title: Subsidy

text: An employment subsidy serves as an incentive to businesses to provide more job opportunities to reduce the level of unemployment in the country (income subsidies) or to encourage research and development. With an employment subsidy, the government provides assistance with wages. Another form of employment subsidy is the social security benefits. Employment subsidies allow a person receiving the benefit to enjoy some minimum standard of living.


title: Subsidy

text: Governments can create the same outcome through selective tax breaks as through cash payments. For example, if a government sends monetary assistance that reimburses 15% of all health expenditures to a group that is paying 15% income tax. Exactly the same subsidy is achieved by giving a health tax deduction. Tax subsidies are also known as tax expenditures.


title: Subsidy

text: Tax breaks are often considered to be a subsidy. Like other subsidies, they distort the economy; but tax breaks are also less transparent, and are difficult to undo.


title: Subsidy

text: The Multilateral Convention to Implement Tax Treaty Related Measures to Prevent Base Erosion and Profit Shifting is a treaty signed by half the nations of the world and it is aimed to prevent Base Erosion and Profit Shifting, a particular form of tax subsidy related to Intellectual Property.


title: Subsidy

text: Some governments subsidise transport, especially rail and bus transport, which decrease congestion and pollution compared to cars. In the EU, rail subsidies are around €73 billion, and Chinese subsidies reach $130 billion.


title: Subsidy

text: Publicly-owned airports can be an indirect subsidy if they lose money. The European Union, for instance, criticizes Germany for its high number of money-losing airports that are used primarily by low cost carriers, characterizing the arrangement as an illegal subsidy.


title: Subsidy

text: In many countries, roads and highways are paid for through general revenue, rather than tolls or other dedicated sources that are paid only by road users, creating an indirect subsidy for road transportation. The fact that long-distance buses in Germany do not pay tolls has been called an indirect subsidy by critics, who point to track access charges for railways.


title: Subsidy

text: Housing subsidies are designed to promote the construction industry and homeownership. As of 2018, U.S housing subsidies total around $15 billion per year. Housing subsidies can come in two types; assistance with down payment and interest rate subsidies. The deduction of mortgage interest from the federal income tax accounts for the largest interest rate subsidy. Additionally, the federal government will help low-income families with the down payment, coming to $10.9 million in 2008.


title: Subsidy

text: While conventional subsidies require financial support, many economists have described implicit subsidies in the form of untaxed environmental externalities. These externalities include things such as pollution from vehicle emissions, pesticides, or other sources.


title: Subsidy

text: A 2015 report studied the implicit subsidies accruing to 20 fossil fuel companies. It estimated that the societal costs from downstream emissions and pollution attributable to these companies were substantial. The report spans the period 2008–2012 and notes that: "for all companies and all years, the economic cost to society of their emissions was greater than their after‐tax profit, with the single exception of ExxonMobil in 2008." Pure coal companies fare even worse: "the economic cost to society exceeds total revenue (employment, taxes, supply purchases, and indirect employment) in all years, with this cost varying between nearly $2 and nearly $9 per $1 of revenue."


title: Subsidy

text: These various subsidies can be divided into broad and narrow. Narrow subsidies are those monetary transfers that are easily identifiable and have a clear intent. They are commonly characterised by a monetary transfer between governments and institutions or businesses and individuals. A classic example is a government payment to a farmer.


title: Subsidy

text: Conversely broad subsidies include both monetary and non-monetary subsidies and is often difficult to identify. A broad subsidy is less attributable and less transparent. Environmental externalities are the most common type of broad subsidy.


title: Subsidy

text: Competitive equilibrium is a state of balance between buyers and suppliers, in which the quantity demanded of a good is the quantity supplied at a specified price. When the price falls the quantity demand exceeds the equilibrium quantity, conversely, a reduction in the supply of a good beyond equilibrium quantity implies an increase in the price. The effect of a subsidy is to shift the supply or demand curve to the right (i.e. increases the supply or demand) by the amount of the subsidy. If a consumer is receiving the subsidy, a lower price of a good resulting from the marginal subsidy on consumption increases demand, shifting the demand curve to the right. If a supplier is receiving the subsidy, an increase in the price (revenue) resulting from the marginal subsidy on production results increases supply, shifting the supply curve to the right.


title: Subsidy

text: Assuming the market is in a perfectly competitive equilibrium, a subsidy increases the supply of the good beyond the equilibrium competitive quantity. The imbalance creates deadweight loss. Deadweight loss from a subsidy is the amount by which the cost of the subsidy exceeds the gains of the subsidy. The magnitude of the deadweight loss is dependent on the size of the subsidy. This is considered a market failure, or inefficiency.


title: Subsidy

text: Subsidies targeted at goods in one country, by lowering the price of those goods, make them more competitive against foreign goods, thereby reducing foreign competition. As a result, many developing countries cannot engage in foreign trade, and receive lower prices for their products in the global market. This is considered protectionism: a government policy to erect trade barriers in order to protect domestic industries. The problem with protectionism arises when industries are selected for nationalistic reasons (infant-industry), rather than to gain a comparative advantage. The market distortion, and reduction in social welfare, is the logic behind the World Bank policy for the removal of subsidies in developing countries.


title: Subsidy

text: Subsidies create spillover effects in other economic sectors and industries. A subsidized product sold in the world market lowers the price of the good in other countries. Since subsidies result in lower revenues for producers of foreign countries, they are a source of tension between the United States, Europe and poorer developing countries. While subsidies may provide immediate benefits to an industry, in the long-run they may prove to have unethical, negative effects. Subsidies are intended to support public interest, however, they can violate ethical or legal principles if they lead to higher consumer prices or discriminate against some producers to benefit others. For example, domestic subsidies granted by individual US states may be unconstitutional if they discriminate against out-of-state producers, violating the Privileges and Immunities Clause or the Dormant Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution. Depending on their nature, subsidies are discouraged by international trade agreements such as the World Trade Organization (WTO). This trend, however, may change in the future, as needs of sustainable development and environmental protection could suggest different interpretations regarding energy and renewable energy subsidies. In its July 2019 report, "Going for Growth 2019: The time for reform is now", the OECD suggests that countries make better use of environmental taxation, phase out agricultural subsidies and environmentally harmful tax breaks.


title: Subsidy

text: In the Netherlands, audits are performed to verify whether the funds that have been received has indeed been spent legally (and all requirements of the subsidy provider have been attained), for the purpose intended. It hence prevents fraud.


title: Subsidy

text: Although subsidies can be important, many are "perverse", in the sense of having adverse unintended consequences. To be "perverse", subsidies must exert effects that are demonstrably and significantly adverse both economically and environmentally. A subsidy rarely, if ever, starts perverse, but over time a legitimate efficacious subsidy can become perverse or illegitimate if it is not withdrawn after meeting its goal or as political goals change. Perverse subsidies are now so widespread that as of 2007 they amounted $2 trillion per year in the six most subsidised sectors alone (agriculture, fossil fuels, road transportation, water, fisheries and forestry).


title: Subsidy

text: The detrimental effects of perverse subsidies are diverse in nature and reach. Case-studies from differing sectors are highlighted below but can be summarised as follows.


title: Subsidy

text: Directly, they are expensive to governments by directing resources away from other legitimate should priorities (such as environmental conservation, education, health, or infrastructure), ultimately reducing the fiscal health of the government.


title: Subsidy

text: Indirectly, they cause environmental degradation (exploitation of resources, pollution, loss of landscape, misuse and overuse of supplies) which, as well as its fundamental damage, acts as a further brake on economies; tend to benefit the few at the expense of the many, and the rich at the expense of the poor; lead to further polarization of development between the Northern and Southern hemispheres; lower global market prices; and undermine investment decisions reducing the pressure on businesses to become more efficient. Over time the latter effect means support becomes enshrined in human behaviour and business decisions to the point where people become reliant on, even addicted to, subsidies, 'locking' them into society.


title: Subsidy

text: Consumer attitudes do not change and become out-of-date, off-target and inefficient; furthermore, over time people feel a sense of historical right to them.


title: Subsidy

text: Perverse subsidies are not tackled as robustly as they should be. Principally, this is because they become 'locked' into society, causing bureaucratic roadblocks and institutional inertia. When cuts are suggested many argue (most fervently by those 'entitled', special interest groups and political lobbyists) that it will disrupt and harm the lives of people who receive them, distort domestic competitiveness curbing trade opportunities, and increase unemployment. Individual governments recognise this as a 'prisoner's dilemma' – insofar as that even if they wanted to adopt subsidy reform, by acting unilaterally they fear only negative effects will ensue if others do not follow. Furthermore, cutting subsidies, however perverse they may be, is considered a vote-losing policy.


title: Subsidy

text: Reform of perverse subsidies is at a propitious time. The current economic conditions mean governments are forced into fiscal constraints and are looking for ways to reduce activist roles in their economies. There are two main reform paths: unilateral and multilateral. Unilateral agreements (one country) are less likely to be undertaken for the reasons outlined above, although New Zealand, Russia, Bangladesh and others represent successful examples. Multilateral actions by several countries are more likely to succeed as this reduces competitiveness concerns, but are more complex to implement requiring greater international collaboration through a body such as the WTO. Irrespective of the path, the aim of policymakers should be to: create alternative policies that target the same issue as the original subsidies but better; develop subsidy removal strategies allowing market-discipline to return; introduce 'sunset' provisions that require remaining subsidies to be re-justified periodically; and make perverse subsidies more transparent to taxpayers to alleviate the 'vote-loser' concern.


title: Subsidy

text: Support for agriculture dates back to the 19th century. It was developed extensively in the EU and USA across the two World Wars and the Great Depression to protect domestic food production, but remains important across the world today. In 2005, US farmers received $14 billion and EU farmers $47 billion in agricultural subsidies. Today, agricultural subsidies are defended on the grounds of helping farmers to maintain their livelihoods. The majority of payments are based on outputs and inputs and thus favour the larger producing agribusinesses over the small-scale farmers. In the USA nearly 30% of payments go to the top 2% of farmers.


title: Subsidy

text: By subsidising inputs and outputs through such schemes as 'yield based subsidisation', farmers are encouraged to over-produce using intensive methods, including using more fertilizers and pesticides; grow high-yielding monocultures; reduce crop rotation; shorten fallow periods; and promote exploitative land use change from forests, rainforests and wetlands to agricultural land. These all lead to severe environmental degradation, including adverse effects on soil quality and productivity including erosion, nutrient supply and salinity which in turn affects carbon storage and cycling, water retention and drought resistance; water quality including pollution, nutrient deposition and eutrophication of waterways, and lowering of water tables; diversity of flora and fauna including indigenous species both directly and indirectly through the destruction of habitats, resulting in a genetic wipe-out.


title: Subsidy

text: Cotton growers in the US reportedly receive half their income from the government under the Farm Bill of 2002. The subsidy payments stimulated overproduction and resulted in a record cotton harvest in 2002, much of which had to be sold at very reduced prices in the global market. For foreign producers, the depressed cotton price lowered their prices far below the break-even price. In fact, African farmers received 35 to 40 cents per pound for cotton, while US cotton growers, backed by government agricultural payments, received 75 cents per pound. Developing countries and trade organizations argue that poorer countries should be able to export their principal commodities to survive, but protectionist laws and payments in the United States and Europe prevent these countries from engaging in international trade opportunities.


title: Subsidy

text: Today, much of the world's major fisheries are overexploited; in 2002, the WWF estimate this at approximately 75%. Fishing subsidies include "direct assistant to fishers; loan support programs; tax preferences and insurance support; capital and infrastructure programs; marketing and price support programs; and fisheries management, research, and conservation programs." They promote the expansion of fishing fleets, the supply of larger and longer nets, larger yields and indiscriminate catch, as well as mitigating risks which encourages further investment into large-scale operations to the disfavour of the already struggling small-scale industry. Collectively, these result in the continued overcapitalization and overfishing of marine fisheries.


title: Subsidy

text: There are four categories of fisheries subsidies. First are direct financial transfers, second are indirect financial transfers and services. Third, certain forms of intervention and fourth, not intervening. The first category regards direct payments from the government received by the fisheries industry. These typically affect profits of the industry in the short term and can be negative or positive. Category two pertains to government intervention, not involving those under the first category. These subsidies also affect the profits in the short term but typically are not negative. Category three includes intervention that results in a negative short-term economic impact, but economic benefits in the long term. These benefits are usually more general societal benefits such as the environment. The final category pertains to inaction by the government, allowing producers to impose certain production costs on others. These subsidies tend to lead to positive benefits in the short term but negative in the long term.


title: Subsidy

text: A survey of manufacturing in Britain found government subsidies had had various unintended dysfunctional consequences. The subsidies had usually been selective or discriminatory – benefiting some companies at the expense of others. Government money in the form of grants and awards of production and R&D contracts had gone to advanced and viable firms as well as old uneconomic enterprises. However, the main recipients had been larger, established companies – while most of the firms pioneering radical technical-product developments with long-term economic growth potential had been new small enterprises.


title: Subsidy

text: The study concluded that instead of providing subsidies, governments wanting to benefit industrial-technological development and performance should lower standard rates of business taxation, raise tax allowances for investments in new plant, equipment and products, and remove obstacles to market competition and customer choice.


title: Subsidy

text: The US National Football League's (NFL) profits have topped records at $11 billion, the highest of all sports. The NFL had tax-exempt status until voluntarily relinquishing it in 2015, and new stadiums have been built with public subsidies.


title: Subsidy

text: The Commitment to Development Index (CDI), published by the Center for Global Development, measures the effect that subsidies and trade barriers actually have on the undeveloped world. It uses trade, along with six other components such as aid or investment, to rank and evaluate developed countries on policies that affect the undeveloped world. It finds that the richest countries spend $106 billion per year subsidizing their own farmers – almost exactly as much as they spend on foreign aid.


title: French name

text: French names typically consist of one or multiple given names, and a surname. Usually one given name and the surname are used in a person’s daily life, with the other given names used mainly in official documents. Middle names, in the English sense, do not exist. Initials are not used to represent second or further given names.


title: French name

text: Traditionally, most French people were given names from the Roman Catholic calendar of saints. However, given names for French citizens from immigrant communities are often from their own culture, and in modern France it has become increasingly common to use first names of (international) English or other foreign origin. Almost all traditional given names are gender-specific. Females are often given names that are feminine forms of traditional masculine French names. The prevalence of given names follows trends, with some names being popular in some years, and some considered out-of-fashion. Compound given names are not uncommon. (The second part may be normally used by the opposite sex; the gender of the compound is determined by the first part.) First names are chosen by the child's parents. Nowadays, there are no legal "a priori" constraints on the choice of names, though this was not always the case as recently as a few decades ago. To change a given name, a request can be made before a court, but except in a few specific cases, one must prove a legitimate interest for the change.


title: French name

text: In France, until 2005, children were required by law to take the surname of their father. If the father was unknown, the child was given the family name of the mother. Since 2005, parents can give their children the name of either their father, mother, or a hyphenation of both —although no more than two names can be hyphenated— in cases of disagreement, both parents' family names are used and hyphenated in alphabetical order, with only one word, the first surname, taken from each parent (in case any one of them already has a hyphenated surname). The ratio of the number of family names to the population is high in France, due to the fact that most surnames had many orthographic and dialectal variants, which were then registered as separate names. Contrary to popular belief, and also contrary to the practice of some other countries, French women do not legally change names when they marry; however, it is customary that they take their husband's name as a "usage name". This distinction is important because many official documents use the person's maiden, or legal or true surname, rather than their usage name. In some cases, people change their real name to their stage name, but truly changing one's last name, as opposed to adopting a usage name, is quite complex.


title: French name

text: Since 2013, French administration does not use the term "mademoiselle" anymore for its documents in favour of "madame" regardless of the status and the age of the woman addressed.


title: French name

text: During the "Ancien Régime", a female commoner was always addressed as "mademoiselle", even when married, "madame" being limited to women of the high nobility, even if they were not married. This practice ceased after the French Revolution.


title: French name

text: A traditional address to a crowd of people is "Mesdames, Messieurs" or "Mesdames, Mesdemoiselles, Messieurs"—whose order of words represents decreasing degrees of respect. An informal variant is "Messieurs-Dames"; it is considered as ill-mannered by purists.


title: French name

text: It is normally impolite to address people by their given names unless one is a family member, a friend or a close colleague of comparable hierarchic importance. One also does not address people by their last name only unless in a work environment. Also, contrary to English or German usage, it is considered impolite to address someone as "monsieur X" when talking to that person: a mere "monsieur" should be used, "monsieur X" being reserved for talking about M. X to another person.


title: French name

text: When speaking of someone, "monsieur/madame given name family name", by far the most polite form of address, is generally reserved for the most solemn occasions. "Monsieur/madame family name" or "given name family name" is polite and used in normal formal occasions, as well as in the formal quality press ("Le Monde", "Le Monde diplomatique", for example). By contrast, in colloquial usage the family names of personalities are used alone. Formally, a married or widowed woman can be called by the given name of her husband ("madame (given name of husband) family name" or "madame veuve (given name of husband) family name"); this is now slightly out of fashion, except on formal invitation cards (in France, on a formal invitation card, the traditional formula is always a variant of ""Madame Jean Dupont recevra..."". The traditional use of the first name of the woman's husband is now felt in this context as a way to include the husband as equally inviting alongside his wife, while keeping the tradition of reception being formally held by the wife.


title: French name

text: In the workplace or in academic establishments, particularly in a male-dominated environment, it is quite common to refer to male employees by their family name only, but to use "madame" or "mademoiselle" before the names of female employees.


title: French name

text: A military officer is addressed by his rank (and under no circumstance by "monsieur", but a group of officers can be addressed by plural "messieurs"). Male officers of the Army, the Gendarmerie and the Air Force are addressed as "Mon [rank]" by inferior ranks and deferential civilians. This usage is said not to be the possessive pronoun "mon", but an abbreviation of "monsieur": consequently, women are not referred to with "mon", but with the rank alone (for example "Général" rather than "mon Général").


title: French name

text: As a punishment by Napoléon Bonaparte, Navy officers have not been addressed as "mon" since the Battle of Trafalgar. Confusingly, the title generally does not match the rank, but rather an equivalent rank in other forces: "lieutenant" is the form of address for an "enseigne de vaisseau", "capitaine" for a "lieutenant de vaisseau", and "commandant" for a "capitaine de corvette", "frégate", or "vaisseau".


title: French name

text: The commanding officer of a ship is also addressed as "commandant", regardless of his/her actual rank.


title: French name

text: French people have at least one given name. Usually, only one of them is used in daily life; any others are solely for official documents, such as passports or certificates. Thus, one always speaks of "Jacques Chirac" and never of "Jacques René Chirac"; "Henri Philippe Pétain" is always referred to as Philippe Pétain, because "Philippe" was the given name that he used in daily life. Middle names in the English sense do not exist, ergo, initials are never used for second or further given names. For example, although English-speaking scientific publications may cite Claude Allègre as "Claude J. Allègre", this is not done in French-speaking publications.


title: French name

text: Second and further given names, when given, typically honour a child's grandparents, great grandparents, or other ancestors. This practice has become less common, often being considered old-fashioned. Though using more than one name is rarely done today, using two or even three of the given names daily was fairly common until the early 20th century.


title: French name

text: Traditionally, most people were given names from the Roman Catholic calendar of saints. Common names of this type are "Jacques" (James), "Jean" (John), "Michel" (Michael), "Pierre" (Peter), or "Jean-Baptiste" (John the Baptist) for males; and "Marie" (Mary), "Jeanne" (Jane), "Marguerite" (Margaret), "Françoise" (Frances), or "Élisabeth" (Elizabeth) for females. In certain regions such as Brittany or Corsica, more local names (usually of local saints) are often used (in Brittany, for instance, male "Corentin" or female "Anne"; in Corsica, "Ange" (suitable both for males and females, French version corresponding to Corsican "Angelo", "Angela"). However, given names for French citizens from immigrant communities are often from their own culture, such as "Mohammed, Karim", "Saïd", "Toufik", "Jorge", etc. for males, "Fatima", "Fatoumata", etc. for females. Furthermore, in recent decades it has become common to use first names of English or other foreign origin, mainly in the popular classes of the society, such as "Kevin", "Enzo", or "Anthony" (instead of "Antoine" in the upper classes) for males; for females, "Jessica", "Jennifer", "Karine" or "Barbara" (instead of "Barbe", now out-of-fashion, because it sounds exactly the same as "barbe" "beard" as in the expression "la barbe!" "What a drag! / How boring!"). Also, females are often given names like Jacqueline and Géraldine that are feminine forms of traditional common masculine French names.


title: French name

text: The prevalence of given names follows trends, with some names being popular in some years, and some considered definitely out-of-fashion. As an example, few children born since 1970 would bear the name "Germaine", which is generally associated with the idea of an elderly lady. However, as noted above, such old-fashioned names are frequently used as second or third given names, because in France the second or further given names are traditionally those of the godparents or the grandparents. Some older names, such as "Suzanne", "Violette", and "Madeleine", have become fashionable again in the upper class and in the upper middle class. Others such as "Jean", "Pierre", "Louis", and "François" never really went out of fashion. "Alexandre" (Alexander) was never very popular, but is not uncommon in middle and upper classes.


title: French name

text: Almost all traditional given names are gender-specific. However, a few given names, such as "Dominique" (see above: completely gender-neutral), "Claude" (traditionally masculine), and "Camille" (traditionally masculine, now mostly feminine), are given to both males and females; for others, the pronunciation is the same but the spelling is different: "Frédéric" (m) / "Frédérique" (f). In medieval times, a woman was often named "Philippe" (Philippa), now an exclusively masculine name (Philip), or a male "Anne" (Ann), now almost exclusively feminine (except as second or third given name, mostly in Brittany). From the middle 19th-century into the early 20th-century, "Marie" was a popular first name for both men or women, however, before and after this period it has been almost exclusively given to women as a first given name, even if the practice still exists to give it to males as second or third given name, especially in devout Catholic families.


title: French name

text: Compound given names, such as "Jean-Luc", "Jean-Paul" or "Anne-Sophie" are not uncommon. These are not considered to be two separate given names. The second part of a compound name may be a given name normally used by the opposite sex. However, the gender of the compound is determined by the first component. Thus, Marie-George Buffet has a given name considered as female because it begins with "Marie", and "George" is spelled with a final "-e" like all the traditional French female given names, instead of "Georges" with "-es" for a male. The feminine component in male compound names is mostly "Marie", as in Jean-Marie Vianney. In the past, some Frenchmen would have "Marie" or "Anne" as first name (example: Anne du Bourg), which is still nowadays in practice in rare traditional Catholic families (but then the man will have other given names and one of those will be used in everyday life). Second or third given names, which usually are kept private, may also include names normally used by the opposite gender. For instance, in 2006, 81 Frenchmen have "Brigitte" among their given names, 97 "Catherine", 133 "Anne", and 204 "Julie". In addition to the above-described custom of using "Marie" for males, this is due to the habit of traditional Catholic French families to give children the names of their godmother and godfather: if there is no counterpart of the opposite gender for the name of the godparent who is not of the same sex as the child, generally the name of the godparent will be left as such. For instance, a male child born to a traditional Catholic family choosing for him the name "Nicolas" and whose godparents are called "Christian" and "Véronique" could be called "Nicolas Christian Marie Véronique".


title: French name

text: First names are chosen by the child's parents. There are no legal "a priori" constraints on the choice of names nowadays, but this has not always been the case. The choice of given names, originally limited only by the tradition of naming children after a small number of popular saints, was restricted by law at the end of the 18th century, could be accepted. Much later, actually in 1966, a new law permitted a limited number of mythological, regional or foreign names, substantives (Olive, Violette), diminutives, and alternative spellings. Only in 1993 were French parents given the freedom to name their child without any constraint whatsoever. However, if the birth registrar thinks that the chosen names (alone or in association with the last name) may be detrimental to the child's interests, or to the right of other families to protect their own family name, the registrar may refer the matter to the local prosecutor, who may choose to refer the matter to the local court. The court may then refuse the chosen names. Such refusals are rare and mostly concern given names that may expose the child to mockery.


title: French name

text: To change a given name, a request can be made before a court ("juge des affaires familiales"), but except in a few specific cases (such as the Gallicization of a foreign name), it is necessary to prove a legitimate interest for the change (usually that the current name is a cause of mockery or when put together with the surname, it creates a ridiculous word or sentence, e.g.: "Jean Bon" sounds "jambon" "ham", or "Annick Mamère" = "A nique ma mère", slang for "she fucks my mother").


title: French name

text: It is believed that the number of surnames in France at any time since 1990 has lingered between 800,000 and 1,200,000. The number of surnames to the population is high, likely due to the fact that most surnames have many orthographic and dialectal variants (more than 40 for some), which were registered as entirely separate names around 1880 when "" were issued.


title: French name

text: According to the Institute of Statistics (INSEE), more than 1,300,000 surnames were registered in the country between 1891 and 1990, and about 200,000 have disappeared (mainly unique orthographic variants). According to different estimates, 50 to 80 percent of French citizens may bear rare family names (fewer than 50 bearers alive at the census time). Not all family names are of French origin, as many families have some immigrant roots.


title: French name

text: In France, until 2005, children were required by law to take the surname of their father. If the father was unknown, the child was given the family name of the mother. Since 2005, article 311-21 of the French Civil code permits parents to give their children the name of either their father, mother, or a hyphenation of both - although no more than two names can be hyphenated. In cases of disagreement, both parents' family names are hyphenated, in alphabetic order, with only the first of their names, if they each have a hyphenated name themselves. A 1978 declaration by the Council of Europe requires member governments to take measures to adopt equality of rights in the transmission of family names, a measure that was repeated by the United Nations in 1979. Similar measures were adopted by Germany (1976), Sweden (1982), Denmark (1983), Spain (1999), and Austria (2013).


title: French name

text: In France, a person may use a name of a third party (called the common name) in the following circumstances:


title: French name

text: Since Law No. 2003-516 of 18 June 2003 on the devolution of family names, there is no longer any distinction between the name of the mother and the father. A child may receive the family name of one or the other, or both family names. Decree No. 2004-1159 of 29 October 2004 implemented Law No. 2002-304 of 4 March 2002, provided that children born on or after 1 January 2004 and children changing names, may have or use only the family name of the father or the mother or both family names. However, whichever form is used, a person's name must be used consistently on all identification documents, such as a passport or identity card.


title: French name

text: The list for France is different according to the sources. A list including the births between 1891 and 1990 shows : 1 – Martin, 2 – Bernard, 3 – Thomas, 4 – Petit, 5 – Robert, 6 – Richard, 7 – Durand, 8 – Dubois, 9 – Moreau, 10 – Laurent.


title: French name

text: A list of birth between 1966 and 1990 yields: 1 – Martin, 2 – Bernard, 3 – Thomas, 4 – Robert, 5 – Petit, 6 – Dubois, 7 – Richard, 8 – Garcia (Spanish), 9 – Durand, 10 – Moreau.


title: French name

text: This list masks strong regional differences in France and the increasing number of foreign names among the French citizens. Table based on births between 1966 and 1990:


title: French name

text: Some French last names include a prefix called a particle (), a preposition or article at the beginning of the name. The most widespread of these are "de" (meaning "of"), "le" or "la" ("the"), and "Du" or "de La" ("of the").


title: French name

text: The capitalisation of can vary. In France, particles "de", "le" and "la" are generally not capitalised, but "Du" and the double "de La" are. In other countries and languages, capitalisation may follow different rules.


title: French name

text: A common misconception is that "particules" indicate some noble or feudal origin of the name, but this is not always the case. Many non-noble people have "particules" in their names simply because they indicate the family's geographic origin. One example is Dominique de Villepin. French statesman Charles de Gaulle's surname may not be a traditional French name with a toponymic "particule", but a Flemish Dutch name that evolved from a form of "De Walle" meaning "the wall".


title: French name

text: In the case of nobility, titles are mostly of the form [title] <nowiki>[</nowiki>particle [name of the land]: for instance, "Louis, duc d'Orléans" ("Louis, duke of Orléans"), or simply "Louis d'Orléans". Former president Valéry Giscard d'Estaing's father had his surname legally changed from "Giscard" to "Giscard d'Estaing" in 1922, claiming the name of a family line extinct since the French Revolution.


title: French name

text: Adding a "particule" was one way for people of non-noble origins to pretend they were nobles. In the 19th century, wealthy commoners buying nobility titles were derisively called "Monsieur de Puispeu", a pun on "depuis peu" meaning "since recently". Similarly, during the French Revolution of 1789–1799, when being associated with the nobility was out of favor and even risky, some people dropped the "de" from their name, or omitted the mention of their feudal titles.


title: French name

text: In some cases, names with "particules" are made of a normal family name and the name of an estate (or even of several estates). Thus, Dominique de Villepin is "Dominique Galouzeau de Villepin"; Hélie de Saint Marc is "Hélie Denoix de Saint Marc" (in both cases, omitting second or other given names). As in these examples, most people with such long family names shorten their name for common use, by keeping only the first estate name (such as Viscount Philippe Le Jolis de Villiers de Saintignon, assuming in everyday life the name of Philippe de Villiers) or, in some cases, only the family name. Whether the family name or the estate name is used for the shortened form depends on a variety of factors: how people feel bearing a "particule" (people may for instance dislike the connotations of nobility that the "particule" entails; on the other hand, they may enjoy the impression of nobility), tradition, etc. For instance, Valéry Giscard d'Estaing is never referred to as "d'Estaing", probably because his "particule" is a recent addition to the family surname by his father. On the contrary, the press often simply refers to him as "Giscard".


title: French name

text: Traditionally, the "particule" "de" is omitted when citing the name of a person without a preceding given name, title ("baron", "duc" etc.), job description ("général", "colonel", etc.) or polite address ("monsieur", "madame", "mademoiselle"). Thus, one would say "Monsieur de La Vieuville", but if calling him familiarly by his last name only, "La Vieuville" (note the initial capital letter); the same applies for "Gérard de La Martinière", who would be called "La Martinière". Similarly, Philippe de Villiers talks about the votes he receives as "le vote Villiers". However, this usage is now losing ground to a more egalitarian treatment of surnames; it is, for instance, commonplace to hear people talking of "de Villiers".


title: French name

text: Note that American English language medial capital spellings such as "DeVilliers" are never used in France.


title: French name

text: A French woman retains her birth name when she marries. In some cases, a woman may take her husband's name as a "usage name". This is not a legal obligation (it is a "contra legem" custom, as French law since the Revolution requiring that no one may be called by any other name than that written on their birth certificate), and not all women decide to do so. However, if they do, they may retain the use of this name, depending on circumstances, even after a divorce. In some cases, the wife, or both spouses, choose to adopt a double-barreled, hyphenated surname made from joining the surnames of both partners. Thus, both partners' surnames coexist with whatever usage name they choose.


title: French name

text: This distinction is important because many official documents use the person's birth or legal surname, rather than their usage name.


title: French name

text: People may also choose to use other names in daily usage, as long as they are not impersonating others and as long as their usage name is socially accepted. One example of this is the custom of actors or singers to use a stage name. However, identity documents and other official documents will bear only the "real name" of the person.


title: French name

text: In some cases, people change their real name to their stage name; for example, the singer Patrick Bruel changed his name from his birth name of "Benguigui". Another example of aliases being turned into true names: During World War II, some Resistance fighters (such as Lucie Aubrac) and Jews fleeing persecution adopted aliases. Some kept the alias as a legal name after the war or added it to their name (Jacques Chaban-Delmas' name was "Delmas", and "Chaban" was the last of his wartime aliases; his children were given the family surname Delmas).


title: French name

text: Truly changing one's last name, as opposed to adopting a usage name, is quite complex. Such changes have to be made official by a "décret en Conseil d'État" issued by the Prime Minister after approval by the Council of State. Requests for such changes must be justified by some legitimate interest, for instance, changing from a foreign name difficult to pronounce in French to a simpler name, or changing from a name with unfavorable connotations.


title: Frank Cullotta

text: Frank John Cullotta (December 14, 1938 – August 20, 2020) was an American mobster in the Chicago Outfit and a member of the Hole in the Wall Gang burglary ring in Las Vegas with friend and mobster Tony Spilotro. After his arrest in 1982, he became a government witness and entered the witness protection program. Cullotta later became an author and a tour guide.


title: Frank Cullotta

text: Cullotta was born on December 14, 1938, in Chicago, Illinois, to Josephine Montedore and Joseph Raymond Cullotta. Cullotta's father was also a criminal, although not connected with the Chicago Outfit. Cullotta dropped out of Steinmetz High School in the ninth grade, and started a criminal career together with boyhood friend Tony Spilotro, engaging in theft, burglary, and murder.


title: Frank Cullotta

text: In 1962, Cullotta non-directly participated in the killings of William McCarthy and James Miraglia, who were both found dead in the trunk of a car on May 14, 1962. McCarthy's head had been placed in a vise and his throat slashed, while Miraglia was strangled.


title: Frank Cullotta

text: In 1968, Cullotta was convicted of burglary and sentenced to eight years in prison. In 1972, he was paroled by the state, but was transferred to Federal Correctional Complex, Terre Haute to serve the federal portion of his sentence. After six months, he was transferred to a halfway house, ultimately being released in 1974.


title: Frank Cullotta

text: In early 1979, Cullotta moved to Las Vegas, Nevada to join Spilotro, who had already been there since 1971, and his group of experienced thieves, safecrackers, and killers. The burglary crew became known in the media as the 'Hole in the Wall Gang' because of its penchant and skill for gaining entry to homes and buildings by drilling through the exterior walls and ceilings of the locations they burgled.


title: Frank Cullotta

text: On October 10, 1979, on Tony Spilotro's orders, Cullotta killed his former friend and grand jury witness Sherwin "Jerry" Lisner in Las Vegas. Lisner was suspected of informing to a grand jury the details on a money exchange scam he was working on with Cullotta. When he became a federal witness, Cullotta admitted he had killed Lisner, on orders from Tony Spilotro.


title: Frank Cullotta

text: On July 4, 1981, the Hole in the Wall Gang attempted to burglarize Bertha's Gifts & Home Furnishings, a high end store, on East Sahara Avenue in Las Vegas. The robbery was a bust, as the FBI and the Las Vegas Metro police had a inside informer named Sal Romano in the gang. Much of the gang was arrested in and around Bertha's, including Cullotta, ex Metro officer Joe Blasko, Leo Guardino, Ernest Davino, Lawrence Neumann, and Wayne Matecki— each man was charged with burglary, conspiracy to commit burglary, attempted grand larceny, and possession of burglary tools.


title: Frank Cullotta

text: In 1982, Frank Cullotta was imprisoned again, and was approached by the FBI with a wiretap of Spilotro talking with someone about "having to clean our dirty laundry", which Cullotta took as an insinuated contract on his life. Due to this, in July 1982, Cullotta finalized an agreement with the prosecutors.


title: Frank Cullotta

text: In September 1983, Spilotro was indicted for conspiracy and obstruction of justice in the Lisner murder, and released on $100,000 bail. At a trial in October 1983, Cullotta admitted that he was involved in over 300 crimes, including four murders, perjury, robberies and burglaries. He also testified that Tony Spilotro, his boss in Las Vegas, ordered him to make a telephone call that lured one of the 1962 murder victims, William McCarthy, to a fast food restaurant. Spilotro was acquitted later that year.


title: Frank Cullotta

text: Cullotta was given immunity for his previously uncharged crimes, but was sentenced to 10 years in prison, reduced to eight years after an outburst from Cullotta. He served two years at Metropolitan Correctional Center, San Diego, until he was paroled to the witness protection program in 1984, and placed on two years' probation. He spent two years under an assumed name in the program, moving around from time to time, including in Texas; Estes Park, Colorado; Biloxi and Gulfport, Mississippi; and Mobile, Alabama.


title: Frank Cullotta

text: Cullotta provided information for Nicholas Pileggi's 1995 book "", which Martin Scorsese adapted into the 1995 film "Casino". Cullotta inspired the character Frank Marino (played by Frank Vincent), served as a technical advisor for the film, and also played an on-screen role as a hitman.


title: Frank Cullotta

text: Cullotta co-authored two books with Dennis N. Griffin, "Cullotta: The Life of a Chicago Criminal, Las Vegas Mobster, Government Witness" (also with Dennis Arnoldy, 2007), and "The Rise and Fall of a "Casino" Mobster: The Tony Spilotro Story Through a Hitman's Eyes" (2017), and was involved in the making of several documentaries. Cullotta worked as a tour guide and a speaker for The Mob Museum in Las Vegas.


title: Frank Cullotta

text: On August 20, 2020, Cullotta died at the age of 81 in a Las Vegas hospital from complications related to COVID-19 and other medical issues, amid its pandemic in Nevada. His death was also announced on his YouTube channel, "Coffee with Cullotta".


title: Pyloric stenosis

text: Pyloric stenosis is a narrowing of the opening from the stomach to the first part of the small intestine (the pylorus). Symptoms include projectile vomiting without the presence of bile. This most often occurs after the baby is fed. The typical age that symptoms become obvious is two to twelve weeks old.


title: Pyloric stenosis

text: The cause of pyloric stenosis is unclear. Risk factors in babies include birth by cesarean section, preterm birth, bottle feeding, and being first born. The diagnosis may be made by feeling an olive-shaped mass in the baby's abdomen. This is often confirmed with ultrasound.


title: Pyloric stenosis

text: Treatment initially begins by correcting dehydration and electrolyte problems. This is then typically followed by surgery, although some treat the condition without surgery by using atropine. Results are generally good both in the short term and in the long term.


title: Pyloric stenosis

text: About one to two per 1,000 babies are affected, and males are affected about four times more often than females. The condition is very rare in adults. The first description of pyloric stenosis was in 1888 with surgery management first carried out in 1912 by Conrad Ramstedt. Before surgical treatment most babies died.


title: Pyloric stenosis

text: Babies with this condition usually present any time in the first weeks to 6 months of life with progressively worsening vomiting. It is more likely to affect the first-born with males more commonly than females at a ratio of 4 to 1. The vomiting is often described as non-bile stained ("non bilious") and "projectile vomiting", because it is more forceful than the usual spitting up (gastroesophageal reflux) seen at this age. Some infants present with poor feeding and weight loss but others demonstrate normal weight gain. Dehydration may occur which causes a baby to cry without having tears and to produce less wet or dirty diapers due to not urinating for hours or for a few days. Symptoms usually begin between 3 and 12 weeks of age. Findings include epigastric fullness with visible peristalsis in the upper abdomen from the infant's left to right. Constant hunger, belching, and colic are other possible signs that the baby is unable to eat properly.


title: Pyloric stenosis

text: Rarely, infantile pyloric stenosis can occur as an autosomal dominant condition. It is uncertain whether it is a congenital anatomic narrowing or a functional hypertrophy of the pyloric sphincter muscle.


title: Pyloric stenosis

text: The gastric outlet obstruction due to the hypertrophic pylorus impairs emptying of gastric contents into the duodenum. As a consequence, all ingested food and gastric secretions can only exit via vomiting, which can be of a projectile nature. While the exact cause of the hypertrophy remains unknown, one study suggested that neonatal hyperacidity may be involved in the pathogenesis. This physiological explanation for the development of clinical pyloric stenosis at around 4 weeks and its spontaneous long term cure without surgery if treated conservatively, has recently been further reviewed.


title: Pyloric stenosis

text: Persistent vomiting results in loss of stomach acid (hydrochloric acid). The vomited material does not contain bile because the pyloric obstruction prevents entry of duodenal contents (containing bile) into the stomach. The chloride loss results in a low blood chloride level which impairs the kidney's ability to excrete bicarbonate. This is the factor that prevents correction of the alkalosis leading to metabolic alkalosis.


title: Pyloric stenosis

text: A secondary hyperaldosteronism develops due to the decreased blood volume. The high aldosterone levels causes the kidneys to avidly retain Na (to correct the intravascular volume depletion), and excrete increased amounts of K into the urine (resulting in a low blood level of potassium).The body's compensatory response to the metabolic alkalosis is hypoventilation resulting in an elevated arterial pCO.


title: Pyloric stenosis

text: Diagnosis is via a careful history and physical examination, often supplemented by radiographic imaging studies. Pyloric stenosis should be suspected in any young infant with severe vomiting. On physical exam, palpation of the abdomen may reveal a mass in the epigastrium. This mass, which consists of the enlarged pylorus, is referred to as the 'olive', and is sometimes evident after the infant is given formula to drink. Rarely, there are peristaltic waves that may be felt or seen (video on NEJM) due to the stomach trying to force its contents past the narrowed pyloric outlet.


title: Pyloric stenosis

text: Most cases of pyloric stenosis are diagnosed/confirmed with ultrasound, if available, showing the thickened pylorus and non-passage of gastric contents into the proximal duodenum. Muscle wall thickness 3 millimeters (mm) or greater and pyloric channel length of 15 mm or greater are considered abnormal in infants younger than 30 days. Gastric contents should not be seen passing through the pylorus because if it does, pyloric stenosis should be excluded and other differential diagnoses such as pylorospasm should be considered. The positions of superior mesenteric artery and superior mesenteric vein should be noted because altered positions of these two vessels would be suggestive of intestinal malrotation instead of pyloric stenosis.


title: Pyloric stenosis

text: Although the baby is exposed to radiation, an upper GI series (X-rays taken after the baby drinks a special contrast agent) can be diagnostic by showing the pylorus with elongated, narrow lumen and a dent in the duodenal bulb. This phenomenon caused "string sign" or the "railroad track/double track sign" on X-rays after contrast is given. Plain x-rays of the abdomen sometimes shows a dilated stomach.


title: Pyloric stenosis

text: Although upper gastrointestinal endoscopy would demonstrate pyloric obstruction, physicians would find it difficult to differentiate accurately between hypertrophic pyloric stenosis and pylorospasm.


title: Pyloric stenosis

text: Blood tests will reveal low blood levels of potassium and chloride in association with an increased blood pH and high blood bicarbonate level due to loss of stomach acid (which contains hydrochloric acid) from persistent vomiting. There will be exchange of extracellular potassium with intracellular hydrogen ions in an attempt to correct the pH imbalance. These findings can be seen with severe vomiting from any cause.


title: Pyloric stenosis

text: Infantile pyloric stenosis is typically managed with surgery; very few cases are mild enough to be treated medically.


title: Pyloric stenosis

text: The danger of pyloric stenosis comes from the dehydration and electrolyte disturbance rather than the underlying problem itself. Therefore, the baby must be initially stabilized by correcting the dehydration and the abnormally high blood pH seen in combination with low chloride levels with IV fluids. This can usually be accomplished in about 24–48 hours.


title: Pyloric stenosis

text: Intravenous and oral atropine may be used to treat pyloric stenosis. It has a success rate of 85-89% compared to nearly 100% for pyloromyotomy, however it requires prolonged hospitalization, skilled nursing and careful follow up during treatment. It might be an alternative to surgery in children who have contraindications for anesthesia or surgery, or in children whose parents do not want surgery.


title: Pyloric stenosis

text: The definitive treatment of pyloric stenosis is with surgical pyloromyotomy known as Ramstedt's procedure (dividing the muscle of the pylorus to open up the gastric outlet). This surgery can be done through a single incision (usually 3–4 cm long) or laparoscopically (through several tiny incisions), depending on the surgeon's experience and preference.


title: Pyloric stenosis

text: Today, the laparoscopic technique has largely supplanted the traditional open repairs which involved either a tiny circular incision around the navel or the Ramstedt procedure. Compared to the older open techniques, the complication rate is equivalent, except for a markedly lower risk of wound infection. This is now considered the standard of care at the majority of children's hospitals across the US, although some surgeons still perform the open technique. Following repair, the small 3mm incisions are hard to see.


title: Pyloric stenosis

text: The vertical incision, pictured and listed above, is no longer usually required, though many incisions have been horizontal in the past years. Once the stomach can empty into the duodenum, feeding can begin again. Some vomiting may be expected during the first days after surgery as the gastrointestinal tract settles. Rarely, the myotomy procedure performed is incomplete and projectile vomiting continues, requiring repeat surgery. Pyloric stenosis generally has no long term side-effects or impact on the child's future.


title: Pyloric stenosis

text: Males are more commonly affected than females, with firstborn males affected about four times as often, and there is a genetic predisposition for the disease. It is commonly associated with people of Scandinavian ancestry, and has multifactorial inheritance patterns. Pyloric stenosis is more common in Caucasians than Hispanics, Blacks, or Asians. The incidence is 2.4 per 1000 live births in Caucasians, 1.8 in Hispanics, 0.7 in Blacks, and 0.6 in Asians. It is also less common amongst children of mixed race parents. Caucasian male babies with blood type B or O are more likely than other types to be affected.


title: Pyloric stenosis

text: Infants exposed to erythromycin are at increased risk for developing hypertrophic pyloric stenosis, especially when the drug is taken around two weeks of life and possibly in late pregnancy and through breastmilk in the first two weeks of life.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: Marshall is a British company that designs and manufactures music amplifiers, speaker cabinets, brands personal headphones and earphones, drums and bongos. The company also owns a record label called Marshall Records. It was founded in London by drum shop owner and drummer, Jim Marshall, and is now based in Bletchley, Milton Keynes, England.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: Marshall's guitar amplifiers are among the most recognised in the world. Their signature sound characterised by sizzling distortion and "crunch" was conceived after guitarists, such as Pete Townshend, visited Marshall's drum shop complaining that the guitar amplifiers then on the market did not have the right sound or enough volume. After gaining publicity, Marshall guitar amplifiers and loudspeaker cabinets were sought by guitarists for this new sound and increased volume. Many of the current and reissue Marshall guitar amplifiers continue to use valves, as is common in this market sector. Marshall also manufactures less expensive solid-state, hybrid (vacuum tube and solid state) and modelling amplifiers.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: After a successful career as a drummer and teacher of drum technique, Jim Marshall first went into business in 1962 with a small shop in Hanwell, London, selling drums, cymbals and drum-related accessories; Marshall himself also gave drum lessons. According to Jim, Ritchie Blackmore, Big Jim Sullivan and Pete Townshend were the three main guitarists who often came into the shop and pushed Marshall to make guitar amplifiers and told him the sound and design they wanted. Marshall Limited then expanded, hired designers and started making guitar amplifiers to compete with existing amplifiers, the most notable of which at the time were the Fender amplifiers imported from the United States. These were very popular with guitarists and bass players, but were very expensive. Blackmore, Sullivan and Townshend were among the first customers of the first 23 Marshall amplifiers made.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: Jim Marshall wanted someone to produce a cheaper alternative to American-made guitar amplifiers, but as he had limited electrical-engineering experience he enlisted the help of his shop repairman, Ken Bran, a Pan American Airways technician and Dudley Craven, an EMI apprentice. They most liked the sound of the 4×10-inch Fender Bassman and made several prototypes using the Fender Bassman amplifier as a model. The sixth prototype produced, in Marshall's words, the "Marshall Sound", although at this time the only involvement Marshall had was to sell the amplifiers on a commission basis in his shop. As business increased, Marshall asked the three to work for him in his shop, as he had more space and capital to expand.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: The original idea was talked about late one Friday night in early 1963 in a Wimpy bar in Ealing in West London by three amateur radio enthusiasts after they had been to their weekly Greenford radio club meeting, Dudley Craven's call sign was G3PUN, Ken Bran's was G3UDC, and Ken Underwood's was G3SDW. As of Dudley's death in 1998 and Bran's death in 2018, the only original individual is Ken Underwood. The first six production units were assembled in the garden sheds of Bran, Craven, and Underwood in the same year, in Heston, Hanwell and Hayes, all in West London. They were almost copies of the Bassman circuit, with American military-surplus 5881 power valves, a relative of the 6L6. Few speakers then were able to handle more than 15 watts, which meant that an amplifier approaching 50 watts had to use multiple speakers to handle the power. For their Bassman, Fender used four ten-inch Jensen speakers in the same cabinet as the amplifier, but Marshall chose to separate the amplifier from the speakers, and placed four 12-inch Celestion speakers in a separate closed-back cabinet instead of Fender's four 10-inch Jensens in an open-back combo. Other crucial differences included the use of higher-gain ECC83 valves throughout the preamplifier, and the introduction of a capacitor/resistor filter after the volume control. These circuit changes gave the amp more gain so that it broke into overdrive sooner on the volume control than the Bassman, and boosted the treble frequencies. This new amplifier, tentatively called the "Mark II", was eventually named the "JTM 45", after Jim and his son Terry Marshall and the maximum wattage of the amplifier. Jimi Hendrix, Eric Clapton, and other blues rock-based bands from the late 1960s such as Free used Marshall stacks both in the studio and live on stage making them among the most sought after and most popular amplifiers in the industry.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: Marshall entered into a 15-year distribution deal with British company Rose-Morris during 1965, which gave him the capital to expand his manufacturing operations, though it would prove to be costly. In retrospect, Marshall admitted the Rose-Morris deal was "the biggest mistake I ever made. Rose-Morris hadn't a clue, really. For export, they added 55% onto my price, which pretty much priced us out of the world market for a long time."


title: Marshall Amplification

text: The new contract had disenfranchised several of Marshall's former distributors, among them his old friend Johnny Jones. Marshall's contract did not prevent him from building amplifiers outside the company, and so Marshall launched the Park brand name, inspired by the maiden name of Jones's wife. To comply with his contract stipulations, these amplifiers had minor circuit changes compared to the regular Marshalls, and minor changes to the appearance. For instance, often the Parks had silver or black front panels instead of the Marshall's gold ones, some of the enclosures were taller or shaped differently, and controls were laid out and labelled differently.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: Starting in early 1965, Park produced a number of amplifiers including a 45-watt head. Most of these had Marshall layout and components, though some unusual amplifiers were made, such as a 75 watt keyboard amplifier with KT88 tubes. A 2×12-inch combo had the option of sending the first channel into the second, probably inspired by Marshall users doing the same trick with a jumper cable. The 1972 Park 75 put out about 100 watts by way of two KT88s, whereas the comparable 50-watt Model 1987 of that time used 2 EL34 tubes.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: In 1982, Park came to an end, though Marshall later revived the brand for some transistor amplifiers made in Asia. The Parks made from the mid-1960s to around 1974 (the "golden years"), with point-to-point wiring – rumoured to be "a little hotter" than regular Marshalls – fetch higher prices than comparable "real" Marshalls from the same period.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: Other brand names Marshall Amplification had used for various business reasons included Big M (for the then-West German market), Kitchen/Marshall (for the Kitchen Music retail chain in North London), Narb (Ken Bran's surname spelled backwards) and CMI (Cleartone Musical Instruments). Amplifiers sold under these brand names are quite rare, and sell to collectors at high prices.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: To reduce costs Marshall started sourcing parts from the UK. This led to the use of Dagnall and Drake-made transformers, and a switch to the KT66 valve instead of the 6L6 tube commonly used in the United States. The changes gave Marshall amplifiers a more aggressive voice, which quickly found favour with players such as Eric Clapton, who would sit in Jim's shop practising. Clapton asked Jim Marshall to produce a combo amplifier with tremolo, which would fit in the boot of his car, and one of the most famous Marshall amps was born, the "Bluesbreaker" amp. This is the amplifier, in tandem with his 1960 Gibson Les Paul Standard (the "Beano"), that gave Clapton that famous tone on the John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers' 1966 album, "Bluesbreakers with Eric Clapton".


title: Marshall Amplification

text: The amplifiers from this era are easily identifiable by their acrylic glass (a.k.a. Plexiglas) front panel, which earned them the nickname "Plexi". In 1967, Marshall released a 50-watt version of the 100-watt Superlead known as the "1987" Model. In 1969, the plexiglass panel was replaced by a brushed metal front panel.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: Other early customers included Pete Townshend and John Entwistle of The Who, whose search for extra volume led Marshall to design the classic 100-watt valve amplifier. Ken Bran and Dudley Craven, Marshall's developers, doubled the number of output valves, added a larger power transformer and an extra output transformer. Four of these amplifiers were built and delivered to Townshend, and the Marshall Super Lead Model 1959, the original "Plexi", was born in 1965. At the request of Townshend, Marshall produced an 8×12-inch cabinet (soon replaced by a pair of 4×12-inch cabinets) on top of which the 1959 amplifier head was placed, giving rise to the Marshall stack, an iconic image for rock and roll. The size of the wall of Marshall "stacks" "soon became an indicator of the band's status", even when rendered obsolete by improved PA systems; indeed, many of the "ridiculously huge arrays of heads and cabs" included dummies. Still, most modern 100-watt heads have roots in Marshall's design, even though they often contain many more features (or different valves, such as the more American-sounding 6L6 valves).


title: Marshall Amplification

text: At this time, the KT66 valve was becoming more expensive, as the M-OV Company faced greater competition from Mullard. Hence, another valve change was made, with Marshall starting to use European-made Mullard EL34 power stage valves. These have a different overdrive character than the KT66s, which gave Marshalls a more aggressive voice still. In 1966 Jimi Hendrix was in Jim's shop, trying the amplifiers and guitars. Jim Marshall expected Hendrix to be "another American wanting something for nothing" but to his surprise, Hendrix offered to buy the amplifiers at retail price if Jim would provide him with support for them around the world. Jim Marshall agreed, and several of Hendrix's road crew were trained in the repair and maintenance of the Marshall amplifiers through the years.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: After 1973, to streamline production, labour-intensive handwiring was discontinued and Marshall valve amplifiers were switched to printed-circuit-board (PCBs). Much of the debate about the difference in tone between the plexi- and aluminium-panel Marshall amplifiers originates from 1974 when a number of circuit changes were made to the 1959 and 1987 amplifiers; with the addition of 'mkII' added to the 'Super Lead' name on the back panel and 'JMP' ("Jim Marshall Products") added to the left of the power switch on the front panel. Marshall's US distributor Unicord also had them change all the amplifiers sold in the US and Japan to the much more rugged General Electric 6550 instead of the EL34 output tube. The combined effect of different valves and a modified circuit gave these mid-1970s Marshalls a very bright and aggressive sound that was punchier than the EL34 sound, but not as rich, compressed, and had less poweramp distortion.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: In late 1975, Marshall introduced the "Master Volume" ("MV") series with the 100W 2203, followed in 1976 by the 50W 2204. This was an attempt to control the volume level of the amplifiers whilst maintaining the overdriven distortion tones that had become synonymous with the Marshall brand. To do this, Marshall designers connected the two input stages in series rather than parallel on the 2203, but not initially on the 2204, and modified the gain stage circuitry to preserve the tonal characteristics of the 'cranked Plexi' sound and converted the now obsolete second channel volume control to a Master Volume by wiring it between the preamplifier and EQ circuit. The 2204 followed suit in early 1977 and changed its preamplifier circuit to match the (then) more popular 2203.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: Per Rick Reinckens, who was a short-term Unicord employee electronic technician who tested the first units when they arrived from England, Tony Frank, Unicord's chief design engineer, came up with this idea for a dual-volume-control (a preamplifier gain and a master volume). The circuitry modifications were optimised to replicate the sound of the earlier non-MV Marshalls with the Master Volume control set 'low'; however, players quickly realised that 'cranking' the MV of these new Marshall amplifiers would yield even more overdrive distortion, the tone of which was more cutting and edgy, and later found favour with players such as Randy Rhoads, Zakk Wylde and Slash. The 1959 and 1987 non-master volume models also continued under the JMP line until 1982.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: Soon after the Rose-Morris deal had ended in late 1980, Marshall repackaged two MV models, the 2203 and the 2204 (at 100 and 50 watts, respectively), along with the 1959 and 1987 non-master volume Super Lead in a new box with a new panel, and called it the "JCM800" series (named after his initials and the registration plate of his car). Marshall made several amplifiers under the JCM800 name.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: A landmark year for Jim Marshall was 1987. It marked 25 years in the amplifier business and 50 years in music. This was celebrated with the release of the Silver Jubilee series of amplifiers. The Silver Jubilee series consisted of the 2555 (100 watt head), 2550 (50 watt head) along with other 255x model numbers denominating various combos and even a "short head". The Jubilee amplifiers were heavily based on the JCM800s of the time, featuring a very similar output section along with a new preamplifier. Their most publicised feature was the half-power switching, which is activated by a third rocker switch next to the standard "power" and "standby" switches. On the 50-watt model this was reflected in the numbering – 2550 is switchable from 25 to 50 watts – and also reflected Marshall amplifiers' 25th anniversary and Jim Marshall's 50 years in music. The amplifiers were trimmed in silver covering, and had a bright silver-coloured faceplate, along with a commemorative plaque.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: The Jubilee also featured a "semi-split channel" design, in which two different input gain levels could be set, running through the same tone stack and master volume control. This allowed for a "classic Marshall" level of gain to be footswitched up to a modern, medium to high gain sound, slightly darker and higher in gain than the brasher JCM800 sound that typified 1980s rock music. "The sound of these amps is particularly thick and dark, even on the Marshall scale of things. The gain by today's standards is medium." The distortion sound of the Jubilee range is typified by Slash's live work with Guns N' Roses. He rarely used anything else live, but oddly the Jubilee did not appear on any Guns N' Roses studio albums – instead these feature a modified 1977 JMP mkII (non-MV) on "Appetite for Destruction" (1987) and a modded JCM800 on the subsequent albums. It can be heard on some of the Velvet Revolver material though. The Jubilee amplifiers also featured a "pull out" knob that activated a diode clipping circuit (similar to boosting the amp's input with an overdrive pedal). Other notable Jubilee users include the Black Crowes, John Frusciante (Red Hot Chili Peppers) and Alex Lifeson (Rush), who used it extensively in the recording of Rush's "Clockwork Angels" (2012) album.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: After the Jubilee year, production of the 25xx series amplifiers continued for one more year (with no internal changes), but reverted to a standard Marshall livery of black and gold. These are sometimes referred to as the JCM800 Custom amplifiers.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: Marshall began to see more competition from American amplifier companies such as Mesa Boogie and Soldano. Marshall then updated the JCM800 range with additional models and new features such as "channel switching", which meant that players could switch between clean and distorted tones with the push of a foot-operated switch. This feature debuted in the 2205 (50 watt) and 2210 (100 watt) series and these amplifiers contained more preamplifier gain than ever thanks to a new innovation; diode clipping. This meant a solid-state diode added additional distortion to the signal path, akin to adding a distortion pedal. As such the split channel JCM800s were the highest gain Marshalls yet built – "When they were first released, many players were shocked (some were even put off) by its bright, intense distortion – far more than any other amp of the day." While hotly criticised today among valve purists, these amps were more popular than ever, finding mass acceptance within the hard rock community and still in use today by many. The split-channel JCM800s are still used by Tom Morello (Rage Against the Machine, Audioslave) and were played exclusively by Michael Schenker (UFO) for many years.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: Marshall around this time began further experiments with solid-state amplifiers, which were increasingly improving in quality due to technological innovations but were still considered beginner level equipment. Regardless, solid-state product lines with the Marshall name on them were and still are a wild (if critically discounted) success for the company, allowing entry level guitarists to play the same brand of amplifier as their heroes. One particularly successful entry-level solid-state Marshall was the Lead 12/Reverb 12 combo series, which featured a preamplifier section very similar to a JCM800, and a particularly sweet-sounding output section. These amps were actually used on record by Billy Gibbons of ZZ Top, and are now in some demand.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: In the 1990s, Marshall updated its product line again with the JCM900 series. Reviewed by "Guitarist" magazine in the UK and given the line, "Shredders, here is an amp you won't need to have modified", this move by Marshall was again an outgrowth of musicians' desires, featuring more distortion than ever and retaining popular aspects of the late JCM800 models. However, despite such marketing claims they were not as hi-gain as advertised, and used solid-state components for much of the distortion in some models - something which many guitarists did not like. Still, if not with shredders, the JCM900 line was well received by younger players associated with pop, rock, punk and grunge which was widespread by the early 1990s.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: There are three different variants of the JCM900. The most common models are the 4100 (100 watt) and 4500 (50 watt) "Dual Reverb" models, which are a descendant of the JCM800 2210/2205 design. These models feature two channels, a largely solid-state preamplifier, and diode distortion. The 2100/2500 Mark IIIs are essentially JCM800 2203/2204s with added diode clipping controllable via a knob on the front panel and an effects loop. These are fairly uncommon and were not in production for long before being replaced by the 2100/2500 SL-X, which replaced the diode clipping from the Mk III with another 12AX7/ECC83 preamplifier valve. These are easily the highest distortion of the three variants. A number of these were shipped with Sovtek 5881 valves, a ruggedized variant of the 6L6 family of output valves, due to a lack of suitable quality EL34s. Most of the JCM900s and 6100s built between 1994–1998 left the factory with the 5881s.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: Around this time, Marshall released a few "special edition" amplifiers in this range, including a "Slash Signature" model, a first for the company. This was actually a re-release of the earlier Silver Jubilee 2555 amplifier, with identical internals, a standard Marshall look, and a Slash logo. This amplifier retained EL34s and 3,000 units were produced from 1996 to 1997.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: 1993 marked 30 years in the amplifier business. To commemorate this milestone, Marshall released the 30th Anniversary series of amplifiers, the EL34 powered 6100LE with commemorative blue covering and gold faceplate, which was followed by the 6100 (in blue tolex and still EL34 powered) and then in 1994 the 6100LM (in standard Marshall livery but now 5881 powered like the JCM900s of the time). All versions of the 6100 had three channels; clean, crunch and lead. The clean channel featured a mid shift, which gave the option of a more "Fender-like" voicing, and the crunch channel featured three modes recreating all the classic Marshall crunch tones of the past three decades. The lead channel featured a switchable gain boost and a mid-range contour switch, which gave it the tone and gain levels, which Marshall's engineers hoped would keep it competitive in the high-gain world in the early to mid-1990s. In fact some players felt the lead channel was perhaps the weaker link in the amplifier's arsenal, and it came in for revisions in the third year of production (the LM standing for "Lead Mod"). This revision featured even higher gain.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: The Anniversary series found prominence with Joe Satriani in particular, who favoured the early EL34 powered versions and used only the clean channel live along with his signature Vox Satchurator distortion pedal which is based on his old modded Boss DS-1. Satriani used these older Boss pedals almost exclusively for live work and on a number of studio albums including "The Extremist" (1992) until the early 2000s. The Anniversary models were probably the most complicated Marshall ever (other than perhaps the later JVM), with MIDI channel selection, half power switching, pentode/triode switching, adjustable speaker excursion, and a low volume compensation switch. Despite all this complication the amps had a pure signal path that did not share preamplifier valves between channels (unlike later Marshall designs like the TSL and JVM). Other famous 6100 users included Alex Lifeson on Rush's album "Test for Echo" (1996) and Ocean Colour Scene (OCS) guitarist Steve Cradock.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: Marshall currently produces a number of amplifiers, which are a mix of modern designs and vintage reissues. Most models attempt to include the "classic" Marshall "roar".


title: Marshall Amplification

text: , Marshall produced a wide range of amps with the look and sound of the Marshall valve amplifier. The longest running of such models is the JCM2000 range, which is split into the two- and three-channel series, known as the Dual and Triple Super Leads. These amplifiers are a continuation of the JCM800 and 900 series, although the controversial diode clipping circuit used in the later 800 and 900 amplifiers has been removed in favour of additional valve gain stages. Although lumped together as JCM2000 models the DSL and the TSL have different circuits and are more distantly related than the model range suggests. The DSL is an extension of the JCM800 series with several changes including dual reverb controls and is generally considered to be an excellent workhorse although it lacks the direct foot switching of all four possible channel options – clean/crunch/OD1 and OD2 – instead it only offers 2-channel switching and both channels share the same tone knobs. The DSL line does have a 6 button footswitch that can be purchased that allows switching between channels and modes for each channel.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: Marshall looked towards a new flagship to nail all the compromising of the earlier models, the JVM, made in a variety of models and ranges. These amplifiers have up to four channels, each with three-foot-switchable modes, dual master volumes, reverb controls for each channel, and a foot-switchable effects loop. These features can be programmed into the standard foot-switch to be foot-switchable as "patches", so now the user can switch from, say, a clean channel with a chorus in the effects loop and reverb, to a medium-gain rhythm sound with no effects, to a high-gain lead sound with boosted output volume, with one click of the foot-switch per sound. The JVM range consists of the JVM410H, a 100-watt four-channel head; the JVM410C, a 100-watt four-channel 2x12" combo: the JVM210H and JVM210C, 100-watt two-channel head and 2x12" combo respectively; and 50-watt versions of these, JVM205H (head), JVM205C (2x12" combo) and JVM215 (1x12" combo). Joe Satriani uses a signature JVM amp called the JVM410HJS which features noise gates in place of reverb on the front panel.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: Around the same time as the release of the JVM, Marshall also released an amplifier called the Vintage Modern, which is designed to be much simpler, with a single channel and designed to be controlled more by the player's style and guitar than by channel switching or multiple settings, reminiscent of the vintage "Plexi" and JCM800 range, but with modern conveniences such as foot-switchable dynamic ranges (distortion levels), effects loop and reverb. The Vintage Modern series consists of the 2466 100-watt head and 2266 50-watt head with matching combos and a matching cabinet loaded with G12C 25-watt Greenbacks. The Vintage Modern is the first Marshall since the late 1960s to be powered by KT66s, a European version of the 6L6 valve.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: In 2001, Marshall reissued many of its earlier amplifiers, such as the Model 1959-SLP, which is designed to be a reissue of the late-1960s era "Plexi" amplifier, but which are in reality reissues of the post-1973 Super Lead models in that they use printed circuit boards internally to reduce manufacturing cost. The original design utilised hand-wired circuits on turret boards, which is now available for a premium in the "hand-wired" series. Other reissues are similarly PCB designed, even where the originals were hand-wired, except where explicitly noted (i.e., the "hand-wired" range currently offered).


title: Marshall Amplification

text: Marshall's "Valvestate" amplifiers contained a hybrid of valve and solid-state technology. Currently named the "AVT series" (although these are now out of production, being replaced with the "AVT tribute" for a short time), there are a number of different models, all of which are less expensive than their all-valve counterparts. It is Marshall's current line of "hybrid" amplifier, featuring a 12AX7 preamplifier valve employed in the preamplifier (to "warm up" the signal) as well as solid-state components, with a solid-state power amplifier. These are considered and marketed as intermediate-level equipment to bridge the gap between the higher valve range and lower range MG series.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: In January 2009, Marshall released their latest variant of the MG line of practice amplifiers. Replacing the MG3 line, the MG4 has been designed to offer the guitarist a whole host of features whilst keeping the control of the amplifier simple.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: Marshall currently manufactures a professional, all-valve bass rig called the VBA400. It houses eight 6550 power valves plus three ECC83 and one ECC82 preamplifier valves. The input accommodates both active and passive bass pick-ups; there is also an XLR DI output for recording complete with Earth (grounding) lift and Pre/Post EQ switches.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: Recently, Marshall has honoured Lemmy Kilmister of Motörhead with their first-ever signature bass amplifier head, based on his 100 watt super bass unit "Murder One".


title: Marshall Amplification

text: There are also solid-state models called MB series ranging from 15 watts to 450 watts and extension cabinets.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: In 2016, Marshall introduced the CODE series of modelling amplifiers, ranging from the 25-watt Code 25 (single 10-inch speaker), 50-watt (single 12-inch speaker) to the 100-watt Code 100 (available as either a 2×12-inch combo or as a head unit). Developed in conjunction with Softube, the amplifiers contain 14 MST preamps, 4 MST power amps and 8 MST speaker cabinets, along with 24 effects. The amplifiers can be controlled via Bluetooth from iOS and Android devices and can also be used to stream audio from a PC.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: A series of low-wattage, all valve heads and combos assembled in Vietnam hearkening back to the "Plexi"-era of the company. The Origin series was introduced to address a demand for lower volume amplifiers that many guitarists were calling for. To address this, Marshall announced the Origin5, a 5-watt amplifier that can run on either high (5-watt) or low (0.5-watt) with the help of Marshall's Powerstem technology.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: With the introduction of the Powerstem technology, the Origin amplifiers are able to provide reduced output power while retaining the same tonal characteristics of a full-powered amplifier. This is accomplished through the new attenuation system, Powerstem, by dynamically reducing the rail voltages throughout the amplifier.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: The Origin line consists of the Origin5 combo (5-watt, 1 x 8" Celestion Eight-15 speaker), Origin20 combo (20-watt, 1 x 10" Celestion V Type), Origin20 head, Origin50 combo (50-watt, 1 x 12" Celestion G12N-60 Midnight 60 speaker), and Origin50 head.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: Occasionally confusion has arisen due to Marshall's method of naming each amplifier model, especially during its first few decades, when it was distributed under Rose-Morris. Early amplifier models were simply named after their catalogue number, so for example the 1962 Bluesbreaker was item one thousand, nine hundred and sixty-two in the Rose-Morris catalogue. Later amplifiers were given range designations as well as model numbers, which often indicated information about the amplifier itself, for example the JCM2000 range of amplifiers had models such as the TSL100 (Triple Super Lead 100 W) and combo amplifiers like the TSL122 (Triple Super Lead with 2×12-inch Celestion speakers) other product ranges use similar descriptive model numbers. Often, speaker cabinets designed to suit a particular range will give a prefix before the speaker description such as JVMC212 (JVM cabinet 2×12-inch Celestion speakers) or a suffix C to denote a combo variant of an amplifier such as the Vintage Modern 2266C (Vintage Modern 2 channel 2× KT66 valves Combo).


title: Marshall Amplification

text: In 2010 Marshall started a partnership with Zound Industries to make headphones and bluetooth speakers, Zound Industries is most known for its Urbanears headphones and have a similar partnership with Adidas to make audio products for them.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: The classic Marshall Stack consists of one "head" containing the actual amplifier, on top of two stacked "4×12s", which are loudspeaker cabinets each containing four loudspeakers arranged in a square layout. The top cabinet has the top two loudspeakers angled slightly upwards, giving the Marshall stack a distinctive appearance. When a single cabinet is used, the complete unit is called a "half stack".


title: Marshall Amplification

text: In the early-to-mid-1960s, Pete Townshend and John Entwistle of The Who were responsible for the creation and widespread use of stacked Marshall cabinets. Townshend later remarked that Entwistle started using Marshall Stacks to hear himself over Keith Moon's drums and Townshend himself also had to use them just to be heard over Entwistle. In fact, the very first 100-watt Marshall amplifiers were created specifically for Entwistle and Townshend when they were looking to replace some equipment that had been stolen from them. They approached Jim Marshall asking, if it would be possible for him to make their new rigs more powerful than those they had lost, to which they were told that the cabinets would have to double in size. They agreed and six rigs of this prototype were manufactured, of which two each were given to Townshend and Entwistle and one each to Ronnie Lane and Steve Marriott of The Small Faces. These new "double" cabinets (each containing 8 speakers) proved too heavy and awkward to be transported practically, so The Who returned to Marshall asking if they could be cut in half and stacked, and although the double cabinets were left intact, the existing single cabinet models (each containing four speakers) were modified for stacking, which has become the norm for years to follow.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: Entwistle and Townshend both continued expanding and experimenting with their rigs, until (at a time when most bands still used 50–100 W amplifiers with single cabinets) they were both using twin stacks, with each stack powered by new experimental prototype 200 W amplifiers, each connected to the guitar via a Y-splitter. This, in turn, also had a strong influence on the band's contemporaries at the time, with Cream, The Jimi Hendrix Experience and Led Zeppelin following suit. However, due to the cost of transport, The Who could not afford to take their full rigs with them for their earliest overseas tours, thus Cream and Hendrix were the first to be seen to use this setup on a wide scale, particularly in the United States. Ironically, although The Who pioneered and directly contributed to the development of the "classic" Marshall sound and setup with their equipment being built and tweaked to their personal specifications, they would only use Marshalls for a couple of years before moving on to using Hiwatt equipment. Cream, and particularly Hendrix, would be widely credited with the invention of Marshall Stacks.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: The search for volume was taken on its next logical step with the advent of "daisy chaining" two or more amplifiers together. As most amplifier channels have two inputs, the guitar signal being present on both sockets, the cunning musician hooked the spare input of one channel to an input on another amplifier. By 1969, Hendrix was daisy-chaining four stacks, incorporating both Marshall and Sound City amplifiers, as recommended to him by Townshend.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: This competition for greater volume and greater extremes was taken even further in the early 1970s by the band Blue Öyster Cult, which used an entire wall of full-stack Marshall amplifiers as their backdrop. (BÖC also referred to Marshalls in the songs "Cities on Flame with Rock and Roll" and "The Marshall Plan"). Artists such as Slayer and Yngwie Malmsteen also use walls of Marshalls; both Kerry King and Jeff Hanneman of Slayer would often be seen playing in front of a total of 24 cabinets. Malmsteen toured with 30 heads and 28 cabinets, and in 2011 said he would use 60 full stacks on his next tour. Many of those cabinets used by rock bands, however, are dummies, and many artists who do not even use Marshall amplifiers have the dummy stacks on stage.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: Marshall is an important sponsor of sport in the local area. Marshall were one of the earliest shirt sponsors for Milton Keynes Dons, they also sponsored Milton Keynes Athletic Club as well as Milton Keynes Lions basketball club, before the latter relocated to London.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: In early 2017, Marshall Amplification announced it has started a record label. and opened up an office at Londons Tileyard Studios and signed a distribution deal with Alternative Distribution Alliance, a distribution company owned by Warner Music Group that represent independent record labels. Marshall Records signed a North and South American Distribution deal with Better Noise Music (previously known at Eleven Seven Label Group in 2018. In 2020, Marshall Records announced a sub-publishing deal with Sentric Music.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: Artist that have had their music release by Marshall Records include: Bad Touch, D_Drive, Grand Slam, Inklings (the solo project of ex FVK member Kier Kemp), Keywest, King Creature, Press to MECO, Rews, Reigning Days, The Bottom Line, Therapy?, The Dirty Youth, Thousand Thoughts.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: In September 2018, Marshall Amplification announced a naming agreement with Arena MK (at Stadium MK in Milton Keynes) to use the space for music events. The opening act is to be the Black Eyed Peas.


title: Marshall Amplification

text: In 2021, Marshall Amplification opened the doors to a state-of-the-art recording facility at its global HQ in Bletchley, Milton Keynes. Featuring a Neve 8048 mixing console previously installed in Pathe Marconi in Paris and used by The Rolling Stones on Some Girls.


title: Anuradha Paudwal

text: Anuradha Paudwal (born 27 October 1954) is an Indian playback singer who works predominantly in Hindi cinema. She has been described in media as one of the most prominent Bhajan singer and also as one of the most successful playback singers of 80s and 90s era of Bollywood. The recipient of several accolades including a National Film Award, four Filmfare Awards (winning consecutively during 1990–92) and two Odisha State Film Awards, she has been honoured by the Government of India with the Padma Shri, the country's fourth-highest civilian honour for her contribution in the field of arts.


title: Anuradha Paudwal

text: She was honored with honorary degree of D.Litt. by "D Y Patil University", the second singer to receive this degree after Lata Mangeshkar. She is engaged in social work and had a foundation named Suryodaya Foundation. In her career spanning over four decades Paudwal has recorded more than 9,000 songs and more than 1,500 bhajans in several languages including Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Marathi, Sanskrit, Bengali, Tamil, Telugu, Odia, Assamese, Punjabi, Bhojpuri, Nepali and Maithili. She is ranked NO. 31 in "Youtube's Music Charts and Insights" list of top global artist as of 3 February 2022. She has been on chart since last 237 weeks. She has been awarded a doctorate in music by DY Patil University felicitated by the house of commons in England and awarded the Cultural ambassador to Indian devotional by the United Nations in New York.


title: Anuradha Paudwal

text: Paudwal made her debut from a Sanskrit verse in the 1973 Hindi film "Abhiman", composed by S. D. Burman.


title: Anuradha Paudwal

text: She started her music journey in 1973 from film Abhiman. In 1970s, she sang a few popular songs which were praised by the music composers as well as public.


title: Anuradha Paudwal

text: She obtained popularity from her song "Tu Mera Janu Hai" in film Hero. After that in mid-80s, she sang along with Mohammed Aziz and gave one after one hit songs and established herself in the music industry. It was the time when Anuradha Paudwal was given preference over Mangeshkar sisters.


title: Anuradha Paudwal

text: She started her music journey from 1973. She has worked with Kishore Kumar, Mohammed Rafi, S.P. Balasubrahmanyam, Yesudas, Manna Dey, Mohammed Aziz, Kumar Sanu, Udit Narayan, Sonu Nigam, Mukesh, Pankaj Udhas, Manhar Udhas, Suresh Wadkar, Nitin Mukesh, Abhijeet Bhattacharya and many other male singers.


title: Anuradha Paudwal

text: In early 1990s, she gave one after one hit movies like Aashiqui, Dil Hai Ke Manta Nahin, Sadak, Dil, Beta, and Saajan. She established herself as a leading singer in music industry.


title: Anuradha Paudwal

text: Her singing talent was recognised by the audience for the first time for the Marathi film, Yashoda, released in the same year. She received fame after her song "Tu mera janu hai" in film Hero. She was one of the most famous playback singers in 90s. She has sung for about four decades through the soundtrack of movie songs, lyrics and hymns. Anuradha Poudwal uses the money earned from the songs to help the families of soldiers who died in the war, to provide electricity to poor families and to solve the problem of malnutrition.


title: Anuradha Paudwal

text: Paudwal has recorded 23 songs with the music composer Nadeem–Shravan. These songs were used in 3 films – Aashiqui, Dil Hai Ke Manta Nahin and Sadak. All three films were blockbusters, and for the songs, Anuradha Paudwal won two Filmfare Awards. Aashiqui is the third most selling album ever in Indian Music Industry. Dil Hai Ke Manta Nahin was 5th most selling soundtrack of 1991. Sadak was the third most selling album of 1991. These songs were released under the label T-Series.


title: Anuradha Paudwal

text: Her chhath geet are extremely popular and has crossed 47 million views on YouTube. Her gayatri matra is immensely popular and crossed 220 million views on YouTube. Her Shiv Amritwani has become highly popular and has crossed 250 million views collectively on YouTube. Hanuman Amritwani recorded by her has crossed 450 million views on YouTube. Shiv Bhajans and Durga bhajans sung by her are immensely popular in India.


title: Anuradha Paudwal

text: She has sung thousands of songs in several languages. She has won four Filmfare Awards out of eleven nominations.


title: Anuradha Paudwal

text: Paudwal is one among the most popular singers in India. She has appeared in The Kapil Sharma Show as a guest along with Udit Narayan and Kumar Sanu. She has also appeared in popular singing show Indian Idol as a special guest where she share some of the memories of her career. Apart from this, She has also appeared in Sa Re Ga Ma Pa singing reality show. She has also appeared in Superstar Singer Season 2 singing reality show.


title: Anuradha Paudwal

text: She has also appeared in many devotional albums like Shiv Amritwani, Mamta Ka Mandir, Hanuman Amritwani and also has special appearances in various Bollywood Movies like Saathi, Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain, Jai Maa Vaishno Devi.