi and author Stephen Rebello, a deleted scene, and the film's theatrical trailer.


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: "Hitchcock" has earned an estimated $24.7 million worldwide. During its opening on Thanksgiving weekend, the film debuted in 17 theaters and grossed an average of $16,924 per theater.


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives an approval rating of 60% based on 216 reviews and an average rating of 6.19/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "Though it suffers from tonal inconsistency and a lack of truly insightful retrospection, "Hitchcock" is elevated by inspired performances from its two distinguished leads". On Metacritic, the film has a score of 55 out of 100 based on 40 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: Soon after the film's world premiere at the AFI Fest 2012, the first reviews of "Hitchcock" were published. Tom O'Neil of "The Huffington Post" wrote: "When the film unspooled at AFI Fest on Thursday night, the audience burst into wild huzzahs at the end. This "Hitchcock" is so well made, so much fun and so suspenseful that it would make the original Hitchcock proud ... It's a serious contender for Best Picture, Lead Actor, Lead Actress, Adapted Screenplay, Makeup, Music Score, and maybe Art Direction". John Patterson of "The Guardian" called the film "clever and witty"; "the making of "Psycho" is depicted in detail without our seeing one frame of the completed movie" and concluding "it lives and breathes through Hopkins and Mirren".


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: Upon its theatrical release, Mary Pols of "Time" called the film "a feel-good frolic, which is fine for anyone who prefers their Hitchcock history tidied up, absent the megalomania, the condescending cruelty and tendency to sexual harassment that caused his post-"Psycho" blonde discovery Tippi Hedren to declare him 'a mean, mean man'". Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film a positive review and felt that the film depended most on Helen Mirren's portrayal of Alma Reville, which he found to be "warm and effective".


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: "The Atlantic"s Govindini Murty called the film "smart and entertaining" and also provided a cultural guide to the themes, personalities, and cinematic references in the film, from German Expressionism to the paintings of Edward Hopper.


title: Hitchcock (film)

text: Many critics compared the film to the HBO biopic "The Girl", which was released a month earlier and detailed Hitchcock making "The Birds" and "Marnie". Justin Chang of "Variety" wrote that "the comparatively frothy "Hitchcock" offers a more sympathetic, even comedic assessment of the man behind the portly silhouette". Todd McCarthy of "The Hollywood Reporter" also made note that the film "brings a measure of authenticity entirely missing from "The Girl"". When writing about the film as a whole, McCarthy said, ""Hitchcock" might be a work of fantasy and speculation as much as it is history and biography, but as an interpretation of a major talent's inner life and imagination, it's undeniably lively and provocative".


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Oxy-fuel welding (commonly called oxyacetylene welding, oxy welding, or gas welding in the United States) and oxy-fuel cutting are processes that use fuel gases (or liquid fuels such as gasoline or petrol, diesel, bio diesel, kerosene, etc) and oxygen to weld or cut metals. French engineers Edmond Fouché and Charles Picard became the first to develop oxygen-acetylene welding in 1903. Pure oxygen, instead of air, is used to increase the flame temperature to allow localized melting of the workpiece material (e.g. steel) in a room environment. A common propane/air flame burns at about , a propane/oxygen flame burns at about , an oxyhydrogen flame burns at and an acetylene/oxygen flame burns at about .


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: During the early 20th century, before the development and availability of coated arc welding electrodes in the late 1920s that were capable of making sound welds in steel, oxy-acetylene welding was the only process capable of making welds of exceptionally high quality in virtually all metals in commercial use at the time. These included not only carbon steel but also alloy steels, cast iron, aluminium, and magnesium. In recent decades it has been superseded in almost all industrial uses by various arc welding methods offering greater speed and, in the case of gas tungsten arc welding, the capability of welding very reactive metals such as titanium. Oxy-acetylene welding is still used for metal-based artwork and in smaller home-based shops, as well as situations where accessing electricity (e.g., via an extension cord or portable generator) would present difficulties. The oxy-acetylene (and other oxy-fuel gas mixtures) welding torch remains a mainstay heat source for manual brazing and braze welding, as well as metal forming, preparation, and localized heat treating. In addition, oxy-fuel cutting is still widely used, both in heavy industry and light industrial and repair operations.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: In oxy-fuel welding, a welding torch is used to weld metals. Welding metal results when two pieces are heated to a temperature that produces a shared pool of molten metal. The molten pool is generally supplied with additional metal called filler. Filler material selection depends upon the metals to be welded.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: In oxy-fuel cutting, a torch is used to heat metal to its kindling temperature. A stream of oxygen is then trained on the metal, burning it into a metal oxide that flows out of the kerf as dross.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Torches that do not mix fuel with oxygen (combining, instead, atmospheric air) are not considered oxy-fuel torches and can typically be identified by a single tank (oxy-fuel cutting requires two isolated supplies, fuel and oxygen). Most metals cannot be melted with a single-tank torch. Consequently, single-tank torches are typically suitable for soldering and brazing but not for welding.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: In short, oxy-fuel equipment is quite versatile, not only because it is preferred for some sorts of iron or steel welding but also because it lends itself to brazing, braze-welding, metal heating (for annealing or tempering, bending or forming), rust, or scale removal, the loosening of corroded nuts and bolts, and is a ubiquitous means of cutting ferrous metals.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: The apparatus used in gas welding consists basically of an oxygen source and a fuel gas source (usually contained in cylinders), two pressure regulators and two flexible hoses (one for each cylinder), and a torch. This sort of torch can also be used for soldering and brazing. The cylinders are often carried in a special wheeled trolley.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: There have been examples of oxyhydrogen cutting sets with small (scuba-sized) gas cylinders worn on the user's back in a backpack harness, for rescue work and similar.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: There are also examples of both non-pressurized and pressurized liquid fuel cutting torches, usually using gasoline (petrol). These are used for their increased cutting power over gaseous fuel systems and also greater portability compared to systems requiring two high pressure tanks.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: The regulator ensures that pressure of the gas from the tanks matches the required pressure in the hose. The flow rate is then adjusted by the operator using needle valves on the torch. Accurate flow control with a needle valve relies on a constant inlet pressure.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Most regulators have two stages. The first stage is a fixed-pressure regulator, which releases gas from the cylinder at a constant intermediate pressure, despite the pressure in the cylinder falling as the gas in it is consumed. This is similar to the first stage of a scuba-diving regulator. The adjustable second stage of the regulator controls the pressure reduction from the intermediate pressure to the low outlet pressure. The regulator has two pressure gauges, one indicating cylinder pressure, the other indicating hose pressure. The adjustment knob of the regulator is sometimes roughly calibrated for pressure, but an accurate setting requires observation of the gauge.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Some simpler or cheaper oxygen-fuel regulators have only a single-stage regulator, or only a single gauge. A single-stage regulator will tend to allow a reduction in outlet pressure as the cylinder is emptied, requiring manual readjustment. For low-volume users, this is an acceptable simplification. Welding regulators, unlike simpler LPG heating regulators, retain their outlet (hose) pressure gauge and do not rely on the calibration of the adjustment knob. The cheaper single-stage regulators may sometimes omit the cylinder contents gauge, or replace the accurate dial gauge with a cheaper and less precise "rising button" gauge.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: The hoses are designed for use in welding and cutting metal. A double-hose or twinned design can be used, meaning that the oxygen and fuel hoses are joined. If separate hoses are used, they should be clipped together at intervals approximately apart, although that is not recommended for cutting applications, because beads of molten metal given off by the process can become lodged between the hoses where they are held together, and burn through, releasing the pressurised gas inside, which in the case of fuel gas usually ignites.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: The hoses are color-coded for visual identification. The color of the hoses varies between countries. In the United States, the oxygen hose is green and the fuel hose is red. In the UK and other countries, the oxygen hose is blue (black hoses may still be found on old equipment), and the acetylene (fuel) hose is red. If liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) fuel, such as propane, is used, the fuel hose should be orange, indicating that it is compatible with LPG. LPG will damage an incompatible hose, including most acetylene hoses.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: The threaded connectors on the hoses are handed to avoid accidental mis-connection: the thread on the oxygen hose is right-handed (as normal), while the fuel gas hose has a left-handed thread. The left-handed threads also have an identifying groove cut into their nuts.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Gas-tight connections between the flexible hoses and rigid fittings are made by using crimped hose clips or ferrules, often referred to as 'O' clips, over barbed spigots. The use of worm-drive hose clips or Jubilee Clips is specifically forbidden in the UK and other countries.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Acetylene is not just flammable; in certain conditions it is explosive. Although it has an upper flammability limit in air of 81%, acetylene's explosive decomposition behaviour makes this irrelevant. If a detonation wave enters the acetylene tank, the tank will be blown apart by the decomposition. Ordinary check valves that normally prevent backflow cannot stop a detonation wave because they are not capable of closing before the wave passes around the gate. For that reason a flashback arrestor is needed. It is designed to operate before the detonation wave makes it from the hose side to the supply side.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Between the regulator and hose, and ideally between hose and torch on both oxygen and fuel lines, a flashback arrestor and/or non-return valve (check valve) should be installed to prevent flame or oxygen-fuel mixture being pushed back into either cylinder and damaging the equipment or causing a cylinder to explode.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: European practice is to fit flashback arrestors at the regulator and check valves at the torch. US practice is to fit both at the regulator.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: The flashback arrestor prevents shock waves from downstream coming back up the hoses and entering the cylinder, possibly rupturing it, as there are quantities of fuel/oxygen mixtures inside parts of the equipment (specifically within the mixer and blowpipe/nozzle) that may explode if the equipment is incorrectly shut down, and acetylene decomposes at excessive pressures or temperatures. In case the pressure wave has created a leak downstream of the flashback arrestor, it will remain switched off until someone resets it.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: A check valve lets gas flow in one direction only. It is usually a chamber containing a ball that is pressed against one end by a spring. Gas flow one way pushes the ball out of the way, and a lack of flow or a reverse flow allows the spring to push the ball into the inlet, blocking it. Not to be confused with a flashback arrestor, a check valve is not designed to block a shock wave. The shock wave could occur while the ball is so far from the inlet that the wave will get past the ball before it can reach its off position.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: The torch is the tool that the welder holds and manipulates to make the weld. It has a connection and valve for the fuel gas and a connection and valve for the oxygen, a handle for the welder to grasp, and a mixing chamber (set at an angle) where the fuel gas and oxygen mix, with a tip where the flame forms. Two basic types of torches are positive pressure type and low pressure or injector type.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: A welding torch head is used to weld metals. It can be identified by having only one or two pipes running to the nozzle, no oxygen-blast trigger, and two valve knobs at the bottom of the handle letting the operator adjust the oxygen and fuel flow respectively.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: A cutting torch head is used to cut materials. It is similar to a welding torch, but can be identified by the oxygen blast trigger or lever.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: When cutting, the metal is first heated by the flame until it is cherry red. Once this temperature is attained, oxygen is supplied to the heated parts by pressing the oxygen-blast trigger. This oxygen reacts with the metal, producing more heat and forming an oxide which is then blasted out of the cut. It is the heat that continues the cutting process. The cutting torch only heats the metal to start the process; further heat is provided by the burning metal.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: The melting point of the iron oxide is around half that of the metal being cut. As the metal burns, it immediately turns to liquid iron oxide and flows away from the cutting zone. However, some of the iron oxide remains on the workpiece, forming a hard "slag" which can be removed by gentle tapping and/or grinding.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: A rose bud torch is used to heat metals for bending, straightening, etc. where a large area needs to be heated. It is so-called because the flame at the end looks like a rose bud. A welding torch can also be used to heat small areas such as rusted nuts and bolts.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: A typical oxy-fuel torch, called an equal-pressure torch, merely mixes the two gases. In an injector torch, high-pressure oxygen comes out of a small nozzle inside the torch head which drags the fuel gas along with it, using the Venturi effect.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Oxy-fuel processes may use a variety of fuel gases (or combustible liquids), the most common being acetylene. Other gases that may be used are propylene, liquified petroleum gas (LPG), propane, natural gas, hydrogen, and MAPP gas. Liquid fuel cutting systems use such fuels as Gasoline (Petrol) Diesel, Kerosene and possibly some aviation fuels.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Acetylene is the primary fuel for oxy-fuel welding and is the fuel of choice for repair work and general cutting and welding. Acetylene gas is shipped in special cylinders designed to keep the gas dissolved. The cylinders are packed with porous materials (e.g. kapok fibre, diatomaceous earth, or (formerly) asbestos), then filled to around 50% capacity with acetone, as acetylene is soluble in acetone. This method is necessary because above 207 kPa (30 lbf/in²) (absolute pressure) acetylene is unstable and may explode.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: There is about 1700 kPa (250 psi) pressure in the tank when full. Acetylene when combined with oxygen burns at 3200 °C to 3500 °C (5800 °F to 6300 °F), highest among commonly used gaseous fuels. As a fuel acetylene's primary disadvantage, in comparison to other fuels, is high cost.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: As acetylene is unstable at a pressure roughly equivalent to 33 feet/10 meters underwater, water-submerged cutting and welding is reserved for hydrogen rather than acetylene.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Oxy-gasoline, also known as oxy-petrol, torches perform extremely well, Tests showed that an oxy-gasoline torch can cut steel plate up to thick at the same rate as oxy-acetylene. In plate thicknesses greater than the cutting rate was better than that of oxy-acetylene; at it was three times faster. Additionally the liquid fuel vapour is about 4x the density of a gaseous fuel providing much greater "punch". A high velocity cutting flame is produced by the huge volume expansion while the liquid transitions to a vapour so the cutting flame will easily cut across voids (air space between plates). Cuts through paint, dirt, rust and other contaminating surface materials coating old steel. This system provides almost 100% oxidation during cutting so leaving almost no molten steel in the slag so preventing "sticking" together cut material. Operating cost for a gasoline torch is typically 75-90% less than using propane or Acetylene.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: The gasoline is fed either from a non-pressurised tank with the fuel being drawn into the torch by a venturi action created by the pressurised oxygen flow OR fuel is fed from a pressurised tank (whose pressure can be hand-pumped or fed from a gas cylinder). Another low cost approach commonly used by jewelry makers in Asia is using air bubbled through a gasoline container by a foot-operated air pump, and burning the fuel-air mixture in a specialized welding torch.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Diesel is a new option in the liquid fuel cutting torch market. The DAVCO DIESEL BOSS diesel torches claim several advantages over gaseous fuels and gasoline. Firstly, diesel is inherently safer and more powerful than gasoline or gaseous fuel such as Acetylene and Propane. Diesel cutting will cut thicker steel faster and cheaper than acetylene or propane. Additionally the liquid fuel vapour is about 5x the density of a gaseous fuel providing much greater "punch". A high velocity cutting flame is produced by the huge volume expansion while the liquid transisitions to a vapour so the cutting flame will easily cut across voids (air space between plates). Cuts through paint, dirt, rust and other contaminating surface materials coating old steel. This system provides almost 100% oxidation during cutting so leaving almost no molten steel in the slag so preventing "sticking" together cut material. Operating cost for a diesel torch is typically 75-90% less than using propane or acetylene. Growing use in the demolition or scrap industries


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Hydrogen has a clean flame and is good for use on aluminium. It can be used at a higher pressure than acetylene and is therefore useful for underwater welding and cutting. It is a good type of flame to use when heating large amounts of material. The flame temperature is high, about 2,000 °C for hydrogen gas in air at atmospheric pressure, and up to 2800 °C when pre-mixed in a 2:1 ratio with pure oxygen (oxyhydrogen). Hydrogen is not used for welding steels and other ferrous materials, because it causes hydrogen embrittlement.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: For some oxyhydrogen torches the oxygen and hydrogen are produced by electrolysis of water in an apparatus which is connected directly to the torch. Types of this sort of torch:


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: "Methylacetylene-propadiene" (MAPP) "gas" and "LPG gas" are similar fuels, because LPG gas is liquefied petroleum gas mixed with MPS. It has the storage and shipping characteristics of LPG and has a heat value a little lower than that of acetylene. Because it can be shipped in small containers for sale at retail stores, it is used by hobbyists and large industrial companies and shipyards because it does not polymerize at high pressures — above 15 psi or so (as acetylene does) and is therefore much less dangerous than acetylene. Further, more of it can be stored in a single place at one time, as the increased compressibility allows for more gas to be put into a tank. MAPP gas can be used at much higher pressures than acetylene, sometimes up to 40 or 50 psi in high-volume oxy-fuel cutting torches which can cut up to steel. Other welding gases that develop comparable temperatures need special procedures for safe shipping and handling. MPS and MAPP are recommended for cutting applications in particular, rather than welding applications.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: On 30 April 2008 the Petromont Varennes plant closed its methylacetylene/propadiene crackers. As it was the only North American plant making MAPP gas, many substitutes were introduced by companies that had repackaged the Dow and Varennes product(s) - most of these substitutes are propylene, see below.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Propylene is used in production welding and cutting. It cuts similarly to propane. When propylene is used, the torch rarely needs tip cleaning. There is often a substantial advantage to cutting with an injector torch (see the propane section) rather than an equal-pressure torch when using propylene. Quite a few North American suppliers have begun selling propylene under proprietary trademarks such as FG2 and Fuel-Max.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Butane, like propane, is a saturated hydrocarbon. Butane and propane do not react with each other and are regularly mixed. Butane boils at 0.6 °C. Propane is more volatile, with a boiling point of -42 °C. Vaporization is rapid at temperatures above the boiling points. The calorific (heat) values of the two are almost equal. Both are thus mixed to attain the vapor pressure that is required by the end user and depending on the ambient conditions. If the ambient temperature is very low, propane is preferred to achieve higher vapor pressure at the given temperature.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Propane does not burn as hot as acetylene in its inner cone, and so it is rarely used for welding. Propane, however, has a very high number of BTUs per cubic foot in its outer cone, and so with the right torch (injector style) can make a faster and cleaner cut than acetylene, and is much more useful for heating and bending than acetylene.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: The following is a comparison of operating costs in cutting 1/2"(12mm) plate. Costing is based on an average cost for oxygen and different fuels in May 2012. The opex with Gasoline was 25% that of propane and 10% that of acetylene. Numbers will vary depending on source of oxygen or fuel and on the type of cutting and the cutting environment or situation.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Oxygen is not the fuel. It is the oxidizing agent, which chemically combines with the fuel to produce the heat for welding. This is called 'oxidation', but the more specific and more commonly used term in this context is 'combustion'. In the case of hydrogen, the product of combustion is simply water. For the other hydrocarbon fuels, water and carbon dioxide are produced. The heat is released because the molecules of the products of combustion have a lower energy state than the molecules of the fuel and oxygen. In oxy-fuel cutting, oxidation of the metal being cut (typically iron) produces nearly all of the heat required to "burn" through the workpiece.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Oxygen is usually produced elsewhere by distillation of liquefied air and shipped to the welding site in high-pressure vessels (commonly called "tanks" or "cylinders") at a pressure of about 21,000 kPa (3,000 lbf/in² = 200 atmospheres). It is also shipped as a liquid in Dewar type vessels (like a large Thermos jar) to places that use large amounts of oxygen.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: It is also possible to separate oxygen from air by passing the air, under pressure, through a zeolite sieve that selectively adsorbs the nitrogen and lets the oxygen (and argon) pass. This gives a purity of oxygen of about 93%. This method works well for brazing, but higher-purity oxygen is necessary to produce a clean, slag-free kerf when cutting.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: The welder can adjust the oxy-acetylene flame to be carburizing (aka reducing), neutral, or oxidizing. Adjustment is made by adding more or less oxygen to the acetylene flame. The neutral flame is the flame most generally used when welding or cutting. The welder uses the neutral flame as the starting point for all other flame adjustments because it is so easily defined. This flame is attained when welders, as they slowly open the oxygen valve on the torch body, first see only two flame zones. At that point, the acetylene is being completely burned in the welding oxygen and surrounding air. The flame is chemically neutral. The two parts of this flame are the light blue inner cone and the darker blue to colorless outer cone. The inner cone is where the acetylene and the oxygen combine. The tip of this inner cone is the hottest part of the flame. It is approximately and provides enough heat to easily melt steel. In the inner cone the acetylene breaks down and partly burns to hydrogen and carbon monoxide, which in the outer cone combine with more oxygen from the surrounding air and burn.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: An excess of acetylene creates a carbonizing flame. This flame is characterized by three flame zones; the hot inner cone, a white-hot "acetylene feather", and the blue-colored outer cone. This is the type of flame observed when oxygen is first added to the burning acetylene. The feather is adjusted and made ever smaller by adding increasing amounts of oxygen to the flame. A welding feather is measured as 2X or 3X, with X being the length of the inner flame cone. The unburned carbon insulates the flame and drops the temperature to approximately . The reducing flame is typically used for hard facing operations or backhand pipe welding techniques. The feather is caused by incomplete combustion of the acetylene to cause an excess of carbon in the flame. Some of this carbon is dissolved by the molten metal to carbonize it. The carbonizing flame will tend to remove the oxygen from iron oxides which may be present, a fact which has caused the flame to be known as a "reducing flame".


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: The oxidizing flame is the third possible flame adjustment. It occurs when the ratio of oxygen to acetylene required for a neutral flame has been changed to give an excess of oxygen. This flame type is observed when welders add more oxygen to the neutral flame. This flame is hotter than the other two flames because the combustible gases will not have to search so far to find the necessary amount of oxygen, nor heat up as much thermally inert carbon. It is called an oxidizing flame because of its effect on metal. This flame adjustment is generally not preferred. The oxidizing flame creates undesirable oxides to the structural and mechanical detriment of most metals. In an oxidizing flame, the inner cone acquires a purplish tinge and gets pinched and smaller at the tip, and the sound of the flame gets harsh. A slightly oxidizing flame is used in braze-welding and bronze-surfacing while a more strongly oxidizing flame is used in fusion welding certain brasses and bronzes


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: The size of the flame can be adjusted to a limited extent by the valves on the torch and by the regulator settings, but in the main it depends on the size of the orifice in the tip. In fact, the tip should be chosen first according to the job at hand, and then the regulators set accordingly.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: The flame is applied to the base metal and held until a small puddle of molten metal is formed. The puddle is moved along the path where the weld bead is desired. Usually, more metal is added to the puddle as it is moved along by dipping metal from a welding rod or filler rod into the molten metal puddle. The metal puddle will travel towards where the metal is the hottest. This is accomplished through torch manipulation by the welder.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: The amount of heat applied to the metal is a function of the welding tip size, the speed of travel, and the welding position. The flame size is determined by the welding tip size. The proper tip size is determined by the metal thickness and the joint design.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Welding gas pressures using oxy-acetylene are set in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations. The welder will modify the speed of welding travel to maintain a uniform bead width. Uniformity is a quality attribute indicating good workmanship. Trained welders are taught to keep the bead the same size at the beginning of the weld as at the end. If the bead gets too wide, the welder increases the speed of welding travel. If the bead gets too narrow or if the weld puddle is lost, the welder slows down the speed of travel. Welding in the vertical or overhead positions is typically slower than welding in the flat or horizontal positions.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: The welder must add the filler rod to the molten puddle. The welder must also keep the filler metal in the hot outer flame zone when not adding it to the puddle to protect filler metal from oxidation. Do not let the welding flame burn off the filler metal. The metal will not wet into the base metal and will look like a series of cold dots on the base metal. There is very little strength in a cold weld. When the filler metal is properly added to the molten puddle, the resulting weld will be stronger than the original base metal.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Welding lead or 'lead burning' was much more common in the 19th century to make some pipe connections and tanks. Great skill is required but can be quickly learned. In building construction today some lead flashing is welded but soldered copper flashing is much more common in America. In the automotive body collision industry before the 1980s, oxyacetylene gas torch welding was seldom used to weld sheetmetal, since warpage was a byproduct besides the excess heat. Automotive body repair methods at the time were crude and yielded improprieties until MIG welding became the industry standard. Since the 1970s, when high strength steel became the standard for automotive manufacturing, electric welding became the preferred method. After the 1980s, the oxyacetylene torch fell out of use for sheetmetal welding in the industrialized world.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: For cutting, the setup is a little different. A cutting torch has a 60- or 90-degree angled head with orifices placed around a central jet. The outer jets are for preheat flames of oxygen and acetylene. The central jet carries only oxygen for cutting. The use of several preheating flames rather than a single flame makes it possible to change the direction of the cut as desired without changing the position of the nozzle or the angle which the torch makes with the direction of the cut, as well as giving a better preheat balance. Manufacturers have developed custom tips for Mapp, propane, and propylene gases to optimize the flames from these alternate fuel gases.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: The torch's trigger blows extra oxygen at higher pressures down the torch's third tube out of the central jet into the workpiece, causing the metal to burn and blowing the resulting molten oxide through to the other side. The ideal kerf is a narrow gap with a sharp edge on either side of the workpiece; overheating the workpiece and thus melting through it causes a rounded edge.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Cutting is initiated by heating the edge or leading face (as in cutting shapes such as round rod) of the steel to the ignition temperature (approximately bright cherry red heat) using the pre-heat jets only, then using the separate cutting oxygen valve to release the oxygen from the central jet. The oxygen chemically combines with the iron in the ferrous material to oxidize the iron quickly into molten iron oxide, producing the cut. Initiating a cut in the middle of a workpiece is known as piercing.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: For a basic oxy-acetylene rig, the cutting speed in light steel section will usually be nearly twice as fast as a petrol-driven cut-off grinder. The advantages when cutting large sections are obvious: an oxy-fuel torch is light, small and quiet and needs very little effort to use, whereas a cut-off grinder is heavy and noisy and needs considerable operator exertion and may vibrate severely, leading to stiff hands and possible long-term vibration white finger. Oxy-acetylene torches can easily cut through ferrous materials in excess of 200 mm (8 inches). Oxygen lances are used in scrapping operations and cut sections thicker than 200 mm (8 inches). Cut-off grinders are useless for these kinds of application.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Robotic oxy-fuel cutters sometimes use a high-speed divergent nozzle. This uses an oxygen jet that opens slightly along its passage. This allows the compressed oxygen to expand as it leaves, forming a high-velocity jet that spreads less than a parallel-bore nozzle, allowing a cleaner cut. These are not used for cutting by hand since they need very accurate positioning above the work. Their ability to produce almost any shape from large steel plates gives them a secure future in shipbuilding and in many other industries.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Oxy-propane torches are usually used for cutting up scrap to save money, as LPG is far cheaper joule for joule than acetylene, although propane does not produce acetylene's very neat cut profile. Propane also finds a place in production, for cutting very large sections.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Oxy-acetylene can cut only low- to medium-carbon steels and wrought iron. High-carbon steels are difficult to cut because the melting point of the slag is closer to the melting point of the parent metal, so that the slag from the cutting action does not eject as sparks but rather mixes with the clean melt near the cut. This keeps the oxygen from reaching the clean metal and burning it. In the case of cast iron, graphite between the grains and the shape of the grains themselves interfere with the cutting action of the torch. Stainless steels cannot be cut either because the material does not burn readily.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Oxyacetylene welding/cutting is not difficult, but there are a good number of subtle safety points that should be learned such as:


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Proper protection such as welding goggles should be worn at all times, including to protect the eyes against glare and flying sparks. Special safety eyewear must be used—both to protect the welder and to provide a clear view through the yellow-orange flare given off by the incandescing flux. In the 1940s cobalt melters’ glasses were borrowed from steel foundries and were still available until the 1980s. However, the lack of protection from impact, ultra-violet, infrared and blue light caused severe eyestrain and eye damage. Didymium eyewear, developed for glassblowers in the 1960s, was also borrowed—until many complained of eye problems from excessive infrared, blue light, and insufficient shading. Today very good eye protection can be found designed especially for gas-welding aluminum that cuts the sodium orange flare completely and provides the necessary protection from ultraviolet, infrared, blue light and impact, according to ANSI Z87-1989 safety standards for a Special Purpose Lens.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Fuel and oxygen tanks should be fastened securely and upright to a wall, post, or portable cart. An oxygen tank is especially dangerous because the gas is stored at a pressure of 21 MPa (3000 lbf/in² = 200 atmospheres) when full. If the tank falls over and damages the valve, the tank can be jettisoned by the compressed oxygen escaping the cylinder at high speed. Tanks in this state are capable of breaking through a brick wall.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: On an oxyacetylene torch system there are three types of valves: the tank valve, the regulator valve, and the torch valve. Each gas in the system will have each of these three valves. The regulator converts the high pressure gas inside of the tanks to a low pressure stream suitable for welding. Acetylene cylinders must be maintained in an upright position to prevent the internal acetone and acetylene from separating in the filler material.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: A less obvious hazard of welding is exposure to harmful chemicals. Exposure to certain metals, metal oxides, or carbon monoxide can often lead to severe medical conditions. Damaging chemicals can be produced from the fuel, from the work-piece, or from a protective coating on the work-piece. By increasing ventilation around the welding environment, the welders will have much less exposure to harmful chemicals from any source.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: The most common fuel used in welding is acetylene, which has a two-stage reaction. The primary chemical reaction involves the acetylene disassociating in the presence of oxygen to produce heat, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen gas: CH + O → 2CO + H. A secondary reaction follows where the carbon monoxide and hydrogen combine with more oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water vapor. When the secondary reaction does not burn all of the reactants from the primary reaction, the welding process can produce large amounts of carbon monoxide, and it often does. Carbon monoxide is also the byproduct of many other incomplete fuel reactions.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: Almost every piece of metal is an alloy of one type or another. Copper, aluminum, and other base metals are occasionally alloyed with beryllium, which is a highly toxic metal. When a metal like this is welded or cut, high concentrations of toxic beryllium fumes are released. Long-term exposure to beryllium may result in shortness of breath, chronic cough, and significant weight loss, accompanied by fatigue and general weakness. Other alloying elements such as arsenic, manganese, silver, and aluminum can cause sickness to those who are exposed.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: More common are the anti-rust coatings on many manufactured metal components. Zinc, cadmium, and fluorides are often used to protect irons and steels from oxidizing. Galvanized metals have a very heavy zinc coating. Exposure to zinc oxide fumes can lead to a sickness named "metal fume fever". This condition rarely lasts longer than 24 hours, but severe cases can be fatal. Not unlike common influenza, fevers, chills, nausea, cough, and fatigue are common effects of high zinc oxide exposure.


title: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

text: "Flashback" is the condition of the flame propagating down the hoses of an oxy-fuel welding and cutting system. To prevent such a situation a flashback arrestor is usually employed. The flame burns backwards into the hose, causing a popping or squealing noise. It can cause an explosion in the hose with the potential to injure or kill the operator. Using a lower pressure than recommended can cause a flashback.