title: Grumman F-11 Tiger

text: The design's potential for supersonic performance and reduced transonic drag stirred interest in the U.S. Navy. By 1953, redesigns led to a completely new aircraft bearing no more than a familial resemblance to the Cougar. The new wing had full-span leading edge slats and trailing edge flaps with roll control achieved using spoilers rather than traditional ailerons. For storage on aircraft carriers, the F-11 Tiger's wings manually folded downwards. Anticipating supersonic performance, the tailplane was all-moving. The aircraft was designed for the Wright J65 turbojet, a license-built version of the Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire.


title: Grumman F-11 Tiger

text: The U.S. Navy Bureau of Aeronautics was sufficiently impressed to order two prototypes, designated "XF9F-8" even though the new fighter was clearly a new design. To add to the confusion, the prototypes were then redesignated "XF9F-9" with the XF9F-8 designation going to another more straightforward Cougar derivative. Since the afterburning version of the J65 was not ready, the first prototype flew on 30 July 1954 with a non-afterburning engine. In spite of this, the aircraft nearly reached Mach 1 in its maiden flight. The second prototype, equipped with the afterburning engine, became the second supersonic U.S. Navy aircraft, the first being the Douglas F4D Skyray. In April 1955, the aircraft received the new designation F11F-1 (F-11A after adoption of the unified Tri-Service naming system in 1962). Carrier trials started on 4 April 1956 when an F11F-1 Tiger landed on and launched from .


title: Grumman F-11 Tiger

text: The F-11 Tiger is noted for being the first jet aircraft to shoot itself down. On 21 September 1956, during a test-firing of its 20 mm (0.79 in) cannons, pilot Tom Attridge fired two bursts midway through a shallow dive. As the trajectory of the cannon rounds decayed, they ultimately crossed paths with the Tiger as it continued its descent, disabling it and forcing Attridge to crash-land the aircraft; he survived.


title: Grumman F-11 Tiger

text: In addition to the F-11A (F11F-1) fighter, Grumman also proposed a more advanced version of the airframe known as the F11F-1F Super Tiger. This was the result of a 1955 study to fit the new General Electric J79 engine into the F11F-1 airframe.


title: Grumman F-11 Tiger

text: Seven U.S. Navy squadrons flew the F11F-1: VF-21 and VF-33 in the Atlantic Fleet and VA-156 (redesignated VF-111 in January 1959), VF-24 (redesignated VF-211 in March 1959), VF-51, VF-121, and VF-191 in the Pacific Fleet.


title: Grumman F-11 Tiger

text: In service, the Tiger operated from the carriers , , , , , , and . The F11F's career lasted only four years because its performance was inferior to the Vought F-8 Crusader and the J65 engine proved unreliable. Also, the range and endurance of the "Tiger" was found to be inadequate. Thus, the Navy cancelled all orders for the "F11F-1P" reconnaissance version and only 199 F11F-1 (F-11A) fighters were built.


title: Grumman F-11 Tiger

text: The aircraft was withdrawn from carrier operations by 1961. It continued in service, however, in the Naval Air Training Command in south Texas at NAS Chase Field and NAS Kingsville, until the late 1960s. Students performed advanced jet training in the TF-9J Cougar, and upon completing that syllabus, were given a brief taste of supersonic capability with the F-11 before transitioning to fleet fighters.


title: Grumman F-11 Tiger

text: While the F-11's fighter career was short, the Blue Angels performed in the aircraft from 1957–1968, when the Tiger was replaced by the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II.


title: Grumman F-11 Tiger

text: Prior to the 1962 code unification, the fighter was known as the F11F; after unification, it was redesignated F-11.


title: Grumman F-11 Tiger

text: In 1973, two former Blue Angels F-11As were taken from storage at Davis-Monthan AFB and modified by Grumman as testbeds to evaluate in-flight thrust control systems. BuNo 141853 was fitted with a Rohr Industries thrust reverser and BuNo 141824 was kept in standard configuration as a chase plane. Tests of the inflight thrust reversal were carried out by Grumman at Calverton beginning in March 1974 and continued at NATC Patuxent River, Maryland until 1975. Following the completion of these tests, both planes were returned to storage at Davis Monthan AFB. These were the last Tigers to fly.


title: Cyrenaica

text: Cyrenaica ( ) or Kyrenaika (, , after the city of Cyrene), is the eastern region of Libya. Cyrenaica includes all of the eastern part of Libya between longitudes E16 and E25, including the Kufra District. The coastal region, also known as "Pentapolis" ("Five Cities") in antiquity, was part of the Roman province of Crete and Cyrenaica, later divided into "Libya Pentapolis" and "Libya Sicca". During the Islamic period, the area came to be known as "Barqa", after the city of Barca.


title: Cyrenaica

text: Cyrenaica became an Italian colony in 1911. After the 1934 formation of Libya, the Cyrenaica province was designated as one of the three primary provinces of the country. During World War II, it fell under British military and civil administration from 1943 until 1951, and finally in the Kingdom of Libya from 1951 until 1963. The region that used to be Cyrenaica officially until 1963 has formed several shabiyat, the administrative divisions of Libya, since 1995. The 2011 Libyan Civil War started in Cyrenaica, which came largely under the control of the National Transitional Council (headquartered in Benghazi) for most of the war. In 2012, a body known as the Cyrenaica Transitional Council unilaterally declared Cyrenaica to be an autonomous region of Libya.


title: Cyrenaica

text: Geologically, Cyrenaica rests on a mass of Miocene limestone that tilts up steeply from the Mediterranean Sea and falls inland with a gradual descent to sea level again.


title: Cyrenaica

text: This mass is divided into two blocks. The Jebel Akhdar extends parallel to the coast from the Gulf of Sidra to the Gulf of Bomba and reaches an elevation of 882 meters. There is no continuous coastal plain, the longest strip running from the recess of Gulf of Sidra past Benghazi to Tolmeita. Thereafter, except for deltaic patches at Susa and Derna, the shore is all precipitous. A steep escarpment separates the coastal plain from a relatively level plateau, known as the Marj Plain, which lies at about 300 meters elevation. Above the Marj Plain lies a dissected plateau at about 700 meters elevation, which contains the highest peaks in the range.


title: Cyrenaica

text: The Jebel Akhdar and its adjacent coast are part of the Mediterranean woodlands and forests ecoregion and have a Mediterranean climate of hot, dry summers and relatively mild and rainy winters. The plant communities of this portion of Cyrenaica include forest, woodland, maquis, garrigue, steppe and oak savanna. Garrigue shrublands occupy the non-agricultural portions coastal plain and coastal escarpments, with "Sarcopoterium spinosum", along with "Asphodelus microcarpus" and "Artemisia herba-alba", as the predominant species. Small areas of maquis are found on north-facing slopes near the sea, becoming more extensive on the lower plateau. "Juniperus phoenicea, Pistacia lentiscus, Quercus coccifera" and "Ceratonia siliqua" are common tree and large shrub species in the maquis. The upper plateau includes areas of garrigue, two maquis communities, one dominated by "Pistacia lentiscus" and the other a mixed maquis in which the endemic "Arbutus pavarii" is prominent, and forests of "Cupressus sempervirens, Juniperus phoenicea, Olea europaea, Quercus coccifera, Ceratonia siliqua," and "Pinus halepensis."


title: Cyrenaica

text: Areas of red soil are found on the Marj Plain, which has borne abundant crops of wheat and barley from ancient times to the present day. Plenty of springs issue on the highlands. Wild olive trees are abundant, and large areas of oak savanna provide pasture to the flocks and herds of the local Bedouins. Historically large areas of range were covered in forest. The forested area of the Jebel Akhdar has been shrinking in recent decades. A 1996 report to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization estimated that the forested area was reduced to 320,000 hectares from 500,000 hectares, mostly cleared to grow crops. The Green Mountain Conservation and Development Authority estimates that the forested area decreased from 500,000 hectares in 1976 to 180,000 hectares in 2007.


title: Cyrenaica

text: The southward slopes of the Jebel Akhdar are occupied by the Mediterranean dry woodlands and steppe, a transitional ecoregion lying between the Mediterranean climate regions of North Africa and the hyper-arid Sahara Desert.


title: Cyrenaica

text: The lower Jebel el-Akabah lies to the south and east of the Jebel Akhdar. The two highlands are separated by a depression. This eastern region, known in ancient times as Marmarica, is much drier than the Jebel Akhdar and here the Sahara extends to the coast. Historically, salt-collecting and sponge fishing were more important than agriculture. Bomba and Tobruk have good harbors.


title: Cyrenaica

text: South of the coastal highlands of Cyrenaica is a large east–west running depression, extending eastward from the Gulf of Sidra into Egypt. This region of the Sahara is known as the Libyan Desert, and includes the Great Sand Sea and the Calanshio Sand Sea. The Libyan Desert is home to a few oases, including Awjila and Jaghbub.


title: Cyrenaica

text: The Berbers were the earliest recorded inhabitants of Cyrenaica. Remnants of the Berber languages spoken by their ancestors are still found in the Awjila language of the oasis of Awjila. The ancient Berbers founded a number of cities and settlements, both on the coast and in the inland oases.


title: Cyrenaica

text: Egyptian records mention that during the New Kingdom of Egypt (thirteenth century BC), the Libu and Meshwesh tribes of Cyrenaica made frequent incursions into Egypt.


title: Cyrenaica

text: Cyrenaica was colonized by the Greeks beginning in the seventh century BC when it was known as Kyrenaika. The first and most important colony was that of Cyrene, established in about 631 BC by colonists from the Greek island of Thera, which they had abandoned because of a severe famine. Their commander, Aristoteles, took the Libyan name Battos. His descendants, known as the Battiad dynasty, persisted in spite of severe conflict with Greeks in neighboring cities.


title: Cyrenaica

text: The eastern portion of the province, with no major population centers, was called Marmarica; the more important western portion was known as the Pentapolis, as it comprised five cities: Cyrene (near the modern village of Shahat) with its port of Apollonia (Marsa Susa), Arsinoe or Taucheira (Tocra), Euesperides or Berenice (near modern Benghazi), Balagrae (Bayda) and Barce (Marj) – of which the chief was the eponymous Cyrene.


title: Cyrenaica

text: The term "Pentapolis" continued to be used as a synonym for Cyrenaica. In the south, the Pentapolis faded into the Saharan tribal areas, including the pharaonic oracle of Ammonium.


title: Cyrenaica

text: The region produced barley, wheat, olive oil, wine, figs, apples, wool, sheep, cattle and silphium, a herb that grew only in Cyrenaica and was regarded as a medicinal cure and aphrodisiac. Cyrene became one of the greatest intellectual and artistic centers of the Greek world, famous for its medical school, learned academies and architecture, which included some of the finest examples of the Hellenistic style. The Cyrenaics, a school of thinkers who expounded a doctrine of moral cheerfulness that defined happiness as the sum of human pleasures, were founded by Aristippus of Cyrene. Other notable natives of Cyrene were the poet Callimachus and the mathematicians Theodorus and Eratosthenes.


title: Cyrenaica

text: In 525 BC, after conquering Egypt, the Achaemenid (Persian) army of Cambyses II seized the Pentapolis, and established a satrapy (Achaemenid Persian province) over parts of the region for about the next two centuries.


title: Cyrenaica

text: The Persians were followed by Alexander the Great in 332 BC, who received tribute from the cities after taking Egypt. The Pentapolis was formally annexed by Ptolemy I Soter, and through him passed to the diadoch dynasty of the Lagids, better known as the Ptolemaic dynasty. It briefly gained independence under Magas of Cyrene, stepson of Ptolemy I, but was reabsorbed into the Ptolemaic empire after his death. It was separated from the main kingdom by Ptolemy VIII and given to his son Ptolemy Apion, who, dying without heirs in 96 BC, bequeathed it to the Roman Republic.


title: Cyrenaica

text: The Latin name "Cyrenaica" (or "Kyrenika") dates to the first century BC. Although some confusion exists as to the exact territory Rome inherited, by 78 BC it was organized as one administrative province together with Crete. It became a senatorial province in 20 BC, like its far more prominent western neighbor Africa proconsularis, and unlike Egypt itself, which became an imperial domain "sui generis" (under a special governor styled "praefectus augustalis") in 30 BC.


title: Cyrenaica

text: Diocletian's Tetrarchy reforms of 296 altered Cyrenaica's administrative structure. It was split into two provinces: Libya Superior or Libya Pentapolis, comprising the above-mentioned Pentapolis, with Cyrene as capital, and Libya Inferior or Libya sicca, the Marmarica, which had by then gained a significant city, the port Paraetonium. Each came under a governor holding the modest rank of "praeses". Both belonged to the Diocese of the Orient, with its capital at Antioch in Syria, and from 370, to the Diocese of Egypt, within the praetorian prefecture of Oriens. Its western neighbor Tripolitania, the largest split-off from Africa proconsularis, became part of the Diocese of Africa, subordinate to the prefecture of "Italia et Africa". Following the Crete earthquake of 365, the capital was moved to Ptolemais. After the Empire's division, Cyrenaica became part of the East Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire), bordering Tripolitania. It was briefly part of the Vandal Kingdom to the west, until its reconquest by Belisarius in 533.


title: Cyrenaica

text: The Tabula Peutingeriana shows "Pentapolites" to the east of "Syrtes Maiores", indicating the cities of Bernice, Hadrianopolis, Tauchira, Ptolomaide, Callis, Cenopolis, Balacris and Cyrene.


title: Cyrenaica

text: According to the Synoptic Gospels, Simon of Cyrene carried the cross of Jesus Christ to the crucifixion.


title: Cyrenaica

text: According to one tradition, Saint Mark the Evangelist was born in the Pentapolis, and later returned after preaching with Saint Paul in Colosse (Col 4:10) and Rome (Phil 24; 2 Tim 4:11); from Pentapolis he made his way to Alexandria.


title: Cyrenaica

text: Early Christianity spread to Pentapolis from Egypt; Synesius of Cyrene (370–414), bishop of Ptolemais, received his instruction at Alexandria in both the Catechetical School and the Museion, and he entertained a great deal of reverence and affection for Hypatia, the last pagan Neoplatonist, whose classes he had attended. Synesius was raised to the episcopate by Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria, in AD 410. Since the First Council of Nicaea in AD 325, Cyrenaica had been recognized as an ecclesiastical province of the See of Alexandria, in accordance with the ruling of the Nicaean Fathers.The patriarch of the Coptic Church to this day includes the Pentapolis in his title as an area within his jurisdiction.


title: Cyrenaica

text: The Eparchy of the Western Pentapolis was part of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, as the Pope of Alexandria was the Pope of Africa. The most senior position in The Holy Synod of the Coptic Orthodox Church after the Pope was the Metropolitan of Western Pentapolis, although, since its demise as a major Archiepiscopal Metropolis in the days of Pope John VI of Alexandria, it was held as a Titular See attached to another Diocese.


title: Cyrenaica

text: After being repeatedly destroyed and restored during the Roman period Pentapolis became a mere borough, but was nevertheless the site of a diocese. Its bishop, Zopyrus, was present at the First Council of Nicaea in 325. The subscriptions at Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451) give the names of two other bishops, Zenobius and Theodorus.


title: Cyrenaica

text: Although it retained the title "Pentapolis", the ecclesiastic province actually included all of the Cyrenaica, not just the five cities. Pentapolis is still included in the title of Popes of the Coptic Orthodox Church and the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria.


title: Cyrenaica

text: Cyrenaica was conquered by Muslim Arabs under command of Amr ibn al-As during the tenure of the second caliph, Omar, in , and became known as Barqah after its provincial capital, the ancient city of Barce. After the breakdown of the Ummayad caliphate it was essentially annexed to Egypt, although still under the same name, first under the Fatimid caliphs.


title: Cyrenaica

text: In the middle of the 11th century, the Bedouin Banu Hilal confederation devastated the North African coast under Muslim control. Barqa was ravaged by the Hilalian invasion and left to be settled by the Banu Sulaym while the Banu Hilal marched westwards. The invasion contributed to the decline of the port cities and maritime trade. The Ayyubid emir Qaraqush marched into the Maghreb and according to al-Maqrizi had taken control of Cyrenaica on orders of Saladin who wanted to use the province as an agricultural base. The Mamluks were seemingly unable to exert any significant control and had to ally with the resident Bedouins to accept their suzerainty indirectly while paying taxes. The Ottoman Empire later claimed suzerainty of Cyrenaica based on the Mamluk claim of suzerainty through alliance with the tribes. Cyrenaica was subsumed into Ottoman Libya.


title: Cyrenaica

text: In 1879, Cyrenaica became a wilayah of the Ottoman Empire. In 1888, it became a mutasarrıfiyya under a "mutasarrıf" and was further divided into five qadaas. The wali of Ottoman Tripolitania however looked after the military and judicial affairs. The bureaucratic setup was similar to the one in Tripoli. The mutasarrıfate existed until the Italian invasion.


title: Cyrenaica

text: The Italians occupied Cyrenaica during the Italo-Turkish War in 1911 and declared it an Italian protectorate on 15 October 1912. Three days later, the Ottoman Empire officially ceded the province to the Kingdom of Italy. On 17 May 1919, Cyrenaica was established as an Italian colony, and, on 25 October 1920, the Italian government recognized Sheikh Sidi Idriss as the leader of the Senussi, who was granted the princely rank of Emir until 1929. In that year, Italy withdrew recognition of him and the Senussi. On 1 January 1934, Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, and Fezzan were united as the Italian colony of Libya.


title: Cyrenaica

text: The Italian fascists constructed the Marble Arch as a form of an imperial triumphal arch at the border between Cyrenaica and Tripolitani near the coast.


title: Cyrenaica

text: There was heavy fighting in Cyrenaica during World War II on the part of the Allies against the Italian Army and the Nazi German Afrika Korps. In late 1942, Allied forces liberated Cyrenaica from Axis occupation and the United Kingdom administered most of Libya through 1951, when the Kingdom of Libya was established and granted independence.


title: Cyrenaica

text: In 1949, Idris as-Senussi, with British backing, proclaimed Cyrenaica an independent emirate, called the Emirate of Cyrenaica. This emirate became part of the Kingdom of Libya when it was established, and an independent kingdom on 24 December 1951, with Idris as-Senussi becoming King Idris I.


title: Cyrenaica

text: Since 1 September 1969, when the Senussi dynasty was overthrown by Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, Cyrenaica occasionally experienced nationalist activity against Gaddafi's military dictatorship, including a military rebellion at Tobruk in 1980.


title: Cyrenaica

text: In 2007, the Green Mountain Conservation and Development Authority, headed by Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, announced a regional plan for Cyrenaica, developed by the firm Foster and Partners. The plan, known as The Cyrene Declaration, aimed to revive Cyrenaica's agriculture, create a national park and develop the region as a cultural and eco-tourism destination. The announced pilot projects included plans for three hotels, including the Cyrene Grand Hotel near the ruins of Cyrene.


title: Cyrenaica

text: For much of the Libyan civil war, Cyrenaica was largely under the control of the National Transitional Council while Tripolitania and Fezzan remained under Gaddafi's government control. Some proposed a "two-state solution" to the conflict, with Cyrenaica becoming an independent state, but this concept was strongly rejected by both sides, and the three regions were united again in October 2011, as rebel forces took Tripolitania and Fezzan and the government collapsed.


title: Cyrenaica

text: Ancient episcopal sees of the Roman province of Libya Superior or Libya Pentapolitana listed in the "Annuario Pontificio" as titular sees:


title: Esom

text: Lee So-young (January 30, 1990), known by her stage name Esom, is a South Korean actress and model. She gained recognition for her leading role in the 2014 film "Scarlet Innocence", for which she was nominated for Best New Actress in five different award ceremonies. She then had notable roles in television series "The Third Charm" (2018), "Taxi Driver" (2021), and film "Samjin Company English Class" (2020).


title: Equivalence relation

text: In mathematics, an equivalence relation is a binary relation that is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. The equipollence relation between line segments in geometry is a common example of an equivalence relation.


title: Equivalence relation

text: Each equivalence relation provides a partition of the underlying set into disjoint equivalence classes. Two elements of the given set are equivalent to each other if and only if they belong to the same equivalence class.


title: Equivalence relation

text: Various notations are used in the literature to denote that two elements formula_1 and formula_2 of a set are equivalent with respect to an equivalence relation formula_3 the most common are "formula_4" and "", which are used when formula_5 is implicit, and variations of "formula_6", "", or "formula_7" to specify formula_5 explicitly. Non-equivalence may be written "" or "formula_9".


title: Equivalence relation

text: A binary relation formula_10 on a set formula_11 is said to be an equivalence relation, if and only if it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. That is, for all formula_12 and formula_13 in formula_14


title: Equivalence relation

text: formula_11 together with the relation formula_10 is called a setoid. The equivalence class of formula_1 under formula_24 denoted formula_25 is defined as formula_26


title: Equivalence relation

text: In relational algebra, if formula_27 and formula_28 are relations, then the composite relation formula_29 is defined so that formula_30 if and only if there is a formula_31 such that formula_32 and formula_33. This definition is a generalisation of the definition of functional composition. The defining properties of an equivalence relation formula_5 on a set formula_11 can then be reformulated as follows:


title: Equivalence relation

text: On the set formula_41, the relation formula_42 is an equivalence relation. The following sets are equivalence classes of this relation:


title: Equivalence relation

text: The set of all equivalence classes for formula_5 is formula_45 This set is a partition of the set formula_11 with respect to formula_5.


title: Equivalence relation

text: If formula_10 is an equivalence relation on formula_64 and formula_65 is a property of elements of formula_64 such that whenever formula_67 formula_65 is true if formula_69 is true, then the property formula_70 is said to be well-defined or a under the relation formula_71


title: Equivalence relation

text: A frequent particular case occurs when formula_53 is a function from formula_11 to another set formula_74 if formula_75 implies formula_76 then formula_53 is said to be a for formula_24 a formula_24 or simply formula_71 This occurs, e.g. in the character theory of finite groups. The latter case with the function formula_53 can be expressed by a commutative triangle. See also invariant. Some authors use "compatible with formula_82" or just "respects formula_82" instead of "invariant under formula_82".


title: Equivalence relation

text: More generally, a function may map equivalent arguments (under an equivalence relation formula_85) to equivalent values (under an equivalence relation formula_86). Such a function is known as a morphism from formula_85 to formula_88


title: Equivalence relation

text: A subset "Y" of "X" such that formula_4 holds for all "a" and "b" in "Y", and never for "a" in "Y" and "b" outside "Y", is called an equivalence class of "X" by ~. Let formula_91 denote the equivalence class to which "a" belongs. All elements of "X" equivalent to each other are also elements of the same equivalence class.


title: Equivalence relation

text: The set of all equivalence classes of "X" by ~, denoted formula_92 is the quotient set of "X" by ~. If "X" is a topological space, there is a natural way of transforming formula_93 into a topological space; see quotient space for the details.


title: Equivalence relation

text: The projection of formula_10 is the function formula_95 defined by formula_96 which maps elements of formula_11 into their respective equivalence classes by formula_71


title: Equivalence relation

text: The equivalence kernel of a function formula_53 is the equivalence relation ~ defined by formula_108 The equivalence kernel of an injection is the identity relation.


title: Equivalence relation

text: A partition of "X" is a set "P" of nonempty subsets of "X", such that every element of "X" is an element of a single element of "P". Each element of "P" is a "cell" of the partition. Moreover, the elements of "P" are pairwise disjoint and their union is "X".


title: Equivalence relation

text: Let "X" be a finite set with "n" elements. Since every equivalence relation over "X" corresponds to a partition of "X", and vice versa, the number of equivalence relations on "X" equals the number of distinct partitions of "X", which is the "n"th Bell number "B":


title: Equivalence relation

text: In both cases, the cells of the partition of "X" are the equivalence classes of "X" by ~. Since each element of "X" belongs to a unique cell of any partition of "X", and since each cell of the partition is identical to an equivalence class of "X" by ~, each element of "X" belongs to a unique equivalence class of "X" by ~. Thus there is a natural bijection between the set of all equivalence relations on "X" and the set of all partitions of "X".


title: Equivalence relation

text: If formula_110 and formula_111 are two equivalence relations on the same set formula_112, and formula_4 implies formula_114 for all formula_115 then formula_111 is said to be a coarser relation than formula_110, and formula_110 is a finer relation than formula_111. Equivalently,


title: Equivalence relation

text: The equality equivalence relation is the finest equivalence relation on any set, while the universal relation, which relates all pairs of elements, is the coarsest.


title: Equivalence relation

text: The relation "formula_110 is finer than formula_111" on the collection of all equivalence relations on a fixed set is itself a partial order relation, which makes the collection a geometric lattice.


title: Equivalence relation

text: Much of mathematics is grounded in the study of equivalences, and order relations. Lattice theory captures the mathematical structure of order relations. Even though equivalence relations are as ubiquitous in mathematics as order relations, the algebraic structure of equivalences is not as well known as that of orders. The former structure draws primarily on group theory and, to a lesser extent, on the theory of lattices, categories, and groupoids.


title: Equivalence relation

text: Just as order relations are grounded in ordered sets, sets closed under pairwise supremum and infimum, equivalence relations are grounded in partitioned sets, which are sets closed under bijections that preserve partition structure. Since all such bijections map an equivalence class onto itself, such bijections are also known as permutations. Hence permutation groups (also known as transformation groups) and the related notion of orbit shed light on the mathematical structure of equivalence relations.


title: Equivalence relation

text: Let '~' denote an equivalence relation over some nonempty set "A", called the universe or underlying set. Let "G" denote the set of bijective functions over "A" that preserve the partition structure of "A", meaning that for all formula_156 and formula_157 Then the following three connected theorems hold:


title: Equivalence relation

text: In sum, given an equivalence relation ~ over "A", there exists a transformation group "G" over "A" whose orbits are the equivalence classes of "A" under ~.


title: Equivalence relation

text: This transformation group characterisation of equivalence relations differs fundamentally from the way lattices characterize order relations. The arguments of the lattice theory operations meet and join are elements of some universe "A". Meanwhile, the arguments of the transformation group operations composition and inverse are elements of a set of bijections, "A" → "A".


title: Equivalence relation

text: Moving to groups in general, let "H" be a subgroup of some group "G". Let ~ be an equivalence relation on "G", such that formula_158 The equivalence classes of ~—also called the orbits of the action of "H" on "G"—are the right cosets of "H" in "G". Interchanging "a" and "b" yields the left cosets.


title: Equivalence relation

text: Let "G" be a set and let "~" denote an equivalence relation over "G". Then we can form a groupoid representing this equivalence relation as follows. The objects are the elements of "G", and for any two elements "x" and "y" of "G", there exists a unique morphism from "x" to "y" if and only if formula_159


title: Equivalence relation

text: The equivalence relations on any set "X", when ordered by set inclusion, form a complete lattice, called Con "X" by convention. The canonical map ker: "X"^"X" → Con "X", relates the monoid "X"^"X" of all functions on "X" and Con "X". ker is surjective but not injective. Less formally, the equivalence relation ker on "X", takes each function "f": "X"→"X" to its kernel ker "f". Likewise, ker(ker) is an equivalence relation on "X"^"X".


title: Equivalence relation

text: Equivalence relations are a ready source of examples or counterexamples. For example, an equivalence relation with exactly two infinite equivalence classes is an easy example of a theory which is ω-categorical, but not categorical for any larger cardinal number.


title: Equivalence relation

text: An implication of model theory is that the properties defining a relation can be proved independent of each other (and hence necessary parts of the definition) if and only if, for each property, examples can be found of relations not satisfying the given property while satisfying all the other properties. Hence the three defining properties of equivalence relations can be proved mutually independent by the following three examples:


title: Equivalence relation

text: Properties definable in first-order logic that an equivalence relation may or may not possess include:


title: Kwantung Army

text: The Kwantung Army (Japanese: 関東軍, "Kantō-gun") was a general army of the Imperial Japanese Army from 1919 to 1945.


title: Kwantung Army

text: The Kwantung Army formed in 1906 as a security force for the Kwantung Leased Territory and South Manchurian Railway Zone after the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, and expanded into an army group during the Interwar period to support Japanese interests in China, Manchuria, and Mongolia. The Kwantung Army became the most prestigious command in the Imperial Japanese Army, and many of its personnel won promotion to high positions in the Japanese military and civil government, including Hideki Tōjō and Seishirō Itagaki. The Kwantung Army was largely responsible for the establishment of the Japanese puppet-state of Manchukuo in Manchuria and functioned as one of the main Japanese fighting forces during the 1937–1945 Second Sino-Japanese War from 1937.


title: Kwantung Army

text: In August 1945 Soviet troops engaged the Kwantung Army during the Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation. The Kwantung Army surrendered to the Soviets on 16 August 1945 – the day after the Surrender of Japan – and was subsequently dissolved.


title: Kwantung Army

text: The Kwantung Army became involved in many of the worst Japanese war crimes during the World War II period; it sponsored Unit 731, which performed biological warfare and human experimentation on civilians and on prisoners of war.


title: Kwantung Army

text: In 1895, Qing China had granted the Kwantung Leased Territory, a valuable concession territory on the Liaodong Peninsula, to the Empire of Japan in the Treaty of Shimonoseki after their victory in the First Sino-Japanese War. The term "Kwantung" () means "east of Shanhaiguan", a guarded pass west of Manchuria, which was rendered in Japanese as ""Kantō"". The Russian Empire had particular interest in Kwantung, being one of the few areas in the region with potential to develop ice-free ports for its own expansion in the Far East, and Qing authorities withdrew the lease from the Japanese following the Triple Intervention, only weeks after it had been granted. Kwantung was leased to Russia in 1898, becoming Russian Dalian (Дальний) and developing the territory into a thriving trade port. The Russo-Japanese War was fought between Russia and Japan from 1905 to 1906 over their rival imperial ambitions in Manchuria and Korea. Japanese victory led to the Republic of China returning the lease of Russian Dalian (re-establishing the Kwantung Leased Territory) and Japan gaining influence in the areas adjacent to the South Manchurian Railway.


title: Kwantung Army

text: The Kwantung Garrison was established in 1906 to defend this territory, and originally was composed of an infantry division and a heavy siege artillery battalion, supplemented with six independent garrison battalions as railway guards deployed along the South Manchurian Railway Zone, for a total troop strength of 14,000 men. It was headquartered in Port Arthur (known as "Ryojun" in Japanese) and was administered as a department in the Kwantung Government-general, and the governor general served concurrently as its commander. In 1919 the Kwantung Government general was replaced by separate civilian and military administration, the Kwantung agency for civilian operations, and the Kwantung army command.


title: Kwantung Army

text: In the highly politicized Imperial Japanese Army of the 1920s and 1930s, the Kwantung Army was a stronghold of the radical "Imperial Way Faction" ("Kōdōha"), and many of its senior leaders overtly advocated political change in Japan through the violent overthrow of the civilian government to bring about a Shōwa Restoration, with a reorganization of society and the economy along state fascist lines. They also advocated a more aggressive, expansionist foreign policy regarding the Asian mainland. Members or former members of the Kwantung Army were active in numerous coup attempts against the civilian government, culminating with the February 26 Incident of 1936, where the "Kōdōha" faction was dissolved.


title: Kwantung Army

text: Although the Kwantung Army was nominally subordinate to the Imperial General Headquarters and the senior staff at the Army General Staff located in Tokyo, its leadership often acted in direct violation of the orders from mainland Japan without suffering any consequence. Conspirators within the junior officer corps of the Kwantung Army plotted and carried out the assassination of Manchurian warlord Zhang Zuolin in the Huanggutun Incident of 1928. Afterward, the Kwantung Army leadership engineered the Mukden Incident and the subsequent invasion of Manchuria in 1931, in a massive act of insubordination ("gekokujo") against the express orders of the political and military leadership based in Tokyo.


title: Kwantung Army

text: Presented with the "fait accompli", Imperial General Headquarters had little choice but to follow up on the actions of the Kwantung Army with reinforcements in the subsequent Pacification of Manchukuo. The success of the campaign meant that the insubordination of the Kwantung Army was rewarded rather than punished. In 1932, the Kwantung Army was the main force responsible for the foundation of Manchukuo, the puppet state of Japan located in Northeast China and Inner Mongolia. The Kwantung Army played a controlling role in the political administration of the new state as well as in its defense. With the Kwantung Army, administering all aspects of the politics and economic development of the new state, this made the Kwantung Army's commanding officer equivalent to a Governor-General with the authority to approve or countermand any command from Puyi, the nominal Emperor of Manchukuo. As testament to the Kwantung Army's control over the government of Manchukuo was the fact that the Commander-in-Chief of the Kwantung Army also doubled as the Japanese Ambassador of Manchukuo.


title: Kwantung Army

text: After the campaign to secure Manchukuo, the Kwantung Army continued to fight in numerous border skirmishes with China as part of its efforts to create a Japanese-dominated buffer zone in Northern China. The Kwantung Army also fought in Operation Nekka during the preceding phase of the Second Sino-Japanese War, and various actions in Inner Mongolia to extend Japanese domination over portions of northern China and Inner Mongolia. When full-scale war broke out in the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in July 1937, its forces participated in Battle of Beiping-Tianjin and Operation Chahar. Later, Kwantung forces supported the war in China from time to time.


title: Kwantung Army

text: However, by the late 1930s the Kwantung Army's vaunted reputation was severely challenged during the Soviet–Japanese border conflicts that Japan had fought against the Soviet Union in northern Manchukuo since 1932. The Japanese force stalemated with the Soviet Union's Red Army in the Battle of Lake Khasan in 1938, and lost the decisive Battle of Nomonhan in 1939, during which time it sustained heavy casualties. After the "Nomonhan incident", the Kwantung Army was purged of its more insubordinate elements, as well as proponents of the "Hokushin-ron" ("Northward Advance") doctrine who urged that Japan concentrate its expansionist efforts on Siberia rather southward towards China and Southeast Asia.


title: Kwantung Army

text: The Kwantung Army was heavily augmented over the next few years, up to a strength of 700,000 troops by 1941, and its headquarters was transferred to the new Manchukuo capital of Hsinking. The Kwantung Army also oversaw the creation, training, and equipping of an auxiliary force, the Manchukuo Imperial Army. During this time, Prince Tsuneyoshi Takeda worked as liaison officer between the Imperial house and the Kwantung Army. Although a source of constant unrest during the 1930s, the Kwantung Army remained remarkably obedient during the 1940s. As combat spread south into Central China and Southern China in the Second Sino-Japanese War, and with the outbreak of the Pacific War, Manchukuo was largely a backwater to the conflict. However, as the war situation began to deteriorate for the Imperial Japanese Army on all fronts, the large, well-trained, and well-equipped Kwantung Army could no longer be held in strategic reserve. Many of its front line units were systematically stripped of their best units and equipment, which were sent south to fight in the Pacific War against the forces of the United States in the Pacific Islands or the Philippines. Other units were sent south into China for Operation Ichi-Go.


title: Kwantung Army

text: By 1945, the Kwantung Army consisted of 713,000 personnel, divided into 31 infantry divisions, nine infantry brigades, two tank brigades, and one special purpose brigade. It possessed 1,155 light tanks, 5,360 guns, and 1,800 aircraft. The quality of troops had fallen drastically, as all the best men and materiel were siphoned off for use in other theaters. These forces were replaced by militia, draft levies, reservists, and cannibalized smaller units, all equipped with woefully outdated equipment. The Kwantung Army was also equipped with bacteriological weapons, prepared for use against Soviet troops (see Unit 731). The bulk of military equipment (artillery, tanks, aircraft) was developed in the 1930s, and very few of the soldiers had sufficient training or any real experience.


title: Kwantung Army

text: The Kwantung Army was outclassed and swiftly defeated in the Soviet invasion of Manchuria which began on 9 August 1945.


title: Kwantung Army

text: The final commanding officer of the Kwantung Army, General Otozō Yamada, ordered a surrender on August 16, 1945, one day after Emperor Hirohito announced the surrender of Japan in a radio announcement. Some Japanese divisions refused to surrender, and combat continued for the next few days. Marshal Hata received the "ultimatum to surrender" from Soviet General Georgii Shelakhov in Harbin on August 18, 1945. He was one of the senior generals who agreed with the decision to surrender, and on August 19, 1945, Hata met with Marshal Aleksandr Vasilevsky, but asked that he be stripped of his rank of Field Marshal in atonement for the Army's failures in the war.


title: Kwantung Army

text: The remnants of the Kwantung Army were either dead or on their way to Soviet prisoner-of-war camps. Over 500,000 Japanese prisoners of war were sent to work in Soviet labor camps in Siberia, Russian Far East and Mongolia. They were largely repatriated, in stages, over the next five years, though some continued to be held well into the 1950s.


title: Kwantung Army

text: After the surrender of Japan, the Soviet Red Army discovered secret installations for experimenting with and producing chemical weapons and biological weapons of mass destruction centered around secret Army Unit 731 and its subsidiaries. At these locations, the Kwantung Army was also responsible for some of the most infamous Japanese war crimes, including the operation of several human experimentation programs using live Chinese, American and Russian civilians, and POWs, directed by Dr. Shiro Ishii.


title: Kwantung Army

text: Arrested by the American occupation authorities, Ishii and the 20,000 members of Unit 731 received immunity from prosecution of war-crimes before the Tokyo tribunal of 1948, in exchange for germ warfare data based on human experimentation. On May 6, 1947, General Douglas MacArthur wrote to Washington that "additional data, possibly some statements from Ishii probably can be obtained by informing Japanese involved that information will be retained in intelligence channels and will not be employed as 'War Crimes' evidence". The deal was concluded in 1948. However, twelve members of Unit 731 and some members of the World War II leadership of the Kwantung Army were sentenced as war criminals by the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials, while others were taken into custody by the United States, and sentenced at the 1948 International Military Tribunal for the Far East in Tokyo. Among those sentenced to death were former generals Seishirō Itagaki, Iwane Matsui, Kenji Doihara, Hideki Tōjō and Akira Mutō.


title: Richard Jeni

text: Richard John Colangelo (April 14, 1957 – March 10, 2007), better known by his stage name Richard Jeni, was an American stand-up comedian and actor.


title: Richard Jeni

text: Jeni was born and raised in an Italian-American Roman Catholic family in Bensonhurst, Brooklyn. He graduated with honors from Hunter College, earning a bachelor's degree in comparative politics. After graduating, Jeni went on to do public relations work, but was let go from five different firms in two years before doing an open-mic night in Brooklyn and deciding to pursue standup comedy as a career in 1982.


title: Richard Jeni

text: Jeni first received recognition through a series of Showtime stand-up specials and frequent appearances on "The Tonight Show". After making his "Tonight Show" debut in 1988 with Johnny Carson, Jeni returned often and later made appearances on "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno", with more appearances than any other stand-up comedian. In 1989, he won Comedy USA's Best Nightclub Comedian, as voted by comedy club owners and comedians, and his first Showtime special "Richard Jeni: The Boy From New York City" won a CableACE Award.


title: Richard Jeni

text: Top executives at HBO picked up his first appearance on "The HBO Comedy Hour" in 1992, titled "Richard Jeni: Platypus Man". The show was well received, and Jeni returned for two more shows, going on to receive another CableACE Award for one of his HBO specials. Jeni starred in the short-lived 1995 UPN sitcom "Platypus Man" and appeared in the Jim Carrey film "The Mask". Jeni composed the theme song ("I'm A Platypus Man") for his TV series. He appeared in "The Aristocrats", "Dad's Week Off", "", and "Chasing Robert". He starred in commercial campaigns for Certs and Arby's, and he won a Clio Award for his work as a writer/performer in an advertising campaign for the American Dairy Association.


title: Richard Jeni

text: On March 10, 2007, Jeni was found by his girlfriend Amy Murphy, a weather anchor and reporter for KTTV in Los Angeles, with a .38-caliber Colt Detective Special between his feet and an apparent self-inflicted handgun wound to the head on the bathroom floor in his West Hollywood, California home. Jeni and Murphy had been conversing in bed, discussing breakfast and their plans for the day, when Murphy left to cook breakfast downstairs. After a few minutes, she heard the sound of a gunshot, ran upstairs, discovered Jeni's condition, and called 9-1-1.


title: Richard Jeni

text: Police and paramedics arrived and transported Jeni to Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, where he died. His family later stated with certainty that the death was a suicide and that Jeni had recently been diagnosed with "severe clinical depression coupled with fits of psychotic paranoia." According to the coroner's report released in June 2007, Jeni had a history of schizophrenia and had been taking antidepressants and a sleeping aid. The report further indicated that his girlfriend heard him talking to himself about a week earlier, saying "just squeeze the trigger."


title: Richard Jeni

text: Jeni's death was marked by many tributes, including thousands of messages on his website and YouTube as well as on the radio. On March 12, 2007, Jeni's death was mentioned on "The Tonight Show" by Jay Leno, with accompanying footage of Jeni's last appearance on the show. On March 16, Bill Maher, who had performed with Jeni as a young comic, dedicated the fifth episode of the fifth season of his HBO show, "Real Time with Bill Maher", to Jeni and discussed his death on "Larry King Live".


title: Astrology and science

text: Astrology consists of a number of belief systems that hold that there is a relationship between astronomical phenomena and events or descriptions of personality in the human world. Astrology has been rejected by the scientific community as having no explanatory power for describing the universe. Scientific testing has found no evidence to support the premises or purported effects outlined in astrological traditions.


title: Astrology and science

text: Where astrology has made falsifiable predictions, it has been falsified. The most famous test was headed by Shawn Carlson and included a committee of scientists and a committee of astrologers. It led to the conclusion that natal astrology performed no better than chance. Astrologer and psychologist Michel Gauquelin claimed to have found statistical support for "the Mars effect" in the birth dates of athletes, but it could not be replicated in further studies. The organisers of later studies claimed that Gauquelin had tried to influence their inclusion criteria for the study by suggesting specific individuals be removed. It has also been suggested, by Geoffrey Dean, that the reporting of birth times by parents (before the 1950s) may have caused the apparent effect.


title: Astrology and science

text: Astrology has not demonstrated its effectiveness in controlled studies and has no scientific validity, and is thus regarded as pseudoscience. There is no proposed mechanism of action by which the positions and motions of stars and planets could affect people and events on Earth in the way astrologers say they do that does not contradict well-understood, basic aspects of biology and physics.


title: Astrology and science

text: Modern scientific inquiry into astrology is primarily focused on drawing a correlation between astrological traditions and the influence of seasonal birth in humans.


title: Astrology and science

text: The majority of professional astrologers rely on performing astrology-based personality tests and making relevant predictions about the remunerator's future. Those who continue to have faith in astrology have been characterised as doing so "in spite of the fact that there is no verified scientific basis for their beliefs, and indeed that there is strong evidence to the contrary". Astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson commented on astrological belief, saying that "part of knowing how to think is knowing how the laws of nature shape the world around us. Without that knowledge, without that capacity to think, you can easily become a victim of people who seek to take advantage of you".


title: Astrology and science

text: The continued belief in astrology despite its lack of credibility is seen as a demonstration of low scientific literacy, although some continue to believe in it even though they are scientifically literate.


title: Astrology and science

text: The foundations of the theoretical structure used in astrology originate with the Babylonians, although widespread usage did not occur till the start of the Hellenistic period after Alexander the Great swept through Greece. It was not known to the Babylonians that the constellations are not on a celestial sphere and are very far apart. The appearance of them being close is illusory. The exact demarcation of what a constellation is, is cultural, and varied between civilisations. Ptolemy's work on astronomy was driven to some extent by the desire, like all astrologers of the time, to easily calculate the planetary movements. Early western astrology operated under the ancient Greek concepts of the Macrocosm and microcosm; and thus medical astrology related what happened to the planets and other objects in the sky to medical operations. This provided a further motivator for the study of astronomy. While still defending the practice of astrology, Ptolemy acknowledged that the predictive power of astronomy for the motion of the planets and other celestial bodies ranked above astrological predictions.


title: Astrology and science

text: During the Islamic Golden Age, astronomy was funded so that the astronomical parameters, such as the eccentricity of the sun's orbit, required for the Ptolemaic model could be calculated to a sufficient accuracy and precision. Those in positions of power, like the Fatimid Caliphate vizier in 1120, funded the construction of observatories so that astrological predictions, fuelled by precise planetary information, could be made. Since the observatories were built to help in making astrological predictions, few of these observatories lasted long due to the prohibition against astrology within Islam, and most were torn down during or just after construction.


title: Astrology and science

text: The clear rejection of astrology in works of astronomy started in 1679, with the yearly publication La Connoissance des temps. Unlike the west, in Iran, the rejection of heliocentrism continued up towards the start of the 20th century, in part motivated by a fear that this would undermine the widespread belief in astrology and Islamic cosmology in Iran. The first work, Falak al-sa'ada by Ictizad al-Saltana, aimed at undermining this belief in astrology and "old astronomy" in Iran was published in 1861. On astrology, it cited the inability of different astrologers to make the same prediction about what occurs following a conjunction, and described the attributes astrologers gave to the planets as implausible.


title: Astrology and science

text: Astrology provides the quintessential example of a pseudoscience since it has been tested repeatedly and failed all the tests.


title: Astrology and science

text: Science and non-science are often distinguished by the criterion of falsifiability. The criterion was first proposed by philosopher of science Karl Popper. To Popper, science does not rely on induction; instead, scientific investigations are inherently attempts to falsify existing theories through novel tests. If a single test fails, then the theory is falsified.


title: Astrology and science

text: Therefore, any test of a scientific theory must prohibit certain results that falsify the theory, and expect other specific results consistent with the theory. Using this criterion of falsifiability, astrology is a pseudoscience.


title: Astrology and science

text: Astrology was Popper's most frequent example of pseudoscience. Popper regarded astrology as "pseudo-empirical" in that "it appeals to observation and experiment", but "nevertheless does not come up to scientific standards".


title: Astrology and science

text: In contrast to scientific disciplines, astrology does not respond to falsification through experiment. According to Professor of neurology Terence Hines, this is a hallmark of pseudoscience.


title: Astrology and science

text: In contrast to Popper, the philosopher Thomas Kuhn argued that it was not lack of falsifiability that makes astrology unscientific, but rather that the process and concepts of astrology are non-empirical. To Kuhn, although astrologers had, historically, made predictions that "categorically failed", this in itself does not make it unscientific, nor do the attempts by astrologers to explain away the failure by claiming it was due to the creation of a horoscope being very difficult (through subsuming, after the fact, a more general horoscope that leads to a different prediction).


title: Astrology and science

text: Rather, in Kuhn's eyes, astrology is not science because it was always more akin to medieval medicine; they followed a sequence of rules and guidelines for a seemingly necessary field with known shortcomings, but they did no research because the fields are not amenable to research, and so, "They had no puzzles to solve and therefore no science to practise."


title: Astrology and science

text: While an astronomer could correct for failure, an astrologer could not. An astrologer could only explain away failure but could not revise the astrological hypothesis in a meaningful way. As such, to Kuhn, even if the stars could influence the path of humans through life astrology is not scientific.


title: Astrology and science

text: Philosopher Paul Thagard believed that astrology can not be regarded as falsified in this sense until it has been replaced with a successor. In the case of predicting behaviour, psychology is the alternative. To Thagard a further criterion of demarcation of science from pseudoscience was that the state of the art must progress and that the community of researchers should be attempting to compare the current theory to alternatives, and not be "selective in considering confirmations and disconfirmations".


title: Astrology and science

text: Progress is defined here as explaining new phenomena and solving existing problems, yet astrology has failed to progress having only changed little in nearly 2000 years. To Thagard, astrologers are acting as though engaged in normal science believing that the foundations of astrology were well established despite the "many unsolved problems", and in the face of better alternative theories (Psychology). For these reasons Thagard viewed astrology as pseudoscience.


title: Astrology and science

text: To Thagard, astrology should not be regarded as a pseudoscience on the failure of Gauquelin to find any correlation between the various astrological signs and someone's career, twins not showing the expected correlations from having the same signs in twin studies, lack of agreement on the significance of the planets discovered since Ptolemy's time and large scale disasters wiping out individuals with vastly different signs at the same time. Rather, his demarcation of science requires three distinct foci: "theory, community [and] historical context".


title: Astrology and science

text: While verification and falsifiability focused on the theory, Kuhn's work focused on the historical context, but the astrological community should also be considered. Whether or not they:


title: Astrology and science

text: In this approach, true falsification rather than modifying a theory to avoid the falsification only really occurs when an alternative theory is proposed.


title: Astrology and science

text: For the philosopher Edward W. James, astrology is irrational not because of the numerous problems with mechanisms and falsification due to experiments, but because an analysis of the astrological literature shows that it is infused with fallacious logic and poor reasoning.


title: Astrology and science

text: This poor reasoning includes appeals to ancient astrologers such as Kepler despite any relevance of topic or specific reasoning, and vague claims. The claim that evidence for astrology is that people born at roughly "the same place have a life pattern that is very similar" is vague, but also ignores that time is reference frame dependent and gives no definition of "same place" despite the planet's moving in the reference frame of the solar system. Other comments by astrologers are based on severely erroneous interpretations of basic physics, such as the general belief by medieval astrologers that the geocentric solar system corresponded to an atom. Further, James noted that response to criticism also relies on faulty logic, an example of which was a response to twin studies with the statement that coincidences in twins are due to astrology, but any differences are due to "heredity and environment", while for other astrologers the issues are too difficult and they just want to get back to their astrology. Further, to astrologers, if something appears in their favour, they latch upon it as proof, while making no attempt to explore its implications, preferring to refer to the item in favour as definitive; possibilities that do not make astrology look favourable are ignored.


title: Astrology and science

text: From the Quinean web of knowledge, there is a dichotomy where one must either reject astrology or accept astrology but reject all established scientific disciplines that are incompatible with astrology.


title: Astrology and science

text: Astrologers often avoid making verifiable predictions, and instead rely on vague statements that let them try to avoid falsification. Across several centuries of testing, the predictions of astrology have never been more accurate than that expected by chance alone. One approach used in testing astrology quantitatively is through blind experiment. When specific predictions from astrologers were tested in rigorous experimental procedures in the Carlson test, the predictions were falsified. All controlled experiments have failed to show any effect.


title: Astrology and science

text: In 1955, astrologer and psychologist Michel Gauquelin stated that although he had failed to find evidence to support such indicators as the zodiacal signs and planetary aspects in astrology, he had found positive correlations between the diurnal positions of some of the planets and success in professions (such as doctors, scientists, athletes, actors, writers, painters, etc.), which astrology traditionally associates with those planets. The best-known of Gauquelin's findings is based on the positions of Mars in the natal charts of successful athletes and became known as the "Mars effect". A study conducted by seven French scientists attempted to replicate the claim, but found no statistical evidence. They attributed the effect to selective bias on Gauquelin's part, accusing him of attempting to persuade them to add or delete names from their study.


title: Astrology and science

text: Geoffrey Dean has suggested that the effect may be caused by self-reporting of birth dates by parents rather than any issue with the study by Gauquelin. The suggestion is that a small subset of the parents may have had changed birth times to be consistent with better astrological charts for a related profession. The sample group was taken from a time where belief in astrology was more common. Gauquelin had failed to find the Mars effect in more recent populations, where a nurse or doctor recorded the birth information. The number of births under astrologically undesirable conditions was also lower, indicating more evidence that parents choose dates and times to suit their beliefs.


title: Astrology and science

text: Shawn Carlson's now renowned experiment was performed by 28 astrologers matching over 100 natal charts to psychological profiles generated by the California Psychological Inventory (CPI) test using double blind methods.


title: Astrology and science

text: The experimental protocol used in Carlson's study was agreed to by a group of physicists and astrologers prior to the experiment. Astrologers, nominated by the National Council for Geocosmic Research, acted as the astrological advisors, and helped to ensure, and agreed, that the test was fair. They also chose 26 of the 28 astrologers for the tests, the other two being interested astrologers who volunteered afterwards. The astrologers came from Europe and the United States. The astrologers helped to draw up the central proposition of natal astrology to be tested. Published in "Nature" in 1985, the study found that predictions based on natal astrology were no better than chance, and that the testing "clearly refutes the astrological hypothesis".


title: Astrology and science

text: Scientist and former astrologer Geoffrey Dean and psychologist Ivan Kelly conducted a large-scale scientific test, involving more than one hundred cognitive, behavioural, physical and other variables, but found no support for astrology. A further test involved 45 confident astrologers, with an average of 10 years' experience and 160 test subjects (out of an original sample size of 1198 test subjects) who strongly favoured certain characteristics in the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire to extremes. The astrologers performed much worse than merely basing decisions off the individuals' ages, and much worse than 45 control subjects who did not use birth charts at all.


title: Astrology and science

text: A meta-analysis was conducted, pooling 40 studies consisting of 700 astrologers and over 1,000 birth charts. Ten of the tests, which had a total of 300 participating, involved the astrologers picking the correct chart interpretation out of a number of others that were not the astrologically correct chart interpretation (usually three to five others). When the date and other obvious clues were removed, no significant results were found to suggest there was any preferred chart.


title: Astrology and science

text: In 10 studies, participants picked horoscopes that they felt were accurate descriptions, with one being the "correct" answer. Again the results were no better than chance.


title: Astrology and science

text: In a study of 2011 sets of people born within 5 minutes of each other ("time twins") to see if there was any discernible effect; no effect was seen.


title: Astrology and science

text: Quantitative sociologist David Voas examined the census data for more than 20 million individuals in England and Wales to see if star signs corresponded to marriage arrangements. No effect was seen.


title: Astrology and science

text: Beyond the scientific tests astrology has failed, proposals for astrology face a number of other obstacles due to the many theoretical flaws in astrology including lack of consistency, lack of ability to predict missing planets, lack of connection of the zodiac to the constellations in western astrology, and lack of any plausible mechanism. The underpinnings of astrology tend to disagree with numerous basic facts from scientific disciplines.


title: Astrology and science

text: Testing the validity of astrology can be difficult because there is no consensus amongst astrologers as to what astrology is or what it can predict. Dean and Kelly documented 25 studies, which had found that the degree of agreement amongst astrologers' predictions was measured as a low 0.1. Most professional astrologers are paid to predict the future or describe a person's personality and life, but most horoscopes only make vague untestable statements that can apply to almost anyone.


title: Astrology and science

text: Georges Charpak and Henri Broch dealt with claims from western astrology in the book "Debunked! ESP, Telekinesis, and other Pseudoscience". They pointed out that astrologers have only a small knowledge of astronomy and that they often do not take into account basic features such as the precession of the equinoxes. They commented on the example of Elizabeth Teissier who claimed that "the sun ends up in the same place in the sky on the same date each year" as the basis for claims that two people with the same birthday but a number of years apart should be under the same planetary influence. Charpak and Broch noted that "there is a difference of about twenty-two thousand miles between Earth's location on any specific date in two successive years" and that thus they should not be under the same influence according to astrology. Over a 40 years period there would be a difference greater than 780,000 miles.


title: Astrology and science

text: Edward W. James, commented that attaching significance to the constellation on the celestial sphere the sun is in at sunset was done on the basis of human factors—namely, that astrologers didn't want to wake up early, and the exact time of noon was hard to know. Further, the creation of the zodiac and the disconnect from the constellations was because the sun is not in each constellation for the same amount of time. This disconnection from the constellations led to the problem with precession separating the zodiac symbols from the constellations that they once were related to. Philosopher of science, Massimo Pigliucci commenting on the movement, opined "Well then, which sign should I look up when I open my Sunday paper, I wonder?"


title: Astrology and science

text: The tropical zodiac has no connection to the stars, and as long as no claims are made that the constellations themselves are in the associated sign, astrologers avoid the concept that precession seemingly moves the constellations because they don't reference them. Charpak and Broch, noting this, referred to astrology based on the tropical zodiac as being "...empty boxes that have nothing to do with anything and are devoid of any consistency or correspondence with the stars." Sole use of the tropical zodiac is inconsistent with references made, by the same astrologers, to the Age of Aquarius, which depends on when the vernal point enters the constellation of Aquarius.


title: Astrology and science

text: Some astrologers make claims that the position of all the planets must be taken into account, but astrologers were unable to predict the existence of Neptune based on mistakes in horoscopes. Instead Neptune was predicted using Newton's law of universal gravitation. The grafting on of Uranus, Neptune and Pluto into the astrology discourse was done on an "ad hoc" basis.


title: Astrology and science

text: On the demotion of Pluto to the status of dwarf planet, Philip Zarka of the Paris Observatory in Meudon, France wondered how astrologers should respond:


title: Astrology and science

text: Astrology has been criticised for failing to provide a physical mechanism that links the movements of celestial bodies to their purported effects on human behaviour. In a lecture in 2001, Stephen Hawking stated "The reason most scientists don't believe in astrology is because it is not consistent with our theories that have been tested by experiment." In 1975, amid increasing popular interest in astrology, "The Humanist" magazine presented a rebuttal of astrology in a statement put together by Bart J. Bok, Lawrence E. Jerome, and Paul Kurtz. The statement, entitled "Objections to Astrology", was signed by 186 astronomers, physicists and leading scientists of the day. They said that there is no scientific foundation for the tenets of astrology and warned the public against accepting astrological advice without question. Their criticism focused on the fact that there was no mechanism whereby astrological effects might occur:


title: Astrology and science

text: Astronomer Carl Sagan declined to sign the statement. Sagan said he took this stance not because he thought astrology had any validity, but because he thought that the tone of the statement was authoritarian, and that dismissing astrology because there was no mechanism (while "certainly a relevant point") was not in itself convincing. In a letter published in a follow-up edition of "The Humanist", Sagan confirmed that he would have been willing to sign such a statement had it described and refuted the principal tenets of astrological belief. This, he argued, would have been more persuasive and would have produced less controversy.


title: Astrology and science

text: The use of poetic imagery based on the concepts of the macrocosm and microcosm, "as above so below" to decide meaning such as Edward W. James' example of "Mars above is red, so Mars below means blood and war", is a false cause fallacy.


title: Astrology and science

text: Many astrologers claim that astrology is scientific. If one were to attempt to try to explain it scientifically, there are only four fundamental forces (conventionally), limiting the choice of possible natural mechanisms. Some astrologers have proposed conventional causal agents such as electromagnetism and gravity. The strength of these forces drops off with distance. Scientists reject these proposed mechanisms as implausible since, for example, the magnetic field, when measured from earth, of a large but distant planet such as Jupiter is far smaller than that produced by ordinary household appliances. Astronomer Phil Plait noted that in terms of magnitude, the sun is the only object with an electromagnetic field of note, but astrology isn't based just off the sun alone. While astrologers could try to suggest a fifth force, this is inconsistent with the trends in physics with the unification of electromagnetism and the weak force into the electroweak force. If the astrologer insisted on being inconsistent with the current understanding and evidential basis of physics, that would be an extraordinary claim. It would also be inconsistent with the other forces which drop off with distance. If distance is irrelevant, then, logically, all objects in space should be taken into account.


title: Astrology and science

text: Carl Jung sought to invoke synchronicity, the claim that two events have some sort of acausal connection, to explain the lack of statistically significant results on astrology from a single study he conducted. However, synchronicity itself is considered neither testable nor falsifiable. The study was subsequently heavily criticised for its non-random sample and its use of statistics and also its lack of consistency with astrology.


title: Astrology and science

text: It has also been shown that confirmation bias is a psychological factor that contributes to belief in astrology. Confirmation bias is a form of cognitive bias.


title: Astrology and science

text: From the literature, astrology believers often tend to selectively remember those predictions that turned out to be true and do not remember those that turned out false. Another, separate, form of confirmation bias also plays a role, where believers often fail to distinguish between messages that demonstrate special ability and those that do not.


title: Astrology and science

text: Thus there are two distinct forms of confirmation bias that are under study with respect to astrological belief.


title: Astrology and science

text: The Barnum effect is the tendency for an individual to give a high accuracy rating to a description of their personality that supposedly tailored specifically for them, but is, in fact, vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. If more information is requested for a prediction, the more accepting people are of the results.


title: Astrology and science

text: In 1949 Bertram Forer conducted a personality test on students in his classroom. Each student was given a supposedly individual assessment but actually all students received the same assessment. The personality descriptions were taken from a book on astrology. When the students were asked to comment on the accuracy of the test, more than 40% gave it the top mark of 5 out of 5, and the average rating was 4.2. The results of this study have been replicated in numerous other studies.


title: Astrology and science

text: The study of the Barnum/Forer effect has been focused mostly on the level of acceptance of fake horoscopes and fake astrological personality profiles. Recipients of these personality assessments consistently fail to distinguish between common and uncommon personality descriptors. In a study by Paul Rogers and Janice Soule (2009), which was consistent with previous research on the issue, it was found that those who believed in astrology are generally more susceptible to giving more credence to the Barnum profile than sceptics.


title: Astrology and science

text: By a process known as self-attribution, it has been shown in numerous studies that individuals with knowledge of astrology tend to describe their personalities in terms of traits compatible with their sun signs. The effect is heightened when the individuals were aware that the personality description was being used to discuss astrology. Individuals who were not familiar with astrology had no such tendency.


title: Astrology and science

text: In 1953, sociologist Theodor W. Adorno conducted a study of the astrology column of a Los Angeles newspaper as part of a project that examined mass culture in capitalist society. Adorno believed that popular astrology, as a device, invariably led to statements that encouraged conformity—and that astrologers who went against conformity with statements that discouraged performance at work etc. risked losing their jobs. Adorno concluded that astrology was a large-scale manifestation of systematic irrationalism, where flattery and vague generalisations subtly led individuals to believe the author of the column addressed them directly. Adorno drew a parallel with the phrase opium of the people, by Karl Marx, by commenting, "Occultism is the metaphysic of the dopes."


title: Astrology and science

text: False balance is where a false, unaccepted or spurious viewpoint is included alongside a well reasoned one in media reports and TV appearances and as a result the false balance implies "there were two equal sides to a story when clearly there were not". During "Wonders of the Solar System", a TV programme by the BBC, the physicist Brian Cox said: "Despite the fact that astrology is a load of rubbish, Jupiter can in fact have a profound influence on our planet. And it's through a force... gravity." This upset believers in astrology who complained that there was no astrologer to provide an alternative viewpoint. Following the complaints of astrology believers, Cox gave the following statement to the BBC: "I apologise to the astrology community for not making myself clear. I should have said that this new age drivel is undermining the very fabric of our civilisation." In the programme "Stargazing Live", Cox further commented by saying: "in the interests of balance on the BBC, yes astrology is nonsense." In an editorial in the medical journal "BMJ", editor Trevor Jackson cited this incident showing where false balance could occur.


title: Astrology and science

text: Studies and polling have shown that the belief in astrology is higher in western countries than might otherwise be expected. In 2012, in polls 42% of Americans said they thought astrology was at least partially scientific. This belief decreased with education and education is highly correlated with levels of scientific knowledge.


title: Astrology and science

text: Some of the reported belief levels are due to a confusion of "astrology with "astronomy (the scientific study of celestial objects). The closeness of the two words varies depending on the language. A plain description of astrology as an "occult influence of stars, planets etc. on human affairs" had no impact on the general public's assessment of whether astrology is scientific or not in a 1992 eurobarometer poll. This may partially be due to the implicit association amongst the general public, of any wording ending in "-ology" with a legitimate field of knowledge. In Eurobarometers 224 and 225 performed in 2004, a split poll was used to isolate confusion over wording. In half of the polls, the word "astrology" was used, while in the other the word "horoscope" was used. Belief that astrology was at least partially scientific was 76%, but belief that horoscopes were at least partially scientific was 43%. In particular, belief that astrology was very scientific was 26% while that of horoscopes was 7%. This appeared to indicate that the high level of apparent polling support for astrology in the EU was indeed due to confusion over terminology.


title: Shelby Rabara

text: Shelby Ann Narito Rabara Shum (née Rabara; born October 5, 1983) is an American actress and dancer who has appeared in a number of films, television series and commercials as both an actress and a dancer. Rabara is known for providing the voice of Peridot for the "Steven Universe" franchise on Cartoon Network.


title: Shelby Rabara

text: Rabara was born in Orange County, California. She was raised by her mother in a single-parent household, along with her two siblings. She graduated with a degree in world arts and cultures from the University of California, Los Angeles in 2003.


title: Shelby Rabara

text: Rabara initially began her career as a dancer and was a member of the Laker Girls, the cheerleading squad of the Los Angeles Lakers basketball team. In 2005 she won a role at her very first audition, which was for the sitcom "Grounded for Life". She said, in response to autistic fans of Peridot, the character she voices in "Steven Universe" and "Steven Universe Future", that she was "happy that I can voice a character that gives people on the spectrum somebody to identify with."


title: Shelby Rabara

text: Rabara began a relationship with Costa Rican-born Chinese-American actor and dancer Harry Shum Jr. in 2007. The two became engaged in October 2013 while on vacation in Hawaii and were married on November 22, 2015 in Costa Rica. The birth of their daughter was announced on March 28, 2019.


title: Sundown (2021 film)

text: Sundown is a 2021 drama film written and directed by Michel Franco. It stars Tim Roth, Charlotte Gainsbourg and Iazua Larios. The plot follows a wealthy man (Roth) who attempts to abandon his family on vacation after the death of his mother. The film had its world premiere at the Venice Film Festival on 5 September 2021, and was released in the United States by Bleecker Street on 28 January 2022. The film was met with generally positive reviews.


title: Sundown (2021 film)

text: Neil Bennett, a quiet man from London, is on vacation in Acapulco with his sister Alice and her two children, Colin and Alexa. They stay in a luxurious hotel and eat at fancy restaurants. Day after day, the family participates in a variety of fun activities. Neil, however, is not having fun. One day, Alice is told over the phone that her and Neil's mother is in the hospital. Immediately, the family prepares to go home. On the way to the airport, Alice receives a second call informing her that their mother has passed away. Alice bursts into tears while Neil remains calm. At the airport, Neil says he left his passport at the hotel so the rest of the family departs without him.


title: Sundown (2021 film)

text: Neil lied about the passport. In reality, he has decided to stay in Acapulco, at least for the next few days. He befriends a taxi driver named Jorge Campos, who takes him to a small hotel. Neil passes the time eating at cheap restaurants and visiting the beach. He ignores Alice's requests to come home and starts dating a friendly local named Berenice. He returns to his room one day to find his belongings are missing, presumably stolen but he shows no emotion. The next day, he witnesses a drive-by yet remains apathetic.


title: Sundown (2021 film)

text: The Bennett family is extremely wealthy because they are in the meat processing business. Alice returns to Acapulco and confronts Neil for abandoning her during a hard time. After talking about the family business, Neil signs a document relinquishing his assets and inheritance in the presence of the family lawyer, Richard. Later, Alice is shot and killed by common criminals driven by Jorge. The police arrest Neil, believing he ordered the assassination. Neil bursts into tears upon learning about his sister's death. His representatives arrive and tell him that the company is now his. After Richard gets him out of prison, Neil returns to his hotel room. He continues seeing Berenice and spending time at the beach. Richard, Colin, and Alexa confront him in his room. Alexa hits Neil in the head with a glass bottle. Later, Neil signs off the rights to the family company to Colin and Alexa. Neil, in return, will receive a monthly pension and £100,000 as a down payment. After the meeting, Neil returns to Berenice.


title: Sundown (2021 film)

text: A few days later, Neil falls down a set of stairs. Berenice takes him to the hospital, where she learns Neil has brain cancer. After Berenice falls asleep by his side, Neil abandons her and walks down the streets of Mexico City alone at night. The film abruptly cuts from his sad face to the sounds of the beach's waves the following morning, the glaring sunshine, and the clothes and shoes Neil was wearing the previous night, left unattended on his chair with a beer nearby.


title: Sundown (2021 film)

text: In July 2021, Tim Roth and Charlotte Gainsbourg were announced to star with Mexican filmmaker Michel Franco writing and directing. Roth and Franco had previously worked together on the 2015 releases "600 Miles" and "Chronic". According to Franco, he wrote the screenplay for the film fairly quickly before he turned 40 while going through a personal crisis. He sent it to Roth, who was immediately on board with the idea.


title: Sundown (2021 film)

text: The film was shot on location in Acapulco and Mexico City. For the beach scenes, the production decided against closing down a real beach and hiring extras; instead, they shot on a crowded public beach. Franco said that was "the right way to do it because Acapulco is a character in itself. I want to capture that. I shoot in chronological order so I am also changing the story or certain details while I'm shooting and editing."


title: Sundown (2021 film)

text: According to Roth, he came up with the idea of making slaughterhouses the primary source of the Bennett family's wealth after driving through New Mexico with his family: "I was on a road trip ... and there was this horrible smell. We drove another few miles and suddenly on each side of the road were these vast pens crammed with cattle: just crammed in, with slaughterhouses on one side and this massive machine to kill these animals to process them." Roth's character was influenced by the family of billionaire Rupert Murdoch. The actor said a major aspect of the film was putting his undisturbed character in dangerous circumstances so "the audience has to make up their minds about what that says about him. And why." He also said he liked the film's original title, "Driftwood", because it defined who his character was; a wandering, uncaring, and sometimes oblivious man impacting the people around him. Iazua Larios, who plays Berenice, said the film was an exploration of people in different social classes "finding love and communicating in a strange way."


title: Sundown (2021 film)

text: The film had its world premiere at the Venice Film Festival on 5 September 2021. It was also screened at the Toronto International Film Festival in September 2021. In October 2021, Bleecker Street acquired the film's distribution rights. "Sundown" was theatrically released in the United States on 28 January 2022. The film was screened in six theaters in New York and Los Angeles in its opening weekend that included Q&A sessions with Franco.


title: Sundown (2021 film)

text: "Sundown" grossed $229,922 in the United States and Canada, and $794,764 in other territories, for a worldwide total of $1 million.


title: Sundown (2021 film)

text: In the United States and Canada, the film earned $21,930 from six theaters in its opening weekend, and $113,607 in its second. After expanding to 181 theaters, the film made $21,173 in its third weekend, and $1,040 (for a per screen average of $5) in its fourth. Outside the US and Canada, the film was released in Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States ($80,069), Spain ($27,795), and Slovenia ($596).


title: Sundown (2021 film)

text: Roth received critical acclaim for his performance. Xan Brooks of "The Guardian" gave the film five stars out of five, calling it "pitiless and pitch-perfect, an existential tour-de-force with shades of Albert Camus's "The Outsider"." Writing for "San Francisco Chronicle", Mick LaSalle said "Sundown"s greatest achievement "is harder to explain. It's an inward-looking film that seems to be saying something about life. Whatever it's saying — and it's not clear that it's saying anything specific — it connects. It's not just another good movie. Somehow, it all adds up as something more important." South Korean filmmaker Bong Joon-ho listed it among his favorite films of 2021.


title: Artemis (novel)

text: Artemis is a 2017 science fiction novel written by Andy Weir. The novel takes place in the late 2080s in Artemis, the first and so far only city on the Moon. It follows the life of porter and smuggler Jasmine "Jazz" Bashara as she gets caught up in a conspiracy for control of the city.


title: Artemis (novel)

text: In Artemis, the first city on the Moon, porter and part-time smuggler Jasmine "Jazz" Bashara is offered an opportunity by a regular client, wealthy businessman Trond Landvik, to assist him with a new business venture. While meeting with Trond, Jazz briefly encounters an associate of his named Jin Chu who attempts to conceal a case marked with the name ZAFO. Trond intends to take over Sanchez Aluminum, which currently enjoys a lucrative permanent contract with the city for free energy in exchange for providing the city's entire oxygen supply as a by-product from aluminum production. Trond asks Jazz to sabotage the company's anorthite harvesters so he can step in with his own, and when he offers her a life-changing sum of money to carry out the criminal activity, Jazz accepts.


title: Artemis (novel)

text: Jazz borrows some welding equipment from her estranged father Ammar, and a small robot called a HIB from a business associate of his. She visits the Apollo 11 landing site disguised as a tourist, leaving the HIB in place outside the airlock so that it can open the hatch for her without the assistance of a human EVA master. The next day, while an electronic device created by her scientist friend Martin Svoboda makes it seem as though she is in her living quarters, Jazz treks across the moon's surface to where the harvesters are collecting ore. She successfully sabotages one, but is spotted by the camera of another. Jazz destroys two more, but flees to avoid capture by an approaching EVA team before she is able to disable the last harvester. With EVA masters guarding every airlock, Jazz is discovered by her former friend Dale, whom she despises for stealing her boyfriend. Dale offers not to report her if she would put aside her resentment and try to rekindle their friendship, which she reluctantly agrees to do. Finding Trond and his bodyguard murdered, Jazz looks for Jin Chu at an expensive hotel. She is attacked by Trond's assassin, but manages to escape with Jin's ZAFO case, which she gives to Svoboda to study. Jazz learns that Sanchez Aluminum is a front for O Palácio, Brazil's largest and most powerful organized crime syndicate, and that the killer, named Alvares, is now after her. Jin agrees to meet Jazz, but betrays her to Alvares to save himself. Jazz, anticipating Jin's deception, executes the trap she set, incapacitating Alvares and then turning him over to the city's de facto police chief, Rudy.


title: Artemis (novel)

text: Svoboda discovers that ZAFO is a virtually lossless cable ("Zero Attenuation Fiber Optic"), which will allow long-distance transmission of data without the need for repeaters, revolutionizing communications infrastructure. As the manufacturing process requires low gravity, Artemis is an ideal location, and the new industry would significantly boost the city's stagnant economy. Jazz confronts the city's administrator Ngugi, who reveals she has been using Jazz as bait to flush out O Palácio's operatives, not wanting to allow Artemis to be seized by a crime syndicate. Jazz then enlists her reluctant friends and father to stop O Palácio by destroying Sanchez's smelter, which will allow Trond's daughter Lene, who inherited his fortune, to seize the pertinent contracts and rebuild. Dale helps Jazz break into the plant, where she sabotages the smelter to overheat and destroy itself, but in doing so unwittingly creates deadly chloroform that is pumped into the city's air supply. With under an hour before the unconscious residents of Artemis die from their exposure, Jazz races to access Trond's stockpile of untainted oxygen. She sacrifices herself to save the city, but Dale is able to save her. Lene pays Jazz for her services, and she finds herself temporarily wealthy. After buying her father a new welding workshop to replace the one she accidentally destroyed as a teenager, Jazz is called to Ngugi's office, where the administrator informs her of her impending deportation. Jazz convinces Ngugi of her value to the city as an "authorized" harmless smuggler whose monopoly of the illegal trade would keep out other, more dangerous criminals. Ngugi relents, but forces her to pay most of her remaining money to the city as a fine. Jazz and Dale rekindle their friendship. Jazz tasks Kelvin, her smuggling partner on Earth, to discover which company Jin Chu works for and invest in it before ZAFO and its earning potential is announced.


title: Artemis (novel)

text: "Artemis" was released on November 14, 2017, and debuted at No. 6 on the "New York Times" Best Seller list in December 2017. The book remained on the list for nine weeks, and peaked at No. 4.


title: Artemis (novel)

text: "Artemis" debuted on the "Los Angeles Times" Bestseller List for Hardcover Fiction at No. 4 in December 2017, and peaked at No. 1 the following week. The novel stayed at that level for two weeks, and remained on the list for a total of nine weeks. "Artemis" also debuted on the "Locus Magazine" Bestsellers List for Hardcovers at No. 2 in February 2018, peaking at number 1 for one month in March and staying on the list for a total of four months.


title: Artemis (novel)

text: In May 2017, 20th Century Fox (now 20th Century Studios) and New Regency acquired the film rights to the not-yet-published novel, with Simon Kinberg and Aditya Sood attached to produce. Phil Lord and Christopher Miller were announced as co-directors in September 2017. In July 2018, it was announced that Geneva Robertson-Dworet would be writing the screenplay.


title: Artemis (novel)

text: Writing for "The New York Times", science-fiction author N. K. Jemisin gave a mixed review, writing that the book "is a heist narrative at heart—but it lacks the core elements of modern heist narratives: no team of charming specialists, no surprise plot twists. That may be fine for 'hard' science fiction fans who prioritize idea over execution, or who simply crave well-researched technical speculation presented as fiction." In contrast, a reviewer for "Salon" called it "A sci-fi crowd pleaser made for the big screen."


title: Artemis (novel)

text: Approximately 35,000 Goodreads readers chose "Artemis" as the best Science Fiction novel of 2017. "Artemis" won the 2018 Dragon Award for Best Science Fiction Novel and the 2019 Geffen Award for Best Translated Science Fiction Book. The novel was also a finalist for the 2018 Prometheus Award.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: The history of the Jews in Europe spans a period of over two thousand years. Some Jews, a Judaean tribe from the Levant, migrated to Europe just before the rise of the Roman Empire. A notable early event in the history of the Jews in the Roman Empire was Pompey's conquest of Judea beginning in 63 BCE, although Alexandrian Jews had migrated to Rome before this event.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: The pre-World War II Jewish population of Europe is estimated to have been close to 9 million, or 57% of Jews worldwide. Around 6 million Jews were killed in the Holocaust, which was followed by the emigration of much of the surviving population.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: The Jewish population of Europe in 2010 was estimated to be approximately 1.4 million (0.2% of European population) or 10% of the world's Jewish population. In the 21st century, France has the largest Jewish population in Europe, followed by the United Kingdom, Germany, Russia and Ukraine.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: Hellenistic Judaism, originating from Alexandria, was present throughout the Roman Empire even before the Jewish–Roman wars. Large numbers of Jews lived in Greece (including the Greek isles in the Aegean and Crete) as early as the beginning of the 3rd century BCE. The first recorded mention of Judaism in Greece dates from 300 to 250 BCE, on the island of Rhodes. In the wake of Alexander the Great's conquests, Jews migrated from the Middle East to Greek settlements in the Eastern Mediterranean, spurred on by the opportunities they expected. As early as the middle of the 2nd century BCE, the Jewish author of the third book of the Oracula Sibyllina, addressing the "chosen people," says: "Every land is full of thee and every sea." The most diverse witnesses, such as Strabo, Philo, Seneca, Cicero, and Josephus, all mention Jewish populations in the cities of the Mediterranean Basin. Most Jewish population centers of this period were, however, still in the East (Judea and Syria) and Alexandria in Egypt was by far the most important of the Jewish communities, with the Jews in Philo's time inhabiting two of the five sections of the city. Nevertheless, a Jewish community is recorded to have existed in Rome at least since the 1st century BCE, although there may even have been an established community there as early as the second century BCE, for in the year 139 BCE, the pretor Hispanus issued a decree expelling all Jews who were not Italian citizens.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: At the commencement of the reign of Caesar Augustus in 27 BCE, there were over 7,000 Jews in Rome: this is the number that escorted the envoys who came to demand the deposition of Archelaus. The Jewish historian Josephus confirms that as early as 90 Common Era (CE) there was already a Jewish diaspora living in Europe, made-up of the two tribes, Judah and Benjamin. Thus, he writes in his "Antiquities": " …there are but two tribes in Asia Minor and Europe subject to the Romans, while the ten tribes are beyond Euphrates till now and are an immense multitude." According to E. Mary Smallwood, the appearance of Jewish settlements in southern Europe during the Roman era was probably mostly a result of migration due to commercial opportunities, writing that "no date or origin can be assigned to the numerous settlements eventually known in the west, and some may have been founded as a result of the dispersal of Judean Jews after the revolts of CE 66–70 and 132–135, but it is reasonable to conjecture that many, such as the settlement in Puteoli attested in 4 BCE, went back to the late republic or early empire and originated in voluntary emigration and the lure of trade and commerce."


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: Many Jews migrated to Rome from Alexandria as a result of the close trade relations between the two cities. When the Roman Empire captured Jerusalem in 63 BCE, thousands of Jewish prisoners of war were brought from Judea to Rome, where they were sold into slavery. After they gained their freedom, these Jews permanently settled in Rome on the right bank of the Tiber as traders. Following the capture of Jerusalem by the forces of Herod the Great with assistance from Roman forces in 37 BCE, it is likely that Jews were again taken to Rome as slaves. It is known that Jewish war captives were sold into slavery after the suppression of a minor Jewish revolt in 53 BCE, and some were probably taken to southern Europe.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: The Roman Empire period presence of Jews in Croatia dates to the 2nd century, in Pannonia to the 3rd to 4th century. A finger ring with a menorah depiction found in Augusta Raurica (Kaiseraugst, Switzerland) in 2001 attests to Jewish presence in Germania Superior. Evidence in towns north of the Loire or in southern Gaul date to the 5th century and 6th centuries. By late antiquity, Jewish communities were found in modern-day France and Germany. In the Taman Peninsula, modern day Russia, Jewish presence dates back to the first century. Evidence of Jewish presence in Phanagoria includes tombstones with carved images of the menorah and inscriptions with references to the synagogue.