title: Sabotage

text: On 1 January 1984, the Cuscatlan bridge over the Lempa river in El Salvador, critical to the flow of commercial and military traffic, was destroyed by guerrilla forces using explosives after using mortar fire to "scatter" the bridge's guards, causing an estimated $3.7 million in required repairs, and considerably impacting on El Salvadoran business and security.


title: Sabotage

text: In 1982 in Honduras, a group of nine Salvadorans and Nicaraguans destroyed a main electrical power station, leaving the capital city Tegucigalpa without power for three days.


title: Sabotage

text: Some criminals have engaged in acts of sabotage for reasons of extortion. For example, Klaus-Peter Sabotta sabotaged German railway lines in the late 1990s in an attempt to extort DM10 million from the German railway operator Deutsche Bahn. He is now serving a sentence of life imprisonment. In 1989, ex-Scotland Yard detective Rodney Whitchelo was sentenced to 17 years in prison for spiking Heinz baby food products in supermarkets, in an extortion attempt on the food manufacturer.


title: Sabotage

text: On October 8, 2022, the GSM-R radio communication system of the Deutsche Bahn was sabotaged by the cutting of two cables of crucial importance. In the aftermath, the railway traffic in Northern Germany was completely shot down for several hours. German criminal police took over the investigation.


title: Sabotage

text: The term political sabotage is sometimes used to define the acts of one political camp to disrupt, harass or damage the reputation of a political opponent, usually during an electoral campaign, such as during Watergate. Smear campaigns are a commonly used tactic. The term could also describe the actions and expenditures of private entities, corporations, and organizations against democratically approved or enacted laws, policies and programs.


title: Sabotage

text: After the Cold War ended, the Mitrokhin Archives were declassified, which included detailed KGB plans of active measures to subvert politics in opposing nations.


title: Sabotage

text: Sabotage is a crucial tool of the successful coup d'etat, which requires control of communications before, during, and after the coup is staged. Simple sabotage against physical communications platforms using semi-skilled technicians, or even those trained only for this task, could effectively silence the target government of the coup, leaving the information battle space open to the dominance of the coup's leaders. To underscore the effectiveness of sabotage, "A single cooperative technician will be able temporarily to put out of action a radio station which would otherwise require a full-scale assault."


title: Sabotage

text: Railroads, where strategically important to the regime the coup is against, are prime targets for sabotage—if a section of the track is damaged entire portions of the transportation network can be stopped until it is fixed.


title: Sabotage

text: A sabotage radio was a small two-way radio designed for use by resistance movements in World War II, and after the war often used by expeditions and similar parties.


title: Sabotage

text: Arquilla and Rondfeldt, in their work entitled "Networks and Netwars", differentiate their definition of "netwar" from a list of "trendy synonyms", including "cybotage", a portmanteau from the words "sabotage" and "cyber". They dub the practitioners of cybotage "cyboteurs" and note while all cybotage is not netwar, some netwar is cybotage.


title: Sabotage

text: Counter-sabotage, defined by "Webster's Dictionary", is "counterintelligence designed to detect and counteract sabotage". The United States Department of Defense definition, found in the "Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms", is "action designed to detect and counteract sabotage. See also counterintelligence".


title: Sabotage

text: During World War II, British subject Eddie Chapman, trained by the Germans in sabotage, became a double agent for the British. The German Abwehr entrusted Chapman to destroy the British de Havilland Company's main plant which manufactured the outstanding Mosquito light bomber, but required photographic proof from their agent to verify the mission's completion. A special unit of the Royal Engineers known as the Magic Gang covered the de Havilland plant with canvas panels and scattered papier-mâché furniture and chunks of masonry around three broken and burnt giant generators. Photos of the plant taken from the air reflected devastation for the factory and a successful sabotage mission, and Chapman, as a British sabotage double-agent, fooled the Germans for the duration of the war.


title: Sabotage

text: In psychology, self-sabotage is defined as behaviour that undermines one's own existing or potential achievements.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The Forth Bridge is a cantilever railway bridge across the Firth of Forth in the east of Scotland, west of central Edinburgh. Completed in 1890, it is considered a symbol of Scotland (having been voted Scotland's greatest man-made wonder in 2016), and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It was designed by English engineers Sir John Fowler and Sir Benjamin Baker. It is sometimes referred to as the Forth Rail Bridge (to distinguish it from the adjacent Forth Road Bridge), although this has never been its official name.


title: Forth Bridge

text: Construction of the bridge began in 1882 and it was opened on 4 March 1890 by the Duke of Rothesay, the future Edward VII. The bridge carries the Edinburgh–Aberdeen line across the Forth between the villages of South Queensferry and North Queensferry and has a total length of . When it opened it had the longest single cantilever bridge span in the world, until 1919 when the Quebec Bridge in Canada was completed. It continues to be the world's second-longest single cantilever span, with a span of .


title: Forth Bridge

text: Before the construction of the bridge, ferries were used to cross the Firth. In 1806, a pair of tunnels, one for each direction, was proposed, and in 1818 James Anderson produced a design for a three-span suspension bridge close to the site of the present one. Calling for approximately of iron, Wilhelm Westhofen said of it "and this quantity [of iron] distributed over the length would have given it a very light and slender appearance, so light indeed that on a dull day it would hardly have been visible, and after a heavy gale probably no longer to be seen on a clear day either".


title: Forth Bridge

text: For the railway age, Thomas Bouch designed for the Edinburgh and Northern Railway a roll-on/roll-off ferry between Granton and Burntisland that opened in 1850, which proved so successful that another was ordered for the Tay. In late 1863, a joint project between the North British Railway and Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway, which would merge in 1865, appointed Stephenson and Toner to design a bridge for the Forth, but the commission was given to Bouch around six months later.


title: Forth Bridge

text: It had proven difficult to engineer a suspension bridge that was able to carry railway traffic, and Thomas Bouch, engineer to the North British Railway (NBR) and Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway, was in 1863–1864 working on a single-track girder bridge crossing the Forth near Charlestown, where the river is around wide, but mostly relatively shallow. The promoters, however, were concerned about the ability to set foundations in the silty river bottom, as borings had gone as deep as into the mud without finding any rock, but Bouch conducted experiments to demonstrate that it was possible for the silt to support considerable weight. Experiments in late 1864 with weighted caissons achieved a pressure of on the silt, encouraging Bouch to continue with the design. In August 1865, Richard Hodgson, chairman of the NBR, proposed that the company invest to try a different kind of foundation, as the weighted caissons had not been successful. Bouch proposed using a large pine platform underneath the piers, (the original design called for a platform of green beech) weighed down with of pig iron which would sink the wooden platform to the level of the silt. The platform was launched on 14 June 1866 after some difficulty in getting it to move down the greased planks it rested on, and then moored in the harbour for six weeks pending completion. The bridge project was aborted just before the platform was sunk as the NBR expected to lose "through traffic" following the amalgamation of the Caledonian Railway and the Scottish North Eastern Railway. In September 1866, a committee of shareholders investigating rumours of financial difficulties found that accounts had been falsified, and the chairman and the entire board had resigned by November. By mid-1867 the NBR was nearly bankrupt, and all work on the Forth and Tay bridges was stopped.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The North British Railway took over the ferry at Queensferry in 1867, and completed a rail link from Ratho in 1868, establishing a contiguous link with Fife. Interest in bridging the Forth increased again, and Bouch proposed a stiffened steel suspension bridge on roughly the line of the present rail bridge in 1871, and after careful verification, work started in 1878 on a pier at Inchgarvie.


title: Forth Bridge

text: After the Tay Bridge collapsed in 1879, confidence in Bouch dried up and the work stopped. The public inquiry into the disaster, chaired by Henry Cadogan Rothery, found the Tay Bridge to be "badly designed, badly constructed and badly maintained", with Bouch being "mainly to blame" for the defects in construction and maintenance and "entirely responsible" for the defects in design.


title: Forth Bridge

text: After the disaster, which occurred in high winds for which Bouch had not properly accounted, the Board of Trade imposed a lateral wind allowance of . Bouch's 1871 design had taken a much lower figure of on the advice of the Astronomer Royal, although contemporary analysis showed it would probably have stood, but the engineers making the analysis stated that "we do not commit ourselves to an opinion that it is the best possible" [design]. Bouch's design was formally abandoned on 13 January 1881, and Sir John Fowler, W. H. Barlow and T. E. Harrison, consulting engineers to the project, were invited to give proposals for a bridge.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The bridge spans the Forth between the villages of South Queensferry and North Queensferry and has a total length of with the double track elevated above the water level at high tide. It consists of two main spans of , two side spans of , and 15 approach spans of . Each main span consists of two cantilever arms supporting a central span truss. The weight of the bridge superstructure was , including the 6.5 million rivets used. The bridge also used of granite.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The three great four-tower cantilever structures are tall, each tower resting on a separate granite pier. These were constructed using diameter caissons; those for the north cantilever and two on the small uninhabited island of Inchgarvie acted as cofferdams, while the remaining two on Inchgarvie and those for the south cantilever, where the river bed was below high-water level, used compressed air to keep water out of the working chamber at the base.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The bridge is built on the principle of the cantilever bridge, where a cantilever beam supports a light central girder, a principle that has been used for thousands of years in the construction of bridges. In order to illustrate the use of tension and compression in the bridge, a demonstration in 1887 had the Japanese engineer Kaichi Watanabe supported between Fowler and Baker sitting in chairs. Fowler and Baker represent the cantilevers, with their arms in tension and the sticks under compression, and the bricks the cantilever end piers which are weighted with cast iron.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The bridge was the first major structure in Britain to be constructed of steel; its French contemporary, the Eiffel Tower, was built of wrought iron.


title: Forth Bridge

text: Large amounts of steel became available after the invention of the Bessemer process, patented in 1856. In 1859, the Board of Trade imposed a limit of for the maximum design stress in railway bridges; this was revised as technology progressed.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The original design required for the cantilevers only, of which was to come from Siemens' steel works in Landore, Wales and the remainder from the Steel Company of Scotland's works near Glasgow. When modifications to the design necessitated a further , about half of this was supplied by the Steel Company of Scotland Ltd. and half by Dalzell's Iron and Steel Works in Motherwell. About of rivets came from the Clyde Rivet Company of Glasgow. Around three or four thousand tons of steel was scrapped, some of which was used for temporary purposes, resulting in the discrepancy between the quantity delivered and the quantity erected.


title: Forth Bridge

text: After Dalmeny railway station, the track curves very slightly to the east before coming to the southern approach viaduct. After the railway crosses the bridge, it passes through North Queensferry railway station, before curving to the west, and then back to the east over the Jamestown Viaduct.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The approaches were built under separate contract and were to the design of the engineer James Carswell. The supports of the approach viaducts are tapered to prevent the impression of the columns widening as they approach the top, and an evaluation of the aesthetics of the Bridge in 2007, by A D Magee of the University of Bath, identified that order was present throughout, and this included in the approach viaducts. Magee points out that the masonry was carefully planned, and has neat block work even in areas not immediately visible from the ground.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The Bill for the construction of the bridge was passed on 19 May 1882 after an eight-day enquiry, the only objections being from rival railway companies. On 21 December, the contract was let to Sir Thomas Tancred, Mr. T. H. Falkiner and Mr. Joseph Philips, civil engineers and contractor, and Sir William Arrol & Co. Arrol was a self-made man, who had been apprenticed to a blacksmith at the age of thirteen before going on to have a highly successful business. Tancred was a professional engineer who had worked with Arrol before, but he would leave the partnership during the course of construction.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The steel was produced by Frederick and William Siemens (England) and Pierre and Emile Martin (France). Following advances in furnace design by the Siemens brothers and improvements by the Martin brothers, the process of manufacture enabled high quality steel to be produced very quickly.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The new works took possession of offices and stores erected by Arrol in connection with Bouch's bridge; these were expanded considerably over time. Reginald Middleton took an accurate survey to establish the exact position of the bridge and allow the permanent construction work to commence.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The old coastguard station at the Fife end had to be removed to make way for the north-east pier. The rocky shore was levelled to a height of above high water to make way for plant and materials, and huts and other facilities for workmen were set up further inland.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The preparations at South Queensferry were much more substantial, and required the steep hillside to be terraced. Wooden huts and shops for the workmen were put up, as well as more substantial brick houses for the foremen and tenements for leading hands and gangers. Drill roads and workshops were built, as well as a drawing loft to allow full size drawings and templates to be laid out. A cable was also laid across the Forth to allow telephone communication between the centres at South Queensferry, Inchgarvie, and North Queensferry, and girders from the collapsed Tay Bridge were laid across the railway to the west in order to allow access to the ground there. Near the shore a sawmill and cement store were erected, and a substantial jetty around long was started early in 1883, and extended as necessary, and sidings were built to bring railway vehicles among the shops, and cranes set up to allow the loading and movement of material delivered by rail.


title: Forth Bridge

text: In April 1883, construction of a landing stage at Inchgarvie commenced. Extant buildings, including fortifications built in the 15th century, were roofed over to increase the available space, and the rock at the west of the island was cut down to a level above high water, and a seawall was built to protect against large waves. In 1884 a compulsory purchase order was obtained for the island, as it was found that previously available area enclosed by the four piers of the bridge was insufficient for the storage of materials. Iron staging reinforced wood in heavily used areas was put up over the island, eventually covering around and using over of iron.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The bridge uses of steel and of masonry. Many materials, including granite from Aberdeen, Arbroath rubble, sand, timber, and sometimes coke and coal, could be taken straight to the centre where they were required. Steel was delivered by train and prepared at the yard at South Queensferry, painted with boiled linseed oil, and was then taken to where it was needed by barge. The cement used was Portland cement manufactured on the Medway. It required to be stored before it was able to be used, and up to of cement could be kept in a barge, formerly called the "Hougoumont" that was moored off South Queensferry.


title: Forth Bridge

text: For a time a paddle steamer was hired for the movement of workers, but after a time it was replaced with one capable of carrying 450 men, and the barges were also used for people carrying. Special trains were run from Edinburgh and Dunfermline, and a steamer ran to Leith in the summer.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The three towers of the cantilever are each seated on four circular piers. Since the foundations were required to be constructed at or below sea level, they were excavated with the assistance of caissons and cofferdams. Caissons were used at locations that were either always under water, even at low tide, or where the foundations were to be built on mud and clay. Cofferdams were used where rock was nearer to the surface, and it was possible to work in low tide.


title: Forth Bridge

text: Six caissons were excavated by the pneumatic process, by the French contractor L. Coisea. This process used a positive air pressure inside a sealed caisson to allow dry working conditions at depths of up to .


title: Forth Bridge

text: These caissons were constructed and assembled in Glasgow by the Arrol Brothers, namesakes of but unconnected to W. Arrol, before being dismantled and transported to South Queensferry. The caissons were then built up to a large extent before being floated to their final resting-places. The first caisson, for the south-west pier at South Queensferry was launched on 26 May 1884, and the last caisson was launched on 29 May 1885 for the south-west pier at Inchgarvie. When the caissons had been launched and moored, they were extended upwards with a temporary portion in order to keep water out and allow the granite pier to be built when in place.


title: Forth Bridge

text: Above the foundations each of which is different to suit the different sites, is a tapered circular granite pier with a diameter of at the bottom and a height of .


title: Forth Bridge

text: The rock on which the two northern piers at Inchgarvie are located is submerged at high water, and of the other two piers, the site of eastern one is about half submerged and the western one three-quarters submerged. This meant work initially had to be done at low tide.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The southern piers on Inchgarvie are sited on solid rock with a slope of around 1 in 5, so the rock was prepared with concrete and sandbags to make a landing-spot for the caissons. Excavation was carried out by drilling and blasting, but no blasting was done within of the caissons, and the remaining rock was quarried to within .


title: Forth Bridge

text: Once the positions of the piers had been established, the first task at the Fife end was to level the site of the northernmost piers, a bedrock of whinstone rising to a level of above high water, to a height of above high water. The south piers at North Queensferry are sited on rock sloping into the sea, and the site was prepared by diamond drilling holes for explosive charges and blasting the rock.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The four South Queensferry caissons were all sunk by the pneumatic method, and are identical in design except for differences in height. A T shaped jetty was built at the site of the South Queensferry piers, to allow one caisson to be attached to each corner, and when launched the caissons were attached to the jetty and permitted to rise and fall with the tide. Excavation beneath the caissons was generally only carried out at high tide when the caisson was supported by buoyancy, and then when the tide fell the air pressure was reduced in order to allow the caisson to sink down, and digging would begin anew.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The north-west caisson was towed into place in December 1884, but an exceptionally low tide on New Year's Day 1885 caused the caisson to sink into the mud of the river bed and adopt a slight tilt. When the tide rose, it flooded over the lower edge, filling the caisson with water, and when the tide fell but the water did not drain from the caisson, its top-heaviness caused to tilt further. Plates were bolted on by divers to raise the edge of the caisson above water level, and the caisson was reinforced with wooden struts as water was pumped out, but pumping took place too quickly and the water pressure tore a hole between long. It was decided to construct a "barrel" of large timbers inside the caisson to reinforce it, and it was ten months before the caisson could be pumped out and dug free. The caisson was refloated on 19 October 1885, and then moved into position and sunk with suitable modifications.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The approach viaducts to the north and south had to be carried at above the level of high water, and it was decided to build them at a lower level and then raise them in tandem with the construction of the masonry piers. The two viaducts have fifteen spans between them, each one long and weighing slightly over . Two spans are attached together to make a continuous girder, with an expansion joint between each pair of spans. Due to the slope of the hill under the viaducts, the girders were assembled at different heights, and only joined when they had reached the same level. Lifting was done using large hydraulic rams, and took place in increments of around every four days.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The tubular members were constructed in the No. 2 workshop further up the hill at South Queensferry. To bend plates into the required shape, they were first heated in a gas furnace, and then pressed into the correct curve. The curved plates were then assembled on a mandrel, and holes drilled for rivets, before they were marked individually and moved to the correct location to be added to the structure. Lattice members and other parts were also assembled at South Queensferry, using cranes and highly efficient hydraulic rivetters.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The bridge was completed in December 1889, and load testing of the completed bridge was carried out on 21 January 1890. Two trains, each consisting of three heavy locomotives and 50 wagons loaded with coal, totalling 1,880 tons in weight, were driven slowly from South Queensferry to the middle of the north cantilever, stopping frequently to measure the deflection of the bridge. This represented more than twice the design load of the bridge: the deflection under load was as expected. A few days previously there had been a violent storm, producing the highest wind pressure recorded to date at Inchgarvie, and the deflection of the cantilevers had been less than 25 mm (1 in). The first complete crossing took place on 24 February, when a train consisting of two carriages carrying the chairmen of the railway companies involved made several crossings. The bridge was opened on 4 March 1890 by the Duke of Rothesay, later King Edward VII, who drove home the last rivet, which was gold plated and suitably inscribed. The key for the official opening was made by Edinburgh silversmith John Finlayson Bain, commemorated in a plaque on the bridge. When it opened it had the longest single cantilever bridge span in the world, until 1919 when the Quebec Bridge in Canada was completed. It continues to be the world's second-longest single cantilever span, with a span of .


title: Forth Bridge

text: To make the fullest use of the bridge, several new railway connections were built, bringing main line routes to the bridge. The construction of some of these lines was only completed on 2 June 1890, delaying the implementation of a full express train service over the bridge until that date. Even then, there was considerable congestion at Edinburgh Waverley station with remarshalling of the portions of the new, more intensive train service.


title: Forth Bridge

text: At its peak, approximately 4,600 workers were employed in the bridge's construction. Wilhelm Westhofen recorded in 1890 that 57 people died. In 2005 the Forth Bridge Memorial Committee was set up to erect a monument to those lost, and a team of local historians set out to name all those who died. As of 2009, 73 deaths have been connected with the construction of the bridge and its immediate aftermath. It is thought that the figure of 57 deaths excluded those who died working on the approaches to the bridge, as those parts were completed by a subcontractor, as well as those who died after the Sick and Accident Club stopped. Of the 73 recorded deaths, 38 were as a result of falling, 9 of being crushed, 9 drowned, 8 struck by a falling object, 3 died in a fire in a bothy, 1 of caisson disease, and the cause of five deaths is unknown.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The Sick and Accident Club was founded in 1883, and membership was compulsory for all contractors' employees. It would provide medical treatment to men and sometimes their families, and pay them if they were unable to work. The club also paid for funerals within certain limits, and would provide grants to the widows of men killed or the wives of those permanently disabled. Eight men were saved from drowning by rowing boats positioned in the river under the working areas.


title: Forth Bridge

text: Before the opening of the Forth Bridge, the railway journey from London to Aberdeen had taken about 13 hours running from and using the London and North Western Railway and Caledonian Railway on a west coast route. With competition opened up along the east coast route from the Great Northern, North Eastern and North British railways and starting from King's Cross, unofficial racing took place between the two consortia, reducing the journey time to about 8 hours on the overnight runs. This reached a climax in 1895 with sensational daily press reports about the "Race to the North". When race fever subsided the journey times became around 10 hours.


title: Forth Bridge

text: In the First World War British sailors would time their departures or returns to the base at Rosyth by asking when they would pass under the bridge. The first German air attack on Britain in the Second World War took place over the Forth Bridge, six weeks into the war, on 16 October 1939. Although known as the "Forth Bridge Raid", the bridge was not the target and not damaged. In all, 12 German Junkers Ju 88 bombers led by two reconnaissance Heinkel He 111s from Westerland on the island of Sylt, away, reached the Scottish coast in four waves of three. The target of the attack was shipping from the Rosyth naval base in the Forth, about to the west of the bridge. The Germans were hoping to find , the largest capital ship in the Royal Navy. "Luftwaffe" rules of engagement restricted action to targets on water and not in the dockyard. Although was in Rosyth, the attack was concentrated on the cruisers and , the carrier and the destroyer "Jervis". The destroyer "Mohawk" and the cruisers, "Southampton" and "Edinburgh" were damaged. Sixteen Royal Navy crew died and 44 were wounded, although this information was not made public at the time.


title: Forth Bridge

text: Spitfires from 603 "City of Edinburgh" Squadron RAF intercepted the raiders and during the attack shot down the first German aircraft downed over Britain in the war. One bomber came down in the water off Port Seton on the East Lothian coast and another off Crail on the coast of Fife. After the War it was learned that a third bomber had come down in the Netherlands as a result of damage inflicted during the raid. Later in the month, a reconnaissance Heinkel 111 crashed near Humbie in East Lothian and photographs of this crashed plane were, and still are, used erroneously to illustrate the raid of 16 October, thus sowing confusion as to whether a third aircraft had been brought down. Members of the bomber crew at Port Seton were rescued and made prisoners-of-war. Two bodies were recovered from the Crail wreckage and after a full military funeral with firing party, were interred in Portobello cemetery, Edinburgh. The body of the gunner was never found. A wartime propaganda film, "Squadron 992", made by the GPO Film Unit after the raid, recreated it and conveyed the false impression that the main target was the bridge.


title: Forth Bridge

text: Before the opening of the bridge, the North British Railway (NBR) had lines on both sides of the Firth of Forth between which trains could not pass except by running at least as far west as and using the lines of a rival company. The only alternative route between Edinburgh and Fife involved the ferry at Queensferry, which was purchased by the NBR in 1867. Accordingly, the NBR sponsored the Forth Bridge project which would give them a direct link independent of the Caledonian Railway. A conference at York in 1881 set up the Forth Bridge Railway Committee, to which the NBR contributed 35% of the cost. The remaining money came from three English railways, which ran trains from London over NBR tracks. The Midland Railway, which connected to the NBR at and which owned the route to London St Pancras, contributed 30%, and 17.5% came equally from each of the North Eastern Railway and the Great Northern Railway, which between them owned the route between and London King's Cross, via . This body undertook to construct and maintain the bridge.


title: Forth Bridge

text: In 1882 the NBR were given powers to purchase the bridge, which it never exercised. At the time of the 1923 Grouping, the bridge was still jointly owned by the same four railways, and so it became jointly owned by these companies' successors, the London Midland and Scottish Railway (30%) and the London and North Eastern Railway (70%). The Forth Bridge Railway Company was named in the Transport Act 1947 as one of the bodies to be nationalised and so became part of British Railways on 1 January 1948. Under the Act, Forth Bridge shareholders would receive £109 of British Transport stock for each £100 of Forth Bridge Debenture stock; and £104 17s 6d of British Transport stock for each £100 of Forth Bridge Ordinary stock.


title: Forth Bridge

text: As of April 2017, the bridge and its associated railway infrastructure are owned by Network Rail Infrastructure Limited.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The bridge has a speed limit of for high-speed trains and diesel multiple units, for ordinary passenger trains and for freight trains. The route availability code is RA8, but freight trains above a certain size must not pass each other on the bridge. Up to 190–200 trains per day crossed the bridge in 2006.


title: Forth Bridge

text: "Painting the Forth Bridge" is a colloquial expression for a never-ending task, coined on the erroneous belief that at one time in the history of the bridge repainting was required and commenced immediately upon completion of the previous repaint. Such a practice never existed, as weathered areas were given more attention, but there was a permanent maintenance crew. In 2011, the bridge was covered in a new coating designed to last for 25 years, bringing an end to having painters as a regular part of the maintenance crew. Colin Hardie, of Balfour Beatty Construction, was reported as saying,


title: Forth Bridge

text: Floodlighting was installed in 1990, and the track was renewed between 1992 and 1995. The bridge was costing British Rail £1 million a year to maintain, and they announced that the schedule of painting would be interrupted to save money, and the following year, upon privatisation, Railtrack took over. A £40 million package of works commenced in 1998, and in 2002 the responsibility of the bridge was passed to Network Rail.


title: Forth Bridge

text: Work started in 2002 to repaint the bridge fully for the first time in its history, in a £130 million contract awarded to Balfour Beatty. Up to of scaffolding was on the bridge at any time, and computer modelling was used to analyse the additional wind load on the structure. The bridge was encapsulated in a climate controlled membrane to give the proper conditions for the application of the paint. All previous layers of paint were removed using copper slag fired at up to , exposing the steel and allowing repairs to be made. The paint, developed specifically for the bridge by Leigh Paints, consisted of a system of three coats derived from that used in the North Sea oil industry; a total of was applied to of the structure, and it is not expected to need repainting for at least 20 years. The top coat can be reapplied indefinitely, minimising future maintenance work.


title: Forth Bridge

text: In a report produced by JE Jacobs, Grant Thornton and Faber Maunsell in 2007 which reviewed the alternative options for a second road crossing, it was stated that "Network Rail has estimated the life of the bridge to be in excess of 100 years. However, this is dependant upon NR's inspection and refurbishment works programme for the bridge being carried out year on year".


title: Forth Bridge

text: The Forth Bridge has been featured in television programmes and films, including "Carry On Regardless", Alfred Hitchcock's 1935 film "The 39 Steps", and its 1959 remake. A.G. Barr used the bridge in posters advertising its soft drink Irn-Bru, with the slogan: "Made in Scotland, from girders". In 2005, the BBC lit the Bridge in red for Comic Relief. Also in 2005, Channel 4 documentary "Jump Britain" showed Sébastien Foucan, a French freerunner, crawling along one of the highest points of the bridge without a harness. The first episode of the UK television series "Britain's Greatest Bridges" featured the Forth Bridge and was aired on Spike UK on 12 January 2017.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The location of the Forth Bridge has seen it featured in other cultural forms. In the build up to the Millennium celebrations a countdown clock sponsored by the Royal Bank of Scotland was attached to the top of the Bridge in 1998. Iain Banks wrote the novel "The Bridge", which is mainly set on a fictionalised version of the bridge, which links "The City" (Edinburgh) and "The Kingdom" (Fife). In Alan Turing's most famous paper about artificial intelligence, one of the challenges put to the subject of an imagined Turing test is "Please write me a sonnet on the subject of the Forth Bridge." The test subject in Turing's paper answers, "Count me out on this one. I never could write poetry." The bridge is included in the video game "" by Edinburgh-based developer Rockstar North. Renamed the Kincaid Bridge, it serves as the main railway bridge of the fictional city of San Fierro, and appears alongside a virtual Forth Road Bridge.


title: Forth Bridge

text: In his 1917 book "On Growth and Form", the mathematical biologist D'Arcy Thompson compares the structural form of the Forth Bridge with the cantilevered skeleton of an ox, the piers corresponding to legs, the cantilevers to the vertebral column:


title: Forth Bridge

text: UNESCO inscribed the bridge as a World Heritage Site on 5 July 2015, recognising it as "an extraordinary and impressive milestone in bridge design and construction during the period when railways came to dominate long-distance land travel". It is the sixth World Heritage Site to be inscribed in Scotland. In 2016, a VisitScotland survey voted the Forth Bridge "Scotland's greatest man-made wonder", beating off competition from Stirling Castle, the Caledonian Canal, the Scott Monument, Bell Rock Lighthouse, and Melrose Abbey.


title: Forth Bridge

text: The Forth Bridge has appeared in representation on a 2004 one pound coin, issued by the Royal Mint. The Bridge has also featured on banknotes including the 2007 series issued by the Bank of Scotland, which depicts different bridges in Scotland as examples of Scottish engineering, and the £20 note features the Forth Bridge. In 2014 Clydesdale Bank announced the introduction of Britain's second polymer banknote, a £5 note featuring Sir William Arrol and the Forth Bridge (the first polymer banknote was issued by Northern Bank in 2000). It was introduced in 2015 to commemorate the 125th anniversary of the opening of the bridge, and its nomination to become a UNESCO World Heritage Site.


title: Forth Bridge

text: "Forth Bridge" was used as a codeword to announce to the government the death of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh in 2021.


title: Forth Bridge

text: Network Rail plans to add a visitor centre to the bridge, which would include a viewing platform on top of the North Queensferry side, or a bridge climbing experience to the South Queensferry side. In December 2014 it was announced Arup had been awarded the design contract for the project. In September 2019, Network Rail submitted plans to build a visitor centre at the South Queensferry side that would serve as a base for the bridge climbing experience, dubbed "The Forth Bridge Experience. The plans were approved in early 2020 but were put on hold due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Revised plans were submitted in February 2022.


title: Shivraj Singh Chouhan

text: Shivraj Singh Chouhan (born 5 March 1959), is an Indian politician and member of the Bharatiya Janata Party. He is the 17th and current Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh, having been elected to the same position 3 times in the past, and a Member of Legislative Assembly in Madhya Pradesh from Budhni. He previously served as the Chief Minister of the Madhya Pradesh, between 2005 and 2018, and holds the record as the state's longest serving Chief Minister. He was also former National Vice-president, member of the Parliamentary Board and a member of the Central Election Committee of the Bharatiya Janata Party.


title: Shivraj Singh Chouhan

text: As a leader of the BJP, Chouhan served as its general secretary and president of its Madhya Pradesh state unit. He joined the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh in 1972, as a 13-year-old. He is a five-time Member of Parliament, having represented Vidisha in the Lok Sabha, the lower House of the Indian Parliament, between 1991 and 2006.


title: Shivraj Singh Chouhan

text: Shivraj Singh Chouhan was born in a Kirar Thakur family to Prem Singh Chouhan and his wife Sundar Bai Chouhan in the Jait village of Sehore district, and belongs to the Kirar community. He is a gold medalist in M. A. (Philosophy) from Barkatullah University Bhopal. He is an agriculturist by profession.


title: Shivraj Singh Chouhan

text: His early political career can be defined as up to the point of his first election to the Lok Sabha. He was elected President of the Model School Students Union in 1975. From 1976 to 1977, he participated in underground movement against the Emergency and was imprisoned in Bhopal Jail for some time.


title: Shivraj Singh Chouhan

text: Chouhan was first elected to the State Assembly from Budhni Constituency in 1990. He was elected a Member of Parliament for the first time in his career in 10th Lok Sabha from Vidisha Constituency in the following year.


title: Shivraj Singh Chouhan

text: In 1996, he was re-elected to the 11th Lok Sabha (his second term). He was Member of Committee on Urban and Rural Development and Member of Consultative Committee, Ministry of Human Resources Development and Member of Committee on Urban and Rural Development from 1996 to 1997 and Member of Committee on Urban and Rural Development, General Secretary of BJP, Madhya Pradesh from 1997 to 1998.


title: Shivraj Singh Chouhan

text: Again in 1998, he was re-elected to 12th Lok Sabha (third term). He was Member of Committee on Urban and Rural Development and its Sub-Committee on Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment from 1998 to 1999.


title: Shivraj Singh Chouhan

text: His fourth term in the 13th Lok Sabha was from 1999. He was member of Committee on Agriculture from 1999 to 2000, member of Committee on Public Undertakings from 1999 to 2001, and National President of Bhartiya Janta Yuva Morcha from 2000 to 2003. He was also the Chairman of House Committee (Lok Sabha) and National Secretary of Bhartiya Janta Party.


title: Shivraj Singh Chouhan

text: The BJP swept Madhya Pradesh in the Assembly elections of December 2003. At that time, Shivraj Singh contested polls unsuccessfully against the incumbent Chief Minister Digvijaya Singh from Raghogarh.


title: Shivraj Singh Chouhan

text: He was a member of Consultative Committee, ministry of Communications from 2000 to 2004. He was re-elected to 14th Lok Sabha (5th term) in 2004, with a margin of over 260,000 votes. He was member of Committee on Agriculture, member of Joint Committee on Offices of Profit, National General Secretary of BJP, Secretary of Parliamentary Board, and Secretary (Central Election Committee). He also headed Housing Committee of Lok Sabha, and was a member of Committee on Ethics.


title: Shivraj Singh Chouhan

text: As the state BJP President, Chouhan was chosen to become the Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh on 30 November 2005. He contested a by-election from Budhni assembly constituency the following year, winning his old seat by a margin of over 36,000 votes.


title: Shivraj Singh Chouhan

text: In 2008, Chouhan retained his Budhni seat by over 41,000 votes, and with it, led the BJP to a second consecutive victory in the state. On 12 December 2008, he was sworn in for his second term.


title: Shivraj Singh Chouhan

text: On 8 December 2013, Chouhan won Legislative Assembly elections from Budhni by the margin of 84805 from a candidate of Congress. He was also elected as Chief Minister of MP for a third term.


title: Shivraj Singh Chouhan

text: On 12 December 2018, after failing to gain a majority in the 2018 Madhya Pradesh assembly election, Chouhan resigned as Chief Minister. He once again took oath as the Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh on 23 March 2020 after 22 Congress MLA's resigned along with Jyotiraditya Scindia resulting in the collapse of the Kamal Nath government.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: Domestic terrorism in the United States consists of incidents which are confirmed to be domestic terrorist acts. These attacks are considered domestic because they occurred within the United States and they were carried out by U.S. citizens and/or U.S. permanent residents. As of 2021, the United States government considers white supremacists to be the top domestic terrorism threat.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) defines domestic terrorism as violent, criminal acts which are committed by individuals and/or groups in order to further ideological goals stemming from domestic influences, such as those of a political, religious, social, racial, or environmental nature.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: Under current United States law, set forth in the USA PATRIOT Act, acts of domestic terrorism are those which: "(A) involve acts dangerous to human life that are a violation of the criminal laws of the United States or of any State; (B) appear to be intended – (i) to intimidate or coerce a civilian population; (ii) to influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion; or (iii) to affect the conduct of a government by mass destruction, assassination, or kidnapping; and (C) occur primarily within the territorial jurisdiction of the United States."


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: While the PATRIOT Act defines "domestic terrorism" for the purposes of authorizing law enforcement investigations, no federal criminal offense exists which is referred to as "domestic terrorism". While international terrorism ("acts of terrorism transcending national boundaries") is a defined crime in federal law, acts of domestic terrorism are charged under specific laws, such as killing federal agents or "attempting to use explosives to destroy a building in interstate commerce".


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: Citizens suspected of terrorism are usually investigated and arrested by federal law enforcement, such as the FBI. For instance, from 2016 to 2018, the FBI arrested 355 suspects on charges related to domestic terrorism. Per the FBI, the vast majority were motivated by racist and anti-government ideology.<ref name="LAT 2019-08-10/"></ref> Some state and local jurisdictions, including Washington, D.C. and New York State do define terrorism as a crime, without regard as to whether the perpetrators are international in origin.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: Anti-abortion extremists in the United States have committed violence against individuals and organizations that provide abortions or abortion counseling, acts that are considered terrorism. Incidents have included crimes against people, such as murder, assault, kidnapping, and stalking; crimes which affect both people and property, such as arson or bombings; and property crimes such as vandalism. Perpetrators of these incidents may defend their actions by stating that they are necessary to protect the lives of fetuses, and they are often motivated by their Christian beliefs, leading to anti-abortion violence's identification as Christian terrorism; it is also associated with antifeminism.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: Notable incidents of anti-abortion violence include the murders of a number of doctors and clinic staff in the 1990s:


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: According to the FBI in June 2008, eco-terrorists and extreme animal rights activists represented "one of the most serious domestic terrorism threats in the US" at the time. They had committed over 2,000 crimes and caused over $110 million in damages in the 28–29 years since 1979, against targets including lumber companies, animal testing facilities, and genetic research firms. No human casualties were reported.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: According to the Equal Justice Initiative, more than 4,400 African Americans were lynched from 1877 to 1940. Racialized lynchings were carried out as part of a widely supported racial domestic terrorist campaign to enforce racial subordination and segregation in the South and beyond between Reconstruction and World War II. Recently, the FBI began investigating a resurgence of racial lynching terror in the recent hangings of several African American men and women including the attempted hanging of Vauhxx Booker, a Bloomington Indiana civil rights activist and local official, who allegedly was attacked by a mob on July 4, 2020. He has visual evidence supporting his claim that five alleged white supremacists attempted to lynch him.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: Right-wing terrorism or far-right terrorism is motivated by a variety of different right-wing and far-right ideologies, most prominently by neo-Nazism, neo-fascism, white nationalism, white separatism, ethnonationalism, religious nationalism, and anti-government patriot/sovereign citizen beliefs.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: A 2017 report by the U.S. Government Accountability Office found that of the 85 deadly extremist incidents since 9/11, far right-wing extremist groups were responsible for 73%, while radical Islamist extremists were responsible for 27%. The total number of deaths caused by each group was about the same, though 41% of the deaths attributable to radical Islamists occurred in a single event — the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting in which 49 people were killed by a lone gunman. No deaths were attributed to left-wing groups.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: A June 2020 study by the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) reported that over 25 years of domestic terrorism incidents, the majority of attacks and plots had come from far-right attackers. The trend had accelerated in recent years, with this sector responsible for about 66% of attacks and plots in 2019, and 90% of those in 2020. The next most potentially dangerous group was “religious extremists”, the majority “Salafi jihadists inspired by the Islamic State and al-Qaida”, while the number planned by the far left had reduced to a minute fraction since the mid-2000s.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: The Domestic Terrorism Prevention Act has proposed legislation that would create offices within the Justice Department, the Department of Homeland Security, and the FBI to combat far-right violence. In September 2020, the bill (as H.R. 5602) passed the Democratic-majority House unanimously, but the Republican-majority Senate prevented a vote. Sen. Ron Johnson said the Justice Department had claimed the legislation might "impede" rather than enhance its ability to combat far-right violence. A Justice Department spokesperson alluded to "technical concerns" with the bill but did not elaborate.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: The Department of Homeland Security reported in October 2020 that white supremacists posed the top domestic terrorism threat, which FBI director Christopher Wray confirmed in March 2021, noting the bureau had elevated the threat to the same level as ISIS. The DHS report did not mention antifa, despite persistent allegations about its threat from the political right in recent years.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: Alpha 66 (still existent) and Omega 7 (now defunct) were two affiliated Cuban exile action groups which carried out many bombings and acts of sabotage. While many of these attacks have historically been directed at Cuba and the Castro government, many of them occurred domestically, especially during the period of Cuba-US diplomacy and negotiations in the 1970s which is known as "el Diálogo" (the dialogue) when powerful anti-Castro figures in Miami attempted to terrorize those members of their community who advocated a more moderate approach to Cuba. For instance, Luciano Nieves was killed because he advocated peaceful coexistence with Cuba. WQBA-AM news director Emilio Milian lost his legs in a car bomb after he publicly condemned Cuban exile violence. These cases of terrorism were extensively documented by Joan Didion in the book "Miami". Human Rights Watch released a report in 1992 in which it claimed that the more extreme exiles have created a political environment in Miami where "moderation can be a dangerous position."


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: Animal Liberation Front (ALF) was labelled a serious domestic terrorist threat by the FBI in the early 2000s. ALF is a loosely organized animal rights extremist movement practicing direct action against companies and individuals to cause economic loss and destroy its victim. ALF campaigns have escalated and expanded to encompass harassment and crimes against employees and other companies with business relationships with the target company. In 2004, the deputy assistant director of the FBI testified before the Senate Judiciary Committee: "Individuals within the movement have discussed actively targeting food producers, biomedical researchers, and even law enforcement with physical harm. But even more disturbing is the recent employment of improvised explosive devices against consumer product testing companies, accompanied by threats of more, larger bombings and even potential assassinations of researchers, corporate officers and employees."


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: Army of God (AOG) is a loose network of individuals and groups connected by ideological affinity and the determination to use force to end abortion in the United States. Acts of anti-abortion violence increased in the mid-1990s culminating in a series of bombings by Eric Robert Rudolph, whose targets included two abortion clinics, a gay and lesbian night club, and the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta. Letters sent to newspapers claim responsibility for the bombing of the abortion clinics in the name of the Army of God.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: Aryan Nations (AN) is a white nationalist neo-Nazi organization founded in the 1970s by Richard Girnt Butler as an arm of the Christian Identity group known as the Church of Jesus Christ–Christian. As of December 2007, there were two main factions that claimed descent from Butler's group. The Aryan Nations has been called a "terrorist threat" by the FBI. The RAND Corporation has called it the "first truly nationwide terrorist network" in the United States.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: Atomwaffen Division (AWD) or simply Atomwaffen is a neo-Nazi organization based in Florida that promotes former American Nazi Party and National Socialist Liberation Front (NSLF) member convict James Mason's "Siege" and "Universal Order" ideology as well as race war against minorities, Jews, and LGBT people. Atomwaffen also draws influence from Nazi esotericism and the occult. The group has about 80 full members and a "large" amount of initiates and 20 cells across 23 states in America. The organization also has a United Kingdom branch called the Sonnenkrieg Division (SKD), a Baltic branch called Feuerkrieg Division (FKD), a presence in Canada by a group called Northern Order and one located in Germany. The organization has been responsible for the deaths of eight people most notably the Murder of Blaze Bernstein a gay Jewish California student and the killings of Jeremy Himmelman and Andrew Oneschuk.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: The Covenant, The Sword, and the Arm of the Lord (CSA) was a radical Christian Identity organization formed in 1971 in the small community of Elijah in southern Missouri, United States. One of its members, Richard Wayne Snell was responsible for the murder of a pawnshop owner and a Missouri state trooper. The CSA collapsed following an FBI and ATF siege in 1985.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: Earth Liberation Front was labeled a serious domestic terrorist threat by the FBI in the early 2000s. Most notable for their arsons resulting in millions of dollars in damage, they have also vandalized and destroyed vehicles, construction and logging equipment, and buildings. For example, William Cottrell was indicted in 2004 for his role in a series of arsons and vandalisms to more than 120 SUVs in California, resulting in more than $2.5 million in damages. Michael James Scarpitti was convicted of a "series of arson and property destruction attacks in 2002 and 2003 against sport utility vehicles, fast food restaurants, construction vehicles, and construction sites" in Virginia. "Eight of the terrorist incidents that occurred in the United States in 2001 have been attributed to the Earth Liberation Front."


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: Jewish Defense League (JDL) was founded in 1968 by Rabbi Meir Kahane in New York City. FBI statistics show that from 1980 to 1985, 15 terrorist attacks were attempted in the U.S. by JDL members. The FBI's Mary Doran described the JDL in 2004 Congressional testimony as "a proscribed terrorist group". The National Consortium for the Study of Terror and Responses to Terrorism states that during the JDL's first two decades of activity it was an "active terrorist organization." Kahane later founded the far right Israeli political party Kach.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) was determined to be a "terrorist organization" in 1870 by a federal grand jury, and the FBI has been investigating crimes by white supremacy extremists including Klan members since the early 1900s. During reconstruction at the end of the Civil War the original KKK used domestic terrorism against the federal government and against freed slaves. During the 20th century, leading up to the Civil Rights Movement, unrelated KKK groups used threats, violence, arson, and murder to further their anti-Black, anti-Catholic, anti-Communist, anti-immigrant, anti-Semitic, homophobic and white-supremacist agenda. Other groups with agendas similar to the Ku Klux Klan include neo-Nazis, white power skinheads, and other far-right movements.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: May 19 Communist Organization (variously referred to as the May 19 Communist Coalition, May 19 Communist, and various alternatives of M19CO), was a U.S.-based, self-described revolutionary organization formed by members of the Weather Underground Organization. The group was originally known as the New York chapter of the Prairie Fire Organizing Committee (PFOC), an organization devoted to legally promoting the causes of the Weather Underground. This was part of Prairie Fire Manifesto change in Weather Underground Organization strategy, which demanded both aboveground mass and clandestine organizations. The role of the clandestine organization would be to build the "consciousness of action" and prepare the way for the development of a people's militia. Concurrently, the role of the mass movement (i.e., above-ground Prairie Fire Collective) would include support for, and encouragement of, armed action. Such an alliance would, according to Weather, "help create the 'sea' for the guerrillas to swim in."


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: The Order, also known as the Brüder Schweigen or Silent Brotherhood, was a white nationalist revolutionary group active in the United States between 1983 and 1984. It is probably best known for the 1984 murder of radio talk show host Alan Berg. The group also carried out several bank and car robberies, three murders, and money counterfeiting until its leader, Robert Jay Mathews, was killed in a shootout with FBI agents on Whidbey Island, Washington, in December 1984.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: Phineas Priesthood (Phineas Priests) is a Christian Identity movement that opposes interracial sex, the mixing of races, homosexuality, and abortion. It is also marked by anti-Semitism, anti-multiculturalism, and opposition to taxation. It is not considered an organization because it is not led by a governing body, there are no gatherings, and there is no membership process. One becomes a Phineas Priest by simply adopting the beliefs of the Priesthood and acting upon those beliefs. Members of the Priesthood are often called terrorists for, among other things, planning to blow up FBI buildings, abortion clinic bombings, and bank robberies.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA) was an American self-styled, far-left "urban guerrilla warfare group" that considered itself a revolutionary vanguard army. The group committed bank robberies, two murders, and other acts of violence between 1973 and 1975. Among their most notorious acts was the kidnapping of the newspaper heiress Patty Hearst.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: United Freedom Front (UFF) was a small American Marxist organization active in the 1970s and 1980s. It was originally called the Sam Melville/Jonathan Jackson Unit, and its members became known as the Ohio 7 when they were brought to trial. Between 1975 and 1984 the UFF carried out at least 20 bombings and nine bank robberies in the northeastern United States, targeting corporate buildings, courthouses, and military facilities. Brent L. Smith describes them as "undoubtedly the most successful of the leftist terrorists of the 1970s and 1980s." The group's members were eventually apprehended and convicted of conspiracy, murder, attempted murder, and other charges. Jaan Laaman alone remains incarcerated today, following the death of Tom Manning in 2019.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: The Weather Underground Organization was a far left organization, active from 1969 to 1975, that originated as a faction of Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). Mostly composed of the national office leadership of SDS and their supporters, the group collapsed shortly after the U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam in 1975.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: The Hounds, a white vigilante group in San Francisco, attacks a Chilean mining community, raping women, burning houses, and lynching two men.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: Abolitionist John Brown with like-minded settlers killed five pro-slavery settlers north of Pottawatomie Creek in Franklin County, Kansas.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: The Mountain Meadows massacre was a series of attacks on the Baker–Fancher emigrant wagon train, at Mountain Meadows in southern Utah. The attacks began on September 7 and culminated on September 11, 1857, resulting in the mass slaughter of the emigrant party by members of the Utah Territorial Militia from the Iron County district, a Mormon group, together with some Paiute Native Americans. Intending to leave no witnesses and thus prevent reprisals, the perpetrators killed all the adults and older children – about 120 men, women, and children in total. Seventeen children, all younger than seven, were spared.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: Abolitionist John Brown leads a raid on Harper's Ferry arsenal to get weapons for arming slaves to resist slavery. Most of his men were killed, and he was tried for treason and hanged.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: Less than a week after Confederate general Robert E. Lee had surrendered to Union forces, marking the Union's victory in the American Civil War, a circle of Confederate sympathizers conspired to murder President Abraham Lincoln and members of his Cabinet in the hope of creating chaos and overthrowing the federal government. John Wilkes Booth successfully assassinated Lincoln.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: The Colfax Massacre occurred in Colfax, Louisiana on Easter Sunday, April 13, 1873. Republicans had narrowly won the 1872 election to retain control of the state, but Democrats contested the results. Dozens of African-Americans were killed by white supremacist organizations such as the Knights of White Camellia and the Ku Klux Klan, who tried to reinforce antebellum policies of white supremacy.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: Two workers were killed by police in the course of a confrontation between striking workers and strikebreakers in the streets of Chicago. During a rally the next day, an unknown assailant threw dynamite at a line of police officers; the explosion and the mutual violence that followed killed eight police officers and at least four civilians. The attacker was most likely an anarchist, although the trial that convicted the members of a local anarchist cell has since been criticized as unfair.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: The Milwaukee Police Department bombing was a November 24, 1917, bomb attack that killed ten people including nine members of local law enforcement. The perpetrators were never caught but are suspected to be an anarchist terrorist cell operating in the United States in the early 20th century. The target was an evangelical church in the Third Ward but killed only the police officers when the bomb was brought to the police station by a concerned member of the public.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: The Wall Street bombing was a terrorist incident on September 16, 1920, in the Financial District of New York City. A horse-drawn wagon filled with 100 pounds (45 kg) of dynamite was stationed across the street from the headquarters of the J.P. Morgan Bank. The explosion killed 38 and injured 400. Even though no one was found guilty, it is believed that the act was carried out by followers of Luigi Galleani.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: On May 31 and June 1, 1921, a white mob started the Tulsa race massacre attacking residents and businesses of the African-American community known as Black Wall Street, in the Greenwood area in Tulsa, Oklahoma, in what is considered one of the worst incidents of racial violence in United States History. The attack, carried out on the ground and by air, destroyed more than 35 blocks of the district, did $30 million (2017 dollars) in damage, left 10,000 people homeless and up to 300 dead in a town considered the wealthiest black community in the nation.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: On Sunday, September 15, 1963, members of the United Klans of America set a bomb consisting of a timing device and fifteen sticks of dynamite to explode at a historically black church in Birmingham, Alabama, that was a local focus of the Civil Rights struggle. The explosion killed four girls between the ages of 11 and 14 and did much other local damage. Three perpetrators were eventually caught years later and sentenced to life imprisonment for their roles. There had been other bombings in Birmingham, then grimly known as "Bombingham" for such attacks.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: From 1978 to 1995, Harvard University graduate and former mathematics professor Theodore "Ted" Kaczynski – known by the codename "UNABOM" until his identification and arrest by the FBI – carried out a campaign of sending letter bombs to academics and various individuals particularly associated with modern technology. In 1996, his manifesto was published in "The New York Times" and "The Washington Post", under the threat of more attacks. The bomb campaign ended with his capture.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: In a 2004 congressional testimony, John S. Pistole, executive assistant director for counterterrorism and counterintelligence for the FBI, described the JDL as "a known violent extremist Jewish Organization." FBI statistics show that, from 1980 through 1985, there were 18 terrorist attacks in the U.S. committed by Jews; 15 of those by members of the JDL. Mary Doran, an FBI agent, described the JDL in a 2004 Congressional testimony as "a proscribed terrorist group". Most recently, then-JDL chairman Irv Rubin was jailed while awaiting trial on charges of conspiracy in planning bomb attacks against the King Fahd Mosque in Culver City, California, and on the office of Arab-American Congressman Darrell Issa. In its report, "Terrorism 2000/2001", the FBI referred to the JDL as a "violent extremist Jewish organization" and stated that the FBI was responsible for thwarting at least one of its terrorist acts.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: The Oklahoma City bombing was a truck bomb attack by Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols which killed 168 people on April 19, 1995 – the deadliest domestic-based terrorist attack in the history of the United States. The target being a government building, it was an act of retribution for the FBI and ATF's involvement at Ruby Ridge and in the Waco siege. It inspired improvements to United States federal building security.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: The Centennial Olympic Park bombing was a terrorist bombing on July 27, 1996, in Atlanta, Georgia, during the 1996 Summer Olympics, the first of four committed by Eric Robert Rudolph, former explosives expert for the United States Army. Two people died, and 111 were injured.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: On August 5, 2012, Wade Michael Page fatally shot six people (including himself) and wounded four others in a mass shooting at a Sikh temple in Oak Creek, Wisconsin. Page was an American white supremacist and a United States Army veteran from Cudahy, Wisconsin, who was a member of the neo-Nazi skinhead Hammerskin Nation. All of the dead were members of the Sikh faith.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: On April 15, 2013, two homemade bombs detonated 12 seconds and 210 yards apart at 2:49 p.m., near the finish line of the annual Boston Marathon, killing three people and injuring several hundred others, including 16 who lost limbs. Kyrgyz-American brothers Dzhokhar Tsarnaev and Tamerlan Tsarnaev were apprehended and claimed to have been motivated by radical Islamist beliefs.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: On May 3, 2015, two gunmen, Elton Simpson and Nadir Soofi, wounded a security guard before police shot and killed them. The two men targeted an exhibit featuring cartoon images of Muhammad taking place in the Curtis Culwell Conference Center in Garland, Texas.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: On June 17, 2015, Dylann Roof, a 21-year-old white supremacist, went into the Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church in Charleston, South Carolina, and shot and killed nine people including South Carolina senator Clementa C. Pinckney. Roof was known to be a white supremacist who admired Apartheid South Africa and Rhodesia and owned a website with a manifesto both called "The Last Rhodesian" in which he outlined his views toward blacks, among other peoples.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: On December 2, 2015, 14 people were killed and 24 injured in a mass shooting at the Inland Regional Center in San Bernardino, California, United States. Syed Rizwan Farook and Tashfeen Malik targeted a San Bernardino County Department of Public Health training event and holiday party of about 80 employees in a rented banquet room. Farook was an American-born citizen of Pakistani descent, while his wife was a Pakistani-born legal resident of the U.S. He had attended the event as an employee before the shooting. Both had become radicalized through jihadist material on the internet, and stockpiled supplies in their home.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: In the early hours of June 12, 2016, 49 people were killed and 53 were injured in a mass shooting at the Pulse nightclub in Orlando, Florida. The perpetrator, 29-year-old Omar Mateen, was a security guard and person of interest to the FBI in 2013 and 2014. At the time, this event was the deadliest mass shooting in U.S. history by a single gunman, later eclipsed by the 2017 Las Vegas shooting on October 1, 2017. Additionally, it was the deadliest confirmed terrorist attack on U.S. soil since the 9/11 attacks and the deadliest attack against LGBT people in U.S. history.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: While practice for the annual Congressional Baseball Game for Charity was going on, James Thomas Hodgkinson opened fire on Republican Congressmen and Congresswomen on the field such as U.S. House Majority Whip Steve Scalise, U.S. Capitol Police Officer Crystal Giner, congressional aide Zack Barth and lobbyist Matt Mika, resulting in 6 injuries (4 critical) and the perpetrator’s death.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: During the Charlottesville riots/Unite the Right rally on August 11–12, 2017 in Charlottesville, Virginia, by neo-Nazis, neo-fascists, white nationalists, alt-righters, Southern nationalists and Ku Klux Klansmen, Vanguard America (VA) member James Alex Fields drove his car into counter-protesters, killing 1 named Heather Heyer and injuring 28 others.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: On October 27, 2018, 11 people died and 6 more were injured at the Tree of Life - Or L'Simcha Congregation in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania by Robert Bowers, a racial extremist. The attack was motivated by anti-Semitism and a belief in the white genocide conspiracy theory.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: On March 24, 2019, a mosque in Escondido, California, was set on fire; no one was injured and the fire was contained without major damage. The following month, on April 27, 2019, an elderly Jewish woman named Lori Gilbert-Kaye was killed and three others (including Rabbi Yisroel Goldstein) were injured at the Chabad of Poway synagogue in Poway, California. The accused shooter, John T. Earnest, blamed Jews for "white genocide" and other ills in an anti-Semitic and racist open letter on 8chan confessing to the mosque arson and citing inspiration from the Christchurch mosque shooter Brenton Harrison Tarrant and Pittsburgh synagogue shooting perpetrator Robert Bowers.


title: Domestic terrorism in the United States

text: On August 3, 2019, a domestic terrorist attack/mass shooting occurred at a Walmart store in El Paso, Texas, killing twenty-three people and injuring twenty-three others. The attack was carried out by Patrick Crusius, who wrote a manifesto and later posted it on 4chan in which he cited a supposed "Hispanic invasion of Texas" and "simply trying to defend my country from ethnic and cultural replacement brought on by an invasion" as motivations and also praising the perpetrator of the Christchurch mosque shootings.


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: Songs of Innocence is the thirteenth studio album by Irish rock band U2, released on 9 September 2014. It was produced by Danger Mouse, with additional production from Paul Epworth, Ryan Tedder, Declan Gaffney, and Flood. The album was announced at an Apple Inc. product launch event and released the same day to all iTunes Store customers at no cost. It was exclusive to iTunes, iTunes Radio, and Beats Music until 13 October 2014, when it received a physical release on Island and Interscope Records. The digital release made the record available to more than 500 million iTunes customers, for what Apple CEO Tim Cook marketed as "the largest album release of all time".


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: After the relatively lukewarm commercial performance of their previous record, "No Line on the Horizon" (2009), lead singer Bono expressed uncertainty about the band's ability to remain musically relevant. During the five-and-a-half-year gestation period for "Songs of Innocence"—the longest gap between albums of their career—the group reportedly worked on several projects with multiple producers, including an aborted companion to their previous record called "Songs of Ascent". However, they struggled to complete an album to their satisfaction and continually delayed a release. After working with Danger Mouse for two years, the group collaborated with Flood, Epworth, and Tedder to complete "Songs of Innocence". Thematically, it revisits the group members' youth in Ireland in the 1970s, touching on childhood memories, loves, and losses, while paying tribute to musical inspirations Ramones and the Clash. Bono described it as "the most personal album we've written".


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: The lead single "The Miracle (of Joey Ramone)" was featured in an Apple television advertisement as part of a promotional campaign for the band on which the company reportedly spent US$100 million. Approximately 81 million iTunes users listened to the album in its first month of release, 26 million of whom downloaded the entire record. "Songs of Innocence" received generally mixed reviews and drew criticism for its digital release; the album was automatically added to users' iTunes accounts, which for many triggered an unprompted download to their electronic devices. Upon its commercial release, "Songs of Innocence" sold just 101,000 copies in North America and charted for just eight and nine weeks in the US and UK, respectively. The group's press tour for the album was interrupted after Bono was seriously injured in a bicycle accident. The record received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Rock Album. U2 supported the album with the successful Innocence + Experience Tour in 2015, and followed it up with a companion record, "Songs of Experience", in 2017.


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: In February 2009, U2 released their 12th studio album, "No Line on the Horizon". The album received generally favourable reviews and debuted at number one in more than 30 countries, but its sales of 5 million units were comparatively low by U2 standards and it did not contain a hit single. Having spent time in Fez, Morocco, recording and absorbing exotic musical influences, the group intended the record to be more experimental than their previous two. However, critics found it to be more conventional than expected. During the five-and-a-half-year gestation period for "Songs of Innocence", lead singer Bono expressed uncertainty on several occasions that U2 could remain relevant musically after the relatively lukewarm commercial performance of "No Line on the Horizon".


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: Around the release date of "No Line on the Horizon", Bono mentioned tentative plans for the group to release a follow-up record of songs from the album's recording sessions called "Songs of Ascent". Planned as a sister release to "No Line on the Horizon" (similar to "Zooropa"s relationship to "Achtung Baby"), the project was described by Bono as "a meditative, reflective piece of work" with the theme of pilgrimage. The band said that the first single was intended to be "Every Breaking Wave". However, the project was continually delayed, as U2 struggled to complete an album to their satisfaction and were limited by other commitments; these included the group's U2 360° Tour from 2009 to 2011, as well as Bono's and guitarist the Edge's commitment to writing the music and lyrics to the musical "", which itself experienced numerous delays and creative changes before its debut in June 2011.


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: In June 2009, Bono said that although the group had nine pieces of music they considered worth pursuing, the album would only be released if its quality surpassed that of "No Line on the Horizon". In September, he first made claims that U2 were working on three separate album projects: a "rocking club album" comprising material the group previously wrote with producer Rick Rubin but shelved; the songs that he and the Edge had written for "Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark"; and "Songs of Ascent". Bassist Adam Clayton was sceptical about Bono's statements, believing their material to still be in its infancy, while the Edge said he was not sure if the "Spider-Man" songs would be released as a U2 album or a cast recording, adding: "The "Spider-Man" collection is the most developed but the least appropriate to the band. We've got so much material at different stages of completion, it's going to be a nice problem when we've got a few weeks to look at it." After the band performed at the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin in November, Bono and the Edge traveled to the South of France for a two-week songwriting session, followed by a studio session in New York City in December.


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: A December 2009 report indicated that U2 had been working in the studio with the goal of a mid-2010 release. By April 2010, U2's manager Paul McGuinness confirmed the group would not be finished by June, but said that a release "before the end of the year is increasingly likely." In May, Bono was forced to undergo emergency back surgery after suffering a compressed sciatic nerve. The group rescheduled their North American tour dates that year and an appearance at Glastonbury Festival 2010 for the following year, but were able to spend their downtime writing and recording new songs.


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: In August 2010, new reports emerged regarding U2's multiple album projects, claiming that the band were working on: a traditional rock album produced by Brian "Danger Mouse" Burton; a dance-centric album produced by David Guetta, RedOne, and will.i.am; and the meditative material comprising "Songs of Ascent". Bono and the Edge continued to express an interest in releasing the songs written for the "Spider-Man" musical. When the U2 360° Tour resumed that month, the group debuted several unreleased tracks live, including "Every Breaking Wave". In October 2010, Bono said that U2's new album would be produced by Burton, and that 12 songs had been completed, while McGuinness said it was slated for an early 2011 release. Bono described the music from the sessions with Burton as "more airborne, more light-footed". The band continued to make "great progress" on the record in January 2011 working with Burton in New York. However, after holding a creative meeting to review their schedule, they realized they would not be able to complete the record that year; their touring commitments limited their availability to work on the album and they had not yet completed the material written during Bono's rehabilitation.


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: In February 2011, McGuinness said that the album was almost complete and had a tentative release date of May 2011, although he noted that "Songs of Ascent" was no longer the likely title. The "Songs of Ascent" project ultimately did not come to fruition and has not been released; its evolution and apparent abandonment are examined in the book "The Greatest Albums You'll Never Hear". Bassist Adam Clayton said: "We thought there was more material left over from "No Line"... we now feel a long way from that material." The dance-centric album was ultimately aborted as well; Clayton said: "The work we did with RedOne was very, very exciting. But again, I'm not sure it was the essence of what U2 is good at... we have to do what we do best and we have to focus on that, and the work we did with Danger Mouse came closest to that." Guetta clarified in June that he was not involved in the dance project and had only discussed a possible collaboration with Bono.


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: U2 spent three months in the studio in late 2011, taking a break only for Bono to recuperate from the flu. In June 2012, he appeared on "The Late Late Show" and said that the group had just concluded its "best three weeks in the studio since 1979". In January 2013, the band members said their new album would be released by September and that its working title was "10 Reasons to Exist". Early that year, at Burton's invitation, Swedish singer Lykke Li travelled to Los Angeles to record backing vocals for the song "The Troubles" without U2 present. In May, U2 spent time at New York's Electric Lady Studios with Burton, who was completing his mixing duties for the record. After working with the band for two years, Burton was forced to return to his side project Broken Bells.


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: At that point, U2 had a collection of songs that could have been released, but the group were still not satisfied. The Edge said that during mixing: "we found the songs falling apart. They hadn't full arrived. We'd allowed ourselves to think that 'interesting' was enough." The songs, described by "Rolling Stone" as "guitar-light, electronics heavy, with uncharacteristically subtle choruses", were missing what the Edge called "the hallmarks of [their] work—the "big music"." The band also took to heart advice that Rubin had given them during recording sessions with him in 2006; Rubin pointed out that the group used unique sounds and arrangements to "disguise the fact that you don't have a song", and he stressed the importance of songcraft and writing music that could play well even when stripped down to vocals and piano.


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: The group subsequently enlisted Ryan Tedder, Paul Epworth, Declan Gaffney, and long-time collaborator Flood to help them complete the album, hoping their opposing perspectives from Burton would benefit the songs. Flood's time working on the record briefly overlapped with Burton's, and Gaffney served as U2's recording engineer for the entirety of the album sessions, but otherwise the group worked with each producer separately. Tedder initially critiqued in-progress songs and identified which ones were "worth chasing because [the band] had a limited amount of time". He compared himself to a music critic in the way he had "to sit there and tear their songs apart and give [his] honest opinion". Tedder alternated between working remotely and joining the band in the studio. One of the songs that he changed most was "Every Breaking Wave", as he devised a new chorus melody and moved the old one to the song's bridge.


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: As U2 continued to work in the studio in mid-2013 with a target release of December, they were asked by film executive Harvey Weinstein to contribute a song to the film "". The band suspended work on the album to focus on the track "Ordinary Love", which was written in honour of Nelson Mandela. It won the 2014 Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song, and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song. Progress on their album was further limited by a period of mourning after Mandela's death, the group's promotional commitments for the film, and the awards ceremonies. In November 2013, "Billboard" reported that the band's new album had a tentative release date of April 2014, and that it would be announced in a Super Bowl television advertisement. Instead, another new U2 song, the single "Invisible", was unveiled in the Super Bowl advertisement in February 2014. The song was released digitally in the iTunes Store at no cost to launch a partnership with Product Red and Bank of America to fight AIDS. Bono said the track was not the lead single from its pending record but rather a "sneak preview – to remind people we exist".


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: With U2 having released two standalone singles written during their sessions with him, Burton admitted in March 2014 that he did not know the fate of the record or if he was even still its producer. That month, "Billboard" reported that the album and its supporting tour would be pushed back until 2015, which was denied by a spokesperson for the band. The report also stated that U2 had scheduled additional recording sessions with Tedder and Epworth; the band were seen shortly thereafter with Epworth in London and believed to be working at Church Studios. In mid-2014, Li met up with the band in London to re-record her vocals for "The Troubles" after they decided to change the song's key. After trying a few different approaches to her vocals, Li said, "We turned off all the music and sang only to the drums, so it was really getting to what the core of the song meant."


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: U2's partnership with Apple Inc. for the album release ultimately imposed a much-needed deadline by which to complete the record. Burton returned to help the group during the final sessions. They spent the final month working with Gaffney in Malibu, California. The Edge said: "the bulk of it was done pretty quickly at the end. So much was achieved in the last couple of weeks." He described the last four days in particular as "full-on". The album was completed on 2 September 2014, one week prior to its release. At that point, the band delivered a 10-track version of the album to Apple and opted to exclude the song "Volcano", as it was unfinished. However, the group subsequently had a crisis of faith, believing the record sounded "lopsided". After convincing Apple to give them a couple more days, the band finished the song and included it on the final version of the album.


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: Over the course of the recording sessions, the band worked on what Bono estimated to be 50 songs. The Edge said they had about 25 songs from which to choose, five of which were still very much in a rough state. Bono said that the songwriting process was humbling, as the group were able to get some songs "halfway up the hill, three-quarters of the way up the hill. A lot of times, we just couldn't get them up to the top of the hill." Speaking about the record's long gestation period, Bono said: "Rumour has it we haven't made a U2 album in the last five years. We have. We've made several. We just didn't release them because we were waiting for something that would be as good as the best we've ever done."


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: According to music journalist Jon Pareles, "Songs of Innocence" features U2 strictly playing rock music, particularly arena rock, whose elaborate production "puts a higher gloss, and sometimes a heavier fuzz tone, on the band's instantly recognizable sound". Thematically, "Songs of Innocence" revisits the group members' youth in Ireland in the 1970s, touching on childhood memories, loves, and losses, while paying tribute to their musical inspirations. Bono described it as "the most personal album we've written". In an interview with Gus Wenner of "Rolling Stone", he said, "Let's try to figure out why we wanted to be in a band, the relationships around the band, our friendships, our lovers, our family. The whole album is first journeys—first journeys geographically, spiritually, sexually." He said that he felt challenged to write about more personal themes and why he wanted to be in a rock band after producer Jimmy Iovine told him, "The person you need to be to make the album that you wanna make is a long way from where you live." "Rolling Stone" deemed "Songs of Innocence" as having the feeling of a concept album, a notion that Bono rejected, although he did opine it was lyrically cohesive in a way the group's other records were not. For the album, the group revisited adolescent musical influences, such as punk rock band Ramones and electronic music group Kraftwerk, for inspiration.


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: Opening track "The Miracle (of Joey Ramone)" pays tribute to Joey Ramone, the Ramones' lead singer who was particularly influential on Bono. During their teenage years, U2 snuck into a Ramones concert, and the experience of watching Joey perform made Bono feel less self-conscious about his own singing. "Every Breaking Wave" is about the difficulty of "giv[ing] yourself completely to another person", with lyrical characters who are "addicted to sort of failure and rebirth". "California (There Is No End to Love)" recalls the group's first visit to Los Angeles and how the city contrasted with their native Dublin. "Song for Someone" is a love song Bono wrote for his wife Ali Hewson, who he met during their teenage years. "Iris (Hold Me Close)" is written about Bono's mother, Iris, who died after suffering a cerebral aneurysm at her father's funeral when Bono was 14 years old. The lyrics liken her influence over her son to a star that died long ago but whose light is still reaching earth. Bono rewrote the song's lyrics after reading a letter that journalist James Foley wrote in captivity to his family prior to his being killed by ISIS; the letters made Bono realize that "we will all be remembered by the least-profound moments. The simplest moments."


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: The lyrics for "Volcano" are written from the perspective of a younger Bono addressing his modern-day self; he said, "It's this young guy going, 'The fuck happened to you?'" The Edge composed the song's bass intro. "Raised by Wolves" is about the Dublin and Monaghan bombings of 1974, which killed 33 people but were narrowly avoided by Bono that day. The song is written from the perspective of Andy Rowen (brother of Bono's childhood friend Guggi), whose presence at the bombings would later drive him into heroin addiction, a subject also addressed in U2's 1984 song "Bad". "Cedarwood Road" reminisces about the street in Dublin on which Bono lived during his youth. The cherry blossom tree referenced in the lyrics was from the Rowen family garden. "Sleep Like a Baby Tonight", written about a pedophile priest, was described by "Q"s Tom Doyle as featuring "deceptively lullaby-like... synth pulses" reminiscent of Kraftwerk. Their album "The Man-Machine" was gifted by Bono to Ali when they were dating as teenagers and is name-checked in "Iris (Hold Me Close)" in the line, "But it was you who made me your man/Machine". "This Is Where You Can Reach Me Now" takes musical cues from one of the group's childhood inspirations, the Clash; according to the liner notes, the song is dedicated to the Clash's guitarist/vocalist Joe Strummer. The lyrics were inspired by Bono's realisation that he had found a new family and home in the form of U2, having felt like his childhood house was no longer home after his mother's death. The closing track, "The Troubles", was described by Bono as "an uncomfortable song about domestic violence".


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: The deluxe editions of the album feature two additional songs. "Lucifer's Hands" is based on an instrumental piece titled "Return of the Stingray Guitar" that U2 debuted live in 2010 and performed as the opening song at each of their 32 concerts that year. "The Crystal Ballroom" is written about the former Dublin nightclub of the same name (later known as McGonagle's) where the band frequently performed in their early years. Lyrically, Bono imagines himself on-stage at the venue witnessing his parents dancing in the audience.


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: The album art for iTunes copies of the album was created by MAD Agency London to resemble white label packaging commonly used for promotional LP record pressings. The artwork, an "anti-cover design", is a homage to the vinyl promo release format that was popular during the late 1970s and early 1980s, a period referenced by U2 on the album.


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: Physical copies of the album feature different packaging with a cover image of drummer Larry Mullen Jr. protectively embracing his then-18-year-old son while both are shirtless. The image was taken by photographer Glen Luchford initially as an experiment, but the group thought it worked as a visual metaphor for the album and its theme of "how holding on to your own innocence is a lot harder than holding on to someone else's". Bono said, "With this record we were looking for the raw, naked and personal, to strip everything back." According to Bono, the tattoo on Mullen's upper arm is based on Native American mythology of the Pawnee tribe and is a symbol of protecting innocence. The cover parallels those of the band's earlier albums, "Boy" (1980) and "War" (1983), which featured the face of a young boy, Peter Rowen, the younger brother of Guggi.


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: The album's title, along with that of the group's 2017 follow-up, "Songs of Experience", are taken from William Blake's collection of poems "Songs of Innocence and of Experience".


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: In the days leading up to an Apple product launch event on 9 September 2014 in Cupertino, California, rumours circulated that U2 would be involved. A spokesperson for the band denied reports that they would perform at the event or that a new album would come preloaded on the anticipated new iPhone 6 smartphone. During the event, after the unveiling of the new iPhone and Apple Watch, U2 appeared on-stage and performed a new song entitled "The Miracle (of Joey Ramone)". Afterwards, Apple CEO Tim Cook joined them to make a surprise announcement that their 13th studio album, "Songs of Innocence", had been completed and would be digitally released that day to all iTunes Store customers at no cost. Bono called the album "a gift [from Apple]... to all their music customers", and said that the group wanted to "get [the album] to as many people as possible, because that's what our band is all about". The record was automatically added to the "purchased" section of users' iTunes music libraries. It was exclusive to iTunes and the streaming services iTunes Radio and Beats Music until 13 October 2014, when it was physically released and the no-cost promotion within the iTunes Store lapsed. The Edge called the album launch: "incredibly subversive. It's really punk rock, it's really disruptive." "Songs of Innocence" was made available to more than 500 million iTunes customers in 119 countries, for what Cook marketed as "the largest album release of all time".


title: Songs of Innocence (U2 album)

text: Bono rejected the notion that U2 had given the album away at no cost, saying: "We were paid. I don't believe in free music. Music is a sacrament." Apple reportedly paid a lump sum to the band and Universal Music Group (UMG) for a five-week exclusivity window in which to distribute "Songs of Innocence". According to "Billboard"s estimates, Apple could have paid either US$52 million to UMG for exclusive rights to the album based on the quantity of downloads, or an upfront fee of about $5 million excluding royalties. In addition, Apple agreed to a marketing campaign for the album reportedly worth around $100 million, which kicked off with a television advertisement featuring "The Miracle (of Joey Ramone)". Apple's partnership with U2 dates back to 2004; in promotion of the band's album "How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb", its first single, "Vertigo", was featured in an internationally aired iPod television advertisement, while a U2 iPod and an iTunes-exclusive U2 digital box set were also released. The release of "Songs of Innocence" drew comparisons to that of two 2013 records: Jay-Z's "Magna Carta Holy Grail", which was sponsored by Samsung; and Beyoncé's self-titled album, which also was released without any prior promotion or notice.