title: Puebla

text: Outside of the Puebla metropolitan area, the state promotes natural attractions such as the cacti of Zapotitlán, the 100-million-year-old fossils of Cantera Tlayùa in Tepexi de Rodríguez and smaller ones such as waterfalls, churches, caverns, archeological zones, former monasteries, traditional markets, fresh water springs, lakes and more. The tourist routes outside of the Puebla metro area are divided into the Sierra Mixteca area in the south and the Sierra Norte in the north. The Sierra Mixteca area includes the Ruta de Aguacate (Avocado Route), the Ruta del Ónix (Onyx Route), the Ruta del Maiz (Corn Route) and the Ruta Paleontológica (Palaeontology Route). The Avocado Route includes the municipalities of Atlixco, Tianguismanalco, Tochimilco, Huaquechula, Tlapanalá, Izúcar de Matamoros, San Juan Epatlán, Chietla, Chiautla de Tapia and Acatlán de Osorio. The Onyx Route includes the Africam Safari Zoo, Cuauhtinchan, San Salvador Huixcolotla, Tecali de Herrera, Tecamachalco and Tepeaca. The Corn Route includes Tehuacán, Santa María del Monte and Zapotitlán Salinas. The Paleontology Route includes Atoyatempan, Santa Clara Huitziltepec, Molcaxac, Huatlatlauca, Chigmecatitlán, Tepexi de Rodríguez and San Juan Ixcaquixtla.


title: Puebla

text: The Sierra Norte contains a number of pre-Hispanic archeological sites and colonial architecture. Crafts to be found here include wool clothing, amate paper, clay figures, wood carvings, and embroidered blouses. This area of the state contains the Ruta de la Flor (Flower Route), Ruta Interserrana (Inter-Mountain Route), Ruta del Huipil y Café (Huipil and Coffee Route) and the Ruta Perla Norte (North Pearl Route). The Flower Route includes the municipalities of Chignahuapan, Zacatlán, Huauchinango, Juan Galindo, Pahuatlán, Tenango, Tetela de Ocampo and Xicotepec. The Inter-Mountain Route includes Ahuacatlán, Zapotitlán, Xochitlán, Tepango and Nauzontla. The Huipil and Coffee Route include Tenextatiloyan, Acajete, Cuetzalan, Jonotla, Libres, Nopalucan, Oriental, San José Chiapa, Tepeyahualco and Zacapoaxtla. The North Pearl Route includes Atempa, Chignautla, Hueyapan, San Juan Xiultetelco, Teziutlán, Tlatlauquitepec and Yaonahuac.


title: Puebla

text: There are a number of former haciendas in the state, many of which have been converted into hotels, spas and other kinds of attractions. Some have also been used as movie and television sets for projects such as Alondra, Amor es Querer, Man on Fire, Vantage Point and Frida. These include the Chautla Hacienda in San Salvador el Verde, Las Calandrias in Atlixco, Micuautla in Puebla, Netxalpa in Atlixco, San Pedro de Ovando in Acatzingo, Ozumba in San José Chiapa, Rancho Jesús in Cuautinchan, San Agustín in Atlixco, San Mateo in Amalucan, San Roque in Atlixco, Santiago Texmelucan in Tepeyahualco de Hidalgo and Oriental Tenextepec in Atlixco.


title: Puebla

text: Natural attractions in the state include Amacas in Cuetzalan, Bosque Chignahuapan Forest, the Quetzalapa Chignahuapan Waterfall, Zacatlán Waterfall, La Gloria Cuetzalán Waterfall, Las Brisas Cuetzalan Waterfall, Las Golondrinas Cuetzalan Waterfall, Nexcapa Hauachinango, Ocpaco Zacatlán Waterfall, the arid landscapes of Zapotitlan de Salinas, the Iztalcihual and Popocatepetl volcanos, the basalt columns of Huauchinango, the Valle de Piedras Encimadas in Zacatlán and the Nexcaxa Dam in Huauchinango, el Aguacate Waterfall in Huehuetlán el Grande, and los Ahuehuetes in Atlixco.(scenarios)


title: Puebla

text: Puebla is working with neighboring Veracruz to promote the area's tourist attractions and develop them in an ecologically sustainable way. Both state governments are working with organizations of tour operators, hotels and restaurants to pool a fund for activities such as advertising campaigns, especially to Mexico City and the State of Mexico, which account for 80% of all the state's visitors. Another is the reimbursement of tolls for those who travel to certain attractions such as the Africam Safari park and two-for-one specials. Efforts have succeeded in raising hotel occupancy rates from 40% to 56% in a number of areas.


title: Puebla

text: Cantona is a archeological site, located in the north of the state between the municipalities of Tepehualco and Coyoaco. It is divided into three units, with work only done on the south unit, which is the best preserved. Here is found the “Acropolis,” an area with temples, palaces and other seats of authority. The site was occupied between the 7th and 11th centuries CE and reached its height at the time many other Classic era urban centers were falling. It is thought that this city interrupted the flow of goods from the coast of Veracruz to Teotihuacan, one of the many causes of that city's downfall. The site is filled with a large number of patios which measure 50 x 40 meters or larger. Total number of patios found is 620, and 997 mounds have been found as well. In some areas, remains of obsidian and sandstone workshops have been found.


title: Puebla

text: Cholula was once a major Mesoamerican city with a multicultural population that was bound by a common religion based on the worship of Quetzalcoatl. The city was a pilgrimage site for the worship of this deity. Its architecture was complex and shows various foreign influences. Its height was reached during the Classic period between 100 and 900 CE along with Tula and Teotihuacan. It was regionally influential for much of the Mesoamerican period, and its polychromic pottery has been found in a large number of sites, indicating trade. By the time the Spanish arrived, it was still a very large city, second only to Tenochtitlan, to which it was subject. Today, the site is known for its Great Pyramid.


title: Puebla

text: Tepexi el Viejo is located southeast of the city of Puebla. It was founded as the seat of one of the most important Popoloca dominions and control much of what is now the south of the state from 1200 to 1500 CE. This area's light orange colored pottery has been found as far away as Teotihuacan. The site is naturally protected by mountains and canyons and is divided into five areas. Each has platforms, pyramidal mounds, residential areas and tombs. The most important pyramidal mound is located in the center of the site and other, smaller one is located to the extreme west. Residences are located in the northwest, many of which are L-shaped. There is only one natural opening to the area, which is in the south about outside the city's walls.


title: Puebla

text: Unlike other sites in the state, Yohualichan was dominated by coastal groups, which eventually abandoned it in the face of incursions from peoples from the central highlands. The site was a ceremonial center which was probably dominant over other similar sites. Containing niched pyramids as well, it is related to the El Tajín site in Veracruz. There is also a residential area, but it has not been studied.


title: Puebla

text: Tepatlaxco is located on the south side of the Totlqueme mountain. It is centered on a ceremonial center which has more than eight structures, surrounded by numerous smaller mounds. Much of the site was constructed into the mountain itself, causing it to blend in. In addition to the mountain, there are two large ravines to give the site added protection. The most important structure is named Mound A, which also shows the longest occupation. It measures nine meters high and 36 meters at its base.


title: Puebla

text: Other foods common to the state include atole with chili pepper (chileatole), spicy mole verde, barbacoa, chilate with chopped onion, cemitas, cecina, guacamole with lime, and mole de caderas or mole espinazo. Many of these are found in the Sierra Mixteca region. However, the state is best known for cemitas, mole poblano, chiles en nogada and chalupas.


title: Puebla

text: The cemita is a kind of sandwich on a roll, related to the torta, particularly popular in Mexico City and the pambazo, which is of French origin and popular in several areas in central Mexico. The sandwich has its origin with two kinds of bread which were brought over from Spain during the colonial period: one called “bizcocho de sal,” which was long and hard and a kind of hollow cracker. Both breads were developed for long storage and eventually were made in Puebla with grain from the Atlixco area. These two breads eventually fused into a unique type that became softer by the mid 19th century. The name is derived from a Jewish unleavened bread called "semita", which was brought over by Sephardi Jews to New Spain. These were also produced in Puebla state. The cemitas were prepared at home and filled with potatoes, beans and nopal cactus and eaten by the lower classes. Later, an establishment in the Mercado Victoria market began to sell them to the public filled with meat from bull's feet with a vinaigrette, herbs, onions and chili peppers. This new filling was a hit and eventually this and other variations became a staple in many markets and popular eateries. Today, a large number varieties exist but all are prepared using the same type of bread.


title: Puebla

text: The best-known mole is named after the city of Puebla, mole poblano. The origin of this sauce is disputed and there are two versions of the legend that are most often cited. The first states that 16th century nuns from the Convent of Santa Rosa were worried because they had just found out that the archbishop was going to visit them and they had nothing to prepare for him except for an old turkey in the yard. Supposedly due to divine inspiration, they began to mix together many of the spices and flavorings they had on hand in the kitchen, including different types of chili peppers, other spices, day-old bread, chocolate and approximately twenty other ingredients. They let the sauce simmer for hours and poured it over the turkey meat. Fortunately, the archbishop was very pleased with the meal and the nuns were able to save face.


title: Puebla

text: The other story states that the sauce is of pre-Hispanic times and this was served to Hernán Cortés and the other conquistadors by Moctezuma II. The Aztecs did have a preparation called “chilmulli,” which in Nahuatl means “chili pepper sauce.” However, there is no evidence that chocolate was ever used to flavor prepared foods or used in chilmulli. What has happened is that the sauce gained ingredients as it was reinterpreted over the colonial period.


title: Puebla

text: Many food writers and gourmets nowadays consider one particular dish, the famous turkey in mole poblano, which contains chocolate, to represent the pinnacle of the Mexican cooking tradition.


title: Puebla

text: According to the legend of chiles en nogada, there were three sisters from the city of Puebla who were in Mexico City. When the Army of the Three Guarantees entered the capital at the end of the Mexican War of Independence, they were feted by many. At one of these parties, the three sisters fell in love with three of the army's officers. Soon after, Agustín de Iturbide himself was set to visit the city of Puebla. Remembering the sisters, the soon-to-be emperor wanted to visit them. Wanting to impress Iturbide but not knowing how to cook, the sisters turned to the nuns of the Santa Monica convent who were famous for their food. The nuns decided to invent a dish for the sisters, which would represent the three colors of the new Mexican flag. On the appointed day, the banquet was prepared with the dish now called chiles en nogada, which pleased Iturbide. The dish contains poblano chile, walnuts, cream and pomegranate seeds, and offered seasonally (August-September) in local restaurants.


title: Puebla

text: Chalupas are thick corn tortillas fried in lard then covered in red or green chili pepper sauce and topped with shredded meat and other things. According to legend, they were named after the barges that the Aztecs used to travel in areas such as Tenochtitlan (today Mexico City). Chalupas are popular in other areas of central Mexico but are considered a specialty of Puebla, where they are served from humble street carts to upscale restaurants.


title: Puebla

text: The legend of the founding of the city of Puebla attributes to the act of the vision of a friar Julián Garcés, who became the first bishop of Puebla. The legend states that while praying, the friar fell asleep, when he dreamed of a festival in honor the Archangel Michael happening in a place with leafy trees and a crystal clear river, flowing from springs. As they contemplated the scenery, angels descended from heaven and traced the outlines of the city to be built. When he awoke, he drew what he had seen, deciding he had had a divine vision. He communicated the dream to other Franciscans and found the place he saw five days later.


title: Puebla

text: The story of the China Poblana is one of the most popular in the state. The girl was taken on the Manila Galleon, but she was sold to Puebla resident Miguel de Sosa for a price ten times what the viceroy offered. She was taken to the city and baptized with the name of Catarina de San Juan in 1620. She maintained her oriental dress which made her conspicuous and it became a fad to imitate some aspects of this dress.


title: Puebla

text: When de Sosa and his wife died, Catherine entered a convent and began to see visions of the Virgin Mary and the Child Jesus. Some say that a number of miracles occurred while Catherine lived at the convent and this provoked a kind of veneration of her. When the China Poblana died in 1882, veneration of her as a saint began in earnest, but the practice was put to an end by the Mexican Inquisition. Today her remains are in a crypt in the Temple de La Compañia in the city of Puebla.


title: Puebla

text: The Aztec myth of Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl, a Romeo and Juliet type story, has equal significance in this state as it does in the Valley of Mexico as the two are equally visible from the city of Puebla, but only in reverse (with Popocatépetl on the left).


title: Puebla

text: There is a popular saying “todo terminó como el Rosario de Amozoc, a golpes y farolazos” (it all ended like the Amozoc Rosary, with blows and drinks). The saying is derived from a legend from the community of Amozoc de Mota in the state. A silversmith apprentice by the name of Alberto was in love with a beautiful girl named Catalina, nicknamed La Culata. However, another apprentice from another shop named Enrique, was also in love with her. Alberto was accepted by la Culata and this made Enrique jealous. Festivities for the beginning of the year were supposed to be organized by the different silver workshops together but the rivalry caused a split in which ecclesiastical authorities needed to intervene. On the first day of the event, at Mass, Enrique saw Alberto and Catherine kiss briefly, which enraged him. During the rosary, while the choir sang “Mater Inmaculata,” Enrique heard “mata a la Culata” (kill La Culata), took a knife from his clothing and attacked the couple, killing Catarina. Alberto took a machete from his belt and killed Enrique. A fight ensued which left many dead and wounded. It is said that one can still hear the cries of Catalina as she died.


title: Puebla

text: The house at Avenida 3 Ote 201 in the city of Puebla belonged to Pedro de Carvajal, who was a wealthy and respected man. However, he lost his young wife as she gave birth to their second child, a boy. When his daughter turned 15, there were many interested suitors but she was not interested in them. One day a monster appeared at a party in the city provoking terror. The monster went to the Carvajal house and ate the younger son, who was playing out front of the house. Pedro offered a large reward for the capture of the beast. One young man, who wanted the hand of Pedro's daughter, appeared at another festival, bearing the head of the beast. It is said that this young man gained noble title and the hand of the daughter as a reward.


title: Puebla

text: The state of Puebla is located on the east side of the volcanoes of Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl, opposite of the Valley of Mexico and Mexico City. The two volcanoes have as much significance here as they do on the west side, with many communities nearby maintaining ritual specific to honoring the two. These arose as fertility rituals but today are called “birthdays” with 12 March reserved for Popocatepetl and 30 August for Iztaccíhuatl. On these events, special foods and gifts are prepared as offerings and left in certain places. These traditions have survived despite the evangelization efforts of the colonial period.


title: Puebla

text: The state is home to a number of festivals and traditions, from those with a purely pre-Hispanic background, to the far more numerous saints’ days to modern fairs located to regional economies. The largest important events include the Day of the Dead in Huaquechula, the Carnival of Huijotzingo, Spring Equinox in Cantona, Fiesta de Santo Entierro y Feria de las Flores, the Fería del Café y el Huipil, the Huey Atlixcáyotl Festival, the Quetzalcoatl Ritual and Cinco de Mayo, celebrated in the entire state.


title: Puebla

text: Cinco de Mayo—or the fifth of May—is a holiday that celebrates the date of the Mexican army's 1862 victory over France at the Battle of Puebla during the Franco-Mexican War (1861-1867). A relatively minor holiday in Mexico, in the United States Cinco de Mayo has evolved into a commemoration of Mexican culture and heritage, particularly in areas with large Mexican-American populations.


title: Puebla

text: Many Americans mistakenly believe that Cinco de Mayo (“May 5th”) is the Mexican equivalent of the United States’ Fourth of July holiday — a date marking the official casting off of colonial rule via the announcement of a new independent country. However, the Mexican version of Independence Day is celebrated on September 16, for it was on that date in 1810 that the commencement of the war for Mexican independence from Spanish rule was pronounced in the small town of Dolores by Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (an event now referred to as the “Grito de Dolores” — “Cry of Dolores” — or “El Grito de la Independencia”).


title: Puebla

text: Cinco de Mayo is an important celebration in a number of places the United States, but it is a minor holiday or even unknown in much of Mexico proper. The only place where the holiday, which commemorates the Battle of Puebla during the French Intervention in Mexico, is important is in the state of Puebla. The French army invaded the country in 1862 and marched from Veracruz towards the city of Puebla. Just outside the city, inexperienced Mexican troops attacked the French who were camped. This resulted in victory, but the French were ultimately able to move on and take Mexico City, dominating the country until 1867. The annual celebration of the battle began in the state in areas of the country not occupied by the French as a symbol of Mexican pride. Today it is the most important state political commemoration. The most important observances take place at the Loreto and Guadalupe forts in the city of Puebla, where the battle occurred in 1862. The highlight is a reenactment of the event at the site.


title: Puebla

text: Like the rest of Mexico, Day of the Dead is celebrated in the state. Two aspects which feature prominently on altars in this state are mole with turkey and large wax candles. Other items can include black candelabras, incense burners, candy skulls, decorative paper cutouts, oranges and other fruits in season. Leading to these altars often are a line of small candles to guide the returning spirits. One municipality which is particularly known for its events is Huaquechula. Here, altars constructed in homes can be of multiple levels and are usually covered in white paper. On the first level, food and drink are usually placed, with religious objects and objects related to the deceased on the second level.


title: Puebla

text: In a number of communities in the state, Carnival is celebrated. The best known of these carnivals takes place in Huejotzingo, as it began as a synthesis of a celebration honoring Tlaloc and the Catholic tradition related to the days before Ash Wednesday. Today, this carnival includes many traditional activities such as music, masks and parades, but this one also includes a reenactment of the Battle of Puebla and local legends such as the kidnapping of a governor's daughter and the legend of Agustìn Lorenzo (called the Robin Hood of the 18th century). Locals attend in colorful costumes and masks representing the Conquistadors, demons or animals, adorned with palm fronds or feathers. The capital of Puebla also celebrates Carnival with its signature tradition of the Las Marias, where men disguise themselves as women and mischievous devils.


title: Puebla

text: Another major time for religious observance is Holy Week or Semana Santa. In Puebla, there is the Procession del Silencio or Procession of Silence which occurs on Maundy Thursday, when the city observes a period of silence to mark the death of Jesus.


title: Puebla

text: The spring equinox is the setting for rituals at some of Puebla's archeological sites such as Cantona and Cholula. Cantona is an archeological site located near the city of Puebla and was one of the largest cities in early Mesoamerica. Today, the site is popular gathering place on the spring equinox (much like Teotihuacan), where people sing, dance and greet the sunrise on this date. Another site where similar observances are held is the Great Pyramid of Cholula. Here indigenous dances and rituals are performed. The event culminates with the Ritual of Quetzalcoatl, which was an important part of the ancient Cholula culture. This event draws attendees from various parts of Mexico.


title: Puebla

text: The is celebrated in the town of Atlixco to celebrate the area's local culture and identity. The name means “Atlixco tradition” in Nahuatl and is centered on the San Miguel Hill (called Popocatica in ancient times) located in the center of the town. It was locally sacred in the pre-Hispanic era, and in colonial times, a hermitage was built there. The event was named a Cultural Heritage of the State of Puebla in 1996. The purpose of the event is to celebrate the survival of indigenous culture after the Conquest.


title: Puebla

text: In July, the Pueblo Mágico of Cuetzalan has the cultural festival of Festival Tradicional, which features traditional dancers who come from various parts of the state. Tetela de Ocampo celebrates its Peach Festival in August. On the last day of August, the Procession de los Faroles (Procession of the Lanterns) takes place in Cholula.


title: Puebla

text: Puebla has a number of annual fairs meant to highlights the various regions’ products. In Huauchinango, an economic fair and a religious observance are conducted at the same time. The Feria de las Flores (Flower Festival) and the Santo Entierro (Holy Burial) occur in the second half of March. It consists of religious events such as processions and masses. Many cut flower and ornamental plant growers come to display their products and there is the coronation of the Queen of Flowers. Other events include agricultural displays, parades with floats, dances, crafts, cockfights, sporting events and more.


title: Puebla

text: The Feria del Café y el Huipil (Coffee and Huipil Festival) takes place in Cuetzalan. The event promotes the area's locally grown coffee as well as traditionally made huipil dresses. There are also displays of pre-Hispanic dance, popular music, fireworks and more. The event began in 1949 as the National Festival of Coffee, which is economically important here. The event centered on the choosing of a Coffee Queen, much like other similar kinds of festivals. In 1962, the National Festival of the Huipil was established. Eventually, the two merged to the current event.


title: Puebla

text: Other events to promote Puebla's products include the Feria de Café in Xicotpec in March and the Feria Nacional de Puebla. The latter is held in the state capital and brings together many of the state's agricultural, livestock, craft and industrial producers in an event very analogous to a state fair. The regional fair called the Piloto de Cholula occurs in September.


title: Puebla

text: The China Poblana was a real person who lived during the colonial period. Her real name was Mirra. She was an Indian who was brought over from Manila in the 1620s on the Manila Galleon as a child to work as a slave for the viceroy Marques de Gélves. She was soon sold to ship captain Miguel de Sosa who lived in Puebla. According to legend, Mirra was originally a princess in her home country but her family was displaced by the Portuguese and she was kidnapped by pirates who sold her. Mirra was considered to be beautiful and exotic. She had been converted to the Catholic faith. Later in her life, she began to have visions of the child Jesus and angels. Her fame grew and she was eventually considered to be something of a prophet. When she died in 1688, people began to venerate her as a saint and many women copied her Asian/Mexican inspired dress.


title: Puebla

text: This fashion led to the now-traditional "china poblana" dress. It consists of a red skirt heavily decorated with colored sequins that in one part form the image of the eagle found on the Mexican flag and a blouse embroidered with colored thread and beads around the bust area. It is often worn with a charro-type hat. The outfit is the amalgam of several cultures such as Spanish, especially in the skirt; Chinese, with its use of sequins and beads; and indigenous, with colorful embroidery.


title: Puebla

text: Folk dance of both indigenous and mixed European and indigenous origin are most often seen at religious and cultural events in many parts of the state. Some of the most popular dances include “Moors and Christians,” Dance of the Santiagos” and “Danza de los Arcos.” The last is usually performed only by men who dress in white and with a scarf-like garment across the chest, dance in pairs which carry large arch portals covered in flowers and paper decorations. The dance has a number of variations which can include leaps into the air and complicated twirls.


title: Puebla

text: The Dances of the Quetzales is most popular in the Sierra Norte, especially in Cuetzalan. It is a highly symbolic dance and usually performed in conjunction with rituals that relate to good harvests. The dancers form crosses, which signify the four cardinal directions and move in circles, which symbolize the rotation of time. The dancers wear large circular headdresses of quetzal feathers, which give the dance its name, and red suits. The Dance of the Voladores, which more common in Papantla, Veracruz, is also performed in a number of communities in the north of Puebla. This consists of five men who climb a tall pole and then four fall and spin from the pole while attached by ropes. The fifth dancer stays on top and plays music and dances as the other men fall. Another important dance in Puebla is the Doce pares de Francia, which recalls the events of the Battle of Puebla.


title: Puebla

text: The colonial architecture of the state is defined by its heavy use of ornamental tiles called Talavera. This is particularly true in the capital. This makes these buildings more colorful than most of their contemporaries in other parts of Mexico and was one of the reasons that the historic center of the capital was selected as a World Heritage Site.


title: Puebla

text: A number of churches and other buildings in rural parts of the state are noted for their “folk baroque” architecture and decoration, especially in Atlixco and the southwest. Folk baroque consists of the use of tile and painted raised stucco based on more traditional Baroque designs, which was most popular in the 18th century. One well known church of this type is the church of Jolapan, which is modeled after the Tepalcingo Sanctuary in neighboring Morelos. The church of Jolalpan contains richly decorated pilasters, Solomonic columns and other elements in a design very similar to that of Tepalcingo. Between these there are a number of small churches which also show folk baroque influence such as those in Tlancualpican and Tzicatlán. The church in Tlancualpican is painted in bright blues, greens and red, with an ornate façade with sculpted leaves, tendrils and niches divided by spiral half-columns all done in stucco. Even more ornate is the church in Tzicatlán, which is a small rural farming village, with the entire surface of the main façade decorated with brightly colored images and sculptures.


title: Puebla

text: In the modern era, architectural styles have evolved into new and sometimes eclectic forms. Skyscrapers, almost all of which are in the city of Puebla, include Edificio Vacas at 42 meters high, Torre Géminis at 50 meters high, Torre Nora at 69 meters high to the tallest, Torre Ejecutiva JVI and Torre Ejecutiva JVI at 100 meters high each. These last two have a triangular shape and are covered in blue tinged glass.


title: Puebla

text: Literature is one of the better-developed arts in the state and includes works such as novels, essays, poetry and theatrical plays. One prominent name from the colonial period is that of José Mariano Beristáin de Souza who was a priest and writers in the 18th century. He is also known for amassing a large library of writings in Spanish over twenty years of his life, which resulted in the Biblioteca Hispanoamericana Septentrional. However, literature would not be a major cultural force in the state until the 20th century. One early prominent writer was poet Gregorio de Gante. In his early career, he was a professor but after the Mexican Revolution broke out the joined revolutionary forces under Antonio Medina. After the war, he began his career as a poet, eventually writing regularly for a newspaper called “El Nacional” and become one of Mexico's most popular writers by the 1930s.


title: Puebla

text: Many modern works with themes of social injustice and sometimes about the culture and scenery of the state itself. Modern Puebla literature can be traced back to the work of poet Arturo Trejo, one of the “Generacion de los 50” or Generation of the 1950s.


title: Puebla

text: Elena Garro was active during the mid and latter 20th century, whose writings were said to “grab” the reader. Most of her work was autobiographical in one sense or another. She was married to another Mexican writer Octavio Paz, from whom she divorced in 1959.


title: Puebla

text: Born in Atlixco in 1930, Hector Azar is one of Mexico's most noted playwrights in the 20th century. Some of his works include Revista de Revistas, Revista de la Universidad and Jueves de Excelsior. He has also directed and produced plays in Mexico and Europe.


title: Puebla

text: Sergio Pitol Demeneghi is a writer, translator and diplomat who was born in the city of Puebla in 1933. Most of his works relate to the theme of human rights. Much of his writing and translating work relates to his diplomatic functions. His best known works include No hay tal lugar, Infierno de todos and Los climas.


title: Puebla

text: Born in Puebla in 1949, Ángeles Mastretta’s writings are known for their female characters which are prominent. She has found most of her popularity in Spain and Mexico publishing stories in magazines such as Ovaciones and La Jornada. Her books include El Mundo Ilumninado, Arrancame la vida and Mujeres de ojos grandes.


title: Puebla

text: José Francisco Conde Ortega, also known simply as Paco Conde, was born in Atlixco in 1951. His writings include chronicles, essays and poetry. His works mostly reflect on everyday urban life with book titles such as Estudios para un cuerpo, Los lobos viven del viento and Práctica de lobo.


title: Puebla

text: José Luis Zárate was born in Puebla in 1966. He is best known for novels such as , La ruta del hielo y la sal and Del cielo oscuro y del abismo, but he has published numerous short stories, essays and poems. He is known in the fantasy genre and has established organizations dedicated to this such as the Asociacion Mexicana de Cienca Ficcion y Fantasia and Circulo Puebla de Ciencia Ficcion y Divulgacion.


title: Puebla

text: Other notable writers from the state include, Fritz Glockner, Pedro Ángel Palou Garcia, Miguel Maldonado, Eduardo Montagner Anguiano, Gabriel Wolfson Reyes, Jaime Mesa and Gabriela Puente.


title: Puebla

text: Much of the historical painting in the state is found in its colonial churches and reflect the artistic styles of the 16 to 19th centuries. These consist of murals, portraits and biblical scenes done on canvas, wood and other mediums. José Joaquín Magón was born in Puebla in the 18th century is known for his portrait paintings but his other works have mostly religious and mythological themes. He also did a number of works related to New Spain’s caste system. Luis Berrueco is one of the major Pueblan painters from the 18th century. He was also prolific, painting images of religious martyrs and saints which can still be found today in many churches in the state. His style is considered to be unique, marked by delicate faces and profuse ornamentation. Some of his best work can be found at the Santa Clara Church in Atlixco. Gonzalo Carrasco was born in Otumba, Puebla in 1859. He was both and artist and a Jesuit who produced over 500 religious paintings that can be found all over Mexico and some murals including those in the Basilica de Guadalupe in Puebla and Fordham University in the U.S.


title: Puebla

text: Much of Puebla’s art scene had disappeared before the 20th century but in the 1920s, a group of young artists from the Escuela de Bellas Artes de Puebla (School of Fine Arts of Puebla) began to band together for mutual support. These artists eventually caught the attention and patronage of artists such as Diego Rivera and Dr. Atl and received visitors such as David Alfaro Siquieros, Frida Kahlo, Francisco Cornejo and Alfredo Guati Rojo. This effort would become the Barrio del Artista.


title: Puebla

text: The Barrio del Artista is a neighborhood in the city of Puebla which is home to artists from a number of disciplines. It contains 46 small workshops which permit visitors to observe the work and even chat with the artists. These workshops mostly surround a large plaza with a fountain near a building known as the Café del Artista, managed the Union de Artes Plasticas, A.C. “Barrio del Artista,” which was founded in 1941.


title: Puebla

text: Ignacio Dávila Tagle was born in the city of Puebla in 1898 into an artistic family, learning to paint from his father, Daniel Dávila Domínguez. One of his best-known works is his dreamlike mural called “El sueno de fray Julián Garcés” which depicts the legendary founding of the city.


title: Puebla

text: Faustino Salazar Garcia was born in Puebla in 1912. He turned to painting as a child after he lost his mother. His works are known for their emotional qualityAs an established painter, he was one of the founding members of the Unión de Artes Plásticas.


title: Puebla

text: Alejandro Honda was born in San Martin Texmelucan in 1952. This painter's works show his fascination for Mesoamerica, which began when he was young. They can also have a sensual edge to them, even his religious paintings such as the María de Magdalena.


title: Puebla

text: Gustavo Cadena was born in Puebla in 1974 has been a noticed painter since he was a young child. Many of his works reflect daily life, customs and traditions of the state. Some of his better known works include Niño indígena mexicano, Catedral de Puebla, and Pensando en Puebla.


title: Puebla

text: Traditional music in Puebla has been influenced by the waltz, zarzuela and the Mexican version of trova. Although it waned in the 20th century, it has since experienced a revival.


title: Puebla

text: Pelagio C. Manjarrez (1886–1952) was from Tochimilco. He is not only known for his musical ability but also as a fighter in the Mexican Revolution, professor, journalist and poet. Most of his musical composition relate to dance such as waltzes, marches, foxtrots and tangos. Best known titles include “Porque me has besado tu,” “La mañana está de fiesta” and “Alma herida.”


title: Puebla

text: Vicente T. Mendoza (1894–1964) was from Cholula who dedicated himself to researching the folk music of the area, especially those traditions that told the history of many of the state's communities. He founded the Folclorología Musical Mexicana. He also composed a number of pieces including the polka “La hora del crepúsculo,” the waltz “La molinera,” and religious pieces such as “Villancicos alegres para la Navidad” and “Cánticos para Navidad.”


title: Puebla

text: Gerardo Pablo is one of the main Pueblan composers of modern trova Mexicana who was born in Puebla in 1977. Many of his lyrics deal with social problems in Mexico and his work has been compared to that of Guty Càrdenas. Some of his best known works include “Tres noches por semana,” “Càntaro”, “Reflejos acústicos”, "Trago de Ron", "Delirio", "Los Numerosos Nadies" which is based on the work of Uruguayan writer Eduardo Galeano,"Escucha a Gerardo Pablo" and "Quesoy" his most recent work with a Jazz Trio. Other notable musicians include Carlos Espinosa de los Monteros (waltz composer), pianist Celia Valderrábano Andrew who has also composed waltzes. Zarzuela composers include Félix Maria Alcerreca who is a lawyer by profession and Ignacio León who is a priest.


title: Puebla

text: Newspapers of Puebla include: "El Heraldo de Puebla", "El Mundo de Tehuacán", "El Sol de Puebla", "Esto de Puebla", "La Jornada de Oriente", "La Opinión Universitaria", "La Opinión, Diario de la Mañana", "Metro de Puebla", "Momento Diario", "Puebla sin Fronteras", "Síntesis de Bolsillo Puebla", and "Síntesis, El Periódico de Puebla."


title: Puebla

text: Puebla is ranked second in higher education in Mexico with 57 technological colleges and 110 research centers. It ranks fourth in the number of universities and colleges in the nation. It is home to very prestigious institutions such as Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla (BUAP) is the oldest and largest university in Puebla founded on 15 April 1587, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Campus Puebla, and Universidad de las Americas-Puebla, which has substantial ties to the United States, such as being accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools and numerous student exchange programs. It has also received substantial economic assistance from the U.S. Agency for International Development. Much of the school's setup mimics that of U.S. universities, including student dormitories.


title: Puebla

text: Instituto Tecnológico de Puebla was founded in 1972, Universidad Popular Autónoma del Estado de Puebla (UPAEP) was founded in 1973, and Universidad Iberoamericana Puebla founded in 1983. They were also created to fill a need for higher education of a growing local economy.


title: Puebla

text: Puebla city has the highest education in the State, but the average of the rest of the population of the state over the age of 15 has finished the first year of middle school with an average number of years in school at 7.4. This is under the national average of 8.1. Of every 100 over age 15, 12 have not gone to school at all, 17 have left school before the end of primary, 21 finish primary, 3 start, but do not finish middle school, 19 finish middle school, 5 begin but do not finish high school, 8 obtain a bachelor's degree and 1 has an advanced degree. There are 441, 699 illiterate people, or 13%, according to INEGI, above the national average of eight percent.


title: Puebla

text: The current division of the territory was created in 1895, which is a system of 21 districts and 217 municipalities. This is down from a high of 222 because the municipalities of San Jerónimo Caleras, San Felipe Hueyotlipan, San Miguel Canoa, La Resurrección, and Totimehuacan were incorporated into the city of Puebla in 1962.


title: Puebla

text: The state is headed by a governor who is directly elected. The executive branch of the government contains the following departments: Governing (Gobernación), Finance, Development, Evaluation and Control of the Public Administration, Economic Development, Tourism, Rural Development, Urban and Ecological Development, Communications and Transportation, Health, Public Education, Culture and Public Defender (Procuraduia General de Justicia). The legislative branch is unicameral with deputies or representatives elected from the various districts of the state. It also consists of a number of commissions dedicated to issues such as state heritage sites, education, agriculture and more. The judicial branch is headed by the Tribunal Superior de Justicia.


title: Lucretia

text: According to Roman tradition, Lucretia ( , ]; died c.  510 BC), anglicized as Lucrece, was a noblewoman in ancient Rome, whose rape by Sextus Tarquinius (Tarquin) and subsequent suicide precipitated a rebellion that overthrew the Roman monarchy and led to the transition of Roman government from a kingdom to a republic. The incident kindled the flames of dissatisfaction over the tyrannical methods of Tarquin's father, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of Rome. As a result, the prominent families instituted a republic, drove the extensive royal family of Tarquin from Rome, and successfully defended the republic against attempted Etruscan and Latin intervention.


title: Lucretia

text: There are no contemporary sources of Lucretia and the event. Information regarding Lucretia, her rape and suicide, and the consequence of this being the start of the Roman Republic, come from the accounts of Roman historian Livy and Greco-Roman historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus approximately 500 years later. Secondary sources on the establishment of the republic reiterate the basic events of Lucretia's story, though accounts vary slightly between historians. The evidence points to the historical existence of a woman named Lucretia and an event that played a critical part in the downfall of the monarchy. However, specific details are debatable and vary depending on the writer. According to modern sources, Lucretia's narrative is considered a part of Roman mythohistory. Much like the rape of the Sabine women, Lucretia's story provides an explanation for historical change in Rome through a recounting of sexual assault against women.


title: Lucretia

text: Lucretia was the daughter of magistrate Spurius Lucretius and the wife of Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus. The marriage between Lucretia and Collatinus was depicted as the ideal Roman union, as both Lucretia and Collatinus were faithfully devoted to one another. According to Livy, Lucretia was an exemplar of "beauty and purity," as well as Roman standards. While her husband was away at battle, Lucretia would stay at home and pray for his safe return. As with Livy, Dionysius' depiction of Lucretia separates her from the rest of Roman women in a story about the men returning home from a battle. The narrative begins with a bet between the sons of Tarquinius and their kinsmen, Brutus and Collatinus. The men fight over which of their wives best exemplified sophrosyne, an ideal of superb moral and intellectual character. The men return home to find the women socializing with each other, presumably drinking and in conversation. In contrast, they find Lucretia home alone, working with her wool in silence. Because of her devotion to her husband, Roman writers Livy and Dionysius outline Lucretia as the role model for Roman girls.


title: Lucretia

text: As the events of the story move rapidly, the date of Lucretia's rape is most likely the same year as the first of the "fasti". Dionysius of Halicarnassus sets this year "at the beginning of the sixty-eighth Olympiad ... Isagoras being the annual archon at Athens"; that is, 508/507 BC. According to Dionysius, Lucretia therefore died in 508 BC. This approximate date is met with consensus by other historians; however, the exact year is debatable within a range of about five years.


title: Lucretia

text: While engaged in the siege of Ardea, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of Rome, sent his son, Tarquin, on a military errand to Collatia. Tarquin was received with great hospitality at the governor's mansion, home of Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, son of the king's cousin, Arruns Tarquinius, former governor of Collatia and first of the Tarquinii Collatini. Spurius Lucretius, father of Collatinus' wife Lucretia and prefect of Rome, made sure that the king's son was treated as a guest and a figure of his rank.


title: Lucretia

text: In a variant of the story, Tarquin and Collatinus, at a wine party on furlough, were debating the virtues of wives when Collatinus volunteered to settle the debate. In order to do so, he proposed riding to his home to observe Lucretia. Upon their arrival, she was weaving with her maids. The party awarded her the palm of victory and Collatinus invited them to stay, but for the time being they returned to camp.


title: Lucretia

text: Later in the night, Tarquin entered Lucretia's bedroom, quietly going around the slaves who were sleeping at her door. When she awoke, he identified himself and offered her two choices: she could submit to his sexual advances and become his wife and future queen, or he would kill her and one of her slaves and place the bodies together, then claim he had caught her having adulterous sex (see sexuality in ancient Rome for Roman attitudes toward sex). In the alternative story, he returned from camp a few days later with one companion to take Collatinus up on his invitation to visit and was lodged in a guest bedroom. He entered Lucretia's room while she lay naked in her bed and started to wash her belly with water, which woke her up. Tarquin tried to convince Lucretia that she should be with him, using "every argument likely to influence a female heart." However, Lucretia stood firm in her devotion to her husband, even when Tarquin threatened her life and honor, while ultimately raping her.


title: Lucretia

text: In Dionysius of Halicarnassus' account, the following day Lucretia dressed in black and went to her father's house in Rome and cast herself down in the supplicant's position (embracing the knees), weeping in front of her father and husband. She asked to explain herself and insisted on summoning witnesses before she told them about her rape. After disclosing the rape, she asked them for vengeance, a plea that could not be ignored because she was speaking to the chief magistrate of Rome. While the men debated the proper course of action, Lucretia drew a concealed dagger and stabbed herself in the heart. She died in her father's arms, while the women present lamented her death. According to Dionysius, "This dreadful scene struck the Romans who were present with so much horror and compassion that they all cried out with one voice that they would rather die a thousand deaths in defense of their liberty than suffer such outrages to be committed by the tyrants."


title: Lucretia

text: In Livy's version, Lucretia acts quickly and calmly, deciding not to go to Rome, but instead sends for her father and her husband, asking them to bring one friend each to act as a witness. Those selected were Publius Valerius Publicola from Rome and Lucius Junius Brutus from the camp at Ardea. Once the men found Lucretia in her room, her explanation of the facts leads the men to state that "it is the mind that sins, not the body, and where there has been no consent there is no guilt." After exacting an oath of vengeance while the men were discussing the matter—"Pledge me your solemn word that the adulterer shall not go unpunished"— Lucretia drew a poignard and stabbed herself in her heart.


title: Lucretia

text: In Dio's version, Lucretia's request for revenge is: "And, whereas I (for I am a woman) shall act in a manner which is fitting for me: you, if you are men, and if you care for your wives and children, exact vengeance on my behalf and free your selves and show the tyrants what sort of woman they outraged, and what sort of men were her menfolk!" She follows her statement by plunging the dagger into her chest and promptly dying.


title: Lucretia

text: In this version, Collatinus and Brutus were encountered returning to Rome unaware of the incident, were briefed, and were brought to the death scene. Brutus happened to be a politically motivated participant. By kinship he was a Tarquin on his mother's side, the son of Tarquinia, daughter of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, the third king before last. He was a candidate for the throne if anything should happen to Superbus. By law, however, because he was a Junius on his father's side, he was thus not a Tarquin and therefore could later propose the exile of the Tarquins without fear for himself. Superbus had taken his inheritance and left him a pittance, keeping him at court for entertainment.


title: Lucretia

text: Collatinus, seeing his wife dead, became distraught. He held her, kissed her, called her name and spoke to her. Dio stated that after seeing the hand of Destiny in these events, Brutus called the grieving party to order, explained that his simplicity had been a sham, and proposed that they drive the Tarquins from Rome. Grasping the bloody dagger, he swore by Mars and all the other gods that he would do everything in his power to overthrow the dominion of the Tarquinii. He stated that he would neither be reconciled to the tyrants himself, nor tolerate any who should be reconciled to them, but would look upon every man who thought otherwise as an enemy, and til his death would pursue with unrelenting hatred both the tyranny and its abettors; and if he should violate his oath, he prayed that he and his children might meet with the same end as Lucretia.


title: Lucretia

text: He passed the dagger around and each mourner swore the same oath by it. The primary sources of both Dio and Livy agree on this point: Livy's version is:


title: Lucretia

text: By this blood—most pure before the outrage wrought by the king's son—I swear, and you, O gods, I call to witness that I will drive hence Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, together with his cursed wife and his whole blood, with fire and sword and every means in my power, and I will not suffer them or anyone else to reign in Rome.


title: Lucretia

text: The newly sworn revolutionary committee paraded the bloody corpse of Lucretia to the Roman Forum where it remained on display as a reminder of the dishonor committed. At the forum, the committee heard grievances against the Tarquins and began to enlist an army to abolish the monarchy. Brutus "urged them to act as men and Romans and take up arms against their insolent foes" in response to the death of a dutiful wife. The gates of Rome were blockaded by the new revolutionary soldiers and more were sent to guard Collatia. By now a crowd had gathered in the forum; the presence of the magistrates among the revolutionaries kept them in good order.


title: Lucretia

text: Brutus was the Tribune of the Celeres, a minor office of some religious duties, which as a magistracy gave him the theoretical power to summon the curiae, an organization of patrician families used mainly to ratify the decrees of the king. Summoning them on the spot, he transformed the crowd into an authoritative legislative assembly and began to address them in one of the more noted and effective speeches of ancient Rome.


title: Lucretia

text: He began by revealing that his pose as a fool was a sham designed to protect him against an evil king. He levelled a number of charges against the king and his family: the outrage against Lucretia, whom everyone could see on the dais, the king's tyranny, the forced labor of the plebeians in the ditches and sewers of Rome. In his speech, he pointed out that Superbus had come to rule by the murder of Servius Tullius, his wife's father, next-to-the-last king of Rome. He "solemnly invoked the gods as the avengers of murdered parents." He suggested that the king's wife, Tullia, was in fact in Rome and probably was a witness to the proceedings from her palace near the forum. Seeing herself the target of so much animosity, she fled from the palace in fear of her life and proceeded to the camp at Ardea.


title: Lucretia

text: Brutus opened a debate on the form of government Rome ought to have, a debate at which many patricians spoke. In summation, he proposed the banishment of the Tarquins from all the territories of Rome and the appointment of an interrex to nominate new magistrates and conduct an election of ratification. They decided on a republican form of government with two consuls in place of a king executing the will of a patrician senate. This was a temporary measure until they could consider the details more carefully. Brutus renounced all right to the throne. In subsequent years, the powers of the king were divided among various elected magistracies.


title: Lucretia

text: A final vote of the curiae carried the interim constitution. Spurius Lucretius was swiftly elected interrex; he was prefect of the city already. He proposed Brutus and Collatinus as the first two consuls and that choice was ratified by the curiae. Needing to acquire the assent of the population as a whole, they paraded Lucretia through the streets, summoning the plebeians to a legal assembly in the forum. Once there, they heard a constitutional speech by Brutus. It began:


title: Lucretia

text: A general election was held and the vote won in favor of the republic. This ended the monarchy, and during these proceedings Lucretia was still displayed in the forum.


title: Lucretia

text: The constitutional consequences of this event ended the reign of the hereditary king; however, later emperors were absolute rulers in all but name. This constitutional tradition prevented both Julius Caesar and Octavian Augustus from accepting a crown; instead, they had to devise a confluence of several republican offices onto their persons in order to secure absolute power. Their successors both in Rome and in Constantinople adhered to this tradition in essence, and the office of German Holy Roman Emperor remained elective rather than hereditary—up to its abolition in the Napoleonic Wars, over 2300 years later.


title: Lucretia

text: Lucretia became an important embodiment of political and literary ideals for different authors throughout the ages, specifically because "stories of sexual violence against women serve as foundational myths of Western culture."


title: Lucretia

text: Livy's account in "Ab Urbe Condita Libri" (c. 25–8 BC) is the earliest surviving full historical treatment. In his account, her husband has boasted of the virtue of his wife to Tarquin and others. Livy contrasts the virtue of the Roman Lucretia, who remained in her room weaving, with the Etruscan ladies who feasted with friends. Ovid recounts the story of Lucretia in Book II of his "Fasti", published in 8 AD, concentrating on the bold over-reaching character of Tarquin. Later, St. Augustine made use of the figure of Lucretia in "The City of God" (published 426 AD) to defend the honour of Christian women who had been raped in the sack of Rome and had not committed suicide.


title: Lucretia

text: The story of Lucretia was a popular moral tale in the later Middle Ages. Lucretia appears to Dante in the section of Limbo, reserved for the nobles of Rome and other "virtuous pagans", in Canto IV of the "Inferno". Christine de Pizan used Lucretia, just as St. Augustine of Hippo did, in her "City of Ladies", defending a woman's sanctity.


title: Lucretia

text: The myth is recounted in Geoffrey Chaucer's "The Legend of Good Women", and it follows a similar storyline to Livy's. Lucretia calls for her father and husband, but Chaucer's tale also has her call for her mother and attendants as well, whereas Livy's has both her father and husband bring a friend as witness. The tale also deviates from Livy's account, as it begins with her husband coming home to surprise her, rather than the men placing a bet on the virtue of their wives.


title: Lucretia

text: John Gower's "Confessio Amantis" (Book VII), and John Lydgate's "Fall of Princes" recount the myth of Lucretia. Gower's work is a collection of narrative poems. In Book VII, he tells the "Tale of the Rape of Lucrece." Lydgate's work is a long poem containing stories and myths about various kings and princes who fell from power. It follows their lives from their rise into power and their fall into adversity. Lydgate's poem mentions the fall of Tarquin, the rape and suicide of Lucretia, and her speech prior to death.


title: Lucretia

text: Lucretia's rape and suicide is also the subject of William Shakespeare's 1594 long poem "The Rape of Lucrece", which draws extensively on Ovid's treatment of the story; he also mentions her in "Titus Andronicus", in "As You Like It", and in "Twelfth Night," wherein Malvolio authenticates his fateful letter by spotting Olivia's Lucrece seal. Shakespeare also alludes to her in "Macbeth", and in "Cymbeline" he further refers to the story, though without mentioning Lucretia by name. Shakespeare's poem, based on the rape of Lucretia, draws on the beginning of the Livy's account of the incident. The poem begins with a bet between husbands about the virtuousness of their wives. Shakespeare draws on the idea of Lucretia as a moral agent, as Livy did, when he explores his characters' response to death and her unwillingness to yield to her rapist. A direct excerpt from Livy is used when Shakespeare prefaces his poem with a brief prose called "Argument". This is the internal deliberation Lucrece suffered from, following the rape.


title: Lucretia

text: She is also mentioned in the poem "Appius and Virginia" by John Webster and Thomas Heywood, which includes the following lines:


title: Lucretia

text: Thomas Heywood's play "The Rape of Lucretia" dates from 1607. The subject also enjoyed a revival in the mid twentieth century; André Obey's 1931 play "" was adapted by librettist Ronald Duncan for "The Rape of Lucretia", a 1946 opera by Benjamin Britten which premiered at Glyndebourne. Ernst Krenek set Emmet Lavery's libretto "Tarquin" (1940), a version in a contemporary setting.


title: Lucretia

text: In Samuel Richardson's 1740 novel "Pamela", Mr. B. cites the story of Lucretia as a reason why Pamela ought not fear for her reputation, should he rape her. Pamela quickly sets him straight with a better reading of the story. Colonial Mexican poet Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz also mentions Lucretia in her poem "Redondillas," a commentary on prostitution and who is to blame.


title: Lucretia

text: In 1769, doctor Juan Ramis wrote a tragedy in Menorca entitled "Lucrecia". The play is written in the Catalan language using a neoclassical style and is a significant work of the eighteenth century written in this language.


title: Lucretia

text: In 1932, the play "Lucrece" was produced on Broadway, starring legendary actress Katharine Cornell in the title part. It was mostly performed in pantomime.


title: Lucretia

text: In Donna Leon's 2009 Venetian novel, "About Face", Franca Marinello refers to the tale of Tarquin and Lucrezia, as recounted in Ovid's " Fasti " (Book II, for February 24, "Regifugium") to explain her actions to Commissario Brunetti.


title: Lucretia

text: Since the Renaissance, the suicide of Lucretia has been an enduring subject for visual artists, including Titian, Rembrandt, Dürer, Raphael, Botticelli, Jörg Breu the Elder, Johannes Moreelse, Artemisia Gentileschi, Damià Campeny, Eduardo Rosales, Lucas Cranach the Elder, and others. Most commonly, either the moment of the rape is shown or Lucretia is shown alone at the moment of her suicide. In either situation, her clothing is loosened or absent, while Tarquin is normally clothed.


title: Lucretia

text: The subject was one of a group showing women from legend or the Bible who were either powerless, such as Susanna and Verginia, or only able to escape their situations by suicide, such as Dido of Carthage and Lucretia. These formed a counterpoint to, or sub-group of, the set of subjects known as the Power of Women, showing female violence against, or domination of, men. These were often depicted by the same artists, and especially popular in Northern Renaissance art. The story of Esther lay somewhere between these two extremes.


title: Lucretia

text: The subject of Lucretia spinning with her ladies, is sometimes depicted, as in a series of four engravings of her story by Hendrick Goltzius, which also includes a banquet.


title: First Barons' War

text: The First Barons' War (1215–1217) was a civil war in the Kingdom of England in which a group of rebellious major landowners (commonly referred to as barons) led by Robert Fitzwalter waged war against King John of England. The conflict resulted from King John's disastrous wars against King Philip II of France, which led to the collapse of the Angevin Empire, and John's subsequent refusal to accept and abide "Magna Carta", which John had sealed on 15 June 1215.


title: First Barons' War

text: The rebellious barons, faced with an uncompromising king, turned to King Philip's son, Prince Louis, who, in 1216, then sailed to England with an army despite his father's disapproval, as well as the Pope's, who subsequently excommunicated him. Louis captured Winchester and soon controlled over half of the English kingdom. He was proclaimed "King of England" in London by the barons, although never actually crowned.


title: First Barons' War

text: Louis' ambitions of ruling England faced a major setback in October 1216, when King John's death led to the rebellious barons deserting him in favour of John's nine-year-old son, Henry III of England and the war dragged on. Louis' army was finally beaten at the Battle of Lincoln on 20 May 1217. Also, after a fleet assembled by his wife, Blanche of Castile, attempted to bring him French reinforcements but was defeated off the coast of Sandwich on 24 August 1217, he was forced to make peace on English terms. He signed the Treaty of Lambeth and surrendered the few remaining castles that he held. The treaty had the effect of Prince Louis agreeing he had never been the legitimate king of England. That formalised the end of the civil war and the departure of the French from England.


title: First Barons' War

text: King John in June 1215 was forced to put his seal to "The Articles of the Barons" by a group of powerful barons who could no longer stand John's failed leadership and despotic rule. The king's Great Seal was attached to it on 15 June 1215. In return, the barons renewed their oaths of fealty to King John on 19 July 1215. A formal document to record the agreement was created by the royal chancery on 15 July: this was the original "Magna Carta". "The law of the land" is one of the great watchwords of "Magna Carta" by standing in opposition to the king's mere will.


title: First Barons' War

text: The "Magna Carta" of 1215 contained clauses that theoretically noticeably reduced the power of the king, such as Clause 61, the "security clause", which allowed a group of 25 barons to override the king at any time by way of force, a medieval legal process called "distraint" that was normal in feudal relationships but had never been applied to a king. After a few months of half-hearted attempts to negotiate in the summer of 1215, open warfare broke out between the rebel barons and the king and his supporters.


title: First Barons' War

text: The war began over "Magna Carta" but quickly turned into a dynastic war for the throne of England. The rebel barons, faced with a powerful king, turned to Louis, the son and heir apparent of King Philip II of France and the grandson-in-law of King Henry II of England. The Norman invasion had occurred only 149 years before, and the relationship between England and France was not as simply adversarial as it later became. The contemporary document, the "Annals of Waverley" saw no contradiction in stating that Louis was invited to invade to "prevent the realm being pillaged by aliens."


title: First Barons' War

text: At first, in November 1215, Louis simply sent the barons a contingent of knights to protect London. However, even at that stage he also agreed to an open invasion, despite the discouragement from his father and from Pope Innocent III. Thar came in May 1216, when watchmen on the coast of Thanet detected sails on the horizon, and on the next day, the King of England and his armies saw Louis's troops disembark on the coast of Kent.


title: First Barons' War

text: John decided to escape to the Saxon capital of Winchester, and so Louis had little resistance on his march to London. He entered London, also with little resistance, and was openly received by the rebel barons and citizens of London and proclaimed (though not crowned) king at St Paul's Cathedral. Many nobles gathered to give homage to him, including Alexander II of Scotland, who held fiefs in England.


title: First Barons' War

text: Many of John's supporters, sensing a tide of change, moved to support the barons. Gerald of Wales remarked: "The madness of slavery is over, the time of liberty has been granted, English necks are free from the yoke."


title: First Barons' War

text: Pursuing John, Louis led his army south from London on 6 June, arriving the following day in Reigate where he found the castle abandoned. He moved onwards to Guildford Castle on 8 June, which surrendered immediately. Farnham Castle initially closed its gates but surrendered as the French started to lay siege. He met resistance only when he reached Winchester Castle on 14 June, but it fell after a ten-day siege. Louis' campaign continued, and by July, about a third of England had fallen under his control.


title: First Barons' War

text: In the meantime, the King of France taunted his son for trying to conquer England without first seizing its key port: Dover. The royal castles at Canterbury and Rochester, their towns, and indeed, most of Kent had already fallen to Louis. However, when he moved on to Dover Castle on 25 July, it was prepared. Its constable, Hubert de Burgh, had a well-supplied garrison of men.


title: First Barons' War

text: The first siege began on 19 July, with Louis taking the high ground to the north of the castle. His men successfully undermined the barbican and attempted to topple the castle gate, but De Burgh's men managed to repel the invaders, blocking the breach in the walls with giant timbers. (After the siege the weak northern gate was blocked and tunnels were built in that area, to St John's Tower, and the new Constable's Gate and Fitzwilliam's Gate.) In the meantime, Louis's occupation of Kent was being undermined by a guerrilla force of Wealden archers raised and led by William of Cassingham.


title: First Barons' War

text: After three months spent besieging the castle and a large part of his forces being diverted by the siege, Louis called a truce on 14 October and soon returned to London.


title: First Barons' War

text: Apart from Dover, the only castle to hold out against Louis was that at Windsor, where 60 loyalist knights survived a two-month siege, despite severe damage to the structure of its lower ward. That was immediately repaired in 1216 by Henry III, who further strengthened the defences with the construction of the western curtain wall, much of which survives today. The damage was caused possibly by the castle having been besieged by the barons in 1189, less than 30 years earlier.


title: First Barons' War

text: In 1206, John had spent £115 on repairs to Rochester Castle, and he had even preemptively held it during the year of the negotiations leading up to "Magna Carta", but the Charter's terms had forced him to hand it back into the custody of Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, in May 1215. The rebel barons had then sent troops under William d'Aubigny to the castle, to whom its constable Reginald de Cornhill opened the castle's gates. Thus, during October 1215 on his marching from Dover to London, John found Rochester in his way and on 11 October began besieging it in person.


title: First Barons' War

text: The rebels were expecting reinforcements from London but John sent fire ships out to burn their route in, the city's bridge over the Medway. Robert Fitzwalter rode out to stop the king and fought his way onto the bridge but eventually being beaten back into the castle. John also sacked the cathedral, took anything of value and stabled his horses in it, all as a slight to Langton. Orders were then sent to the men of Canterbury.


title: First Barons' War

text: Five siege engines were then erected, and work was carried out to undermine the curtain wall. By one of those means, the king's forces entered and held the bailey in early November, and began attempting the same tactics against the keep, including undermining the south-eastern tower. The mine-roof was supported by wooden props, which were then set alight using pig-fat. On 25 November 1215, John had sent a writ to the justiciars saying, "Send to us with all speed by day and night, forty of the fattest pigs of the sort least good for eating so that we may bring fire beneath the castle". The fire thus created caused one entire corner of the keep to collapse. The rebels withdrew behind the keep's cross-wall but still managed to hold out. A few were allowed to leave the castle but on John's orders had their hands and feet lopped off as an example.


title: First Barons' War

text: Winter was now setting in, and the castle was taken on 30 November by starvation and not by force. John set up a memorial to the pigs and a gallows with the intention of hanging the whole garrison, but one of his captains, Savari de Mauléon, persuaded him not to hang the rebels since hanging those who had surrendered would set a precedent if John ever surrendered; only one man was actually hanged (a young bowman who had previously been in John's service). The remainder of the rebel barons were taken away and imprisoned at various royal-held castles, such as Corfe Castle. Of the siege, the Barnwell chronicler wrote "No one alive can remember a siege so fiercely pressed and so manfully resisted" and that, after it, "There were few who would put their trust in castles".


title: First Barons' War

text: On 18 October 1216, John contracted dysentery, which would ultimately prove fatal. He died at Newark Castle, Nottinghamshire, and with him the main reason for the fighting. Louis now seemed much more of a threat to baronial interests than John's nine-year-old son, Prince Henry.


title: First Barons' War

text: John had killed Prince Arthur, son of his late elder brother, Geoffrey, during the struggles for the throne, with Princess Eleanor sister of Arthur imprisoned. In his will, John ordered Eleanor never be released; despite being an adult, she remained in prison with her claim ignored.


title: First Barons' War

text: Pierre des Roches, Bishop of Winchester, and a number of barons rushed to have the young Henry be crowned as King of England. London was held by Louis (it was his seat of government) and therefore could not be used for this coronation so, on 28 October 1216, they brought the boy from the castle at Devizes to Gloucester Abbey in front of a small attendance presided over by a Papal Legate, Guala Bicchieri (d. 1227, Bishop of Vercelli, papal legate in England 1216–18). They crowned Henry with a necklace of gold.


title: First Barons' War

text: On 12 November 1216, "Magna Carta" was reissued in Henry's name with some of the clauses omitted, including clause 61. The revised charter was sealed by the young king's regent William Marshal. A great deal of the country was loyal to Prince Louis, with the southwest of England and the Midlands favouring Henry. Marshal was highly respected and he asked the barons not to blame the child Henry for his father's sins. The prevailing sentiment, helped by self-interest, disliked the idea of depriving a boy of his inheritance. Marshal also promised that he and the other regents would rule by "Magna Carta". Furthermore, he managed to get support from the Pope, who had already excommunicated Louis.


title: First Barons' War

text: William Marshal slowly managed to get most barons to switch sides from Louis to Henry and attack Louis. The two opposing sides fought for about a year. On 6 December 1216 Louis took Hertford Castle but allowed the defending knights to leave with their horses and weapons. He then took Berkhamsted Castle in late December, which again allowed the royal garrison to withdraw honourably with their horses and weapons.


title: First Barons' War

text: By early 1217, Louis decided to return to France for reinforcements. He had to fight his way to the south coast through loyalist resistance in Kent and Sussex, losing part of his force in an ambush at Lewes, with the remainder pursued to Winchelsea and were saved from starvation only by the arrival of a French fleet.


title: First Barons' War

text: Since the truce had been arranged with Dover, the Dover garrison had repeatedly disrupted Louis's communication with France, and so Louis sailed back to Dover to begin a second siege. The French camp, set up outside Dover Castle in anticipation of the new siege, was attacked and burned by William of Cassingham and Oliver fitz Regis just as the fleet carrying the reinforcements arrived. Louis was forced to land at Sandwich and march to Dover, where he began a second siege in earnest on 12 May 1217. This new siege diverted so much of Louis's forces that Marshal and Falkes de Breauté were able to attack and heavily defeat pro-Louis barons at Lincoln Castle on 15 May or 20 May 1217, in what became known as the Second Battle of Lincoln.


title: First Barons' War

text: Marshal prepared for a siege against London next. In the meantime, Louis suffered two more heavy defeats, this time at sea, at the Battle of Dover and Battle of Sandwich in the Straits of Dover, this time at the hands of William's ally and Dover's constable Hubert de Burgh. Louis' new reinforcement convoy, under Eustace the Monk, was destroyed, making it nearly impossible for Louis to continue fighting.


title: First Barons' War

text: After a year and a half of war, most of the rebellious barons had defected. That and the defeat of the French in 1217 forced Louis to negotiate. A few of Henry's supporters held out for unconditional surrender, but the Earl of Pembroke successfully argued for the more moderate terms.


title: First Barons' War

text: At the Treaty of Lambeth, which was signed on 11 September 1217, Louis had to give up his claim to be the King of England and to agree that he had never been the legitimate king. The principal provisions of the treaties were an amnesty for English rebels but that the barons who had joined Louis had to pay the French prince 10,000 marks to expedite his withdrawal. Louis surrendered the few remaining castles that he had held and exhorted to his allies, Scottish and Welsh troops under Alexander II and Llywelyn the Great respectively, to lay down their arms. Louis also undertook not to attack England again.


title: Spanish East Indies

text: The Spanish East Indies ( ; ) were the overseas territories of the Spanish Empire in Asia and Oceania from 1565 to 1898, governed for the Spanish Crown from Mexico City and Madrid through the captaincy general which ruled Manila.


title: Spanish East Indies

text: The King of Spain traditionally styled himself "King of the East and West Indies (in Spanish: "Rey de las Indias orientales y occidentales)"".


title: Spanish East Indies

text: From 1565 to 1821 these territories, together with the Spanish West Indies, were administered through the Viceroyalty of New Spain based in Mexico City. After independence of the Mexican Empire, they were ruled directly from Madrid. The territories ruled included present-day Philippines, Guam and the Mariana Islands, as well as Palau, part of Micronesia and for a brief period Northern Taiwan and parts of North Sulawesi and the Moluccas. Cebu was the first seat of government, which later transferred to Manila.


title: Spanish East Indies

text: As a result of the Spanish–American War in 1898, the United States occupied the Spanish Philippines and Guam, while Spain sold other smaller islands to Germany in the German–Spanish Treaty of 1899. The few remaining islands were ceded to the United States when the Treaty of Washington was ratified in 1901.


title: Spanish East Indies

text: Spanish contact began on 6 March 1521, when a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan reached the Mariana Islands. He named Guam and the other islands ""Islas de los Ladrones"" (Islands of the Thieves) because the natives came aboard his galleon (the "Trinidad") and pilfered many of its supplies. The expedition later continued its journey west and reached the island of Homonhon in the eastern Philippines on 16 March, with only 150 crewmen. There they were able to communicate with the local peoples because the Malayan interpreter, Enrique of Malacca, could understand their language. The expedition took them further into the archipelago to the Visayan island of Cebu, where Magellan's chaplain, Pedro Valderrama, baptised the local monarch Rajah Humabon (of the Hindu Cebu Rajahnate), his chief consort, and his subjects.


title: Spanish East Indies

text: Seeking to develop trade between the East Indies and the Americas across the Pacific Ocean, Antonio de Mendoza encouraged the exploration of these Asian territories and commissioned the expedition of Ruy López de Villalobos to the Philippines in 1542–1543. Miguel López de Legazpi set out from Mexico, and established the first Spanish settlement in the Philippines in 1565, which became the town of San Miguel in present-day Cebu. That same year, another member of the expedition, Andrés de Urdaneta, discovered a maritime route from the Philippines to Mexico, across the Pacific, leading to the important transpacific transport link of the Manila-Acapulco Galleons.In 1571, exploiting a rivalry between the states of Tondo and Maynila, the later being a city-state established by Bruneian Muslim colonists, meant to supplant Tondo, the Spaniards captured Maynila and renamed it "Manila", a former satellite-state of the Brunei Sultanate and then Manila was made the seat of the Spanish Captaincy General of the Philippines. The Hindu Rajahnate of Butuan and the Kedatuans of Dapitan and Madja-as willingly joined the Spaniards to ally against their common Muslim rivals (Spain recently expelled the Muslims who invaded their homeland at the culmination of the Reconquista), Zamboanga was also taken from the Sultanate of Sulu via the efforts of Spanish and Peruvian soldiers and native allies as all these territories were incorporated into the Spanish East Indies.


title: Spanish East Indies

text: The Philippines became the center of operations for further Spanish wars in Asia including the Castilian War against the Sultanate of Brunei, raids against the Ottoman protectorate of the Sultanate of Aceh, the brief conquests of the Sultanates of Tidor and Ternate as well as Spanish campaigns into Cambodia and Taiwan. These and other Asian territories claimed by the Spanish crown were to be governed from the Viceroyalty of New Spain in Mexico City.


title: Spanish East Indies

text: The Manila-Acapulco galleons shipped products gathered from both Asia-Pacific and the Americas, such as silk, spices, silver, gold and other Asian-Pacific islander products to Mexico. Products brought from Asia-Pacific were sent to Veracruz and shipped to Spain and, via trading, to the rest of Europe, while Spanish-Mexican navigators brought with them Hispanic and indigenous Mexican customs, religion, languages, foods, and cultural traditions to the Philippines, Guam, and the Mariana Islands.


title: Spanish East Indies

text: In 1606, the Spaniards established trade links with the Maluku Islands, which continued until 1663. Contacts with Japan were also established and Sebastián Vizcaíno was sent as ambassador in 1611, until Japan closed its trading post in 1630. In northeastern Taiwan, the Spaniards built Fort Santo Domingo near Keelung in 1626 and a mission in Tamsui in 1628, which they occupied until they lost in the Second Battle of San Salvador. Several Pacific islands were visited by Spanish ships in the 16th century, including New Guinea (Yñigo Ortiz de Retez in 1545), the Solomon Islands (Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa in 1568), and the Marquesas Islands (Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira in 1595), but they made no effort to trade with or colonize them.


title: Spanish East Indies

text: In 1668, Blessed Diego Luis de San Vitores established the first mission on Guam, where he and Saint Pedro Calungsod were later martyred.


title: Spanish East Indies

text: In 1762 British troops briefly captured the city of Manila as well as Bulacan, Pampanga, and parts of Ilocos for two years during the Seven Years' War. Through the efforts of the Spanish authorities along with help from local forces, they unsuccessfully resisted the British bombardment. There were also rebellions by local leaders such as Diego Silang and his wife Gabriela who held support for Britain. Under the peace settlement Manila was exchanged, along with British-occupied Havana, for Florida and Menorca. Manila was ceded back to Spanish authorities in April 1764.


title: Spanish East Indies

text: The Seven Years' War prompted Charles III to initiate extensive governmental reforms throughout the overseas possessions. An "intendencia" was established in Manila in 1784 to handle the government finances and to promote the economy. (The plan to introduce more intendencias throughout the Philippines did not materialize.) In a similar vein, to promote innovation and education among the residents of the islands, Governor-General José Basco y Vargas established the Economic Society of the Friends of the Country.


title: Spanish East Indies

text: For over 256 years, the Spanish East Indies were governed by a governor-captain general, and an audiencia. All economic matters of the Philippines were managed by the Viceroyalty of New Spain, located in Mexico. Because the eastward route was more widely used for military purposes, in addition to commerce that included the Manila-Acapulco galleon trade, most government correspondence went through Mexico, rather than directly to Spain (with the exception of a short period at the end of the 18th century).


title: Spanish East Indies

text: In 1821, the New Spanish Viceroyalty collapsed following the Mexican War of Independence, which resulted in the First Mexican Empire. All control of the Spanish East Indies government was then transferred to Madrid, until the United States annexed most Spanish territories in the Asia-Pacific region after the Spanish–American War of 1898.


title: Spanish East Indies

text: In 1574 the Captaincy General of the Philippines was created as a dependency of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. The Real Audiencia of Manila was created on 5 May 1583 and the first session was held on 15 June 1584 as the highest tribunal of the Spanish Empire in the East Indies, that had the Governor-General of the Philippines as its "ex officio" highest judge. Both institutions were created by Royal Decree from King Felipe II


title: Spanish East Indies

text: Law XI (Audiencia y Chancillería Real de Manila en las Filipinas) of Title XV (De las Audiencias y Chancillerias Reales de las Indias) of Book II of the "Recopilación de Leyes de los Reynos de las Indias" of 1680—which compiles the original decree and the one of 25 May 1596—describes the limits and functions of the Audiencia and its president.


title: Spanish East Indies

text: "In the city of Manila on the Island of Luzon, Head of the Philippines, shall reside another Royal Audiencia and Chancellery of ours, with a president, who shall be governor and captain general; four judges of civil cases ["oidores"], who will also be judges of criminal cases ["alcaldes del crimen"]; a crown attorney ["fiscal"]; a bailiff ["alguacil mayor"]; a lieutenant of the Gran Chancellor; and the other necessary ministers and officials; and which shall have for district said Island of Luzon, and the rest of the Philippines, the Archipelago of China, and its Mainland, discovered and to be discovered. And we order that the governor and captain general of said Islands and Provinces, and president of their Royal Audiencia, have exclusively the superior government of the entire district of said Audiencia in war and peace, and shall make provisions and favors in our Royal Name, which in conformity to the laws of this Compilation and the rest of the Kingdoms of Castile and the instructions and powers that We shall grant, he should and can do; and in gubernatorial matters and cases that shall arise, that are of importance, said president-governor should consult on them with the judges of said Audiencia, so that they give their consultive opinions, and having heard them, he should provide the most convenient to the service of God and ours and the peace and tranquility of said Province and Republic".


title: Spanish East Indies

text: The Spanish used several names that are not currently used. Gran Moluca (Great Molluccas) for the island of Mindanao and Nueva Castilla (New Castile) for Luzon.


title: Spanish East Indies

text: Because Spanish interest in the region was primarily focused on its use as a base for trade with East Asia, direct Spanish control over the area expanded slowly. The Batanes Islands were conquered in the 18th century by José Basco. The highlands of Luzon remained outside Spanish control until the early 19th century, and the southernmost tip of Palawan, not until the late 1890s. The rest of Mindanao (Caesarea Karoli)—aside from outposts in Northern Mindanao, Zamboanga, Cotabato, and the islands of Basilan and Jolo, the rest was nominally under Spanish control, recognizing Spanish rule, but left to administer their own affairs, as in the cases of the Sulu, and the Maguindanao sultanates, as well as a number of other Lumad tribes not affiliated with either. Similarly, Palau and the vast majority of the Caroline Islands were not governed by Spanish missions until the early 19th century.


title: Spanish East Indies

text: Spain's influence on its former territories in Asia-Pacific is significant to this day. The majority of the people of the Philippines, Guam and the Mariana Islands belong to the Roman Catholic faith which was introduced by Spanish missionaries in the 16th and 17th centuries. A large part of the population in these countries were forced to use Spanish names and surnames, many of which are still in use. Also, because of the introduction of new tools, products, crops and technology by Spaniards and Mexicans in the three centuries of colonial rule, many Spanish loanwords entered the native languages of these countries. Art forms such as music, architecture and fashion also have much Spanish influence. The national cuisines of these countries also have a few Mexican and Spanish elements.


title: Spanish East Indies

text: A sizeable proportion of the current population of the Northern Marianas Islands (45–55%) and Guam (30–45%), as well as that of Palau (15–25%) is of Filipino descent. Some of the local peoples in the previously stated territories also use Filipino names and surnames (one example is the surname Pangelinan, which comes from the Filipino surname Pangilinan). The current Chamorro population is believed to be partly of Filipino descent, both because of the historic links between Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands and the Philippines during Spanish rule, and currently through different waves of migration. The cuisines of Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and Palau are also heavily influenced by Filipino cuisine, with dishes like Pancit, Lumpia, Kelaguen, Halo-halo and Okoy being the most noticeable.


title: Han Suk-kyu

text: Han Suk-kyu (born November 3, 1964) is a South Korean actor. One of the leading actors of Korean cinema, Han's notable works include "Green Fish" (1997), "No. 3" (1997), "Christmas in August" (1998), "Shiri" (1999), "The Scarlet Letter" (2004), and "The President's Last Bang" (2005).


title: Han Suk-kyu

text: He won the Grand Prize (Daesang) at the 2011 SBS Drama Awards, for his lead role as King Sejong in the historical drama "Deep Rooted Tree" (2011). He won the Grand Prize (Daesang) Award again in 2016, for his performance as Master Kim in the hit medical drama "Dr. Romantic" (2016). In 2019, he played the role of police in the drama "Watcher". And, he reprised his role in "Dr. Romantic 2" (2020).


title: Han Suk-kyu

text: While a student at the Theater and Film department of Dongguk University, he sang in an amateur folk rock band. He took a brief, year-long contract as voice actor at KBS, before moving on to TV and film acting.


title: Han Suk-kyu

text: After a debut in the 1990 MBC campus drama "Our Paradise", Han rose to stardom as "Hong-shik" in "The Moon of Seoul" (1994), a charming gigolo from the slums determined to attain wealth at all cost in the big city. "Choon-seop", an old friend from hometown played by Choi Min-sik, struggles hopelessly to stop "Hong-shik" from his self-ruin. The partnership of Han and Choi as uneasy allies or foes, parlayed into two flagship films of the 1990s: "No. 3" and "Shiri". Both the series and "Hong-shik" character have since become beloved icons, as part of the Korean television's golden era before the advent of Korean Wave.


title: Han Suk-kyu

text: Before the end of the 20th century, Han headlined films that were critically acclaimed ("Green Fish", "No. 3") and commercially successful ("The Contact", "Christmas in August", "Shiri" — the latter two making particular impact in Japan).


title: Han Suk-kyu

text: Han's experience in the early stages of Korean cinema renaissance in the 1990s, cemented his belief in a script-driven model for movie-making. Thus the founding of "Makdong Script Festival" (named after his role in "Green Fish"), with co-sponsor film magazine "Cine 21". Winners may claim two cash prizes funded by Han, with the potential to launch directing careers based from their own scripts. The annual contest is now extant over 10 years, with two titles produced so far: the comedy "2424" (2002) and "Private Eye" (2009) starring Hwang Jung-min.


title: Han Suk-kyu

text: Han went into an extended hiatus in 1980 declining several lucrative opportunities with name directors as he suffered disc problem.


title: Han Suk-kyu

text: Han returned in 2003 with espionage film "Double Agent". The film, which add one million admissions, was seen as a success for a star labeled by the media as "box office guarantee." This was followed by a sizable backlash from netizens and the press, who rushed to bury the co-self-produced spy thriller as the public disgrace of a former golden boy.


title: Han Suk-kyu

text: His press and image took further beating in the next two, even more polarizing films: the unforeseen tragedy surrounding "The Scarlet Letter", and the incendiary political content of "The President's Last Bang". Nonetheless, these controversial works screened at Cannes, and were featured in a tribute to the actor at the Austrian FilmAsia festival. fewccect, which he filmed as a keepsake for his children.


title: Han Suk-kyu

text: In spite of this rocky return to feature films, Han remains well regarded by such major directors as Park Chan-wook, dong Joon-ik, Kang Woo-suk and Jang Jin. Compared to his peak popularity in the 90s, his work may seem an acquired taste for general audiences, although some cult following ensued for his ultra-sadistic turn in "A Bloody Aria".


title: Han Suk-kyu

text: He remained self-managed until as late as 2006, before joining the KM Culture agency due to increased regimentation of the industry. Making 2006 a busy year, Han starred in period sex comedy "Forbidden Quest", followed by black comedy film "A Bloody Aria" and melodrama film "Solace".


title: Han Suk-kyu

text: Stylish thrillers followed, where Han starred alongside Cha Seung-won in "Eye for an Eye" and Son Ye-jin in the adaptation of Keigo Higashino novel of "White Night". Han then starred in "Villain and Widow" with Kim Hye-soo.


title: Han Suk-kyu

text: Han returned to the spotlight with his performance in historical drama "Deep Rooted Tree", where his performance of King Sejong earned him the Grand Award at the 2011 SBS Drama Awards.


title: Han Suk-kyu

text: In 2013, Han starred in the action thriller film "The Berlin File", playing a South Korean agent. He then starred in musical film "My Paparotti", playing a music teacher who is stuck in a rut until he meets a delinquent teenager.


title: Han Suk-kyu

text: He returned to the small screen in historical drama "Secret Door", playing King Yeongjo. This was followed by period film "The Royal Tailor", about a rivalry between two tailors at the Sanguiwon. However, both projects were less successful.


title: Han Suk-kyu

text: Han bounced back with the hit medical drama "Dr. Romantic", written by acclaimed screenwriter Kang Eun-kyung. The drama garnered over 20% viewership ratings, and Han received positive reviews for his performance. He also won the Grand Prize (Daesang) Award at the 2016 SBS Drama Awards.


title: Han Suk-kyu

text: Han returned to the big screen in crime drama film "The Prison". Han is slated to star in upcoming thrillers "Idol" and "Father's War", and period drama film "Astronomy".


title: Han Suk-kyu

text: Known for his distinctive voice and diction, Han has been a long-time mentor to Kam Woo-sung, including coaching the latter's enunciation for his film debut in "Marriage is a Crazy Thing". Actors of the younger generation also continue to cite him as an influence; among them: Hwang Jung-min, Ryoo Seung-bum, Kim Myung-min, Kim Joo-hyuk of "Blue Swallow", Kim Ji-soo of "This Charming Girl", Tsuyoshi Kusanagi (who famously began a second career in Korea after seeing Han in "Shiri"), Rain, Lee Sung-jae of "Barking Dogs Never Bite", TV heartthrob Lee Jin-wook, and the current darling of independent films, Im Ji-kyu. He also remains well respected among major peers for his distinctive style (a cerebral and intricate minimalism driven by semantics and implosive restraint): Kim Hye-soo, Song Kang-ho, Oh Dal-su (especially for their collaboration in "Forbidden Quest" and "A Bloody Aria"), Sol Kyung-gu, and Choi Min-sik.


title: Han Suk-kyu

text: For his part, Han has cited influences by legendary Korean actor Kim Seung-ho, Al Pacino, Ken Takakura, "The Godfather" trilogy, and Hayao Miyazaki.


title: Fred Figglehorn

text: Fred Figglehorn (stylized as FЯED) is the central character in an Internet video series created by then-teenager Lucas Cruikshank in 2006. It yielded other spin-off series and a relationship with Nickelodeon, including three movies and a television series.


title: Fred Figglehorn

text: Lucas Cruikshank introduced the Fred character in a video on JKL Productions, a YouTube channel he started on YouTube with his cousins, Jon and Katie Smet on June 11, 2006. Cruikshank uploaded several videos testing out different characters. The first "Fred" video was uploaded on October 30, 2006. On April 30, 2008, these videos were moved to the "Fred" channel. On May 1 the first official video of the series, titled "Fred on May Day" was released. By April 2009, it became the first YouTube channel to have over one million subscribers.


title: Fred Figglehorn

text: Zipit Wireless Messenger (Z2) sponsored the first season of "Fred", with several product placements. Walden Media hired Cruikshank to promote the film "City of Ember", along with the sci-fi novel it was based on, cameos from the film's star Tim Robbins in "Fred" episodes, and a mock movie trailer.


title: Fred Figglehorn

text: Cruikshank made a cameo appearance as both Fred and himself on Nickelodeon's "iCarly" in "iMeet Fred", which originally aired on February 16, 2009. The episode has "iCarly" facing a huge loss of popularity after Freddie Benson criticizes Fred on-air, resulting in Cruikshank pretending to cancel his own show, and the characters organizing a crossover episode between the two web shows to regain popularity.


title: Fred Figglehorn

text: In December 2009, Cruikshank filmed "", which aired on Nickelodeon on September 18, 2010. Nickelodeon created a franchise surrounding the character, with the sequel, "", airing on October 22, 2011. In 2012, "" aired, consisting of 24 11-minute episodes; a third movie, "", premiered that year.


title: Fred Figglehorn

text: In June 2010, Fred appeared on the "Annoying Orange" web series. In October and November 2011, Ari Gold cameos in "Fred" as Power, from the film "Adventures of Power".


title: Fred Figglehorn

text: Fred lives with his grandmother and his mother who is a recovering drug-addict and alcoholic stripper. Fred has been the victim of child abuse and his father is a former rock musician, and currently on death row in the state penitentiary.


title: Fred Figglehorn

text: The series uses a floating timeline, meaning it is always taking place in the current year, and Fred is perpetually six years old and in kindergarten. The videos primarily consist of the character speaking to the audience about what is happening in his life. Fred has a high-pitched voice and is hyperactive, achieved by speeding up the footage. Cruikshank has described the channel as "programming for kids by kids" as a parody of people who "think that everyone is so interested in them". He believes that viewers either "automatically love Fred or automatically hate Fred, there is no in between".


title: Fred Figglehorn

text: Leading up to the second movie's release, a new series called "Figgle Chat" features Internet and television stars. An animated series, "It's Fred!" joined the channel.


title: Fred Figglehorn

text: "Fred: The Movie" is a 2010 film based on the YouTube series about Fred Figglehorn. It features Lucas Cruikshank as Fred, Pixie Lott as Judy, Jennette McCurdy as Bertha, Jake Weary as Kevin Cen, John Cena as Fred's imaginary dad, and Siobhan Fallon Hogan as Fred's mom. It follows the character as he tries to track down his crush, Judy after she moves away. It is written by David A. Goodman, directed by Clay Weiner, and produced by Brian Robbins. Filming began November 9, 2009, and wrapped up December 20, 2009. The movie premiered on Nickelodeon on September 18, 2010, and the DVD was released October 5, 2010 as well as streaming media such as Netflix.


title: Fred Figglehorn

text: "Fred 2: Night of the Living Fred" is a 2011 Halloween-themed sequel to "Fred: The Movie". It first aired on October 22, 2011. After Fred has broken up with Judy, he meets Kevin Cen's sister Talia, and becomes convinced that his new neighbor is a vampire. The Judy character does not appear, and Jennette McCurdy was replaced by Daniella Monet in the role of Bertha.