title: Polish cuisine

text: Records show that her visiting guests were entertained with forest game, fowl (waxwings, fieldfares, snow bunting, hazel grouse, partridges, black grouse, capercaillies), fish and mollusks (loach, various trout, grayling, fresh and smoked salmon, flounder, salted herring, lampreys in vinegar, oysters, snails), and Genoese pâté, not to mention fresh fruit and chestnuts. French and Italian wines were served, as well as mead and local beers. The dishes were made only according to French recipes. The royal court, with all its innovations, exerted a broad influence over the rest of aristocratic residences and noble palaces across Poland. French cuisine was in fashion and many families willingly employed French cooks and pâté makers. In the mid-18th century, French champagne appeared on Polish tables.


title: Polish cuisine

text: Among the most influential cuisines under the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were Lithuanian, Jewish, German, and Hungarian cuisine, as well as Armenian cuisine, which arrived in Poland before the 17th century along with many settlers, especially in the south-eastern part of the Commonwealth. Signature dishes of the Western Asia reached Polish tables thanks to the Armenian trade and cultural exchange with Poland's neighbor: the Ottoman Empire. Rare delicacies were brought to royal court as gifts from sultans and royal envoys. The strongest influences were noted in the cities of Lwów, Kraków, Kamieniec Podolski, and Zamość due to many Armenians living there permanently. Also, because of the close contact with the Ottoman Empire, coffee () and boza became popular.


title: Polish cuisine

text: With the subsequent decline of Poland, and the grain production crisis that followed The Deluge, potatoes began to replace the traditional use of cereal. The oldest surviving Polish cookbook, "Compendium ferculorum, albo Zebranie potraw" ("Collection of Dishes") by Stanisław Czerniecki was published in Kraków in 1682. Under the Partitions, the cuisine of Poland became heavily influenced by cuisines of the surrounding empires. This included Russian and German cuisines, but also the culinary traditions of most nations of the Austro-Hungarian empire. The 19th century also saw the creation of many Polish cookbooks, by Jan Szyttler, Anna Ciundziewicka, Wincenta Zawadzka, Lucyna Ćwierczakiewiczowa, and others.


title: Polish cuisine

text: After the end of World War II, Poland became a communist country which joined the Warsaw Pact. Some restaurants were nationalized. The communists envisioned a net of lunch rooms called "bufet" for the workers at various companies, and milk bars for the public. The majority of restaurants that survived the 1940s and 1950s were state-owned. Workplace lunch rooms promoted mostly inexpensive meals, including many soups, meatballs and pork chops, and staples such as / (potato pancakes), (apple pancakes), (potato gnocchi), (farmer's cheese gnocchi served sweet), and pierogi. A typical second course consisted of meat cutlet served with potatoes or buckwheat and (raw, julienned vegetables). The popular Polish is a breaded cutlet similar to the Austrian Wiener schnitzel and the Italian and Spanish Milanesa.


title: Polish cuisine

text: With time, the shortage economy led to scarcity of meat, coffee, tea, and other basic ingredients. Many products like chocolate, sugar, and meat were rationed, with a specific limit depending on social class and health requirements. Physical workers and pregnant women were generally entitled to more food products. Imports were restricted, so much of the food supply was domestic. Cuisine became homogeneous, to be a chef was no longer a prestigious profession, and for decades the country became basically disconnected from any foreign cuisine. Tropical fruits (such as citrus, banana, and pineapple) were available during holidays, while local fruits and vegetables were mostly seasonal but were available at private stands. For most of the year, people had to get by with only domestic winter fruit and vegetables: apples, plums, currants, onions, potatoes, cabbage, root vegetables, and frozen products. Other food products (of foreign origins) were available at markets at high prices.


title: Polish cuisine

text: This situation led in turn to gradual replacement of traditional Polish cuisine with food prepared from anything available at the moment. Among the popular dishes introduced by the public restaurants was (meatball), a sort of a hamburger often served with beet puree and fresh carrots. The traditional recipes were mostly preserved during the feast (Christmas Eve), for which many families tried to prepare 12 traditional courses.


title: Polish cuisine

text: A popular form of fish dish was, and still is, the paprikash () from the port city of Szczecin, usually added to sandwiches as a spread.


title: Polish cuisine

text: With the fall of communism in Poland in 1989, a wave of new restaurants opened, and the basic foodstuffs were once again easily obtainable. This led to a gradual return of rich traditional Polish cuisine, both in home cooking and in restaurants. At the same time, restaurants and supermarkets promoted the use of ingredients typical of other cuisines of the world. Among the most notable foods that started to become common in Poland were cucurbits, zucchini, and many kinds of fish. During communist times, fresh fish was available essentially only in the seaside regions.


title: Polish cuisine

text: Recent years have seen the advent of a slow food movement, and a number of TV programs devoted to cuisine, both traditional and otherwise, have gained popularity. In 2011, a nostalgic cookbook (written in English) combining a child's memories growing up in the Gierek era with traditional Polish recipes was published in London.


title: Polish cuisine

text: American food in Poland, most commonly McDonald's, KFC, and Pizza Hut, are declining in popularity as Polish people prefer their own cuisine, including fast food. Meanwhile, doner kebabs are gaining popularity. Nonetheless, in most of Poland one can still get traditional and very popular Polish street food such as the , a pizza-like baguette with cheese, mushrooms, onion, ketchup, and sometimes meat. There are also many small-scale, quick-service restaurants which serve kebabs, hamburgers, hot dogs, and Polish (sausage). In the southern mountainous region, served with cranberry jam is a popular street food.


title: Polish cuisine

text: Traditional Christmas Eve supper called is meatless (except for fish) and usually consists of (borscht) with uszka (small dumplings)—a classic Polish Christmas Eve starter—followed by dishes such as fried carp, carp or cod with apple and leeks, fresh salad, or carp in aspic. Traditionally, carp (fried or Jewish style) provides a main component of the Christmas Eve meal across Poland. Other popular dishes, eaten the next day, include pickled matjas herring, rollmops, pierogi with sauerkraut and forest mushrooms, fish soup, kielbasa, hams, bigos (savory stew of cabbage and meat), and vegetable salads. Among popular desserts are gingerbread, cheesecake, various fruits such as oranges, poppy seed cake, ( in Silesia), fruit kompot, and with poppyseed and gingerbread. Regional dishes include , (in Silesia), and , stuffed dumplings with mushrooms or meat from the eastern regions.


title: Polish cuisine

text: , or "Fat Thursday", is a Polish culinary custom on the last Thursday before Lent, equivalent to Pancake Day. Traditionally, it is an occasion to enjoy sweets and cakes before the forty days of abstinence expected of Catholics until Easter Day.


title: Polish cuisine

text: The most popular sweetmeats on Fat Thursday are , Polish doughnuts, and (sometimes called ), equivalent to the French beignet. Traditional Polish doughnuts are filled with rose petal jam, plum jam, or apple and covered with icing with orange peel or powdered with icing sugar. Fat Thursday used to mark the beginning of a "Fat Week", a period of great gluttony during which Polish ancestors consumed dishes served with (lard), bacon, and all kinds of meat.


title: Polish cuisine

text: The original doughnuts, popular until the 16th century, were made of the same dough as bread, would be filled with pork and fried on ". Only later were they made as patisserie.


title: Polish cuisine

text: A typical Easter breakfast often consists of cold-cuts served with horseradish sauce and beet salads, breads, bigos, żurek, kiełbasa, smoked salmon or herring, marinated vegetable salads, Easter salad (chopped boiled eggs, green peas, ćwikła, carrot, apple, potato, parsley, and mayonnaise), coffee, tea and cakes (such as chocolate cake), , , and .


title: Polish cuisine

text: Poland has a number of unique regional cuisines with regional differences in preparations and ingredients. For an extensive list of the dishes typical to Galicia, Kresy, Podlachia, Masovia (including Warsaw), Masuria, Pomerania, Silesia, Lesser Poland, the Tatra mountains, and Greater Poland, see the List of Polish cuisine dishes.


title: Polish cuisine

text: All soups have fresh stock—made from chicken, beef, pork ribs, vegetables, or a combination of several—combined with root vegetables. Meat is either chopped and eaten with soup, used to make the next dish, or eaten alone with bread. It is common to eat two dishes during dinner: (1) a soup, and (2) a starch (potato, rice, groats, pasta) with meat, stews, or sweet dishes. Although cream or purée soups are not common or traditional in Poland, they are still prepared because of the influence of other countries' cuisine. Often soups are whitened by adding a splash of sour or double cream.


title: Polish cuisine

text: Bread () and bread rolls ( (bread roll), , , ) have been an essential part of Polish cuisine and tradition for centuries. Today, bread remains one of the most important foods in the Polish cuisine. The main ingredient for Polish bread is rye or wheat. Traditional bread has a crunchy crust, a soft interior, and an unforgettable aroma. Such bread is made with sourdough, which lends it a distinctive taste. It can be stored for a week or so without getting too hard and is not crumbly when cut.


title: Polish cuisine

text: In Poland, welcoming with bread and salt ("") is often associated with the traditional hospitality ("") of the Polish nobility (), who prided themselves on their hospitality. A 17th-century Polish poet, Wespazjan Kochowski, wrote in 1674: "O good bread, when it is given to guests with salt and good will!" Another poet, Wacław Potocki, mentioned this custom. The custom was, however, not limited to the nobility, as Polish people of all classes observed this tradition, reflected in old Polish proverbs. Nowadays, the tradition is mainly observed on wedding days, when newlyweds are greeted with bread and salt by their parents on returning from the church wedding.


title: Polish cuisine

text: Traditional Polish alcoholic beverages include mead, beer, vodka (Old Polish: , ), and to a lesser extent, wine. In recent decades, beer has become very common, while wine is less frequently drunk; however, in recent years, the consumption of wine has risen along with increasing production of local grape wines in small vineyards in Lesser Poland, Subcarpathia, Silesia, and West Pomerania regions. Among alcoholic beverages, Polish vodka—traditionally prepared from grain or potatoes—has essentially displaced the formerly widespread mead.


title: Polish cuisine

text: Some sources suggest that the first production of vodka took place in Poland as early as the 8th century, becoming more widespread in the 11th century. The world's first written mention of the drink and of the word "vodka" was in 1405 from recorder of deeds, the court documents from the Palatinate of Sandomierz in Poland.


title: Polish cuisine

text: Vodka production on a much larger scale began in Poland at the end of the 16th century. By the 17th and 18th centuries, Polish vodka was known in the Netherlands, Denmark, England, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Romania, Ukraine, Bulgaria, and the Black Sea basin. Vodka was the most popular alcoholic drink in Poland until 1998, when it was surpassed by beer.


title: Polish cuisine

text: Besides clear vodkas, flavoured vodka (known as nalewka) and liqueurs are also popular. The most important are Żubrówka (vodka with bison grass from Podlasie), herbal Żołądkowa Gorzka, aged , plum brandy (especially from Łącko), honey liqueur , as well as Goldwasser (herbal liqueur with flakes of gold leaf) and juniper vodka , both originating from Gdańsk.


title: Polish cuisine

text: Traditionally, kvass () was a fermented beverage first popular among the peasantry, but it later spread to the szlachta and become a universal Polish drink by the 14th-15th centuries. It is typically made from rye bread, usually known as black bread, and is not classified as an alcoholic beverage in Poland, as its alcohol content usually ranges from 0% to 2%. There are many commercial and family variations of the beverage; however, traditional Polish recipes still exist. Despite its production on an industrial scale in Poland during the interbellum, it began to lose popularity to mass-produced soft drinks and carbonated water in the 20th century. It remained known primarily in rural areas of eastern Poland. However, kvass started making a comeback in the 21st century, with many new Polish brands being started.


title: Polish cuisine

text: In contemporary times, tea is perhaps the most popular drink, usually served with a slice of lemon and sweetened with either sugar or honey. Tea came to Poland from England shortly after its appearance in Western Europe, mainly due to the Dutch merchants. However, its prevalence is attributed to the Russians in the 19th century – at this time samovars imported from Russia become commonplace in Polish homes. Tea with milk is called ().


title: Polish cuisine

text: Other frequently consumed beverages also include: buttermilk, kefir, soured milk, instant coffee, various mineral waters, juices, and numerous brands of soft drink. A considerable number of Poles enjoy carbonated water, and customers in restaurants are always offered both still and sparkling (carbonated) water to drink.


title: Crushing (execution)

text: Death by crushing or pressing is a method of execution that has a history during which the techniques used varied greatly from place to place, generally involving placing heavy weights upon a person with the intent to kill.


title: Crushing (execution)

text: A common method of death throughout South and Southeast Asia for over 4,000 years was crushing by elephants. The Sasanians, Romans, and Carthaginians also used this method on occasion.


title: Crushing (execution)

text: In the early history of ancient Rome, Tarpeia was a Roman maiden who betrayed the city of Rome to the Sabines in exchange for what she thought would be a reward of jewelry. She was instead crushed to death and her body cast from the Tarpeian Rock which now bears her name.


title: Crushing (execution)

text: Peine forte et dure (Law French for "forceful and hard punishment") was a method of torture formerly used in the common law legal system, in which a defendant who refused to plead ("stood mute") would be subjected to having heavier and heavier stones placed upon his or her chest until a plea was entered, or as the weight of the stones on the chest became too great for the condemned to breathe, fatal suffocation would occur.


title: Crushing (execution)

text: The common law courts originally took a very limited view of their own jurisdiction. They considered themselves to lack jurisdiction over a defendant until he had voluntarily submitted to it by entering a plea seeking judgment from the court. Since a criminal justice system that tried and punished only those who volunteered for trial and punishment was practically unworkable, this was the means chosen to coerce them.


title: Crushing (execution)

text: Many defendants charged with capital offences nonetheless refused to plead, since thereby they would escape forfeiture of property, and their heirs would still inherit their estate; but if the defendant pleaded guilty and was executed, their heirs would inherit nothing, their property escheating to the Crown. "Peine forte et dure" was abolished in Great Britain in 1772, and the last known use of the practice was in 1741. In 1772, refusing to plead was deemed to be equivalent to pleading guilty. This was changed in 1827 to being deemed a plea of not guilty. Today, in all common law jurisdictions, standing mute is treated by the courts as equivalent to a plea of not guilty.


title: Crushing (execution)

text: The elaborate procedure was recorded by a 15th-century witness in an oft-quoted description: "he will lie upon his back, with his head covered and his feet, and one arm will be drawn to one quarter of the house with a cord, and the other arm to another quarter, and in the same manner it will be done with his legs; and let there be laid upon his body iron and stone, as much as he can bear, or more ..."


title: Crushing (execution)

text: "Pressing to death" might take several days, and not necessarily with a continued increase in the load. The Frenchman Guy Miege, who from 1668 taught languages in London says the following about the English practice:


title: Crushing (execution)

text: The most famous case in the United Kingdom was that of Roman Catholic martyr St Margaret Clitherow, who, in order to avoid a trial in which her own children would be obliged to give evidence, was pressed to death on March 25, 1586, after refusing to plead to the charge of having harboured Catholic priests in her house. She died within fifteen minutes under a weight of at least 700 pounds (320 kg). Several hardened criminals, including William Spigott (1721) and Edward Burnworth, lasted a half hour under 400 pounds (180 kg) before pleading to the indictment. Others, such as Major Strangways (1658) and John Weekes (1731), refused to plead, even under 400 pounds (180 kg), and were killed when bystanders, out of mercy, sat on them.


title: Crushing (execution)

text: The only death by "peine forte et dure" in American history was Giles Corey, who was pressed to death on September 19, 1692, during the Salem witch trials, after he refused to enter a plea in the judicial proceeding. According to legend, his last words as he was being crushed were "More weight", and he was thought to be dead as the weight was applied.


title: Crushing (execution)

text: In medieval Europe, the slow crushing of body parts in screw-operated "bone vises" of iron was a common method of torture, and a tremendous variety of cruel instruments were used to savagely crush the head, knee, hand, and, most commonly, either the thumb or the naked foot. Such instruments were finely threaded and variously provided with spiked inner surfaces or heated red-hot before their application to the limb to be tortured.


title: Crushing (execution)

text: "Peine forte et dure" is referred to in Arthur Miller's political drama "The Crucible" (1953), where Giles Corey is pressed to death after refusing to plead "aye or nay" to the charge of witchcraft. In the 1996 film version of this play, the screenplay also written by Arthur Miller, Corey is crushed to death for refusing to reveal the name of a source of information.


title: Crushing (execution)

text: In the 1970 American made-for-television supernatural horror film, "Crowhaven Farm", directed by Walter Grauman and starring Hope Lange, Paul Burke and John Carradine, a coven uses crushing to torture Lange's character after she inherits a haunted Massachusetts farm house.


title: Crushing (execution)

text: In , one of the flashback victims Joseph Lambert is subjected to the peine forte et dure method of crushing, therefore becoming the "crushed demon" that stalks his reincarnation John later in the game.


title: Dipole

text: Dipoles, whether electric or magnetic, can be characterized by their dipole moment, a vector quantity. For the simple electric dipole, the electric dipole moment points from the negative charge towards the positive charge, and has a magnitude equal to the strength of each charge times the separation between the charges. (To be precise: for the definition of the dipole moment, one should always consider the "dipole limit", where, for example, the distance of the generating charges should "converge" to 0 while simultaneously, the charge strength should "diverge" to infinity in such a way that the product remains a positive constant.)


title: Dipole

text: For the magnetic (dipole) current loop, the magnetic dipole moment points through the loop (according to the right hand grip rule), with a magnitude equal to the current in the loop times the area of the loop.


title: Dipole

text: Similar to magnetic current loops, the electron particle and some other fundamental particles have magnetic dipole moments, as an electron generates a magnetic field identical to that generated by a very small current loop. However, an electron's magnetic dipole moment is not due to a current loop, but to an intrinsic property of the electron. The electron may also have an "electric" dipole moment though such has yet to be observed (see electron electric dipole moment).


title: Dipole

text: A permanent magnet, such as a bar magnet, owes its magnetism to the intrinsic magnetic dipole moment of the electron. The two ends of a bar magnet are referred to as poles—not to be confused with monopoles, see Classification below)—and may be labeled "north" and "south". In terms of the Earth's magnetic field, they are respectively "north-seeking" and "south-seeking" poles: if the magnet were freely suspended in the Earth's magnetic field, the north-seeking pole would point towards the north and the south-seeking pole would point towards the south. The dipole moment of the bar magnet points from its magnetic south to its magnetic north pole. In a magnetic compass, the north pole of a bar magnet points north. However, that means that Earth's geomagnetic north pole is the "south" pole (south-seeking pole) of its dipole moment and vice versa.


title: Dipole

text: The only known mechanisms for the creation of magnetic dipoles are by current loops or quantum-mechanical spin since the existence of magnetic monopoles has never been experimentally demonstrated.


title: Dipole

text: A "physical dipole" consists of two equal and opposite point charges: in the literal sense, two poles. Its field at large distances (i.e., distances large in comparison to the separation of the poles) depends almost entirely on the dipole moment as defined above. A "point (electric) dipole" is the limit obtained by letting the separation tend to 0 while keeping the dipole moment fixed. The field of a point dipole has a particularly simple form, and the order-1 term in the multipole expansion is precisely the point dipole field.


title: Dipole

text: Although there are no known magnetic monopoles in nature, there are magnetic dipoles in the form of the quantum-mechanical spin associated with particles such as electrons (although the accurate description of such effects falls outside of classical electromagnetism). A theoretical magnetic "point dipole" has a magnetic field of exactly the same form as the electric field of an electric point dipole. A very small current-carrying loop is approximately a magnetic point dipole; the magnetic dipole moment of such a loop is the product of the current flowing in the loop and the (vector) area of the loop.


title: Dipole

text: Any configuration of charges or currents has a 'dipole moment', which describes the dipole whose field is the best approximation, at large distances, to that of the given configuration. This is simply one term in the multipole expansion when the total charge ("monopole moment") is 0—as it "always" is for the magnetic case, since there are no magnetic monopoles. The dipole term is the dominant one at large distances: Its field falls off in proportion to , as compared to for the next (quadrupole) term and higher powers of for higher terms, or for the monopole term.


title: Dipole

text: Many molecules have such dipole moments due to non-uniform distributions of positive and negative charges on the various atoms. Such is the case with polar compounds like hydrogen fluoride (HF), where electron density is shared unequally between atoms. Therefore, a molecule's dipole is an electric dipole with an inherent electric field that should not be confused with a magnetic dipole, which generates a magnetic field.


title: Dipole

text: The physical chemist Peter J. W. Debye was the first scientist to study molecular dipoles extensively, and, as a consequence, dipole moments are measured in the non-SI unit named "debye" in his honor.


title: Dipole

text: More generally, an induced dipole of "any" polarizable charge distribution "ρ" (remember that a molecule has a charge distribution) is caused by an electric field external to "ρ". This field may, for instance, originate from an ion or polar molecule in the vicinity of "ρ" or may be macroscopic (e.g., a molecule between the plates of a charged capacitor). The size of the induced dipole moment is equal to the product of the strength of the external field and the dipole polarizability of "ρ".


title: Dipole

text: Dipole moment values can be obtained from measurement of the dielectric constant. Some typical gas phase values in debye units are:


title: Dipole

text: Potassium bromide (KBr) has one of the highest dipole moments because it is an ionic compound that exists as a molecule in the gas phase.


title: Dipole

text: The overall dipole moment of a molecule may be approximated as a vector sum of bond dipole moments. As a vector sum it depends on the relative orientation of the bonds, so that from the dipole moment information can be deduced about the molecular geometry.


title: Dipole

text: For example, the zero dipole of CO implies that the two C=O bond dipole moments cancel so that the molecule must be linear. For HO the O−H bond moments do not cancel because the molecule is bent. For ozone (O) which is also a bent molecule, the bond dipole moments are not zero even though the O−O bonds are between similar atoms. This agrees with the Lewis structures for the resonance forms of ozone which show a positive charge on the central oxygen atom.


title: Dipole

text: An example in organic chemistry of the role of geometry in determining dipole moment is the "cis" and "trans" isomers of 1,2-dichloroethene. In the "cis" isomer the two polar C−Cl bonds are on the same side of the C=C double bond and the molecular dipole moment is 1.90 D. In the "trans" isomer, the dipole moment is zero because the two C−Cl bonds are on opposite sides of the C=C and cancel (and the two bond moments for the much less polar C−H bonds also cancel).


title: Dipole

text: Another example of the role of molecular geometry is boron trifluoride, which has three polar bonds with a difference in electronegativity greater than the traditionally cited threshold of 1.7 for ionic bonding. However, due to the equilateral triangular distribution of the fluoride ions centered on and in the same plane as the boron cation, the symmetry of the molecule results in its dipole moment being zero.


title: Dipole

text: Consider a collection of "N" particles with charges "q" and position vectors r. For instance, this collection may be a molecule consisting of electrons, all with charge −"e", and nuclei with charge "eZ", where "Z" is the atomic number of the "i" th nucleus.


title: Dipole

text: Notice that this definition is valid only for neutral atoms or molecules, i.e. total charge equal to zero. In the ionized case, we have


title: Dipole

text: A non-degenerate ("S"-state) atom can have only a zero permanent dipole. This fact follows quantum mechanically from the inversion symmetry of atoms. All 3 components of the dipole operator are antisymmetric under inversion with respect to the nucleus,


title: Dipole

text: The permanent dipole moment of an atom in a non-degenerate state (see degenerate energy level) is given as the expectation (average) value of the dipole operator,


title: Dipole

text: where formula_8 is an "S"-state, non-degenerate, wavefunction, which is symmetric or antisymmetric under inversion: formula_9. Since the product of the wavefunction (in the ket) and its complex conjugate (in the bra) is always symmetric under inversion and its inverse,


title: Dipole

text: it follows that the expectation value changes sign under inversion. We used here the fact that formula_11, being a symmetry operator, is unitary: formula_12 and by definition the Hermitian adjoint formula_13 may be moved from bra to ket and then becomes formula_14. Since the only quantity that is equal to minus itself is the zero, the expectation value vanishes,


title: Dipole

text: In the case of open-shell atoms with degenerate energy levels, one could define a dipole moment by the aid of the first-order Stark effect. This gives a non-vanishing dipole (by definition proportional to a non-vanishing first-order Stark shift) only if some of the wavefunctions belonging to the degenerate energies have opposite parity; i.e., have different behavior under inversion. This is a rare occurrence, but happens for the excited H-atom, where 2s and 2p states are "accidentally" degenerate (see article Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector for the origin of this degeneracy) and have opposite parity (2s is even and 2p is odd).


title: Dipole

text: This is "exactly" the field of a point dipole, "exactly" the dipole term in the multipole expansion of an arbitrary field, and "approximately" the field of any dipole-like configuration at large distances.


title: Dipole

text: This term appears as the second term in the multipole expansion of an arbitrary electrostatic potential Φ(r). If the source of Φ(r) is a dipole, as it is assumed here, this term is the only non-vanishing term in the multipole expansion of Φ(r). The electric field from a dipole can be found from the gradient of this potential:


title: Dipole

text: This is of the same form of the expression for the magnetic field of a point magnetic dipole, ignoring the delta function.


title: Dipole

text: In a real electric dipole, however, the charges are physically separate and the electric field diverges or converges at the point charges.


title: Dipole

text: This is different to the magnetic field of a real magnetic dipole which is continuous everywhere. The delta function represents the strong field pointing in the opposite direction between the point charges, which is often omitted since one is rarely interested in the field at the dipole's position.


title: Dipole

text: For further discussions about the internal field of dipoles, see or Magnetic moment#Internal magnetic field of a dipole.


title: Dipole

text: Since the direction of an electric field is defined as the direction of the force on a positive charge, electric field lines point away from a positive charge and toward a negative charge.


title: Dipole

text: When placed in a homogeneous electric or magnetic field, equal but opposite forces arise on each side of the dipole creating a torque }:


title: Dipole

text: The resulting torque will tend to align the dipole with the applied field, which in the case of an electric dipole, yields a potential energy of


title: Dipole

text: In addition to dipoles in electrostatics, it is also common to consider an electric or magnetic dipole that is oscillating in time. It is an extension, or a more physical next-step, to spherical wave radiation.


title: Dipole

text: In particular, consider a harmonically oscillating electric dipole, with angular frequency "ω" and a dipole moment "p" along the ẑ direction of the form


title: Dipole

text: In vacuum, the exact field produced by this oscillating dipole can be derived using the retarded potential formulation as:


title: Dipole

text: For  ≫ 1, the far-field takes the simpler form of a radiating "spherical" wave, but with angular dependence embedded in the cross-product:


title: Dipole

text: is not distributed isotropically, but concentrated around the directions lying perpendicular to the dipole moment, as a result of the non-spherical electric and magnetic waves. In fact, the spherical harmonic function (sin "θ") responsible for such toroidal angular distribution is precisely the "l" = 1 "p" wave.


title: Dipole

text: Notice that the dependence of the power on the fourth power of the frequency of the radiation is in accordance with the Rayleigh scattering, and the underlying effects why the sky consists of mainly blue colour.


title: Gefreiter

text: Gefreiter (, abbr. Gefr.; plural "Gefreite") is a German, Swiss and Austrian military rank that has existed since the 16th century. It is usually the second rank or grade to which an enlisted soldier, airman or sailor could be promoted.


title: Gefreiter

text: Within the combined NATO rank scale, the modern-day rank of "Gefreiter" is usually equivalent to the NATO-standard rank scale OR-2. The word has also been lent into the Russian language (""), and is in use in several Russian and post-Soviet militaries.


title: Gefreiter

text: Historically the military rank of "Gefreiter" (female and plural form: "Gefreite") emerged in 16th-century Europe for the German "Landsknechte" foot soldiers, predominantly made up of German and Swiss mercenary pikemen and supporting infantry foot soldiers. Those soldiers who proved especially reliable and experienced were appointed to "gefreyten Knechten" (exempted/freed Servants/Soldiers; a cognate to 'knight') and were installed in critical battlefield positions; along with their extra rank privileges they were exempted in general from sentry duties.


title: Gefreiter

text: From the 18th century, "Gefreite" were the first line members of a military company, and every "Gefreiter" led and commanded a section or squad of "Gemeine" (ordinary-rank soldiers). The rank existed in the cavalry, infantry, pioneers, and artillery where the "Gefreiter" rank received a greater rank-class status. "Gefreiter" was the only enlisted rank until 1918 within the Royal Prussian Army and respectively the imperial army of the German Empire to which an exceptional enlisted soldier could be promoted on the recommendation of the "Hauptmann" (Captain) or "Rittmeister" (Cavalry-Master otherwise Captain) and ultimately endorsed by the "Regiments-Commandeur" (Regimental Colonel), with exception of the rank "Obergefreiter" (since 1859) in the foot artillery which later replaced the artillery "Bombardier" (Corporal) rank. The "Gefreiter" rank was also considered a transition rank for promotion to and wherefrom replacements were selected to the "Unteroffizier" (Corporal) rank. Within the Royal Prussian Army and respectively the imperial army of the German Empire, the rank "Gefreiter" was a deputy to the "Unteroffizier" (Corporal), and were distinguished by the wearing of a "Auszeichnungsknopf" ("rank" Distinction-button) known as the "Gefreitenknopf" (Gefreiter-button) on each side of their uniform collar, similar to the slightly larger rank collar side-buttons worn by both the "Sergeant" and "Feldwebel" ranks.


title: Gefreiter

text: In the Royal Prussian Army until its reorganization after 1806, there existed along with "Gefreiter" the rank of "Gefreite-Korporale" who wore a silver "Portepee" (sword lanyard). These were officer cadets specifically selected for higher advancement, they stood equal with their officer cadet counterpart the "Portepee-Fähnriche". The "Gefreite-Korporale" was a rank that also existed along with "Gefreiter" in the Austrian Army during the Thirty Years' War.


title: Gefreiter

text: From the 1920s the German rank of "Gefreiter" has expanded into several additional ranks and duties, those being "Obergefreiter" (Senior Lance Corporal otherwise Second Corporal in the Prussian Army since 1859); "Hauptgefreiter" (Leading Lance Corporal in the Luftwaffe during 1935–1944, the Kriegsmarine during 1938–1945, and the Heer from 1955); "Stabsgefreiter" (Staff Lance Corporal in the Reichswehr since 1927, the Kriegsmarine until 1945, the Luftwaffe from 1944 temporarily replacing "Hauptgefreiter" rank); and "Oberstabsgefreiter" (Senior Staff Lance Corporal in the Kriegsmarine since 1940, not in the Heer or Luftwaffe until 1996). All "Gefreiter" ranks are now in use with the German army, air force, and navy.


title: Gefreiter

text: "Gefreiter" (abbr. "Gefr." or "G.") is the second enlisted rank grade within the modern-day Army ("Heer"), Air Force ("Luftwaffe") and Navy ("Marine") of the Bundeswehr. Following the NATO ranking system, Gefreiter equates to OR-2 on the NATO-standard rank scale, the rank is thus equivalent to either private, private first class, vice corporal or corporal rank depending on the chosen NATO-allied force used for the comparison. It is grade A4 in the pay scale of the Federal Ministry of Defence.


title: Gefreiter

text: In line with Bundeswehr rank advancement conditions, enlisted personnel OR-1 may be promoted to OR-2 level after passing primary recruit training (usually after three months) to the rank of "Gefreiter".


title: Gefreiter

text: Throughout the periods of the Royal Prussian Army, Imperial Army of the German Empire, "Reichswehr" and the German "Wehrmacht", the rank of "Gefreiter" was considered the equivalent to a junior Lance Corporal rank, with "Obergefreiter" as senior lance corporal or rather second corporal in the artillery, and a full corporal rank known as "Unteroffizier" (subordinate non-commissioned officer) which replaced the "Korporal" rank from 1856. Within the army branch of the German "Wehrmacht", a rank of "Oberschütze" (senior rifleman) once existed between the ranks of "Gefreiter" and "Schütze/Soldat" ("[enlisted] ordinary-rank rifleman/soldier"). A Gefreiter was considered an "exempted man", who was not normally assigned more menial duties, such as guard detail. A soldier promoted to Gefreiter was seen as showing some promise of leadership capability, while those who did not were promoted to Oberschütze.


title: Gefreiter

text: The best-known holder of the rank of "Gefreiter" was Adolf Hitler, who held the rank in the Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment 16 of the Royal Bavarian Army during World War I.


title: Gefreiter

text: "Bohemian corporal" was a derogatory term used (privately) in World War II for Adolf Hitler by German generals (many of whom were Prussian aristocrats: "von") dissatisfied with Hitler's military leadership and detailed control, e.g. Gerd von Rundstedt, Erich von Manstein and Friedrich Paulus. Von Rundstedt said often during and after the war: "Without Hitler’s consent, I can’t even move my own sentry from my front door around to the back!" Wilhelm Keitel once said to Hitler "Do you realise that Rundstedt called you a Bohemian corporal"; Hitler replied "Yes, but he’s the best field marshal I have". Von Rundstedt used the term "Dieser böhmische Gefreiter" which he got in the 1930s from World War I hero, President Paul von Hindenburg. Hindenburg (he and Hitler took an instant dislike to each other on first meeting) mistook Hitler's home town of Braunau in Austria (Braunau am Inn) for another town of the same name (Broumov; "Braunau" in German) in Bohemia; initially he said that "Austrian corporal" but later used "Bohemian corporal"; a pejorative term as he regarded Bohemians as "essentially gypsies" unlike the more cultured Prussians or even Austrians.


title: Gefreiter

text: Gefreiter (abbr. Gfr) is a military rank of the Austrian Bundesheer. It might be comparable to enlisted men OR2/ private 1st Class ranks in Anglophone armed forces. However, in the Bundesheer it belongs to the so-called charges rank group (OR2 to OR4).


title: Gefreiter

text: In the k.u.k. Austro-Hungarian Army (1867–1918) "Gefreiter" () was corresponding to Patrouilleführer, and Vormeister. It was used by the k.u.k. Kaiserjäger as well as the Feldjäger, Standschützen troops, k.u.k. Cavalry, Medical corps, and Infantry.


title: Gefreiter

text: Then rank insignia was a single white celluloid-star on the stand-up collar of the so-called "Waffenrock" (en: Tunic) on gorget patch (de: Paroli). Stand-up collar and background of the gorget patch showed a particular egalisation colour.


title: Gefreiter

text: In Russia, the rank of "yefreytor" was introduced by Peter I in 1716 to the infantry, cavalry and engineer forces. The rank was not used after 1722. During the reign of Paul I it was made an equivalent rank to private, which after the reign of Alexander I was used only for the Imperial Guard. "Yefreytor" was re-introduced in the course of the military reforms of 1826.


title: Gefreiter

text: In the armed forces of the Soviet Union (and later the Russian Federation) "yefreytor" is the highest rank of enlisted personnel. According to NATO-rank system the rank might be comparable to OR-4 in Anglophone armed forces.


title: Pyramid of Khafre

text: The pyramid of Khafre or of Chephren (, ) is the second-tallest and second-largest of the 3 Ancient Egyptian Pyramids of Giza and the tomb of the Fourth-Dynasty pharaoh Khafre (Chefren), who ruled .


title: Pyramid of Khafre

text: The pyramid has a base length of 215.5  m (706 ft) and rises up to a height of . It is made of limestone blocks weighing more than 2 tons each. The slope of the pyramid rises at a 53° 13' angle, steeper than its neighbor, the pyramid of Khufu, which has an angle of 51°50'24". Khafre's pyramid sits on bedrock 10 m (33 ft) higher than Khufu's pyramid, which makes it appear to be taller.


title: Pyramid of Khafre

text: The pyramid was likely opened and robbed during the First Intermediate Period. During the Nineteenth Dynasty, the overseer of temple construction took casing stones to build a temple in Heliopolis on Ramesses II's orders.


title: Pyramid of Khafre

text: Arab historian Ibn Abd al-Salam recorded that the pyramid was opened in 1372 AD. On the wall of the burial chamber, there is an Arabic graffito that probably dates from the same time.


title: Pyramid of Khafre

text: It is not known when the rest of the casing stones were robbed; they were presumably still in place by 1646, when John Greaves, professor of Astronomy at the University of Oxford in his "Pyramidographia", wrote that, while its stones were not as large or as regularly laid as in Khufu's, the surface was smooth and even free of breaches or inequalities, except on the south.


title: Pyramid of Khafre

text: The pyramid was first explored in modern times by Giovanni Belzoni on March 2, 1818, when the original entrance was found on the north side. Belzoni had hopes of finding an intact burial but the chamber was empty except for an open sarcophagus and its broken lid on the floor.


title: Pyramid of Khafre

text: The first complete exploration was conducted by John Perring in 1837. In 1853, Auguste Mariette partially excavated Khafre's valley temple, and, in 1858, while completing its clearance, he managed to discover a diorite statue of Khafre.


title: Pyramid of Khafre

text: Like the Great Pyramid, a rock outcropping was used in the core. Due to the slope of the plateau, the northwest corner was cut 10 m (33  ft) out of the rock subsoil, and the southeast corner was built up.


title: Pyramid of Khafre

text: The pyramid is built of horizontal courses. The stones used at the bottom are very large, but as the pyramid rises, the stones become smaller, becoming only thick at the apex. The courses are rough and irregular for the first half of its height but a narrow band of regular masonry is clear in the midsection of the pyramid. At the northwest corner of the pyramid, the bedrock was fashioned into steps. Casing stones cover the top third of the pyramid, but the pyramidion and part of the apex are missing.


title: Pyramid of Khafre

text: The bottom course of casing stones was made out of pink granite but the remainder of the pyramid was cased in Tura limestone. Close examination reveals that the corner edges of the remaining casing stones are not completely straight, but are staggered by a few millimeters. One theory is that this is due to settling from seismic activity. An alternative theory postulates that the slope on the blocks was cut to shape before being placed due to the limited working space towards the top of the pyramid.


title: Pyramid of Khafre

text: Two entrances lead to the burial chamber, one that opens up the face of the pyramid and one that opens at the base of the pyramid. These passageways do not align with the centerline of the pyramid, but are offset to the east by . The lower descending passageway is carved completely out of the bedrock, descending, running horizontal, then ascending to join the horizontal passage leading to the burial chamber.


title: Pyramid of Khafre

text: One theory as to why there are two entrances is that the pyramid's northern base was intended to be shifted further to the north which would make Khafre's pyramid much larger than his father's. This would place the entrance to the lower descending passage within the masonry of the pyramid. While the bedrock is cut away farther from the pyramid on the north side than on the west side, it is not clear that there is enough room on the plateau for the enclosure wall and pyramid terrace. An alternative theory is that, as with many earlier pyramids, plans were changed and the entrance was moved midway through construction.


title: Pyramid of Khafre

text: There is a subsidiary chamber, equal in length to the King's Chamber in Khufu's pyramid, that opens to the west of the lower passage, the purpose of which is uncertain. It may be used to store offerings, store burial equipment, or it may be a serdab chamber. The upper descending passage is clad in granite and descends to join with the horizontal passage to the burial chamber.


title: Pyramid of Khafre

text: The burial chamber was carved out of a pit in the bedrock. The roof is constructed of gabled limestone beams. The chamber is rectangular, , and is oriented east-west. Khafre's sarcophagus was carved out of a solid block of granite and sunk partially in the floor, in it, Belzoni found bones of an animal, possibly a bull. Another pit in the floor likely contained the canopic chest, its lid would have been one of the pavement slabs.


title: Pyramid of Khafre

text: There are two small rectangular holes in the walls of the burial chamber facing each other, greatly resembling the openings of the 'air shafts' found in the Great pyramid burial chambers.


title: Pyramid of Khafre

text: Along the centerline of the pyramid on the south side was a satellite pyramid, but almost nothing remains other than some core blocks and the outline of the foundation. It contains two descending passages, one of them ending in a dead end with a niche which contained pieces of ritualistic furniture.


title: Pyramid of Khafre

text: The temples of Khafre's complex survive in much better condition than Khufu's, this being especially true to the Valley Temple, which is substantially preserved.


title: Pyramid of Khafre

text: To the east of the Pyramid sits the mortuary temple. Though it is now largely in ruins, enough of it survives to understand the plan. It is larger than previous temples and is the first to include all five standard elements of later mortuary temples: an entrance hall, a columned court, five niches for statues of the pharaoh, five storage chambers, and an inner sanctuary. There were over 50 life size statues of Khafre, but these were removed and recycled, possibly by Ramses II. The temple was built of megalithic blocks (the largest is an estimated 400 tonnes).


title: Pyramid of Khafre

text: A causeway runs to the valley temple, which is very similar to the mortuary temple. It is built of megalithic blocks sheathed in red granite. The square pillars of the T-shaped hallway were made of solid granite, and the floor was paved in alabaster. The exterior was built of huge blocks, some weighing over 100 tonnes.


title: Pyramid of Khafre

text: Though devoid of any internal decoration, this temple would have been filled with symbolism: two doors open into a vestibule and a large pillared hall, in which there were sockets in the floor that would have fixed 23 statues of Khafre. These columns have since been plundered. The interior, made of granite of the Valley Temple, is remarkably well preserved. The exterior made of limestone is much more weathered.


title: Pyramid of Khafre

text: The so-called temple of the Sphinx is not attested to any king, but structural similarities to Khafre's mortuary temple point to him as its builder. Opening to a hall with 24 columns, each with its own statue, two sanctuaries and symmetric design, it is possible but unsure if this temple had any symbolism attached to the finished plan.


title: Pyramid of Khafre

text: The Great Sphinx may have been part of the complex. It was carved out of a rock formation used to cut the blocks for the pyramid itself.


title: Finding Forrester

text: Finding Forrester is a 2000 American drama film written by Mike Rich and directed by Gus Van Sant. In the film, a black teenager, Jamal Wallace (Rob Brown), is invited to attend a prestigious private high school. By chance, Jamal befriends a reclusive writer, William Forrester (Sean Connery), through whom he refines his talent for writing and comes to terms with his identity. Anna Paquin, F. Murray Abraham, Michael Pitt, Glenn Fitzgerald, April Grace, Busta Rhymes, and Charles Bernstein star in supporting roles.


title: Finding Forrester

text: Although the film is not based on a true story, film critics have compared the character portrayed by Connery with real-life writer J. D. Salinger. Connery later acknowledged that the inspiration for his role was indeed Salinger.


title: Finding Forrester

text: In the Bronx, sixteen-year-old Jamal Wallace downplays his potential as a gifted student, preferring to play basketball with his friends. They are watched by William Forrester, a recluse who never leaves his apartment and has become a neighborhood urban legend. Dared by his friends, Jamal sneaks into the apartment, but is surprised by Forrester and flees, leaving his backpack behind. Forrester later drops the backpack onto the street, having edited Jamal’s personal writings. Jamal asks him to read more of his writing, but Forrester angrily tells him to begin with 5,000 words on why he should "stay out of my home." Jamal does so, leaving the essay on Forrester’s doorstep, and is invited inside.


title: Finding Forrester

text: Due to his high test scores, Jamal is offered a full academic scholarship and transfers to Mailor-Callow, a prestigious Manhattan private school, with the understanding that he will join the basketball team. Jamal learns that Forrester is the Pulitzer Prize-winning author of a famous novel, "Avalon Landing", but never published another book. Forrester agrees to help Jamal with his writing as long as he does not ask about Forrester’s life or tell anyone about him. They bond as Forrester gives Jamal his own work to rewrite, on the condition that their writing never leaves the apartment. Jamal's writing improves, leading one of his professors, Robert Crawford, to suspect him of plagiarism.


title: Finding Forrester

text: Jamal befriends his classmate Claire and excels on the basketball court, but is alienated from his old friends. He convinces Forrester to attend a game with him at Madison Square Garden, but they become separated and Forrester, overwhelmed by the crowd, has an anxiety attack. With his brother Terrell’s help, Jamal takes Forrester onto the empty field at Yankee Stadium, where an emotional Forrester reveals he often came with his brother. He tells Jamal about his brother's trauma returning home from World War II – the basis for his book – and how Forrester's indirect role in his death, followed by the deaths of their parents, led him to become a recluse.


title: Finding Forrester

text: Still suspicious, Crawford forces Jamal to complete his next assignment in his presence. Running out of time to enter the school’s essay competition, Jamal submits one of Forrester's exercises to the contest, and humiliates Crawford during class. He is called before Crawford and the school board, who reveal that Forrester had published the article upon which Jamal based his essay. Asked to prove he had the author’s permission to use his material, Jamal keeps his promise to Forrester and says nothing. Crawford demands he read a letter of apology to his classmates, but Jamal refuses, endangering his scholarship. Telling Forrester what he has done, Jamal asks his friend to defend him, but Forrester is angry Jamal betrayed his trust by taking their writing, and is still unwilling to leave his home.


title: Finding Forrester

text: The school assures Jamal that the plagiarism charges will be dropped if he wins the state basketball tournament, but he deliberately misses the final free throws, costing them the championship. Watching the game on TV, Forrester manages to ride his bicycle through the city. Terrell gives him a letter from Jamal, who arrives at school for the essay contest. Forrester appears, and reads a heartfelt essay to the captive audience. He acknowledges his friendship with Jamal, whom he explains had his blessing to use his material, but Crawford declares that this will not influence the school’s decision. Forrester reveals that the essay he recited was actually the letter Jamal had written, and the headmaster overrules Crawford and clears Jamal’s name. Jamal leaves with Forrester, who plans to visit his native Scotland.


title: Finding Forrester

text: One year later, Jamal is preparing to graduate from Mailor-Callow. He meets with Sanderson, an attorney, who explains that Forrester has died, having been diagnosed with cancer before he met Jamal. Forrester has bequeathed his apartment to Jamal, with a letter thanking him for rekindling his desire to live. Jamal is also given the manuscript of Forrester's second novel, for which he is expected to write the foreword, and joins his old friends in a basketball game.


title: Finding Forrester

text: Principal photography was shot entirely in Manhattan, the Bronx, and Brooklyn (many Mailor Academy scenes were filmed at Regis High School on the Upper East Side of Manhattan), with some scenery and pick-up shots made in suburban Toronto, Ontario during post-production. Parts of the film were also shot in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.


title: Finding Forrester

text: Connery became interested in the movie thanks to his friend John Calley, who was a chief executive of Sony Pictures, and Connery in turn invited Gus Van Sant to act as director. After that, Connery, Van Sant and Rich together rewrote the original script of Rich. Connery also brought a few of his personal habits to the role, like wearing his socks inside out.


title: Finding Forrester

text: Rob Brown auditioned for the film, hoping to make enough money to pay his $300 cell phone bill. Gus Van Sant had him read a second time and then cast him as one of the leads. According to Connery, the strongest feature of Brown as an actor was his natural and confident behavior in front of the camera.


title: Finding Forrester

text: Before Sean Connery was cast as William Forrester, Bill Murray was considered for the role. Connery drew inspiration for his portrayal of Forrester from the biographies of J. D. Salinger and William S. Burroughs.


title: Finding Forrester

text: The film received limited release on December 21, 2000 in 200 theaters, grossing USD $701,207 in the opening weekend. It later received commercial release where it opened at #1 in theaters in 2001, grossing $11,112,139 in the opening weekend. It went on to gross $51,804,714 in the United States and Canada and $28,245,050 elsewhere for a worldwide total of $80,049,764.


title: Finding Forrester

text: Upon its initial release, "Finding Forrester" received generally positive reviews. It garnered two thumbs up from Roger Ebert and Richard Roeper, with Roeper considering it one of the 10 best films of the year. In late 2009, Roeper included the film at number 64 on his list of the 100 best movies of the decade.


title: Finding Forrester

text: The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a score of 74%, based on reviews from 129 critics, with an average score of 6.50/10. The site's consensus states: "Despite the predictability of its plot and its similarity to "Good Will Hunting", "Finding Forrester" has an honest, solid feel to it and good rapport between Connery and Brown." Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, gives the film a score of 62, based on 27 reviews. CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film a rare "A+" grade.


title: Finding Forrester

text: The YTMND website originated in 2003 from creator Max Goldberg's original website, "yourethemannowdog.com", which he registered after seeing a trailer for "Finding Forrester" in which Connery says the line.


title: Finding Forrester

text: "Coffaro's Theme" was originally composed as part of the soundtrack of a successful Italian movie, La scuola.


title: Finding Forrester

text: The song "Gassenhauer", from "Schulwerk" by Carl Orff and arranged and produced by Bill Brown is a notable track that appears in the actual film but was not included on the soundtrack. It is played during Forrester's bike ride.


title: Finding Forrester

text: In November 2020, it was reported that NBC was developing a television series adaptation of film. The series will be produced by Stephen Curry's Unanimous Media and Sony Pictures Television with TJ Brady and Rasheed Newson as executive producers and writer and Tim Story as director.


title: The Gap Band

text: The Gap Band was an American R&B and funk band that rose to fame during the 1970s and 1980s. The band consisted of three brothers: Charlie, Ronnie, and Robert Wilson, along with other members; it was named after streets (Greenwood, Archer, and Pine) in the historic Greenwood neighborhood in the brothers' hometown of Tulsa, Oklahoma.


title: The Gap Band

text: The band formed in Tulsa in 1967, based around the three Wilson brothers, but often included other musicians as well. The name "Greenwood, Archer, and Pine Band" originally started as a joke, reflecting the band's origins, and was shortened to GAP Band later. The band received its first big break by being the back up band for fellow Oklahoman Leon Russell's "Stop All That Jazz" album released in 1974.


title: The Gap Band

text: Early on, the group took on a funk sound typical of the early 1970s. This style failed to catch on, and their first two LP's, 1974's "Magicians Holiday" which was recorded at Leon Russell's historic The Church Studio and 1977's "The Gap Band" (not to be confused with their 1979 album), failed to chart or produce any charting singles. Afterwards, they were introduced to Los Angeles producer Lonnie Simmons, who signed them to his production company, Total Experience Productions (named after his successful Crenshaw Boulevard nightclub), and managed to secure a record deal with Mercury Records.


title: The Gap Band

text: On their first album with Simmons, "The Gap Band", they found chart success with songs such as "I'm in Love" and "Shake"; the latter became a Top 10 R&B hit in 1979.


title: The Gap Band

text: Later that year, the group released "I Don't Believe You Want to Get Up and Dance (Oops!)" on their album "The Gap Band II". Although it did not hit the Billboard Hot 100, it soared to number 4 in the US "Billboard" R&B chart, and the album went gold. The song, and the band's musical output as a whole, became more P-Funk-esque, with expanded use of the synthesizers and spoken monologues within songs (see audio sample). The song "Steppin' (Out)" also reached the top 10 R&B.


title: The Gap Band

text: Charlie Wilson provided background vocals on Stevie Wonder's 1980 hit "I Ain't Gonna Stand for It" from Wonder's album "Hotter Than July" (1980).


title: The Gap Band

text: The band reached a whole new level of fame in 1980 with the release of the number 1 R&B and number 16 Billboard 200 hit, "The Gap Band III". That album had soul ballads such as the number 5 R&B song "Yearning for Your Love", and funk songs such as the R&B chart-topper "Burn Rubber on Me (Why You Wanna Hurt Me)" and "Humpin'". They repeated this formula on the number 1 R&B album "Gap Band IV" in 1982 (the first album released on Simmons' newly launched Total Experience Records), which resulted in three hit singles: "Early in the Morning" (number 1 R&B, number 13 Dance, number 24 Hot 100), "You Dropped a Bomb on Me" (number 2 R&B, number 31 Hot 100, number 39 Dance), and "Outstanding" (number 1 R&B, number 24 Dance). It was during this time that former Brides of Funkenstein singer Dawn Silva joined them on tour.


title: The Gap Band

text: Their 1983 album, "", went gold, but was not quite as successful as the previous works, peaking at number 2 R&B and number 28 on the Billboard 200. The single "Party Train" peaked at number 3 R&B, and the song "Jam the Motha'" peaked at number 16 R&B, but neither made it onto the Hot 100. The album's closer "Someday" (a loose cover of Donny Hathaway's "Someday We'll All Be Free") featured Stevie Wonder as a guest vocalist.


title: The Gap Band

text: Their next work, "Gap Band VI" brought them back to number 1 R&B in 1985, but the album sold fewer copies and did not go gold. "Beep a Freak" hit number 2 R&B, "I Found My Baby" peaked at number 8 on the R&B charts, and "Disrespect" peaked at number 18. That year, lead singer Charlie Wilson and singer Shirley Murdock provided backing vocals on Zapp & Roger's number 8 R&B "Computer Love".


title: The Gap Band

text: While their 1986 cover of "Going in Circles" went to number 2 on the R&B charts, and the album it was released on, "Gap Band VII", hit number 6 R&B, the album almost became their first in years to miss the Billboard 200, peaking at number 159.


title: The Gap Band

text: While they were beginning to struggle stateside, the group found their greatest success in the UK when their 1986 single "Big Fun" from "Gap Band 8" reached number 4 in the UK Singles Chart. 1988's "Straight from the Heart" was their last studio album with Total Experience.


title: The Gap Band

text: The Gap Band caught a small break in 1988 with the Keenen Ivory Wayans film, "I'm Gonna Git You Sucka". They contributed the non-charting "You're So Cute" and the number 14 R&B title track to the film (The first was not on the soundtrack, but was used in the film). Their first song on their new label, Capitol Records, 1989's "All of My Love" (from their album "Round Trip"), is, to date, their last number 1 R&B hit. The album also produced the number 8 R&B "Addicted to Your Love" and the number 18 R&B ""We Can Make it Alright." They left Capitol Records the next year and went on a five-year hiatus from producing new material.


title: The Gap Band

text: In 1992, Charlie ventured into a solo career and has had several moderate R&B hits on his own. Wilson's vocals were credited in part for inspiring the vocal style of new jack swing artists Guy, Aaron Hall, Jodeci, Keith Sweat, and R. Kelly. The band reunited in 1996, and issued "The Gap Band: Live and Well", a live greatest hits album.


title: The Gap Band

text: On August 26, 2005, The Gap Band was honored as a BMI Icon at the 57th annual BMI Urban Awards. The honor is given to a creator who has been "a unique and indelible influence on generations of music makers". "Outstanding" alone remains one of the most sampled songs in history and has, astonishingly, been used by over 150 artists.


title: The Gap Band

text: Nirvana drummer Dave Grohl credits The Gap Band for inspiring the drum intro on their hit "Smells Like Teen Spirit."


title: The Gap Band

text: Robert Wilson died of a heart attack at his home in Palmdale, California on August 15, 2010, at the age of 53.


title: The Gap Band

text: Since the 1990s, many of The Gap Band's hits have been sampled and/or covered by R&B and hip hop artists such as II D Extreme, Brand Nubian, Tyler, the Creator, 69 Boyz, Ashanti, Big Mello, Blackstreet, Mary J. Blige, Da Brat, Ice Cube, Jermaine Dupri, Mia X, Nas, Rob Base, Shaquille O'Neal, Snoop Dogg, Soul For Real, Tina Turner, Love Tractor and Vesta. Other musicians inspired by The Gap Band, or who sampled them, include Guy, Aaron Hall, Jagged Edge, Bill Heausler, Mint Condition, Madonna, R. Kelly, Ruff Endz, Keith Sweat, Joe Miller, GRiTT, The Delta Troubadours, and D'Extra Wiley.


title: The Gap Band

text: Producer Heavy D sampled "Outstanding" for "Every Little Thing", a 1995 hit single by his boy band prodigies Soul for Real, which reached number 17 on the Billboard Hot 100. Ten years later, Polish rappers Red and Spinache sampled "Outstanding" for "Wczoraj", from their album "7 Rano".


title: The Gap Band

text: British singer George Michael incorporated parts of "Burn Rubber on Me" in his 1997 single "Star People".


title: Necar Zadegan

text: Necar Zadegan ( ; born June 20, 1982) is an American actress with a prolific career on stage and screen. Zadegan made her Broadway debut alongside Robin Williams in the Pulitzer Prize–nominated production "Bengal Tiger at the Baghdad Zoo" in 2011. She is known for playing First Lady (and then President) Dalia Hassan on the eighth season of "24" then leading in the roles of Delia Banai on "Girlfriends' Guide to Divorce" and Special Agent Hannah Khoury on "".


title: Necar Zadegan

text: Zadegan was born on June 20, 1982 in Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg, West Germany, and raised in the San Francisco Bay Area. She is of Iranian heritage.


title: Necar Zadegan

text: Zadegan graduated with honors from the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) with a BA degree in Literature. She spent a semester abroad at the Sorbonne University. She speaks Persian, French, English, and German fluently.


title: Necar Zadegan

text: From 2005 to 2009, Zadegan amassed a number of television credits namely "The Bernie Mac Show", "Nip/Tuck", "NCIS: Naval Criminal Investigative Service", "The Unit", "How I Met Your Mother", "Big Shots", "Lost", "The Shield", and "".


title: Necar Zadegan

text: In 2009, Zadegan appeared in the Persian language stage production of "From Satellite with Love "Az Mahvareh Ta Eshgh"", touring in the U.S. and Europe.


title: Necar Zadegan

text: In 2009 Zadegan of 'The Leper' in Rajiv Joseph's "Bengal Tiger at the Baghdad Zoo", which moved to Broadway in 2011. The same year she portrayed the First Lady turned president, Dalia Hassan, in the FOX series “24”.


title: Necar Zadegan

text: Zadegan appeared in the 2010 film "Elena Undone" in the title role of Elena Winters for FilmMcQueen. That same year she also appeared opposite Michael Sheen and Samuel L. Jackson in the role of Jehan Younger in the "Columbia Tri Star" psychological thriller "Unthinkable".


title: Necar Zadegan

text: Zadegan returned to television as resident villainess Isabel on the NBC series "The Event". She then took on the series regular role of Dr. Gina Bandari on the 2012 series "Emily Owens M.D." She appeared as Scarlet Leon, the female lead, opposite Greg Kinnear in the 2014 American version of the comedy "Rake".


title: Necar Zadegan

text: Later that same year she rounded out the all female-lead cast for Bravo's first scripted series "Girlfriends' Guide to Divorce" in the role of Delia Banai. The show went on to be the first ever to get a three-season pickup and ran for five seasons before premiering its final season in Spring 2018.


title: Necar Zadegan

text: In 2015 Zadegan continued to appear in other television roles such as "Extant", "Legends" and as the Queen of Iran opposite Michael Sheen for Showtime's critical success "Masters of Sex".


title: Necar Zadegan

text: Zadegan joined the cast of "" in October 2018 playing the role of Special Agent Hannah Khoury, the senior agent in the NCIS New Orleans office.


title: Necar Zadegan

text: Zadegan played the role of Ra-Sharir in the first two episodes of season 3 of Documentary Now! for IFC.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: Landing Ship, Tank (LST), or tank landing ship, is the naval designation for ships first developed during World War II (1939–1945) to support amphibious operations by carrying tanks, vehicles, cargo, and landing troops directly onto shore with no docks or piers. This enabled amphibious assaults on almost any beach.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The LST had a highly specialized design that enabled ocean crossings as well as shore groundings. The bow had a large door that could open, deploy a ramp and unload vehicles. The LST had a flat keel that allowed the ship to be beached and stay upright. The twin propellers and rudders had protection from grounding. The LSTs served across the globe during World War II including in the Pacific War and in the European theatre.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The first tank-landing ships were built to British requirements by converting existing ships; the UK and the US then collaborated upon a joint design. The British ships were used in late 1942 during the Allied invasion of Algeria, by 1943 LSTs participated in the invasion of Sicily and mainland Italy. In June 1944 they were part of the huge invasion fleet for the Normandy landings.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: Over 1,000 LSTs were laid down in the United States during World War II for use by the Allies; the United Kingdom and Canada produced eighty more.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The British evacuation from Dunkirk in 1940 demonstrated to the Admiralty that the Allies needed relatively large, ocean-going ships that could handle shore-to-shore delivery of tanks and other vehicles in amphibious assaults upon the continent of Europe. As an interim measure, three 4,000- to 4,800-GRT "Lake tankers", built to pass over the restrictive bars of Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela, were selected for conversion because of their shallow draft. Bow doors and ramps were added to these ships, which became the first tank landing ships, LST (1): , and . They later proved their worth during the invasion of Algeria in 1942, but their bluff bows made for inadequate speed and pointed out the need for an all-new design incorporating a sleeker hull.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The first purpose-built LST design was . It was a scaled-down design from ideas penned by Prime Minister Winston Churchill. In order that it could carry 13 Churchill infantry tanks, 27 other vehicles and nearly 200 men (in addition to the crew) at a speed of , it could not have a shallow draught sufficient for easy unloading. As a result, each of the three (, , and ) ordered in March 1941 had a very long ramp stowed behind the bow doors.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The ships were built at Harland and Wolff from 1941 and completed in 1943. Bruiser and Thruster took part in the Salerno landings


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: All three were intended to be converted to Fighter Direction Ships in order to have ground-controlled interception of enemy aircraft during landing operations but only "Boxer" was converted.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The U.S. were to build seven LST (1) but in light of the problems with the design and progress with the LST Mark II the plans were cancelled. Construction of the LST (1)s took until 1943 and the first US LST (2) was launched before them.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: At their first meeting at the Atlantic Conference in Argentia, Newfoundland, in August 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill confirmed the Admiralty's views. In November 1941, a small delegation from the Admiralty arrived in the United States to pool ideas with the United States Navy's Bureau of Ships with regard to development of ships and the possibility of building further "Boxer"s in the US. During this meeting, it was decided that the Bureau of Ships would design these vessels. As with the standing agreement, these ships would be built by the US so British shipyards could concentrate on building vessels for the Royal Navy. The specifications called for vessels capable of crossing the Atlantic, and the original title given to them was "Atlantic Tank Landing Craft" (Atlantic (T.L.C.)). Calling a vessel long a "craft" was considered a misnomer and the type was re-christened "Landing Ship, Tank (2)", or "LST (2)".


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The LST (2) design incorporated elements of the first British LCTs from their designer, Sir Rowland Baker, who was part of the British delegation. One of the elements provided for sufficient buoyancy in the ships' sidewalls so that they would float the ship even when the tank deck was flooded. The LST (2) gave up the speed of HMS "Boxer", at only , but carried a similar load while drawing only forward when beaching.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: Within a few days, John C. Niedermair of the Bureau of Ships sketched out an awkward looking ship that proved to be the basic design for the more than 1,000 "LST (2)" that were built during World War II. To meet the conflicting requirements of deep draft for ocean travel and shallow draft for beaching, the ship was designed with a large ballast system that could be filled for ocean passage and pumped out for beaching operations. An anchor and mechanical winch system also aided in the ship's ability to pull itself off the beach. The rough sketch was sent to Britain on 5 November 1941 and accepted immediately. The Admiralty then requested that the United States build 200 "LST (2)" for the Royal Navy under the terms of lend-lease.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The preliminary plans initially called for an LST 280 feet (85 m) in length; but, in January 1942, the Bureau of Ships discarded these drawings in favor of specifications for a ship long. Within a month, final working plans were developed that further stretched the overall length to and called for a beam and a minimum draft of . This scheme distributed the ship's weight over a greater area, enabling her to ride higher in the water when in landing trim. The LST could carry a load of tanks and vehicles. The larger dimensions also permitted the designers to increase the width of the bow door opening and ramp from in order for it to be able to accommodate most Allied vehicles. As the dimensions and weight of the LST increased, steel plating thickness increased from to on the deck and sides, with plating under the bow. By January 1942, the first scale model of the LST had been built and was undergoing tests at the David Taylor Model Basin in Washington, D.C.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: Provisions were made for the satisfactory ventilation of the tank space while the tank motors were running, and an elevator was provided to lower vehicles from the main deck to the tank deck for disembarking. In April 1942 a mock-up of the well-deck of an LST was constructed at Fort Knox, Kentucky to resolve the problem of ventilation within the LST well-deck. The interior of the building was constructed to duplicate all the features found within an actual LST. Being the home to the Armored Force Board, Fort Knox supplied tanks to run on the inside while Naval architects developed a ventilation system capable of evacuating the well-deck of harmful gases. Testing was completed in three months. This historic building remains at Fort Knox today.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: Early LST operations required overcoming the 18th-century language of the Articles for the Government of the United States Navy: "He who doth suffer his ships to founder on rocks and shoals shall be punished..." There were some tense moments of concept testing at Quonset, Rhode Island, in early 1943 when designer Niedermair encouraged the commanding officer of the first U.S. LST to drive his ship onto the beach at full speed of .


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: In three separate acts dated 6 February 1942, 26 May 1943, and 17 December 1943, Congress provided the authority for the construction of LSTs along with a host of other auxiliaries, destroyer escorts, and assorted landing craft. The enormous building program quickly gathered momentum. Such a high priority was assigned to the construction of LSTs that the previously laid keel of an aircraft carrier was hastily removed to make room for several LSTs to be built in her place. The keel of the first LST was laid down on 10 June 1942 at Newport News, Virginia, and the first standardized LSTs were floated out of their building dock in October. Twenty-three were in commission by the end of 1942.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The LST building program was unique in several respects. As soon as the basic design had been developed, contracts were let and construction was commenced in quantity before the completion of a test vessel. Preliminary orders were rushed out verbally or by telegrams, telephone, and air mail letters. The ordering of certain materials actually preceded the completion of design work. While many heavy equipment items, such as main propulsion machinery, were furnished directly by the Navy, the balance of the procurement was handled centrally by the Material Coordinating Agency—an adjunct of the Bureau of Ships—so that the numerous builders in the program would not have to bid against one another. Through vigorous follow-up action on materials ordered, the agency made possible the completion of construction schedules in record time.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The need for LSTs was urgent, and the program enjoyed a high priority throughout the war. Since most shipbuilding activities were located in coastal yards that were mainly used for construction of large, deep-draft ships, new construction facilities for the LSTs were established along inland waterways, some converted from heavy-industry plants, such as steel fabrication yards. Shifting the vessels was complicated by bridges across waterways, many of which were modified by the Navy to permit passage. A dedicated Navy "Ferry Command" orchestrated the transportation of newly constructed ships to coastal ports for final fitting out. Of the 1,051 LSTs built during the war, 670 were supplied by five "cornfield shipyards" in the Middle West. Dravo Corporation's facility at Neville Island, Pennsylvania, designated the lead shipyard for the project, built 145 vessels and developed fabrication techniques that reduced construction time and costs at all of the LST shipyards. The Missouri Valley Bridge & Iron Co. built the most LSTs of any shipyard, with 171 constructed at Evansville, Indiana. Chicago Bridge and Iron's shipyard in Seneca, Illinois, launched 156 ships and was specifically chosen because of their reputation and skills, particularly in welding. The American Bridge Company in Ambridge, Pennsylvania, built 119.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: By 1943, the construction time for an LST had been reduced to four months. By the end of the war, this had been cut to two months. Considerable effort was expended to hold the ship's design constant, but, by mid-1943, operating experience led to the incorporation of certain changes in the new ships.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: From LST-513, the elevator to transfer equipment between the tank deck and the main deck was replaced with a ramp that was hinged at the main deck. This allowed vehicles to be driven directly from the main deck down to the tank deck and then across the bow ramp to the beach or causeway, speeding the process of disembarkation.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: Changes in the later "LST-542" class included the addition of a navigation bridge; the installation of a water distillation plant with a capacity of per day; the removal of the tank deck ventilator tubes from the center section of the main deck; the strengthening of the main deck in order to carry a smaller Landing Craft Tank (LCT); and an upgrade in armor and armament, with the addition of a 3"/50 caliber gun.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The LST (2) design was successful and production extensive, but there was still a need for more LSTs for British operations. As such, it was decided to build a further 80 of the ships in the UK and Canada to be available in the spring of 1945.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: Two major problems made a redesign necessary. The preferred light weight medium-speed (locomotive type) Electro-Motive Diesel 12-567 diesel engines were not immediately available. Staff wanted more power and higher speeds if possible, which the EMD engines could have provided. However, the only engines available were very heavy steam reciprocating engines from frigates that had been cancelled. These delivered two and a half times the power of the diesels. So large were they that significant changes had to be made to accommodate them. Lack of welded construction facilities meant that the hull had to be riveted. This combination of heavy hull and heavy engines meant that speed was only faster than the LCT (2).


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: At the same time, other improvements were made—as well as simplifications required so most of the structure could be assembled with rivets. The cutaway hard chine that had been dropped in the American version of the Mark 2 vessels was restored. The tank deck, which was above the waterline, was made parallel to the keel, there was to be no round down to the upper deck, and the ship was enlarged to accommodate the more bulky machinery.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: Provision was made for carrying the British Landing Craft Assault (LCA) in gravity davits, instead of American assault craft. Provision was also made for carrying Landing Craft Tank (LCT) and Landing Craft Mechanized (LCM), and NL pontoon causeways.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: When the design commenced, engineers knew that the beaches where the ships were expected to land would be very flat, but it was not possible to produce a satisfactory vessel with a draught forward, and very little keel slope, so the 1 in 50 keel slope was maintained. It was known that the 1:50 slope would often result in the LST grounding aft on a shallow beach, resulting in the vehicles being discharged into comparatively deep water.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: Various methods had been investigated to overcome the problem, but heavy grounding skegs and the N.L. pontoon causeways were finally accepted as standard; the pontoon causeways were formed of pontoons × 5 ft × , made up into strings and rafts. When offloading, the rafts were secured to the fore end of the ship, and the load discharged directly onto the shore, or towed on the raft to the shore.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The ships were fitted out for service in both very cold and tropical conditions. The accommodation provided for both crew and army personnel was greatly improved compared with LST (2). The main hazard, apart from enemy action, was fire on the tank deck. Fire sprinklers were provided, but the water drenching system installed in later American vessels could not be provided.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The bow door arrangements were similar to the LST (2), but the design arranged the bow ramp in two parts in an attempt to increase the number of beaches where direct discharge would be possible. The machinery for operating the bow doors and ramp were electrical, but otherwise, steam auxiliaries replaced the electrical gear on the LST (2).


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The general arrangements of the tank deck were similar, but the design increased headroom and added a ramp to the top deck, as in later LST (2)s. Provision was made for carrying LCA on gravity davits instead of the American built assault boats. The arrangements were generally an improvement over the LST (2), but suffered from a deeper draught, and, to some extent, from the haste of construction.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The first orders were placed in December 1943 with British builders, and 35 with Canadian builders. Swan Hunter delivered the first ships in December 1944. During 1944, follow up orders were placed in Canada for a further 36. These programmes were in full swing when the war ended, but not all vessels were completed.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The ships were numbered numbers "LST-3001" to "LST-3045" and "LST-3501" to "LST-3534". "LST−3535" and later were cancelled.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: Fifteen 40-ton tanks or 27 25-ton tanks could be carried on the tank deck with an additional fourteen lorries on the weather deck.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: Steam was supplied by a pair of Admiralty pattern 3-drum water-tube type boilers, working at . The main engines were of the 4-cylinder triple expansion 4-crank type, balanced on the Yarrow-Tweedy-Slick system, the cylinders being as follows:


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The common stroke was . The piston and slide valve rods were all fitted with metallic packing to the stuffing boxes, and all pistons fitted with packing rings and springs. The high-pressure valve was of the piston type, whilst the remaining ones were of the balanced type. The main engines were designed to develop at 185 rpm continuously.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: With the ships being twin screw, the engines were fitted with a shaft coupling to the crank shaft at the forward end, allowing the engine to be turned end to end to suit either port or starboard side fitting.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: When the LST (3)s were ordered, the LST (2) programme was in full swing, and similar arrangements were made to enable the LSTs to carry the long LCT5 or LCT6 that were being built in America for the Royal Navy.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The LCT needed lifting onto the deck of the ship, being carried on wedge-shaped support blocks; at the time of launching she was set down on the "launch ways" by simply slacking off bolts in the wedge blocks, allowing the launch way to take the weight. To carry out a launch, the LST was simply heeled over about 11 degrees by careful flooding of tanks in the hull. The height of the drop was about , and immediately after the launch the craft's engines were started and they were ready for operation.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: This method was used for moving LCT5s from Britain to the Far East, although there seems to be no reference to LST (3)s being used, most being completed late in or after the war.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: Even at the end of the war there was a need for more ships able to carry minor landing craft, and two of the LST (3)s then completing were specially fitted to carry LCM (7). These craft, which were long and weighed about 28 tons, were carried transversely on the upper deck of the ship. They were hoisted on by means of a specially fitted 30-ton derrick; This 30-ton derrick replaced a 15-ton derrick, two of which were the standard fit of the LST (3). The 30-ton derrick was taller and generally more substantial than the 15 ton one.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The LCM (7)s were landed on trolleys fitted with hydraulic jacks. These ran on rails down each side of the deck, and were hauled to and fro by means of winches. The stowage was filled from fore to aft as each craft was jacked down onto fixed cradles between the rails. The ships completed to this standard were "LST-3043"/HMS "Messina", and "LST-3044"/HMS "Narvik". While these ships were able to carry LCMs, they were only able to carry out loading and unloading operations under nearly ideal weather conditions, and therefore could not be used for assault operations; they also lacked the facilities to maintain the landing craft (which the Dock Landing Ships provided).


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The Landing Craft Assault were wooden-hulled vessels plated with armour, long overall, wide, and displacing 13 tons fully loaded. Draught was , and normal load was 35 troops with of equipment. A pair of Scripps marine conversions of Ford V8 engines gave it speeds of unloaded, service speed, on one engine. Range was miles on . Armament was typically a Bren light machine gun aft; with two Lewis Guns in a port forward position.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The LCM (7)s that were carried on the LST (2) were considerably larger, in length, beam, with a hoisting weight of 28 tons, full load displacement of 63 tons. Beaching draught was , and propulsion was provided by a pair of Hudson Invader petrol engines, later replaced with Grays diesels, both sets providing , giving a speed of .


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The main requirement of the design was to carry a 40-ton Churchill tank or bulldozer at . 140 had been completed when the war ended, and some saw service through to the 1970s.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: Some LST (3)s were converted to LST (A) (A for "assault") by adding stiffening so they could safely carry the heaviest British tanks.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: Two LST (3)s were converted to command vessels, LST (C): LST 3043 and LST 3044. Post war they became HMS "Messina" (L112) and HMS "Narvik" (L114). They were better armed with ten 20 mm Oerlikons and four 40 mm Bofors.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: Two LST (3)s were converted during building into Headquarters command ships LST (Q). These were L3012, which became L3101 (and later HMS "Ben Nevis") and LST 3013, which became LST 3102, and then HMS "Ben Lomond". They acted as LST "mother ships", similar in most aspects to American ships based on the LST (2) hull. They had two Quonset huts erected on the main deck to accommodate 40 officers. Berths on the tank deck berthed an extra 196 men. A bake shop and 16 refrigeration boxes for fresh provisions augmented the facilities normally provided for the crew. Four extra distilling units were added, and the ballast tanks were converted for the storage of fresh water.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: At the Armor Training School in Ft. Knox, Kentucky, buildings were erected as exact mock-ups of an LST. Tank crews in training learned how to maneuver their vehicles onto, in and from an LST with these facilities. One of these buildings has been preserved at Ft. Knox for historic reasons and can still be seen.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: From their combat début in the Solomon Islands in June 1943 until the end of the hostilities in August 1945, the LSTs performed a vital service in World War II. They participated in the invasions of Sicily (Operation Husky), Italy, Normandy, and southern France in the European Theater and were an essential element in the island-hopping campaigns in the Pacific that culminated in the liberation of the Philippines and the capture of Iwo Jima and Okinawa.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: Despite the large numbers produced, LSTs were a scarce commodity and Churchill describes the difficulty in retaining sufficient LSTs in the Mediterranean for amphibious work in Italy, and later the logistics of moving large numbers to the eastern theatres, while still supplying the large armies in Europe.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The LST proved to be a remarkably versatile ship. Thirty-nine of them were converted to become landing craft repair ships (ARL). In this design, the bow ramp and doors were removed, and the bow was sealed. Derricks, booms, and winches were added to haul damaged landing craft on board for repairs, and blacksmith, machine, and electrical workshops were provided on the main deck and tank deck.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: Thirty-six LSTs were converted to serve as small hospital ships and designated LSTH. They supplemented the many standard LSTs, which removed casualties from the beach after landing tanks and vehicles. LSTs had brought 41,035 wounded men back across the English Channel from Normandy by D-Day+114 (28 September 1944). Other LSTs, provided with extra cranes and handling gear, were used exclusively for replenishing ammunition. They possessed a special advantage in this role, as their size permitted two or three LSTs to go simultaneously alongside an anchored battleship or cruiser to accomplish replenishment more rapidly than standard ammunition ships.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: Three LST (2) were converted into British "Fighter Direction Tenders" (FDT), swapping their landing craft for Motor Launches and outfitted with AMES Type 11 and Type 15 fighter control radar to provide Ground-controlled interception (GCI) coverage for air defence of the D-Day landing areas. Of these ships, HMS "FDT 216" was stationed off Omaha and Utah beaches, HMS "FDT 217" was allocated Sword, Juno, and Gold beaches. HMS "FDT 13" was used for coverage of the overall main shipping channel. In the period 6 June to 26 June Allied fighters controlled by the FDTs resulted in the destruction of 52 enemy aircraft by day, and 24 enemy aircraft by night.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: In the latter stages of World War II, some LSTs were fitted with flight decks that could launch small observation planes during amphibious operations. These were USS "LST-16", USS "LST-337", USS "LST-386", USS "LST-525", "LST-776", and . Two others (USS "LST-393" and USS "LST-776") were fitted with the Brodie System for take off and landing.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: It has been estimated that, in the combined fleets assembled for the war on Japan, the tonnage of landing ships, excluding landing craft, would have exceeded five million tons and nearly all built within four years.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: Throughout the war, LSTs demonstrated a remarkable capacity to absorb punishment and survive. Despite the sobriquets "Large Slow Target" and "Large Stationary Target," which were applied to them by crew members, the LSTs suffered few losses in proportion to their number and the scope of their operations. Their brilliantly conceived structural arrangement provided unusual strength and buoyancy; was struck and holed in a post-war collision with a Victory ship and survived. Although the LST was considered a valuable target by the enemy, only 26 were lost due to enemy action, and a mere 13 were the victims of weather, reef, or accident.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: A total of 1,152 LSTs were contracted for in the great naval building program of World War II, but 101 were cancelled in the fall of 1942 because of shifting construction priorities. Of 1,051 actually constructed, 113 LSTs were transferred to Britain under the terms of Lend-Lease, and four more were turned over to the Greek Navy. Conversions to other ship types with different hull designations accounted for 116: 6 Miscellaneous Ships (AG), 14 Motor Torpedo Boat Tenders (AGP), 7 Self-Propelled Barracks Ships (APB), 13 Battle Damage Repair Ships (ARB), 39 Landing Craft Repair Ships (ARL), 3 Salvage Craft Tenders (ARST), 4 Aircraft Repair Ships (ARVA, ARVE), 1 Advance Aviation Base Ship (AVB), 4 Unclassified miscellaneous vessels (IX), and 36 LSTH. One LST which had been sunk in an accident was later raised and converted into a Covered Barge (YF).


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The end of World War II left the Navy with a huge inventory of amphibious ships. Hundreds of these were scrapped or sunk, and most of the remaining ships were put in "mothballs" to be preserved for the future. Additionally, many of the LSTs were demilitarized and sold to the private sector, along with thousands of other transport ships, contributing to a major downturn in shipbuilding in the United States following the war. Many LSTs were used as targets in aquatic nuclear testing after the war, being readily available and serving no apparent military applications. World War II era LSTs have become somewhat ubiquitous, and have found a number of novel commercial uses, including operating as small freighters, ferries, and dredges. Consequently, construction of LSTs in the immediate post-war years was modest. "LST-1153" and "LST-1154", commissioned respectively in 1947 and 1949, were the only steam-driven LSTs ever built by the Navy. They provided improved berthing arrangements and a greater cargo capacity than their predecessors.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: The success of the amphibious assault at Inchon during the Korean War showed the utility of LSTs once again. This was in contrast with the earlier opinion expressed by many military authorities that the advent of the atomic bomb had relegated amphibious landings to a thing of the past. During the Korean War a number of LSTs were converted to transport the much needed, but slow and short range LSU from the United States to the Korean theater of war using the piggy-back method. After arrival the LSU was slid off sideways from the LST. Additionally, LSTs were used for transport in the building of an Air Force base at Thule, Greenland during the Korean War. Fifteen LSTs of what were later to be known as the "Terrebonne Parish" class were constructed in the early 1950s. These new LSTs were longer and were equipped with four, rather than two, diesel engines, which increased their speed to . Three-inch / 50-caliber twin mounts replaced the old twin 40 mm guns, and controllable pitch propellers improved the ship's backing power. On 1 July 1955, county or, in the case of Louisiana, parish names were assigned to many LSTs, which up to then had borne only a letter-number hull designation.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: In the late 1950s, seven LSTs of the "De Soto County" class were constructed. These were an improved version over earlier LSTs, with a high degree of habitability for the crew and embarked troops. Considered the "ultimate" design attainable with the traditional LST bow door configuration, they were capable of .


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: In 1946, a brand new concept of transport was developed in the UK. During World War II, the great potential of landing ships and craft was recognised; if it was possible to drive tanks, guns and lorries directly onto a beach, then theoretically the same landing craft could be used to carry out a similar operation in the civilian commercial market, providing there were reasonable port facilities. From this idea grew the worldwide roll-on/roll-off ferry industry. In the period between the world wars, Lt. Colonel Frank Bustard formed the Atlantic Steam Navigation Company, with a view to cheap transatlantic travel. This never materialised, but he observed trials on Brighton Sands of a LST in 1943 when its peacetime capabilities were obvious.


title: Landing Ship, Tank

text: In the spring of 1946, the company approached the Admiralty with a request to purchase three of these vessels. The Admiralty was unwilling to sell, but after negotiations agreed to let the ASN have the use of three vessels on bareboat charter at a rate of £13 6s 8d per day. These vessels were LSTs "3519", "3534", and "3512". They were renamed "Empire Baltic", , and , perpetuating the name of White Star Line ships in combination with the "Empire" ship naming of vessels in government service during the war.