title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: Persecution of Jews in Europe begins with the presence of Jews in regions that later became known as the lands of Latin Christendom (c. 8th century CE) and modern Europe. Not only were Jewish Christians persecuted according to the New Testament, but also as a matter of historical fact anti-Jewish pogroms occurred not only in Jerusalem (325 CE), Persia (351 CE), Carthage (250 CE), Alexandria (415), but also in Italy (224 CE), Milan (379 CE) and Menorca (418 CE), Antioch (489), Daphne-Antioch (506), Ravenna (519), amongst other places. Hostility between Christians and Jews grew over the generations under Roman sovereignty and beyond; eventually forced conversion, property confiscation, synagogue burning, expulsion, stake burning, enslavement and outlawing of Jews—even whole Jewish communities—occurred countless times in the lands of Latin Christendom.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: The early medieval period was a time of flourishing Jewish culture. Jewish and Christian life evolved in 'diametrically opposite directions' during the final centuries of Roman empire. Jewish life became autonomous, decentralized, community-centered. Christian life became a hierarchical system under the supreme authority of the Pope and the Roman Emperor.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: Jewish life can be characterized as democratic. Rabbis in the Talmud interpreted Deut. 29:9, "your heads, your tribes, your elders, and your officers, even all the men of Israel" and "Although I have appointed for you heads, elders, and officers, you are all equal before me" (Tanhuma) to stress political shared power. Shared power entailed responsibilities: "you are all responsible for one another. If there be only one righteous man among you, you will all profit from his merits, and not you alone, but the entire world...But if one of you sins, the whole generation will suffer."


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: In the Early Middle Ages, persecution of Jews also continued in the lands of Latin Christendom. After the Visigoths converted from more tolerant non-trinitarian Arianism to the stricter trinitarian Nicene Christianity of Rome, in 612 CE and again in 642 CE, expulsions of all Jews were decreed in the Visigoth Empire. The Catholic Merovingian dynasty decreed forced conversion for Jews in 582 and 629 CE. Under the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Toledo, multiple persecutions (633, 653, 693 CE) and stake burnings of Jews (638 CE) occurred; the Kingdom of Toledo followed up on this tradition in 1368, 1391, 1449, and 1486–1490 CE, including forced conversions and mass murder, and there was rioting and a blood bath against the Jews of Toledo in 1212 CE. Jewish pogroms occurred in the Diocese of Clement (France, 554 CE) and in the Diocese of Uzes (France, 561 CE).


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: European Jews were at first concentrated largely in southern Europe. During the High and Late Middle Ages, they migrated north. There is historical evidence of Jewish communities north of the Alps and Pyrenees in the 8th and 9th centuries. By the 11th century, Jewish settlers from southern Europe, Jewish immigrants from Babylon and Persia, and Maghrebi Jewish traders from North Africa were settling in western and central Europe, particularly in France and along the Rhine River. This Jewish migration was motivated by economic opportunities and often at the invitation of local Christian rulers, who perceived the Jews as having the know-how and capacity to jump-start the economy, improve revenue, and enlarge trade.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: Persecution of Jews in Europe increased in the High Middle Ages in the context of the Christian Crusades. In the First Crusade (1096), flourishing communities on the Rhine and the Danube were utterly destroyed; see German Crusade, 1096. In the Second Crusade, (1147) the Jews in France were subject to frequent massacres. The Jews were also subjected to attacks by the Shepherds' Crusades of 1251 and 1320. The Crusades were followed by expulsions, including in 1290 the banishing of all Jews from the Kingdom of England by King Edward I with the Edict of Expulsion. In 1394, 100,000 Jews were expelled from France. Thousands more were deported from Austria in 1421. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland. Many Jews were also expelled from Spain after the Alhambra Decree in 1492.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: In relations with Christian society, they were protected by kings, princes and bishops, because of the crucial services they provided in three areas: finance, administration, and medicine. Christian scholars interested in the Bible would consult with Talmudic rabbis. All of this changed with the reforms and strengthening of the Roman Catholic Church and the rise of competitive middle-class, town dwelling Christians. By 1300, the friars and local priests were using the Passion Plays at Easter time, which depicted Jews, in contemporary dress, killing Christ, to teach the general populace to hate and murder Jews. It was at this point that persecution and exile became endemic. As a result of persecution, expulsions and massacres carried out by the Crusaders, Jews gradually migrated to Central and Eastern Europe, settling in Poland, Lithuania, and Russia, where they found greater security and a renewal of prosperity.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: In the Late Middle Ages, in the mid-14th century, the Black Death epidemics devastated Europe, annihilating between one-third and one-half of the population. It is an oft-told myth that due to better nutrition and greater cleanliness, Jews were not infected in similar numbers; Jews were indeed infected in numbers similar to their non-Jewish neighbors Yet they were still made scapegoats. Rumors spread that Jews caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by violence. Although Pope Clement VI tried to protect them with his 6 July 1348 papal bull and another papal bull in 1348, several months later, 900 Jews were burnt alive in Strasbourg, where the plague had not yet reached the city. Christian accusations of host desecration and blood libels were made against Jews. Pogroms followed, and the destruction of Jewish communities yielded the funds for many Pilgrimage churches or chapels throughout the Middle Ages (e.g. Saint Werner's Chapels of Bacharach, Oberwesel, Womrath; Deggendorfer Gnad in Bavaria).


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: Jewish survival in the face of external pressures from the Roman Catholic empire and the Persian Zoroastrian empire is seen as 'enigmatic' by historians.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: The Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain refers to a period of history during the Muslim rule of Iberia in which Jews were generally accepted in society and Jewish religious, cultural and economic life blossomed. This "Golden Age" is variously dated from the 8th to 12th centuries.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: Al-Andalus was a key center of Jewish life during the Middle Ages, producing important scholars and one of the most stable and wealthy Jewish communities. A number of famous Jewish philosophers and scholars flourished during this time, most notably Maimonides.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: The Spanish Inquisition was established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms and was under the direct control of the Spanish monarchy. It was not definitively abolished until 1834, during the reign of Isabel II.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: The Inquisition, as an ecclesiastical tribunal, had jurisdiction only over baptized Christians. However, since Jews (in 1492) and Muslim Moors (in 1502) had been banished from Spain, jurisdiction of the Inquisition during a large part of its history extended in practice to all royal subjects. The Inquisition worked in large part to ensure the orthodoxy of recent converts known as "conversos" or "marranos".


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: The expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492, as well as expulsion from Austria, Hungary and Germany, stimulated a widespread Jewish migration to the much more tolerant Poland. Indeed, with the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, Poland became the recognized haven for exiles from the rest of Europe; and the resulting accession to the ranks of Polish Jewry made it the cultural and spiritual center of the Jewish people in Europe.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: The most prosperous period for Polish Jews began following this new influx of Jews with the reign of Sigismund I the Old (r. 1506–1548), who protected the Jews in his realm. His son, Sigismund II Augustus (r. 1548–1572), mainly followed the tolerant policy of his father and also granted autonomy to the Jews in the matter of communal administration, laying the foundation for the power of the "Qahal", or autonomous Jewish community. This period led to the creation of a proverb about Poland being a "heaven for the Jews". According to some sources, about three-quarters of all the Jews in Europe lived in Poland by the middle of the 16th century. In the middle of the 16th century, Poland welcomed Jewish newcomers from Italy and Turkey, mostly of Sephardi origin; while some of the immigrants from the Ottoman Empire claimed to be Mizrahim. Jewish religious life thrived in many Polish communities. In 1503, the Polish monarchy appointed Rabbi Jacob Polak, the official Rabbi of Poland, marking the emergence of the Chief Rabbinate. Around 1550, many Sephardi Jews travelled across Europe to find a haven in Poland. Therefore, the Polish Jews are said to be of many ethnic origins including Ashkenazic, Sephardic, and Mizrahi. During the 16th and 17th century Poland had the largest Jewish population in the whole of Europe.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: By 1551, Polish Jews were given permission to choose their own Chief Rabbi. The Chief Rabbinate held power over law and finance, appointing judges and other officials. Other powers were shared with local councils. The Polish government permitted the Rabbinate to grow in power and used it for tax collection purposes. Only 30% of the money raised by the Rabbinate went to the Jewish communities. The rest went to the Crown for protection. In this period Poland-Lithuania became the main center for Ashkenazi Jewry, and its "yeshivot" achieved fame from the early 16th century.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: Moses Isserles (1520–1572), an eminent Talmudist of the 16th century, established his yeshiva in Kraków. In addition to being a renowned Talmudic and legal scholar, Isserles was also learned in Kabbalah, and studied history, astronomy, and philosophy.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: The culture and intellectual output of the Jewish community in Poland had a profound impact on Judaism as a whole. Some Jewish historians have recounted that the word Poland is pronounced as "Polania" or "Polin" in Hebrew, and as transliterated into Hebrew. These names for Poland were interpreted as "good omens" because "Polania" can be broken down into three Hebrew words: "po" ("here"), "lan" ("dwells"), "ya" ("God"), and "Polin" into two words of: "po" ("here") "lin" ("[you should] dwell"). The "message" was that Poland was meant to be a good place for the Jews. During the time from the rule of Sigismund I the Old until the Holocaust, Poland would be at the center of Jewish religious life.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: "Yeshivot" were established, under the direction of the rabbis, in the more prominent communities. Such schools were officially known as gymnasiums, and their rabbi principals as rectors. Important "yeshivot" existed in Kraków, Poznań, and other cities. Jewish printing establishments came into existence in the first quarter of the 16th century. In 1530, a Hebrew Pentateuch (Torah) was printed in Kraków; and at the end of the 16th century the Jewish printing houses of that city and Lublin issued a large number of Jewish books, mainly of a religious character. The growth of Talmudic scholarship in Poland was coincident with the greater prosperity of the Polish Jews; and because of their communal autonomy educational development was wholly one-sided and along Talmudic lines. Exceptions are recorded, however, where Jewish youth sought secular instruction in the European universities. The learned rabbis became not merely expounders of the Law, but also spiritual advisers, teachers, judges, and legislators; and their authority compelled the communal leaders to make themselves familiar with the abstruse questions of Jewish law. Polish Jewry found its views of life shaped by the spirit of Talmudic and rabbinical literature, whose influence was felt in the home, in school, and in the synagogue.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: In the first half of the 16th century the seeds of Talmudic learning had been transplanted to Poland from Bohemia, particularly from the school of Jacob Pollak, the creator of "Pilpul" ("sharp reasoning"). Shalom Shachna (c. 1500 – 1558), a pupil of Pollak, is counted among the pioneers of Talmudic learning in Poland. He lived and died in Lublin, where he was the head of the "yeshivah" which produced the rabbinical celebrities of the following century. Shachna's son Israel became rabbi of Lublin on the death of his father, and Shachna's pupil Moses Isserles (known as the "ReMA") (1520–1572) achieved an international reputation among the Jews as the author of the Mappah, which adapted the "Shulkhan Arukh" to meet the needs of the Ashkenazi community. His contemporary and correspondent Solomon Luria (1510–1573) of Lublin also enjoyed widespread popularity among his co-religionists; and the authority of both was recognized by the Jews throughout Europe. Heated religious disputations were common, and Jewish scholars participated in them. At the same time, the "Kabbalah" had become entrenched under the protection of Rabbinism; and such scholars as Mordecai Jaffe and Yoel Sirkis devoted themselves to its study. This period of great Rabbinical scholarship was interrupted by the Khmelnytsky Uprising and the Swedish Deluge.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: The decade from the Cossacks' uprising until after the Swedish war (1648–1658) left a deep and lasting impression not only on the social life of the Polish-Lithuanian Jews, but on their spiritual life as well. The intellectual output of the Jews of Poland was reduced. The Talmudic learning which up to that period had been the common possession of the majority of the people became accessible to a limited number of students only. What religious study there was became overly formalized, some rabbis busied themselves with quibbles concerning religious laws; others wrote commentaries on different parts of the Talmud in which hair-splitting arguments were raised and discussed; and at times these arguments dealt with matters which were of no practical importance. At the same time, many miracle workers made their appearance among the Jews of Poland, culminating in a series of false "Messianic" movements, most famously Sabbateanism and Frankism.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: Into this time of mysticism and overly formal rabbinism came the teachings of Israel ben Eliezer, known as the "Baal Shem Tov", or "BeShT", (1698–1760), which had a profound effect on the Jews of Central Europe and Poland in particular. His disciples taught and encouraged a new fervent brand of Judaism based on "Kabbalah" known as Hasidism. The rise of Hasidic Judaism within Poland's borders and beyond had a great influence on the rise of Haredi Judaism all over the world, with a continuous influence through its many Hasidic dynasties including those of Chabad-Lubavitch, Aleksander, Bobov, Ger, and Nadvorna. More recent "rebbes" of Polish origin include Rabbi Yosef Yitzchok Schneersohn (1880–1950), the sixth head of the Chabad Lubavitch Hasidic movement, who lived in Warsaw until 1940 when he moved Lubavitch from Warsaw to the United States. See also: List of Polish Rabbis


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: In the Papal States, which existed until 1870, Jews were required to live only in specified neighborhoods called ghettos. Until the 1840s, they were required to regularly attend sermons urging their conversion to Christianity. Only Jews were taxed to support state boarding schools for Jewish converts to Christianity. It was illegal to convert from Christianity to Judaism. Sometimes Jews were baptized involuntarily, and, even when such baptisms were illegal, forced to practice the Christian religion. In many such cases the state separated them from their families. See Edgardo Mortara for an account of one of the most widely publicized instances of acrimony between Catholics and Jews in the Papal States in the second half of the 19th century.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: In 1883, Nathan Birnbaum founded "Kadimah", the first Jewish student association in Vienna. In 1884, the first issue of "Selbstemanzipation" (Self Emancipation) appeared, printed by Birnbaum himself.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: The Dreyfus Affair, which erupted in France in 1894, profoundly shocked emancipated Jews. The depth of antisemitism in a country thought of as the home of enlightenment and liberty led many to question their future security in Europe. Among those who witnessed the Affair was an Austro-Hungarian (born in Budapest, lived in Vienna) Jewish journalist, Theodor Herzl, who published his pamphlet "Der Judenstaat" ("The Jewish State") in 1896 and "Altneuland" ("The Old New Land") in 1897. He described the Affair as a personal turning point, Before the Affair, Herzl had been anti-Zionist; afterwards he became ardently pro-Zionist. In line with the ideas of 19th-century German nationalism Herzl believed in a Jewish state for the Jewish nation. In that way, he argued, the Jews could become a people like all other peoples, and antisemitism would cease to exist.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: Herzl infused political Zionism with a new and practical urgency. He brought the World Zionist Organization into being and, together with Nathan Birnbaum, planned its First Congress at Basel in 1897.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: For the first four years, the World Zionist Organization (WZO) met every year, then, up to the Second World War, they gathered every second year. Since the war, the Congress has met every four years.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: In what is now known as Hungary, there were Jewish communities even before the Hungarian Conquest of 895. They settled down in around 200–300 CE, when those who were to be the founders of the Jewish community emigrated to the territory that would become modern-day Hungary. They were merchants from the Roman Empire and slaves from what is now Israel.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: Saint Stephen, Hungary's first Christian king, despite his efforts to spread his religion, practiced fairly liberal politics and ensured equal legal rights to people of all religions, including the Jews. During the reign of Stephen I., Jews were able to move to the developing towns, and so the "historical religious communities" evolved, these were Buda, Esztergom, Tata and Óbuda. The medieval Jewry's heyday occurred with the zenith of the country's political and economical development, during the reign of King Matthias. However, after the death of Matthias in 1490 and as a result of the approaching Turkish threat – antisemitism reared its head. In the middle of the 17th century however, Buda, being home to famous scholars, rabbis, kabbalists, writers, and poets speaking the Hebrew language, developed into the most important European Jewish community of the time. After Buda's recapture in 1686, Jews arrived to the country's deserted western and eastern border-land along with German and Slovak settlers from Czech-Moravia, later from Poland, and Galicia, which had fallen under the control of the Monarchy. In 1769 20,000, in 1787 80,000 people belonged to the Jewish population of Hungary. Members of the community made their living in agricultural and wine trade.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: In the early 19th century, in the reform age the progressive nobility set many goals of innovation, like the emancipation of the Hungarian Jewry. Hungarian Jews were able to play a part in the economy by assuming an important role in industrial and trading development. For example, Izsák Lőwy (1793–1847) founded his leather factory on a previously purchased piece of land in 1835, and created a new, modern town, with independent authority, religious equality and industrial freedom independent from the guilds. The town, which was given the name Újpest (New Pest), soon became a very important settlement. Its first synagogue was built in 1839. (Újpest, the current capital's 4th district is in the northern part of Budapest. During the time of the Holocaust 20,000 Jews were deported from here.) Mór Fischer Farkasházi (1800–1880) founded his world-famous porcelain factory in Herend in 1839, its artistic porcelains decorated, among others, Queen Victoria's table.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: In 1868/69 three major Jewish organizations were founded: the largest group were the more modern congressional or neolog Jews, the very traditional minded joined the orthodox movement, and the conservatives formed the status quo organization. The neolog Grand Synagogue had been built earlier, in 1859, in the Dohány Street. The main status quo temple, the nearby Rumbach Street Synagogue was constructed in 1872. The Budapest orthodox synagogue is located on Kazinczy Street, along with the orthodox community's headquarters and mikveh.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: In May 1923, in the presence of President Michael Hainisch, the First World Congress of Jewish Women was inaugurated at the Hofburg in Vienna, Austria.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: The Holocaust of the Jewish people (from the Greek ὁλόκαυστον ("holókauston"): "holos", "completely" and "kaustos", "burnt"), also known as "Ha-Shoah" (), or "Churben" (), as described in June 2013 at Auschwitz by Avner Shalev (Director of Yad Vashem) is the term generally used to describe the murder of approximately 6,000,000 Jews during World War II, as part of a program of deliberate attempt to annihilate the Jewish people, executed by the Nazi regime in Nazi Germany led by Adolf Hitler and its accomplices; the result of the Shoah or the Holocaust of the Jewish people was the destruction of hundreds of Jewish communities in continental Europe—two out of three Jews of Europe were murdered.


title: History of the Jews in Europe

text: The Jewish population of Europe in 2010 was estimated to be approximately 1.4 million (0.2% of European population) or 10% of the world's Jewish population. In the 21st century, France has the largest Jewish population in Europe, followed by the United Kingdom, Germany, Russia and Ukraine.


title: Governor (India)

text: The governors of the states of India have similar powers and functions at the state level as those of the president of India at the central level. Governors exist in the states, while lieutenant governors exist in union territories including the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi. The governor acts as the nominal head whereas the real power lies with the chief ministers of the states and his or her councils of ministers. Although, in union territories, the real power lies with the lieutenant governor or administrator, except in the NCT of Delhi and Puducherry, where the governor shares power with a council of ministers headed by a chief minister. Few or no governors are local to the state that they are appointed.


title: Governor (India)

text: In India, a lieutenant governor is leader of a union territory. However, the rank is present only in the union territories of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi and Puducherry (the other territories have a administrator appointed, who is usually a politician of the ruling party in the Government of India). However, the governor of Punjab serves as the administrator of Chandigarh. Lieutenant governors do not hold the same rank as a governor of a state in the list of precedence.


title: Governor (India)

text: and of the Constitution of India specify eligibility requirements for the post of governor. They are as follows:


title: Governor (India)

text: Traditionally, governors are not appointed to lead the states where they reside, although this is not stipulated in the constitution.


title: Governor (India)

text: The governor of a state is appointed by the president of India. The factors based on which the president evaluates the candidates is not mentioned in the Constitution.


title: Governor (India)

text: The primary function of the governor is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law as incorporated in their oath of office under of the Indian constitution in the administration of the state affairs. All the governor's actions, recommendations and supervisory powers (Article 167c, Article 200, Article 213, Article 355, etc.) over the executive and legislative entities of a state shall be used to implement the provisions of the Constitution.


title: Governor (India)

text: The Constitution vests in the governor all the executive powers of the state government. The governor appoints the chief minister, who enjoys the support of the majority in the State Legislative Assembly. The governor also appoints the other members of the Council of Ministers and distributes portfolios to them on the advice of the chief minister.


title: Governor (India)

text: The Council of Ministers remain in power during the 'pleasure' of the governor, but in the real sense it means the pleasure of obtaining majority in the Legislative Assembly. As long as the majority in the State Legislative Assembly supports the government, the Council of Ministers cannot be dismissed.


title: Governor (India)

text: The governor appoints the chief minister of a state, the advocate general and the chairman and members of the State Public Service Commission. Apart from this, the state election commissioner is also appointed by the governor (though removed by the president). The president consults the governor in the appointment of judges of the High Courts and the governor appoints the judges of the district courts. All administrations are carried on the governor's name, and they also have the power to appoint staff for their tenure in class one and class four as per the constitution of India.


title: Governor (India)

text: The governor of the state by virtue of their office is also the chancellor of most of the universities in the state. The dignity and impartiality of the office of the chancellor puts the governor in a unique position with regard to protecting the autonomy of the universities and saving them from undue political interference. The governor as chancellor of universities also acts as president of the Senate. The governor has the power to direct inspection of every component of the universities and affiliated colleges, required due action on the result of inquiry. The chancellor appoints search committee for appointments of vice chancellor. The governor accords consent of warrant of degrees and withdraws degree or distinctions both at the recommendations of the Senate. The governor approves or disapproves statutes passed by the Senate and appoints teachers of the university based on the recommendation of the respective committees.


title: Governor (India)

text: The state head summons the sessions of both houses of the state legislature and prorogues them. The governor can even dissolve the state legislative assembly. These powers are formal and the governor's use of these powers must comply with the advice of the Council of Ministers headed by the chief minister.


title: Governor (India)

text: The governor inaugurates (to dedicate) the state legislature by addressing it after the assembly elections and also at the beginning of the first session every year. The governor's address on these occasions generally outlines new policies of the state government.


title: Governor (India)

text: A bill that the state legislature has passed, can become a law only after the governor gives assent. The governor can return a bill to the state legislature, if it is not a money bill, for reconsideration. However, if the state legislature sends it back to the governor for the second time, the governor must assent to it. This has rarely happened in the history of any of the states. Tamil Nadu, for example, resent its NEET Exemption Bill to its governor for the first and only time ever, in 2022, since the state's formation in 1950. The governor also has the power to reserve certain bills for the president.


title: Governor (India)

text: When the state legislature is not in session and the governor considers it necessary to have a law, then the governor can promulgate ordinances. These ordinances are submitted to the state legislature at its next session. They remain valid for no more than six weeks from the date the state legislature is reconvened unless approved by it earlier.


title: Governor (India)

text: Governor is empowered under Article 192 to disqualify a member of a House of the State legislature when the election commission recommends that the legislator is no longer complying with provisions of Article 191.


title: Governor (India)

text: Per , the governor can ask the advocate general to attend the proceedings of both houses of the state legislature and report to them any unlawful functioning if any.


title: Governor (India)

text: The governor causes to be laid before the state legislature the annual financial statement which is the state budget. Further no demand for grant shall be made except on the governor's recommendation. They can also make advances out of the contingency fund of the state to meet any unforeseen expenditure. Moreover, the governor constitutes the Finance Commission of the state.


title: Governor (India)

text: The governor has no role or powers in a contingency situation such as president's rule unless specifically permitted by the president under , 356 and 357. The Governor is not permitted to take any decision on his own without state cabinet advise when an elected government is in charge under the provisions of of the constitution.


title: Governor (India)

text: Various emoluments, allowances and privileges available to a governor are determined by the Governors (Emoluments, Allowances and Privileges) Act, 1982.


title: Governor (India)

text: In addition to the monthly salary, the governor is entitled to rent free official residence, free household facilities and conveyance. The governor and his family are provided with free medical attendance, accommodation and treatment for life.


title: Governor (India)

text: There is no provision for impeachment, unlike with the president of India, judges of the high courts and the Supreme Court of India and the chief election commissioner.


title: Governor (India)

text: Under of the constitution, governor can not be summoned for questioning except on his voluntary willingness to testify in the court in support of his controversial deeds though the unconstitutional decisions taken by the governor would be declared invalid by the courts. The case would be decided by the courts based on the facts furnished by the union government for the governor's role. As clarified by the Supreme Court in the case 'Rameshwar Prasad & Ors vs. Union of India & ANR 24 January 2006', though governor can not be prosecuted and imprisoned during his tenure, he can be prosecuted after he/she steps down from the post for the guilt committed during his term of governorship as declared earlier by the courts. No governor has resigned on impropriety to continue in office for declaring and nullifying his decisions as unconstitutional by the courts till now. No criminal case at least on the grounds of disrespecting constitution is lodged till now against former governors to punish them for their unconstitutional acts though many decisions taken during the term of governorship had been declared by Supreme Court as unconstitutional, mala fide, void, ultra vires, etc.


title: Governor (India)

text: While the President of India is "elected", the governor is "selected" by the incumbent central government. That is why there have been many instances when governors appointed by a previous government are removed by an incoming government. The reasons are more political. The supreme court has ruled that governors should be given security of term but this is generally not adhered to.


title: Governor (India)

text: Political observers have described governorship as "plush old age homes" wherein the governor does not stay impartial and act against popular state leaders. In 1984, Congressman Ram Lal dismissed the N. T. Rama Rao government and allowed N. Bhaskara Rao as chief minister of Andhra Pradesh for 31 days.


title: Governor (India)

text: In January 2014, the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) approached the Union Law Ministry under the UPA Government to record statements of West Bengal governor M. K. Narayanan and Goa Governor Bharat Vir Wanchoo. Their statements were considered vital as Narayanan was National Security Adviser and Wanchoo was Chief of Special Protection Group (SPG) at the time of signing of contract with AgustaWestland. Their views were also considered before Indian Government signed the contract with Agusta Westland. However, Union Law ministry stonewalled CBI probe by rejecting CBI's request to examine them claiming they had 'immunity'. UPA was defeated in the 2014 general election and with the incoming NDA Government's permission, West Bengal governor M. K. Narayanan became the first ever governor to be questioned by police in a criminal case. The CBI questioned M. K. Narayanan as a "witness" in 3600-crore 2013 Indian helicopter bribery scandal. The CBI said Goa governor Bharat Vir Wanchoo would be questioned in the same case.


title: Governor (India)

text: Arunachal Pradesh governor who is also appointed by the ruling party at the centre, has been sacked by the president after the Supreme Court has quashed his unconstitutional acts.


title: Governor (India)

text: Lt Governor of Delhi Najeeb Jung resigned taking moral responsibility for his unconstitutional role when Supreme Court observed that the elected local government is not an unconstitutional institution without any powers.


title: Reborn doll

text: A reborn doll is a hand made art doll created from a blank kit or a manufactured doll that has been transformed by an artist to resemble a human infant with as much realism as possible. The process of creating a reborn doll is referred to as reborning and the doll artists are referred to as reborners.


title: Reborn doll

text: The hobby of creating reborn baby dolls began in the early 1990s when doll enthusiasts wanted more realistic dolls. Since then, an industry and community surrounding reborn dolls has emerged.


title: Reborn doll

text: Reborn dolls are primarily purchased online but are available at fairs. Depending on craftsmanship, they range in price from hundreds to thousands of dollars.


title: Reborn doll

text: Reborning involves numerous time-consuming steps. The most basic form of the process involves taking a vinyl doll, adding multiple hand painted layers of paint, and adding other physical features to the doll. Artists can pick different brands to best suit the doll they wish to create. Consumers can also buy reborn doll kits that include the doll parts and supplies for creating their own reborn. Making a doll from a kit is called "newborning" and allows artists to omit some steps in the fabrication process. Many supplies are needed for both external and internal modifications of reborns to make the doll seem more realistic.


title: Reborn doll

text: Some consumers of reborn dolls use them to cope with their grief over a lost child (a memory reborn), or as a portrait doll of a grown child. Others collect reborns as they would regular dolls. These dolls are sometimes played with as if they are an infant. Critics debate whether reborn dolls are harmful, or whether these dolls can help in the grieving process. Because of their realistic appearance, reborn dolls have occasionally been mistaken for real babies and "rescued" from parked cars after being reported to the police by passers-by.


title: Reborn doll

text: The art of making reborn dolls began in the United States in the 1990s. Reborning follows a long tradition of collectors, artists, and manufacturers restoring and enhancing dolls in order to portray more realism. The internet has allowed doll artists and collectors to create an online society focused on reborn dolls. In 2002, the first reborn was offered on eBay. This has expanded the reborn market allowing artists to open online stores which function figuratively as nurseries. The niche market for the dolls began with doll collectors who admired the superior lifelike accuracy of the doll. The market quickly reached those who wanted to use the doll as an emotional outlet, either to mother or for therapeutic purposes. Mass media coverage has helped to develop the phenomenon in other countries. Reborning enjoys popularity in the USA, Canada, United Kingdom, Europe, Africa, Latin America and many other countries around the world. Doll manufacturers have also taken advantage of the trend and sell supplies, tools, and accessories catering to reborn followers. This has allowed reborners to invent new techniques causing the dolls to become increasingly realistic over time. Magazines, books, organizations, and conventions dedicated to reborn dolls have been started as a result of this popularity.


title: Reborn doll

text: The appearance of the doll depends on the creator; however, certain reborn artists allow customers to customize their doll, usually using a photograph to replicate a particular infant.


title: Reborn doll

text: Any type of vinyl doll can be used for reborning. Dolls vary by size, shape, and materials, making some more desirable or popular than others. According to "Doll Reader Magazine", Berenguer Babies, Zapf, Lee Middleton, Apple Valley, and Secrist Dolls are doll companies that make dolls which are easy to transform into reborns. Kathryn Peck of "Doll Reader Magazine" explains that with JC Toys Berenguer Babies, it is because the dolls already resemble human babies in their expressions, body shapes, surface materials, and other lifelike attributes.


title: Reborn doll

text: A reborn can be created from a blank kit as opposed to reborning a whole manufactured doll. Manufacturers have reacted to the growing trend of artists transforming dolls by hiring reborn artists to become doll sculptors and design doll molds and kits.


title: Reborn doll

text: Realborns are a type of blank kit for reborning that are made by taking 3D digital scans of a real baby instead of an artist sculpting by hand. These are usually newborns, sometimes they produce a kit of the same baby again at 3 or 7 months.


title: Reborn doll

text: When reborning from a kit, the first several steps of the process are completed by reborn sculpt artists and doll manufacturers. The kits come as a disassembled blank baby ready to be reborned. Supplies can be purchased separately.


title: Reborn doll

text: Starter kits are equipped with basic reborning necessities such as limbs, faces, heads, paint brushes, eyelashes, acrylic/glass eyes, weighting pellets, 'heat set' or air dry paints, cloth bodies, cable ties, nose drill bits, fake tears, thinning shears, cosmetic foam wedges, cotton dipped applicators, and glue. These supplies may be purchased separately from a variety of retailers. The nose drill bits are used for creating and perfecting the nostrils of the doll. Acetone or a paint thinner medium is needed for removing the factory paint from the doll. Hair is an optional choice to add to a doll. Fine mohair, human hair, or wigs are usually used, but it is found in a variety of types. Rooting tools are utilized for this process and are available in numerous sizes 20, 36, 38, 40, and 42. The smaller the number the thicker the needle which will grab more hair and leave a bigger hole in the head of the doll. Eyes for a reborn doll are offered in a variety of brands and sizes.


title: Reborn doll

text: The technique of reborning a play doll typically involves a number of steps. To begin the doll is taken apart and factory paint is removed. Then a blue color wash may be applied to give the appearance of realistic baby skin undertones. For dolls with an awake appearance eyes must be replaced. The outer layer of the vinyl doll is given its skin tone by adding dozens of layers of different paint tones to build up and achieve a realistic human skin effect.


title: Reborn doll

text: If heat set paints are used, the doll parts must be heat set by baking them inside an oven or by using a heatgun after each layer of paint is applied. Lighter skin tone dolls can take 15 to 30 layers. The effects of the blue color wash combined with the outside layers of paint creates the appearance of veins, and layers of paint done with special sponges give the doll its newborn mottled look. Manicured nails and opening of the nose holes are other details that are added during this process.


title: Reborn doll

text: There are air dry paints now available to reborn artists, sold under several brand names. Many feel that repeated baking of vinyl can cause it to break down over time. In addition, there are fumes and chemicals released during the heating process.


title: Reborn doll

text: The next step is to apply hair. The hair can be done in one of three ways: painting, wigging, or rooting. When rooting, the hair is added by hand with a rooting needle, micro-rooting is usually 1–4 hair strands per plug. When each hair is added individually strand by strand with only one hair per plug this is called mono-rooting. This can take up to 30 or more hours per head. Once the hair is finished, the original vinyl body is weighted with a soft stuffed body filled with pellets/fine glass beads/fiberfill.The weight corresponds with its age to achieve a realistic effect. Various additions also can be added to give the doll an even more lifelike appearance. Reborns heads are often weighted, so that owners have to support the head like one would a real newborn. Purchasers can have magnets attached inside the mouth or head for attaching a pacifier or hair bows. Electronic devices that mimic a heartbeat or make the chest rise and fall to simulate breathing are common. Reborns can come with an umbilical cord, baby fat, heat packs to make the reborn warm to the touch, or voice boxes that mimic infant sounds. For preemie dolls, they may come in incubators with a breathing apparatus attached to their nose.


title: Reborn doll

text: Institutions have developed to aid reborn hobbyists with collecting by providing information, products, and social networking. These institutions include magazines, and associations and organizations which sponsor conferences and conventions. Collectors and artists have described their reasons for purchasing and/or creating reborn dolls as varying from a love of dolls to a passion for art.


title: Reborn doll

text: Reborn dolls are handmade art made by artists and can not be factory produced. They are usually found online and can be purchased through the artists' online stores (often termed nurseries), through artists' personal or doll/nursery pages on facebook where you can see all their previous work for assurity or through many Facebook groups and pages and at numerous doll conventions/fairs. Incomplete crafting "kits" to create original reborns can also be purchased from various online stores. There is a large price range depending on the quality of the doll, the sculpt used and the experience of the artist; they can sell anywhere from hundreds to thousands of dollars.


title: Reborn doll

text: There are many factors to look for when purchasing a reborn. If the complexion is too dark this is called a blue baby, and indicates it was dyed excessively or uses colored sand for weight that could have seeped into the vinyl. The type of material used to weight the reborn should be considered because some materials do not react well with vinyl and will cause it to deteriorate. The doll should not be shiny. This indicates the doll was washed with acetone before painting, which prevents the color from correctly sticking to the doll's surface. It may also be caused by the type of paint used to color the doll. This is corrected with a special matte varnish. The parts used are important, as original parts may be replaced. The replacement parts must be appropriately proportioned with the doll and made of quality material. At times having the original body retains the doll's value either because it was made to fit that specific doll, or the artist left a signature mark. Eye brand, size, fitting, and alignment should be closely examined as well. Another feature to observe is the type of paint used for coloring and whether the doll is realistic in its details such as veins and newborn imperfections. The type of hair and technique used in applying the hair may determine the quality. Some artists open the nose, the holes should be correctly shaped, and the nails should be properly manicured.


title: Reborn doll

text: The International Reborn Doll Artists (IRDA) originated at the first conference for reborn doll artists on January 21, 2005. The IRDA group was assembled in order to offer education for improved skills in the art of reborn doll creation. They offer skill building tutorials and instruction so reborners can remain up to date on the newest techniques and meet others who share a common interest in reborn doll fabrication. A reborn artist can join the organization at any skill level, but members are asked to uphold a list of standards that were created by the IRDA's executive board. This ethical code stipulates the guidelines members are to follow in advertising, listing, and describing their dolls in order to divide credit fairly between manufacturers, sculptors, and artists.


title: Reborn doll

text: The First Annual International Reborn Doll Artists Conference was held in Orlando, Florida on January 21–23, 2005 in conjunction with IDEX The Annual Debut of the World's Finest Collectibles. In January 2006 in Las Vegas, Nevada, "Doll Reader Magazine" sponsored the IDEX Reborn Competition at the First International IDEX Reborn Convention. "Doll Reader Magazine" started publishing over twenty-five years ago. It is now published nine times a year, keeps collectors informed on trends of modern-day doll collecting, and continues to sponsor the IDEX trade shows that feature reborn competitions and conventions. In the summer of 2008, ABC News followed a reborn convention in Illinois. ABC News was also in St. Louis, Missouri to attend the first annual Tiny Treasures Show held in 2008. The show features exhibitors, collectors, retailers, manufacturers, workshops, and contests for reborners. Reborn dolls can be found at doll fairs as well.


title: Reborn doll

text: The overwhelming majority of reborn customers are older women. The process of buying a reborn can be done to simulate an adoption process, rather than a prosaic sale of a product. As part of this, the dolls often come with fake birth certificates or adoption certificates. Many women collect reborns as they would a non-reborn doll, whilst others purchase them to fill a void of a lost child and may treat reborns as living babies. Media features and public receptions have used such adjectives as "creepy" to describe the reborns. This can be explained by the uncanny valley hypothesis. It states that as objects become more lifelike they gain an increasing empathetic response, until a certain point at which the response changes to repulsion. Department stores have refused to stock the dolls because of this reaction, claiming they are too lifelike.


title: Reborn doll

text: Many reborn owners are simply doll collectors, while others have experienced miscarriage, stillbirth or neonatal death, have no means for adoption, or suffer from empty nest syndrome. They may utilize the dolls as a substitute for a child. Some owners dress the dolls, wash their hair, and may even take them for walks in strollers and take them shopping. Reborn hobbyists refer to the emotional response to holding their dolls as "cuddle therapy". Studies suggest cuddling a baby releases hormones which produce a sense of emotional well-being, and some psychologists believe that this may happen with realistic dolls as well. Consultant psychiatrist Raj Persaud explains that mothering a real newborn baby releases the hormone oxytocin in the mother, and hypothesizes that this may explain why "reborn mothers" become emotionally attached to the reborn baby doll.


title: Reborn doll

text: For grieving parents who form emotional bonds with reborn dolls, some child bereavement counselors advise against parents substituting their deceased child with the dolls. Reborn mothers contend that they are not replacing children but remembering them. Psychiatrist Sue Varma, teacher at the NYU school of medicine, says mothering reborn dolls rather than just collecting them can become a problem when it is used as prop and becomes the person's only form of socializing. Psychiatrist Gail Saltz with New York Presbyterian Hospital supports the use of reborns for people who do not want to make the commitment of having a real child, and also to comfort bereaved parents. She offers that in this case the reborn may symbolize a step in the grieving process. Concern should only come if someone who lost a baby grows too attached to their reborn because it could indicate their grief is not getting resolved. In this case, the likeness of the doll to the deceased child risks being harmful as a permanent replacement for the grieving parents. Ian James, a doctor at the Centre for the Health of the Elderly at Newcastle General Hospital in the U.K., said that holding the dolls helps calm elderly residents, helping them feel peaceful and quiet.


title: Reborn doll

text: There have been multiple notable instances where reborn babies have been mistaken as real due to their realistic appearance. In July 2008, police in Queensland, Australia, smashed a car window to rescue what seemed like an unconscious baby only to find it was a reborn doll. The police stated that the doll was "incredibly lifelike" and that bystanders who thought a baby was dying were frightened by the incident. A similar incident was reported in the United States, in which police broke the window of a Hummer to save a baby that turned out to be a reborn doll.


title: Reborn doll

text: On June 18, 2019, NYC Police confirmed the death of an infant found in a park in Queens who was identified, more than 1 hour later, to actually be a doll.


title: Reborn doll

text: In 2009, reborners uncovered a blogging hoax in which a woman – described by "ABC News" as an "anti-abortion blogger" – claimed she was pregnant with a terminally ill child. She opened a P.O. box in order to receive gifts, money, and prayers. The hoax was uncovered when reborners reading the blog realized that the pictures of the baby posted on the blog were actually a reborn doll they recognized through the familiar reborn sculpture.


title: Reborn doll

text: Reborn dolls have been featured in a number of movies, series and television shows. A December 10, 2008, episode of "Dr. Phil" entitled "Obsessions" discussed the topic of reborning. In January 2008, a Channel 4 series, "My Fake Baby", explored the lives of women who collect the lifelike baby dolls. Featuring this documentary the British television magazine show on Channel 4, "Richard & Judy", held an interview with the reborn artist in the documentary, Jaime Eaton, collector Mary Flint and psychiatrist Raj Persuad. On January 2, 2009, an ABC News article described both the manufacturing and the emotional interaction of reborn dolls, while a January 2 "20/20" episode talked about the mothering process and attachment to reborns. On January 31, 2008, "Inside Edition" aired a segment showing artist Eve Newsom and her reborn dolls. In July 2014, an episode of "Perception", an American fictional series about a neuropsychiatrist who helps solve murders, called "Inconceivable" was all about a real baby and a reborn. In December 2015, Shaylen Maxwell, owner and artist of Reborn, Sweet was featured in "The Globe and Mail" in a LIFE feature on the therapeutic value of reborn dolls in treating anxiety and grief.


title: Reborn doll

text: A reborn doll also plays a significant part in the 2019 M. Night Shyamalan psychological horror television series "Servant". An episode of High Maintenance (season 3, episode 8, "Proxy") features a couple caring for a reborn doll.


title: Radioactive (film)

text: Radioactive is a 2019 British biographical drama film written by Jack Thorne, directed by Marjane Satrapi and starring Rosamund Pike as Marie Curie. The film is based on the 2010 graphic novel "Radioactive: Marie & Pierre Curie: A Tale of Love and Fallout" by the American artist Lauren Redniss.


title: Radioactive (film)

text: The film premiered as the Closing Night Gala at the 2019 Toronto International Film Festival. The film was scheduled to be released in theatres in 2020 but its opening was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It was released digitally in the United Kingdom on 15 June 2020 by StudioCanal and released on streaming by Amazon Studios on Amazon Prime Video in the United States on 24 July 2020.


title: Radioactive (film)

text: In 1934, Marie Curie collapses in her laboratory in Paris. As she is rushed to the hospital, she remembers her life. In 1893 she was frequently rejected for funding due to her gender but entered a partnership with Pierre Curie. After Marie discovered polonium and radium, the two fell in love, were married, and had two children. Soon, Marie announces the discovery of radioactivity, revolutionizing physics and chemistry. Radium is soon used in a series of commercial products. Pierre takes Marie to a séance where radium is used to attempt to contact the dead, but Marie disapproves of spiritualism and the idea of an afterlife after the death of her mother in Poland.


title: Radioactive (film)

text: Although Pierre rejects the "Légion d'honneur" for not nominating Marie and insists that the two jointly share their Nobel Prize in Physics, Marie becomes agitated that he accepted the Prize in Stockholm without her. Soon afterwards Pierre becomes increasingly sick with anemia as a result of his research and is trampled to death by a horse. Although she initially dismisses concerns that her elements are toxic, increasing numbers of people die from serious health conditions after exposure to radium. Depressed, she begins an affair with her colleague Paul Langevin. Although she receives Pierre's professorship at the Sorbonne, the French nationalist press reports the details of her affair with Langevin and she is harassed by xenophobic mobs due to her Polish origins. She returns to the house where she attended the seance and tearfully begs her friend, Loie Fuller, who was there to try to use radium to contact Pierre. When she is awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911, she defies the committee's instructions not to travel to Stockholm and is greeted enthusiastically by all the women in attendance.


title: Radioactive (film)

text: In 1914, when World War I starts, her daughter Irene convinces her to run an X-ray unit on the Western Front in order to determine whether or not amputation is needed for wounded soldiers; they fund the X-ray diagnostic units by selling her gold Nobel Prize medals to the government. Irene begins dating Frederic Joliot, but Marie disapproves of their relationship because they have been researching Induced radioactivity, and warns Irene not to see him or research radioactivity any more. Although she refuses to obey her, they go to the Western Front together to run the X-ray machine.


title: Radioactive (film)

text: Scenes of her life are interwoven with scenes depicting the future impact of her discoveries, including external beam radiotherapy at a hospital in Cleveland in 1956, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, a nuclear bomb test in Nevada in 1961, and the Chernobyl disaster in 1986. As she dies in 1934, she sees visions of these events before awakening in a hospital room. Pierre arrives and they leave the hospital together. The film concludes by stating that the Curies' mobile unit X-rayed more than a million men during the war "saving countless lives", that their research would be used to create radiotherapy, and that the Joliot-Curies would discover artificial radioactivity (also known as Induced radioactivity) in 1935.


title: Radioactive (film)

text: The movie ends with a photo showing Marie Curie's attendance at the 1927 Solvay Conference with many other celebrated physicists such as Albert Einstein.


title: Radioactive (film)

text: It was announced in February 2017 that Marjane Satrapi would direct a biopic on the life of Marie Curie, with StudioCanal and Working Title Films serving as producers. An "autumn 2017" production start was initially foreseen. In May 2017, during the Cannes Film Festival, Rosamund Pike was cast as Curie.


title: Radioactive (film)

text: In February 2018, Amazon Studios acquired the US distribution rights to the film, with filming beginning in the Hungarian cities of Budapest and Esztergom the same week. The cast was rounded out by Sam Riley, Anya Taylor-Joy, Aneurin Barnard and Simon Russell Beale a few days later.


title: Radioactive (film)

text: "Radioactive" premiered as the Closing Night Gala at the Toronto International Film Festival on 14 September 2019. To celebrate International Women's Day, the film's UK premiere took place at the Curzon Mayfair Cinema on 8 March 2020, ahead of its intended 20 March theatrical release, which was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. StudioCanal eventually released the film in the United Kingdom on digital platforms on 15 June 2020 and through video on demand on 6 July, followed by a DVD release on 27 July. In the United States, where the film was originally set to be released theatrically on 24 April 2020 by Amazon Studios, it was released straight to Amazon Prime Video on 24 July 2020.


title: Radioactive (film)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads: ""Radioactive"s flawed script and counterproductive storytelling choices are offset by Rosamund Pike's central performance in a sincere tribute to a brilliant scientific mind." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 56 out of 100, based on 31 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Radioactive (film)

text: Deborah Young of "The Hollywood Reporter" praised Pike's performance, the pacing and the treatment of the subject. "The Independent" gave it two stars and criticised the "on-the-nose writing that sucks the air out of every scene, as characters ceremoniously announce the film's themes and their personal motivations." Charles Bramesco of "The Guardian" panned the film as "by-the-numbers", criticising the script and direction, and gave it one star out of five. Kate Taylor of "The Globe and Mail" concluded that "the viewer may decide [Marie would] rather read a comic book."


title: Radioactive (film)

text: Although the film is actually based on a 2010 graphic novel, it is marketed as a "biopic" on Marie Curie. Geraldine McGinty of Cornell University severely criticised the film not just for altering many historical events for dramatic effect, but for misrepresenting her character and that of her husband, e.g. by saying that she stayed home rather than attending the 1905 Nobel ceremony with Pierre, where he belatedly delivered the lecture for their 1903 prize. McGinty said that its misleading analogies, misrepresentation of principal characters, and inappropriate nudity and violence, all make it unsuitable as an educational or biographical source.


title: WikiHow

text: wikiHow is an online wiki-style publication featuring how-to articles on a variety of topics. Founded in 2005 by Internet entrepreneur Jack Herrick, its aim is to create an extensive database of instructional content, using the wiki model of open collaboration to allow users to add, create, and modify content. It is a hybrid organization, a for-profit company run for a social mission. wikiHow uses the free and open-source MediaWiki software, and its text content is released under a Creative Commons license.


title: WikiHow

text: In February 2005, wikiHow had over 35.5 million unique visitors. , wikiHow contains more than 235,000 how-to articles and over 2.5 million registered users.


title: WikiHow

text: wikiHow was founded by Jack Herrick on January 15, 2005, with the goal of creating "the how-to guide for everything." January 15 was selected as its launch date to honor Wikipedia, which was launched on January 15, 2001.


title: WikiHow

text: Herrick drew inspiration for wikiHow from eHow, a how-to website he and business partner Josh Hannah purchased in 2004. After running eHow, Herrick concluded that its business model prevented it from becoming the extensive, high quality how-to site he wanted to create. Realizing that the wiki method of content creation would ultimately produce higher-quality work, both of them sold eHow in 2006 to Demand Media. Herrick described the difference between eHow and wikiHow as "eating a McDonald's burger vs. a wonderful, home cooked meal."


title: WikiHow

text: In 2006, the non-profit foundation One Laptop per Child chose wikiHow as one of the content sources for the educational laptops it distributed around the world. On September 21, 2007, the website's 25,000th article was published. In 2009, it surpassed 20 million monthly visitors and completed a redesign. In 2014, Google chose wikiHow as one of the launch partners for Google Contributor, an ad-free Internet product.


title: WikiHow

text: On March 24, 2016, wikiHow acquired Guidecentral, a website focused on instructions for "hands-on" projects. The acquisition's terms were not released; however, Guidecentral raised over $1 million from investors including NXTP Labs, Enterprise Ireland, and South Ventures.


title: WikiHow

text: wikiHow provides instructional content on a wide range of topics. As of December 2021, it contains over 235,000 articles. Articles typically follow a standardized format to detail the step-by-step process of completing a task or accomplishing a specific outcome. Images serve as visual aids and may be created by users or contracted staff.


title: WikiHow

text: The MediaWiki software allows users to add, delete, and otherwise modify content. Like other wikis, quality control is achieved by reviewing edits via the "Recent Changes" page and using a diff feature to compare revisions of an article and highlight changes in the content. Other users review these changes and may accept or reject the edits based on guidelines regarding content and style.


title: WikiHow

text: To provide an authoritative review and ensure reliability of the content, staff writers also consult with subject-matter experts, particularly in topics such as health and medicine, law, finance, and psychology. In 2021, wikiHow partnered with the United Nations to launch a campaign against COVID-19 misinformation.


title: WikiHow

text: Among the volunteer editing community, a number of trusted users, known as administrators, may be tasked with responsibilities pertaining to the maintenance and smooth operation of the website. Functionally similar to administrators on Wikipedia and internet forum moderators, these users have elevated account privileges used to delete articles, block other users from editing, and perform various maintenance tasks.


title: WikiHow

text: At the time of launch, wikiHow's startup costs were, to some extent, financed from Herrick's sale of eHow. The website has since relied on advertising on its pages for revenue. wikiHow is run as a "hybrid organization"—a "for-profit company focused on creating a global public good in accordance with [the] mission".


title: WikiHow

text: Initially and throughout its history, Herrick has declined financial donations to wikiHow. However, in mid-2020 as a response to the economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, the company began soliciting contributions to support wikiHow. Later that year, wikiHow released a subscription service called "wikiHow Pro", which allows access to paywalled features such as custom PDF downloads of articles and email-based courses created by subject-matter experts.


title: WikiHow

text: wikiHow's text content is published under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 (by-nc-sa 3.0) license, allowing it to be modified and reused for non-commercial purposes as long as the original authors are attributed and the license is not substantially changed. Authors retain full copyright to their content, may publish it elsewhere under different licenses, and grant wikiHow an irrevocable license to use it for any purpose.


title: WikiHow

text: wikiHow lets readers control whether advertising appears alongside content. Registered, logged-in users do not see ads except those from external video providers.


title: WikiHow

text: In November 2014, it was announced that wikiHow would participate in Google Contributor, a service allowing website users to make monthly donations to support their favorite websites and not be required to see ads on them.


title: WikiHow

text: wikiHow has won multiple awards, including a Webby Award for Community in 2009, and the Co-Creation award in the Open Innovation competition, organized by "The Guardian" and Nesta in 2010. Mashable selected wikiHow as runner-up for best wiki in its Open Web Awards in 2008. In October 2018, Gizmodo included wikiHow in its list of "100 Websites That Shaped the Internet as We Know It", referring to it as "a consistently useful resource." More recently, "Forbes" recognized wikiHow in its list of "The Best Small Companies Of 2019".


title: WikiHow

text: A PBS journalist reported that the "wikiHow app has an excellent set of articles to help you in just about any situation, from helping someone who is choking to handling vehicle emergencies, to natural disasters." "The New York Times" reported: "Type in a few key words about the problem into the app’s Search page and the guide will return some advice. Its information pages are clear and well laid out. They begin with an introductory description, then offer a list of steps to follow. The app displays the necessary tools and items, and includes tips and warnings." "Lifehacker" has described wikiHow as the "ever-handy guide site." wikiHow has been positively described in many other media, including "Inc. Magazine", "Cosmopolitan", TechRepublic, "Condé Nast Traveler" and "PC Magazine".


title: WikiHow

text: wikiHow has also been the target of satire and criticism for its notable abundance of arguably eccentric articles. For example, American Public Radio show Wits has a segment called "wikiHow theater", where actors read obvious or ludicrous wikiHow topics, such as "How to Make People Respect Your Pet", for comic effect. Two accomplished poets published a book called "How To Feel Confident with Your Special Talents", where each poem's title is taken directly from a wikiHow article. "Vice" parodied wikiHow's article "How to Break Up with Your Boyfriend". "The Huffington Post" created a list of bizarre life skills, such as "How to React to an Ugly Baby", that "you could only learn from wikiHow". Illustrations are often criticized for being strange or eccentric. Other publishers have criticized wikiHow for hosting instructions on topics of questionable social value, such as "How to get a thigh gap" and "How to stop a wedding". Other websites have created "worst of wikiHow" lists to highlight topics that are "deranged", "brilliantly bizarre" and otherwise controversial.


title: WikiHow

text: The artwork of wikiHow’s illustrations has received mixed reception among internet users, with some praising the representation of various minority groups, while others ridiculing the bizarre and uncanny depictions. In an interview with "OneZero", Chris Hadley, Vice President of Operations, stated that the illustrations are created by freelance artists typically outside of the US.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: "How Soon Is Now?" is a song by English rock band the Smiths, written by singer Morrissey and guitarist Johnny Marr. Originally a B-side of the 1984 single "William, It Was Really Nothing", "How Soon Is Now?" was subsequently featured on the compilation album "Hatful of Hollow" and on US, Canadian, Australian, and Warner UK editions of "Meat Is Murder". Belatedly released as a single in the UK in 1985, it reached 24 on the UK Singles Chart. When re-released in 1992, it reached No. 16.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: In 2007, Marr said "How Soon Is Now?" is "possibly [the Smiths'] most enduring record. It's most people's favourite, I think." Despite its prominent place in the Smiths' repertoire, it is not generally considered to be representative of the band's style. Although a club favourite, it did not chart as well as expected. Most commentators put this down to the fact that the song had been out on vinyl in a number of forms before being released as a single in its own right. The original track runs for nearly seven minutes; the 7-inch single edit cut the length down to under four minutes. The complete version is generally used on compilations.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: A cover of the song by Love Spit Love was used in the soundtrack for the 1996 film "The Craft" and later appeared as the theme song of the television series "Charmed" for eight seasons.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: Smiths guitarist Johnny Marr wrote "How Soon Is Now?" along with "William, It Was Really Nothing" and "Please, Please, Please, Let Me Get What I Want" during a four-day period at Earl's Court in London in June 1984. His demo was originally called "Swamp". In contrast to the frequent chord changes he had employed in most Smiths' songs, Marr wanted to explore building a song around a single chord (in this case, F) as much as possible, which also appealed to producer John Porter.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: Marr recorded the song with bandmates Andy Rourke and Mike Joyce that July at London's Jam Studios. After a night out celebrating the session for "William, It Was Really Nothing" and "Please Please Please Let Me Get What I Want", the trio had reconvened the following afternoon to record what became "How Soon Is Now?" Porter was impressed by the basic riff Marr showed him, but felt the song needed something else. Their discussion turned to the early recordings of Elvis Presley, which led to an impromptu jam session of the song "That's All Right". During the jam, Marr worked on his chord progression for "Swamp", which inspired the arrangement.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: They recall the session as being accompanied by heavy cannabis use. "We used to smoke dope from when we got out of bed to when we got back to bed", recalls Porter, and Marr concurred: "You're from Manchester, you smoke weed till it comes out of your ears." Joyce said the band even replaced the studio's light bulbs with red ones for ambience.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: Porter recorded the first takes with microphones set up at varying distances from the band to better create a "swampy" mood. Marr was able to keep the F chord going for as long as 16 bars at a time. Despite only doing a few takes, they had filled an entire reel of tape, as one had gone on for 15 minutes.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: Marr and Porter decided to add a tremolo effect to the guitar part. He was inspired by Bo Diddley's distinctive syncopated shuffle guitar style, Hamilton Bohannon's "Disco Stomp" and the two guitars in the instrumental break of Can's "I Want More". The effect was created by running the original guitar track through the studio desk into three separate Fender Twin Reverb amplifiers, each with the tremolo control (mislabeled as "vibrato") set to a different oscillation speed. Marr and Porter would adjust each by hand while the music played to keep it in rhythm; when they failed, engineer Mark Wallis would rewind the tape and start them again. Some of these segments were no longer than ten seconds.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: To make sure the beat was the same throughout the song, Porter took a noise gate and set it to be triggered by a drum machine, using percussion instruments Joyce typically did not, set to 16th notes. This created what he called "a swirling signal" that balanced the analog tremolo effect and made sure the whole song stayed on the same beat. The guitar tracks were then "bounced" down to three of the master recording's 24 available tracks, and the 15-minute version was cut down to eight minutes. This was longer than any previous Smiths song had been. But, Porter told Tony Fletcher, "we looked at each other and said, 'It sounds fucking great; let's keep it like that.'"


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: The rhythm has been compared to Diddley's "Mona", later covered by The Rolling Stones. After a break, Marr and Porter added a few overdubs, including a slide guitar part that "gave [the song] real tension", according to Marr. It was created using an early harmonizer that was also able to cache 1.2 seconds of delay, a very large amount for the time. Artists had been using it as a sampler; Porter says that he recorded the delay rather than the original to give it some "weirdness". He also says that he played one of the slide guitars; Marr disputes this but gives him credit for his leadership in recording the song.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: Marr's other lead guitar part was the harmonic lick after each verse. This is almost a direct quote of a synthetic vibraphone part heard on rapper Lovebug Starski's "You've Gotta Believe", from the previous year. Marr meant it as a direct response to some critics who had pigeonholed the Smiths as 1960s revivalists.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: That night Porter sent singer Morrissey a rough mix of the song in the mail. The following morning Morrissey arrived and laid down his vocals, culling lyrics from various works in progress in his notebook. According to Porter, Morrissey completed his vocals in two takes.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: The song contains only one verse which is repeated twice, plus a chorus and a bridge. The subject is an individual who cannot find a way to overcome his crippling shyness and find a partner. Two couplets from the song are well known in pop culture, the opening to the verse:


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: The tune is built around a guitar chord that rapidly oscillates in volume. As to how the distinctive resonant sound was achieved, Marr gave the following account in 1990:


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: The vibrato [tremolo] sound is incredible, and it took a long time. I put down the rhythm track on an Epiphone Casino through a Fender Twin Reverb without vibrato. Then we played the track back through four old Twins, one on each side. We had to keep all the amps vibrating in time to the track and each other, so we had to keep stopping and starting the track, recording it in 10-second bursts... I wish I could remember exactly how we did the slide part – not writing it down is one of the banes of my life! We did it in three passes through a harmonizer, set to some weird interval, like a sixth. There was a different harmonization for each pass. For the line in harmonics, I retuned the guitar so that I could play it all at the 12th fret with natural harmonics. It's doubled several times.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: When Rough Trade owner Geoff Travis first heard "How Soon Is Now?", he felt it was too unrepresentative of the Smiths' sound to be released as a single. Despite pressure from Porter to save the song for a later single release as an A-side, "How Soon Is Now?" was included as B-side on the 12-inch single release of "William, It Was Really Nothing" in August 1984. According to Porter: "I thought 'This is it!' ... but I don't think the record company liked it ... They totally threw it away, wasted it". Night-time British radio picked up on the song almost immediately, however, and by autumn it had become the most-requested track on request shows by DJs John Peel, Janice Long, and Annie Nightingale. It was subsequently included on the Smiths' compilation album "Hatful of Hollow", released on 12 November 1984. The song was also featured on the soundtrack of the 1986 film "Out of Bounds", but was not included on the accompanying soundtrack album.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: The song was released on Sire Records in the United States, backed with "Girl Afraid", in November 1984. It was expected to sell well and, for the first time, a video was made to promote one of the band's tracks. However, the song failed to chart. Rough Trade boss Geoff Travis blamed poor promotion: "I can't understand why 'How Soon Is Now?' wasn't a top 10 single, but perhaps I'm being naive. If only their singles had been played on the radio". Morrissey expressed his disappointment in an interview with "Creem" magazine: "It's hard to believe that 'How Soon Is Now?' was not a hit. I thought that was the one...".


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: "How Soon Is Now?" was released as an A-side in the United Kingdom on 28 January 1985. The 7-inch features an edited version of the track, and the B-side was "Well I Wonder", from the then-about-to-be-released "Meat Is Murder" album. The 12-inch single includes a new instrumental track, "Oscillate Wildly". It peaked at No. 24 on the UK Singles Chart, a lower placing than the band's three previous singles, which had all hit the Top 20; according to John Porter, "Everybody knew the Smiths' fans already had it".


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: Following the acquisition of the Rough Trade catalogue by Warner Bros. Records, "How Soon Is Now?" was issued again as a single in the United Kingdom in September 1992. A 7" single and cassette featured the edited version, backed with a live version of "Handsome Devil", recorded at The Haçienda on 4 February 1983 (this had originally been the B-side to the Smiths' first single "Hand in Glove"). Two CD singles featured tracks from the Smiths' back-catalogue which were, following the demise of Rough Trade, unavailable in the United Kingdom at that time. The re-issue reached No. 16 on the UK Singles Chart.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: "Morrissey and co have once again delved into their Sixties treasure-trove, and produced a visceral power capable of blowing the dust off Eighties inertia. The majestic ease of Morrissey's melancholic vocals are tinted with vitriol, as they move through vistas of misery with plaintive spirals around the pulse of Johnny Marr's tremolo guitar. The string's muted strains conjure wistful signs that bridge the schism between crass sentimentality and callous detachment. Each repeated phrase intensifies the hypnotic waves, with results that outflank anything since 'This Charming Man'. Catharsis has rarely been tinged with so much regret, and shared with so much crystalline purity." – "Melody Maker", 2 February 1985


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: "For the most part, Morrissey is the Hilda Ogden of pop, harassed and hard done-by. I guess what seems like meat to one man sounds like murder to another."


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: "The tremolo pulse that opens 'How Soon Is Now?' is the kind of sound musicians and listeners spend a lifetime chasing after: something never heard before and never successfully replicated since." – Philip Sherburne, "Pitchfork", 24 August 2015.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: The whistle effect in Mark Snow's theme for the television series "The X-Files" was inspired by the song's guitar riff.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: The single's cover art was a still from the film "Dunkirk" (1958) featuring British actor Sean Barrett, praying but looking sufficiently as though he was holding his crotch to have the sleeve banned in the United States, where a photograph of the band backstage at the 1984 Glastonbury Festival, which had previously appeared on the gatefold inside the "Hatful of Hollow" compilation, was used instead. It is the only time a portrait of the band has appeared on the cover of one of their releases. Morrissey called it "an abhorrent sleeve – and [given] the time and the dedication that we put into the sleeves and artwork, it was tearful when we finally saw the record..."


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: Sire Records made an unauthorised music video to promote the song. It intercut clips of the band playing live (including a shot of Johnny Marr showing Morrissey how to play the guitar), an industrial part of a city, and a girl dancing. The identity of the girl is unknown. The band were not pleased by the result. Morrissey told "Creem" in 1985, "We saw the video and we said to Sire, 'You can't possibly release this... this degrading video.' And they said, 'Well, maybe you shouldn't really be on our label.' It was quite disastrous". Nonetheless, the video has been credited with helping make the song their most famous in the United States, along with heavy exposure on college radio.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: "How Soon Is Now?" was considered a "major problem" to play in concert by the Smiths, and live versions by the Smiths are relatively rare. One live Smiths performance was recorded during the concerts for the live album "Rank" (1988), but was not used. Instead, a raw version of this song (and entire concert) appeared on the bootleg "A Bad Boy from a Good Family", and other versions have appeared on bootleg records such as "A Kind of Loving" (a rip of a performance in Oxford recorded and broadcast by the BBC). Morrissey revived the song in his own concerts as a solo artist, and it has been a live staple on all of his tours since 2004. A live recording was used to open Morrissey's album "Live at Earls Court" (2005) and another was to be included on the aborted performance DVD "". The song has also been performed live by Johnny Marr, both solo and with his band the Healers.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: Near the end of 1995, Psychedelic Furs splinter group Love Spit Love was approached by the music supervisor of the movie "The Craft", who inquired if the band might record a cover of the Smiths' "How Soon Is Now?" After initial reluctance, the band recorded the song, and it was released as a single from the movie's soundtrack in 1996.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: The song became popular after The WB Television Network utilised the band's cover as the theme song for the witchcraft-themed television series "Charmed". It was re-mixed for the show, with different instrumentation and vocals. The song went on to appear on "" (2003) and as a UK and Australian bonus track on "" (2005). Both soundtrack albums charted well in the US, with both reaching the top ten on the "Billboard" Top Soundtracks chart.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: The song has since become a staple of '90s popular culture, and has been used in numerous media, including the movie trailer for "Cruel Intentions", the film "The Craft" and the novel "Eleanor & Park".


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: In 2001, the industrial rock band Snake River Conspiracy released a cover version of “How Soon Is Now?” as the second single from their debut (and only) full-length album, "Sonic Jihad", and charted in the US and the UK. Morrissey said, "It's a better version than ours," as reported in the April 2001 issue of "Mojo" magazine.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: It was successful on several charts. It reached No. 38 on "Billboard"s Modern Rock Tracks chart, and No. 15 on the Dance Club Songs chart It also charted on the UK Singles Chart, where it reached No. 83. It remains their highest charting single in the UK.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: A remix of Snake River Conspiracy's version was included on the American Eagle Outfitters sampler "Summer 9ine."


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: Russian recording duo t.A.T.u. covered "How Soon Is Now?" for their debut English language studio album, "200 km/h in the Wrong Lane" (2002). Their version was produced by Martin Kierszenbaum and Robert Orton.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: The single was released in Europe on 23 May 2003. The song was available in different formats. The maxi-CD single was released with the group's Eurovision entry, "Ne Ver', Ne Boysia", plus remixes of "30 Minutes" and "Not Gonna Get Us"; this version was released in Australian on 30 June 2003. A promo CD was released in Japan, including "Ya Soshla S Uma" and a remix of "All the Things She Said". It was never commercially released in the United States.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: The cover charted in the top ten in Finland (No. 8) and Sweden (No. 10). It debuted at No. 37 in Australia and fell out at No. 43 the next week. An accompanying music video was issued for the group, featuring them performing the song in behind-the-scenes sessions and live performances.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: t.A.T.u.'s cover of "How Soon Is Now?" received mixed reviews from music critics, who felt it lacked originality, though compared to other covers, they praised this version as best. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said the song was one of the highlights of "200 km/h in the Wrong Lane". A reviewer from "entertainment.ie" said that though the song was a success, "their rather dour delivery suggests that the humour of the original completely passed them by." James Martin from "PopDust" noted that reactions to t.A.T.u.'s cover were that it was "either completely hideous and should have remained untouched or the best cover the song has ever received."


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: Todd Burns from "Stylus Magazine" stated that though it "fails as an independent entity", he found it a highlight and said it was worth a download. Matt Cibula from "Popmatters" was similar to the PopDust publication, questioning if "people fall all over themselves to either praise or damn the t.A.T.u cover of the Smith's "How Soon Is Now", but I can't get worked up one way or the other about it." Cibula concluded that though it's "super-cheesy, which is a good thing", he found it "not as passionate as some people have claimed", criticising the band's vocals.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: Of the original creators, Marr found t.A.T.u.'s version "just silly", but Morrissey viewed it much more favourably:


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: "How Soon Is Now?" has been covered by various artists. The guitar track was sampled, with the Smiths' approval, in 1990 by indie-dance band Soho on their UK Top 10 single "Hippychick".


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: Artists to have covered the song include UK indie band Hundred Reasons, US post-hardcore band Quicksand (bonus track on their "Slip" album) in 1993, US post-grunge band Everclear, US punk band Meatmen (on the compilation "The World Still Won't Listen") and industrial rockers Snake River Conspiracy.


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: British metal band Paradise Lost covered the song as a bonus track on the Japanese edition of their album "One Second" and it was also released on their single "Say Just Words" from the album as well. The song was also covered by Seattle-based alternative rock band The Crying Spell on their debut album "Through Hell to Heaven".


title: How Soon Is Now?

text: A new cover version by AG feat. Dresage (The Smiths) popped up in the season 4 trailer for the Netflix-series "The Crown", bringing this song back to the spotlight after the success of t.A.T.u.'s version.


title: Peter I of Serbia

text: Peter I (;  – 16 August 1921) was the last king of Serbia, reigning from 15 June 1903 to 1 December 1918. On 1 December 1918, he became the first king of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, and he held that title until his death three years later. Since he was the king of Serbia during a period of great Serbian military success, he was remembered by the Serbian people as King Peter the Liberator, and also as Old King.


title: Peter I of Serbia

text: Peter was Karađorđe's grandson and third son of Persida Nenadović and Prince Alexander Karađorđević, who was forced to abdicate. Peter lived with his family in exile. He fought with the French Foreign Legion in the Franco-Prussian War. He joined as a volunteer under the alias Peter Mrkonjić in the Herzegovina uprising (1875–1877) against the Ottoman Empire.


title: Peter I of Serbia

text: He married Princess Zorka of Montenegro, daughter of King Nicholas, in 1883. She gave birth to his five children, including Prince Alexander. After the death of his father in 1885, Peter became head of the Karađorđević dynasty. After a military coup d'état and the murder of King Alexander I Obrenović in 1903, Peter became King of Serbia.


title: Peter I of Serbia

text: As king, he advocated a constitutional setup for the country and was famous for his liberal politics. The rule of King Peter was marked with the great exercise of political liberties, freedom of the press, national, economical and cultural rise, and it is sometimes dubbed a "golden" or "Periclean age".


title: Peter I of Serbia

text: King Peter was the supreme commander of the Royal Serbian Army in the Balkan Wars. Because of his age, on 24 June 1914, he proclaimed his son, Prince Alexander, heir-apparent to the throne, as regent. In World War I he and his army retreated across the Principality of Albania.


title: Peter I of Serbia

text: Peter was born in Belgrade on , the fifth of Prince Alexander Karađorđević and his consort Persida Nenadović's ten children. He was the grandson of Karađorđe, the leader of the First Serbian Uprising (1804–1813) and the founder of the Karađorđević dynasty. Peter was not born in the Royal Court, which was undergoing renovations at the time, but at the home of merchant Miša Anastasijević. His birth was not met with much celebration because he was his parents' third son and his older brother Svetozar was the heir to the throne.


title: Peter I of Serbia

text: His parents' oldest son, Aleksa, had died three years prior to Peter's birth, aged five, at which point Svetozar became heir. Peter did not become heir until Svetozar's death in 1847 at the age of six. Besides Belgrade, Peter spent much of his childhood in the town of Topola, from where the Karađorđević dynasty originated. He received his elementary education in Belgrade.


title: Peter I of Serbia

text: In 1858, just as the fourteen-year-old Peter was preparing to depart for Geneva to attend high school, his father was forced to abdicate the throne. The Karađorđević dynasty's rivals, the Obrenović dynasty, were reinstated, and an Obrenović prince, Mihailo, claimed the throne. The two dynasties had been vying for power since 1817, when Karađorđe was assassinated on the orders of Miloš Obrenović, the founder of the Obrenović dynasty.


title: Peter I of Serbia

text: Peter left Geneva for Paris in 1861 and enrolled in the Collège Sainte-Barbe, located in the heart of the city's Latin Quarter. The following year, Peter enrolled in the "Saint-Cyr", France's most prestigious military academy. He graduated from the academy in 1864, and continued living in Paris for some time thereafter. During this period, he pursued interests such as photography and painting, and read works of political philosophy, learning about liberalism, parliamentarism and democracy. In 1866, he entered the Higher Military School in Metz, which he attended until the following year. Two years later, his Serbian-language translation of John Stuart Mill's "On Liberty" was published.


title: Peter I of Serbia

text: At the outbreak of the 1870–71 Franco-Prussian War, Peter joined the French Foreign Legion under the pseudonym Petar Kara, together with relative Nikola Nikolajević. During his service, Peter held the rank of either lieutenant or second lieutenant, depending on the source, and fought with the 1st Foreign Regiment. He participated in the Second Battle of Orléans on 3–4 December 1870, as well as the Battle of Villersexel on 9 January 1871. He was awarded the Legion of Honour for his conduct during the two battles, but was captured by the Prussians shortly thereafter. He managed to escape captivity and returned to the front. Peter was involved in the Paris Commune in the spring of 1871, together with close friend and relative Vladimir Ljotić, though the exact nature of his involvement remains unknown.


title: Peter I of Serbia

text: With the outbreak of the Great Eastern Crisis of 1875–78, which erupted after Bosnian Serb rebels in Nevesinje staged a revolt against the Ottoman Empire, Peter returned to the Balkans and fought the Ottomans in northwestern Bosnia. He adopted the "nom de guerre" of Petar Mrkonjić, and upon reaching the regions of Banija and Kordun in Austria-Hungary, took control of guerrilla unit of about 200 men.


title: Peter I of Serbia

text: He arrived at Bosanska Dubica in August 1875, but received a cold welcome. He discovered that Prince Milan of Serbia was plotting to assassinate him fearing that Peter would attempt to wrest back the throne from the Obrenović dynasty. This revelation, combined with a string of battlefield defeats, compelled Peter and his followers to leave Bosnia and withdraw to Austria-Hungary.


title: Peter I of Serbia

text: They were subsequently detained by the Austro-Hungarian Army in the village of Bojna, near Glina. Peter escaped, returned to Bosnia and organized another band of rebels. Once again, his involvement in the fighting aroused suspicion in Belgrade, and by May 1876 his presence proved divisive. The rebels split into three separate camps: one that supported Peter, another that supported Milan and a third that advocated Austro-Hungarian arbitration. Not wishing to cause further divisions among the rebels, Peter agreed to leave Bosnia. Prior to his departure, he wrote a letter to Milan explaining why he was leaving the battlefield and offering to make peace with the Obrenović dynasty.


title: Peter I of Serbia

text: Despite his attempts to make peace with Milan, accusations of treason continued to be levelled against Peter. He decided to travel to Kragujevac, the seat of the Royal Serbian Government, and address the National Assembly in an attempt to clear his name. In 1877, an anti-government uprising erupted in the Toplica region of southern Serbia, for which Milan blamed Peter and Karađorđević sympathizers. Peter was accused of treachery and collaboration with the Ottomans.


title: Peter I of Serbia

text: In the summer of 1878, he illegally crossed the border between Serbia and Austria-Hungary at Golubac via the Danube. Peter and his guide became lost in the Homolje mountains and were forced to hide from the authorities in the wilderness. Peter returned to Austria-Hungary shortly thereafter, but was arrested by the Austro-Hungarian police and interned at the Karađorđević family home in Bokszeg. In 1878, he was allowed to leave Bokszeg. He first went to Budapest and then to Paris. During this period, he was closely monitored by Austro-Hungarian spies, who took note of all his movements.


title: Peter I of Serbia

text: In January 1879, court proceedings were initiated against Peter and his closest companions in Smederevo. The plaintiff, Prince Milan, alleged that Peter and his followers had attempted to overthrow the Obrenović dynasty and place a Karađorđević on the throne. Peter and his companions were charged with high treason, for which the mandatory penalty was death. As he was living in Paris at the time of the proceedings, Peter was convicted "in absentia" and sentenced to death by hanging.


title: Peter I of Serbia

text: In 1883, Peter moved to Cetinje, the capital of the second independent Serb state, Montenegro, with the intention of marrying the eldest daughter of Montenegro's ruler, Prince Nicholas. Peter and Ljubica Petrović-Njegoš were married in Cetinje in the summer of 1883. The marriage upset the region's volatile geopolitical balance, causing great unease in the Austro-Hungarian, Russian and Serbian capitals. Belgrade perceived it as a sign of increasing closeness between the Petrović-Njegoš and Karađorđević dynasties. Relations between the two Serb states worsened, as did relations between Austria-Hungary and Russia, which had been vying for power in the Balkans for decades.


title: Peter I of Serbia

text: When his father died in the spring of 1885, Peter became the head of the House of Karađorđević and took the title of prince. Serbia, previously a principality, was declared a kingdom in 1882, and henceforth, the Serbian monarch used the title King of Serbia. Ljubica died during childbirth in March 1890. The couple had five children, three of whom reached adulthood: Helen (Jelena), Milena, George (Đorđe), Alexander (Aleksandar), and Andrew (Andrej). Milena died in infancy and Andrew died along with his mother during childbirth.


title: Peter I of Serbia

text: Following his father's death, Peter's financial situation deteriorated and he became dependent on his father-in-law, as well as Russia and his brother George, for support. Following the Royal Serbian Army's rout in the Serbo-Bulgarian War of 1885, Peter and Nicholas devised a plan to invade Serbia and overthrow the Obrenović dynasty. At the last minute, Nicholas abandoned the idea. Peter felt betrayed by the Prince's decision to back out, leading to long lasting animosity. Nevertheless, he remained in Cetinje until 1894, devoting himself to his surviving children, who finished their primary education there.


title: Peter I of Serbia

text: In 1894, Peter moved to Geneva with his three children, where he was to remain until 1903. In 1899, Tsar Nicholas II invited Prince George and Prince Alexander, as well as Peter's nephew Paul, to attend the "Corps des Pages" military academy in Saint Petersburg free of charge. Due to his poor financial standing, which prevented him from sending the boys to private schools in Switzerland, Peter accepted the Tsar's offer.