title: Eugene Stoner

text: On May 16, 1990, Stoner and Mikhail Kalashnikov, inventor of the AK-47 and its derivatives, would meet for the first time. They would spend the next few days talking, sharing stories, shopping, going out to dinner and touring Washington D.C. They visited the Smithsonian Institution, the NRA's National Firearms Museum, and a hunting lodge owned by the gun club at Star Tannery, where they went shooting. They would also visit the Marine Corps base in Quantico, Virginia, where they watched new weapons being tested. During this short visit, both men, intimately familiar with the other's work, shared a common bond and became friends, "not needing an interpreter to get their thoughts across."


title: Eugene Stoner

text: Eugene Stoner died of cancer at the age of 74 on April 24, 1997, and was later interred in the Quantico National Cemetery, Quantico, Virginia.


title: Eugene Stoner

text: He was survived by his wife, Barbara Hitt Stoner, whom he married in 1965; his first wife, Jean Stoner Mahony of Newport Beach, California, from whom he was divorced in 1962; four children from his first marriage, seven grandchildren and four great-grandchildren. His wife, Barbara Hitt Stoner, passed away at her home in Plymouth, Michigan on February 17, 2022 and was interred with her husband.


title: Greater Romania

text: The term Greater Romania () usually refers to the borders of the Kingdom of Romania in the interwar period, achieved after the Great Union. It also refers to a pan-nationalist idea.


title: Greater Romania

text: As a concept, its main goal is the creation of a nation-state which would incorporate all Romanian speakers. In 1920, after the incorporation of Transylvania, Bukovina, Bessarabia and parts of Banat, Crișana, and Maramureș, the Romanian state reached its largest peacetime geographical extent ever (295,049 km²). Today, the concept serves as a guiding principle for the unification of Romania and Moldova.


title: Greater Romania

text: The idea is comparable to other similar conceptions such as the Greater Bulgaria, Megali Idea, Greater Yugoslavia, Greater Hungary and Greater Italy.


title: Greater Romania

text: The theme of national identity had been always a key concern for Romanian culture and politics. The Romanian national ideology in the first decades of the twentieth century was a typical example of ethnocentric nationalism. The concept of "Greater Romania" shows similarities to the idea of national state. The Romanian territorial claims were based on ""primordial racial modalities"", the essential goal of them was to unify the biologically defined Romanians. The nation-building based on the French model of a unitary nation-state became an all time priority especially in the interwar and the Communist periods.


title: Greater Romania

text: The union of Michael the Brave, who ruled over the three principalities with Romanian population (Wallachia, Transylvania and Moldavia) for a short period of time, was viewed in later periods as the precursor of a modern Romania, a thesis which was argued with noted intensity by Nicolae Bălcescu. This theory became a point of reference for nationalists, as well as a catalyst for various Romanian forces to achieve a single Romanian state.


title: Greater Romania

text: The Romanian revolution in 1848 already carried the seeds of the national dream of a unified and united Romania, though the "idea of unification" had been known from earlier works of Naum Ramniceanu (1802) and Ion Budai-Deleanu (1804). The concept owes its life to Dimitrie Brătianu, who introduced the term "Greater Romania" in 1852. The first step in unifying Romanians was to establish the United Principalities by uniting Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859, which became known as Romania since the 1866 Constitution and turned into a Kingdom in 1881, after gaining independence from the Ottoman Empire. However, before the Austro-Hungarian Compromise, the elite of the Transylvanian Romanians did not support the concept of "Greater Romania", instead they wanted only equality with the other nations in Transylvania. The concept became a political reality when, in 1881, the Romanian National Party of Transylvania gathered Romanians on a common political platform to fight together for Transylvania's autonomy. According to Livezeanu the creation of Greater Romania with ""a unifying concept of nationhood"" started to evolve in the late 1910s. World War I played a crucial part in the development of Romanian national consciousness.


title: Greater Romania

text: The Treaty of Bucharest (1916) was signed between Romania and the Entente Powers on 4 (Old Style)/17 (New Style) August 1916 in Bucharest. The treaty stipulated the conditions under which Romania agreed to join the war on the side of the Entente, particularly territorial promises in Austria-Hungary. The signatories bound themselves to keep secret the contents of the treaty until a general peace was concluded.


title: Greater Romania

text: The concept of ""Greater Romania"" materialized as a geopolitical reality after the First World War. Romania gained control over Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania. The borders established by the treaties concluding the war did not change until 1940. The resulting state, often referred to as "România Mare" or, alternatively, as (roughly translated in English as "Romania Made Whole," or "Entire Romania"), was seen as the 'true', "whole" Romanian state, or, as Tom Gallagher states, the "Holy Grail of Romanian nationalism". Its constitution, proclaimed in 1923, "largely ignored the new ethnic and cultural realities".


title: Greater Romania

text: The Romanian ideology changed due to the demographic, cultural and social alterations, however the nationalist desire for a homogeneous Romanian state conflicted with the multiethnic, multicultural truth of Greater Romania. The ideological rewriting of the role of ""spiritual victimization"", turning it into ""spiritual police"", was a radical and challenging task for the Romanian intellectuals because they had to entirely revise the national identity and the destiny of the Romanian nation. In accordance with this view, Livezeanu states that the Great Union created a ""deeply fragmented"" interwar Romania where the determination of national identity met with great difficulties mainly because of the effects of the hundred years of political separation. Due to the inability of the government to solve the problems of the Transylvanian Romanians' integration and the effects of the worldwide and national economic depression, "the population gradually lost its faith in the democratic conception of Greater Romania".


title: Greater Romania

text: The Great Depression in Romania, which started in 1929, destabilised the country. The early 1930s were marked by social unrest, high unemployment, and strikes. In several instances, the Romanian government violently repressed strikes and riots, notably the 1929 miners' strike in Valea Jiului and the strike in the Grivița railroad workshops. In the mid-1930s, the Romanian economy recovered and the industry grew significantly, although about 80% of Romanians were still employed in agriculture. French economic and political influence was predominant in the early 1920s but then Germany became more dominant, especially in the 1930s.


title: Greater Romania

text: Bessarabia declared its sovereignty as the Moldavian Democratic Republic in 1917 by the newly formed "Council of the Country" ("Sfatul Țării"). The state was faced with the disorderly retreat through its territory of Russian troops from disbanded units. In January 1918, the "Sfatul Țării" called on Romanian troops to protect the province from the Bolsheviks who were spreading the Russian Revolution. After declaring independence from Russia on 24 January 1918, the "Sfatul Țării" voted for union with Romania on 9 April 1918. Of the 138 deputies in the council, 86 voted for union, 3 against, 36 abstained (mostly the deputies representing minorities, 52% of the population at the time) and 13 were not present. The United Kingdom, France, Italy and Japan recognized the incorporation of Bessarabia through the Treaty of Paris. The United States and the Soviet Union however refused to do so, the latter maintaining a claim to the territory for the whole interwar period. Furthermore, Japan failed to ratify the treaty, which therefore never entered into force.


title: Greater Romania

text: In Bukovina, after being occupied by the Romanian Army, a National Council voted for union with Romania. While the Romanian, German, and Polish deputies unanimously voted for union, the Ukrainian deputies (representing 38% of the population according to the 1910 Austrian census) and Jewish deputies did not attend the council. The unification was ratified in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye.


title: Greater Romania

text: On 1 December 1918, the Great National Assembly of Alba Iulia proclaimed the union of Transylvania and other territories with Romania in Alba Iulia, adopted by the Deputies of the Romanians of Transylvania, and supported one month later by the vote of the Deputies of the Saxons of Transylvania. The Hungarians of Transylvania, about 32% at the time (including the Hungarian-speaking Jewish community), and the Germans of Banat did not elect deputies upon the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, since they were considered represented by the Budapest government of Hungary, nevertheless on 22 December 1918 the Hungarian General Assembly in Cluj (Kolozsvár) reaffirmed the loyalty of Hungarians from Transylvania to Hungary. In the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary was forced to give up all claims over Transylvania and the treaty set the new borders between the two countries.


title: Greater Romania

text: In 1940, the Romanian state agreed to cede Bessarabia to the Soviet Union, as provided for by the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact between the Soviet Union and Germany. It also lost Northern Bukovina and the Hertsa region, which were not mentioned in the pact, to the Soviet Union. It lost Northern Transylvania to Hungary, through the Second Vienna Award, and the Southern Dobruja to Bulgaria by the Treaty of Craiova. In the course of World War II, Romania, which was allied with the Axis Powers, not only re-annexed Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, but also took under administrative control lands to the east of Dniester (parts of recently formed Moldavian SSR, and of Odessa and Vinnytsia oblasts of Ukrainian SSR), creating Transnistria Governorate. Despite clear Ukrainian majority in the governorate's ethnic composition, demonstrated by a census conducted in December 1941, Romanian government hoped to annex it eventually as a "compensation" for Northern Transylvania lost to Hungary.


title: Greater Romania

text: These territories were lost again when the tide of the war turned. After the war, Romania regained the Transylvanian territories lost to Hungary, but not territory lost to Bulgaria or the Soviet Union. In 1948 a treaty between the Soviet Union and Soviet-occupied Communist Romania also provided for the transfer of four uninhabited islands to the Soviet Union, three in the Danube Delta and Snake Island in the Black Sea.


title: Greater Romania

text: After the war, the concept was interpreted as "obsolete" because of the Romanian defeat. However, even the Communist politicians between 1944 and 1947 plainly supported the re-establishment of Greater Romania. Gheorghe Apostol's reminiscence strengthens the view for the nationalist argument of the Communists at the negotiations with Stalin about the future of Northern Transylvania. In contrast with this view, Romsics quotes Valter Roman, one of the heads of the Romanian Communist Party, as writing in his memo of April 1944: ""the two parts of Transylvania should be reunited as an independent state.""


title: Greater Romania

text: The Romanian Communist politicians' behavior were depicted as nationalist, and this circumstance brought about the concept of National Communism, which amalgamated elements of Stalinism and Fascism. According to Trond Gilberg the regime needed the strongly nationalist attitude because of the social, economic and political challenges. After the retreat of the Soviet troops from Romania in 1958, the national ideology was reborn, however it raises questions about its reconcilability with internationalist communism. Nicolae Ceaușescu fancied the idea that the creation of Greater Romania was the fruit of the end of the nation-formation process.


title: Greater Romania

text: The fall of the communist regimes in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union and the economic downturn accompanying it led to a resurgence of nationalism in the region. Romania and Moldova, state comprising the bulk of Bessarabia which had become independent after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, confronted with their eastern neighbor, Ukraine. Bucharest and Chișinău announced territorial claims on Ukrainian lands (on parts of Chernivtsi and Odessa regions). Bulgaria surmised that the concept of Greater Romania stood behind Romanian foreign policy toward Moldova therefore expressed concerns about possible developments on Dobruja.


title: Greater Romania

text: In 1992, the issue on unification of Moldova and Romania was negotiated between Romanian and Moldovan governments and they wanted to achieve it by the end of the year. However, the "unionists" lost their dominance in Moldova in the middle of the year. Bucharest admitted the existence of the two Romanian states (Romania and Moldova) and defined priorities in reference to this matter: ""the creation of a common cultural space; the creation of an economically integrated zone; and gradual political integration"". The Moldovan Snegur government became more pragmatic and realized that the nationalist propaganda from Bucharest did not help their aims especially on the problem of "Soviet annexed Bessarabia". The Romanian organizations ignored the result of the Moldovan referendum on independence because the referendum did not ask Romanians in Romania. Romanian politicians blamed Russia and the Moldovan regime that unification became unreal. According to Edward Ozhiganov (Head of the Division for Ethnopolitical Research at the Analytical Center of the Federation Council in Russia), the armed conflict in Moldova was due to the Romanian ethnic nationalism, in other words, ""the attempt to create a unitary, ethnic state with power concentrated in the hands of ethnic nationalists in what was actually a multiethnic society."" Furthermore, Bucharest's behavior toward Ukraine did not change until 1997 when Romanian politicians realized that resolving border disputes were a precondition for NATO membership.


title: Greater Romania

text: Present-day Romanian irredentists (such as members of PRM) aim to take possession of territories of northern Bukovina and Bessarabia. These regions currently belong to Ukraine and Moldova. The Russian presence and the tense political situation in Moldova also inflame their demands. Nevertheless, radicals make territorial demands on Hungary too. The Greater Romania Party (Partidul România Mare – PRM) is an emblematic representative of the aforesaid concept, though the conception is fostered also by other right-wing groups (e.g. the organisation of the New Right –Noua Dreaptă). Today, the phrase "Bessarabia, Romanian land" (, with several variations) is commonly used in Romania, and it poses territorial claims over the region of Bessarabia. It is also used in Moldova.


title: Malabar Coast

text: The Malabar Coast is the southwestern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Geographically, it comprises the wettest regions of southern India, as the Western Ghats intercept the moisture-laden monsoon rains, especially on their westward-facing mountain slopes. The term is used to refer to the entire Indian coast from the western coast of Konkan to the tip of India at Kanyakumari. The peak of Anamudi, which is also the point of highest altitude in India outside the Himalayas, and Kuttanad, which is the point of least elevation in India, lie on the Malabar Coast. Kuttanad, also known as "The Rice Bowl of Kerala", has the lowest altitude in India, and is also one of the few places in the world where cultivation takes place below sea level.


title: Malabar Coast

text: The region parallel to the Malabar Coast gently slopes from the eastern highland of Western Ghats ranges to the western coastal lowland. The moisture-laden winds of the Southwest monsoon, on reaching the southernmost point of the Indian Peninsula, because of its topography, divides into two branches; the "Arabian Sea Branch" and the "Bay of Bengal Branch". The "Arabian Sea Branch" of the Southwest monsoon first hits the Western Ghats, making Kerala the first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest monsoon. The Malabar Coast is a source of Biodiversity in India.


title: Malabar Coast

text: Until the arrival of the British, the term "Malabar" was used in foreign trade circles as a general name for Kerala. Earlier, the term "Malabar" had also been used to denote Tulu Nadu and Kanyakumari which lie contiguous to Kerala in the southwestern coast of India, in addition to the modern state of Kerala. The people of Malabar were known as "Malabars". The term Malabar is often used to denote the entire southwestern coast of India. From the time of Cosmas Indicopleustes (6th century CE) itself, the Arab sailors used to call Kerala as "Male". The first element of the name, however, is attested already in the "Topography" written by Cosmas Indicopleustes. This mentions a pepper emporium called "Male", which clearly gave its name to Malabar ('the country of Male'). The name "Male" is thought to come from the Malayalam word "Mala" ('mountain'). The second part of the name is thought by scholars to be the Arabic word "barr" ('continent') or its Persian relative "bar" ('country'). Al-Biruni (AD 973 - 1048) must have been the first writer to call this state "Malabar". Authors such as Ibn Khordadbeh and Al-Baladhuri mention Malabar ports in their works. The Arab writers had called this place "Malibar", "Manibar", "Mulibar", and "Munibar". "Malabar" is reminiscent of the word "Malanad" which means "the land of mountains". According to William Logan, the word "Malabar" comes from a combination of the Malayalam word "Mala" (mountain) and the Persian/Arabic word "Barr" (country/continent).


title: Malabar Coast

text: The term "Malabar Coast", in historical contexts, refers to India's southwestern coast, which lies on the narrow coastal plain of Karnataka and Kerala between the Western Ghats range and the Arabian Sea. The coast runs from south of Goa to Kanyakumari on India's southern tip. India's southeastern coast is called the Coromandel Coast.


title: Malabar Coast

text: In ancient times the term "Malabar" was used to denote the entire south-western coast of the Indian peninsula. The region formed part of the ancient kingdom of Chera until the early 12th century. Following the breakup of the Chera Kingdom, the chieftains of the region proclaimed their independence. Notable among these were the Zamorins of Calicut, Kolathiris, "Perumbadappu Swaroopam", Venad, the Coylot Wanees Country of northeast and coastal Ceylon (including Puttalam), Valluvokonathiris of Valluvanad.


title: Malabar Coast

text: The name "Malabar Coast" is sometimes used as an all-encompassing term for the entire Indian coast from Konkan to the tip of the subcontinent at Kanyakumari. This coast is over long and stretches from the coast of southwestern Maharashtra, along the region of Goa, through the entire western coast of Karnataka and Kerala, and up to Kanyakumari. It is flanked by the Arabian Sea on the west and the Western Ghats on the east. The southern part of this narrow coast is referred to as the South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests.


title: Malabar Coast

text: "Malabar" is also used by ecologists to refer to the tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests of southwestern India (present-day Kerala).


title: Malabar Coast

text: Geographically, the Malabar Coast can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands; rugged and cool mountainous terrain, the central mid-lands; rolling hills, and the western lowlands; coastal plains.


title: Malabar Coast

text: The Western Ghats mountain chain, which lie parallel to the coast on the eastern highland, is recognised as one of the world's eight "hottest hotspots" of biological diversity and is listed among UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The peak of Anamudi in Kerala is the highest peak in India outside the Himalayas, is at an elevation of . The chain's forests are considered to be older than the Himalaya mountains.


title: Malabar Coast

text: Malabar's western coastal belt is relatively flat compared to the eastern region, and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected brackish canals, lakes, estuaries, and rivers known as the Kerala Backwaters. The Kuttanad region, also known as "The Rice Bowl of Kerala", has the lowest altitude in India. The country's longest lake Vembanad, dominates the backwaters; it lies between Alappuzha and Kochi and is about in area. Around eight percent of India's waterways are found in Kerala.


title: Malabar Coast

text: The term "Malabar Coast" is sometimes used as an all-encompassing term for the entire Indian coast from the western coast of Konkan to the tip of the subcontinent at Cape Comorin. It is over 525 miles or 845  kilometers long. It spans from the south-western coast of Maharashtra and goes along the coastal region of Goa, through the entire western coast of Karnataka and Kerala and reaches till Kanyakumari. It is flanked by the Arabian Sea on the west and the Western Ghats on the east. The Southern part of this narrow coast is the South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests. Climate-wise, the Malabar Coast, especially on its westward-facing mountain slopes, comprises the wettest region of southern India, as the Western Ghats intercept the moisture-laden Southwest monsoon rains.


title: Malabar Coast

text: The Malabar Coast featured (and in some instances still does) several historic port cities. Notable among these were/are Naura, Vizhinjam, Muziris, Nelcynda, Beypore and Thundi (near Ponnani or Kadalundi) during ancient times, and Kozhikode (Calicut), Kollam, Ponnani, Kannur (Cannanore), and Cochin in the medieval period, and have served as centers of the Indian Ocean trade for millennia.


title: Malabar Coast

text: Because of their orientation to the sea and to maritime commerce, the Malabar coast cities feel very cosmopolitan, and have been home to some of the first groups of Jews (known today as Cochin Jews), Syrian Christians (known as Saint Thomas Christians), Muslims (presently known as Mappilas), and Anglo-Indians in India.


title: Malabar Coast

text: A substantial portion of the Malabar Coast including the western coastal lowlands and the plains of the midland may have been under the sea in ancient times. Marine fossils have been found in an area near Changanassery, thus supporting the hypothesis. Pre-historical archaeological findings include dolmens of the Neolithic era in the Marayur area of the Idukki district, which lie on the eastern highland made by Western Ghats. Rock engravings in the Edakkal Caves, in Wayanad date back to the Neolithic era around 6000 BCE.


title: Malabar Coast

text: The Malabar Coast has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE, according to Sumerian records and it is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India". Kerala's spices attracted ancient Arabs, Babylonians, Assyrians and Egyptians to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. Phoenicians established trade with Malabar during this period. Arabs and Phoenicians were the first to enter the Malabar Coast to trade Spices. The Arabs on the coasts of Yemen, Oman, and the Persian Gulf, must have made the first long voyage to Malabar and other eastern countries. They must have brought the Cinnamon of Malabar to the Middle East. The Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.


title: Malabar Coast

text: According to the "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea", a region known as "Limyrike" began at "Naura" and "Tyndis". However the Ptolemy mentions only "Tyndis" as the "Limyrike"'s starting point. The region probably ended at Kanyakumari; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-day Malabar Coast. The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at around 50,000,000 sesterces. Pliny the Elder mentioned that "Limyrike" was prone by pirates. The Cosmas Indicopleustes mentioned that the "Limyrike" was a source of Malabar peppers. In the last centuries BCE the coast became important to the Greeks and Romans for its spices, especially Malabar pepper. The Cheras had trading links with China, West Asia, Egypt, Greece, and the Roman Empire. In foreign-trade circles the region was known as "Male" or "Malabar". Muziris, Tyndis, Naura (near Kannur), and Nelcynda were among the principal ports at that time. contemporary Sangam literature describes Roman ships coming to Muziris in Kerala, laden with gold to exchange for Malabar pepper. One of the earliest western traders to use the monsoon winds to reach Kerala was Eudoxus of Cyzicus, around 118 or 166 BCE, under the patronage of Ptolemy VIII, king of the Hellenistic Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. Roman establishments in the port cities of the region, such as a temple of "Augustus" and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiers, are marked in the Tabula Peutingeriana, the only surviving map of the Roman "cursus publicus".


title: Malabar Coast

text: The term "Kerala" was first epigraphically recorded as "Ketalaputo" (Cheras) in a 3rd-century BCE rock inscription by emperor Ashoka of Magadha. It was mentioned as one of four independent kingdoms in southern India during Ashoka's time, the others being the Cholas, Pandyas and Satyaputras. The Cheras transformed Kerala into an international trade centre by establishing trade relations across the Arabian Sea with all major Mediterranean and Red Sea ports as well those of the Far East. The dominion of Cheras was located in one of the key routes of the ancient Indian Ocean trade. The early Cheras collapsed after repeated attacks from the neighboring Cholas and Rashtrakutas.


title: Malabar Coast

text: During the early Middle Ages, Namboodiri Brahmin immigrants arrived in Kerala and shaped the society on the lines of the caste system. In the 8th century, Adi Shankara was born at Kalady in central Kerala. He travelled extensively across the Indian subcontinent founding institutions of the widely influential philosophy of Advaita Vedanta. The Cheras regained control over Kerala in the 9th century until the kingdom was dissolved in the 12th century, after which small autonomous chiefdoms, most notably the Kingdom of Kozhikode, arose. The 13th century Venetian explorer, Marco Polo, would visit and write of his stay in the province. The port at Kozhikode acted as the gateway to medieval South Indian coast for the Chinese, the Arabs, the Portuguese, the Dutch, and finally the British.


title: Malabar Coast

text: In 1498, Vasco Da Gama established a sea route to Kozhikode during the Age of Discovery, which was also the first modern sea route from Europe to South Asia, and raised Portuguese settlements, which marked the beginning of the colonial era of India. European trading interests of the Dutch, French and the British East India companies took centre stage during the colonial wars in India. Travancore became the most dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful Zamorin of Kozhikode in the battle of Purakkad in 1755. After the Dutch were defeated by Travancore king Marthanda Varma, the British crown gained control over Kerala through the creation of the Malabar District in northern Kerala and by allying with the newly created princely state of Travancore in the southern part of the state until India was declared independent in 1947. The state of Kerala was created in 1956 from the former state of Travancore-Cochin, the Malabar district and the Kasaragod taluk of South Canara District of Madras state.


title: Malabar Coast

text: After the Anglo-Mysore wars, the parts of the Malabar Coast, those became British colonies, were organized into a district of British India. The British district included the present-day districts of Kannur, Kozhikode, Wayanad, Malappuram, much of Palakkad (Excluding Chittur taluk), some parts of Thrissur (Chavakkad Taluk), and the Fort Kochi region of Ernakulam district, besides the isolated islands of Lakshadweep. The administrative headquarters was at Kozhikode.


title: Malabar Coast

text: Malabar District, a part of the ancient Malabar (or Malabar Coast) was a part of the British East India Company-controlled state. It included the northern half of the state of Kerala and the islands of Lakshadweep. Kozhikode is considered as the capital of Malabar. The area was divided into two categories as North and South. North Malabar comprises present Kasaragod and Kannur Districts, Mananthavady Taluk of Wayanad District and Vatakara and Koyilandy Taluks of Kozhikode District. The left-over area is South Malabar aka Eranad Taluk which comes under present Malappuram District, Palakkad District and Chavakkad taluk of Thrissur district.


title: Malabar Coast

text: During the British rule, the Malabar's chief importance laid in producing pepper, tiles, and Coconut. In the old administrative records of the Madras Presidency, it is recorded that the most remarkable plantation owned by Government in the erstwhile Madras Presidency was the Teak plantation at Nilambur planted in 1844. The District of Malabar and the ports at Beypore and Fort Kochi had some sort of importance in the erstwhile Madras Presidency as it was one of the two districts of the Presidency that lies on the Western Malabar Coast, thus accessing the marine route through Arabian Sea. The first railway line of Kerala from Tirur to Beypore in 1861 was laid for it.


title: Malabar Coast

text: With India's independence, Madras presidency became Madras State, which was divided along linguistic lines on 1 November 1956, whereupon Kasaragod region was merged with the Malabar immediately to the north and the state of Travancore-Cochin to the south to form the state of Kerala. Before that, Kasaragod was a part of South Canara district of Madras Presidency. Lakshadweep Islands were separated to form a new union territory.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: Catch-22 is a 1970 American satirical black comedy war film adapted from the 1961 novel of the same name by Joseph Heller. In creating a black comedy revolving around the "lunatic characters" of Heller's satirical anti-war novel set at a fictional Mediterranean base during World War II, director Mike Nichols and screenwriter Buck Henry (also in the cast) worked on the film script for two years, converting Heller's complex novel to the medium of film.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: The cast included Alan Arkin, Bob Balaban, Martin Balsam, Richard Benjamin, Italian actress Olimpia Carlisi, French comedian Marcel Dalio, Art Garfunkel (his acting debut), Jack Gilford, Charles Grodin, Bob Newhart, Anthony Perkins, Austin Pendleton, Paula Prentiss, Martin Sheen, Jon Voight, and Orson Welles.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: Captain John Yossarian, a U.S. Army Air Force B-25 bombardier, is stationed on the Mediterranean base on Pianosa during World War II. Along with his squadron members, Yossarian is committed to flying dangerous missions, but after watching friends die, he seeks a means of escape.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: While most crews are rotated out after twenty-five missions, his commanding officer, Colonel Cathcart keeps raising the minimum number of missions for this base before anyone can reach it, eventually to an unobtainable eighty missions; a figure resulting from Cathcart's craving for publicity, primarily a mention in the nationally syndicated "Saturday Evening Post" magazine.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: Futilely appealing to Cathcart, Yossarian learns that even a mental breakdown is no release when Doc Daneeka explains the "Catch-22" the Army Air Force employs: An airman would have to be crazy to fly more missions, and if he were crazy, he would be unfit to fly. Yet, if an airman were to refuse to fly more missions, this would indicate that he is sane, which would mean that he would be fit to fly the missions, basically an impossible "damned if you do, damned if you don't" situation.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: Yossarian is haunted, in several recurring flashbacks during the film, by the bloody death of Snowden, the young turret gunner on his B-25. After Snowden's death, Yossarian temporarily refuses to wear his uniform, which Snowden bled on. He shows up at a medal ceremony naked, and later morosely sits naked in a tree, where he is visited by Lt. Milo Minderbinder, who rapidly progresses from squadron supply officer to a capitalistic tycoon involved in black-market money-making schemes. The bomber squadron is populated by many additional comically strange characters. Major Major Major, the squadron's operations officer, is promoted to a squadron commander without ever having flown in a plane, and refuses to see anyone in his office while he is in, instructing Sergeant Towser that people can see him when he's out. The person had to wait in the waiting room until Major Major Major was gone, then the visitor could go right in.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: Trapped by this convoluted logic, Yossarian watches as individuals in the squadron resort to unusual means to cope; Lt. Milo Minderbinder concocts elaborate black market schemes while crazed Captain "Aarfy" Aardvark commits murder to silence a girl he raped. Lieutenant Nately falls for a prostitute, Major Danby delivers goofy pep talks before every bomb run and Captain Orr keeps crashing at sea. Meanwhile, Nurse Duckett occasionally beds Yossarian.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: Nately dies as a result of an agreement between Milo and the Germans, trading surplus cotton in exchange for the squadron bombing its own base. While on a pass, Yossarian shares this news with Captain Nately's Whore, who then tries to kill him.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: Because of Yossarian's constant complaints, Cathcart and Lt. Colonel Korn eventually agree to send him home, promising him a promotion to major and awarding him a medal for the fictitious saving of Cathcart's life; the only requirement being that Yossarian agrees to "like" the Colonels and praise them when he gets home.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: Immediately after agreeing to Cathcart's and Korn's plan, Yossarian survives an attempt on his life when stabbed by Nately's Whore, who had disguised herself as a janitor. Once recovered, Yossarian learns from the chaplain and Major Danby that Captain Orr's supposed death was a hoax and that Orr's repeated "crash" landings had been a subterfuge for practicing and planning his own escape from the madness. Yossarian is informed that Orr ditched the plane and paddled a rescue raft all the way to Sweden on his last run.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: Yossarian decides to ditch the deal with Cathcart, leaps out of the hospital window, takes a raft from a damaged plane and, while a marching band practices for the ceremony to award Yossarian the promotion and medal, he hops into the sea, climbs into the raft and starts paddling.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: The adaptation changed the book's plot. Several story arcs are left out, and many characters in the movie speak dialogue and experience events of other characters in the book. Despite the changes in the screenplay, Heller approved of the film, according to a commentary by Nichols and Steven Soderbergh included on a DVD release. According to Nichols, Heller was particularly impressed with a few scenes and bits of dialogue Henry created for the film, and said he wished he could have included them in the novel.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: The pacing of the novel "Catch-22" is frenetic, its tenor intellectual, and its tone largely absurdist, interspersed with brief moments of gritty, almost horrific, realism. The novel did not follow a normal chronological progression; rather, it was told as a series of different and often (seemingly, until later) unrelated events, most from the point of view of the central character Yossarian. The film simplified the plot.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: Paramount assigned a $17 million budget to the production and planned to film key flying scenes for six weeks, but the aerial sequences required six months of camera work, resulting in the bombers flying about 1,500 hours. They appear on screen for approximately 10 minutes.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: "Catch-22" is renowned for its role in saving the B-25 Mitchell aircraft from possible extinction. The film's budget accommodated 17 flyable B-25 Mitchells, and one hulk was acquired in Mexico, and flown with landing gear down to the Guaymas, Sonora, Mexico filming location. The aircraft was burned and destroyed in the crash landing scene. The wreck was then buried in the ground by the runway, where it remains.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: For the film, prop upper turrets were installed, and to represent different models, several aircraft had turrets installed behind the wings representing early (B-25C/D type) aircraft. Initially, the camera ships also had mock turrets installed, but problems with buffeting necessitated their removal.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: Many of the "Tallmantz Air Force fleet" went on to careers in films and television, before being sold as surplus. Fifteen of the 18 bombers remain intact, including one displayed at the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: Second unit director John Jordan refused to wear a harness during a bomber scene and fell out of the open tail turret to his death.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: A half-hour preview of the film was held at the San Francisco International Film Festival on October 31, 1969.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: "Catch-22" was re-released to DVD by Paramount Home Video on May 21, 2013; a previous version was released on May 11, 2001. The DVD contains commentary by director Mike Nichols moderated by Steven Soderbergh.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" praised the film as "the most moving, the most intelligent, the most humane--oh, to hell with it!--it's the best American film I've seen this year." He felt the film was "complete and consistent", and commended its balance of comedy and seriousness as well as the ensemble cast. In a cover story about Mike Nichols, "Time" wrote "It is the book's cold rage that he has nurtured. In the jokes that matter, the film is as hard as a diamond, cold to the touch and brilliant to the eye. To Nichols, "Catch-22" is 'about dying'; to Arkin, it is 'about selfishness'; to audiences, it will be a memorable horror comedy of war, with the accent on horror." Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film 3 stars out of 4, calling it "a disappointment, and not simply because it fails to do justice to the Heller novel." He noted that the film "recites speeches and passages from the novel, but doesn't explain them or make them part of its style. No, Nichols avoids those hard things altogether, and tries to distract us with razzle-dazzle while he sneaks in a couple of easy messages instead." Similarly, Gene Siskel for the "Chicago Tribune" gave the film stars out of four arguing the film "spends too much time accommodating a huge cast", and instead the film should have properly focused on "Yossarian's combat, with the catch into his head where it belongs". Nevertheless, he wrote "The film's technical credits, photography, and special effects are uniformly outstanding. Of the huge supporting cast, Dick Benjamin, Bob Newhart, and Jack Gilford are the best." Charles Champlin, reviewing for the "Los Angeles Times", felt "The movie is never again quite so fine. "Catch-22" is awfully good, and also a disappointment: Chilly brilliant at its best but flawed at last by its detachment and by its failure to catch fire and give off heat. Its fury is cold and intellectual and cannot reach us or involve us at gut level."


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: Upon the initial release, "Catch-22" earned US$24.9 million out of the budget of US$18 million. It was director Mike Nichols' third film, after the acclaimed "Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?" and "The Graduate." It was not regarded as a comparable success, earning less money and critical acclaim than the film version of "MASH", another war-themed black comedy released earlier the same year. In addition, some critics believed that the film appeared as Americans were becoming more resentful of the bitter and ugly experience of the Vietnam War, leading to a general decline in the interest of war pictures, with the notable exceptions of "MASH" and "Patton". Critic Lucia Bozzola wrote "Paramount spent a great deal of money on "Catch-22", but it wound up getting trumped by another 1970 antiwar farce: Robert Altman's "MASH"." Film historians and reviewers Jack Harwick and Ed Schnepf characterized it as deeply flawed, noting that Henry's screenplay was disjointed and that the only redeeming features were the limited aerial sequences.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: A pilot episode for a "Catch-22" television series was aired on ABC in 1973, with Richard Dreyfuss in the Captain Yossarian role.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: There have been other films with "Catch-22" in their names, including the documentary "Catch-22" (2007) and the short films "Catch 22: The New Contract" (2009) and "Catch22" (2010), but they have been unrelated to either the book or film adaptation.


title: Catch-22 (film)

text: The anti-war song "Survivor Guilt" by punk rock band Rise Against features samples of dialog from the movie, specifically the discussion between Nately and the old man about the fall of great countries and potential fall of the US, and their argument about the phrase "It's better to live on your feet than die on your knees." The same excerpts from the film previously were used by lead singer Tim McIlrath, in the song "Burden", recorded by his former band, Baxter.


title: Chemical weapon

text: A chemical weapon (CW) is a specialized munition that uses chemicals formulated to inflict death or harm on humans. According to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), this can be any chemical compound intended as a weapon "or its precursor that can cause death, injury, temporary incapacitation or sensory irritation through its chemical action. Munitions or other delivery devices designed to deliver chemical weapons, whether filled or unfilled, are also considered weapons themselves."


title: Chemical weapon

text: Chemical weapons are classified as weapons of mass destruction (WMD), though they are distinct from nuclear weapons, biological weapons, and radiological weapons. All may be used in warfare and are known by the military acronym NBC (for nuclear, biological, and chemical warfare). Weapons of mass destruction are distinct from conventional weapons, which are primarily effective due to their explosive, kinetic, or incendiary potential. Chemical weapons can be widely dispersed in gas, liquid and solid forms, and may easily afflict others than the intended targets. Nerve gas, tear gas and pepper spray are three modern examples of chemical weapons.


title: Chemical weapon

text: Lethal unitary chemical agents and munitions are extremely volatile and they constitute a class of hazardous chemical weapons that have been stockpiled by many nations. Unitary agents are effective on their own and do not require mixing with other agents. The most dangerous of these are nerve agents (GA, GB, GD, and VX) and vesicant (blister) agents, which include formulations of sulfur mustard such as H, HT, and HD. They all are liquids at normal room temperature, but become gaseous when released. Widely used during the World War I, the effects of so-called mustard gas, phosgene gas and others caused lung searing, blindness, death and maiming.


title: Chemical weapon

text: During World War II the Nazi regime used a commercial hydrogen cyanide blood agent trade-named Zyklon B to commit industrialised genocide against Jews and other targeted populations in large gas chambers. The Holocaust resulted in the largest death toll to chemical weapons in history.


title: Chemical weapon

text: , CS gas and pepper spray remain in common use for policing and riot control; CS and pepper spray are considered non-lethal weapons. Under the Chemical Weapons Convention (1993), there is a legally binding, worldwide ban on the production, stockpiling, and use of chemical weapons and their precursors. However, large stockpiles of chemical weapons continue to exist, usually justified as a precaution against possible use by an aggressor. Continued storage of these chemical weapons is a hazard, as many of the weapons are now more than 50 years old, raising risks significantly. The United States is now undergoing measures to dispose of their chemical weapons in a safe manner.


title: Chemical weapon

text: Chemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of chemical substances as weapons. This type of warfare is distinct from nuclear warfare and biological warfare, which together make up NBC, the military initialism for Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical (warfare or weapons). None of these fall under the term conventional weapons, which are primarily effective because of their destructive potential. Chemical warfare does not depend upon explosive force to achieve an objective. It depends upon the unique properties of the chemical agent weaponized.


title: Chemical weapon

text: A lethal agent is designed to injure, incapacitate, or kill an opposing force, or deny unhindered use of a particular area of terrain. Defoliants are used to quickly kill vegetation and deny its use for cover and concealment. Chemical warfare can also be used against agriculture and livestock to promote hunger and starvation. Chemical payloads can be delivered by remote controlled container release, aircraft, or rocket. Protection against chemical weapons includes proper equipment, training, and decontamination measures.


title: Chemical weapon

text: Simple chemical weapons were used sporadically throughout antiquity and into the Industrial age. It was not until the 19th century that the modern conception of chemical warfare emerged, as various scientists and nations proposed the use of asphyxiating or poisonous gasses. So alarmed were nations that multiple international treaties, discussed below, were passed banning chemical weapons. This however did not prevent the extensive use of chemical weapons in World War I. The development of chlorine gas, among others, was used by both sides to try to break the stalemate of trench warfare. Though largely ineffective over the long run, it decidedly changed the nature of the war. In many cases the gasses used did not kill, but instead horribly maimed, injured, or disfigured casualties. Some 1.3 million gas casualties were recorded, which may have included up to 260,000 civilian casualties.


title: Chemical weapon

text: The interwar years saw occasional use of chemical weapons, mainly to put down rebellions. In Nazi Germany, much research went into developing new chemical weapons, such as potent nerve agents. However, chemical weapons saw little battlefield use in World War II. Both sides were prepared to use such weapons, but the Allied powers never did, and the Axis used them only very sparingly. The reason for the lack of use by the Nazis, despite the considerable efforts that had gone into developing new varieties, might have been a lack of technical ability or fears that the Allies would retaliate with their own chemical weapons. Those fears were not unfounded: the Allies made comprehensive plans for defensive and retaliatory use of chemical weapons, and stockpiled large quantities. Japanese forces used them more widely, though only against their Asian enemies, as they also feared that using it on Western powers would result in retaliation. Chemical weapons were frequently used against Kuomintang and Chinese communist troops. However, the Nazis did extensively use poison gas against civilians in The Holocaust. Vast quantities of Zyklon B gas and carbon monoxide were used in the gas chambers of Nazi extermination camps, resulting in the overwhelming majority of some three million deaths. This remains the deadliest use of poison gas in history.


title: Chemical weapon

text: The post-war era has seen limited, though devastating, use of chemical weapons. Some 100,000 Iranian troops were casualties of Iraqi chemical weapons during the Iran–Iraq War. Iraq used mustard gas and nerve agents against its own civilians in the 1988 Halabja chemical attack. The Cuban intervention in Angola saw limited use of organophosphates. The Syrian government has been alleged to use sarin, chlorine, and mustard gas in the Syrian civil war. Terrorist groups have also used chemical weapons, notably in the Tokyo subway sarin attack and the Matsumoto incident. See also chemical terrorism.


title: Chemical weapon

text: International law has prohibited the use of chemical weapons since 1899, under the Hague Convention: Article 23 of the Regulations Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land adopted by the First Hague Conference "especially" prohibited employing "poison and poisoned arms". A separate declaration stated that in any war between signatory powers, the parties would abstain from using projectiles "the object of which is the diffusion of asphyxiating or deleterious gases".


title: Chemical weapon

text: The Washington Naval Treaty, signed February 6, 1922, also known as the Five-Power Treaty, aimed at banning chemical warfare but did not succeed because France rejected it. The subsequent failure to include chemical warfare has contributed to the resultant increase in stockpiles.


title: Chemical weapon

text: The Geneva Protocol, officially known as the "Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare", is an International treaty prohibiting the use of chemical and biological weapons. It was signed at Geneva June 17, 1925, and entered into force on February 8, 1928. 133 nations are listed as state parties to the treaty. Ukraine is the newest signatory, acceding August 7, 2003.


title: Chemical weapon

text: This treaty states that chemical and biological weapons are "justly condemned by the general opinion of the civilised world". And while the treaty prohibits the use of chemical and biological weapons, it does not address the production, storage, or transfer of these weapons. Treaties that followed the Geneva Protocol did address those omissions and have been enacted.


title: Chemical weapon

text: The 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) is the most recent arms control agreement with the force of International law. Its full name is the "Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction". That agreement outlaws the production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons. It is administered by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), which is an independent organization based in The Hague.


title: Chemical weapon

text: The OPCW administers the terms of the CWC to 192 signatories, which represents 98% of the global population. , 66,368 of 72,525 metric tonnes, (92% of chemical weapon stockpiles), have been verified as destroyed. The OPCW has conducted 6,327 inspections at 235 chemical weapon-related sites and 2,255 industrial sites. These inspections have affected the sovereign territory of 86 States Parties since April 1997. Worldwide, 4,732 industrial facilities are subject to inspection under provisions of the CWC.


title: Chemical weapon

text: In 1985, the United States Congress passed legislation requiring the disposal of the stockpile chemical agents and munitions consisting of over 3 million chemical weapons, adding up to 31'000 tons of chemical weapons needing to be disposed of. This was ordered because a timely and safe disposal of chemical weapons is far safer than chemical weapon storage. Between the years of 1982 and 1992, the United States army reported approximately 1,500 leaking chemical weapons munitions, and in 1993 a 100-gallon chemical spill was reported at the Tooele Army Depot in Utah consisting of mustard agents. When chemical weapons are leaked or spilled into the ground, an insidious process follows where the condition of the agent is unknown. This occurs because the process of chemical agents degrading in soil is a complex process that is affected by many factors such as temperature, acidity, alkalinity, meteorological conditions, and the types of organisms present in the soil. This complexity causes persistent agents such as sulfur mustards to be harmful for decades.


title: Chemical weapon

text: There are three basic configurations in which these agents are stored. The first are self-contained munitions like projectiles, cartridges, mines, and rockets; these can contain propellant and/or explosive components. The next form are aircraft-delivered munitions. Together they constitute the two forms that have been weaponized and are ready for their intended use. The U.S. stockpile consisted of 39% of these weapon ready munitions. The final of the three forms are raw agent housed in one-ton containers. The remaining 61% of the stockpile was in this form. Whereas these chemicals exist in liquid form at normal room temperature, the sulfur mustards H and HD freeze in temperatures below . Mixing lewisite with distilled mustard lowers the freezing point to .


title: Chemical weapon

text: Higher temperatures are a bigger concern because the possibility of an explosion increases as the temperatures rise. A fire at one of these facilities would endanger the surrounding community as well as the personnel at the installations. Perhaps more so for the community having much less access to protective equipment and specialized training. The Oak Ridge National Laboratory conducted a study to assess capabilities and costs for protecting civilian populations during related emergencies, and the effectiveness of expedient, in-place shelters.


title: Chemical weapon

text: At the end of World War II, the Allies occupied Germany and found large stockpiles of chemical weapons that they did not know how to dispose of or deal with. Ultimately, the Allies disposed large quantities of these chemical weapons into the Baltic Sea, including 32 000 tonnes of chemical munitions and chemical warfare agents dumped into the Bornholm Basin, and another 2000 tonnes of chemical weapons in the Gotland Basin.


title: Chemical weapon

text: The majority of these chemical munitions were dumped into the sea while contained in simple wooden crates, leading to a rapid proliferation of chemicals. Chemical Weapons being disposed in the ocean during the 20th century is not unique to the Baltic Sea, and other heavily contaminated areas where disposal occurred are the European, Japanese, Russian, and United States coasts. These chemical weapons dumped in the ocean pose a continual environmental and human health risk, and chemical agents and breakdown products from said agents have been recently been identified in ocean sediment near historical dumping sites. When chemical weapons are dumped or otherwise improperly disposed of, the chemical agents are quickly distributed over a wide range. The long term impacts of this wide-scale distribution are unknown, but known to be negative. In the Vietnam War of 1955-1975, a chemical weapon called agent orange was widely used by United States forces. The United States utilized agent orange as a type of 'tactical herbicide', aiming to destroy Vietnamese foliage and plant life to ease military access. This usage of agent orange has left lasting impacts that are still observable today in the Vietnamese environment, causing disease, stunted growth, and deformities.


title: Chemical weapon

text: The stockpiles, which have been maintained for more than 50 years, are now considered obsolete. Public Law 99-145, contains section 1412, which directs the Department of Defense (DOD) to dispose of the stockpiles. This directive fell upon the DOD with joint cooperation from the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). The Congressional directive has resulted in the present Chemical Stockpile Disposal Program.


title: Chemical weapon

text: Historically, chemical munitions have been disposed of by land burial, open burning, and ocean dumping (referred to as Operation CHASE). However, in 1969, the National Research Council (NRC) recommended that ocean dumping be discontinued. The Army then began a study of disposal technologies, including the assessment of incineration as well as chemical neutralization methods. In 1982, that study culminated in the selection of incineration technology, which is now incorporated into what is known as the "baseline" system. Construction of the Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System (JACADS) began in 1985.


title: Chemical weapon

text: This was to be a full-scale prototype facility using the baseline system. The prototype was a success but there were still many concerns about CONUS operations. To address growing public concern over incineration, Congress, in 1992, directed the Army to evaluate alternative disposal approaches that might be "significantly safer", more cost effective, and which could be completed within the established time frame. The Army was directed to report to Congress on potential alternative technologies by the end of 1993, and to include in that report: "any recommendations that the National Academy of Sciences makes ..." In June 2007, the disposal program achieved the milestone of reaching 45% destruction of the chemical weapon stockpile. The Chemical Materials Agency (CMA) releases regular updates to the public regarding the status of the disposal program. By October 2010, the program had reached 80% destruction status.


title: Chemical weapon

text: Chemical weapons are said to "make deliberate use of the toxic properties of chemical substances to inflict death". At the start of World War II it was widely reported in newspapers that "entire regions of Europe" would be turned into "lifeless wastelands". However, chemical weapons were not used to the extent predicted by the press.


title: Chemical weapon

text: An unintended chemical weapon release occurred at the port of Bari. A German attack on the evening of December 2, 1943, damaged U.S. vessels in the harbour and the resultant release from their hulls of mustard gas inflicted a total of 628 casualties.


title: Chemical weapon

text: The U.S. Government was highly criticized for exposing American service members to chemical agents while testing the effects of exposure. These tests were often performed without the consent or prior knowledge of the soldiers affected. Australian service personnel were also exposed as a result of the "Brook Island trials" carried out by the British Government to determine the likely consequences of chemical warfare in tropical conditions; little was known of such possibilities at that time.


title: Chemical weapon

text: Some chemical agents are designed to produce mind-altering changes; rendering the victim unable to perform their assigned mission. These are classified as incapacitating agents, and lethality is not a factor of their effectiveness.


title: Chemical weapon

text: Binary munitions contain two, unmixed and isolated chemicals that do not react to produce lethal effects until mixed. This usually happens just prior to battlefield use. In contrast, unitary weapons are lethal chemical munitions that produce a toxic result in their existing state. The majority of the chemical weapon stockpile is unitary and most of it is stored in one-ton bulk containers.


title: Tami Roman

text: Tamisha Akbar (born April 17, 1970) better and professionally known as Tami Roman, is an American television personality, model, businesswoman and actress. Roman first gained fame on "" in 1993. After making cameo appearances and starring in supporting roles in various television shows and films in the 1990s and 2000s, Roman became one of the breakout stars of Vh1's "Basketball Wives".


title: Tami Roman

text: During her time on "The Real World: Los Angeles", Roman formed her own R&B girl group quartet called "Reality." Roman herself was one of the four members and the rapper of the group as well. During the same time, the group signed a record contract with Mercury Records. The name of the song was "Prisoner Of Your Love," but the producer that worked with them was, from what Tami stated, was very difficult to work with, to please, and hard to satisfy. The group ended their collaboration with him and the song was never recorded. In 1994 while still under contract with Mercury Records, Roman changed the group's name from "Reality" to "Female." The group was offered the opportunity to join other African-American girl groups in recording the remake of R&B singer Joi's song "Freedom" for the motion picture soundtrack album, Panther.


title: Tami Roman

text: The song featured other R&B girl groups such as En Vogue, SWV, TLC, For Real, Xscape, Brownstone, Y?N-Vee, Changing Faces and several other groups. The song also featured many female African-American solo artists and female rappers. The second song the group was in on that soundtrack was a cover version of the hit song If I Were Your Woman by Gladys Knight and the Pips, only the group was the backing vocals while solo artist, Shanice was the lead vocal. The third and final song that "Female" was heard in on the soundtrack was also a cover version the legendary soul hit (You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman by Aretha Franklin. The names of the other three girls in the group were Monique Johnson, Donyell Floyd, and Carlett Martin. After the soundtrack, not much else was heard from the group again and they never released an album.


title: Tami Roman

text: Roman gained more fame as she appeared as the dealer on the 2001 revival of "Card Sharks", and on several other shows, including an episode of "One on One" (season 3, episode 4) and BET’s original tv series, “the Parker’s”, as Dina (season 1, episode 14). In 2010, Roman became one of the main cast members in the VH1 reality series "Basketball Wives". She was then cast on the "Basketball Wives" spinoff "Basketball Wives LA", starting with the fourth season in 2015. Roman appeared on two episodes of the CBS show "Extant". Roman could also be heard on "Tami Roman's Love Talk & Hot Jamz" with advice columnist and rapper Willie D of the Geto Boys and Reggie Youngblood. The show aired on Houston's KCOH Radio. Roman and her boyfriend Reggie Youngblood appeared on "" for its 3rd season, which premiered May 29, 2015. Roman is working on her hair and cosmetic lines.


title: Tami Roman

text: After Roman released a series of videos titled "Bonnet Chronicles" on Instagram, it was produced into a scripted series on TIDAL in 2018.


title: Tami Roman

text: Roman has been married twice and has two children. On August 26, 1994, Roman married NBA player Kenny Anderson and together they had two daughters, Lyric Chanel (b. 1994) and Jazz Anderson (b. 1996). Roman and Anderson later divorced in February 2001. Roman has been married to Reggie Youngblood since August 2018.


title: Will and testament

text: A will or testament is a legal document that expresses a person's (testator) wishes as to how their property (estate) is to be distributed after their death and as to which person (executor) is to manage the property until its final distribution. For the distribution (devolution) of property not determined by a will, see inheritance and intestacy.


title: Will and testament

text: Though it has at times been thought that a "will" historically applied only to real property while "testament" applied only to personal property (thus giving rise to the popular title of the document as "last will and testament"), the historical records show that the terms have been used interchangeably. Thus, the word "will" validly applies to both personal and real property. A will may also create a testamentary trust that is effective only after the death of the testator.


title: Will and testament

text: Throughout most of the world, the disposition of a dead person's estate has been a matter of social custom. According to Plutarch, the written will was invented by Solon. Originally, it was a device intended solely for men who died without an heir.


title: Will and testament

text: The English phrase "will and testament" is derived from a period in English law when Old English and Law French were used side by side for maximum clarity. Other such legal doublets include "breaking and entering" and "peace and quiet".


title: Will and testament

text: The concept of the freedom of disposition by will, familiar as it is in modern England and the United States, both generally considered common law systems, is by no means universal. In fact, complete freedom is the exception rather than the rule. Civil law systems often put some restrictions on the possibilities of disposal; see for example "Forced heirship".


title: Will and testament

text: LGBT advocates have pointed to the inheritance rights of spouses as desirable for same-sex couples as well, through same-sex marriage or civil unions. Opponents of such advocacy rebut this claim by pointing to the ability of same-sex couples to disperse their assets by will. Historically, however, it was observed that "[e]ven if a same-sex partner executes a will, there is risk that the survivor will face prejudice in court when disgruntled heirs challenge the will", with courts being more willing to strike down wills leaving property to a same-sex partner on such grounds as incapacity or undue influence.


title: Will and testament

text: Some jurisdictions recognize a holographic will, made out entirely in the testator's own hand, or in some modern formulations, with material provisions in the testator's hand. The distinctive feature of a holographic will is less that it is handwritten by the testator, and often that it need not be witnessed. In Louisiana this type of testament is called an olographic testament. It must be entirely written, dated, and signed in the handwriting of the testator. Although the date may appear anywhere in the testament, the testator must sign the testament at the end of the testament. Any additions or corrections must also be entirely hand written to have effect.


title: Will and testament

text: In England, the formalities of wills are relaxed for soldiers who express their wishes on active service; any such will is known as a serviceman's will. A minority of jurisdictions even recognize the validity of nuncupative wills (oral wills), particularly for military personnel or merchant sailors. However, there are often constraints on the disposition of property if such an oral will is used.


title: Will and testament

text: Any person over the age of majority and having "testamentary capacity" (i.e., generally, being of sound mind) can make a will, with or without the aid of a lawyer.


title: Will and testament

text: A will may not include a requirement that an heir commit an illegal, immoral, or other act against public policy as a condition of receipt.


title: Will and testament

text: In community property jurisdictions, a will cannot be used to disinherit a surviving spouse, who is entitled to at least a portion of the testator's estate. In the United States, children may be disinherited by a parent's will, except in Louisiana, where a minimum share is guaranteed to surviving children except in specifically enumerated circumstances. Many civil law countries follow a similar rule. In England and Wales from 1933 to 1975, a will could disinherit a spouse; however, since the Inheritance (Provision for Family and Dependants) Act 1975 such an attempt can be defeated by a court order if it leaves the surviving spouse (or other entitled dependent) without "reasonable financial provision".


title: Will and testament

text: There is no legal requirement that a will be drawn up by a lawyer, and some people may resist hiring a lawyer to draft a will. People may draft a will with the assistance of a lawyer, use a software product or will form, or write their wishes entirely on their own. Some lawyers offer educational classes for people who want to write their own will.


title: Will and testament

text: When obtained from a lawyer, a will may come as part of an estate planning package that includes other instruments, such as a living trust. A will that is drafted by a lawyer should avoid possible technical mistakes that a layperson might make that could potentially invalidate part or all of a will. While wills prepared by a lawyer may seem similar to each other, lawyers can customize the language of wills to meet the needs of specific clients.


title: Will and testament

text: In 1973 an international convention, the "Convention providing a Uniform Law on the Form of an International Will", was concluded in the context of UNIDROIT. The Convention provided for a universally recognised code of rules under which a will made anywhere, by any person of any nationality, would be valid and enforceable in every country that became a party to the Convention. These are known as "international wills". It is in force in Australia, Belgium, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Canada (in 9 provinces, not Quebec), Croatia, Cyprus, Ecuador, France, Italy, Libya, Niger, Portugal and Slovenia. The Holy See, Iran, Laos, the Russian Federation, Sierra Leone, the United Kingdom, and the United States have signed but not ratified. International wills are only valid where the convention applies. Although the U.S. has not ratified on behalf of any state, the Uniform law has been enacted in 23 states and the District of Columbia.


title: Will and testament

text: For individuals who own assets in multiple countries and at least one of those countries are not a part of the Convention, it may be appropriate for the person to have multiple wills, one for each country. In some nations, multiple wills may be useful to reduce or avoid taxes upon the estate and its assets. Care must be taken to avoid accidental revocation of prior wills, conflicts between the wills, to anticipate jurisdictional and choice of law issues that may arise during probate.


title: Will and testament

text: Intentional physical destruction of a will by the testator will revoke it, through deliberately burning or tearing the physical document itself, or by striking out the signature. In most jurisdictions, partial revocation is allowed if only part of the text or a particular provision is crossed out. Other jurisdictions will either ignore the attempt or hold that the entire will was actually revoked. A testator may also be able to revoke by the physical act of another (as would be necessary if he or she is physically incapacitated), if this is done in their presence and in the presence of witnesses. Some jurisdictions may presume that a will has been destroyed if it had been last seen in the possession of the testator but is found mutilated or cannot be found after their death.


title: Will and testament

text: A will may also be revoked by the execution of a new will. Most wills contain stock language that expressly revokes any wills that came before them, because otherwise a court will normally still attempt to read the wills together to the extent they are consistent.


title: Will and testament

text: In some jurisdictions, the complete revocation of a will automatically revives the next-most recent will, while others hold that revocation leaves the testator with no will, so that their heirs will instead inherit by intestate succession.


title: Will and testament

text: In England and Wales, marriage will automatically revoke a will, for it is presumed that upon marriage a testator will want to review the will. A statement in a will that it is made in contemplation of forthcoming marriage to a named person will override this.


title: Will and testament

text: Divorce, conversely, will not revoke a will, but in many jurisdictions will have the effect that the former spouse is treated as if they had died before the testator and so will not benefit.


title: Will and testament

text: Where a will has been accidentally destroyed, on evidence that this is the case, a copy will or draft will may be admitted to probate.


title: Will and testament

text: Many jurisdictions exercise an equitable doctrine known as "dependent relative revocation" ("DRR"). Under this doctrine, courts may disregard a revocation that was based on a mistake of law on the part of the testator as to the effect of the revocation. For example, if a testator mistakenly believes that an earlier will can be revived by the revocation of a later will, the court will ignore the later revocation if the later will comes closer to fulfilling the testator's intent than not having a will at all. The doctrine also applies when a testator executes a second, or new will and revokes their old will under the (mistaken) belief that the new will would be valid. However, if for some reason the new will is not valid, a court may apply the doctrine to reinstate and probate the old will, if the court holds that the testator would prefer the old will to intestate succession.


title: Will and testament

text: Before applying the doctrine, courts may require (with rare exceptions) that there have been an alternative plan of disposition of the property. That is, after revoking the prior will, the testator could have made an alternative plan of disposition. Such a plan would show that the testator intended the revocation to result in the property going elsewhere, rather than just being a revoked disposition. Secondly, courts require either that the testator have recited their mistake in the terms of the revoking instrument, or that the mistake be established by clear and convincing evidence. For example, when the testator made the original revocation, he must have erroneously noted that he was revoking the gift "because the intended recipient has died" or "because I will enact a new will tomorrow".


title: Will and testament

text: DRR may be applied to restore a gift erroneously struck from a will if the intent of the testator was to enlarge that gift, but will not apply to restore such a gift if the intent of the testator was to revoke the gift in favor of another person. For example, suppose Tom has a will that bequeaths $5,000 to his secretary, Alice Johnson. If Tom crosses out that clause and writes "$7,000 to Alice Johnson" in the margin, but does not sign or date the writing in the margin, most states would find that Tom had revoked the earlier provision, but had not effectively amended his will to add the second; however, under DRR the revocation would be undone because Tom was acting under the mistaken belief that he could increase the gift to $7,000 by writing that in the margin. Therefore, Alice will get 5,000 dollars. However, the doctrine of relative revocation will not apply if the interlineation decreases the amount of the gift from the original provision (e.g., "$5,000 to Alice Johnson" is crossed out and replaced with "$3,000 to Alice Johnson" without Testator's signature or the date in the margin; DRR does not apply and Alice Johnson will take nothing).


title: Will and testament

text: Similarly, if Tom crosses out that clause and writes in the margin "$5,000 to Betty Smith" without signing or dating the writing, the gift to Alice will be effectively revoked. In this case, it will not be restored under the doctrine of DRR because even though Tom was mistaken about the effectiveness of the gift to Betty, that mistake does not affect Tom's intent to revoke the gift to Alice. Because the gift to Betty will be invalid for lack of proper execution, that $5,000 will go to Tom's residuary estate.


title: Will and testament

text: Also referred to as "electing to take against the will". In the United States, many states have probate statutes that permit the surviving spouse of the decedent to choose to receive a particular share of deceased spouse's estate in lieu of receiving the specified share left to him or her under the deceased spouse's will. As a simple example, under Iowa law (see Code of Iowa Section 633.238 (2005) ), the deceased spouse leaves a will which expressly devises the marital home to someone other than the surviving spouse. The surviving spouse may elect, contrary to the intent of the will, to live in the home for the remainder of his/her lifetime. This is called a "life estate" and terminates immediately upon the surviving spouse's death.


title: Will and testament

text: The historical and social policy purposes of such statutes are to assure that the surviving spouse receives a statutorily set minimum amount of property from the decedent. Historically, these statutes were enacted to prevent the deceased spouse from leaving the survivor destitute, thereby shifting the burden of care to the social welfare system.


title: Will and testament

text: In New York, a surviving spouse is entitled to one-third of her deceased spouse's estate. The decedent's debts, administrative expenses and reasonable funeral expenses are paid prior to the calculation of the spousal elective share. The elective share is calculated through the "net estate". The net estate is inclusive of property that passed by the laws of intestacy, testamentary property, and testamentary substitutes, as enumerated in EPTL 5-1.1-A. New York's classification of testamentary substitutes that are included in the net estate make it challenging for a deceased spouse to disinherit their surviving spouse.


title: Will and testament

text: In antiquity, Julius Caesar's will, which named his grand-nephew Octavian as his adopted son and heir, funded and legitimized Octavian's rise to political power in the late Republic; it provided him the resources necessary to win the civil wars against the "Liberators" and Antony and to establish the Roman Empire under the name Augustus. Antony's officiating at the public reading of the will led to a riot and moved public opinion against Caesar's assassins. Octavian's illegal publication of Antony's sealed will was an important factor in removing his support within Rome, as it described his wish to be buried in Alexandria beside the Egyptian queen Cleopatra.


title: Will and testament

text: In the modern era, the "Thellusson v Woodford" will case led to British legislation against the accumulation of money for later distribution and was fictionalized as "Jarndyce and Jarndyce" in Charles Dickens's "Bleak House". The Nobel Prizes were established by Alfred Nobel's will. Charles Vance Millar's will provoked the Great Stork Derby, as he successfully bequeathed the bulk of his estate to the Toronto-area woman who had the greatest number of children in the ten years after his death. (The prize was divided among four women who had nine, with smaller payments made to women who had borne 10 children but lost some to miscarriage. Another woman who bore ten children was disqualified, for several were illegitimate.)


title: Will and testament

text: The longest known legal will is that of Englishwoman Frederica Evelyn Stilwell Cook. Probated in 1925, it was 1,066 pages, and had to be bound in four volumes; her estate was worth $100,000. The shortest known legal wills are those of Bimla Rishi of Delhi, India ("all to son") and Karl Tausch of Hesse, Germany, ("all to wife") both containing only two words in the language they were written in (Hindi and Czech, respectively). The shortest will is of Shripad Krishnarao Vaidya of Nagpur, Maharashtra, consisting of five letters ("HEIR'S").


title: Will and testament

text: An unusual holographic will, accepted into probate as a valid one, came out of an accident. On 8 June 1948 in Saskatchewan, Canada, a farmer named Cecil George Harris became trapped under his own tractor. Thinking he would not survive (though found alive later, he died of his injuries in hospital), Harris carved a will into the tractor's fender, which read:


title: Will and testament

text: The fender was probated and stood as his will. The fender is currently on display at the law library of the University of Saskatchewan College of Law.


title: Will and testament

text: After the testator has died, an application for probate may be made in a court with probate jurisdiction to determine the validity of the will or wills that the testator may have created, i.e., which will satisfy the legal requirements, and to appoint an executor. In most cases, during probate, at least one witness is called upon to testify or sign a "proof of witness" affidavit. In some jurisdictions, however, statutes may provide requirements for a "self-proving" will (must be met during the execution of the will), in which case witness testimony may be forgone during probate. Often there is a time limit, usually 30 days, within which a will must be admitted to probate. In some jurisdictions, only an original will may be admitted to probate—even the most accurate photocopy will not suffice. Some jurisdictions will admit a copy of a will if the original was lost or accidentally destroyed and the validity of the copy can be proved to the satisfaction of the court.


title: Will and testament

text: If the will is ruled invalid in probate, then inheritance will occur under the laws of intestacy as if a will were never drafted.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: The Volkswagen Amarok is a pickup truck produced by Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles since 2010. It is a body-on-frame truck with double-wishbone suspension at the front and leaf springs at the rear. The Amarok range consists of single cab and double cab, combined with either rear-wheel drive or 4motion four-wheel-drive, and is powered by turbocharged petrol or turbocharged direct injection (TDI) diesel engines.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: Amarok competes in some global markets with comparable mid-size pickup trucks, such as the Toyota Hilux, Nissan Navara, Mitsubishi L200, Ford Ranger, Isuzu D-Max and Chevrolet/Holden Colorado/S-10. The second-generation Amarok is based on the Ford Ranger.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: The name "Amarok", referencing a wolf deity in Inuit mythology, was chosen by brand marketing consultants Interbrand; Interbrand also claims the name is associated with the phrase "he loves stones" in Romanic languages in an attempt to allude to the all-terrain performance of the vehicle.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: The Amarok, the first pickup from Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles, was presented to the general public in General Pacheco, Argentina, on 7 January 2010. The project dates back from 2005, when Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles announced their intent to build a robust pickup and off-road family of vehicles. It was teased as the Robust Pick-Up concept in September 2008, wrapped in a search and rescue (SAR) vehicle color scheme; the design was said to be 95 percent resembling the production version.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: Following the launch in Argentina, the Amarok was a key support vehicle in the 2010 Dakar Rally, with 45 having been used.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: The Amarok is currently being produced in the Volkswagen Group plant in General Pacheco, Argentina; for South American, Mexican, Oceanian, South African, Russian, and European markets. It is expected to produce 90,000 Amaroks annually once production is at full capacity. As of 2022, 70% of the Argentine Amaroks are exported.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: The Hanover site was originally dropped from possible sites to produce the Amarok due to the global financial crisis and increasing economic costs in Europe in 2009. In September 2010, it was decided that 40,000 Amarok pickups will also be produced annually in Hanover, Germany for the European and small volume markets from mid-2012.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: The Amarok is powered by a range of turbocharged direct injection (TDI) common rail diesel engines, and fuel stratified injection (FSI) petrol engine.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: As of 2010, the engine range consists of two 2.0L turbocharged direct injection (TDI) common rail diesel engines which is taken from the Volkswagen Transporter (T5), it has been tuned for more torque but less power; the entry-level version produces which develops a maximum torque of from 2,000 rpm. The top-of-the-line bi-turbo version produces which develops a maximum torque of from 1500 rpm −2500 rpm. Fuel consumption in a combined cycle format is as low as on the rear-wheel-drive variant to on the 4Motion version, which theoretically gives the Amarok a range before filling up for fuel.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: As of the 2012 Model Year, Volkswagen has introduced two more engine configurations, 2.0L TDI 90 kW motor upgraded to 103 kW of power and a 2.0L Bi-TDI which has an optional 8-speed ZF engineered automatic transmission.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: On 22 September 2014, Volkswagen launched a limited edition Amarok Dark Label model. The Dark Label model is fitted with the 2.0-litre BiTDI engine, generating up to of torque and offering a maximum towing capacity of up to .


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: For the 2017 model year, Volkswagen announced a facelifted Amarok range. The key feature of the facelift is a new engine that replaces the earlier models' 2.0L TDI engine. In place of the previous four-cylinder engine, the Amarok is now fitted with a version of VW's 3.0L TDI V6. It will be available in three states of tune (, , and ), with the most powerful version boasting a torque output of and a 0– time of 8 seconds. In the UK the lowest power output was dropped in favour of the 201 and 254 BHP models, the latter has an overboost to 268 and can hit 62 from a standstill in 7.4 seconds.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: The new V6 TDI offers up to 23% more power and 28% more torque while delivering lower emissions and decreased fuel consumption compared to the previous 2.0 BiTDI engine that was previously the most powerful option. Deliveries of the new Amarok V6 TDI were scheduled to commence in the 3rd quarter of 2016. In late 2018 a more powerful version of the 3.0 V6 TDI was produced (190/200 kW & 580 Nm) to compete with the new Mercedes Benz X Class V6 CDI.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: The Amarok has three drive concepts: rear wheel drive, Shiftable 4Motion and Permanent 4Motion.The Shiftable all wheel drive system can shift drive between the axles whereas the permanent full-time all wheel drive system distributes power through a torque sensing (Torsen) differential with a 40:60 ratio between the front and rear axles.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: In an exclusive release, Volkswagen Australia launched the Amarok V6 Core in January 2020: the only Amarok model to feature a true low-range transfer case (as opposed to the AWD 4Motion system typically employed). Compared to the 4Motion system, the low-range gearbox provides proper low-speed crawling ability and an overall much more rugged driveline for the type of off-roading that is common in Australia. The transfer case is paired only with the 6-speed manual gearbox and the 3.0 V6 TDI engine.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: In November 2010, the Amarok was awarded 4 stars from Euro NCAP under the 2010/2011 standard crash testing procedure. Testing showed varying degrees of safety for occupants depending on the crash encountered. In February 2011, it received 5 stars from the Australasian New Car Assessment Program (ANCAP).


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: In a frontal impact, the cabin remained stable, and protection for the head, legs, knees and femurs was rated as "good". However, the chest of the passenger was only rated as "adequate" and the driver was only rated as "marginal". Similarly, the side impact test showed good cabin stability in a side barrier impact (designed to replicate side-impact by another car), however the much more challenging side pole test demonstrated significant issues with passenger safety.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: The side pole test showed significant force transferred into the dummy's ribs resulting in weak protection. Testers also noted that force was transmitted into the dummy in a way which would not be handled by a human, resulting in a minimum marks awarded for chest protection in a side impact.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: The Volkswagen Amarok provided good protection for child occupants with testers noting that children were kept within their restraints well during side impacts, giving a "good" rating for containment. Vertical acceleration of the dummies' chests was higher than recommended in the frontal impact, resulting in a poor rating for frontal impact chest protection.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: The Amarok features ISOFIX anchorages and the passenger airbag can be disabled for young children in carseats.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: Pedestrian impacts were rated as predominately good for areas adults would most likely impact, however protection was poor for children. Leg protection received full marks.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: The Amarok features electronic stability control (ESC), Anti-lock braking (ABS), Brake Force Assist and Trailer Sway Control. It does however lack more advanced features found on newer vehicles such as autonomous braking, blind-spot monitoring and lane-keep assist. Many of these newer features are more commonly found on cars and SUVs and are only slowly becoming the norm on utility vehicles, as such they may be fitted to future models of the Amarok following a redesign / facelift of the model but are not considered commonplace.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: The first-generation Amarok was one of the only pickups available on the market which features no airbags whatsoever for rear passengers. Volkswagen stated this was due to testing standards at the time of development not requiring testing for safety of rear passengers, so they omitted airbags and developed a more advanced side crash cell instead. However, this feature omission is notably outdated and outperformed by most other modern vehicles on the market today where airbags are expected as standard for all standard passengers, regardless of seat or vehicle type. A side pole test carried out on the rear passenger would likely result in significant injury to the head and chest of the rear passenger on the impacted side.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: NCAP has since changed their testing standards and the Amarok was downgraded from its initial 5-star safety rating to 4-stars.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: The first-generation Amarok was available in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Peru, Paraguay, Mexico, Mongolia, New Zealand, South Africa, and throughout Europe and South America. VW met with Canadian and American dealerships in 2012 to talk about introducing the pickup to those markets. For the U.S., it would likely necessitate moving production or building a plant somewhere in North America, to avoid the chicken tax enacted to light commercial vehicles.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: The Amarok was launched in a Double Cab variant with the Single Cab first launching in late 2011 in South Africa and Europe.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: Currently offered exclusive on the Australian market since early 2020, the Core V6 (also called TDI500 Core) is the only Amarok variant in the world to feature a true low-range transfer case. The Core V6 low-range was a result of strong lobbying by Volkswagen Australia to the parent organisation; citing strong demand from consumers, coupled with Australia being the number one importer of V6 Amaroks as rationale for the decision.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: The Amarok has been often criticised for its lack of a low-range 4WD transfer case which is less complex and much more widely preferred in the off-road community for the design's reliability and strength in more extreme off-road duties, than AWD systems such as 4Motion.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: The engine of the TDI500 Core is de-rated to 500Nm of torque (hence the TDI500 designation) to suit the 6 speed manual transmission. This new model is considered a base model and as such features cloth seating and lacks carpet, instead opting for rubber flooring. However, it still retains several 'premium' features such as a leather-wrapped steering wheel, 17-inch alloy wheels and a touchscreen infotainment system with Apple CarPlay and Android Auto functionality.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: There is also an additional variant, named the Core V6 Enduro which features primarily aesthetic enhancements such as a sports bar and decals in addition to the low-range transfer case. Interestingly, this variant is offered for the same price as the standard Core V6 manual.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: In 2006 the Australian publication "Transport Today" reported that Phil Clark, Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles Director in Australia, was trying to persuade Volkswagen's head office to add a chassis cab programme to Project RPU.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: Cab Chassis variants of both the Single Cab and Double Cab will launch with the 2012 Model Year range.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: The official vehicle of the 2014 Winter Olympics, the Amarok Sochi Special Edition was available only in Russia. It adds extra exterior chrome trim, a navigation system and an updated interior.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: The Polar Expedition variant was designed to promote the 2014 Sochi Winter Olympic Games in the remote areas of Russia.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: Three of these trucks were built to carry nine people east by road from Moscow to the city of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky on the Kamchatka peninsula. The team of 9 earned the Guinness World Record for the longest off-road journey through one country. The team took 66 days to reach Kamchatka from Moscow by driving over the glacier-covered Sredinny Range and were the first people to do so. The specially built Amaroks received a couple of upgrades to take on the cold and road less wilderness. The team replaced the front and rear suspension with long-travel, heavy-duty shocks and massive tires with deeper ridges for extra traction in deep snow and ice. The body was unmodified except for cutting out the fenders to fit the wheels and tires. The 2.0L turbo diesel engine remained mostly unmodified because the goal was reliability. For added safety, the interior was fitted with a roll cage and navigation equipment to make sure the team didn't get lost.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: Rumoured platform spin-offs include a five to seven seat SUV to compete with Nissan Xterra and Toyota Hilux SW4 to be built in Brazil for the South American and European markets.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: The Dutch Ministry of Defence has announced plans to phase out other vehicles, including the Mercedes-Benz G-Wagen, in favour of the Amarok to move to a single type of truck for peacetime operations. The stated aims for this plan are to purchase 1,667 new vehicles for the Army, the Navy, the Air Force, and the Marechaussee.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: Volkswagen revealed their one tonne pickup study at the 2008 IAA Commercial Vehicle Show in September; the SAR Pickup measures in length and in width, and the long cargo bed can carry a Euro sized broad pallet sideways.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: SAR Pickup concept also was equipped for Lifeguards with: four mobile CB radios, flashlights, first aid kit with a defibrillator, binoculars, two safety helmets, removable neoprene seats for hard wearing, and a blue light roof module with integrated searchlight.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: Possible production features that were on the concept: radio navigation system controlled by a multifunction touch screen, differential locks, cable winch and the rear logo opens the tailgate.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: The second-generation Amarok was released on 7 July 2022. Designed and conceived in Germany and Australia, it will be built by Ford at South African assembly plant in Silverton and share the new Ford Ranger's platform as part of the 2019 Ford-VW global alliance cooperation agreement.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: A four-door double cab and two-door single cab body styles are available in this generation. The vehicle is longer than its predecessor, with longer wheelbase which provides more room, on the double cab's second row seat. Fording depth is also increased from to .


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: During its introduction, the second-generation Amarok was introduced with five variants. The base version is the 'Amarok', followed by the 'Life' and 'Style'. Two flagship variants is offered as the PanAmericana (with an off-road-inspired styling) and Aventura (with an on-road-oriented styling).


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: Four turbo-diesel (TDI) engines and one turbocharged petrol (TSI) engine is available for the second-generation Amarok, all of which are developed by Ford. In several African markets, the base specification engine is offered, which is a 2.0-litre four-cylinder TDI producing . The same engine is also offered in a higher state of tune with , and with a twin-turbo producing or depending on the market. A 3.0-litre V6 Ford Power Stroke engine is available as the most powerful option, which provides power output of or dependent on the market. A single petrol engine option, 2.3-litre turbocharged petrol engine with is also offered in traditional petrol engine markets.


title: Volkswagen Amarok

text: The Amarok diesel is equipped with a standard 10-speed automatic gearbox paired with a e-shifter (shift-by-wire). There are 6-speed automatic transmission and 5- or 6-speed manual gearboxes for other engines.


title: Fortification

text: A fortification is a military construction or building designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is also used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from Latin "fortis" ("strong") and "facere" ("to make").