title: Institution

text: Economics, in recent years, has used game theory to study institutions from two perspectives. Firstly, how do institutions survive and evolve? In this perspective, institutions arise from Nash equilibria of games. For example, whenever people pass each other in a corridor or thoroughfare, there is a need for customs, which avoid collisions. Such a custom might call for each party to keep to their own right (or left—such a choice is arbitrary, it is only necessary that the choice be uniform and consistent). Such customs may be supposed to be the origin of rules, such as the rule, adopted in many countries, which requires driving automobiles on the right side of the road.


title: Institution

text: Secondly, how do institutions affect behaviour? In this perspective, the focus is on behaviour arising from a given set of institutional rules. In these models, institutions determine the rules (i.e. strategy sets and utility functions) of games, rather than arise as equilibria out of games. Douglass North argues, the very emergence of an institution reflects behavioral adaptations through his application of increasing returns. Over time institutions develop rules that incentivize certain behaviors over others because they present less risk or induce lower cost, and establish path dependent outcomes. For example, the Cournot duopoly model is based on an institution involving an auctioneer who sells all goods at the market-clearing price. While it is always possible to analyze behaviour with the institutions-as-equilibria approach instead, it is much more complicated.


title: Institution

text: In political science, the effect of institutions on behavior has also been considered from a meme perspective, like game theory borrowed from biology. A "memetic institutionalism" has been proposed, suggesting that institutions provide selection environments for political action, whereby differentiated retention arises and thereby a Darwinian evolution of institutions over time. Public choice theory, another branch of economics with a close relationship to political science, considers how government policy choices are made, and seeks to determine what the policy outputs are likely to be, given a particular political decision-making process and context. Credibility thesis purports that institutions emerge from intentional institution-building but never in the originally intended form. Instead, institutional development is endogenous and spontaneously ordered and institutional persistence can be explained by their credibility, which is provided by the function that particular institutions serve.


title: Institution

text: In history, a distinction between eras or periods, implies a major and fundamental change in the system of institutions governing a society. Political and military events are judged to be of historical significance to the extent that they are associated with changes in institutions. In European history, particular significance is attached to the long transition from the feudal institutions of the Middle Ages to the modern institutions, which govern contemporary life.


title: Institution

text: Scholars have proposed different approaches to the emergence of institutions, such as spontaneous emergence, evolution and social contracts. Some scholars argue that institutions can emerge spontaneously without intent as individuals and groups converge on a particular institutional arrangement. Other approaches see institutional development as the result of evolutionary or learning processes. Other scholars see institutions as being formed through social contracts or rational purposeful designs.


title: Institution

text: In order to understand why some institutions persist and other institutions only appear in certain contexts, it is important to understand what drives institutional change.


title: Institution

text: Acemoglu, Johnson and Robinson assert that institutional change is endogenous. They posit a framework for institutional change that is rooted in the distribution of resources across society and preexisting political institutions. These two factors determine de jure and de facto political power, respectively, which in turn defines this period's economic institutions and next period's political institutions. Finally, the current economic institutions determine next period's distribution of resources and the cycle repeats. Douglass North attributes institutional change to the work of "political entrepreneurs", who see personal opportunities to be derived from a changed institutional framework. These entrepreneurs weigh the expected costs of altering the institutional framework against the benefits they can derive from the change. North describes institutional change as a process that is extremely incremental, and that works through both formal and informal institutions. Lipscy argues that patterns of institutional change vary according to underlying characteristics of issue areas, such as network effects.


title: Institution

text: In a 2020 study, Johannes Gerschewski created a two-by-two typology of institutional change depending on the sources of change (exogenous or endogenous) and the time horizon of change (short or long). In another 2020 study, Erik Voeten created a two-by-two typology of institutional design depending on whether actors have full agency or are bound by structures, and whether institutional designs reflect historical processes or are optimal equilibriums.


title: Institution

text: North argues that because of the preexisting influence that existing organizations have over the existing framework, change that is brought about is often in the interests of these organizations. This produces a phenomenon called path dependence, which states that institutional patterns are persistent and endure over time. These paths are determined at critical junctures, analogous to a fork in the road, whose outcome leads to a narrowing of possible future outcomes. Once a choice is made during a critical juncture, it becomes progressively difficult to return to the initial point where the choice was made. James Mahoney studies path dependence in the context of national regime change in Central America and finds that liberal policy choices of Central American leaders in the 19th century was the critical juncture that led to the divergent levels of development that we see in these countries today. The policy choices that leaders made in the context of liberal reform policy led to a variety of self-reinforcing institutions that created divergent development outcomes for the Central American countries.


title: Institution

text: Though institutions are persistent, North states that paths can change course when external forces weaken the power of an existing organization. This allows other entrepreneurs to affect change in the institutional framework. This change can also occur as a result of gridlock between political actors produced by a lack of mediating institutions and an inability to reach a bargain. Artificial implementation of institutional change has been tested in political development but can have unintended consequences. North, Wallis, and Weingast divide societies into different social orders: open access orders, which about a dozen developed countries fall into today, and limited access orders, which accounts for the rest of the countries. Open access orders and limited access orders differ fundamentally in the way power and influence is distributed. As a result, open access institutions placed in limited access orders face limited success and are often coopted by the powerful elite for self-enrichment. Transition to more democratic institutions is not created simply by transplanting these institutions into new contexts, but happens when it is in the interest of the dominant coalition to widen access.


title: Institution

text: Ian Lustick suggests that the social sciences, particularly those with the institution as a central concept, can benefit by applying the concept of natural selection to the study of how institutions change over time. By viewing institutions as existing within a fitness landscape, Lustick argues that the gradual improvements typical of many institutions can be seen as analogous to hill-climbing within one of these fitness landscapes. This can eventually lead to institutions becoming stuck on local maxima, such that for the institution to improve any further, it would first need to decrease its overall fitness score (e.g., adopt policies that may cause short-term harm to the institution's members). The tendency to get stuck on local maxima can explain why certain types of institutions may continue to have policies that are harmful to its members or to the institution itself, even when members and leadership are all aware of the faults of these policies.


title: Institution

text: As an example, Lustick cites Amyx's analysis of the gradual rise of the Japanese economy and its seemingly sudden reversal in the so-called "Lost Decade". According to Amyx, Japanese experts were not unaware of the possible causes of Japan's economic decline. Rather, to return Japan's economy back to the path to economic prosperity, policymakers would have had to adopt policies that would first cause short-term harm to the Japanese people and government. Under this analysis, says Ian Lustick, Japan was stuck on a "local maxima", which it arrived at through gradual increases in its fitness level, set by the economic landscape of the 1970s and 80s. Without an accompanying change in institutional flexibility, Japan was unable to adapt to changing conditions, and even though experts may have known which changes the country needed, they would have been virtually powerless to enact those changes without instituting unpopular policies that would have been harmful in the short-term.


title: Institution

text: The lessons from Lustick's analysis applied to Sweden's economic situation can similarly apply to the political gridlock that often characterizes politics in the United States. For example, Lustick observes that any politician who hopes to run for elected office stands very little to no chance if they enact policies that show no short-term results. Unfortunately, there is a mismatch between policies that bring about short-term benefits with minimal sacrifice, and those that bring about long-lasting change by encouraging institution-level adaptations.


title: Institution

text: There are some criticisms to Lustick's application of natural selection theory to institutional change. Lustick himself notes that identifying the inability of institutions to adapt as a symptom of being stuck on a local maxima within a fitness landscape does nothing to solve the problem. At the very least, however, it might add credibility to the idea that truly beneficial change might require short-term harm to institutions and their members. David Sloan Wilson notes that Lustick needs to more carefully distinguish between two concepts: multilevel selection theory and evolution on multi-peaked landscapes. Bradley Thayer points out that the concept of a fitness landscape and local maxima only makes sense if one institution can be said to be "better" than another, and this in turn only makes sense insofar as there exists some objective measure of an institution's quality. This may be relatively simple in evaluating the economic prosperity of a society, for example, but it is difficult to see how objectively a measure can be applied to the amount of freedom of a society, or the quality of life of the individuals within.


title: Institution

text: The term "institutionalization" is widely used in social theory to refer to the process of embedding something (for example a concept, a social role, a particular value or mode of behavior) within an organization, social system, or society as a whole. The term may also be used to refer to committing a particular individual to an institution, such as a mental institution. To this extent, "institutionalization" may carry negative connotations regarding the treatment of, and damage caused to, vulnerable human beings by the oppressive or corrupt application of inflexible systems of social, medical, or legal controls by publicly owned, private or not-for-profit organizations.


title: Institution

text: The term "institutionalization" may also be used in a political sense to apply to the creation or organization of governmental institutions or particular bodies responsible for overseeing or implementing policy, for example in the welfare or development.


title: Roger E. Mosley

text: Roger Earl Mosley (; December 18, 1938 – August 7, 2022) was an American actor, director, and writer best known for his role as the helicopter pilot Theodore "T.C." Calvin in the CBS television series "Magnum, P.I.", which originally aired from 1980 until 1988.


title: Roger E. Mosley

text: Born on December 18, 1938, in Los Angeles, California, and raised by his mother, Eloise, Mosley grew up in the Imperial Courts public housing in the Watts neighborhood. For high school, Mosley attended Jordan High School.


title: Roger E. Mosley

text: Mosley appeared as Monk in "Terminal Island" (1973). Other actors in the feature were Phyllis Davis, Don Marshall, Ena Hartman, and Tom Selleck, who would later star in the television series "Magnum, P.I." which would also feature Mosley. In 1974, Mosley founded the Watts Repertory Company.


title: Roger E. Mosley

text: Mosley's most prominent film role was his 1976 starring turn as the title character in "Leadbelly", a biography of the musician directed by Gordon Parks. In an article in the November 1982 issue of "Ebony" magazine, Mosley said that this was his favorite role.


title: Roger E. Mosley

text: Mosley appeared in "Magnum, P.I." from 1980 to 1988. He had a role as Tom Selleck's friend, helicopter pilot Theodore "T.C." Calvin, who operates his own tourist charter, "Island Hoppers". He appeared in season five of "Las Vegas" as the billionaire friend of Montecito owner A.J. Cooper (Tom Selleck).


title: Roger E. Mosley

text: Mosley came out of retirement to appear on the "Magnum, P.I." reboot episode "A Kiss Before Dying" as Booky, T.C.'s barber, on March 11, 2019. Stephen Hill, who played T.C. in the new series, said, "It is truly an honor for us to welcome an original cast member of "Magnum, P.I."; one who embodied the role of T.C. with such thoughtful and dignified talent."


title: Roger E. Mosley

text: Mosley also guest-starred on such shows as "Night Court", "Kung Fu", "Starsky & Hutch", "Kojak", "The Rockford Files", "Baretta", and "Sanford and Son". He also played a role in "". Mosley made a memorable appearance in the 1973 film "The Mack" as the militant brother of the main character Goldie. He appeared in other blaxploitation films of the period, including "Hit Man" (1972); "Sweet Jesus, Preacherman" (1973); "Darktown Strutters" (1975); and "The River Niger" (1976).


title: Roger E. Mosley

text: Mosley's other film credits include "McQ" (1974) with John Wayne, "The Greatest" (1977, as Sonny Liston), "Semi-Tough" (1977), "Heart Condition" (1990), and "Pentathlon" (1994). He also starred in the television series "Hangin' with Mr. Cooper" (1992–1993) as Coach Ricketts in a recurring role with comedian/actor Mark Curry, and in the film "A Thin Line Between Love and Hate" (1996) with Martin Lawrence, Lynn Whitfield, and Bobby Brown.


title: Roger E. Mosley

text: He also appeared as a celebrity guest on "The $25,000 Pyramid" for a week's worth of shows in July 1983, July 1984, and June 1985.


title: Roger E. Mosley

text: Mosley became a certified private helicopter pilot. When making "Magnum, P.I.", he was not allowed to do his own stunts. A pilot wearing a body stocking with false muscles was used instead. Mosley did not smoke, use drugs or drink alcohol, and insisted that his "Magnum, P.I." character also did not.


title: Roger E. Mosley

text: At the 2013 HAI Heli-Expo in Las Vegas, a ceremony for the restored MD 500D helicopter was held. Both Mosley and fellow "Magnum, P.I." co-star Larry Manetti autographed the nose of the helicopter.


title: Roger E. Mosley

text: On July 27, 2022, Mosley was involved in a car accident in Lynwood, California, becoming paralyzed from the shoulders down. He died three days later from his injuries at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center at the age of 83.


The Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series is an annual award given to the best television comedy series of the year. From 1960 to 1964, this category was combined with the Comedy Specials (one time programs) category so that both type of programs competed for the same award during those years. The award goes to the producers of the series.


title: Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series

text: "The Flintstones" and "Family Guy" are the only animated sitcoms to be nominated for the award. As of 2020, "Fleabag" (United Kingdom) and "Schitt's Creek" (Canada) are the only shows from outside the United States to win this award.


text: The Big Three networks (ABC, CBS and NBC) have dominated the category. Only six other networks have won the award: HBO (once with "Sex and the City" and three times with "Veep") four times, Fox (with "Ally McBeal" and "Arrested Development") and Apple TV+ (with "Ted Lasso") twice, and Amazon Prime Video (with "The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel"), the BBC (with "Fleabag"; although seen later on Prime Video), and Pop TV (with "Schitt's Creek"; originally seen on CBC Television) once.


text: The following tables, divided by decade, show the winners listed first in colored row, followed by the other nominees of the "Comedy Series" award, according to the Primetime Emmy Awards database:


title: Jailbait images

text: Jailbait images are sexualized images of minors who are perceived to meet the definition of jailbait. Jailbait images can be differentiated from child pornography as jailbait images do not usually contain nudity. Jailbait depicts tween or young teen girls in skimpy clothing such as bikinis, short skirts, or underwear.


title: Jailbait images

text: The online distribution of jailbait images has caused legal and moral controversy, in some cases leading to the censorship of both the images and the word itself as a search term.


title: Jailbait images

text: The legal status of jailbait images is controversial. When questioned regarding their legality, legal analyst Jeffrey Toobin stated he thought it was not illegal, though legal expert Sunny Hostin was more skeptical, describing jailbait images as "borderline" child pornography which may be illegal. While the images may be legal, they are often considered to be in poor taste. Jailbait is amongst the list of banned hashtags at the photo-sharing website Instagram, and the social networking website Tumblr. The term is also blocked on Google Instant. Jailbait images have been defended on the grounds of free speech, and have also been defended on the grounds they are similar to mainstream sexualised images of minors, such as those in the music video for "...Baby One More Time" by Britney Spears, who was 16 years old at the time of filming. Jailbait images are often collected directly from girls' Facebook pages.


title: Jailbait images

text: Numerous webpages and forums are devoted to jailbait images. As well as uploading and sharing images, popular discussion topics at jailbait communities include ephebophilia, the difference between ephebophilia and pedophilia, and debating whether images of certain girls are too young or old to be classified as jailbait. "Vice magazine" commented on the lack of attention the press paid to the role popular jailbait image boards had on the suicide of Amanda Todd. An individual who was alleged to be harassing Todd prior to her suicide was tracked down by posts and images he uploaded to jailbait forums on the Internet. They also describe online jailbait communities as "a very insidious force on the Internet that is pitting overly clever pedophiles against insecure teenagers." They have also been said to "offer a window into a disturbing mindset." Self-identified pedophiles can be found in jailbait communities.


title: Jailbait images

text: The most infamous online jailbait community was the subreddit section "/r/jailbait" on the website Reddit. It was the first result when searching for "jailbait" on Google, and was at one point the second largest search term that brought visitors to Reddit, topped only by the word "Reddit" itself.


title: Jailbait images

text: The jailbait subreddit received widespread attention after Anderson Cooper devoted a segment of his TV program on September 29, 2011, to condemning both the subreddit itself and Reddit for hosting it. On October 10, 2011 the subreddit was shut down by Reddit administrators.


title: Coupe

text: The term "coupé" was first applied to horse-drawn carriages for two passengers without rear-facing seats. It comes from the French past participle of "couper", "cut".


title: Coupe

text: () is based on the past participle of the French verb ("to cut") and thus indicates a car which has been "cut" or made shorter than standard. It was first applied to horse-drawn carriages for two passengers without rear-facing seats. These or ("clipped carriages") were eventually clipped to .


title: Coupe

text: A coupe is a fixed-roof car with a sloping rear roofline and one or two rows of seats. However, there is some debate surrounding whether a coupe must have two doors for passenger egress or whether cars with four doors can also be considered coupes. This debate has arisen since the early 2000s, when four-door cars such as the Mazda RX-8 and Mercedes-Benz CLS-Class have been marketed as "four-door coupes" or "quad coupes", although the Rover P5 was a much earlier example, with a variant introduced in 1962 having a lower, sleeker roofline marketed as the Rover P5 Coupé.


title: Coupe

text: In the 1940s and 1950s, coupes were distinguished from sedans by their shorter roof area and sportier profile. Similarly, in more recent times, when a model is sold in both coupe and sedan body styles, generally the coupe is sportier and more compact.


title: Coupe

text: The 1977 version of International Standard ISO3833—"Road vehicles - Types - Terms and definitions"—defines a coupe as having two doors (along with a fixed roof, usually with limited rear volume, at least two seats in at least one row and at least two side windows). On the other hand, the United States Society of Automotive Engineers publication J1100 does not specify the number of doors, instead defining a coupe as having a rear interior volume of less than .


title: Coupe

text: The definition of coupe started to blur when manufacturers began to produce cars with a 2+2 body style (which have a sleek, sloping roofline, two doors, and two functional seats up front, plus two small seats in the back).


title: Coupe

text: Some manufacturers also blur the definition of a coupe by applying this description to models featuring a hatchback or a rear cargo area access door that opens upwards. Most often also featuring a fold-down back seat, the hatchback or liftback layout of these cars improves their practicality and cargo room.


title: Coupe

text: The coupe body style originated from the berline horse-drawn carriage. The coupe version of the berline was introduced in the 18th century as a shortened ("cut") version with no rear-facing seat. Normally, a coupe had a fixed glass window in the front of the passenger compartment. The coupe was considered an ideal vehicle for women to use to go shopping or to make social visits.


title: Coupe

text: The early coupe automobile's passenger compartment followed in general conception the design of horse-drawn coupes, with the driver in the open at the front and an enclosure behind him for two passengers on one bench seat. The French variant for this word thus denoted a car with a small passenger compartment.


title: Coupe

text: By the 1910s, the term had evolved to denote a two-door car with the driver and up to two passengers in an enclosure with a single bench seat. The coupé de ville, or coupe chauffeur, was an exception, retaining the open driver's section at front.


title: Coupe

text: In 1916, the Society of Automobile Engineers suggested nomenclature for car bodies that included the following:


title: Coupe

text: During the 20th century, the term coupe was applied to various close-coupled cars (where the rear seat that is located further forward than usual and the front seat further back than usual).


title: Coupe

text: Since 2005, several models with four doors have been marketed as "four-door coupes", however reactions are mixed about whether these models are actually sedans instead of coupes. According to Edmunds, an American automotive guide, "the four-door coupe category doesn't really exist."


title: Coupe

text: A "berlinetta" is a lightweight sporty two-door car, typically with two-seats but also including 2+2 cars.


title: Coupe

text: A club coupe is a two-door car with a larger rear-seat passenger area, compared with the smaller rear-seat area in a 2+2 body style.


title: Coupe

text: A hardtop coupe is a two-door car that lacks a structural pillar ("B" pillar) between the front and rear side windows. When these windows are lowered, the effect is like that of a convertible coupe with the windows down. The hardtop body style was popular in the United States from the early 1950s until the 1970s. It was also available in European and Japanese markets. Safety regulations for roof structures to protect passengers in a rollover were proposed, limiting development of new models. The hardtop body style went out of style with consumers while the automakers focused on cost reduction and increasing efficiencies.


title: Coupe

text: A two-door car with no rear seat or with a removable rear seat intended for traveling salespeople and other vendors carrying their wares with them. American manufacturers developed this style of a coupe in the late 1930s.


title: Coupe

text: A four-door fastback car with a coupe-like roofline at the rear. The low-roof design reduces back-seat passenger access and headroom. The designation was first used for the low-roof model of the 1962–1973 Rover P5, followed by the 1992–1996 Nissan Leopard / Infiniti J30. Recent examples include the 2005 Mercedes-Benz CLS, 2010 Audi A7 and 2012 BMW 6 Series Gran Coupe.


title: Coupe

text: Similarly, several cars with one or two small rear doors for rear seat passenger egress and no B-pillar have been marketed as "quad coupes". For example, the 2003 Saturn Ion and 2003 Mazda RX-8.


title: Coupe

text: Particularly popular in Europe, many cars are designed with coupe styling, but a three-door hatchback/liftback layout to improve practicality, including cars such as the Jaguar E-Type, Datsun 240Z, Toyota Supra, Mazda RX-7, Alfa Romeo Brera, Ford/Mercury Cougar and Volkswagen Scirocco.


title: Coupe

text: A two-door designed for driving to the opera with easy access to the rear seats. Features sometimes included a folding front seat next to the driver or a compartment to store top hats.


title: Coupe

text: Often they would have solid rear-quarter panels, with small, circular windows, to enable the occupants to see out without being seen. These opera windows were revived on many U.S. automobiles during the 1970s and early 1980s.


title: Coupe

text: The three-window coupe (commonly just "three-window") is a style of automobile characterized by two side windows and a backlight (rear window). The front windscreens are not counted. The three-window coupe has a distinct difference from the five-window coupe, which has an additional window on each side behind the front doors. These two-door cars typically have small-sized bodies with only a front seat and an occasional small rear seat.


title: Coupe

text: The style was popular from the 1920s until the beginning of World War II. While many manufacturers produced three-window coupes, the 1932 Ford coupe is often considered the classic hot rod.


title: Coupe

text: Some SUVs or crossovers with sloping rear rooflines are marketed as "coupe crossover SUVs" or "coupe SUVs", even though they have four side doors for passenger egress to the seats and rear hatches for cargo area access.


title: Coupe

text: In the United States, some coupes are "simply line-extenders two-door variants of family sedans", while others have significant differences to their four-door counterparts.


title: Coupe

text: The AMC Matador coupe (1974–1978) has a shorter wheelbase with a distinct aerodynamic design and fastback styling, sharing almost nothing with the conventional three-box design and more "conservative" four-door versions.


title: Coupe

text: Similarly, the Chrysler Sebring and Dodge Stratus coupes and sedans (late-1990 through 2000s), have little in common except their names. The coupes were engineered by Mitsubishi and built in Illinois, while the sedans were developed by Chrysler and built in Michigan. Some coupes may share platforms with contemporary sedans.


title: Coupe

text: Coupes may also exist as model lines in their own right, either closely related to other models, but named differently – such as the Alfa Romeo GT or Infiniti Q60 – or have little engineering in common with other vehicles from the manufacturer – such as the Toyota GT86.


title: Estée Lauder (businesswoman)

text: Estée Lauder ( ; ; July 1, 1908 – April 24, 2004) was an American businesswoman. She co-founded her eponymous cosmetics company with her husband, Joseph Lauter (later Lauder). Lauder was the only woman on "Time" magazine's 1998 list of the 20 most influential business geniuses of the 20th century.


title: Estée Lauder (businesswoman)

text: Lauder was born in Corona, Queens, New York City, the second child born to Rose Schotz and Max Mentzer. Her parents were Hungarian Jewish immigrants; on the mother's side her grandmother was from Sátoraljaújhely and her grandfather from (now Holice, Slovakia), while her father had Czech-Jewish ancestry. Lauder's claims of descent from European aristocracy were discredited in a biography, "Estée Lauder: Beyond the Magic" (1985) by Lee Israel; her "New York Times" obituary observed 'she was a New Yorker and not an aristocrat at all', notwithstanding 'the mythmaking that is so much of the magic of the beauty industry'. Her 'favourite story was that she had been brought up by her Viennese mother in fashionable Flushing, Long Island, in a sumptuous home with stables, a chauffeured car and an Italian nurse.'


title: Estée Lauder (businesswoman)

text: In actuality, her mother Rose emigrated from Hungary to the United States in 1898 with her five children to join her husband, Abraham Rosenthal. But, in 1905, she married Max Mentzer, a shopkeeper who had also immigrated to the United States in the 1890s. When their daughter was born, they wanted to name her , after her mother's favorite Hungarian aunt, but decided at the last minute to keep the name "Josephine", which they had agreed upon. However, the baby's nickname became "Estee", the name she would grow up using and responding to. Eventually, when she launched her perfume empire with her husband, she added an accent mark to make her name look French and began pronouncing it the way her father had in his Hungarian accent.


title: Estée Lauder (businesswoman)

text: Lauder graduated from Newtown High School in Elmhurst, Queens, New York, and much of her childhood was spent trying to make ends meet. Like most of her eight siblings, she worked at the family's hardware store, where she got her first taste of business, entrepreneurship, and what it takes to be a successful retailer. Her childhood dream was to become an actress with her "name in lights, flowers and handsome men".


title: Estée Lauder (businesswoman)

text: When Lauder grew older, she agreed to help her uncle, Dr. John Schotz, with his business. Schotz was a chemist, and his company, New Way Laboratories, sold beauty products such as creams, lotions, rouge, and fragrances. She became more interested in his business than her father's. She was fascinated watching her uncle create his products. He also taught her how to wash her face and do facial massages. After graduating from high school, she focused on her uncle's business.


title: Estée Lauder (businesswoman)

text: Lauder named one of her uncle's blends Super Rich All-Purpose Cream, and began selling the preparation to her friends. She sold creams like Six-In-One cold cream and Dr. Schotz's Viennese Cream to beauty shops, beach clubs and resorts. One day, as she was getting her hair done at the House of Ash Blondes, the salon's owner Florence Morris asked Lauder about her perfect skin. Soon, Estée returned to the beauty parlor to hand out four of her uncle's creams and demonstrate their use. Morris was so impressed that she asked Lauder to sell her products at Morris's new salon.


title: Estée Lauder (businesswoman)

text: In 1953, Lauder introduced her first fragrance, Youth-Dew, a bath oil that doubled as a perfume. Instead of using French perfumes by the drop behind each ear, women began using Youth-Dew by the bottle in their bath water. In the first year, it sold 50,000 bottles; by 1984, the figure had risen to 150 million.


title: Estée Lauder (businesswoman)

text: Lauder was a subject of a 1985 TV documentary, "Estée Lauder: The Sweet Smell of Success". Explaining her success, she said, "I have never worked a day in my life without selling. If I believe in something, I sell it, and I sell it hard."


title: Estée Lauder (businesswoman)

text: Lauder received the Knight class of the Legion of Honour from the Consul General of France, Gerard Causer. She was the first woman to receive the Chevalier Commendation this year, on January 16, 1978. She was inducted to the Junior Achievement U.S. Business Hall of Fame in 1988. She received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2004.


title: Estée Lauder (businesswoman)

text: Estée met Joseph Lauter when she was in her early twenties. On January 15, 1930, they married. Their surname was later changed from Lauter to Lauder. Their first child, Leonard, was born March 19, 1933. The couple separated then divorced in 1939 and she moved to Florida, but they remarried in 1942. Their second son, Ronald, was born in 1944. Estée and Joseph Lauder remained married until his death in 1982, and she later regretted her divorce, saying that she married young and assumed that she had missed out on life but soon found out that she had the "sweetest husband in the world".


title: Estée Lauder (businesswoman)

text: Leonard became the chief executive of Estée Lauder and then chairman of the board. Ronald was a Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense in the Reagan administration and was U.S. Ambassador to Austria in 1986–87. As of 2021, he is the president of the World Jewish Congress.


title: Wave function collapse

text: In quantum mechanics, wave function collapse occurs when a wave function—initially in a superposition of several eigenstates—reduces to a single eigenstate due to interaction with the external world. This interaction is called an "observation", and is the essence of a measurement in quantum mechanics, which connects the wave function with classical observables such as position and momentum. Collapse is one of the two processes by which quantum systems evolve in time; the other is the continuous evolution governed by the Schrödinger equation. Collapse is a black box for a thermodynamically irreversible interaction with a classical environment.


title: Wave function collapse

text: Calculations of quantum decoherence show that when a quantum system interacts with the environment, the superpositions "apparently" reduce to mixtures of classical alternatives. Significantly, the combined wave function of the system and environment continue to obey the Schrödinger equation throughout this "apparent" collapse. More importantly, this is not enough to explain "actual" wave function collapse, as decoherence does not reduce it to a single eigenstate.


title: Wave function collapse

text: Historically, Werner Heisenberg was the first to use the idea of wave function reduction to explain quantum measurement.


title: Wave function collapse

text: Before collapsing, the wave function may be any square-integrable function, and is therefore associated with the probability density of a quantum mechanical–system. This function is expressible as a linear combination of the eigenstates of any observable. Observables represent classical dynamical variables, and when one is measured by a classical observer, the wave function is projected onto a random eigenstate of that observable. The observer simultaneously measures the classical value of that observable to be the eigenvalue of the final state.


title: Wave function collapse

text: The quantum state of a physical system is described by a wave function (in turn—an element of a projective Hilbert space). This can be expressed as a vector using Dirac or bra–ket notation :


title: Wave function collapse

text: The kets formula_2 specify the different quantum "alternatives" available—a particular quantum state. They form an orthonormal eigenvector basis, formally


title: Wave function collapse

text: An observable (i.e. measurable parameter of the system) is associated with each eigenbasis, with each quantum alternative having a specific value or eigenvalue, formula_5, of the observable. A "measurable parameter of the system" could be the usual position formula_6 and the momentum formula_7 of (say) a particle, but also its energy formula_8, formula_9 components of spin (formula_10), orbital (formula_11) and total angular (formula_12) momenta, etc. In the basis representation these are respectively


title: Wave function collapse

text: The coefficients formula_13 are the probability amplitudes corresponding to each basis formula_2. These are complex numbers. The moduli square of formula_15, that is formula_16 (where formula_17 denotes complex conjugate), is the probability of measuring the system to be in the state


title: Wave function collapse

text: For simplicity in the following, all wave functions are assumed to be normalized; the total probability of measuring all possible states is one:


title: Wave function collapse

text: With these definitions it is easy to describe the process of collapse. For any observable, the wave function is initially some linear combination of the eigenbasis formula_19 of that observable. When an external agency (an observer, experimenter) measures the observable associated with the eigenbasis the wave function "collapses" from the full formula_20 to just "one" of the basis eigenstates, that is:


title: Wave function collapse

text: The probability of collapsing to a given eigenstate formula_22 is the Born probability, formula_23. Immediately post-measurement, other elements of the wave function vector, formula_24, have "collapsed" to zero, and


title: Wave function collapse

text: More generally, collapse is defined for an operator formula_25 with eigenbasis formula_26. If the system is in state formula_27, and formula_25 is measured, the probability of collapsing the system to eigenstate formula_29 and measuring the eigenvalue formula_30 of formula_29 with respect to formula_25 would be formula_33. Note that this is "not" the probability that the particle is in state formula_34; it is in state formula_27 until cast to an eigenstate of formula_25.


title: Wave function collapse

text: However, we never observe collapse to a single eigenstate of a continuous-spectrum operator (e.g. position, momentum, or a scattering Hamiltonian), because such eigenfunctions are non-normalizable. In these cases, the wave function will partially collapse to a linear combination of "close" eigenstates (necessarily involving a spread in eigenvalues) that embodies the imprecision of the measurement apparatus. The more precise the measurement, the tighter the range. Calculation of probability proceeds identically, except with an integral over the expansion coefficient formula_37. This phenomenon is unrelated to the uncertainty principle, although increasingly precise measurements of one operator (e.g. position) will naturally homogenize the expansion coefficient of wave function with respect to another, incompatible operator (e.g. momentum), lowering the probability of measuring any particular value of the latter.


title: Wave function collapse

text: Quantum decoherence explains why a system interacting with an environment transitions from being a pure state, exhibiting superpositions, to a mixed state, an incoherent combination of classical alternatives. This transition is fundamentally reversible, as the combined state of system and environment is still pure, but for all practical purposes irreversible, as the environment is a very large and complex quantum system, and it is not feasible to reverse their interaction. Decoherence is thus very important for explaining the classical limit of quantum mechanics, but cannot explain wave function collapse, as all classical alternatives are still present in the mixed state, and wave function collapse selects only one of them.


title: Wave function collapse

text: The concept of wavefunction collapse was introduced by Werner Heisenberg in his 1927 paper on the uncertainty principle, "Über den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und Mechanik", and incorporated into the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics by John von Neumann, in his 1932 treatise "Mathematische Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik". Heisenberg did not try to specify exactly what the collapse of the wavefunction meant. However, he emphasized that it should not be understood as a physical process. Niels Bohr also repeatedly cautioned that we must give up a "pictorial representation", and perhaps also interpreted collapse as a formal, not physical, process.


title: Wave function collapse

text: Consistent with Heisenberg, von Neumann postulated that there were two processes of wave function change:


title: Wave function collapse

text: In general, quantum systems exist in superpositions of those basis states that most closely correspond to classical descriptions, and, in the absence of measurement, evolve according to the Schrödinger equation. However, when a measurement is made, the wave function collapses—from an observer's perspective—to just one of the basis states, and the property being measured uniquely acquires the eigenvalue of that particular state, formula_38. After the collapse, the system again evolves according to the Schrödinger equation.


title: Wave function collapse

text: By explicitly dealing with the interaction of object and measuring instrument, von Neumann has attempted to create consistency of the two processes of wave function change.


title: Wave function collapse

text: He was able to prove the "possibility" of a quantum mechanical measurement scheme consistent with wave function collapse. However, he did not prove the "necessity" of such a collapse. Although von Neumann's projection postulate is often presented as a normative description of quantum measurement, it was conceived by taking into account experimental evidence available during the 1930s (in particular the Compton-Simon experiment was paradigmatic), but many important present-day measurement procedures do not satisfy it (so-called measurements of the second kind).


title: Wave function collapse

text: The cluster of phenomena described by the expression "wave function collapse" is a fundamental problem in the interpretation of quantum mechanics, and is known as the measurement problem.


title: Wave function collapse

text: In the Copenhagen Interpretation collapse is postulated to be a special characteristic of interaction with classical systems (of which measurements are a special case). Mathematically it can be shown that collapse is equivalent to interaction with a classical system modeled within quantum theory as systems with Boolean algebras of observables and equivalent to a conditional expectation value.


title: Wave function collapse

text: Everett's many-worlds interpretation deals with it by discarding the collapse-process, thus reformulating the relation between measurement apparatus and system in such a way that the linear laws of quantum mechanics are universally valid; that is, the only process according to which a quantum system evolves is governed by the Schrödinger equation or some relativistic equivalent.


title: Wave function collapse

text: A general description of the evolution of quantum mechanical systems is possible by using density operators and quantum operations. In this formalism (which is closely related to the C*-algebraic formalism) the collapse of the wave function corresponds to a non-unitary quantum operation. Within the C* formalism this non-unitary process is equivalent to the algebra gaining a non-trivial centre or centre of its centralizer corresponding to classical observables.


title: Wave function collapse

text: The significance ascribed to the wave function varies from interpretation to interpretation, and varies even within an interpretation (such as the Copenhagen Interpretation). If the wave function merely encodes an observer's knowledge of the universe then the wave function collapse corresponds to the receipt of new information. This is somewhat analogous to the situation in classical physics, except that the classical "wave function" does not necessarily obey a wave equation. If the wave function is physically real, in some sense and to some extent, then the collapse of the wave function is also seen as a real process, to the same extent.


title: Como

text: Como (, ; , or ; ; ; ) is a city and "comune" in Lombardy, Italy. It is the administrative capital of the Province of Como.


title: Como

text: Its proximity to Lake Como and to the Alps has made Como a tourist destination, and the city contains numerous works of art, churches, gardens, museums, theatres, parks, and palaces: the "Duomo", seat of the Diocese of Como; the Basilica of Sant'Abbondio; the Villa Olmo; the public gardens with the Tempio Voltiano; the Teatro Sociale; the "Broletto" or the city's medieval town hall; and the 20th-century Casa del Fascio.


title: Como

text: With 215,320 overnight guests in 2013, Como was the fourth-most visited city in Lombardy after Milan, Bergamo, and Brescia. In 2018, Como surpassed Bergamo becoming the third most visited city in Lombardy with 1.4 million arrivals.


title: Como

text: Como was the birthplace of many historical figures, including the poet Caecilius mentioned by Catullus in the first century BCE, writers Pliny the Elder and Pliny the Younger, Pope Innocent XI, scientist Alessandro Volta, and Cosima Liszt, second wife of Richard Wagner and long-term director of the Bayreuth Festival, and Antonio Sant'Elia (1888–1916), a futurist architect and a pioneer of the modern movement.


title: Como

text: The hills surrounding the current location of Como were inhabited, since at least the Iron Age, by a Celtic tribe known as the Orobii. Remains of settlements are still present on the wood-covered hills to the southwest of town.


title: Como

text: Around the first century BC, the territory became subject to the Romans. The town center was situated on the nearby hills, but it was then moved to its current location by order of Julius Caesar, who had the swamp near the southern tip of the lake drained and laid the plan of the walled city in the typical Roman grid of perpendicular streets. The newly founded town was named "Novum Comum" and had the status of "municipium". In September 2018, Culture Minister Alberto Bonisoli announced the discovery of several hundred gold coins in the basement of the former Cressoni Theater (Teatro Cressoni) in a two-handled soapstone amphora, coins struck by emperors Honorius, Valentinian III, Leo I the Thracian, Antonio and Libius Severus dating to 474 AD.


title: Como

text: In 774, the town surrendered to invading Franks led by Charlemagne, and became a center of commercial exchange.


title: Como

text: In 1127, Como lost a decade-long war with the nearby town of Milan. A few decades later, with the help of Frederick Barbarossa, the Comaschi were able to avenge their defeat when Milan was destroyed in 1162. Frederick promoted the construction of several defensive towers around the city limits, of which only one, the Baradello, remains.


title: Como

text: Subsequently, the history of Como followed that of the Duchy of Milan, through the French invasion and the Spanish domination, until 1714, when the territory was taken by the Austrians. Napoleon descended into Lombardy in 1796 and ruled it until 1815, when the Austrian rule was resumed after the Congress of Vienna. By 1848, the population had reached 16,000. In 1859, with the arrival of Giuseppe Garibaldi, the town became part of the newly formed Kingdom of Italy under the House of Savoy.


title: Como

text: At the end of World War II, after passing through Como on his escape towards Switzerland, Benito Mussolini was taken prisoner and then shot by partisans in Giulino di Mezzegra, a small town on the north shores of Lake Como.


title: Como

text: In 2010, a motion by members of the nationalist Swiss People's Party was submitted to the Swiss parliament requesting the admission of adjacent territories to the Swiss Confederation; Como (and its province) is one of these.


title: Como

text: The Rockefeller fountain that today stands in the Bronx Zoo in New York City was once in the main square (Piazza Cavour) by the lakeside. It was bought by William Rockefeller in 1902 for Lire 3,500 (the estimated equivalent then of $637).


title: Como

text: Situated at the southern tip of the south-west arm of Lake Como, the city is located north of Milan; the city proper borders Switzerland and the "communes" of Blevio, Brunate, Capiago Intimiano, Casnate con Bernate, Cernobbio, Grandate, Lipomo, Maslianico, Montano Lucino, San Fermo della Battaglia, Senna Comasco, Tavernerio, and Torno, and the Swiss towns of Chiasso and Vacallo. Nearby major cities are Varese, Lecco, and Lugano.


title: Como

text: According to the Köppen climate classification, Como has a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa"); winters are not long but present occasional periods of frost from the Siberian Anticyclone; spring and autumn are well marked and pleasant, while summer can be quite oppressive, hot, and humid. Wind is quite rare; only sudden bursts of foehn or thunderstorms manage to sweep the air clean. Pollution levels rise significantly in winter when cold air clings to the soil. Rain is more frequent during spring; summer is subject to thunderstorms and occasionally hailstorms.


title: Como

text: The legislative body of the Italian comuni is the City Council ("Consiglio Comunale"); in Como it comprises 32 councillors elected every five years with a proportional system, at the same time of the mayoral elections. The executive body is the City Committee ("Giunta Comunale"), composed by 9 "assessori" each overseeing a specific ministry, that is nominated and presided over by a directly elected Mayor ("Sindaco"). The mayor of Como since June 27, 2022, is Alessandro Rapinese, an independent leading an alliance bearing his name (Rapinese Sindaco), unaffiliated to any official political party.


title: Como

text: The economy of Como, until the end of the 1980s, was traditionally based on industry; in particular, the city was world-famous for its silk manufacturers, and in 1972 its production exceeded that of China and Japan, but since the mid-1990s increasing competition from Asia has significantly reduced profit margins and many small and mid-sized firms have gone out of business. As a consequence manufacturing is no longer the economic driver, and the city has been absorbed into Milan's metropolitan area where it mainly provides workers to the service industry sector. A significant number of residents are employed in the nearby Swiss towns Lugano and Mendrisio, primarily in the industrial sector, health care services and in the hospitality industry; the commute is beneficial as wages in Switzerland are notably higher. For these reasons, tourism has become increasingly important for the city's economy since the late 1990s, when local small businesses have gradually been replaced by bars, restaurants and hotels. The city and the lake have been chosen as the filming location for various recent popular feature films, and this, together with the increasing presence of celebrities such as Matt Bellamy who have bought lakeside properties, has heightened the city's attractiveness and given a further boost to international tourism; since the early 2000s the city has become a popular "must see" tourist destination in Italy.


title: Como

text: The city of Como has seen its population count increase until it peaked at almost 100,000 inhabitants in the 1970s, when manufacturing, especially the silk industry, was in its boom years. As production began to decline, the population tally decreased by almost 20,000 until the beginning of the 21st century, when the city saw its population grow again by more than six thousand units, generally due to increasing immigration from Asia, Eastern Europe and North Africa. As of October 2022, the population was 84,250 people of which 11,921 were resident aliens, that is, 14.1% of the total; the population distribution by origin was as follows:


title: Como

text: Polenta is a popular dish in Como, and was traditionally eaten for meals in winter time. It is obtained by mixing and cooking corn flour and buckwheat. It is usually served with meat, game, cheese and sometimes fish; in fact, "Polenta e Misultin" ("Alosa agone") is served in the restaurants in the Lake Como area.


title: Como

text: A traditional dish is the "Risotto con Filetti di Pesce Persico" or simply "Risotto al Pesce Persico" (European perch filet risotto), a fish grown in Lake Como, prepared with white wine, onion, butter and wheat.


title: Como

text: The Servizio Ferroviario Regionale (Regional Railway Service) connects Como by train to other major cities in Lombardy. Services are provided by Trenord through two main stations: Como San Giovanni and Como Nord Lago. There are five more urban stations (Albate-Camerlata, Albate-Trecallo, Como Borghi, Como Camerlata and Grandate-Breccia).


title: Como

text: Como San Giovanni is also a stop on the main north–south line between Milan Centrale and Zürich HB and Basel SBB. Intercity and EuroCity trains stop at this station, which makes Como very accessible from the European express train network.


title: Como

text: The lakeside funicular connects the center of Como with Brunate, a small village (1,800 inhabitants) on a mountain at above sea level.


title: Como

text: The local public transport network comprises 11 urban (within city limits) lines and 'extra-urban' (crossing city limits) (C) lines connecting Como with most of its province centers. They are provided by ASF Autolinee.


title: Como

text: Ferrovie Nord Milano also provides other bus lines connecting Como to Varese in substitution of the original railway line that was dismissed in the 1960s.


title: Como

text: The boats and hydrofoils ("aliscafi") of Navigazione Lago di Como connect the town with most of the villages sitting on the shores of the lake.


title: Como

text: Nearby airports providing scheduled flights are Malpensa, Milano Linate and Orio al Serio International Airport; Lugano Agno, in Switzerland, only offers direct flights to Switzerland and Italy and generally higher-priced business class or private jets.


title: Como

text: Como is home to the oldest seaplane operation in the world, the Aero Club Como (ICAO code LILY), with a fleet consisting of four seaplanes, used for flight training and local tour flights and four classic seaplanes of historical interest, a 1961 Cessna O-1 Bird Dog, a 1946 Republic RC-3 Seabee a 1947 Macchi M.B.308 "idro" and a perfectly restored 1935 Caproni Ca.100. A big hangar right next to the lake houses the club's fleet and is also used for aircraft maintenance and servicing.


title: Como

text: Como is home to numerous high schools, the Conservatory of music "Giuseppe Verdi", the Design school "Aldo Galli", the University of Insubria and a branch campus of the Politecnico di Milano.


title: Como

text: In Como there are three major hospitals: Ospedale Sant'Anna, Ospedale Valduce and Clinica Villa Aprica.


title: Como

text: Notable sports clubs are the ASDG Comense 1872 basketball team, two-time winner of the FIBA EuroLeague Women, and Calcio Como, a football team. There are also numerous recreational activities available for tourists such as pedal-boating, fishing, walking and seaplane rentals. Como also hosts a prestigious clay-court tennis tournament every year, the Città di Como Challenger, which attracts many of the world's top players who are not involved in the concurrent US Open. Many players have testified that they much prefer playing in the relaxed and friendly Como environs than the hustle and bustle of Flushing Meadows–Corona Park.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Egyptian Arabic, locally known as Colloquial Egyptian (, ), or simply Masri (also Masry) (), is the most widely spoken vernacular Arabic dialect in Egypt. It is part of the Afro-Asiatic language family, and originated in the Nile Delta in Lower Egypt. The ca. 100 million Egyptians speak a continuum of dialects, among which Cairene is the most prominent. It is also understood across most of the Arabic-speaking countries due to broad Egyptian influence in the region, including through Egyptian cinema and Egyptian music. These factors help to make it the most widely spoken and by far the most widely studied variety of Arabic.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: While it is primarily a spoken language, the written form is used in novels, plays and poems (vernacular literature), as well as in comics, advertising, some newspapers and transcriptions of popular songs. In most other written media and in radio and television news reporting, literary Arabic is used. Literary Arabic is a standardized language based on the language of the Qur'an, i.e. Classical Arabic. The Egyptian vernacular is almost universally written in the Arabic alphabet for local consumption, although it is commonly transcribed into Latin letters or in the International Phonetic Alphabet in linguistics text and textbooks aimed at teaching non-native learners. The dialect's phonetics, grammatical structure, and vocabulary are influenced by the Coptic language; its rich vocabulary is also influenced by European languages such as French, Italian, Greek, and English.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Egyptians generally call their vernacular "Arabic" ( , ) when juxtaposed with non-Arabic languages; "Colloquial Egyptian" (, ) or simply "Aamiyya" (, "colloquial") when juxtaposed with Standard Arabic and the Egyptian dialect (, ) or simply Masri (, , "Egyptian") when juxtaposed with other vernacular Arabic dialects. Sometimes it is also called Modern Egyptian language (, ).


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: The term Egyptian Arabic is usually used synonymously with ""Cairene Arabic"", which is technically a dialect of Egyptian Arabic. The country's native name, , is often used locally to refer to Cairo itself. As is the case with Parisian French, Cairene Arabic is by far the most prevalent dialect in the country.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Among the spoken varieties of Arabic, Standard Egyptian Arabic (based on the dialect of the Egyptian capital) is the only one to have become a lingua franca in other parts of the Arabic-speaking world primarily for two reasons: The proliferation and popularity of Egyptian films and other media in the region since the early 20th century as well as the great number of Egyptian teachers and professors who were instrumental in setting up the education systems of various countries in the Arabian Peninsula and also taught there and in other countries such as Algeria and Libya. Also, many Lebanese artists choose to sing in Egyptian.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Standard Egyptian Arabic, when used in documents, broadcast media, prepared speeches and sometimes in liturgical purpose, is heavily influenced by Cairene Arabic with loanwords of Modern Standard Arabic origin or code-switching between Cairene Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Arabic was spoken in parts of Egypt such as the Eastern Desert and Sinai before Islam. However, Nile Valley Egyptians slowly adopted Arabic as a written language following the Muslim conquest of Egypt in the seventh century. Until then, they had spoken either Koine Greek or Egyptian in its Coptic form. A period of Coptic-Arabic bilingualism in Lower Egypt lasted for more than three centuries. The period would last much longer in the south. Arabic had been already familiar to Valley Egyptians since Arabic had been spoken throughout the Eastern Desert and Sinai. Arabic was also a minority language of some residents of the Nile Valley such as Qift in Upper Egypt through pre-Islamic trade with Nabateans in the Sinai Peninsula and the easternmost part of the Nile Delta. Egyptian Arabic seems to have begun taking shape in Fustat, the first Islamic capital of Egypt, now part of Cairo.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: One of the earliest linguistic sketches of Cairene Arabic is a 16th-century document entitled "" (, "The Removal of the Burden from the Language of the People of Cairo") by Yusuf al-Maghribi (). With Misr here meaning Cairo. It contains key information on early Cairene Arabic and the language situation in Egypt in the Middle Ages. The main purpose of the document was to show that while the Cairenes' vernacular contained many critical "errors" vis-à-vis Classical Arabic, according to al-Maghribi, it was also related to Arabic in other respects. With few waves of immigration from the Arabian peninsula such as the Banu Hilal exodus, who later left Egypt and were settled in Morocco and Tunisia, together with the ongoing Islamization and Arabization of the country, multiple Arabic varieties, one of which is Egyptian Arabic, slowly supplanted spoken Coptic. Local chroniclers mention the continued use of Coptic as a spoken language until the 17th century by peasant women in Upper Egypt. Coptic is still the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Egyptian Arabic has no official status and is not officially recognized as a language (even though it has its own ISO language code). Standard Arabic is the official language of the state as per constitutional law with the name , lit. "Arabic language". Interest in the local vernacular began in the 1800s (in opposition to the language of the ruling class, Turkish), as the Egyptian national movement for self-determination was taking shape. For many decades to follow, questions about the reform and the modernization of Arabic were hotly debated in Egyptian intellectual circles. Proposals ranged from developing neologisms to replace archaic terminology in Modern Standard Arabic to the simplification of syntactical and morphological rules and the introduction of colloquialisms to even complete "Egyptianization" (, ) by abandoning the so-called Modern Standard Arabic in favor of Masri or Egyptian Arabic.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Proponents of language reform in Egypt included Qasim Amin, who also wrote the first Egyptian feminist treatise, former President of the Egyptian University, Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, and noted intellectual Salama Moussa. They adopted a modernist, secular approach and disagreed with the assumption that Arabic was an immutable language because of its association with the Qur'an. The first modern Egyptian novel in which the dialogue was written in the vernacular was Muhammad Husayn Haykal's "Zaynab" in 1913. It was only in 1966 that Mustafa Musharafa's "Kantara Who Disbelieved" was released, the first novel to be written entirely in Egyptian Arabic. Other notable novelists, such as Ihsan Abdel Quddous and Yusuf Idris, and poets, such as Salah Jahin, Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi and Ahmed Fouad Negm, helped solidify vernacular literature as a distinct literary genre.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Amongst certain groups within Egypt's elite, Egyptian Arabic enjoyed a brief period of rich literary output. That dwindled with the rise of Pan-Arabism, which had gained popularity in Egypt by the second half of the twentieth century, as demonstrated by Egypt's involvement in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War under King Farouk of Egypt. The Egyptian revolution of 1952, led by Mohammed Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser, further enhanced the significance of Pan-Arabism, making it a central element of Egyptian state policy. The importance of Modern Standard Arabic was reemphasised in the public sphere by the revolutionary government, and efforts to accord any formal language status to the Egyptian vernacular were ignored. Egyptian Arabic was identified as a mere dialect, one that was not spoken even in all of Egypt, as almost all of Upper Egypt speaks Sa'idi Arabic. Though the revolutionary government heavily sponsored the use of the Egyptian vernacular in films, plays, television programmes, and music, the prerevolutionary use of Modern Standard Arabic in official publications was retained.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Linguistic commentators have noted the multi-faceted approach of the Egyptian revolutionaries towards the Arabic language. Whereas Egypt's first president, Mohammed Naguib exhibited a preference for using Modern Standard Arabic in his public speeches, his successor, Gamal Abdel Nasser was renowned for using the vernacular and for punctuating his speeches with traditional Egyptian words and expressions. Conversely, Modern Standard Arabic was the norm for state news outlets, including newspapers, magazines, television, and radio. That was especially true of Egypt's national broadcasting company, the Arab Radio and Television Union, which was established with the intent of providing content for the entire Arab world, not merely Egypt, hence the need to broadcast in the standard, rather than the vernacular, language. The Voice of the Arabs radio station, in particular, had an audience from across the region, and the use of anything other than Modern Standard Arabic was viewed as eminently incongruous.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: In a study of three Egyptian newspapers (Al-Ahram, Al-Masry Al-Youm, and Al-Dustour) Zeinab Ibrahim concluded that the total number of headlines in Egyptian Arabic in each newspaper varied. Al-Ahram did not include any. Al-Masry Al-Youm had an average of 5% of headlines in Egyptian, while Al-Dustour averaged 11%.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: As the status of Egyptian Arabic as opposed to Classical Arabic can have such political and religious implications in Egypt, the question of whether Egyptian Arabic should be considered a "dialect" or "language" can be a source of debate. In sociolinguistics, Egyptian Arabic can be seen as one of many distinct varieties that, despite arguably being languages on grounds, are united by a common in Modern Standard Arabic (MSA).


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: During the early 1900s many portions of the Bible were published in Egyptian Arabic. These were published by the Nile Mission Press. By 1932 the whole New Testament and some books of the Old Testament had been published in Egyptian Arabic in Arabic script.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: The dialogs in the following novels are partly in Egyptian Arabic, partly in Standard Arabic: Mahmud Tahir Haqqi's "Adhra' Dinshuway" (; 1906), Yaqub Sarruf's "Fatat Misr" (; first published in Al-Muqtataf 1905–1906), and Mohammed Hussein Heikal's "Zaynab" (1914).


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Early stage plays written in Egyptian Arabic were translated from or influenced by European playwrights. Muhammad 'Uthman Jalal translated plays by Molière, Racine and Goldoni to Egyptian Arabic and adapted them as well as ten fables by Jean de La Fontaine. Yaqub Sanu translated to and wrote plays on himself in Egyptian Arabic.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Many plays were written in Standard Arabic, but performed in colloquial Arabic. Tawfiq al-Hakim took this a step further and provided for his Standard Arabic plays versions in colloquial Arabic for the performances. Mahmud Taymur has published some of his plays in two versions, one in Standard, one in colloquial Arabic, among them: "Kidb fi Kidb" (, 1951 or ca. 1952) and "Al-Muzayyifun" (, ca. 1953).


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: The writers of stage plays in Egyptian Arabic after the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 include No'man Ashour, Alfred Farag, , Rashad Roushdy, and Yusuf Idris. Thereafter the use of colloquial Egyptian Arabic in theater is stable and common. Later writers of plays in colloquial Egyptian include Ali Salem, and Naguib Surur.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Novels in Egyptian Arabic after the 1940s and before the 1990s are rare. There are by "Qantarah Alladhi Kafar" (, Cairo, 1965) and Uthman Sabri's (; 1896–1986) "Journey on the Nile" (, 1965) (and his "Bet Sirri" (, 1981) that apparently uses a mix of Standard Arabic and Egyptian Arabic).


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: The epistolary novel "Jawabat Haraji il-Gutt" (, 2001) by Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi is exceptional in its use of Saʽidi Arabic.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: 21th-century journals publishing in Egyptian Arabic include "Bārti" (from at least 2002), the weekly magazine "Idhak lil-Dunya" (, from 2005), and the monthly magazine (, from 2005).


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Sa'īdi Arabic is a different variety than Egyptian Arabic in Ethnologue.com and ISO 639-3 and in other sources, and the two varieties have limited mutual intelligibility. It carries little prestige nationally but continues to be widely spoken, with 19,000,000 speakers.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: The traditional division between Upper and Lower Egypt and their respective differences go back to ancient times. Egyptians today commonly call the people of the north ' () and those of the south ' (). The differences throughout Egypt, however, are more wide-ranging and do not neatly correspond to the simple division. The language shifts from the eastern to the western parts of the Nile Delta, and the varieties spoken from Giza to Minya are further grouped into a Middle Egypt cluster. Despite the differences, there are features distinguishing all the Egyptian Arabic varieties of the Nile Valley from any other varieties of Arabic. Such features include reduction of long vowels in open and unstressed syllables, the postposition of demonstratives and interrogatives, the modal meaning of the imperfect and the integration of the participle.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: The Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic variety of the western desert differs from all other Arabic varieties in Egypt in that it linguistically is part of Maghrebi Arabic. Northwest Arabian Arabic is also distinct from Egyptian Arabic.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Egyptian Arabic varies regionally across its "sprachraum", with certain characteristics being noted as typical of the speech of certain regions.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: The dialect of Alexandria (West Delta) is noted for certain shibboleths separating its speech from that of Cairo (South Delta). The ones that are most frequently noted in popular discourse are the use of the word "falafel" as opposed to "ṭa`meyya" for the fava-bean fritters common across the country and the pronunciation of the word for the Egyptian pound ( ), as , closer to the pronunciation of the origin of the term, the British guinea).


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: The speech of the older Alexandrian families is also noted for use of the first-person plural even when they speak in the singular, a feature of Maghrebi Arabic.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: The dialects of the western Delta tend to use the perfect with instead of the perfect with , for example for this is instead of .


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Port Said's dialect (East Delta) is noted for a "heavier", more guttural sound, compared to other regions of the country.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: The dialect of the Fellah in Northern Egypt is noted for a distinct accent, replacing the urban pronunciations of (spelled ) and ( ) with and respectively, but that is not true of all rural dialects, a lot of them do not have such replacement. The dialect also has many grammatical differences when contrasted to urban dialects.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Egyptian Arabic has a phonology that differs significantly from that of other varieties of Arabic, and has its own inventory of consonants and vowels.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: In contrast to CA and MSA, Egyptian Arabic nouns are not inflected for case and lack nunation (with the exception of certain fixed phrases in the accusative case, such as , "thank you"). As all nouns take their pausal forms, singular words and broken plurals simply lose their case endings. In sound plurals and dual forms, where, in MSA, difference in case is present even in pausal forms, the genitive/accusative form is the one preserved. Fixed expressions in the construct state beginning in "abu", often geographic names, retain their "-u" in all cases.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: A common set of nouns referring to colors, as well as a number of nouns referring to physical defects of various sorts ("ʔaṣlaʕ" "bald"; "ʔaṭṛaʃ" "deaf"; "ʔaxṛas" "dumb"), take a special inflectional pattern, as shown in the table. Note that only a small number of common colors inflect this way: "ʔaḥmaṛ" "red"; "ʔazraʔ" "blue"; "ʔaxḍaṛ" "green"; "ʔaṣfaṛ" "yellow"; "ʔabyaḍ" "white"; "ʔiswid" "black"; "ʔasmaṛ" "brown-skinned, brunette"; "ʔaʃʔaṛ" "blond(e)". The remaining colors are invariable, and mostly so-called "nisba" adjectives derived from colored objects: "bunni" "brown" (< "bunn" "coffee powder"); "ṛamaadi" "gray" (< "ṛamaad" "ashes"); "banafsigi" "purple" (< "banafsig" "violet"); "burtuʔaani" "orange" (< "burtuʔaan" "oranges"); "zibiibi" "maroon" (< "zibiib" "raisins"); etc., or of foreign origin: "beeع" "beige" from the French; "bamba" "pink" from Turkish "pembe".


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Egyptian Arabic object pronouns are clitics, in that they attach to the end of a noun, verb, or preposition, with the result forming a single phonological word rather than separate words. Clitics can be attached to the following types of words:


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: With verbs, indirect object clitic pronouns can be formed using the preposition "li-" plus a clitic. Both direct and indirect object clitic pronouns can be attached to a single verb: "agíib" "I bring", "agíb-hu" "I bring it", "agib-húu-lik" "I bring it to you", "m-agib-hu-lkíi-ʃ" "I do not bring it to you".


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Verbs in Arabic are based on a stem made up of three or four consonants. The set of consonants communicates the basic meaning of a verb. Changes to the vowels in between the consonants, along with prefixes and/or suffixes, specify grammatical functions such as tense, person, and number, in addition to changes in the meaning of the verb that embody grammatical concepts such as causative, intensive, passive or reflexive.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Each particular lexical verb is specified by two stems, one used for the past tense and one used for non-past tenses along with subjunctive and imperative moods. To the former stem, suffixes are added to mark the verb for person, number, and gender, while to the latter stem, a combination of prefixes and suffixes are added. (Very approximately, the prefixes specify the person and the suffixes indicate number and gender.) Since Arabic lacks an infinitive, the third person masculine singular past tense form serves as the "dictionary form" used to identify a verb. For example, the verb meaning "write" is often specified as "kátab", which actually means "he wrote". In the paradigms below, a verb will be specified as "kátab/yíktib" (where "kátab" means "he wrote" and "yíktib" means "he writes"), indicating the past stem ("katab-") and non-past stem ("-ktib-", obtained by removing the prefix "yi-").


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: The verb classes in Arabic are formed along two axes. One axis (described as "form I", "form II", etc.) is used to specify grammatical concepts such as causative, intensive, passive, or reflexive, and involves varying the stem form. For example, from the root K-T-B "write" is derived form I kátab/yíktib "write", form II káttib/yikáttib "cause to write", form III ká:tib/yiká:tib "correspond", etc. The other axis is determined by the particular consonants making up the root. For example, defective verbs have a W or Y as the last root consonant, which is often reflected in paradigms with an extra final vowel in the stem (e.g. ráma/yírmi "throw" from R-M-Y); meanwhile, hollow verbs have a W or Y as the middle root consonant, and the stems of such verbs appear to have only two consonants (e.g. gá:b/yigí:b "bring" from G-Y-B).


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Each verb has a given vowel pattern for Past (a or i) and Present (a or i or u). Combinations of each exist.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Form I verbs have a given vowel pattern for past (a or i) and present (a, i or u). Combinations of each exist:


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Note that, in general, the present indicative is formed from the subjunctive by the addition of "bi-" ("bi-a-" is elided to "ba-"). Similarly, the future is formed from the subjunctive by the addition of "ḥa-" ("ḥa-a-" is elided to "ḥa-"). The "i" in "bi-" or in the following prefix will be deleted according to the regular rules of vowel syncope:


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Boldfaced forms fíhm-it and fíhm-u differ from the corresponding forms of katab (kátab-it and kátab-u due to vowel syncope). Note also the syncope in ána fhím-t "I understood".


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Note that some other verbs have different stem variations, e.g. míʃi/yímʃi "walk" (with "i" in both stems) and báʔa/yíbʔa "become, remain" (with "a" in both stems). The verb láʔa/yilá:ʔi "find" is unusual in having a mixture of a form I past and form III present (note also the variations líʔi/yílʔa and láʔa/yílʔa).


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Verbs other than form I have consistent stem vowels. All such verbs have "a" in the past (hence form stems with "-é:-", not "-í:-"). Forms V, VI, X and IIq have "a" in the present (indicated by boldface below); others have "i"; forms VII, VIIt, and VIII have "i" in both vowels of the stem (indicated by italics below); form IX verbs, including "defective" verbs, behave as regular doubled verbs:


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Hollow have a W or Y as the middle root consonant. Note that for some forms (e.g. form II and form III), hollow verbs are conjugated as strong verbs (e.g. form II "ʕáyyin/yiʕáyyin" "appoint" from ʕ-Y-N, form III "gá:wib/yigá:wib" "answer" from G-W-B).


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: This verb works much like dárris/yidárris "teach". Like all verbs whose stem begins with a single consonant, the prefixes differ in the following way from those of regular and defective form I verbs:


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: In addition, the past tense has two stems: gíb- before consonant-initial suffixes (first and second person) and gá:b- elsewhere (third person).


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: This verb class is identical to verbs such as gá:b/yigí:b except in having stem vowel "u" in place of "i".


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Doubled verbs have the same consonant as middle and last root consonant, e.g. ḥább/yiḥíbb "love" from Ḥ-B-B.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: This verb works much like gá:b/yigí:b "bring". Like that class, it has two stems in the past, which are ḥabbé:- before consonant-initial suffixes (first and second person) and ḥább- elsewhere (third person). Note that "é:-" was borrowed from the defective verbs; the Classical Arabic equivalent form would be *ḥabáb-, e.g. *ḥabáb-t.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Other verbs have "u" or "a" in the present stem: baṣṣ/yibúṣṣ "to look", ṣaḥḥ/yiṣáḥḥ "be right, be proper".


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Assimilated verbs have W or Y as the first root consonant. Most of these verbs have been regularized in Egyptian Arabic, e.g. wázan/yíwzin "to weigh" or wíṣíl/yíwṣal "to arrive". Only a couple of irregular verbs remain, e.g. wíʔif/yúʔaf "stop" and wíʔiʕ/yúʔaʕ "fall" (see below).


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: "Doubly weak" verbs have more than one "weakness", typically a W or Y as both the second and third consonants. This term is in fact a misnomer, as such verbs actually behave as normal defective verbs (e.g. káwa/yíkwi "iron (clothes)" from K-W-Y, ʔáwwa/yiʔáwwi "strengthen" from ʔ-W-Y, dá:wa/yidá:wi "treat, cure" from D-W-Y).


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: In this section all verb classes and their corresponding stems are listed, excluding the small number of irregular verbs described above. Verb roots are indicated schematically using capital letters to stand for consonants in the root:


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Hence, the root F-M-L stands for all three-consonant roots, and F-S-T-L stands for all four-consonant roots. (Traditional Arabic grammar uses F-ʕ-L and F-ʕ-L-L, respectively, but the system used here appears in a number of grammars of spoken Arabic dialects and is probably less confusing for English speakers, since the forms are easier to pronounce than those involving "ʕ".)


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: The following table lists the prefixes and suffixes to be added to mark tense, person, number and gender, and the stem form to which they are added. The forms involving a vowel-initial suffix, and corresponding stem or , are highlighted in silver. The forms involving a consonant-initial suffix, and corresponding stem , are highlighted in gold. The forms involving a no suffix, and corresponding stem or , are unhighlighted.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: The following table lists the verb classes along with the form of the past and non-past stems, active and passive participles, and verbal noun, in addition to an example verb for each class.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: One characteristic feature of Egyptian syntax is the two-part negative verbal circumfix , which it shares with other North African dialect areas as well as some southern Levantine dialect areas, probably as a result of the influence of Egyptian Arabic on these areas:


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: The structure can end in a consonant or in a vowel , varying according to the individual or region. Nowadays speakers use . However, was sometimes used stylistically, specially in the past, as attested in old films.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: The negative circumfix often surrounds the entire verbal composite including direct and indirect object pronouns:


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Addition of the circumfix can cause complex changes to the verbal cluster, due to the application of the rules of vowel syncope, shortening, lengthening, insertion and elision described above:


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: In contrast with Classical Arabic, but much like the other varieties of Arabic, Egyptian Arabic prefers subject–verb–object (SVO) word order; CA and to a lesser extent MSA prefer verb–subject–object (VSO). For example, in MSA "Adel read the book" would be ' whereas EA would say ' .


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Also in common with other Arabic varieties is the loss of unique agreement in the dual form: while the dual remains productive to some degree in nouns, dual nouns are analyzed as plural for the purpose of agreement with verbs, demonstratives, and adjectives. Thus "These two Syrian professors are walking to the university" in MSA (in an SVO sentence for ease of comparison) would be "" "" , which becomes in EA "" "," .


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Unlike most other forms of Arabic, however, Egyptian prefers final placement of question words in interrogative sentences. This is a feature characteristic of the Coptic substratum of Egyptian Arabic.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Some authors have argued for the influence of a substratum of the Coptic language which was the native language of the vast majority of Nile Valley Egyptians prior to the Muslim conquest on Egyptian Arabic, specifically on its phonology, syntax, and lexicon. Coptic is the latest stage of the indigenous Egyptian language spoken until the mid-17th century when it was finally completely supplanted among Egyptian Muslims and a majority of Copts by the Egyptian Arabic.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Since Coptic lacked interdental consonants it could possibly have influenced the manifestation of their occurrences in Classical Arabic as their dental counterparts and the emphatic dental respectively. (see consonants)


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Behnstedt argues that the phenomenon of merging of interdentals with plosives has also occurred in areas without a substratum lacking interdentals, e.g. in Mecca, Aden and Bahrain, and can be caused by drift rather than the influence of a substratum concluding that "[o]n the phonological level, there is no evidence for Coptic substratal influence."


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: A syntactic feature of to Egyptian Arabic arguably inherited from Coptic is the remaining of wh-words (i.e. "who", "when", "why") in their "logical" positions in a sentence rather than being preposed, or moved to the front of the sentence, as in (mostly) in Classical Arabic or English.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: The same sentences in Literary Arabic (with all the question words ("wh"-words) in the beginning of the sentence) would be:


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Diem argues that in Cairene Arabic also the preposition of wh-words occurs and in Classical Arabic and other Arabic dialects also their postposition and thus the effect of a Coptic substratum might be – if at all – the preference for one of the two possibilities.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Where it is written in Arabic script the orthography varies between spellings closer to those of Standard Arabic and spellings closer to the phonology of Egyptian Arabic.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: This variability arises from the deficiency of the Arabic script for writing the colloquial Egyptian Arabic, for which it is not designed. Part of this is the unavailability of signs for some sounds of Egyptian Arabic that are not part of Standard Arabic.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: In the table below romanizations by different authors starting with Spitta's from 1880 are given as examples of the variety of those used.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: The use of transcribing glyphs among different authors and between those and a representation of Egyptian Arabic in Arabic script (in doubt is used above) can't be exactly aligned because different authors use different analyses of the studied language. Here also the table above tries to give a good approximation.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Egyptian Arabic is used in most social situations, with Modern Standard and Classical Arabic generally being used only in writing and in highly religious and/or formal situations. However, within Egyptian Arabic, there is a wide range of variation. El-Said Badawi identifies three distinct levels of Egyptian Arabic based chiefly on the quantity of non-Arabic lexical items in the vocabulary: "ʿĀmmiyyat al-Musaqqafīn" (Cultured Colloquial or Formal Spoken Arabic), "ʿĀmmiyyat al-Mutanawwirīn" (Enlightened or Literate Colloquial), and "ʿĀmmiyyat al-'Ummiyīn" (Illiterate Colloquial). Cultured Colloquial/Formal Spoken Arabic is characteristic of the educated classes and is the language of discussion of high-level subjects, but it is still Egyptian Arabic; it is characterized by use of technical terms imported from foreign languages and MSA and closer attention to the pronunciation of certain letters (particularly "qāf"). It is relatively standardized and, being closer to the standard, it is understood fairly well across the Arab world. On the opposite end of the spectrum, Illiterate Colloquial, common to rural areas and to working-class neighborhoods in the cities, has an almost-exclusively Arabic vocabulary; the few loanwords generally are very old borrowings (e.g. ', "shrimp", from Italian "gamberi", "shrimp" (pl.)) or refer to technological items that find no or poor equivalents in Arabic (e.g. ' , television). Enlightened Colloquial ("ʿĀmmiyyat al-Mutanawwirīn") is the language of those who have had some schooling and are relatively affluent; loanwords tend to refer to items of popular culture, consumer products, and fashions. It is also understood widely in the Arab world, as it is the "lingua franca" of Egyptian cinema and television.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: In contrast to MSA and most other varieties of Arabic, Egyptian Arabic has a form of the T-V distinction. In the singular, "enta"/"enti" is acceptable in most situations, but to address clear social superiors (e.g. older persons, superiors at work, certain government officials), the form "", meaning "Your Grace" is preferred (compare Spanish "usted").


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: This use of "" is linked to the system of honorifics in daily Egyptian speech. The honorific taken by a given person is determined by their relationship to the speaker and their occupation.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: Egyptian Arabic has been a subject of study by scholars and laypersons in the past and the present for many reasons, including personal interest, egyptomania, business, news reporting, and diplomatic and political interactions. Egyptian Colloquial Arabic (ECA) is now a field of study in both graduate and undergraduate levels in many higher education institutions and universities in the world. When added to academic instruction, Arabic-language schools and university programs provide Egyptian Arabic courses in a classroom fashion, and others facilitate classes for online study.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: el bani2admin kollohom mawlodin 7orrin we metsawyin fel karama wel 7o2u2. Etwahablohom el 3a2l wel damir, wel mafrud ye3amlo ba3dihom be ro7 el akhaweya.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: IPA phonetic transcription morphologically (in fast speech, long vowels are half-long or without distinctive length):


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: El-baniʔadmin kollohom mawludin ḥorrin we metsawjin fek-karama wel-ḥoquq. Etwahablohom el-ɛaql weḍ-ḍamir, wel-mafruḍ jeɛamlo baɛḍihom be roḥ el-acawejja.


title: Egyptian Arabic

text: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in the spirit of brotherhood.


title: Flame

text: A flame (from Latin "flamma") is the visible, gaseous part of a fire. It is caused by a highly exothermic chemical reaction taking place in a thin zone. When flames are hot enough to have ionized gaseous components of sufficient density they are then considered plasma.


title: Flame

text: Color and temperature of a flame are dependent on the type of fuel involved in the combustion, as, for example, when a lighter is held to a candle. The applied heat causes the fuel molecules in the candle wax to vaporize (if this process happens in inert atmosphere without oxidizer, it is called pyrolysis). In this state they can then readily react with oxygen in the air, which gives off enough heat in the subsequent exothermic reaction to vaporize yet more fuel, thus sustaining a consistent flame. The high temperature of the flame causes the vaporized fuel molecules to decompose, forming various incomplete combustion products and free radicals, and these products then react with each other and with the oxidizer involved in the reaction of the following flame (fire). One may investigate all the different parts of the flame from a candle with a cold metal spoon: Higher parts are water vapor, the result of combustion; yellow parts in the middle are soot; down just next to the candle wick is unburned wax. Goldsmiths use higher parts of a flame with a metallic blow-pipe for melting gold and silver. Sufficient energy in the flame will excite the electrons in some of the transient reaction intermediates such as the methylidyne radical (CH) and diatomic carbon (C), which results in the emission of visible light as these substances release their excess energy (see spectrum below for an explanation of which specific radical species produce which specific colors). As the combustion temperature of a flame increases (if the flame contains small particles of unburnt carbon or other material), so does the average energy of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the flame (see Black body).


title: Flame

text: Other oxidizers besides oxygen can be used to produce a flame. Hydrogen burning in chlorine produces a flame and in the process emits gaseous hydrogen chloride (HCl) as the combustion product. Another of many possible chemical combinations is hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide which is hypergolic and commonly used in rocket engines. Fluoropolymers can be used to supply fluorine as an oxidizer of metallic fuels, e.g. in the magnesium/teflon/viton composition.


title: Flame

text: The chemical kinetics occurring in the flame are very complex and typically involve a large number of chemical reactions and intermediate species, most of them radicals. For instance, a well-known chemical kinetics scheme, GRI-Mech, uses 53 species and 325 elementary reactions to describe combustion of biogas.


title: Flame

text: There are different methods of distributing the required components of combustion to a flame. In a diffusion flame, oxygen and fuel diffuse into each other; the flame occurs where they meet. In a premixed flame, the oxygen and fuel are premixed beforehand, which results in a different type of flame. Candle flames (a diffusion flame) operate through evaporation of the fuel which rises in a laminar flow of hot gas which then mixes with surrounding oxygen and combusts.


title: Flame

text: Flame color depends on several factors, the most important typically being black-body radiation and spectral band emission, with both spectral line emission and spectral line absorption playing smaller roles. In the most common type of flame, hydrocarbon flames, the most important factor determining color is oxygen supply and the extent of fuel-oxygen pre-mixing, which determines the rate of combustion and thus the temperature and reaction paths, thereby producing different color hues.


title: Flame

text: In a laboratory under normal gravity conditions and with a closed air inlet, a Bunsen burner burns with yellow flame (also called a safety flame) with a peak temperature of about . The yellow arises from incandescence of very fine soot particles that are produced in the flame. Also, carbon monoxide is produced, and the flame tends to take oxygen from the surfaces it touches. When the air inlet is opened, less soot and carbon monoxide are produced. When enough air is supplied, no soot or carbon monoxide is produced and the flame becomes blue. (Most of this blue had previously been obscured by the bright yellow emissions.) The spectrum of a premixed (complete combustion) butane flame on the right shows that the blue color arises specifically due to emission of excited molecular radicals in the flame, which emit most of their light well below ≈565 nanometers in the blue and green regions of the visible spectrum.


title: Flame

text: The colder part of a diffusion (incomplete combustion) flame will be red, transitioning to orange, yellow, and white as the temperature increases as evidenced by changes in the black-body radiation spectrum. For a given flame's region, the closer to white on this scale, the hotter that section of the flame is. The transitions are often apparent in fires, in which the color emitted closest to the fuel is white, with an orange section above it, and reddish flames the highest of all. A blue-colored flame only emerges when the amount of soot decreases and the blue emissions from excited molecular radicals become dominant, though the blue can often be seen near the base of candles where airborne soot is less concentrated.


title: Flame

text: Specific colors can be imparted to the flame by introduction of excitable species with bright emission spectrum lines. In analytical chemistry, this effect is used in flame tests to determine presence of some metal ions. In pyrotechnics, the pyrotechnic colorants are used to produce brightly colored fireworks.


title: Flame

text: When looking at a flame's temperature there are many factors which can change or apply. An important one is that a flame's color does not necessarily determine a temperature comparison because black-body radiation is not the only thing that produces or determines the color seen; therefore it is only an estimation of temperature. Other factors that determine its temperature are:


title: Flame

text: This is a rough guide to flame temperatures for various common substances (in air at 1 atm. pressure):


title: Flame

text: Dicyanoacetylene, a compound of carbon and nitrogen with chemical formula CN burns in oxygen with a bright blue-white flame at a temperature of , and at up to in ozone. This high flame temperature is partially due to the absence of hydrogen in the fuel (dicyanoacetylene is not a hydrocarbon) thus there is no water among the combustion products.


title: Flame

text: Cyanogen, with the formula (CN), produces the second-hottest-known natural flame with a temperature of over when it burns in oxygen.


title: Flame

text: At temperatures as low as , fuel-air mixtures can react chemically and produce very weak flames called cool flames. The phenomenon was discovered by Humphry Davy in 1817. The process depends on a fine balance of temperature and concentration of the reacting mixture, and if conditions are right it can initiate without any external ignition source. Cyclical variations in the balance of chemicals, particularly of intermediate products in the reaction, give oscillations in the flame, with a typical temperature variation of about , or between "cool" and full ignition. Sometimes the variation can lead to an explosion.