title: Universal Plug and Play

text: Another capability of UPnP networking is event notification, or "eventing". The event notification protocol defined in the UPnP Device Architecture is known as General Event Notification Architecture (GENA). A UPnP description for a service includes a list of actions the service responds to and a list of variables that model the state of the service at run time. The service publishes updates when these variables change, and a control point may subscribe to receive this information. The service publishes updates by sending event messages. Event messages contain the names of one or more state variables and the current value of those variables. These messages are also expressed in XML. A special initial event message is sent when a control point first subscribes; this event message contains the names and values for all "evented" variables and allows the subscriber to initialize its model of the state of the service. To support scenarios with multiple control points, eventing is designed to keep all control points equally informed about the effects of any action. Therefore, all subscribers are sent all event messages, subscribers receive event messages for all "evented" variables that have changed, and event messages are sent no matter why the state variable changed (either in response to a requested action or because the state the service is modeling changed).


title: Universal Plug and Play

text: The final step in UPnP networking is presentation. If a device has a URL for presentation, then the control point can retrieve a page from this URL, load the page into a web browser, and depending on the capabilities of the page, allow a user to control the device and/or view device status. The degree to which each of these can be accomplished depends on the specific capabilities of the presentation page and device.


title: Universal Plug and Play

text: "UPnP AV architecture" is an audio and video extension of the UPnP, supporting a variety of devices such as TVs, VCRs, CD/DVD players/jukeboxes, settop boxes, stereos systems, MP3 players, still image cameras, camcorders, electronic picture frames (EPFs), and personal computers. The UPnP AV architecture allows devices to support different types of formats for the entertainment content, including MPEG2, MPEG4, JPEG, MP3, Windows Media Audio (WMA), bitmaps (BMP), and NTSC, PAL or ATSC formats. Multiple types of transfer protocols are supported, including IEEE 1394, HTTP, RTP and TCP/IP.


title: Universal Plug and Play

text: On 12 July 2006, the UPnP Forum announced the release of version 2 of the UPnP Audio and Video specifications, with new "MediaServer" (MS) version 2.0 and "MediaRenderer" (MR) version 2.0 classes. These enhancements are created by adding capabilities to the MediaServer and MediaRenderer device classes, allowing a higher level of interoperability between products made by different manufacturers. Some of the early devices complying with these standards were marketed by Philips under the Streamium brand name.


title: Universal Plug and Play

text: Since 2006, versions 3 and 4 of the UPnP audio and video device control protocols have been published. In March 2013, an updated uPnP AV architecture specification was published, incorporating the updated device control protocols.


title: Universal Plug and Play

text: The UPnP AV standards have been referenced in specifications published by other organizations including Digital Living Network Alliance Networked Device Interoperability Guidelines, International Electrotechnical Commission IEC 62481-1, and Cable Television Laboratories OpenCable Home Networking Protocol.


title: Universal Plug and Play

text: A is the UPnP-server ("master" device) that provides media library information and streams media-data (like audio/video/picture/files) to UPnP clients on the network. It is a computer system or a similar digital appliance that stores digital media, such as photographs, movies, or music and shares these with other devices.


title: Universal Plug and Play

text: UPnP AV media servers provide a service to UPnP AV client devices, so-called "control points", for browsing the media content of the server and request the media server to deliver a file to the control point for playback.


title: Universal Plug and Play

text: UPnP media servers are available for most operating systems and many hardware platforms. UPnP AV media servers can either be categorized as software-based or hardware-based. Software-based UPnP AV media servers can be run on a PC. Hardware-based UPnP AV media servers may run on any NAS devices or any specific hardware for delivering media, such as a DVR. As of May 2008, there were more software-based UPnP AV media servers than there were hardware-based servers.


title: Universal Plug and Play

text: One solution for NAT traversal, called the Internet Gateway Device Protocol (IGD Protocol), is implemented via UPnP. Many routers and firewalls expose themselves as Internet Gateway Devices, allowing any local UPnP control point to perform a variety of actions, including retrieving the external IP address of the device, enumerating existing port mappings, and adding or removing port mappings. By adding a port mapping, a UPnP controller behind the IGD can enable traversal of the IGD from an external address to an internal client.


title: Universal Plug and Play

text: The UPnP protocol, by default, does not implement any authentication, so UPnP device implementations must implement the additional "Device Protection" service, or implement the "Device Security Service". There also exists a non-standard solution called UPnP-UP (Universal Plug and Play - User Profile) which proposes an extension to allow user authentication and authorization mechanisms for UPnP devices and applications. Many UPnP device implementations lack authentication mechanisms, and by default assume local systems and their users are completely trustworthy.


title: Universal Plug and Play

text: When the authentication mechanisms are not implemented, routers and firewalls running the UPnP IGD protocol are vulnerable to attack. For example, Adobe Flash programs running outside the sandbox of the browser (e.g. this requires specific version of Adobe Flash with acknowledged security issues) are capable of generating a specific type of HTTP request which allows a router implementing the UPnP IGD protocol to be controlled by a malicious web site when someone with a UPnP-enabled router simply visits that web site. This only applies to the "firewall-hole-punching"-feature of UPnP; it does not apply when the IGD does not support UPnP or UPnP has been disabled on the IGD. Also, not all routers can have such things as DNS server settings altered by UPnP because much of the specification (including LAN Host Configuration) is optional for UPnP enabled routers. As a result, some UPnP devices ship with UPnP turned off by default as a security measure.


title: Universal Plug and Play

text: In 2011, researcher Daniel Garcia developed a tool designed to exploit a flaw in some UPnP IGD device stacks that allow UPnP requests from the Internet. The tool was made public at DEFCON 19 and allows portmapping requests to external IP addresses from the device and internal IP addresses behind the NAT. The problem is widely propagated around the world, with scans showing millions of vulnerable devices at a time.


title: Universal Plug and Play

text: In January 2013, the security company Rapid7 in Boston reported on a six-month research programme. A team scanned for signals from UPnP-enabled devices announcing their availability for internet connection. Some 6900 network-aware products from 1500 companies at 81 million IP-addresses responded to their requests. 80% of the devices are home routers; others include printers, webcams and surveillance cameras. Using the UPnP-protocol, many of those devices can be accessed and/or manipulated.


title: Universal Plug and Play

text: In February 2013, the UPnP forum responded in a press release by recommending more recent versions of the used UPnP stacks, and by improving the certification program to include checks to avoid further such issues.


title: Universal Plug and Play

text: UPnP is often the only significant multicast application in use in digital home networks; therefore, multicast network misconfiguration or other deficiencies can appear as UPnP issues rather than underlying network issues.


title: Universal Plug and Play

text: If IGMP snooping is enabled on a switch, or more commonly a wireless router/switch, it will interfere with UPnP/DLNA device discovery (SSDP) if incorrectly or incompletely configured (e.g. without an active querier or IGMP proxy), making UPnP appear unreliable.


title: Universal Plug and Play

text: Typical scenarios observed include a server or client (e.g. smart TV) appearing after power on, and then disappearing after a few minutes (often 30 by default configuration) due to IGMP group membership expiring.


title: Universal Plug and Play

text: On 8 June 2020, yet another protocol design flaw was announced. Dubbed "CallStranger" by its discoverer, it allows an attacker to subvert the event subscription mechanism and execute a variety of attacks: amplification of requests for use in DDoS; enumeration; and data exfiltration.


title: Universal Plug and Play

text: OCF had published a fix to the protocol specification in April 2020, but since many devices running UPnP are not easily upgradable, CallStranger is likely to remain a threat for a long time to come. CallStranger has fueled calls for end-users to abandon UPnP because of repeated failures in security of its design and implementation.


title: Universal Plug and Play

text: In the fall of 2008, the UPnP Forum ratified the successor to UPnP 1.0 Device Architecture UPnP 1.1. The Devices Profile for Web Services (DPWS) standard was a candidate successor to UPnP, but UPnP 1.1 was selected by the UPnP Forum. Version 2 of IGD is standardized.


title: Universal Plug and Play

text: The UPnP Internet Gateway Device (IGD) standard has a WANIPConnection service, which provides similar functionality to IETF-standard Port Control Protocol. The NAT-PMP specification contains a list of the problems with IGDP


title: NXT Women's Tag Team Championship

text: The NXT Women's Tag Team Championship is a professional wrestling women's tag team championship created and promoted by the American promotion WWE. It is defended on the NXT brand division, the promotion's developmental territory. The current champions are Kayden Carter and Katana Chance, who are in their first reign, both as a team and individually.


title: NXT Women's Tag Team Championship

text: The championship was established on the March 10, 2021, episode of "NXT". The team of Dakota Kai and Raquel González were crowned the inaugural champions due to winning the first-ever Women's Dusty Rhodes Tag Team Classic, after the WWE Women's Tag Team Championship match they had originally received for their win ended in controversy. At the time the title was introduced, NXT was regarded as WWE's "third brand". In September 2021, however, NXT reverted to its original function as WWE's developmental territory.


title: NXT Women's Tag Team Championship

text: In December 2018, the WWE Women's Tag Team Championship was established as the sole women's tag team championship for WWE, shared across the Raw, SmackDown, and NXT brands. On the March 3, 2021, episode of "NXT", Dakota Kai and Raquel González, who had earned a title opportunity for winning the first-ever Women's Dusty Rhodes Tag Team Classic, faced WWE Women's Tag Team Champions Nia Jax and Shayna Baszler (whose home brand was Raw). After the referee had been knocked out during the match, WWE official Adam Pearce, who officiates for Raw and SmackDown, sent down a second referee to declare Kai had submitted to Baszler, although Kai was not the legal woman. This led to a backstage argument between Pearce and NXT General Manager William Regal.


title: NXT Women's Tag Team Championship

text: The following week on the March 10 episode, as to no longer deal with Raw and SmackDown's politics, Regal introduced the NXT Women's Tag Team Championship and awarded the titles to Kai and González due to winning the Dusty Classic; the WWE Women's Tag Team Championship subsequently became no longer available to NXT. Their reign would not last long, as that same night they defended the titles against the runner ups of the tournament, Ember Moon and Shotzi Blackheart, who defeated Kai and González to win the championship.


title: NXT Women's Tag Team Championship

text: The belt design of the NXT Women's Tag Team Championship is nearly identical to the men's NXT Tag Team Championship, with a few exceptions. The straps are smaller for the women and they are white instead of black. Above the vertical NXT logo on the center plate says "Women's Tag Team" instead of just "Tag Team". For the customizable side plates, the default side plates have the vertical NXT logo instead of the WWE logo. The WWE logo is also missing from the very center of the NXT logo on the center plate.


title: NXT Women's Tag Team Championship

text: As of 28, 2022, there have been 10 reigns between seven teams composed of 14 individual champions. The inaugural championship team was Dakota Kai and Raquel González. Toxic Attraction (Gigi Dolin and Jacy Jayne) have the longest reign at 158 days (157 days as recognized by WWE), while the team of Kai and González have the shortest reign at 56 minutes (being named as first champions then losing the title later the same night). Candice LeRae is the oldest champion at 35 years old, while Roxanne Perez is the youngest, winning the title at 20.


title: NXT Women's Tag Team Championship

text: The current champions are Kayden Carter and Katana Chance, who are in their first reign, both as a team and individually. They won the titles by defeating the teams of Ivy Nile and Tatum Paxley, Toxic Attraction (Gigi Dolin and Jacy Jayne), and Yulisa Leon and Valentina Feroz in a fatal four-way tag team elimination match, last eliminating Toxic Attraction (Gigi Dolin and Jacy Jayne), on the August 2, 2022, episode of "NXT 2.0". They ended the reign of previous champion Roxanne Perez.


title: Paxton Lynch

text: Paxton James Lynch (born February 12, 1994) is an American football quarterback for the Michigan Panthers of the United States Football League (USFL). He played college football at University of Memphis, and was drafted in the first round of the 2016 NFL Draft by the Denver Broncos. Lynch played just two seasons in Denver and made four starts before being released prior to the 2018 season. Lynch has also been a member of the Seattle Seahawks and Pittsburgh Steelers.


title: Paxton Lynch

text: Lynch attended Trinity Christian Academy in Deltona, Florida, where he played football and basketball. During his high school career, he passed for 2,099 yards. Lynch was rated by Rivals.com as a three-star recruit. He committed to the University of Memphis to play college football.


title: Paxton Lynch

text: After redshirting for his freshman year at Memphis in 2012, Lynch was named the Tigers' starting quarterback prior to the 2013 season. He started all 12 games, completing 203 of 349 passes for 2,056 yards, nine touchdowns and 10 interceptions. As a sophomore in 2014, Lynch started all 13 games. He completed 259 of 413 attempts for 3,031 yards, 22 touchdowns, and nine interceptions. He also rushed for 321 yards and 13 touchdowns. Lynch was named the MVP of the 2014 Miami Beach Bowl after passing for 306 yards with four passing touchdowns and three rushing touchdowns. As a junior in 2015, Lynch again started all 13 games. He completed 296 of 443 passes (66.8%) for 3,778 yards, 28 touchdowns (all five school records) and four interceptions. In Memphis' 63–0 victory over SMU, Lynch tied an FBS record with seven passing touchdowns in a half. He finished 9 of 14 for 222 yards, and completed his touchdown throws to seven different receivers. After the season, he decided to forgo his senior year and enter the 2016 NFL Draft. Lynch graduated from Memphis in May 2016 with a B.S.E. in sport and leisure management.


title: Paxton Lynch

text: Lynch's 35 touchdowns responsible for in 2014 and 30 in 2015 are first and second in Memphis history, and his 76 for his career is second all-time. He also ranks first and second for most total offense in a season (4,015 yards in 2015; 3,352 in 2014). He has four of the seven most passing yards in a game, including the school record 447 on October 23, 2015, at Tulsa. He ranks second all-time in career attempts, completions, completion percentage, passing yards, and passing touchdowns.


title: Paxton Lynch

text: Lynch was predicted to be selected in the first round of the 2016 NFL Draft by draft analysts and in mock drafts prior to the draft. He was rated the third best quarterback in the 2016 draft by NFLDraftScout.com.


title: Paxton Lynch

text: The Denver Broncos selected Lynch in the first round (26th overall) of the 2016 NFL Draft in a pick acquired from the Seattle Seahawks for their first and third round pick. He was the third of 15 quarterbacks taken, behind Jared Goff and Carson Wentz, the #1 and #2 overall picks. On June 9, 2016, the Broncos signed Lynch to a four-year, $9,476,296 contract with a $5,091,852 signing bonus.


title: Paxton Lynch

text: On October 2, 2016, Lynch played in his first NFL regular-season game against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, replacing the injured Trevor Siemian. He finished with 170 passing yards on 14 of 24 attempts and threw his first career touchdown pass to wide receiver Emmanuel Sanders in a 27–7 road win at Raymond James Stadium. In Week 5, Lynch started his first NFL game, completing 23 of 35 passes for 223 yards, one touchdown, and one interception in the 23–16 loss to the Atlanta Falcons. He was sacked six times, a record for a Broncos rookie. In Week 13, Lynch again replaced the injured Siemian against the Jacksonville Jaguars, posting 12 completions on 24 passing attempts for 104 yards in a 20–10 win. Overall, he finished his rookie season with 497 passing yards, two passing touchdowns, and one interception.


title: Paxton Lynch

text: Lynch suffered a shoulder injury against the Green Bay Packers in the team's third preseason game of the 2017 season. In Week 11 against the Cincinnati Bengals, Lynch was active for the first time that season and was the backup to Brock Osweiler. On November 21, Lynch was named the team's starter for the Week 12 game against the Oakland Raiders. Lynch completed 9 of 14 passes for 41 yards and an interception that occurred in the endzone, the Raiders' first interception of the season. Lynch left the game with an ankle injury in the third quarter and was relieved by Siemian for the remainder of the game as the Broncos lost 21–14. A day after the game, it was announced that Lynch would miss two to four weeks due to his injury. On December 31, Lynch started the regular season finale against the Kansas City Chiefs. In the 27–24 loss, he finished 21 of 31 for 254 passing yards, two touchdowns, and two interceptions.


title: Paxton Lynch

text: Going into mini-camps for the 2018 season, it was announced that Lynch would serve as backup quarterback, behind the newly acquired Case Keenum. Two days after the Broncos preseason opener against the Minnesota Vikings, the team announced that Lynch had been demoted to third-string quarterback as Chad Kelly was promoted to backup. He was released by the Broncos on September 2, 2018, after the team acquired Kevin Hogan. In two seasons with the team, Lynch made just four starts and threw four touchdowns and four interceptions.


title: Paxton Lynch

text: On January 17, 2019, Lynch signed with the Seattle Seahawks after spending the 2018 season as a free agent. He was waived on August 30, 2019, during final roster cuts.


title: Paxton Lynch

text: On September 17, 2019, Lynch was signed to the Pittsburgh Steelers practice squad. He was promoted to the active roster on October 11, 2019, following an injury to Mason Rudolph.


title: Paxton Lynch

text: On June 28, 2021, it was announced that Lynch had signed with the Saskatchewan Roughriders of the Canadian Football League (CFL). He did not dress for games during the season as he was the third string quarterback and spent most of the time on the one-game injured list. He was released on February 22, 2022.


title: Paxton Lynch

text: On February 22, 2022, Lynch signed with the United States Football League and was selected with the eighth pick of the 12th round of the 2022 USFL Draft by the Michigan Panthers. Lynch was the last of 16 quarterbacks taken in the draft and the only one to have started an NFL regular season game before being drafted. He was transferred to the inactive roster on May 5, 2022, with a leg injury.


title: Clare Balding

text: Clare Victoria Balding (born 29 January 1971) is an English broadcaster, journalist, and author. She currently presents for BBC Sport, Channel 4, BT Sport, is the current president of the Rugby Football League (RFL) and formerly presented the religious programme "Good Morning Sunday" on BBC Radio 2. She has played in goal for Llanymynech Football Club since 2011, apart from a shortlived spell at Llynclys in 2014.


title: Clare Balding

text: Clare Balding was privately educated at the independent, Downe House school in Berkshire, where she was Head Girl and a contemporary of comedian Miranda Hart (Hart and Balding are in fact tenth-cousins, sharing a nine-times-great-grandfather in Sir William Leveson-Gower, 4th Baronet).


title: Clare Balding

text: Balding applied to read law at Christ's College, Cambridge, but failed her interview and realised that law was not what she most wanted to do. She later successfully applied to Newnham College, Cambridge, and read English. While at university she was President of the Cambridge Union Society in Easter 1992 and graduated in 1993 with a 2:1 honours degree.


title: Clare Balding

text: From 1988 to 1993, Balding was a leading amateur flat jockey and Champion Lady Rider in 1990. Her memoir "My Animals and Other Family", which documents her life growing up in a racing yard, won the National Book Award for "Autobiography of the Year" in 2012.


title: Clare Balding

text: Balding has close family links to horse racing: her father, Ian Balding, trained Mill Reef, 1971 winner of The Derby, Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe and King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes; and her younger brother, Andrew Balding, trained Casual Look, the winner of the 2003 Epsom Oaks. The latter win led to a very emotional post-race interview with her brother. Her uncle Toby Balding trained winners in the Grand National, Cheltenham Gold Cup and Champion Hurdle. Furthermore, her maternal grandfather was the trainer Peter Hastings-Bass and her maternal uncle William Hastings-Bass, 17th Earl of Huntingdon was once trainer to Queen Elizabeth II. Her maternal grandmother, Priscilla Hastings, was descended from the Earls of Derby and was one of the first women elected to membership of the Jockey Club.


title: Clare Balding

text: Balding's well-documented aristocratic lineage on her mother's side can be seen in records that TheGenealogist has identified in research. Researchers found Balding's maternal line reveals that she is the great-granddaughter of Sir Malcolm Bullock, a Member of Parliament, whose sexuality had to be kept hidden because homosexuality was illegal in Britain. His sexuality was investigated in her episode of the "Who Do You Think You Are?" programme first broadcast in July 2017. Balding's paternal grandfather Gerald Barnard Balding Sr, was a 10-goal polo player who immigrated to America to play polo in the 1920s when he was in his 20s. Outbound passenger lists on a genealogy website include Balding's grandfather and it was at this time that Gerald Balding Sr met and later married the American heiress, Eleanor Hoagland. During the show, Balding discovered her great-great-great-grandfather was Joseph Hoagland who, in 1866, founded the Royal Baking Powder Company with his brother, Cornelius. Through pioneering use of mass advertising campaigns, they contributed to building one of the largest producers of baking powder in the U.S.


title: Clare Balding

text: Balding became a trainee with BBC National Radio in 1994, working on 5 Live, Radio 1 (presenting the sport on the "Chris Evans Breakfast Show"), Radio 2 and Radio 4. In June 1995, she made her debut as a television presenter, introducing highlights of Royal Ascot. The following year she began presenting live, and in December 1997 she became the BBC's lead horse racing presenter after the retirement of Julian Wilson, and has fronted coverage of the Grand National, infamously humiliating Liam Treadwell, Grand National winner 2009.


title: Clare Balding

text: Balding has reported from seven Olympic Games, for BBC Radio in Atlanta and for BBC Television in Sydney, Athens, Beijing, London, Rio de Janeiro and Tokyo. She has presented four Paralympic Games, the Winter Olympics from Salt Lake City, Turin, Vancouver, Sochi Pyeongchang and Beijing as well as the Commonwealth Games from Melbourne, Delhi, Glasgow and Gold Coast. She was the face of the BBC's rugby league coverage, having presented "Grandstand" from a Rugby League Challenge Cup semi-final, and having been so impressed by the vibrancy and physical challenge of the sport she asked to cover further rugby league events. She was the last person to present "Sunday Grandstand".


title: Clare Balding

text: She also presents the Lord Mayor's Show as well as other live events for the BBC, such as Trooping the Colour and New Year's Eve. Balding has presented coverage of Crufts for the BBC from 2004 – 2009 and for Channel 4 since 2013.


title: Clare Balding

text: She also presents the walking programme "Ramblings" for BBC Radio 4 where she walks and talks with one or more devotees of a particular route, area or activity and has, for example, walked sections of the Lyke Wake Walk and Dales Way for the programme. Clare worked on 5 Live's Wimbledon coverage from 1995 to 2014. From 2015 onwards, Balding has presented BBC2's Wimbledon Highlights programme. There has been some criticism of her in this role, due to her lack of knowledge and enthusiasm. She has also presented coverage of The Boat Race for the BBC since 2010, including the first live coverage of the women's Boat Race on the Tideway in 2015.


title: Clare Balding

text: In 2010, Balding presented a BBC TV series called "Britain By Bike" that retraced some of Harold Briercliffe's British cycle tours.


title: Clare Balding

text: In August 2011 Balding joined BBC's "Countryfile", temporarily replacing Julia Bradbury while Bradbury was on maternity leave, co-hosting the show with Matt Baker. Bradbury returned in February 2012.


title: Clare Balding

text: From February to March 2012 she presented "Sport and the British" on BBC Radio 4, a thirty-part series looking at the impact of sports on British life.


title: Clare Balding

text: Balding was a lead presenter on Channel 4's Paralympics TV coverage. In August 2012 it was reported that Balding would be presenting Channel 4's racing coverage, while still retaining an option to work for the BBC on non-racing programmes such as rugby league.


title: Clare Balding

text: In October 2012, she appeared before an All Party Parliamentary Group on women's sport, with Katherine Grainger, Hope Powell and Tanni Grey-Thompson. "Women having freedom to play sport leads directly to women having political freedom," said Balding. In 2013, to mark the centenary of Emily Wilding Davison's fatal intervention in the 1913 Derby, Balding presented a documentary about Davison for Channel 4 called "Secrets of the Suffragettes". Also in 2013, she presented a BBC documentary about the Queen called "The Queen – a Passion for Horses". Other factual documentaries for the BBC have included "Britain By Bike", "Operation Wild", and "Britain's Hidden Heritage".


title: Clare Balding

text: She has served as one of the presenters on "BBC Sports Personality of the Year". Balding was the presenter of "Good Morning Sunday" on BBC Radio 2 from January 2013 to November 2017; leaving the show due to schedule changes which would not allow her to continue to present the programme and do other work. Balding also presented a Saturday night quiz show for BBC1 called "Britain's Brightest", which began in January 2013. She was a senior presenter on Channel 4 Racing, from 2013 to 2016, predominantly fronting coverage of major festivals such as Cheltenham and Royal Ascot.


title: Clare Balding

text: Balding currently hosts her own sports chat show called "The Clare Balding Show", which airs on BT Sport and BBC Two. Guests so far have included Lewis Hamilton, Tom Daley, Mike Tyson, Martina Navratilova, Frankie Dettori, Judy Murray and Ronnie O'Sullivan.


title: Clare Balding

text: Balding has written columns for "The Sporting Life, Racing Post, Sunday Telegraph, The Evening Standard" and "Stylist "and currently writes a regular weekly sports column for "Waitrose Weekend".


title: Clare Balding

text: She signed a deal with Viking Press to write an autobiography entitled "My Animals and Other Family", which was published in September 2012. "My Animals and Other Family" reached Number One in "The Sunday Times" Bestseller list and has been translated into Italian, Mandarin and Hungarian. Her second book, "Walking Home: My Family and other Ramblings", was published in September 2014.


title: Clare Balding

text: Balding was involved in a copy-control controversy in 2017, when it was alleged that she or her agent rewrote part of an interview that she gave to "Saga" magazine, provoking the journalist Ginny Dougary to remove her byline from the interview. According to Dougary, Balding removed sections of the text and inserted promotional material about her new book, as well as details of her hosting of the women's European football championships and the words "And indeed she [Balding] sparkles all the way through the photo shoot," despite Dougary commenting that this was not the case and that Balding was rather "a brisk, jolly-hockey-sticks type". In a statement, Saga claimed that it had not given Balding copy control and that the interview was edited in conjunction with the author.


title: Clare Balding

text: Balding was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2013 Birthday Honours for services to broadcasting and journalism. In the same year, Balding was presented with the special BAFTA for her work on the 2012 Olympics and Paralympics.


title: Clare Balding

text: Balding won the Royal Television Society's "Sports Presenter of the Year" in 2003 and "Presenter" in 2012. Also in 2003, she won the "Racing Journalist of the Year Award" and has followed up with the award for "Racing Broadcaster of the Year".


title: Clare Balding

text: In December 2012, she was awarded the "Biography/Autobiography of the Year" award of the National Book Awards for "My Animals and Other Family".


title: Clare Balding

text: She won an achievement award from the UK chapter of the Women in Film and Television in 2012 for her coverage of the Olympics and Paralympics.


title: Clare Balding

text: Balding was awarded the 2012 Sports Journalists' Association's annual British Sports Journalism Award for Sports Broadcaster of the Year (BBC and Channel 4).


title: Clare Balding

text: In February 2013 she was assessed as being one of the 100 most powerful women in the UK by "Woman's Hour" on BBC Radio 4. and also won the award for Sports Presenter at the Television and Radio Industries Club Awards.


title: Clare Balding

text: Her other awards include Attitude Awards TV Personality of the Year 2012, TRIC Sports Presenter of the Year 2013, British Equestrian Federation Outstanding Journalist of the Year 2014, First Women Awards Lifetime Achievement 2015 and "Tatler" magazines and the Horserace Writers' Association.


title: Clare Balding

text: She was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2022 Birthday Honours for services to sport and charity.


title: Clare Balding

text: Balding is a lesbian. Balding formalised her relationship with Alice Arnold, then a BBC Radio 4 continuity announcer and newsreader, in September 2006 by entering into a civil partnership. The couple lived with their Tibetan terrier, Archie. In April 2015, she and Arnold married in a private ceremony.


title: Clare Balding

text: On 29 May 2009, Balding announced that she had thyroid cancer. She promised to be back on television covering the Epsom Derby, by the following Saturday. On 21 August 2009, she announced that the radioactive iodine had been successful with no signs of the cancer having spread.


title: Clare Balding

text: In July 2010, Balding made a complaint to the Press Complaints Commission over an article by writer A. A. Gill in "The Sunday Times" that she felt had mocked her sexuality and appearance and for which the newspaper refused to apologise. The PCC found in her favour, judging that Gill had "refer[red] to the complainant's sexuality in a demeaning and gratuitous way". In 2014, she was named in the top 10 on the World Pride Power list.


title: Clare Balding

text: After Liam Treadwell's Grand National victory on 4 April 2009, Balding interviewed him and made fun of his apparently bad teeth. Balding later clarified on BBC's "Have I Got News For You" quiz that she believed Treadwell, who suffered from microdontia and hypodontia, to have had his teeth "kicked out" by a horse, a common injury suffered by jockeys, apologising again for her error. However, Treadwell stated that he was pleased with her comment, as a dentist offered to fix his teeth at no cost. "It was the best thing Clare ever said", Treadwell said.


title: Clare Balding

text: In 2014, Balding publicly backed Hacked Off and its campaign towards UK press self-regulation by "safeguarding the press from political interference while also giving vital protection to the vulnerable."


title: Clare Balding

text: Balding's matrilineal great-great-grandparents Edward Stanley, 17th Earl of Derby and Lady Alice Montagu both descended from Henry VII. The earl's lineage can also be traced back to Sir Thomas Frankland. This makes Balding an 11-times-great-granddaughter of Oliver Cromwell.


title: Clare Balding

text: She is also descended, via Joseph C. Hoagland, from Sarah Rapelje, the first woman of European descent born in what is now New York, to Dutch-settler parents.


title: Clare Balding

text: Balding has been a presenter on Sport Relief since its inception in 2002. She also participated in a celebrity edition of "The Apprentice" to raise money for charity. "Sport Relief Does The Apprentice" is part of the BBC's annual charity initiative and aired on 12 and 14 March 2008. "The Girls' team", which also included Louise Redknapp, Jacqueline Gold, Kirstie Allsopp and Lisa Snowdon, won the contest, raising over £400,000 from ticket sales and sales on the night of the big event at their shop.


title: Clare Balding

text: She is also patron to a number of other charities including Riding for the Disabled, British Paralympic Association, Diversity Role Models, Retraining of Racehorses and the Jane Tomlinson Appeal. Plus she is Vice-Patron for Injured Jockeys Fund and Helen Rollason Cancer Charity.


title: Clare Balding

text: After fronting the BBC coverage of the sport for several years, Balding was appointed as the 30th president of the Rugby Football League in July 2020 succeeding former footballer Tony Adams. Balding has stated that during her two-year tenure she wants to see the women's game become a professional sport.


title: Leader of the Opposition (United Kingdom)

text: The Leader of His Majesty's Most Loyal Opposition, more commonly referred to as the Leader of the Opposition, is the person who leads the Official Opposition in the United Kingdom. The position is seen as the shadow head of government of the United Kingdom.


text: By convention, the Leader of the Opposition is the leader of the largest political party in the House of Commons that is not in government. When a single party wins outright, this is the party leader of the second-largest political party in the House of Commons. The current Leader of the Opposition is Sir Keir Starmer, the Leader of the Labour Party. Starmer was elected to that position on 4 April 2020.


text: The Leader of the Opposition is often viewed as an alternative or shadow prime minister, and is appointed to the Privy Council. They lead an Official Opposition Shadow Cabinet, which scrutinises the actions of the Cabinet and offers alternative policies.


text: In the nineteenth century, party affiliations were generally less fixed and the leaders in the two Houses were often of equal status. A single and clear Leader of the Opposition was only definitively settled if the opposition leader in the House of Commons or House of Lords was the outgoing prime minister. However, since the Parliament Act 1911, there has been no dispute that the leader in the House of Commons is pre-eminent and has always held the primary title.


text: The Leader of the Opposition is entitled to a salary in addition to their salary as a Member of Parliament. In 2019, this additional entitlement was available up to £65,181.


text: The first modern Leader of the Opposition was Charles James Fox, who led the Whigs as such for a generation, except during the Fox–North Coalition in 1783. He finally rejoined the government in the Ministry of All the Talents formed in 1806, and died later that year.


text: For there to be a recognised Leader of the Opposition, it is necessary for there to be a sufficiently cohesive opposition to need a formal leader. The emergence of the office thus coincided with the period when wholly united parties (Whig and Tory, governments and oppositions) became the norm. This situation was normalised in the Parliament of 1807–1812, when the members of the Grenvillite and Foxite Whig factions resolved to maintain a joint, dual-house leadership for the whole party.


text: The Ministry of all the Talents, in which both Whig factions participated fell at the 1807 general election, during which the Whigs had re-adopted traditional factions, forming "an" opposition. The prime minister of the Talents ministry, Lord Grenville had led his eponymous faction from the House of Lords. Meanwhile, the government leader of the House of Commons, Viscount Howick (later known as Earl Grey and the political heir of Charles James Fox who had died in 1806), led his faction, the Foxite whigs, from the House of Commons.


text: Howick's father, the 1st Earl Grey died on 14 November 1807. As such the new Earl Grey vacated his seat in the House of Commons and moved to the House of Lords. This left no obvious Whig leader in the House of Commons.


text: Grenville's article in the "Oxford Dictionary of National Biography" confirms that he was considered the Whig leader in the House of Lords between 1807 and 1817, despite Grey leading the larger faction.


text: Grenville and Grey, political historian Archibald Foord describes as being "duumvirs of the party from 1807 to 1817" and consulted about what was to be done. Grenville was at first reluctant to name a leader of the opposition in the House of Commons, commenting "... all the elections in the world would not have made Windham or Sheridan leaders of the old Opposition while Fox was alive ...".


text: Eventually they jointly recommended George Ponsonby to the Whig MPs, whom they accepted as the first leader of the opposition in the House of Commons. Ponsonby, an Irish lawyer who was the uncle of Grey's wife, had been Lord Chancellor of Ireland during the Ministry of all the Talents and had only just been re-elected to the House of Commons in 1808 when he became leader. Ponsonby proved a weak leader but as he could not be persuaded to resign and the duumvirs did not want to depose him, he remained in place until he died in 1817.


text: Lord Grenville retired from active politics in 1817, leaving Grey as the leader of the opposition in the House of Lords. Grey was not a former prime minister in 1817, unlike Grenville, so under the convention that developed later in the century he would have been in theory of equal status to whoever was leader in the other House. However, there was little doubt that if a Whig ministry was possible, Grey rather than the less distinguished Commons leaders would have been invited to form that government. In this respect Grey's position was like that of the Earl of Derby in the Protectionist Conservative opposition of the late 1840s and early 1850s.


text: Earl Grey witnessed a delay of about a year, until 1818, before a new leader of the opposition in the House of Commons was chosen. This was George Tierney who was reluctant to accept the leadership and had weak support from his party. On 18 May 1819, Tierney moved a motion in the Commons for a committee on the state of the nation. This motion was defeated by 357 to 178, a division involving the largest number of MPs until the debates over the Reform bill in the early 1830s. Foord comments that "this defeat put an effective end to Tierney's leadership ... Tierney did not disclaim the leadership till 23 Jan. 1821 ..., but he had ceased to exercise its functions since the great defeat".


text: Between 1821 and 1830 the Whig Commons leadership was left vacant. The leadership in the House of Lords was not much more effective: in 1824 Grey retired from active leadership, asking the party to follow the Marquess of Lansdowne "as the person whom his friends were to look upon as their leader". Lansdowne disclaimed the title of leader, although in practice he performed the function.


text: Following the retirement of Lord Liverpool from the prime ministership in 1827, the party political situation changed. Neither the Duke of Wellington or Robert Peel agreed to serve under George Canning and they were followed by five other members of the former Cabinet as well as forty junior members of the previous government. The Tory Party was heavily split between the "High Tories" (or "Ultras", nicknamed after the contemporary party in Restoration France) and the moderates supporting Canning, often called 'Canningites'. As a result, Canning found it difficult to maintain a government and chose to invite a number of Whigs to join his Cabinet, including Lord Lansdowne. After Canning's death, Lord Goderich continued the coalition for a few more months. The principal opposition between April 1827 and January 1828 worked with these brief administrations, although Earl Grey and a section of the Whigs were also in opposition to the coalition government. It was during this period that the term "His Majesty's Opposition" for the Opposition was coined, by John Cam Hobhouse.


text: The Duke of Wellington formed a ministry in January 1828 and as a direct effect of adopting in earnest the policy of Catholic Emancipation the opposition became composed of most Whigs with many Canningites and some ultra-Tories. Lord Lansdowne, in the absence of any alternative, remained the leading figure in the Whig opposition.


text: In 1830 Grey returned to the front rank of politics. On 30 June 1830 he denounced the government in the House of Lords. He rapidly attracted the support of opponents of the ministry. The renewal of organised opposition was also bolstered earlier in the year by the election of a new leader of the opposition in the House of Commons, the heir of Earl Spencer, Viscount Althorp.


text: In November 1830 Grey was invited to form a government and resumed the formal leadership of the party and as such Wellington and Peel became the leaders of the opposition in the two Houses, from November 1830.


text: In the period of 1830–1937 the normal expectation was that there would be two leading parties (often with smaller allied groups), of which one would form the government and the other the opposition. These parties were expected to have recognised leaders in the two Houses, so there was normally no problem in identifying who led the opposition in each House.


text: The constitutional convention developed in the nineteenth century was that if one of the leaders was the last prime minister of the party, then he would be considered the overall leader of his party. If that was not the case then the leaders of both Houses were of equal status. As the monarch retained some discretion as to which leader should be invited to form a ministry, it was not always obvious in advance which one would be called upon to do so.


text: However, as the leadership of the opposition only existed by custom, the normal expectations and conventions were modified by political realities from time to time.


text: From 1830 until 1846 the Tory/Conservative Party and the Whig Party (increasingly often described with its Radical and other allies as the Liberal Party) alternated in power and provided clear leaders of the opposition.


text: In 1846 the Conservative Party split into (Protectionist) Conservative and Peelite (or Liberal Conservative) factions. The Protectionists being the larger group, the recognised leaders of the opposition were drawn from their ranks. In the House of Lords, Lord Stanley (soon becoming Earl of Derby) was the Protectionist leader. He was the only established front rank political figure in the faction and thus a very strong candidate to form the next Conservative ministry.


text: The leadership in the House of Commons was more problematic. Lord George Bentinck, the leader of the Protectionist revolt against Sir Robert Peel, initially led the party in the Commons. He resigned in December 1847. The party was then faced with the problem of how to produce a credible leader, who was not Benjamin Disraeli. The first attempt to square the circle, was made in February 1848, when the young Marquess of Granby was installed as the leader. He gave up the post in March 1848. The leadership then fell vacant until February 1849.


text: The next experiment was to entrust the leadership to a triumvirate of Granby, Disraeli and the elderly John Charles Herries. In practice Disraeli ignored his co-triumvirs. In 1851 Granby resigned and the party accepted Disraeli as the sole leader. The Protectionists by then were clearly the core of the Conservative Party and Derby was able to form his first government in 1852.


text: The Liberal Party was formally founded in 1859, replacing the Whig Party as one of the two leading parties. With increasing party discipline it became easier to define the principal opposition party and the leaders of the opposition.


text: The last overall leader of the opposition to have led it from the House of Lords was the Earl of Rosebery. He resigned as such in November 1896. Lord Rosebery had been Liberal prime minister from 1894 to 1895.


text: The Parliament Act 1911 removed the legislative veto from the House of Lords to permit the welfare-state forming Liberal legislation to be enacted by the Commons, the People's Budget and any future Money Bills without any input from the Lords. This therefore entrenched the de facto position that there could only be one true leader of the opposition and in effect clarified in which house that leader would need to sit. From this point, all leaders of the opposition in the House of Commons would thus be overall leaders of the opposition.


text: In 1915 the Liberal, Conservative and Labour parties formed a coalition. The Irish Parliamentary Party did not join the government but were by and large not in opposition to it. As almost nobody in the Parliament could be said to be in opposition to the coalition, the leaderships of the opposition in both Houses fell vacant.


text: Sir Edward Carson, the leading figure among the Irish Unionist part of the Conservative and Unionist Party, resigned from the coalition ministry on 19 October 1915. He then became the leader of those Unionists who were not members of the government, effectively leader of the opposition in the Commons.


text: The party situation changed in December 1916: a leading Liberal, David Lloyd George, formed a coalition with the support of a section of "Coalition Liberal", Conservative and Labour parties. The Leader of the Liberal Party, H. H. Asquith, and most of his leading colleagues left the government and took up seats on the opposition side of the House of Commons. Asquith was recognised as the leader of the opposition. He retained that post until he was defeated in the 1918 United Kingdom general election. Although Asquith continued to be the leader of the Liberal Party, as he was not a member of the House of Commons he was not eligible to be leader of the opposition until returned in the 1920 Paisley by-election.


text: The Parliament elected in December 1918 which sat from 1919 until 1922, represents the most significant deviation from the principle that the leader of the opposition is the leader of the party not in government with the greatest numerical support in the House of Commons. The largest opposition party (disregarding Sinn Féin, whose abstentionist MPs did not take their seats at Westminster), was the Labour Party which had wholly left the Lloyd George coalition and won 57 seats at the general election. Thirty six Liberals had been elected without coalition support; however, they were mixed in their opposition to Lloyd George. The Labour Party did not have a Leader until 1922. The Parliamentary Labour Party annually elected a chairman, but the party, due to its congressional origins, refused to assert a claim that the chairman was the leader of the opposition. Although the issue of who was entitled to be leader of the opposition was never formally resolved, in practice the Opposition Liberal leader performed most of the parliamentary functions associated with the office.


text: The small group of opposition Liberals met in 1919, distanced by his coalition's protectionism and nationalization. They resolved that they were the Liberal Parliamentary Party. They elected Sir Donald Maclean as Chairman of the Parliamentary Party. Liberal Party practice at the time, when the overall leader of the party had lost an election to the House of Commons, was for the chairman to function as acting leader in the House. Maclean therefore took on the role of leader of the opposition, followed by Asquith, who returned to the House by winning a by-election (1920–22).


text: From 1922 the Labour Party had a recognised leader so took over all remaining commons opposition roles from the Opposition Liberal Party. Since 1922 the principal Government and Opposition parties have been the Labour Party and the Conservative Party. There were three instances of peers being seriously considered for the prime ministership, during the twentieth century (Lord Curzon of Kedleston in 1923, Lord Halifax in 1940 and Lord Home in 1963), but these were all cases where the Conservative Party was in government and do not affect the list of leaders of the opposition.


text: In 1931–32 the Leader of the Labour Party was Arthur Henderson. He was leader of the opposition for a short period in 1931, but was ineligible to continue when he lost his seat in the 1931 general election. George Lansbury was leader of the opposition before he also became the leader of the Labour Party in 1932.


text: Leaders of the opposition in the two Houses of Parliament had been generally recognised and given a special status in Parliament for more than a century before they were mentioned in legislation.


text: "" confirms that the office of leader of the opposition was first given statutory recognition in the Ministers of the Crown Act 1937.


text: Subsequent legislation also gave statutory recognition to the leader of the opposition in the House of Lords.


text: The legislative provisions confirm that leader of the opposition is, strictly, a Parliamentary office; so that to be leader a person must be a member of the House in which he or she leads.


text: Since 1937 the leader of the opposition has received a state salary in addition to their salary as a Member of Parliament (MP), now equivalent to a Cabinet Minister. The holder also receives a chauffeur-driven car for official business of equivalent cost and specification to the vehicles used by most cabinet ministers.


text: In 1940 the three largest parties in the House of Commons formed a coalition government to continue to prosecute the Second World War. This coalition continued in office until shortly after the defeat of Nazi Germany in 1945. As the former leader of the opposition had joined the government the issue arose of who was to hold the office or perform its functions. "Keesing's Contemporary Archives 1937–1940" (at paragraph 4069D) reported the situation, based on "Hansard":


text: The Prime Minister replying to Mr Denman in the House of Commons on 21 May, said that in view of the formation of an Administration embracing the three main political parties, H.M. Government was of the opinion that the provision of the Ministers of the Crown Act, 1937, relating to the payment of a salary to the leader of the opposition was in abeyance for the time being, as there was no alternative party capable of forming a Government. He added that he did not consider amending legislation necessary.


text: The "Daily Herald" reported that the Parliamentary Labour Party met on 22 May 1940 and unanimously elected Dr H.B. Lees-Smith as Chairman of the PLP (an office normally held by the party leader at that time) and as spokesman of the Party from the opposition front bench.


text: After the death of Lees-Smith, on 18 December 1941, the PLP held a meeting on 21 January 1942. Frederick Pethick-Lawrence was unanimously elected Chairman of the PLP and the official spokesman of the party in the House of Commons while the party leader was serving in the government. After the Deputy Leader of the Labour Party (Arthur Greenwood) left the government on 22 February 1942 he took over these roles from Pethick-Lawrence until the end of the coalition and the resumption of normal party politics.


text: The table lists the people who were, or who acted as, leaders of the opposition in the two Houses of Parliament since 1807, prior to which the post was held by Charles James Fox for decades.


text: The leaders of the two Houses were of equal status, before 1911, unless one was the most recent Prime Minister for the party. Such a former prime minister was considered to be the overall leader of the opposition. From 1911 the Leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons was considered to be the overall Leader of the Opposition. Overall leaders names are bolded. Acting leaders names are in italics unless the acting leader subsequently became a full leader during a continuous period as leader.


text: Due to the fragmentation of both principal parties in 1827–30, the leaders and principal opposition parties suggested for those years are provisional.


text: This list notes each Leader of the Opposition, from the Parliament Act 1911 granting legislative preeminence to the House of Commons, and the Ministers of the Crown Act 1937 the leader of the second largest faction within it a statutory title and salary, rather than the customary role as HM Official Opposition, in order of term length. This is based on the difference between dates; if counted by number of calendar days all the figures would be one greater.


text: Of the 35 leaders of the opposition listed, 7 served more than 5 years, 5 have lost more than one general election, and 7 have served less than a year.


title: People

text: Used in politics and law it is a term to refer to the collective or community of an ethnic group, a nation, to the public or common mass of people of a polity. As such it is a concept of human rights law, international law as well as constitutional law, particularly used for claims of popular sovereignty.


title: People

text: Chapter One, Article One of the Charter of the United Nations states that "peoples" have the right to self-determination. Though the mere status as peoples and the right to self-determination, as for example in the case of Indigenous peoples ("peoples", as in all peoples of indigenous people, not merely all indigenous persons as in "indigenous people"), does not automatically provide for independent sovereignty and therefore secession.


title: People

text: Particularly through international Indigenous peoples rights, it was defined what a people constitutes (e.g. shared culture etc.).


title: People

text: Both the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire used the Latin term "Senatus Populusque Romanus", (the Senate and People of Rome). This term was fixed abbreviated (SPQR) to Roman legionary standards, and even after the Roman Emperors achieved a state of total personal autarchy, they continued to wield their power in the name of the Senate and People of Rome.


title: People

text: The term People's Republic, used since late modernity, is a name used by states, which particularly identify constitutionally with a form of socialism.


title: People

text: In criminal law, in certain jurisdictions, criminal prosecutions are brought in the name of "the People". Several U.S. states, including California, Illinois, and New York, use this style. Citations outside the jurisdictions in question usually substitute the name of the state for the words "the People" in the case captions. Four states — Massachusetts, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Kentucky — refer to themselves as "the Commonwealth" in case captions and legal process. Other states, such as Indiana, typically refer to themselves as "the State" in case captions and legal process.


title: People

text: Outside the United States, criminal trials in Ireland and the Philippines are prosecuted in the name of the people of their respective states.


title: People

text: The political theory underlying this format is that criminal prosecutions are brought in the name of the sovereign; thus, in these U.S. states, the "people" are judged to be the sovereign, even as in the United Kingdom and other dependencies of the British Crown, criminal prosecutions are typically brought in the name of the Crown. "The people" identifies the entire body of the citizens of a jurisdiction invested with political power or gathered for political purposes.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: Andrew Comyn "Sandy" Irvine (8 April 1902 – 8 June 1924) was an English mountaineer who took part in the 1924 British Everest Expedition, the third British expedition to the world's highest (8,848 m) mountain, Mount Everest.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: While attempting the first ascent of Mount Everest, he and his climbing partner George Mallory disappeared somewhere high on the mountain's northeast ridge and died. The pair were last sighted only a few hundred metres from the summit, and it is unknown whether the pair reached the summit before they perished. Mallory's body was found in 1999, but Irvine's body and portable camera have never been found.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: Irvine was born in Birkenhead, Merseyside, one of six children of historian William Fergusson Irvine (1869–1962) and Lilian Davies-Colley (1870–1950). His father's family had Scottish and Welsh roots, while his mother was from an old Cheshire family. He was a cousin of journalist and writer Lyn Irvine, and also of pioneering female surgeon Eleanor Davies Colley and of political activist Harriet Shaw Weaver.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: He was educated at Birkenhead School and Shrewsbury School, where he demonstrated a natural engineering acumen, able to improvise fixes or improvements to almost anything mechanical. During the First World War, he created a small stir at the War Office by sending them a design for a synchronisation gear to allow a machine gun to fire from a propeller-driven aeroplane through the propeller without damaging its blades, and also a design for a gyroscopic stabiliser for aircraft.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: He was also a keen sportsman and particularly excelled at rowing. His prodigious ability as a rower made him a star of the 1919 'Peace Regatta' at Henley with the Royal Shrewsbury School Boat Club, and propelled him to Merton College, Oxford, to study engineering. At Oxford, he joined the Oxford University Mountaineering Club, and was also a member of the Oxford crew for the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race in 1922 and a member of the winning crew in 1923, the only time Oxford won between 1913 and 1937.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: He had an affair with a former chorus girl named Marjory Agnes Standish Summers (née Thompson). Marjory was married to the steel magnate Henry Hall Summers and was 33 years younger than him. Summers was one of the sons of founder John Summers, of John Summers & Sons, a steel company. While Irvine was on Everest, Henry began divorce proceedings against Marjory.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: In 1923, Irvine took part in the Merton College Arctic Expedition to Spitsbergen, where he excelled on every front. The expedition's leader, Noel Odell, and he discovered that they had met before, in 1919 on Foel Grach, a 3,000-foot-high Welsh mountain, when Irvine had ridden his motorcycle to the top and surprised Odell and his wife Mona, who had climbed it on foot. Subsequently, on Odell's recommendation, Irvine was invited to join the forthcoming third British Mount Everest expedition on the grounds that he might be the "superman" that the expedition felt it needed. He was at the time still a 21-year-old undergraduate student.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: Irvine set sail for the Himalaya from Liverpool on board the SS "California" on 29 February 1924, along with three other members of the expedition, including George Mallory. Mallory later wrote home to his wife that Irvine "could be relied on for anything except perhaps conversation".


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: During the expedition, he made major and crucial innovations to the expedition's professionally designed oxygen sets, radically improving their functionality, lightness, and strength. He also maintained the expedition's cameras, camp beds, primus stoves, and many other devices. He was universally popular, and respected by his older colleagues for his ingenuity, companionability, and unstinting hard work.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: The expedition made two unsuccessful attempts on the summit in early June, and time remained for one more before the heavy snowfall that came with the summer monsoon would make climbing too dangerous. This last chance fell to the expedition's most experienced climber, George Mallory. To the surprise of other expedition members, Mallory chose the 22-year-old inexperienced Irvine above the older, more seasoned climber, Noel Odell. Irvine's proficiency with the oxygen equipment was obviously a major factor in Mallory's decision, but some debate has occurred ever since about the precise reasons for his choice.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: Mallory and Irvine began their ascent on 6 June, and by the end of the next day, the pair had established a final two-man camp at , from which to make their final push on the summit. What time they departed on 8 June is unknown, but circumstantial evidence suggests that they did not have the smooth, early start that Mallory had hoped for.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: Odell, who was acting in a supporting role, reported seeing them at 12:50 pm—much later than expected—ascending what he believed was the Second Step of the northeast ridge and "going strongly for the top", although in the years that followed, exactly which of the Three Steps Odell had sighted the pair climbing became extremely controversial.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: Whether they reached the summit has never been established. They never returned to their camp and died somewhere high on the mountain. The discovery of Mallory's body in 1999, with its severe rope jerk injury about his waist, suggests the two were roped when they fell. Irvine's body has never been discovered.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: In 1933, nine years after the disappearance of Mallory and Irvine, Percy Wyn-Harris, a member of the fourth British Everest Expedition discovered an ice axe around , about below the ridge and some before the First Step. It was found lying loose on brown 'boiler-plate' slabs of rock, which though not particularly steep, were smooth and in places had a covering of loose pebbles. The Swiss manufacturer's name matched those of a number supplied to the 1924 expedition, and since only Mallory and Irvine had climbed that high along the ridge route, it must have belonged to one of them.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: Hugh Ruttledge, leader of the 1933 expedition, speculated that the ice axe marked the scene of a fall, during which it was either accidentally dropped or that its owner put it down, possibly to have both hands free to hold the rope.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: Noel Odell, the last man to see Mallory and Irvine on their ascent in 1924, offered a more benign explanation: that the ice axe had merely been placed there on the ascent to be collected on the way back in view of the fact that the climbing ahead was almost entirely on rock under the prevailing conditions.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: In 1963, a characteristic triple nick mark on a military swagger stick, found among Andrew Irvine's possessions, was found to match a similar mark on the ice axe's shaft, suggesting the axe belonged to Irvine.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: In May 1991, a 1924 oxygen cylinder was found around , some higher and closer to the First Step than the ice axe found in 1933.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: Since only Mallory and Irvine had been on the northeast ridge in 1924, this oxygen cylinder marked the minimum altitude they must have reached on their final climb. The oxygen cylinder was recovered in May 1999.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: In May 1999, Mallory's body was found at by the Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition, in a funnel-shaped basin on the "8,200 m Snow Terrace", some below and about horizontal to the location of the ice axe found in 1933.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: The remains of a rope still encircled his waist, which exhibited serious haemorrhaging, indicative of a strong rope-jerk injury, and strongly suggesting that at some point either Mallory or Irvine fell while they were still roped together. Mallory was found with relatively few major injuries, compared to a number of modern climbers who had fallen the full distance from the northeast ridge and who were found to have sustained numerous fractures, suggesting he had survived this initial fall, and suffered a further accident. A golf ball-sized puncture wound in his forehead seemed to be the likely cause of death, and could have been inflicted by an ice axe. It has subsequently been speculated that an injured Mallory was descending in a self-arrest "glissade", sliding down the slope while dragging his ice axe in the snow to control the speed of his descent, and that his ice axe may have struck a rock and bounced off, striking him fatally.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: A search of the body revealed two pieces of circumstantial evidence that suggested that Mallory might have reached the summit:


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: The search revealed no trace of the two Vest Pocket Kodak cameras that Irvine's diaries said he and Mallory were carrying, leading to speculation that one or more of the cameras might yet be found with Irvine's body. Experts from Kodak have said that there is a good chance that the cameras' black-and-white film could be developed to produce "printable images", due to its chemical nature and its likely preservation in subzero temperatures. Such images could illuminate the fate of Mallory and Irvine.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: In 1979, Ryoten Hasegawa, the leader of the Japanese contingent of a Sino-Japanese reconnaissance expedition to the north side of Everest, had a brief conversation with a Chinese climber named Wang Hong-bao, in which Wang recounted that while on the 1975 Chinese Everest Expedition, he had seen the body of an "English dead" at , lying on his side as if asleep at the foot of a rock. Wang knew the man was British, he said, by the old-fashioned clothing, rotted and disintegrating at the touch, and poked his finger into his cheek to indicate an injury.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: However, before more information could be obtained, Wang was killed in an avalanche the following day.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: Further confirmation of this sighting was provided by a 1986 conversation that American Everest historian Tom Holzel had with Zhang Junyan, Wang's tent-mate from the 1975 expedition. Zhang said Wang returned from a 20-minute excursion and described finding "a foreign mountaineer" at 8,100 meters.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: Since no other European climber was known to have died at that elevation on the north side of Everest, it was almost certain that the body was either Mallory or Irvine.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: Wang's 1975 sighting was the key to the discovery of Mallory's body 24 years later in the same general area, although his reported description of the body he found—"hole in cheek"—is not consistent with the condition and posture of Mallory's body, which was face down, his head almost completely buried in scree, and with a golfball-sized puncture wound on his forehead. One possibility is that Wang actually saw Irvine. Another is that Wang discovered Mallory face up and turned his body over to effect a simple burial.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: In 2001, the second Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition discovered Wang's 1975 campsite location and made an extensive search of its surroundings, and found that Mallory's remained the only body in the vicinity.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: In 2001, Eric Simonson, leader of the 1999 Mallory and Irvine Expedition, and German researcher Jochen Hemmleb, who inspired it, travelled to Beijing to interview some of the remaining survivors of the 1960 Chinese Everest expedition, which had been the first expedition back to the north side since the British attempts of the 1920s and 1930s.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: During their meeting, the deputy leader of the expedition, Xu Jing, said that on his descent from the First Step, he spotted a dead climber lying on his back, feet facing uphill, in a hollow or slot in the rock. Since no one other than Mallory and Irvine had ever been lost on the north side of Everest before 1960, and Mallory had been found much lower down, it was almost a certainty that Xu had discovered Irvine. However, the sighting was brief, and Xu was in desperate straits during the descent, and while he clearly remembered seeing the body, he was unclear about where it was.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: A more contemporary account, not dulled by the passage of 40 years, has subsequently surfaced. In 1965, a member of the 1960 Chinese expedition, Wang Fu-chou, gave a lecture in the headquarters of the USSR Geographical Society in Leningrad. While describing the expedition, he made a sensational remark: "At an altitude of about , we found a corpse of a European". Asked how he could be sure the dead man was European, the Chinese climber replied simply, "He was wearing braces".


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: In 2010, a team informally dubbed the Andrew Irvine Search Committee and led by Holzel searched for Irvine in a computer-assembled montage of aerial photographs taken in 1984 by Brad Washburn and the National Geographic Society. They identified a possible object at about , less than from the ice-axe location, consistent with a body lying in a slot of rock, feet pointing toward the summit, just as Xu described his sighting.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: A new expedition organised by Holzel was due to explore the upper slopes of Everest in December 2011, presumably with a view to determining the nature of this possible object. By conducting the expedition in winter, it was hoped that there would be much less snow on the upper slopes, increasing the chances of finding Irvine, as well as the camera that it is hoped will be with him.


title: Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)

text: In 2019, Mark Synott led a party that investigated the 'crevice' identified by Holzel as the potential resting place of Irvine, but discovered that it was merely an optical illusion. Synott later reported on the possibility that the 1975 Chinese expedition may have found both Irvine and the camera.


title: Mithoon

text: Mithun Sharma (born 11 January 1985), also known as Mithoon, is an Indian Hindi film music director, lyricist-composer and singer.


title: Mithoon

text: Mithoon composed the Hindi song "Tum Hi Ho" from the 2013 Bollywood romantic film "Aashiqui 2". Mithoon received the Filmfare Award for Best Music Director, and in 2014 received a nomination for Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist in the 59th Filmfare Awards. He wrote and composed one of the most streamed Hindi songs on YouTube, "Sanam Re". The song was honoured with the award of "Most Streamed Song of 2016" at the Global Indian Music Academy Awards.


title: Mithoon

text: Mithoon was born into a family of musicians. His grandfather, Pandit Ram Prasad Sharma, imparted music knowledge to thousands of aspirants, many of whom are amongst today's top musicians. His father, Naresh Sharma, was a leading expert of musical arrangements, having worked with almost all of the top composers in more than two hundred movies. Mithoon's father and his uncle Pyarelal-ji (Pyarelal Ramprasad Sharma) formed one-half of the legendary composer duo Laxmikant-Pyarelal.


title: Mithoon

text: Mithoon started learning music at the age of eleven. Since his father remained busy, he sent him to knowledgeable people to train himself. His father observed him closely and would often notice what he was practicing. His father often listened to the tunes that he created as well. On 6 November 2022, he married playback singer Palak Muchhal.


title: Mithoon

text: Mithoon began his career with two recreations: "Woh Lamhe" in "Zeher" and "Aadat" in "Kalyug". In 2006, Mithoon's friend recommended his name to Onir, (director of "Bas Ek Pal"), who wanted an electro-based title track. This led to his first original song as a composer, "Bas Ek Pal" with singer KK, and was followed by "Tere Bin" (by singer Atif Aslam) in 2006. Both songs were included in the film "Bas Ek Pal." .


title: Mithoon

text: He wrote the score for "Anwar," released in 2007 and his compositions "Tose Naina Lage" and "Maula Mere" are still extremely popular.


title: Mithoon

text: He also worked as a guest composer for songs on several nonmovie albums, such as "Kuch Is Tarah" from Atif Aslam's album "Doorie", and Abhijeet Sawant's and "Ek Shaqs" from the Abhijeet Sawant album "Junoon". He released his own album, "Tu Hi Mere Rab Ki Tarah Hai" in 2009 with T-Series. For this album, Mithoon traveled to the United Kingdom to rope in musicians. There, he worked with musicians of the Philharmonic Orchestra.


title: Mithoon

text: In 2011 he composed two songs "Aye Khuda", "Phir Mohabbat" for the film "Murder 2" which also marked the debut of Arijit Singh.


title: Mithoon

text: The song "Tum Hi Ho" which he wrote for "Aashiqui 2", and "O saathi" from the movie "Shab" became popular. He has also been a solo or guest composer for movies such as , "Jism 2,Yaariyan, Ek Villain, Hate Story 2, Creature 3D, Samrat & Co, Alone," "Hamari Adhuri Kahani, Bhaag Johnny, All Is Well, Loveshhuda," "Sanam Re," "Ki & Ka, Shivaay, Wajah Tum Ho, Half Girlfriend, Shab, Aksar 2, Hate Story 4, Baaghi 2, Mercury and Khuda Haafiz"


title: United States involvement in regime change in Latin America

text: Participation of the United States in regime change in Latin America involved US-backed "coups d'état" aimed at replacing left-wing leaders with right-wing leaders, military juntas, or authoritarian regimes. Lesser intervention of economic and military variety was prevalent during the Cold War in line with the Truman Doctrine of containment, but regime change involvement would increase after the drafting of NSC 68 which advocated for more aggressive combating of potential Soviet allies.


text: In the early-20th-century "Banana Republic" era of Latin American history, the U.S. launched several interventions and invasions in the region (known as the Banana Wars) to promote American business interests. United States influenced regime change in this period of Latin American history started after the signing of the Treaty of Paris in the wake of the Spanish-American War. Cuba gained its independence, while Puerto Rico and the Philippines were occupied by the United States. Expansive and imperialist U.S. foreign policy combined with new economic prospects led to increased U.S. intervention in Latin America from 1898 to the early 1930s. Continued activities lasted into the late 20th century.


text: In Argentina, military forces overthrew the democratically elected President Isabel Perón in the 1976 Argentine coup d'état, starting the military dictatorship of General Jorge Rafael Videla, known as the National Reorganization Process. The coup was accepted and tacitly supported by the Ford administration and the U.S. government had close relations with the ensuing authoritarian regime, with U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger paying several official visits to Argentina during the dictatorship.


text: The US government supported the 1971 coup led by General Hugo Banzer that toppled President Juan José Torres of Bolivia. Torres had displeased Washington by convening an "Asamblea del Pueblo" (Assembly of the People), in which representatives of specific proletarian sectors of society were represented (miners, unionized teachers, students, peasants), and more generally by leading the country in what was perceived as a left wing direction. Banzer hatched a bloody military uprising starting on August 18, 1971, that succeeded in taking the reins of power by August 22, 1971. After Banzer took power, the US provided extensive military and other aid to the Banzer dictatorship. Torres, who had fled Bolivia, was kidnapped and assassinated in 1976 as part of Operation Condor, the US-supported campaign of political repression and state terrorism by South American right-wing dictators.


text: Brazil experienced several decades of authoritarian governments, especially after the US-backed 1964 Brazilian coup d'état against social democrat João Goulart. Under then-President John F. Kennedy, the US sought to "prevent Brazil from becoming another China or Cuba", a policy which was carried forward under Lyndon B. Johnson and which led to US military support for the coup in April 1964. According to Vincent Bevins, the topping of João Goulart was one of the most significant victories for the U.S. during the Cold War, as the military dictatorship established in Brazil, the fifth most populous nation in the world, "played a crucial role in pushing the rest of South America into the pro-Washington, anticommunist group of nations."


text: After the democratic election of President Salvador Allende in 1970, an economic war ordered by President Richard Nixon, among other things, caused the 1973 Chilean coup d'état with the involvement of the CIA due to Allende's democratic socialist leanings. What followed was the decades-long US-backed military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet. In 1988 a presidential referendum was held in order to confirm Pinochet's ruling for 8 more years. The oppositional Concertation of Parties for Democracy endorsed the "No" option, winning the referendum and ending Pinochet's rule democratically. After that free elections were held in 1989 with Concertation winning again.


text: A declassified report from the U.S. government "Annex-NSSM 97" details the plan developed in 1970 to overthrow President Allende were he to take office. The document explicitly states that the U.S. government's role should not be revealed and would primarily use Chilean institutions as a means of ousting the President. The Chilean military is highlighted as the best means to achieve this goal. The benefits of a coup initiated by the military are to reduce the threat of Marxism in Latin America and to disarm a potential threat to the United States.


text: During the late 1800s, the U.S. sought to expand its economic interests by developing an economy overseas. This sentiment helped expand support for the Spanish-American War and Cuban liberation despite the U.S. previously establishing itself as anti-independence and revolution. America's victory in the war ended Spanish rule over Cuba, but promptly replaced it with American military occupation of the island from 1898–1902.


text: After the end of the military occupation in 1902, the U.S. continued to exert significant influence over Cuba with policies like the Platt Amendment. In subsequent years American forces regularly invaded and intervened in Cuba, with the U.S. military occupying Cuba again from 1906–1909, and U.S. marines being sent to Cuba from 1917–1922 to protect American-owned sugar plantations. The United States also supported Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista as his policies benefited American business interests.


text: After the Cuban Revolution and Fidel Castro's rise to power, American relations with Cuba became increasingly hostile. American forces trained, supplied, and supported the Cuban exiles who attempted to overthrow Castro in the Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961, but the invasion was defeated and Castro retained control. In subsequent decades, American intelligence operatives made numerous attempts to assassinate Castro, but these ultimately failed as well.


text: In May 1961, the ruler of the Dominican Republic, right-wing dictator Rafael Trujillo, was murdered with weapons supplied by the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). An internal CIA memorandum states that a 1973 Office of Inspector General investigation into the murder disclosed "quite extensive Agency involvement with the plotters". The CIA described its role in "changing" the government of the Dominican Republic as a 'success' in that it assisted in moving the Dominican Republic from a totalitarian dictatorship to a Western-style democracy. Socialist Juan Bosch, whose propaganda and institute for political training had received some CIA funding via the J. M. Kaplan Fund, was elected president of the Dominican Republic in its first free elections, in December 1962. Bosch was deposed by a right-wing coup in September 1963. American President Lyndon Johnson intervened into the 1965 Dominican Civil War by sending American troops to help end the war and prevent supporters of the deposed Bosch from taking over. On July 1, 1966, elections were held with Joaquín Balaguer winning against Bosch.


text: Peasants and workers (mostly of indigenous descent) revolt during the first half of the 20th century due to harsh living conditions and the abuse from landlords and the government-supported American United Fruit Company. This revolt was repressed, but led to the democratic election of Jacobo Arbenz. Arbenz was overthrown during the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état, endorsed by the United States.


text: In 1912, during the Banana Wars period, the U.S. occupied Nicaragua as a means of protecting American business interests and protecting the rights that Nicaragua granted to the United States to construct a canal there. The intervention, utilizing the U.S. Marine Corps, was sparked by a rebellion that opposed the United States. After quelling the rebellion, the U.S. continued occupying Nicaragua until 1933, when President Herbert Hoover officially ended the occupation.


text: Increasing tensions between Manuel Noriega's dictatorship and the US government led to the United States invasion of Panama in 1989, which ended in Noriega's overthrow.


title: The Attacks of 26/11

text: The Attacks of 26/11 is a 2013 Indian Hindi-language action thriller film directed by Ram Gopal Varma, based on the book "" by Rommel Rodrigues about Ajmal Kasab perpetrator of the 2008 Mumbai attacks. The film stars Sanjeev Jaiswal in his film debut, playing the role of terrorist Ajmal Kasab, with art direction by Uday Singh. It also features Nana Patekar in a pivotal role. A seven-minute promo of the film was released over the Internet on 23 November 2012.


title: The Attacks of 26/11

text: The first look of the film was revealed on 17 January 2013. The Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC) passed the film, uncut, with an 'Adults Only' certificate. The film was premiered at the Berlin International Film Festival, in the Panorama as well as the Competition section. The film had a theatrical release on 1 March 2013, to positive reviews, and was opened to critical acclaim at the Films Division of India.


title: The Attacks of 26/11

text: On December 30, 2008, Ram Gopal Varma toured the ravaged Taj Mahal Palace Hotel just days after the attacks, drawing widespread condemnation. At the time, Varma called his visit a 'coincidence' and said he had no plans of making a film based on the attacks, but later apologised for his visit prior to the release of the film.


title: The Attacks of 26/11

text: Under the art direction of Uday Singh a replica of Taj Hotel was created with a cost of 40 million. Varma auditioned 500 applicants and selected Sanjeev Jaiswal to play Ajmal Kasab, the prime accused terrorist in the 26/11 attack on Mumbai. Varma had also asked policemen to watch 15-minute trailer of "The Attacks of 26/11". The film is restricted to the night of the incident and has focused on the happenings between 9 p.m. to 1 a.m. when Kasab was caught. The shooting of the film completed on 10 December 2012 with last shot of the massacre at Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus railway station. The owner of Leopold Cafe plays himself in the film. The actors in the film have met the victims and research on the subject including the eyewitnesses, police statements, judgment, charge sheets and author Romil Saxena.


title: The Attacks of 26/11

text: The film's first 7 minutes were released on 23 November 2012, online on YouTube through the channel of Eros International. A special screening of the film was arranged by the director for Karan Johar and Rakesh Maria. The first trailer of "Satya 2" was attached with the film.


title: The Attacks of 26/11

text: Subhash K. Jha of the "Deccan Herald" gave the film 4 out of 5 stars, calling the movie "a work of riveting resonance" and "one of the best films in recent times on the wages of terrorism". Resham Sengar of Zee News called the film "a moving sketch of the dreadful terror attack", and gave the film 4 stars out of 5. Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave it 3.5 out of 5 and said that the film was "A powerful retelling of a regrettable event in history".


title: The Attacks of 26/11

text: Vaihayasi Pande Daniel of Rediff.com gave it two and half stars, saying "I have a headache. My ears are still ringing. The nausea is just about abating." Madhureeta Mukherjee of "The Times of India" said "While the thought is poignant, the horror isn't palpable throughout and the execution doesn't cut as deep as the actual tragedy." and gave it two and half stars. Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV gave 2.5 stars calling the movie "watchable" and saying "Ram Gopal Varma is still not back to his best and "The Attacks of 26/11" isn't an unqualified triumph."


title: The Attacks of 26/11

text: In his review for News18, Rajeev Masand gave the film 1.5 stars, writing that the film "often resembles a tacky B-movie" and was a "tragedy exploited". In Anupama Chopra's review for the "Hindustan Times", the film received 2.5 stars, with the author remarking that the movie's "powerful subject [is] watered down by ineffective story-telling".


title: The Attacks of 26/11

text: Nana Patekar's acting as Rakesh Maria was appreciated. "Firstpost" wrote in their review— "Nana holds the film together. He feels every line that he utters. His heart bleeds for each one of the 166 people who died on that night. When he tells Kasab in a choked voice, "I have a son of your age", Nana isn't faking it. His performance goes way beyond acting."


title: The Attacks of 26/11

text: The first song from "The Attacks of 26/11" was released at the Leopold Cafe on 11 February 2013 at exactly the time when the terror attacks began on the cafe and Mumbai city. There are total 4 songs in the album. Ram Gopal Varma sung the song "Nethutti Ruchi Mariginda" in the Telugu version of this film.


title: The Attacks of 26/11

text: Joginder Tuteja of Bollywood Hungama gave it 2 out of 5 and stated that except "Maula Maula" the rest songs are average to hear and may just enhance the film's narrative to some extent.


title: Breakthrough Starshot

text: Breakthrough Starshot is a research and engineering project by the Breakthrough Initiatives to develop a proof-of-concept fleet of light sail interstellar probes named "Starchip", to be capable of making the journey to the Alpha Centauri star system 4.37 light-years away. It was founded in 2016 by Yuri Milner, Stephen Hawking, and Mark Zuckerberg.


title: Breakthrough Starshot

text: A flyby mission has been proposed to Proxima Centauri b, an Earth-sized exoplanet in the habitable zone of its host star, Proxima Centauri, in the Alpha Centauri system. At a speed between 15% and 20% of the speed of light, it would take between twenty and thirty years to complete the journey, and approximately four years for a return message from the starship to Earth.


title: Breakthrough Starshot

text: The conceptual principles to enable this interstellar travel project were described in "A Roadmap to Interstellar Flight", by Philip Lubin of UC Santa Barbara. Sending the lightweight spacecraft involves a multi-kilometer phased array of beam-steerable lasers with a combined coherent power output of up to 100 GW.


title: Breakthrough Starshot

text: The project was announced on 12 April 2016 in an event held in New York City by physicist and venture capitalist Yuri Milner, together with cosmologist Stephen Hawking, who was serving as board member of the initiatives. Other board members include Meta Platforms (then known as Facebook, Inc.) CEO Mark Zuckerberg. The project has an initial funding of US$100 million. Milner places the final mission cost at $5–10 billion, and estimates the first craft could launch by around 2036. Pete Worden is the project's executive director and Harvard Professor Avi Loeb chairs the advisory board for the project.


title: Breakthrough Starshot

text: The Breakthrough Starshot program aims to demonstrate a proof-of-concept for ultra-fast, light-driven nano-spacecraft, and lay the foundations for a first launch to Alpha Centauri within the next generation. The spacecraft would make a flyby, and possibly photograph, of any Earth-like worlds that might exist in the system. Secondary goals are Solar System exploration and detection of Earth-crossing asteroids.


title: Breakthrough Starshot

text: The European Southern Observatory (ESO) announced the detection of a planet orbiting the third star in the Alpha Centauri system, Proxima Centauri in August 2016. The planet, called Proxima Centauri b, orbits within the habitable zone of its star. It could be a target for one of the Breakthrough Initiatives' projects.


title: Breakthrough Starshot

text: In January 2017, Breakthrough Initiatives and the European Southern Observatory began collaborating to search for habitable planets in the nearby star system Alpha Centauri. The agreement involves Breakthrough Initiatives providing funding for an upgrade to the VISIR (VLT Imager and Spectrometer for mid-Infrared) instrument on ESO's Very Large Telescope (VLT) in Chile. This upgrade will increase the likelihood of planet detection in the system.


title: Breakthrough Starshot

text: The Starshot concept envisions launching a "mothership" carrying about a thousand tiny spacecraft (on the scale of centimeters) to a high-altitude Earth orbit for deployment. A phased array of ground-based lasers would then focus a light beam on the crafts' sails to accelerate them one by one to the target speed within 10 minutes, with an average acceleration on the order of 100 km/s (10,000 ɡ), and an illumination energy on the order of 1 TJ delivered to each sail. A preliminary sail model is suggested to have a surface area of 4 m × 4 m. An October 2017 presentation of the Starshot system model examined circular sails and finds that the beam director capital cost is minimized by having a sail diameter of 5 meters.


title: Breakthrough Starshot

text: The Earth-sized planet Proxima Centauri b is within the Alpha Centauri system's habitable zone. Ideally, the Breakthrough Starshot would aim its spacecraft within one astronomical unit (150 million kilometers or 93 million miles) of that world. From this distance, a craft's cameras could capture an image of high enough resolution to resolve surface features.


title: Breakthrough Starshot

text: The fleet would have about 1000 spacecraft. Each one, called a StarChip, would be a very small centimeter-sized vehicle weighing a few grams. They would be propelled by a square-kilometre array of 10 kW ground-based lasers with a combined output of up to 100 GW. A swarm of about 1000 units would compensate for the losses caused by interstellar dust collisions "en route" to the target. In a detailed study in 2016, Thiem Hoang and coauthors found that mitigating the collisions with dust, hydrogen, and galactic cosmic rays may not be as severe an engineering problem as first thought, although it will likely limit the quality of the sensors on board.


title: Breakthrough Starshot

text: Light propulsion requires enormous power: a laser with a gigawatt of power (approximately the output of a large nuclear plant) would provide only a few newtons of thrust. The spaceship will compensate for the low thrust by having a mass of only a few grams. The camera, computer, communications laser, a nuclear power source, and the solar sail must be miniaturized to fit within a mass limit. All components must be engineered to endure extreme acceleration, cold, vacuum, and protons. The spacecraft will have to survive collisions with space dust; Starshot expects each square centimeter of frontal cross-section to collide at high speed with about a thousand particles of size at least 0.1 μm. Focusing a set of lasers totaling one hundred gigawatts onto the solar sail will be difficult due to atmospheric turbulence, so there is the suggestion to use space-based laser infrastructure. According to "The Economist", at least a dozen off-the-shelf technologies will need to improve by orders of magnitude.


title: Breakthrough Starshot

text: StarChip is the name used by Breakthrough Initiatives for a very small, centimeter-sized, gram-scale, interstellar spacecraft envisioned for the Breakthrough Starshot program, a proposed mission to propel a fleet of a thousand "Starchips" on a journey to Alpha Centauri, the nearest star system, about 4.37 light-years from Earth. The journey may include a flyby of Proxima Centauri b, an Earth-sized exoplanet that is in the habitable zone of its host star. The ultra-light "StarChip" robotic nanocraft, fitted with light sails, are planned to travel at speeds of 20% and 15% of the speed of light, taking between 20 and 30 years to reach the star system, respectively, and about 4 years to notify Earth of a successful arrival. The conceptual principles to enable practical interstellar travel were described in "A Roadmap to Interstellar Flight", by Philip Lubin of UC Santa Barbara, who is an advisor to the Starshot project.


title: Breakthrough Starshot

text: In July 2017, scientists announced that precursors to Spaceprobe, called Sprites, were successfully launched and flown through Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle by ISRO from Satish Dhawan Space Centre. 105 Sprites were also flown to the ISS on the KickSat-2 mission that launched on November 17 2018, from where they were deployed on March 18, 2019. They successfully transmitted data before reentering the atmosphere and burning up on March 21.


title: Breakthrough Starshot

text: Each Spaceprobe nanocraft is expected to carry miniaturized cameras, navigation gear, communication equipment, photon thrusters and a power supply. In addition, each nanocraft would be fitted with a meter-scale light sail, made of lightweight materials, with a gram-scale mass.


title: Breakthrough Starshot

text: Four sub-gram scale photon thrusters, each minimally capable of performing at a 1W diode laser level, are planned.


title: Breakthrough Starshot

text: A coating, possibly made of beryllium copper, is planned to protect the nanocraft from dust collisions and atomic particle erosion.


title: Breakthrough Starshot

text: The light sail is envisioned to be no larger than , possibly of composite graphene-based material. The material would have to be very thin and be able to reflect the laser beam while absorbing only a small fraction of the incident energy, or it will vaporize the sail. The light sail may also double as power source during cruise, because collisions with atoms of interstellar medium would deliver 60 watt/m of power.


title: Breakthrough Starshot

text: A laser communicator, utilizing light sail as the primary reflector, would be capable of data rates 2.6-15 baud per watt of transmitted power at distance to the Alpha Centauri, assuming 30 m diameter receiving telescope on Earth.


title: Breakthrough Starshot

text: The Starshot project is for fly-by missions, which pass the target at high velocity. Heller "et al." proposed that a photo-gravitational assist could be used to slow such a probe and allow it to enter orbit (using photon pressure in maneuvers similar to aerobraking). This requires a sail that is both much lighter and much larger than the proposed Starshot sail. The table below lists possible target stars for photogravitational assist rendezvous. The travel times are the calculated times for an optimized spacecraft to travel to the star and then enter orbit around the star.