title: Charles Oakley

text: On February 8, 2017, Oakley was involved in an altercation at Madison Square Garden as the Knicks faced the visiting Los Angeles Clippers. According to the Knicks, Oakley was ejected from the arena after he is alleged to have yelled at James L. Dolan, the Executive Chairman of Madison Square Garden and MSG Networks, and refused to stop, an allegation he denies. There were also accounts of him hitting a security guard in his face and shoving another guard before being dragged away from the game and handcuffed. He was charged with three counts of misdemeanor assault and criminal trespassing. In a statement, the Knicks stated that Oakley "came to the game tonight and behaved in a highly inappropriate and completely abusive manner. He was ejected and was then arrested by the New York City Police Department."


title: Charles Oakley

text: In response, Oakley claimed that he sat down in his seat and he saw the Knicks owner James Dolan look at him and within four minutes he was being asked to leave the arena. He says that he didn't become combative until he was asked to leave for no apparent reason. While admitting "I shouldn't have put my hands on anyone," Oakley disputed the Knicks' rendition of events in an interview with ESPN's "The Undefeated", which reported that Oakley says he "never said a word to Dolan" and "was minding his own business when he was confronted by Madison Square Garden Security, who asked why he was sitting so close to Dolan before demanding that he leave the building."


title: Charles Oakley

text: On February 13, 2017, NBA legend Michael Jordan and NBA commissioner Adam Silver met with both Dolan and Oakley at NBA headquarters. Oakley and Dolan both apologized for the fallout and both were currently negotiating a truce. "Both Mr. Oakley and Mr. Dolan were apologetic about the incident and subsequent comments, and their negative impact on the Knicks organization and the NBA," Silver said. The statement says Dolan hopes Oakley can return to MSG as his guest in the near future. On February 14, 2017, the ban from Madison Square Garden was lifted. On September 12, 2017, it was reported that Oakley was filing a civil lawsuit over the incident. As of February 2022, the suit was still in litigation, according to Oakley.


title: Charles Oakley

text: Oakley later retorted on March 11, 2019, that Dolan is someone who tries to bully everyone because he has money and power as an owner of the Knicks, quoting that "it doesn't make sense." He also admits he has very little reason to hold any reconciliation with Dolan, noting his relationship with the Knicks was frayed before the incident occurred (though he still bought himself tickets for Knicks games a few times each season before the incident), while also saying nothing was really resolved from his meeting with Adam Silver. Oakley further notes the incident caused a damaged relationship with the team, to the point where the possibility of his jersey being retired was in jeopardy. This all came out after Dolan threatened to ban a fan from the arena for yelling at him to "sell the team" a few days prior.


title: Finite field

text: In mathematics, a finite field or Galois field (so-named in honor of Évariste Galois) is a field that contains a finite number of elements. As with any field, a finite field is a set on which the operations of multiplication, addition, subtraction and division are defined and satisfy certain basic rules. The most common examples of finite fields are given by the integers mod when is a prime number.


title: Finite field

text: The "order" of a finite field is its number of elements, which is either a prime number or a prime power. For every prime number and every positive integer there are fields of order formula_1 all of which are isomorphic.


title: Finite field

text: Finite fields are fundamental in a number of areas of mathematics and computer science, including number theory, algebraic geometry, Galois theory, finite geometry, cryptography and coding theory.


title: Finite field

text: A finite field is a finite set which is a field; this means that multiplication, addition, subtraction and division (excluding division by zero) are defined and satisfy the rules of arithmetic known as the field axioms.


title: Finite field

text: The number of elements of a finite field is called its "order" or, sometimes, its "size". A finite field of order exists if and only if is a prime power (where is a prime number and is a positive integer). In a field of order , adding copies of any element always results in zero; that is, the characteristic of the field is .


title: Finite field

text: If , all fields of order are isomorphic (see below). Moreover, a field cannot contain two different finite subfields with the same order. One may therefore identify all finite fields with the same order, and they are unambiguously denoted formula_2, or , where the letters GF stand for "Galois field".


title: Finite field

text: In a finite field of order , the polynomial has all elements of the finite field as roots. The non-zero elements of a finite field form a multiplicative group. This group is cyclic, so all non-zero elements can be expressed as powers of a single element called a primitive element of the field. (In general there will be several primitive elements for a given field.)


title: Finite field

text: The simplest examples of finite fields are the fields of prime order: for each prime number , the prime field of order , formula_3, may be constructed as the integers modulo, .


title: Finite field

text: The elements of the prime field of order may be represented by integers in the range . The sum, the difference and the product are the remainder of the division by of the result of the corresponding integer operation. The multiplicative inverse of an element may be computed by using the extended Euclidean algorithm (see ).


title: Finite field

text: Let be a finite field. For any element in and any integer , denote by the sum of copies of . The least positive such that is the characteristic of the field. This allows defining a multiplication formula_4 of an element of by an element of by choosing an integer representative for . This multiplication makes into a -vector space. It follows that the number of elements of is for some integer .


title: Finite field

text: (sometimes called the freshman's dream) is true in a field of characteristic . This follows from the binomial theorem, as each binomial coefficient of the expansion of , except the first and the last, is a multiple of .


title: Finite field

text: By Fermat's little theorem, if is a prime number and is in the field then . This implies the equality


title: Finite field

text: Any finite field extension of a finite field is separable and simple. That is, if is a finite field and is a subfield of , then is obtained from by adjoining a single element whose minimal polynomial is separable. To use a jargon, finite fields are perfect.


title: Finite field

text: A more general algebraic structure that satisfies all the other axioms of a field, but whose multiplication is not required to be commutative, is called a division ring (or sometimes "skew field"). By Wedderburn's little theorem, any finite division ring is commutative, and hence is a finite field.


title: Finite field

text: over the prime field . This means that is a finite field of lowest order, in which has distinct roots (the formal derivative of is , implying that , which in general implies that the splitting field is a separable extension of the original). The above identity shows that the sum and the product of two roots of are roots of , as well as the multiplicative inverse of a root of . In other words, the roots of form a field of order , which is equal to by the minimality of the splitting field.


title: Finite field

text: The uniqueness up to isomorphism of splitting fields implies thus that all fields of order are isomorphic. Also, if a field has a field of order as a subfield, its elements are the roots of , and cannot contain another subfield of order .


title: Finite field

text: "The order of a finite field is a prime power. For every prime power" "there are fields of order" , "and they are all isomorphic. In these fields, every element satisfies"


title: Finite field

text: It follows that contains a subfield isomorphic to if and only if is a divisor of ; in that case, this subfield is unique. In fact, the polynomial divides if and only if is a divisor of .


title: Finite field

text: Given a prime power with prime and , the field may be explicitly constructed in the following way. One first chooses an irreducible polynomial in of degree (such an irreducible polynomial always exists). Then the quotient ring


title: Finite field

text: More explicitly, the elements of are the polynomials over whose degree is strictly less than . The addition and the subtraction are those of polynomials over . The product of two elements is the remainder of the Euclidean division by of the product in .


title: Finite field

text: The multiplicative inverse of a non-zero element may be computed with the extended Euclidean algorithm; see Extended Euclidean algorithm § Simple algebraic field extensions.


title: Finite field

text: Except in the construction of , there are several possible choices for , which produce isomorphic results. To simplify the Euclidean division, one commonly chooses for a polynomial of the form


title: Finite field

text: which make the needed Euclidean divisions very efficient. However, for some fields, typically in characteristic , irreducible polynomials of the form may not exist. In characteristic , if the polynomial is reducible, it is recommended to choose with the lowest possible that makes the polynomial irreducible. If all these trinomials are reducible, one chooses "pentanomials" , as polynomials of degree greater than , with an even number of terms, are never irreducible in characteristic , having as a root.


title: Finite field

text: A possible choice for such a polynomial is given by Conway polynomials. They ensure a certain compatibility between the representation of a field and the representations of its subfields.


title: Finite field

text: In the next sections, we will show how the general construction method outlined above works for small finite fields.


title: Finite field

text: The smallest non-prime field is the field with four elements, which is commonly denoted or formula_12 It consists of the four elements formula_13 such that formula_14 formula_15 formula_16 and formula_17 for every formula_18 the other operation results being easily deduced from the distributive law. See below for the complete operation tables.


title: Finite field

text: and that and are the elements of that are not in . The tables of the operations in result from this, and are as follows:


title: Finite field

text: A table for subtraction is not given, because subtraction is identical to addition, as is the case for every field of characteristic 2.


title: Finite field

text: In the third table, for the division of by , the values of must be read in the left column, and the values of in the top row. (Because for every in every ring the division by 0 has to remain undefined.) From the tables, it can be see that the additive structure of is isomorphic to the Klein four-group, while the non-zero multiplicative structure is isomorphic to Z.


title: Finite field

text: is the non-trivial field automorphism, called Frobenius automorphism, which sends into the second root of the above mentioned irreducible polynomial formula_22


title: Finite field

text: For applying the above general construction of finite fields in the case of , one has to find an irreducible polynomial of degree 2. For , this has been done in the preceding section. If is an odd prime, there are always irreducible polynomials of the form , with in .


title: Finite field

text: More precisely, the polynomial is irreducible over if and only if is a quadratic non-residue modulo (this is almost the definition of a quadratic non-residue). There are quadratic non-residues modulo . For example, is a quadratic non-residue for , and is a quadratic non-residue for . If , that is , one may choose as a quadratic non-residue, which allows us to have a very simple irreducible polynomial .


title: Finite field

text: Having chosen a quadratic non-residue , let be a symbolic square root of , that is a symbol which has the property , in the same way as the complex number is a symbolic square root of . Then, the elements of are all the linear expressions


title: Finite field

text: with and in . The operations on are defined as follows (the operations between elements of represented by Latin letters are the operations in ):


title: Finite field

text: is irreducible over and , that is, it is irreducible modulo and (to show this, it suffices to show that it has no root in nor in ). It follows that the elements of and may be represented by expressions


title: Finite field

text: The addition, additive inverse and multiplication on and may thus be defined as follows; in following formulas, the operations between elements of or , represented by Latin letters, are the operations in or , respectively:


title: Finite field

text: is irreducible over , that is, it is irreducible modulo . It follows that the elements of may be represented by expressions


title: Finite field

text: (that is, is defined as a root of the given irreducible polynomial). As the characteristic of is , each element is its additive inverse in . The addition and multiplication on may be defined as follows; in following formulas, the operations between elements of , represented by Latin letters are the operations in .


title: Finite field

text: The field has eight primitive elements (the elements that have all nonzero elements of as integer powers). These elements are the four roots of formula_34 and their multiplicative inverses. In particular, is a primitive element, and the primitive elements are formula_35 with less than and coprime with 15 (that is, 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14).


title: Finite field

text: The set of non-zero elements in is an abelian group under the multiplication, of order . By Lagrange's theorem, there exists a divisor of such that for every non-zero in . As the equation has at most solutions in any field, is the highest possible value for .


title: Finite field

text: The structure theorem of finite abelian groups implies that this multiplicative group is cyclic, that is, all non-zero elements are powers of a single element. In summary:


title: Finite field

text: Such an element is called a primitive element. Unless , the primitive element is not unique. The number of primitive elements is where is Euler's totient function.


title: Finite field

text: The result above implies that for every in . The particular case where is prime is Fermat's little theorem.


title: Finite field

text: If is a primitive element in , then for any non-zero element in , there is a unique integer with such that


title: Finite field

text: While can be computed very quickly, for example using exponentiation by squaring, there is no known efficient algorithm for computing the inverse operation, the discrete logarithm. This has been used in various cryptographic protocols, see Discrete logarithm for details.


title: Finite field

text: When the nonzero elements of are represented by their discrete logarithms, multiplication and division are easy, as they reduce to addition and subtraction modulo . However, addition amounts to computing the discrete logarithm of . The identity


title: Finite field

text: allows one to solve this problem by constructing the table of the discrete logarithms of , called Zech's logarithms, for (it is convenient to define the discrete logarithm of zero as being ).


title: Finite field

text: Zech's logarithms are useful for large computations, such as linear algebra over medium-sized fields, that is, fields that are sufficiently large for making natural algorithms inefficient, but not too large, as one has to pre-compute a table of the same size as the order of the field.


title: Finite field

text: If is a positive integer, an -th primitive root of unity is a solution of the equation that is not a solution of the equation for any positive integer . If is a th primitive root of unity in a field , then contains all the roots of unity, which are .


title: Finite field

text: The field contains a th primitive root of unity if and only if is a divisor of ; if is a divisor of , then the number of primitive th roots of unity in is (Euler's totient function). The number of th roots of unity in is .


title: Finite field

text: In a field of characteristic , every th root of unity is also a th root of unity. It follows that primitive th roots of unity never exist in a field of characteristic .


title: Finite field

text: On the other hand, if is coprime to , the roots of the th cyclotomic polynomial are distinct in every field of characteristic , as this polynomial is a divisor of , whose discriminant is nonzero modulo . It follows that the th cyclotomic polynomial factors over into distinct irreducible polynomials that have all the same degree, say , and that is the smallest field of characteristic that contains the th primitive roots of unity.


title: Finite field

text: The field has several interesting properties that smaller fields do not share: it has two subfields such that neither is contained in the other; not all generators (elements with minimal polynomial of degree over ) are primitive elements; and the primitive elements are not all conjugate under the Galois group.


title: Finite field

text: The order of this field being , and the divisors of being , the subfields of are , , , and itself. As and are coprime, the intersection of and in is the prime field .


title: Finite field

text: The union of and has thus elements. The remaining elements of generate in the sense that no other subfield contains any of them. It follows that they are roots of irreducible polynomials of degree over . This implies that, over , there are exactly irreducible monic polynomials of degree . This may be verified by factoring over .


title: Finite field

text: The elements of are primitive th roots of unity for some dividing . As the 3rd and the 7th roots of unity belong to and , respectively, the generators are primitive th roots of unity for some in . Euler's totient function shows that there are primitive th roots of unity, primitive st roots of unity, and primitive rd roots of unity. Summing these numbers, one finds again elements.


title: Finite field

text: This shows that the best choice to construct is to define it as . In fact, this generator is a primitive element, and this polynomial is the irreducible polynomial that produces the easiest Euclidean division.


title: Finite field

text: is a -linear endomorphism and a field automorphism of , which fixes every element of the subfield . It is called the Frobenius automorphism, after Ferdinand Georg Frobenius.


title: Finite field

text: It has been shown in the preceding section that is the identity. For , the automorphism is not the identity, as, otherwise, the polynomial


title: Finite field

text: In terms of Galois theory, this means that is a Galois extension of , which has a cyclic Galois group.


title: Finite field

text: If is a finite field, a non-constant monic polynomial with coefficients in is irreducible over , if it is not the product of two non-constant monic polynomials, with coefficients in .


title: Finite field

text: As every polynomial ring over a field is a unique factorization domain, every monic polynomial over a finite field may be factored in a unique way (up to the order of the factors) into a product of irreducible monic polynomials.


title: Finite field

text: There are efficient algorithms for testing polynomial irreducibility and factoring polynomials over finite field. They are a key step for factoring polynomials over the integers or the rational numbers. At least for this reason, every computer algebra system has functions for factoring polynomials over finite fields, or, at least, over finite prime fields.


title: Finite field

text: factors into linear factors over a field of order . More precisely, this polynomial is the product of all monic polynomials of degree one over a field of order .


title: Finite field

text: This implies that, if then is the product of all monic irreducible polynomials over , whose degree divides . In fact, if is an irreducible factor over of , its degree divides , as its splitting field is contained in . Conversely, if is an irreducible monic polynomial over of degree dividing , it defines a field extension of degree , which is contained in , and all roots of belong to , and are roots of ; thus divides . As does not have any multiple factor, it is thus the product of all the irreducible monic polynomials that divide it.


title: Finite field

text: This property is used to compute the product of the irreducible factors of each degree of polynomials over ; see Distinct degree factorization.


title: Finite field

text: By the above formula, the number of irreducible (not necessarily monic) polynomials of degree over is .


title: Finite field

text: For every and every , the right hand side is positive, so there is at least one irreducible polynomial of degree over .


title: Finite field

text: In cryptography, the difficulty of the discrete logarithm problem in finite fields or in elliptic curves is the basis of several widely used protocols, such as the Diffie–Hellman protocol. For example, in 2014, a secure internet connection to Wikipedia involved the elliptic curve Diffie–Hellman protocol (ECDHE) over a large finite field. In coding theory, many codes are constructed as subspaces of vector spaces over finite fields.


title: Finite field

text: Finite fields are used by many error correction codes, such as Reed–Solomon error correction code or BCH code. The finite field almost always has characteristic of 2, since computer data is stored in binary. For example, a byte of data can be interpreted as an element of formula_46. One exception is PDF417 bar code, which is formula_47. Some CPUs have special instructions that can be useful for finite fields of characteristic 2, generally variations of carry-less product.


title: Finite field

text: Finite fields are widely used in number theory, as many problems over the integers may be solved by reducing them modulo one or several prime numbers. For example, the fastest known algorithms for polynomial factorization and linear algebra over the field of rational numbers proceed by reduction modulo one or several primes, and then reconstruction of the solution by using Chinese remainder theorem, Hensel lifting or the LLL algorithm.


title: Finite field

text: Similarly many theoretical problems in number theory can be solved by considering their reductions modulo some or all prime numbers. See, for example, Hasse principle. Many recent developments of algebraic geometry were motivated by the need to enlarge the power of these modular methods. Wiles' proof of Fermat's Last Theorem is an example of a deep result involving many mathematical tools, including finite fields.


title: Finite field

text: The Weil conjectures concern the number of points on algebraic varieties over finite fields and the theory has many applications including exponential and character sum estimates.


title: Finite field

text: Finite fields have widespread application in combinatorics, two well known examples being the definition of Paley Graphs and the related construction for Hadamard Matrices. In arithmetic combinatorics finite fields and finite field models are used extensively, such as in Szemerédi's theorem on arithmetic progressions.


title: Finite field

text: Fix an algebraic closure formula_49 of formula_50. The map formula_51 sending each to is called the th power Frobenius automorphism. The subfield of formula_49 fixed by the th iterate of formula_53 is the set of zeros of the polynomial , which has distinct roots since its derivative in formula_54 is , which is never zero. Therefore that subfield has elements, so it is the unique copy of formula_55 in formula_49. Every finite extension of formula_50 in formula_49 is this formula_55 for some , so


title: Finite field

text: Like any infinite Galois group, formula_63 may be equipped with the Krull topology, and then the isomorphisms just given are isomorphisms of topological groups.


title: Finite field

text: The image of formula_53 in the group formula_65 is the generator , so formula_53 corresponds to formula_67. It follows that formula_53 has infinite order and generates a dense subgroup of formula_63, not the whole group, because the element formula_67 has infinite order and generates the dense subgroup formula_71 One says that formula_53 is a topological generator of formula_63.


title: Finite field

text: Although finite fields are not algebraically closed, they are quasi-algebraically closed, which means that every homogeneous polynomial over a finite field has a non-trivial zero whose components are in the field if the number of its variables is more than its degree. This was a conjecture of Artin and Dickson proved by Chevalley (see Chevalley–Warning theorem).


title: Finite field

text: A division ring is a generalization of field. Division rings are not assumed to be commutative. There are no non-commutative finite division rings: Wedderburn's little theorem states that all finite division rings are commutative, and hence are finite fields. This result holds even if we relax the associativity axiom to alternativity, that is, all finite alternative division rings are finite fields, by the Artin–Zorn theorem.


title: Sally Jessy Raphael

text: Sally Lowenthal (born February 25, 1935), better known as Sally Jessy Raphael, is an American former tabloid talk show host known for her program "Sally" (originally called "The Sally Jessy Raphael Show").


title: Sally Jessy Raphael

text: Lowenthal was born in February 25, 1935 in Easton, Pennsylvania. She attended and graduated from Easton Area High School in Easton. She also spent time in San Juan, Puerto Rico, where her father, Jesse Lowenthal, was in the rum exporting business and her mother, Zelda Lowenthal (aka Dede Lowry), ran an art gallery. She has a younger brother, Steven Lowenthal.


title: Sally Jessy Raphael

text: She spent some of her teenage years in Scarsdale, New York, where one of her first media jobs was at the local AM radio station, WFAS. The station had a program by and for junior high school students and Raphael read the news. She attended Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and the University of Puerto Rico in San Juan. Raphael studied acting under the tutelage of Sanford Meisner at New York City’s Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre.


title: Sally Jessy Raphael

text: She took her mother's maiden name of Raphael as her professional name and plucked the theatrical surname of Jessy from her father's family.


title: Sally Jessy Raphael

text: Following her graduation from Columbia University, she became a news correspondent, covering Central America for the Associated Press and United Press International, thanks in large part to her ability to speak both English and Spanish fluently. She also obtained considerable experience in the media in Puerto Rico, where she worked in both radio and television. One of her first jobs was hosting a TV cooking show. While working in radio, she met the man who became her second husband, Karl Soderlund, who was the general manager of a radio station that hired her. After he was fired, the two left Puerto Rico to work in Miami. While Raphael was on the air as a radio announcer in Miami, she met and became friends with talk show host Larry King.


title: Sally Jessy Raphael

text: Raphael's broadcasting career was not an immediate success. She told numerous reporters over the years that she bounced around from station to station in both Puerto Rico and the United States, working as a disc jockey, news reporter, and the host of a show where she interviewed celebrities. She worked at 24 stations, and was fired from 18 of them. In the early 1980s, she was asked to do a call-in advice show on WMCA in New York City. In the late 1980s, she guest starred as herself in "The Equalizer" episode "Making of a Martyr".


title: Sally Jessy Raphael

text: Raphael's husband Karl Soderlund assumed the role of her manager, and was a partner in her two biggest successes. She hosted a radio call-in advice show distributed by NBC Talknet which ran from 1981 to 1987, but is best known for hosting the television talk show, "The Sally Jessy Raphael Show" (later shortened to "Sally"), which ran in first-run syndication from October 17, 1983, to May 24, 2002. "Talknet" was brand new when she came to the attention of producer Maurice Tunick. According to David Richards of "The Washington Post", Tunick had auditioned a number of potential hosts, but hadn't yet found the right one. Tunick gave Raphael a one-hour trial run on NBC's Washington, D.C., affiliate, WRC, in August 1981. Before going on the air, she decided that rather than doing a political show, she would give advice and discuss subjects she knew a lot about, such as relationship problems. Soon, her advice show was being heard on over 200 radio stations, and she developed a loyal group of fans.


title: Sally Jessy Raphael

text: One of those fans turned out to be talk show host Phil Donahue, who happened to hear her show one night and liked how she related to the audience. His encouragement led to a tryout on television, where producer Burt Dubrow gave her a chance to be a guest host on a talk show of his. She was not very polished, but people who had loved her radio show were very positive about her being on TV. Her non-threatening and common-sense manner appealed to Dubrow, who believed she would gain more confidence as she got some TV experience. By mid-October 1983, she was given her own show on KSDK-TV in St. Louis. "The Sally Jessy Raphael Show" was only a half-hour, but it was the beginning of her successful career as a talk show host.


title: Sally Jessy Raphael

text: Raphael became known to television viewers for her oversized red-framed glasses, a trademark that began entirely by accident. The source of her famous red-framed glasses goes all the way back to her first broadcast news job. Raphael had difficulty reading the teleprompter and, with five minutes before air time, quickly went to a store across the street from the studio to purchase a pair of reading glasses. The only one she could find was a red pair. While her bosses disliked them, the audience seemed to think they looked good, so she kept wearing that style from then on.


title: Sally Jessy Raphael

text: By 2000, both Raphael and Jerry Springer were in decline. As one media critic observed, Springer's ratings were the lowest they had been in three years, but Raphael's ratings were now the lowest they had been in 12 years. Raphael was already having problems with her syndicator: she believed that USA Networks Inc. was more interested in doing promotion for Springer, whose show was more popular than hers, and Maury Povich, who had recently left Paramount Television to join USA's syndication arm, than they ever were for her own show. She celebrated her 3,500th episode in early 1998. By March 2002, it was announced that, after an 18-year run, her show was being canceled. In 2002, Raphael was named by "Talkers Magazine" to both their 25 Greatest Radio Talk Show Hosts of all time (she was #5), and the 25 Greatest Television Talk Show Hosts of all time (she was #11). She was one of only three personalities to make both the radio and the TV lists.


title: Sally Jessy Raphael

text: From approximately 2005 to 2008, she hosted a daily radio show, "Sally Jessy Raphael on Talknet" (previously called "Sally JR's Open House"), on the Internet and in syndication to local radio stations. The show's flagship station was WVIE, Baltimore, Maryland, and the show aired on AM stations in New England, the Mid-Atlantic and the Midwest, in addition to at least one station in Arizona. The show also aired on XM Satellite Radio's America's Talk channel from November 19, 2007, until its end. The name "Talknet" is a revival of the name of NBC Talknet, the now-defunct radio network that carried her previous radio show from 1981 to 1987. She abruptly ended the show July 7, 2008.


title: Sally Jessy Raphael

text: On November 10, 2010, Raphael, along with former talk show hosts Phil Donahue, Geraldo Rivera, Ricki Lake and Montel Williams, were invited as guests on "The Oprah Winfrey Show".


title: Sally Jessy Raphael

text: Raphael offered to induct Rush Limbaugh into the Radio Hall of Fame when he was voted into the Hall in 1993. Surprised by the offer, Limbaugh accepted, only to see Raphael use her speech to speak out against the vote and excoriate Limbaugh. The following day, Paul Harvey used his radio program to defend Limbaugh, who was privately hurt by Raphael's betrayal. In an act of retribution, one of Limbaugh's staffers slipped a picture of Raphaël without her makeup or trademark glasses (taken from one of Raphael's staffers, as both hosts worked in the same studio at the time) onto Limbaugh's television program without his knowledge.


title: Sally Jessy Raphael

text: Raphael was married for the first time in 1953, at age 18, to Andrew Vladimir; they divorced five years later. They had two daughters, Allison and Andrea, and two grandchildren, Max and Kyle. Allison died at the age of 33 on February 2, 1992; her death was ruled an accidental overdose because of "combined effects of several prescribed drugs"


title: Sally Jessy Raphael

text: She married Karl Soderlund in 1962. He later became her manager. They have one son, Jason. They were married for 58 years until Soderland's death in 2020.


title: Humphry Davy

text: Sir Humphry Davy, 1st Baronet, (17 December 177829 May 1829) was a British chemist and inventor who invented the Davy lamp and a very early form of arc lamp. He is also remembered for isolating, by using electricity, several elements for the first time: potassium and sodium in 1807 and calcium, strontium, barium, magnesium and boron the following year, as well as for discovering the elemental nature of chlorine and iodine. Davy also studied the forces involved in these separations, inventing the new field of electrochemistry. Davy is also credited to have been the first to discover clathrate hydrates in his lab.


title: Humphry Davy

text: In 1799 he experimented with nitrous oxide and was astonished at how it made him laugh, so he nicknamed it "laughing gas" and wrote about its potential anaesthetic properties in relieving pain during surgery.


title: Humphry Davy

text: Davy was a baronet, President of the Royal Society (PRS), Member of the Royal Irish Academy (MRIA), Fellow of the Geological Society (FGS), and a member of the American Philosophical Society (elected 1810). Berzelius called Davy's 1806 Bakerian Lecture "On Some Chemical Agencies of Electricity" "one of the best memoirs which has ever enriched the theory of chemistry."


title: Humphry Davy

text: Davy was born in Penzance, Cornwall, in the Kingdom of Great Britain on 17 December 1778, the eldest of the five children of Robert Davy, a woodcarver, and his wife Grace Millett. According to his brother and fellow chemist John Davy, their hometown was characterised by "an almost unbounded credulity respecting the supernatural and monstrous ... Amongst the middle and higher classes, there was little taste for literature, and still less for science ... Hunting, shooting, wrestling, cockfighting, generally ending in drunkenness, were what they most delighted in."


title: Humphry Davy

text: At the age of six, Davy was sent to the grammar school at Penzance. Three years later, his family moved to Varfell, near Ludgvan, and subsequently, in term-time Davy boarded with John Tonkin, his godfather and later his guardian. Upon Davy's leaving grammar school in 1793, Tonkin paid for him to attend Truro Grammar School to finish his education under the Rev Dr Cardew, who, in a letter to Davies Gilbert, said dryly, "I could not discern the faculties by which he was afterwards so much distinguished." Davy entertained his school friends by writing poetry, composing Valentines, and telling stories from One Thousand and One Nights. Reflecting on his school days in a letter to his mother, Davy wrote, "Learning naturally is a true pleasure; how unfortunate then it is that in most schools it is made a pain." "I consider it fortunate", he continued, "I was left much to myself as a child, and put upon no particular plan of study ... What I am I made myself." His brother, moreover, claimed Davy possessed a "native vigour" and "the genuine quality of genius, or of that power of intellect which exalts its possessor above the crowd."


title: Humphry Davy

text: After Davy's father died in 1794, Tonkin apprenticed him to John Bingham Borlase, a surgeon with a practice in Penzance. While becoming a chemist in the apothecary's dispensary, he began conducting his earliest experiments at home, much to the annoyance of his friends and family. His older sister, for instance, complained his corrosive substances were destroying her dresses, and at least one friend thought it likely the "incorrigible" Davy would eventually "blow us all into the air."


title: Humphry Davy

text: In 1797, after he learned French from a refuge priest, Davy read Lavoisier's "Traité élémentaire de chimie." This exposure influenced much of his future work, which can be seen as reaction against Lavoisier's work and the dominance of French chemists.


title: Humphry Davy

text: As a poet, over one hundred and sixty manuscript poems were written by Davy, the majority of which are found in his personal notebooks. Most of his written poems were not published, and he chose instead to share a few of them with his friends. Eight of his known poems were published. His poems reflected his views on both his career and also his perception of certain aspects of human life. He wrote on human endeavours and aspects of life like death, metaphysics, geology, natural theology and chemistry.


title: Humphry Davy

text: John Ayrton Paris remarked that poems written by the young Davy "bear the stamp of lofty genius". Davy's first preserved poem entitled "The Sons of Genius" is dated 1795 and marked by the usual immaturity of youth. Other poems written in the following years, especially "On the Mount's Bay" and "St Michael's Mount", are descriptive verses, showing sensibility but no true poetic imagination.


title: Humphry Davy

text: Three of Davy's paintings from around 1796 have been donated to the Penlee House museum at Penzance. One is of the view from above Gulval showing the church, Mount's Bay and the Mount, while the other two depict Loch Lomond in Scotland.


title: Humphry Davy

text: At 17, he discussed the question of the materiality of heat with his Quaker friend and mentor Robert Dunkin. Dunkin remarked: 'I tell thee what, Humphry, thou art the most quibbling hand at a dispute I ever met with in my life.' One winter day he took Davy to the Larigan River, To show him that rubbing two plates of ice together developed sufficient energy by motion, to melt them, and that after the motion was suspended, the pieces were united by regelation. It was a crude form of analogous experiment exhibited by Davy in the lecture-room of the Royal Institution that elicited considerable attention. As professor at the Royal Institution, Davy repeated many of the ingenious experiments he learned from his friend and mentor, Robert Dunkin.


title: Humphry Davy

text: Although he initially started writing his poems, albeit haphazardly, as a reflection of his views on his career and on life generally, most of his final poems concentrated on immortality and death. This was after he started experiencing failing health and a decline both in health and career.


title: Humphry Davy

text: Davies Giddy met Davy in Penzance carelessly swinging on the half-gate of Dr Borlase's house, and interested by his talk invited him to his house at Tredrea and offered him the use of his library. This led to his introduction to Dr Edwards, who lived at Hayle Copper House. Edwards was a lecturer in chemistry in the school of St. Bartholomew's Hospital. He permitted Davy to use his laboratory and possibly directed his attention to the floodgates of the port of Hayle, which were rapidly decaying as a result of the contact between copper and iron under the influence of seawater. Galvanic corrosion was not understood at that time, but the phenomenon prepared Davy's mind for subsequent experiments on ships' copper sheathing. Gregory Watt, son of James Watt, visited Penzance for his health's sake, and while lodging at the Davys' house became a friend and gave him instructions in chemistry. Davy was acquainted with the Wedgwood family, who spent a winter at Penzance.


title: Humphry Davy

text: Thomas Beddoes and John Hailstone were engaged in a geological controversy on the rival merits of the Plutonian and Neptunist hypotheses. They travelled together to examine the Cornish coast accompanied by Davies Gilbert and made Davy's acquaintance. Beddoes, who had established at Bristol a 'Pneumatic Institution,' needed an assistant to superintend the laboratory. Gilbert recommended Davy, and in 1798 Gregory Watt showed Beddoes the "Young man's Researches on Heat and Light", which were subsequently published by him in the first volume of "West-Country Contributions". After prolonged negotiations, mainly by Gilbert, Mrs Davy and Borlase consented to Davy's departure, but Tonkin wished him to remain in his native town as a surgeon, and altered his will when he found that Davy insisted on going to Dr Beddoes.


title: Humphry Davy

text: In 1802, Humphry Davy had what was then the most powerful electrical battery in the world at the Royal Institution. With it, Davy created the first incandescent light by passing electric current through a thin strip of platinum, chosen because the metal had an extremely high melting point. It was neither sufficiently bright nor long lasting enough to be of practical use, but demonstrated the principle. By 1806 he was able to demonstrate a much more powerful form of electric lighting to the Royal Society in London. It was an early form of arc light which produced its illumination from an electric arc created between two charcoal rods.


title: Humphry Davy

text: On 2 October 1798, Davy joined the Pneumatic Institution at Bristol. It had been established to investigate the medical powers of factitious airs and gases (gases produced experimentally or artificially), and Davy was to superintend the various experiments. The arrangement agreed between Dr Beddoes and Davy was generous, and enabled Davy to give up all claims on his paternal property in favour of his mother. He did not intend to abandon the medical profession and was determined to study and graduate at Edinburgh, but he soon began to fill parts of the institution with voltaic batteries. While living in Bristol, Davy met the Earl of Durham, who was a resident in the institution for his health, and became close friends with Gregory Watt, James Watt, Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Robert Southey, all of whom became regular users of nitrous oxide (laughing gas). The gas was first synthesised in 1772 by the natural philosopher and chemist Joseph Priestley, who called it "phlogisticated nitrous air" (see phlogiston). Priestley described his discovery in the book "Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air (1775)", in which he described how to produce the preparation of "nitrous air diminished", by heating iron filings dampened with nitric acid.


title: Humphry Davy

text: James Watt built a portable gas chamber to facilitate Davy's experiments with the inhalation of nitrous oxide. At one point the gas was combined with wine to judge its efficacy as a cure for hangover (his laboratory notebook indicated success). The gas was popular among Davy's friends and acquaintances, and he noted that it might be useful for performing surgical operations. Anesthetics were not regularly used in medicine or dentistry until decades after Davy's death.


title: Humphry Davy

text: Davy threw himself energetically into the work of the laboratory and formed a long romantic friendship with Mrs Anna Beddoes, the novelist Maria Edgeworth's sister, who acted as his guide on walks and other fine sights of the locality. The critic Maurice Hindle was the first to reveal that Davy and Anna had written poems for each other. Wahida Amin has transcribed and discussed a number of poems written between 1803 and 1808 to "Anna" and one to her infant child. In December 1799 Davy visited London for the first time and extended his circle of friends. Davy features in the diary of William Godwin, with their first meeting recorded for 4 December 1799.


title: Humphry Davy

text: In the gas experiments Davy ran considerable risks. His respiration of nitric oxide which may have combined with air in the mouth to form nitric acid (HNO), severely injured the mucous membrane, and in Davy's attempt to inhale four quarts of "pure hydrocarbonate" gas in an experiment with carbon monoxide he "seemed sinking into annihilation." On being removed into the open air, Davy faintly articulated, "I do not think I shall die," but some hours elapsed before the painful symptoms ceased. Davy was able to take his own pulse as he staggered out of the laboratory and into the garden, and he described it in his notes as "threadlike and beating with excessive quickness".


title: Humphry Davy

text: In this year the first volume of the "West-Country Collections" was issued. Half consisted of Davy's essays "On Heat, Light, and the Combinations of Light", "On Phos-oxygen and its Combinations", and on the "Theory of Respiration". On 22 February 1799 Davy, wrote to Davies Gilbert, "I am now as much convinced of the non-existence of caloric as I am of the existence of light." In another letter to Gilbert, on 10 April, Davy informs him: "I made a discovery yesterday which proves how necessary it is to repeat experiments. The gaseous oxide of azote (the laughing gas) is perfectly respirable when pure. It is never deleterious but when it contains nitrous gas. I have found a mode of making it pure." He said that he breathed sixteen quarts of it for nearly seven minutes, and that it "absolutely intoxicated me."


title: Humphry Davy

text: Davy became increasingly well known in 1799 due to his experiments with the physiological action of some gases, including laughing gas (nitrous oxide). In addition to himself, his enthusiastic experimental subjects included his poet friends Robert Southey and Samuel Taylor Coleridge.


title: Humphry Davy

text: During 1799, Beddoes and Davy published "Contributions to physical and medical knowledge, principally from the west of England" and "Essays on heat, light, and the combinations of light, with a new theory of respiration. On the generation of oxygen gas, and the causes of the colors of organic beings." Their experimental work was poor, and the publications were harshly criticised. In after years Davy regretted he had ever published these immature hypotheses, which he subsequently designated "the dreams of misemployed genius which the light of experiment and observation has never conducted to truth."


title: Humphry Davy

text: These criticisms, however, led Davy to refine and improve his experimental techniques, spending his later time at the institution increasingly in experimentation.


title: Humphry Davy

text: In 1800, Davy informed Gilbert that he had been "repeating the galvanic experiments with success" in the intervals of the experiments on the gases, which "almost incessantly occupied him from January to April." In 1800, Davy published his "Researches, Chemical and Philosophical, chiefly concerning Nitrous Oxide and its Respiration", and received a more positive response.


title: Humphry Davy

text: William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge moved to the Lake District in 1800, and asked Davy to deal with the Bristol publishers of the "Lyrical Ballads", Biggs & Cottle. Coleridge asked Davy to proofread the second edition, the first to contain Wordsworth's "Preface to the Lyrical Ballads", in a letter dated 16 July 1800: "Will you be so kind as just to look over the sheets of the lyrical Ballads". Wordsworth subsequently wrote to Davy on 29 July 1800, sending him the first manuscript sheet of poems and asking him specifically to correct: "any thing you find amiss in the punctuation a business at which I am ashamed to say I am no adept". Wordsworth was ill in the autumn of 1800 and slow in sending poems for the second edition; the volume appeared on 26 January 1801 even though it was dated 1800. While it is impossible to know whether Davy was at fault, this edition of the Lyrical Ballads contained many errors, including the poem "Michael" being left incomplete. In a personal notebook marked on the front cover "Clifton 1800 From August to Novr", Davy wrote his own Lyrical Ballad: "As I was walking up the street". Wordsworth features in Davy's poem as the recorder of ordinary lives in the line: "By poet Wordsworths Rymes" [sic].


title: Humphry Davy

text: In 1799, Count Rumford had proposed the establishment in London of an 'Institution for Diffusing Knowledge', i.e. the Royal Institution. The house in Albemarle Street was bought in April 1799. Rumford became secretary to the institution, and Dr Thomas Garnett was the first lecturer.


title: Humphry Davy

text: In February 1801 Davy was interviewed by the committee of the Royal Institution, comprising Joseph Banks, Benjamin Thompson (who had been appointed Count Rumford) and Henry Cavendish. Davy wrote to Davies Gilbert on 8 March 1801 about the offers made by Banks and Thompson, a possible move to London and the promise of funding for his work in galvanism. He also mentioned that he might not be collaborating further with Beddoes on therapeutic gases. The next day Davy left Bristol to take up his new post at the Royal Institution, it having been resolved 'that Humphry Davy be engaged in the service of the Royal Institution in the capacity of assistant lecturer in chemistry, director of the chemical laboratory, and assistant editor of the journals of the institution, and that he be allowed to occupy a room in the house, and be furnished with coals and candles, and that he be paid a salary of 100l. per annum.'


title: Humphry Davy

text: On 25 April 1801, Davy gave his first lecture on the relatively new subject of 'Galvanism'. He and his friend Coleridge had had many conversations about the nature of human knowledge and progress, and Davy's lectures gave his audience a vision of human civilisation brought forward by scientific discovery. "It [science] has bestowed on him powers which may almost be called creative; which have enabled him to modify and change the beings surrounding him, and by his experiments to interrogate nature with power, not simply as a scholar, passive and seeking only to understand her operations, but rather as a master, active with his own instruments." The first lecture garnered rave reviews, and by the June lecture Davy wrote to John King that his last lecture had attendance of nearly 500 people. "There was Respiration, Nitrous Oxide, and unbounded Applause. Amen!"


title: Humphry Davy

text: Davy's lectures included spectacular and sometimes dangerous chemical demonstrations along with scientific information, and were presented with considerable showmanship by the young and handsome man.


title: Humphry Davy

text: Davy also included both poetic and religious commentary in his lectures, emphasizing that God's design was revealed by chemical investigations. Religious commentary was in part an attempt to appeal to women in his audiences. Davy, like many of his enlightenment contemporaries, supported female education and women's involvement in scientific pursuits, even proposing that women be admitted to evening events at the Royal Society.


title: Humphry Davy

text: Davy acquired a large female following around London. In a satirical cartoon by Gillray, nearly half of the attendees pictured are female. His support of women caused Davy to be subjected to considerable gossip and innuendo, and to be criticised as unmanly.


title: Humphry Davy

text: When Davy's lecture series on Galvanism ended, he progressed to a new series on Agricultural Chemistry, and his popularity continued to skyrocket. By June 1802, after just over a year at the Institution and at the age of 23, Davy was nominated to full lecturer at the Royal Institution of Great Britain. Garnett quietly resigned, citing health reasons.


title: Humphry Davy

text: In November 1804 Davy became a Fellow of the Royal Society, over which he would later preside. He was one of the founding members of the Geological Society in 1807 and was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1810 and a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1822.


title: Humphry Davy

text: In June 1802 Davy published in the first issue of the "Journals of the Royal Institution of Great Britain" his "An Account of a Method of Copying Paintings upon Glass, and of Making Profiles, by the Agency of Light upon Nitrate of Silver. Invented by T. Wedgwood, Esq. With Observations by H. Davy" in which he described their experiments with the photosensitivity of silver nitrate.


title: Humphry Davy

text: He recorded that "images of small objects, produced by means of the solar microscope, may be copied without difficulty on prepared paper." Josef Maria Eder, in his "History of Photography," though crediting Wedgwood, because of his application of this quality of silver nitrate to the making of images, as "the first photographer in the world," proposes that it was Davy who realised the idea of photographic enlargement using a solar microscope to project images onto sensitised paper. Neither found a means of fixing their images, and Davy devoted no more of his time to furthering these early discoveries in photography.


title: Humphry Davy

text: The principle of image projection using solar illumination was applied to the construction of the earliest form of photographic enlarger, the "solar camera".


title: Humphry Davy

text: Davy was a pioneer in the field of electrolysis using the voltaic pile to split common compounds and thus prepare many new elements. He went on to electrolyse molten salts and discovered several new metals, including sodium and potassium, highly reactive elements known as the alkali metals. Davy discovered potassium in 1807, deriving it from caustic potash (KOH). Before the 19th century, no distinction had been made between potassium and sodium. Potassium was the first metal that was isolated by electrolysis. Davy isolated sodium in the same year by passing an electric current through molten sodium hydroxide.


title: Humphry Davy

text: During the first half of 1808, Davy conducted a series of further electrolysis experiments on alkaline earths including lime, magnesia, strontites and barytes. At the beginning of June, Davy received a letter from the Swedish chemist Berzelius claiming that he, in conjunction with Dr. Pontin, had successfully obtained amalgams of calcium and barium by electrolysing lime and barytes using a mercury cathode. Davy managed to successfully repeat these experiments almost immediately and expanded Berzelius' method to strontites and magnesia. He noted that while these amalgams oxidised in only a few minutes when exposed to air they could be preserved for lengthy periods of time when submerged in naphtha before becoming covered with a white crust.


title: Humphry Davy

text: On 30 June 1808 Davy reported to the Royal Society that he had successfully isolated four new metals which he named barium, calcium, strontium and magnium (later changed to magnesium) which were subsequently published in the "Philosophical Transactions". Although Davy conceded magnium was an "undoubtedly objectionable" name he argued the more appropriate name magnesium was already being applied to metallic manganese and wished to avoid creating an equivocal term.


title: Humphry Davy

text: Chlorine was discovered in 1774 by Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele, who called it ""dephlogisticated marine acid"" (see phlogiston theory) and mistakenly thought it contained oxygen. Davy showed that the acid of Scheele's substance, called at the time oxymuriatic acid, contained no oxygen. This discovery overturned Lavoisier's definition of acids as compounds of oxygen. In 1810, chlorine was given its current name by Humphry Davy, who insisted that chlorine was in fact an element. The name chlorine, chosen by Davy for "one of [the substance's] obvious and characteristic properties – its colour", comes from the Greek χλωρος (chlōros), meaning green-yellow.


title: Humphry Davy

text: Davy seriously injured himself in a laboratory accident with nitrogen trichloride. French chemist Pierre Louis Dulong had first prepared this compound in 1811, and had lost two fingers and an eye in two separate explosions with it. In a letter to John Children, on 16 November 1812, Davy wrote: "It must be used with great caution. It is not safe to experiment upon a globule larger than a pin's head. I have been severely wounded by a piece scarcely bigger. My sight, however, I am informed, will not be injured". Davy's accident induced him to hire Michael Faraday as a co-worker, particularly for assistance with handwriting and record keeping. He had recovered from his injuries by April 1813.


title: Humphry Davy

text: In 1812, Davy was knighted and gave up his lecturing position at the Royal Institution. He was given the title of Honorary Professor of Chemistry. He gave a farewell lecture to the Institution, and married a wealthy widow, Jane Apreece. (While Davy was generally acknowledged as being faithful to his wife, their relationship was stormy, and in later years he travelled to continental Europe alone.)


title: Humphry Davy

text: Davy then published his "Elements of Chemical Philosophy, part 1, volume 1", though other parts of this title were never completed. He made notes for a second edition, but it was never required.


title: Humphry Davy

text: In October 1813, he and his wife, accompanied by Michael Faraday as his scientific assistant (also treated as a valet), travelled to France to collect the second edition of the "prix du Galvanisme," a medal that Napoleon Bonaparte had awarded Davy for his electro-chemical work. Faraday noted "Tis indeed a strange venture at this time, to trust ourselves in a foreign and hostile country, where so little regard is had to protestations of honour, that the slightest suspicion would be sufficient to separate us for ever from England, and perhaps from life". Davy's party sailed from Plymouth to Morlaix by cartel, where they were searched.


title: Humphry Davy

text: Upon reaching Paris, Davy was a guest of honour at a meeting of the First Class of the Institut de France and met with André-Marie Ampère and other French chemists. It was later reported that Davy's wife had thrown the medal onto the sea, near her Cornish home, "as it raised bad memories". The Royal Society of Chemistry has offered over £1,800 for the recovery of the medal.


title: Humphry Davy

text: While in Paris, Davy attended lectures at the Ecole Polytechnique, including those by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac on a mysterious substance isolated by Bernard Courtois. Davy wrote a paper for the Royal Society on the element, which is now called iodine. This led to a dispute between Davy and Gay-Lussac on who had the priority on the research.


title: Humphry Davy

text: Davy's party did not meet Napoleon in person, but they did visit the Empress Joséphine de Beauharnais at the Château de Malmaison. The party left Paris in December 1813, travelling south to Italy. They sojourned in Florence, where using the burning glass of the Grand Duke of Tuscany in a series of experiments conducted with Faraday's assistance, Davy succeeded in using the sun's rays to ignite diamond, proving it is composed of pure carbon.


title: Humphry Davy

text: Davy's party continued to Rome, where he undertook experiments on iodine and chlorine and on the colours used in ancient paintings. This was the first chemical research on the pigments used by artists.


title: Humphry Davy

text: He also visited Naples and Mount Vesuvius, where he collected samples of crystals. By June 1814, they were in Milan, where they met Alessandro Volta, and then continued north to Geneva. They returned to Italy via Munich and Innsbruck, and when their plans to travel to Greece and Istanbul were abandoned after Napoleon's escape from Elba, they returned to England.


title: Humphry Davy

text: After the Battle of Waterloo, Davy wrote to Lord Liverpool urging that the French be treated with severity:


title: Humphry Davy

text: After his return to England in 1815, Davy began experimenting with lamps that could be used safely in coal mines. The Revd Dr Robert Gray of Bishopwearmouth in Sunderland, founder of the Society for Preventing Accidents in Coalmines, had written to Davy suggesting that he might use his 'extensive stores of chemical knowledge' to address the issue of mining explosions caused by firedamp, or methane mixed with oxygen, which was often ignited by the open flames of the lamps then used by miners. Incidents such as the Felling mine disaster of 1812 near Newcastle, in which 92 men were killed, not only caused great loss of life among miners but also meant that their widows and children had to be supported by the public purse. The Revd Gray and a fellow clergyman also working in a north-east mining area, the Revd John Hodgson of Jarrow, were keen that action should be taken to improve underground lighting and especially the lamps used by miners.


title: Humphry Davy

text: Davy conceived of using an iron gauze to enclose a lamp's flame, and so prevent the methane burning inside the lamp from passing out to the general atmosphere. Although the idea of the safety lamp had already been demonstrated by William Reid Clanny and by the then unknown (but later very famous) engineer George Stephenson, Davy's use of wire gauze to prevent the spread of flame was used by many other inventors in their later designs. George Stephenson's lamp was very popular in the north-east coalfields, and used the same principle of preventing the flame reaching the general atmosphere, but by different means. Unfortunately, although the new design of gauze lamp initially did seem to offer protection, it gave much less light, and quickly deteriorated in the wet conditions of most pits. Rusting of the gauze quickly made the lamp unsafe, and the number of deaths from firedamp explosions rose yet further.


title: Humphry Davy

text: There was some discussion as to whether Davy had discovered the principles behind his lamp without the help of the work of Smithson Tennant, but it was generally agreed that the work of both men had been independent. Davy refused to patent the lamp, and its invention led to his being awarded the Rumford medal in 1816.


title: Humphry Davy

text: In 1815 Davy also suggested that acids were substances that contained replaceable hydrogen ions;– hydrogen that could be partly or totally replaced by reactive metals which are placed above hydrogen in the reactivity series. When acids reacted with metals they formed salts and hydrogen gas. Bases were substances that reacted with acids to form salts and water. These definitions worked well for most of the nineteenth century.


title: Humphry Davy

text: Humphry Davy experimented on fragments of the Herculaneum papyri before his departure to Naples in 1818. His early experiments showed hope of success. In his report to the Royal Society Davy writes that:


title: Humphry Davy

text: 'When a fragment of a brown MS. in which the layers were strongly adhered, was placed in an atmosphere of chlorine, there was an immediate action, the papyrus smoked and became yellow, and the letters appeared much more distinct; and by the application of heat the layers separated from each other, giving fumes of muriatic acid.'


title: Humphry Davy

text: The success of the early trials prompted Davy to travel to Naples to conduct further research on the Herculaneum papyri. Accompanied by his wife, they set off on 26 May 1818 to stay in Flanders where Davy was invited by the coal miners to speak. They then traveled to Carniola (now Slovenia) which proved to become 'his favourite Alpine retreat' before finally arriving in Italy. In Italy, they befriended Lord Byron in Rome and then went on to travel to Naples.


title: Humphry Davy

text: Initial experiments were again promising and his work resulted in 'partially unrolling 23 MSS., from which fragments of writing were obtained' but after returning to Naples on 1 December 1819 from a summer in the Alps, Davy complained that 'the Italians at the museum [were] no longer helpful but obstructive'. Davy decided to renounce further work on the papyri because 'the labour, in itself difficult and unpleasant, been made more so, by the conduct of the persons at the head of this department in the Museum'.


title: Humphry Davy

text: From 1761 onwards, copper plating had been fitted to the undersides of Royal Navy ships to protect the wood from attack by shipworms. However, the copper bottoms were gradually corroded by exposure to the salt water. Between 1823 and 1825, Davy, assisted by Michael Faraday, attempted to protect the copper by electrochemical means. He attached to the copper sacrificial pieces of zinc or iron , which provided cathodic protection to the host metal. It was discovered, however, that protected copper became foul quickly, i.e. pieces of weed and/or marine creatures became attached to the hull, which had a detrimental effect on the handling of the ship.


title: Humphry Davy

text: The Navy Board approached Davy in 1823, asking for help with the corrosion. Davy conducted a number of tests in Portsmouth Dockyard, which led to the Navy Board adopting the use of Davy's "protectors". By 1824, it had become apparent that fouling of the copper bottoms was occurring on the majority of protected ships. By the end of 1825, the Admiralty ordered the Navy Board to cease fitting the protectors to sea-going ships, and to remove those that had already been fitted. Davy's scheme was seen as a public failure, despite success of the corrosion protection as such. As Frank A. J. L. James explains, "[Because] the poisonous salts from [corroding] copper were no longer entering the water, there was nothing to kill the barnacles and the like in the vicinity of a ship. This meant that barnacles [and the like] could now attach themselves to the bottom of a vessel, thus impeding severely its steerage, much to the anger of the captains who wrote to the Admiralty to complain about Davy's protectors."


title: Humphry Davy

text: Elections took place on St Andrew's Day and Davy was elected on 30 November 1820. Although he was unopposed, other candidates had received initial backing. These candidates embodied the factional difficulties that beset Davy's presidency and which eventually defeated him.


title: Humphry Davy

text: The Society was in transition from a club for gentlemen interested in natural philosophy, connected with the political and social elite, to an academy representing increasingly specialised sciences. The previous president, Joseph Banks, had held the post for over 40 years and had presided autocratically over what David Philip Miller calls the "Banksian Learned Empire", in which natural history was prominent.


title: Humphry Davy

text: Banks had groomed the engineer, author and politician Davies Gilbert to succeed him and preserve the status quo, but Gilbert declined to stand. Fellows who thought royal patronage was important proposed Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg (later Leopold I of Belgium), who also withdrew, as did the Whig Edward St Maur, 11th Duke of Somerset. Davy was the outstanding scientist but some fellows did not approve of his popularising work at the Royal Institution.


title: Humphry Davy

text: The strongest alternative had been William Hyde Wollaston, who was supported by the "Cambridge Network" of outstanding mathematicians such as Charles Babbage and John Herschel, who tried to block Davy. They were aware that Davy supported some modernisation, but thought that he would not sufficiently encourage aspiring young mathematicians, astronomers and geologists, who were beginning to form specialist societies. Davy was only 41, and reformers were fearful of another long presidency.


title: Humphry Davy

text: In his early years Davy was optimistic about reconciling the reformers and the Banksians. In his first speech as president he declared, "I trust that, with these new societies, we shall always preserve the most amicable relations ... I am sure there is no desire in [the Royal Society] to exert anything like patriarchal authority in relation to these institutions".


title: Humphry Davy

text: Davy spent much time juggling the factions but, as his reputation declined in the light of failures such as his research into copper-bottomed ships, he lost popularity and authority. This was compounded by a number of political errors. In 1825 his promotion of the new Zoological Society, of which he was a founding fellow, courted the landed gentry and alienated expert zoologists. He offended the mathematicians and reformers by failing to ensure that Babbage received one of the new Royal Medals (a project of his) or the vacant secretaryship of the Society in 1826. In November 1826 the mathematician Edward Ryan recorded that: "The Society, every member almost ... are in the greatest rage at the President's proceedings and nothing is now talked of but removing him."


title: Humphry Davy

text: In the event he was again re-elected unopposed, but he was now visibly unwell. In January 1827 he set off to Italy for reasons of his health. It did not improve and, as the 1827 election loomed, it was clear that he would not stand again. He was succeeded by Davies Gilbert.


title: Humphry Davy

text: In 1818, Davy was awarded a baronetcy. Although Sir Francis Bacon (also later made a peer) and Sir Isaac Newton had already been knighted, this was, at the time, the first such honour ever conferred on a man of science in Britain. This was followed a year later with the Presidency of the Royal Society.


title: Humphry Davy

text: Davy's laboratory assistant, Michael Faraday, went on to enhance Davy's work and would become the more famous and influential scientist. Davy is supposed to have even claimed Faraday as his greatest discovery. Davy later accused Faraday of plagiarism, however, causing Faraday (the first Fullerian Professor of Chemistry) to cease all research in electromagnetism until his mentor's death.


title: Humphry Davy

text: Of a sanguine, somewhat irritable temperament, Davy displayed characteristic enthusiasm and energy in all his pursuits. As is shown by his verses and sometimes by his prose, his mind was highly imaginative; the poet Coleridge declared that if he "had not been the first chemist, he would have been the first poet of his age", and Southey said that "he had all the elements of a poet; he only wanted the art." In spite of his ungainly exterior and peculiar manner, his happy gifts of exposition and illustration won him extraordinary popularity as a lecturer, his experiments were ingenious and rapidly performed, and Coleridge went to hear him "to increase his stock of metaphors." The dominating ambition of his life was to achieve fame; occasional petty jealousy did not diminish his concern for the "cause of humanity", to use a phrase often employed by him in connection with his invention of the miners' lamp. Careless about etiquette, his frankness sometimes exposed him to annoyances he might have avoided by the exercise of tact.


title: Humphry Davy

text: In 1826 he suffered a stroke from which he never fully recovered. He spent the last months of his life writing "Consolations in Travel", an immensely popular, somewhat freeform compendium of poetry, thoughts on science and philosophy. Published posthumously, the work became a staple of both scientific and family libraries for several decades afterward. Davy spent the winter in Rome, hunting in the Campagna on his fiftieth birthday. But on 20 February 1829 he had another stroke. After spending many months attempting to recuperate, Davy died in a room at L'Hotel de la Couronne, in the Rue du Rhone, in Geneva, Switzerland, on 29 May 1829. He had wished to be buried where he died, but had also wanted the burial delayed in case he was only comatose. He refused to allow a post-mortem for similar reasons. But the laws of Geneva did not allow any delay and he was given a public funeral on the following Monday, 1 June, in the Plainpalais Cemetery, outside the city walls.


title: Paterson Joseph

text: Paterson D. Joseph (born 22 June 1964) is a British actor. He appeared in the Royal Shakespeare Company productions of "King Lear" and "Love's Labour's Lost" in 1990. On television he is best known for his roles in "Casualty" (1997–1998), as Alan Johnson in Channel 4 sitcom "Peep Show" (2003–2015), "Green Wing" (2004–2006), "Survivors" (2008–2010), "Boy Meets Girl" (2009), as DI Wes Layton in "" (2013–2014), as Holy Wayne in "The Leftovers" (2014–15), as DCI Mark Maxwell in "Safe House" (2015–2017), and as Connor Mason in "Timeless" (2016–2018). His film roles include "The Beach" (2000), "Greenfingers" (2001), "Æon Flux" (2005) and "The Other Man" (2008).


title: Paterson Joseph

text: Joseph was born on 22 June, 1964 in Willesden Green, London to parents from Saint Lucia. He attended Cardinal Hinsley R.C. High School in north-west London, a predominantly Irish-Catholic school. He has described himself as a "terrible bunker" whilst at school, opting to spend the best part of two years in the local public library instead.


title: Paterson Joseph

text: He worked briefly as a catering assistant at a hospital, before deciding to pursue acting as a profession. Joseph first trained at the Studio '68 of Theatre Arts, London (South Kensington Library) from 1983 to 1985 with Robert Henderson. He later attended LAMDA, before going on to perform for the Royal Shakespeare Company and The Royal National Theatre.


title: Paterson Joseph

text: In 1991, Joseph won second prize in the Ian Charleson Awards, for his 1990 performances of Oswald in "King Lear", Dumaine in "Love's Labour's Lost", and the Marquis de Mota in "The Last Days of Don Juan", all at the Royal Shakespeare Company. In 1992 he starred as Richard Henry in "Blues for Mister Charlie" by James Baldwin, directed by Greg Hersov at the Royal Exchange, Manchester.


title: Paterson Joseph

text: Joseph's theatre credits include the title role in "Othello" at the Royal Exchange, Manchester, as well as parts in "Henry IV", "King Lear", and "Hamlet" for a performance in New York City. In 2012 he played Brutus in a performance by the RSC of "Julius Caesar" set in Africa. In 2004 he undertook a project, filmed for Channel 4 in a documentary entitled "My Shakespeare", to direct a version of "Romeo & Juliet", using 20 young non-actors from the deprived Harlesden area of London.


title: Paterson Joseph

text: In 2006, he became a patron of "OffWestEnd.com", a listings site for theatre outside the mainstream. Other stage appearances in 2006 and 2007 include the leads in "The Royal Hunt of the Sun" and "The Emperor Jones" at the Olivier Theatre, London. In 2015, "Sancho: An Act of Remembrance", a solo play written and performed by Joseph and based on the life of Ignatius Sancho, was staged in Oxford and Birmingham, and toured in the US starting in October.


title: Paterson Joseph

text: In late 2019 and early 2020 Joseph starred as Ebenezer Scrooge at the Old Vic Theatre in London in their production of "A Christmas Carol".


title: Paterson Joseph

text: He has played many roles in British television programmes, both drama and comedy. These include Reuben in "William and Mary", alongside Martin Clunes; Mark Grace in "Casualty"; the Marquis de Carabas in "Neverwhere"; Alan Johnson in "Peep Show"; Lyndon Jones in "Green Wing"; and Shorty in the first episode of "Jericho".


title: Paterson Joseph

text: Joseph also appeared in the acclaimed drama "Sex Traffic" (2004), in the 2005 TV version of Kwame Kwei-Armah's acclaimed play "Elmina's Kitchen" and in the "Doctor Who" episodes "Bad Wolf" and "The Parting of the Ways" as Rodrick, a contestant on a futuristic version of the "Weakest Link" game show. He has also appeared in various supporting roles in "Dead Ringers". In 2006 he appeared in the television sketch show "That Mitchell and Webb Look", in which he played Simon, a contestant on the game show "Numberwang".


title: Paterson Joseph

text: In 2007, Joseph played Space Marshall Clarke in two series of the BBC sci-fi sitcom "Hyperdrive", and was Benjamin Maddox in the BBC drama series "Jekyll". Joseph also provided the voice of K.O. Joe in "Chop Socky Chooks".


title: Paterson Joseph

text: From 2008 - 2010, he played Greg Preston in "Survivors", the BBC remake of the 1970s science-fiction drama of the same name. Also in 2008, Joseph appeared as former hitman Patrick Finch in Series 1, Episode 5 of "The Fixer".


title: Paterson Joseph

text: In 2009, he was the bookmakers' favourite to become "Doctor Who"s Eleventh Doctor, but the role was awarded to Matt Smith.


title: Paterson Joseph

text: He played the messianic "Holy Wayne" Gilchrest on the original HBO dramatic series "The Leftovers", which began airing in 2014, and General Arnold Gaines on "You, Me and the Apocalypse".


title: Paterson Joseph

text: As voice actor, Joseph provided the narration for the National Geographic series "Mega Cities" from 2005 to 2011, "Wild Russia" in 2009 and the BBC Two documentary "Inside Obama's White House" in 2016. He played Tyler in the BBC Switch film "Rules of Love" in 2010.


title: Paterson Joseph

text: In 2000, Joseph appeared as Keaty in Danny Boyle's adventure drama film "The Beach", which starred Leonardo DiCaprio. In the same year, he also appeared in "The Long Run" and "Greenfingers".


title: Paterson Joseph

text: In 2005, he portrayed Giroux in the science-fiction action film "Æon Flux", which starred Charlize Theron. Then in 2008 he played a supporting role in "The Other Man", opposite Liam Neeson and Antonio Banderas.


title: Paterson Joseph

text: Joseph is set to star alongside Timothée Chalamet, Keegan-Michael Key and Olivia Colman in the upcoming musical fantasy film "Wonka", directed by Paul King.


title: Paterson Joseph

text: He has also appeared in several short film's, including "Stop the World" directed by Richard Leaf. He will voice the Frenchman Victor in the upcoming drama short film "Bet Your Bottom Dollar".


title: Paterson Joseph

text: In 2011, Joseph returned to "Doctor Who", where he appeared in the audio drama "Earth Aid", playing Victor Espinosa. In November 2016 he played the title role in the BBC radio adaptation of the short story by Neil Gaiman, "How the Marquis Got His Coat Back". Joseph had previously played the part of the Marquis de Carabas in the 1996 BBC TV six-part drama "Neverwhere". He played the role of Colonel Arbuthnott in the Audible production of "Murder on the Orient Express".


title: Paterson Joseph

text: Joseph read the BBC Radio 4 abridgement of George Lamming's 1953 debut novel "In the Castle of My Skin" first broadcast in December 2020.


title: Paterson Joseph

text: In October 2022, Joseph's debut novel "The Secret Diaries of Charles Ignatius Sancho" was released. The book charts the life of Charles Ignatius Sancho through fictionalised diary entries, letters and commentary.


title: Paterson Joseph

text: In October 2022 it was announced that Joseph will be the next Chancellor of Oxford Brookes University.


title: Paterson Joseph

text: Joseph lived in the Loire Valley with his French wife Emmanuelle and their son, before moving back to his native London. Joseph supports the Brazilian national football team.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: Metropolitano Stadium (Spanish: "Estadio Metropolitano"), also referred to as Cívitas Metropolitano for sponsorship reasons, is a stadium in Madrid, Spain. It has been the home stadium of Atlético Madrid since the 2017–18 season. It is located in the Rosas neighbourhood, in the San Blas-Canillejas district.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: The stadium was built as part of Madrid's unsuccessful bid to host the 1997 World Athletics Championships, and was opened on 6 September 1994 by the Community of Madrid. It was closed in 2004 due to the city's unsuccessful bid for the 2016 Olympics and in 2013 it passed into the possession of Atlético Madrid. The stadium was renovated and the new facility was reopened to the public on 16 September 2017, when Atlético Madrid faced Málaga in La Liga. The stadium had a capacity of 20,000 spectators upon its closure and re-opened with a seating capacity of 68,456 after renovation.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: The stadium was formerly known as "Estadio de la Comunidad de Madrid" (Madrid Community Stadium), "Estadio Olímpico de Madrid" (Madrid Olympic Stadium), and more commonly by its nickname "Estadio de La Peineta" (The Comb Stadium). Naming rights were acquired by the Wanda Group, a Chinese real estate company. Due to UEFA sponsorship regulations the stadium is known as "Estadio Metropolitano" in UEFA marketing materials.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: During the early 1990s the Sports Council of the Community of Madrid promoted the city's bid to host the World Athletics Championships in 1997. The preparations began for a stadium in eastern Madrid, next to the M-40 motorway and close to the Madrid–Barajas Airport.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: Construction of the new stadium began in 1990 and was based on a design proposed by Cruz y Ortiz. It was completed in November 1993 at a cost of €45 million, and the inauguration took place in September 1994 in front of then IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch, then Community of Madrid president Joaquín Leguina, and then mayor of Madrid José María Álvarez del Manzano. The single seating tier stadium with a capacity of 20,000 seats became known as "La Peineta" ("the comb") because of its similarity with a traditional hair comb.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: The 1997 World Championships in Athletics were eventually awarded to Athens in 1995, and La Peineta was used for minor sports and cultural events during the first decade of its existence.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: In 2004, the stadium was closed for a future project upon the Madrid bid for the 2012 Olympics. The following year, the bid failed. In December 2008, Atlético's president Enrique Cerezo and mayor of Madrid Alberto Ruiz-Gallardón signed an agreement indicating that Atlético Madrid would eventually move to the stadium in the following years and for the renovations to begin. The club was initially supposed to move to the new stadium in 2013, but this was pushed back numerous times due to Olympic bids and the economic crisis.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: Following another defeat of Madrid's Olympic bid in 2009, this time for the 2016 Olympics, many proposals were made for the future use of the stadium. In November 2011, the first demolition works were carried out at the stadium. In Spring 2012, more works were carried out, this time with the removal of the lower seating tier and the removal of the athletics track.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: Madrid made a bid again for the 2020 Olympics, which failed as well in September 2013. A few days after the 125th IOC Session, on 11 September 2013, Atlético Madrid announced their plans to build a stadium on the location of La Peineta, and ownership was officially transferred to the club.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: The new stadium was scheduled to replace Vicente Calderón Stadium as Atletico's home for the 2017–18 season. On 9 December 2016, the club announced that the renovated stadium's official name would be Wanda Metropolitano – Wanda for sponsorship reasons and "Metropolitano" after the 1923–1966 arena which hosted Atlético's matches before Vicente Calderón. In March 2017, the club officially bought the stadium from the City Council of Madrid for €30.4 million. As of 15 April 2017, around 48,500 season tickets had been reserved by the club fans.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: On 17 September 2017, the Estadio Metropolitano's inaugural event was a 2017–18 La Liga match between Atlético Madrid and Málaga CF. King Felipe VI of Spain attended the match. Atlético's Antoine Griezmann would go on to score the first goal at the new stadium, in which the match ended in a 1–0 win for Atlético. On 27 September 2017, the Metropolitano hosted its first European game as Chelsea beat Atlético Madrid 2–1 and became the first English club to defeat them at home in any European club competition, as well as the first visiting team to win at the new stadium.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: It accommodates 68,000 spectators, with all spectator seats covered by a new roof including 7,000 VIP, 79 VIP suites known as "Neptuno Premium". 4,000 car parking spaces are available: 1,000 inside the stadium and 3,000 outside.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: La Peineta hosted the second leg of the 1996 Supercopa de España on 28 August, with Atlético beating FC Barcelona 3–1 on the night but losing 6–5 on aggregate.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: During the 1997–98 Segunda División season, Madrid-based club Rayo Vallecano played some home matches at La Peineta, due to renovation works on its stadium, the Campo de Fútbol de Vallecas.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: On 21–22 September 2002, La Peineta hosted the 9th IAAF World Cup, an international track and field sporting event sponsored by the International Association of Athletics Federations.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: On 20 September 2017, shortly after the inauguration of the stadium, it was selected by UEFA to host the final match of the 2018–19 UEFA Champions League. The other selected nominee was the Baku National Stadium in Azerbaijan, which hosted the 2019 UEFA Europa League Final. This was the fifth European Cup/UEFA Champions League final held in Madrid, after the 1957, 1969, 1980, and 2010 finals, all held at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium of Atlético's cross-town rival Real Madrid.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: On 27 March 2018, the stadium hosted the Spain national football team for the first time for a friendly against Argentina, which ended in a 6–1 win for Spain.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: On 21 April 2018, it hosted the 2018 Copa del Rey Final between Sevilla and Barcelona. Barcelona won the game with a final score of 5–0. During the game Andrés Iniesta was substituted with a standing ovation by the fans since it was his last final with Barcelona.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: On 17 March 2019, Metropolitano hosted the Spanish women's league match between Atlético Madrid and Barcelona, with 60,739 spectators attending the match, thus beating the worldwide record for a women's football match between clubs.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: On 1 June 2019, the stadium hosted the 2019 UEFA Champions League Final between Tottenham Hotspur and Liverpool in which Liverpool defeated Spurs 2–0.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: The Madrid City Council, the Spanish Ministry of Public Works and Transport and Atletico Madrid signed an agreement to improve access to the stadium. The first phase of the work was planned to be completed before the stadium opened, and included the new entrance from the M-40 towards Avenida Luis Aragonés, the braiding link between the Eisenhower Knot (M-14 and M-21) and the stadium service road, the improvement of the entrance by Arcentales Avenue, the construction of a second vestibule, and finally access to the Estadio Metropolitano Metro station. These infrastructures will be paid by the club for a fee close to 30 million euros.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: The second phase was planned to take place after the inauguration. According to the announcement by the Ministry of Public Works and Transport, it consists of the opening of the O'Donnell Cercanías Madrid station, which will convert the existing stop into a new station for the Rejas neighborhood. The station will be located at the intersection of the M-21 dual carriageway and M-40 highway, close to Ciudad Pegaso and the Plenilunio Shopping Center and near the Wanda Metropolitano.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: The City Council is in talks with the Ministry of Public Works and Transport and the Community of Madrid about further improving access to the new stadium and adapting to the substantial increase of traffic to the neighborhood once it is operational. The measures proposed by the municipality of Madrid include a request to extend line 2 of Metro to the future O'Donnell Cercanías Madrid station, as well as the connection of said line to line 7's Estadio Metropolitano Metro station, which has the largest platform in the network.


title: Metropolitano Stadium

text: There are three more Metro stations within a two to 20 minute walk of the stadium: Las Rosas (line 2), Canillejas (line 5), and Las Musas (line 7). The buses of EMT Madrid with a stop close to the stadium are lines 28, 38, 48, 140, 153, E2, N5 and N6 (the last two lines are nocturnal buses). The long-distance buses are lines 286, 288 and 289. The EMT operates a special service on match days; one line runs from the Canillejas exchanger to the stadium (SE721 line). Canillejas has connections to Metro line 5 and EMT bus lines 77, 101, 140, 151 and 200.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: The People's Party, also known as the Populist Party or simply the Populists, was a left-wing agrarian populist political party in the United States in the late 19th century. The Populist Party emerged in the early 1890s as an important force in the Southern and Western United States, but collapsed after it nominated Democrat William Jennings Bryan in the 1896 United States presidential election. A rump faction of the party continued to operate into the first decade of the 20th century, but never matched the popularity of the party in the early 1890s.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: The Populist Party's roots lay in the Farmers' Alliance, an agrarian movement that promoted economic action during the Gilded Age, as well as the Greenback Party, an earlier third party that had advocated fiat money. The success of Farmers' Alliance candidates in the 1890 elections, along with the conservatism of both major parties, encouraged Farmers' Alliance leaders to establish a full-fledged third party before the 1892 elections. The Ocala Demands laid out the Populist platform: collective bargaining, federal regulation of railroad rates, an expansionary monetary policy, and a Sub-Treasury Plan that required the establishment of federally controlled warehouses to aid farmers. Other Populist-endorsed measures included bimetallism, a graduated income tax, direct election of Senators, a shorter workweek, and the establishment of a postal savings system. These measures were collectively designed to curb the influence of monopolistic corporate and financial interests and empower small businesses, farmers and laborers.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: In the 1892 presidential election, the Populist ticket of James B. Weaver and James G. Field won 8.5% of the popular vote and carried four Western states, becoming the first third party since the end of the American Civil War to win electoral votes. Despite the support of labor organizers like Eugene V. Debs and Terence V. Powderly, the party largely failed to win the vote of urban laborers in the Midwest and the Northeast. Over the next four years, the party continued to run state and federal candidates, building up powerful organizations in several Southern and Western states. Before the 1896 presidential election, the Populists became increasingly polarized between "fusionists," who wanted to nominate a joint presidential ticket with the Democratic Party, and "mid-roaders," like Mary Elizabeth Lease, who favored the continuation of the Populists as an independent third party. After the 1896 Democratic National Convention nominated William Jennings Bryan, a prominent bimetallist, the Populists also nominated Bryan but rejected the Democratic vice-presidential nominee in favor of party leader Thomas E. Watson. In the 1896 election, Bryan swept the South and West but lost to Republican William McKinley by a decisive margin.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: After the 1896 presidential election, the Populist Party suffered a nationwide collapse. The party nominated presidential candidates in the three presidential elections after 1896, but none came close to matching Weaver's performance in 1892. Former Populists became inactive or joined other parties. Other than Debs and Bryan, few politicians associated with the Populists retained national prominence.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: Historians see the Populists as a reaction to the power of corporate interests in the Gilded Age, but they debate the degree to which the Populists were anti-modern and nativist. Scholars also continue to debate the magnitude of influence the Populists exerted on later organizations and movements, such as the progressives of the early 20th century. Most of the Progressives, such as Theodore Roosevelt, Robert La Follette, and Woodrow Wilson, were bitter enemies of the Populists. In American political rhetoric, "populist" was originally associated with the Populist Party and related left-wing movements, but beginning in the 1950s it began to take on a more generic meaning, describing any anti-establishment movement regardless of its position on the left–right political spectrum.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: Ideologically, the Populist Party originated in the debate over monetary policy in the aftermath of the American Civil War. In order to fund that war, the U.S. government had left the gold standard by issuing fiat paper currency known as Greenbacks. After the war, the Eastern financial establishment strongly favored a return to the gold standard for both ideological reasons (they believed that money must be backed by gold which, they argued, had intrinsic value) and economic gain (a return to the gold standard would make their government bonds more valuable). Successive presidential administrations favored "hard money" policies that retired the greenbacks, thereby shrinking the amount of currency in circulation. Financial interests also won passage of the Coinage Act of 1873, which barred the coinage of silver, thereby ending a policy of bimetallism. The deflation caused by these policies affected farmers especially strongly, since deflation made it more difficult to pay debts and led to lower prices for agricultural products.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: Angered by these developments, some farmers and other groups began calling for the government to permanently adopt fiat currency. These advocates of "soft money" were influenced by economist Edward Kellogg and Alexander Campbell, both of whom advocated for fiat money issued by a central bank. Despite fierce partisan rivalries, the two major parties were both closely allied with business interests and supported largely similar economic policies, including the gold standard. The Democratic Party's 1868 platform endorsed the continued use of greenbacks, but the party embraced hard money policies after the 1868 election.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: Though soft money forces were able to win some support in the West, launching a third party proved difficult in the rest of the country. The United States was deeply polarized by the sectional politics of the post-Civil War era; most Northerners remained firmly attached to the Republican Party, while most Southerners identified with the Democratic Party. In the 1870s advocates of soft money formed the Greenback Party, which called for the continued use of paper money as well as the restoration of bimetallism. Greenback nominee James B. Weaver won over three percent of the vote in the 1880 presidential election, but the Greenback Party was unable to build a durable base of support, and it collapsed in the 1880s. Many former Greenback Party supporters joined the Union Labor Party, but it also failed to win widespread support.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: A group of farmers formed the Farmers' Alliance in Lampasas, Texas in 1877, and the organization quickly spread to surrounding counties. The Farmers' Alliance promoted collective economic action by farmers in order to cope with the crop-lien system, which left economic power in the hands of a mercantile elite that furnished goods on credit. The movement became increasingly popular throughout Texas in the mid-1880s, and membership in the organization grew from 10,000 in 1884 to 50,000 at the end of 1885. At the same time, the Farmer's Alliance became increasingly politicized, with members attacking the "money trust" as the source and beneficiary of both the crop lien system and deflation. In the hopes of cementing an alliance with labor groups, the Farmer's Alliance supported the Knights of Labor in the Great Southwest railroad strike of 1886. That same year, a Farmer's Alliance convention issued the Cleburne Demands, a series of resolutions that called for, among other things, collective bargaining, federal regulation of railroad rates, an expansionary monetary policy, and a national banking system administered by the federal government.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: President Grover Cleveland's veto of a Texas seed bill in early 1887 outraged many farmers, encouraging the growth of a northern Farmer's Alliance in states like Kansas and Nebraska. That same year, a prolonged drought began in the West, contributing to the bankruptcy of many farmers. In 1887, the Farmer's Alliance merged with the Louisiana Farmers Union and expanded into the South and the Great Plains. In 1889, Charles Macune launched the "National Economist", which became the national paper of the Farmer's Alliance.