title: The Threepenny Opera

text: Soon it becomes clear that neither Polly nor the gang members can, or are willing to, raise any money, and Macheath prepares to die. He laments his fate and poses the 'Marxist' questions: "What's picking a lock compared to buying shares? What's breaking into a bank compared to founding one? What's murdering a man compared to employing one?" (These questions did not appear in the original version of the work, but first appeared in the musical "Happy End", another Brecht/Weill/Hauptmann collaboration, in 1929 – they may in fact have been written not by Brecht, but by Hauptmann).


title: The Threepenny Opera

text: Macheath asks everyone for forgiveness ("Grave Inscription"). Then a sudden and intentionally comical reversal: Peachum announces that in this opera mercy will prevail over justice and that a messenger on horseback will arrive ("Walk to Gallows"); Brown arrives as that messenger and announces that Macheath has been pardoned by the queen and granted a title, a castle and a pension. The cast then sings the Finale, which ends with a plea that wrongdoing not be punished too harshly as life is harsh enough.


title: The Threepenny Opera

text: 17. Lied von der Unzulänglichkeit menschlichen Strebens (Song of the Insufficiency of Human Struggling – Peachum)


title: The Threepenny Opera

text: 21. III. Dreigroschenfinale (Third Threepenny Finale – Brown, Mrs Peachum, Peachum, Macheath, Polly, Chorus)


title: The Threepenny Opera

text: The ambivalent nature of "The Threepenny Opera", derived from an 18th-century ballad opera but conceived in terms of 20th-century musical theatre, has led to discussion as to how it can best be characterised. According to critic and musicologist Hans Keller, the work is "the weightiest possible lowbrow opera for highbrows and the most full-blooded highbrow musical for lowbrows".


title: The Threepenny Opera

text: The Weill authority Stephen Hinton notes that "generic ambiguity is a key to the work’s enduring success", and points out the work's deliberate hybrid status: For Weill ["The Threepenny Opera"] was not just ‘the most consistent reaction to [Richard] Wagner’; it also marked a positive step towards an operatic reform. By explicitly and implicitly shunning the more earnest traditions of the opera house, Weill created a mixed form which incorporated spoken theatre and popular musical idioms. Parody of operatic convention – of Romantic lyricism and happy endings – constitutes a central device.


title: The Threepenny Opera

text: The work's opening and closing lament, "Die Moritat von Mackie Messer", was written just before the Berlin premiere, when actor Harald Paulsen (Macheath) threatened to quit if his character did not receive an introduction; this creative emergency resulted in what would become the work's most popular song, later translated into English by Marc Blitzstein as "Mack the Knife", and now a jazz standard that Louis Armstrong, Bobby Darin, Ella Fitzgerald, Sonny Rollins, Frank Sinatra, Peggy Lee, Michael Bublé, Robbie Williams, Ray Quinn, and countless others have covered. In 2015 the Library of Congress added the recordings of "Mack the Knife" by Louis Armstrong and Bobby Darin to the National Recording Registry.


title: The Threepenny Opera

text: "Pirate Jenny" is another well-known song from the work, which has since been recorded by Nina Simone, Judy Collins, Tania Tsanaklidou, and Marc Almond, among others. In addition, Steeleye Span recorded it under the alternate title "The Black Freighter". Recently, the drag queen Sasha Velour has made an adaptation by the same name for an installment of One Dollar Drags, an anthology of short films.


title: The Threepenny Opera

text: Under the title "What Keeps Mankind Alive?", this number has been recorded by the Pet Shop Boys on the B-side of their 1993 single "Can You Forgive Her?", and on two albums. Tom Waits covered it on two albums, and William S. Burroughs performed it in a 1994 documentary.


title: The Threepenny Opera

text: After World War II the first theater performance in Berlin was a rough production of "The Threepenny Opera" at the Theater am Schiffbauerdamm. Wolf Von Eckardt described the 1945 performance where audience members climbed over ruins and passed through a tunnel to reach the open-air auditorium deprived of its ceiling. In addition to the smell of dead bodies trapped beneath the rubble, Eckardt recollects the actors themselves were "haggard, starved, [and] in genuine rags. Many of the actors … had only just been released from concentration camp. They sang not well, but free."


title: The Threepenny Opera

text: The Pabst film "The Threepenny Opera" was shown in its French version in 1931. In 1937 there was a production by Aufricht at the Théâtre de l'Étoile which failed, though Brecht himself had attended rehearsals. The work was not revived in France until after World War II.


title: The Threepenny Opera

text: In 2014, the Robert David MacDonald and Jeremy Sams translation (previously used in 1994 at the Donmar Warehouse) toured the UK, presented by the Graeae Theatre Company with Nottingham Playhouse, New Wolsey Theatre Ipswich, Birmingham Repertory Theatre and West Yorkshire Playhouse.


title: The Threepenny Opera

text: In 1946, four performances of the work were given at the University of Illinois in Urbana, and Northwestern University gave six performances in 1948 in Evanston, Illinois. In 1952, Leonard Bernstein conducted a concert performance of the work at the Brandeis University Creative Arts Festival in the Adolph Ullman Amphitheatre, Waltham, Massachusetts, to an audience of nearly 5,000. Marc Blitzstein, who translated the work, narrated.


title: The Threepenny Opera

text: Regional productions include one at the Williamstown Theatre Festival, Massachusetts, in June and July 2003. Directed by Peter Hunt, the musical starred Jesse L. Martin as Mack, Melissa Errico as Polly, David Schramm as Peachum, Karen Ziemba as Lucy Brown and Betty Buckley as Jenny. The production received favorable reviews.


title: The Threepenny Opera

text: German director G. W. Pabst made a 1931 German- and French-language version simultaneously, a common practice in the early days of sound films.


title: The Threepenny Opera

text: Another version was directed by Wolfgang Staudte in West Germany in 1962, starring Curd Jürgens, Gert Fröbe, and Hildegard Knef. Scenes with Sammy Davis Jr. were added for its American release.


title: The Threepenny Opera

text: In 1989 an American version (renamed "Mack the Knife") was released, directed by Menahem Golan, with Raul Julia as Macheath, Richard Harris as Peachum, Julie Walters as Mrs Peachum, Bill Nighy as Tiger Brown, Julia Migenes as Jenny, and Roger Daltrey as the Street Singer.


title: The Threepenny Opera

text: In 2009, BBC Radio 3 in collaboration with the BBC Philharmonic broadcast a complete radio production of the Michael Feingold translation directed by Nadia Molinari with the music performed by the BBC Philharmonic. The cast included Joseph Millson as Macheath, Elen Rhys as Polly/Whore, Ruth Alexander-Rubin as Mrs Peachum/Whore, Zubin Varla as Mr. Peachum/Rev. Kimball, Rosalie Craig as Lucy/Whore, Ute Gfrerer as Jenny, Conrad Nelson as Tiger Brown and HK Gruber as the Ballad Singer.


title: Sukhoi Su-15

text: The Sukhoi Su-15 (NATO reporting name: Flagon) is a twinjet supersonic interceptor aircraft developed by the Soviet Union. It entered service in 1965 and remained one of the front-line designs into the 1990s. The Su-15 was designed to replace the Sukhoi Su-11 and Sukhoi Su-9, which were becoming obsolete as NATO introduced newer and more capable strategic bombers.


title: Sukhoi Su-15

text: Recognizing the limitations of the earlier Su-9 and Su-11 in intercepting the new Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, particularly in terms of radar and aircraft performance, the Sukhoi OKB quickly began the development of a heavily revised and more capable aircraft. A variety of development aircraft evolved, including the Sukhoi T-49, which shared the fuselage of the Su-9 (including its single engine), but used cheek-mounted intakes to leave the nose clear for a large radome for the RP-22 Oryol-D ("Eagle") radar (NATO "Skip Spin"), and the T-5, essentially a heavily modified Su-11 with a widened rear fuselage containing two Tumansky R-11 engines.


title: Sukhoi Su-15

text: These led to the T-58, which combined the twin engines with a modified version of the T-49's nose, but with side inlets further back, behind the cockpit. It was approved for production on 5 February 1962, as the Su-15, and the prototype first flew on 30 May 1962. It entered service testing 5 August 1963, but its service entry was delayed by political infighting with the Yakovlev OKB over production line capacity in Novosibirsk, which was also building the Yak-28P. The Su-15 proved to be superior in most respects other than range, and it was officially commissioned on 3 April 1965. Series production began the following year, and it entered service with the PVO in 1967, replacing Su-9s, Su-11s, and Yakovlev Yak-25s. The initial Su-15 received the NATO reporting name "Flagon-A". A simplified trainer version, the Su-15UT (NATO "Flagon-C"), with no radar or combat capability, entered service in 1970.


title: Sukhoi Su-15

text: Initial delta-winged Su-15s had poor take-off and landing characteristics, and so Sukhoi investigated a new wing design with extended wingtips (increasing wing area) and boundary layer control. Su-15s with the new wing went into production in 1969. They were dubbed "Flagon-D" by NATO, although the Soviet designation was unchanged.


title: Sukhoi Su-15

text: Also in 1969 testing began of the upgraded Su-15T with the Volkov Taifun ("Typhoon") radar, which was based on the MiG-25's powerful RP-25 Smerch-A ("Tornado") radar (NATO "Foxfire"). The Taifun proved troublesome, however, and ceased production after only 10 aircraft had been built. It was followed in December 1971 by the Su-15TM (NATO "Flagon-E"), with the improved Taifun-M radar (NATO "Twin Scan") and provision for UPK-23-250 gun pod or R-60 (AA-8 "Aphid") short-range air-to-air missiles. Aerodynamic demands forced a redesign of the radome with an ogival shape, earning a new NATO reporting name, "Flagon-F", although again the Soviet designation did not change. A comparable combat-capable trainer, the Su-15UM (NATO "Flagon-G"), followed from 1976. The final Su-15UMs, the last Su-15s produced, came off the line in 1979.


title: Sukhoi Su-15

text: Various OKB proposals for upgraded Su-15s with better engines and aerodynamics to satisfy a VVS requirement for a long-range tactical fighter were rejected in favour of the Mikoyan MiG-23 fighter.


title: Sukhoi Su-15

text: Although many components of the Su-15 were similar or identical to the previous Su-9 and Su-11 (NATO reporting name "Fishpot"), including Sukhoi's characteristic rear-fuselage air brake, the Su-15 abandoned the shock-inlet cone nose intake for side-mounted intake ramps with splitter plates feeding two powerful turbojet engines, initially the Tumansky R-11F2S-300. The change allowed room in the nose for a powerful search radar, initially the RP-22 Oryol-D (NATO 'Skip Spin'). The early Su-15 ("Flagon-A") had pure delta wings like its predecessors, but these were replaced from the 11th production series onward by a new double-delta wing of increased span and area, with a small wing fence above each outer pylon and blown flaps to improve landing characteristics. This was accompanied by a new tail of greater anhedral and a vertical fin of reduced height.


title: Sukhoi Su-15

text: The Su-15 had maximum speed of Mach 2.5 and a rate of climb of , a very important parameter for an interceptor aircraft. Take-off and landing speeds were comparatively high, with a take-off speed of for early delta-winged 'Flagon-A's and for the larger-winged 'Flagon-F'. While the controls were responsive and precise, the aircraft was unforgiving of pilot error.


title: Sukhoi Su-15

text: Despite its powerful radar, the Su-15, like most Soviet interceptors before the late 1980s, was heavily dependent on ground control interception (GCI), with aircraft vectored onto targets by ground radar stations. It was fitted with the Lazur-S datalink system, which transmitted instructions to the pilot to accomplish the interception. The later Su-15TM had a Vozdukh-1M datalink and SAU-58 ("sistema automaticheskogo upravleniya", automatic control system) capable of carrying out completely automatic, 'hands-off' interceptions until the last moments of the interception.


title: Sukhoi Su-15

text: Primary armament of the Su-15 was the R-8/K-8 (AA-3 "Anab"; later R-98) air-to-air missile. Early models carried two missiles, but 'Flagon-D' and later versions could carry four. Like most Soviet missiles, the R-98 was made in both infrared and semi-active radar homing versions, and standard practice was to fire the weapons in pairs (one semi-active radar homing, one IR homing) to give the greatest chance of a successful hit. The IR homing missile was normally fired first in order to prevent the possibility of the IR missile locking on to the radar homing missile. Later 'Flagon-F' models often carried two R-98s and one or two pairs of short-range R-60 (AA-8 'Aphid') missiles. Late-model 'Flagons' also sometimes carried a pair of UPK-23-250 23 mm gun pods on the fuselage pylons, each containing a two-barrel GSh-23L cannon.


title: Sukhoi Su-15

text: The Su-15 formed a significant part of the V-PVO's interceptor force, and was designed to intercept easier targets such as the American B-52 and U-2, and the British V bombers, leaving the more difficult targets such as the XB-70 and B-58 to the faster MiG-25P. The Taifun radar of the Su-15TM was optimised for counter-countermeasure operation, as opposed to range. As an interceptor, the task of the Su-15TM was to fly under autopilot, using GCI commands sent through the datalink. The radar would only be turned on as the interceptor approached the target in order to provide targeting parameters for the radar homing K-8/R-8/R-98 missiles, the high power of the radar allowing it to 'burn through' enemy ECM signals. If all else failed, IR homing versions of the K-8 would provide a last opportunity to shoot down the intruder, along with any gun pods the Su-15 might be carrying.


title: Sukhoi Su-15

text: The Su-15 was optimised for the high-altitude interception role with its fast climb-rate and high speed at high altitude but lacked look-down/shoot-down capability, even with the Su-15TM's more sophisticated Taifun radar. This eventually led to the MiG-23P, which did have look-down/shoot-down capability, becoming the preferred asset of the V-PVO, especially once NATO switched to low-level penetration tactics. Even so, the Su-15 remained an important part of the V-PVO until the fall of the Soviet Union.


title: Sukhoi Su-15

text: As one of the V-PVO's principal interceptors, the Su-15 was involved in several attacks on foreign aircraft that inadvertently crossed into Soviet airspace:


title: Sukhoi Su-15

text: The Su-15 was also credited with shooting down five reconnaissance balloons sent to spy on Soviet territory in 1975.


title: Sukhoi Su-15

text: A close supersonic fly-by of Yuri Gagarin's MiG-15 by a Su-15 led to Gagarin's death in 1968. Computer models show that the Su-15 passed "within meters" of the MiG.


title: Sukhoi Su-15

text: Although it was produced in large numbers (1,290 of all types), the Su-15, like other highly sensitive Soviet aircraft, was never exported to the Warsaw Pact or any other country due to its sophisticated systems. Some Su-15 were reported to be deployed in Egypt in 1972 but were used with Soviet crews. At one point, the Su-15 was considered for use as a strike fighter, but proved to be too specialised as an interceptor to be used in that role.


title: Sukhoi Su-15

text: After the fall of the Soviet Union, the Su-15 was abruptly retired from the new Russian Air Force in 1993 to comply with the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe. Most were hastily scrapped in favour of more advanced interceptors, including the Su-27 and MiG-31, but some are in reserve storage for emergency use. In Ukraine, the last Su-15s (at Kramatorsk and Belbek) were withdrawn from use in 1996.


title: Sukhoi Su-15

text: Proposed advanced version with Tumansky R-67-300 three spool turbofan engines, each producing 78.44 KN of afterburning thrust. Sukhoi Su-19 would have ogival wing, improved avionics suite with new Look down - shoot down radar and additional pylons for missiles. Not built.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: Hollywood is a city in southern Broward County, Florida, United States, located between Fort Lauderdale and Miami. As of July 1, 2019, Hollywood had a population of 154,817. Founded in 1925, the city grew rapidly in the 1950s and 1960s, and is now the 12th-largest city in Florida. Hollywood is a principal city of the Miami metropolitan area, which was home to an estimated 6,012,331 people at the 2015 census. The average temperature is between .


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: In 1920, Joseph Young arrived in South Florida to create his own "Dream City in Florida". His vision included the beaches of the Atlantic Ocean stretching westward with man-made lakes, infrastructure, roads, and the Intracoastal Waterway. He wanted to include large parks, schools, churches, and golf courses; these were all industries and activities that were very important to Young's life. After Young spent millions of dollars on the construction of the city, he was elected as the first mayor in 1925. This new town quickly became home to northerners known as "snowbirds", who fled the north during the winter and then escaped the south during the summer to avoid the harsh weather. By 1960, Hollywood had more than 2,400 hotel units and 12,170 single family homes. Young bought up thousands of acres of land around 1920, and named his new town "Hollywood by the Sea" to distinguish it from his other real-estate venture, "Hollywood in the Hills", in New York.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: The Florida guide, published by the Federal Writers' Project, describes the early development of Hollywood, an early example of a planned community that proliferated in Florida during the real-estate boom of the 1920s:


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: Prospective purchasers of land were enticed by free hotel accommodation and entertainment, and "were driven about the city-to-be on trails blazed through palmetto thickets; so desolate and forlorn were some stretches that many women became hysterical, it is said, and a few fainted. Young had a vision of having lakes, golf courses, a luxury beach hotel (Hollywood Beach Hotel, now Hollywood Beach Resort), country clubs, and a main street, Hollywood Boulevard. After the 1926 Miami hurricane, Hollywood was severely damaged; local newspapers reported that Hollywood was second only to Miami in losses from the storm. Following Young's death in 1934, the city encountered other destructive hurricanes, and the stock market crashed with personal financial misfortunes.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: Hurricane Irma hit Florida in 2017, wreaking widespread damage. Due to the spontaneity of the hurricane, nearly 700 elderly nursing home residents died. In an investigation following the hurricane, it was found that some of the deaths weren't actually a result of the hurricane, but the poor conditions that they were exposed to following the aftermath. This saw four nursing home staff charged with negligence and counts of manslaughter. Following the damage inflicted by Hurricane Irma in 2017, an initiative called Rebuild Florida was created by the Florida Department of Economic Opportunity to provide aid to citizens affected by the natural disaster. The initial focus of Rebuild Florida was its Housing Repair Program, which offered assistance in rebuilding families' homes that were impacted by Hurricane Irma. The program priorities low-income vulnerable residents, such as the disabled, the elderly and those families with children under five. The success of this program has various results across the city, with hundreds of citizens claiming they were left without help.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is covered by water (11.23%).


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: Hollywood is in southeastern Broward County, and includes about of Atlantic Ocean beach, interrupted briefly by a portion deeded to Dania Beach. It is bounded by these municipalities:


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: Hollywood has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classification "Af"), with long, hot, humid, and rainy summers and short, warm, and dry winters.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: As of the 2020 United States census, there were 153,067 people, 55,172 households, and 36,273 families residing in the city.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: As of 2000, of 59,673 households, 24.9% had children under 18 living with them, 41.5% were married couples living together, 11.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.2% were not families. About 34.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.1% had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 2.31, and the average family size was 3.00.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: The city's age distribution was 21.3% under 18, 7.0% from 18 to 24, 31.3% from 25 to 44, 23.1% from 45 to 64, and 17.3% who were 65 or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.1 males. For every 100 women age 18 and over, there were 90.9 men.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: The median income for a household in the city was $40,714, and for a family was $55,849. Males had a median income of $33,102 versus $21,237 for females. The per capita income for the city was $22,097. About 9.9% of families and 13.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.1% of those under age 18 and 11.8% of those age 65 or over.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: As of 2000, speakers of English as a first language accounted for 66.94% of residents, Spanish accounted for 21.62%, French made up 2.06%, French Creole consisted of 1.32%, Italian comprised 1.12%, Romanian was at 0.91%, Hebrew at 0.88%, Portuguese 0.84%, and German as a mother tongue was 0.72% of the population.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: As of 2000, Hollywood had the 75th-highest percentage of Cuban residents in the U.S., at 4.23% of the city's population, and the 65th-highest percentage of Colombian residents in the US, at 2.26% of the city's population (tied with both the town and village of Mount Kisco, New York.) It also had the fifty-seventh highest percentage of Peruvian residents in the US, at 1.05% of the city's population (tied with Locust Valley, New York), and the 20th-highest percentage of Romanian residents in the US, at 1.1% of its population (tied with several other areas in the US).


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: Prior to their dissolutions, Commodore Cruise Line and its subsidiary Crown Cruise Line had their headquarters in Hollywood.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: Since 1991, the Invicta Watch Group, a manufacturer and marketer of timepieces and writing instruments, has had its headquarters in Hollywood, where it also operates its customer-service call center.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: According to the city's 2019 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: Guided tours along the Intercostal Waterway are common in Hollywood. The Intercostal Waterway, parallel to the Atlantic Ocean, provides both tourists and locals with the exploration of nature and observation of surroundings.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: Young Circle is another area surrounded by shops, restaurants, and bars. A Food-Truck Takeover occurs every Monday, during which dozens of local food trucks park and offer a variety of cuisines, including Cuban, Venezuelan, Mediterranean, Mexican, Jamaican, and Peruvian foods, in addition to barbecue, burgers, gourmet grilled cheese, and desserts.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: Hollywood Beach has a boardwalk that extends about 2.5 miles along the Atlantic Ocean. Parking is available on side streets or in parking garages for a fee, and public trolleys run through the day. Restaurants and hotels line the boardwalk, along with a theatre, children's playground, and other attractions, including bicycle rental shops, ice cream parlors, souvenir shops, and a farmer's market. The boardwalk is used for walking and jogging, and has a bike lane for bicyclists and rollerbladers.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: Hollywood (Florida) has a diverse and broad number of educational institutions throughout the city. Namely, these include 32 public (and charter) schools with 24 private schools. The public schools are operated by the Broward County Public Schools.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: Broward County operates 24 public schools, consisting of four high schools, six middle schools and 14 elementary schools.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: The public high schools situated in Hollywood are: Hollywood Hills High School, McArthur High School, South Broward High School and Sheridan Technical College and High School.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: The public middle schools include: Apollo Middle School, Attucks Middle School, Driftwood Middle School, McNicol Middle School, Olsen Middle School and Beachside Montessori Village.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: In addition to these public schools, there are eight public 'charter' schools which operate independently from Broward County. These charter schools are the: Hollywood Academy of Arts and Science (K–8), New Life Charter Academy, Championship Academy of Distinction at Hollywood K–5, Championship Academy of Distinction, Avant Garde Academy of Broward (K–12), BridgePrep Academy at Hollywood Hills, Ben Gamla Preparatory Academy and Bridge Prep Academy.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: Hollywood is served by Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport, the 22nd busiest airport in the United States. Broward County Transit operates several bus routes that pass through the city of Hollywood, such as the 1 on US 1 (federal highway). It is also served by Tri-Rail stations at Sheridan Street and Hollywood.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: The television game show "Hollywood Squares" taped a week of shows at the historic Diplomat Hotel in 1987 and featured aerial footage shot over Hollywood, Florida.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: Episode 15 of Season 6 of the "HBO" crime drama "The Sopranos" featured scenes shot in the vicinity of the Hollywood Beach Marriott along Carolina Street.


title: Hollywood, Florida

text: The Art and Culture Center of Hollywood is the exterior of the police substation in the now cancelled TV show "The Glades".


title: Trevor Eve

text: Trevor John Eve (born 1 July 1951) is an English film and television actor. In 1979 he gained fame as the eponymous lead in the detective series "Shoestring" and is also known for his role as Detective Superintendent Peter Boyd in BBC television drama "Waking the Dead". He is the father of three children, including actress Alice Eve.


title: Trevor Eve

text: Eve was born in Sutton Coldfield, near Birmingham, the son of Elsie (née Hamer) and Stewart Frederick Eve. His father was English, and his Welsh mother was from Glynneath. Educated at Bromsgrove School, he had little acting experience during his school days. He studied architecture at Kingston Polytechnic (now Kingston University) in London. He dropped out of the course after three years to enrol at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA), where, upon leaving, he was awarded The Bancroft Gold Medal.


title: Trevor Eve

text: Eve portrayed Paul McCartney in Willy Russell's 1974 play "John, Paul, George, Ringo ... and Bert" at the Lyric Theatre in London's West End, which won The Evening Standard Award and London Critics Awards for Best Musical.


title: Trevor Eve

text: Eve appeared in "Hindle Wakes" (1976) directed by Laurence Olivier as part of the "Laurence Olivier Presents" TV series. In 1977, Eve joined the cast of Franco Zeffirelli's "Filumena" in London's West End, where he met future wife, Sharon Maughan.


title: Trevor Eve

text: From 1979 to 1980, he played the role of the private investigator Eddie Shoestring in "Shoestring". He then went on to his first major film role in the 1979 "Dracula" directed by John Badham, playing Jonathan Harker, alongside Laurence Olivier. In 1981, Eve won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor, playing James Leeds in "Children of a Lesser God".


title: Trevor Eve

text: After appearing at The Royal Court Theatre in "The Genius", he returned to the West End to star in Cole Porter's "High Society" with Natasha Richardson and Stephen Rea, followed by his portrayal as Paolino in the 1988 Royal National Theatre production of "Man, Beast And Virtue", directed by William Gaskill.


title: Trevor Eve

text: In television, he appeared in "A Sense of Guilt" in 1989, and the 1992 BBC production of "A Doll's House" with Juliet Stevenson, whom he also worked alongside in the BAFTA and International Emmy Award-winning political drama "The Politician's Wife". He co-starred in the short-lived 1985 ABC series "Shadow Chasers". In 1991, he co-starred with Francesca Annis in the BBC miniseries "Parnell and the Englishwoman" portraying the Irish politician Charles Stewart Parnell. Eve won his second Laurence Olivier Award in 1996 for his portrayal of Dr Astrov in "Uncle Vanya".


title: Trevor Eve

text: He then went on to star in the 1998 Carlton Television/WGBH Boston television series "Heat of the Sun", which was filmed in Zimbabwe, and portrayed Edward Murdstone in BBC's 1999 adaptation of "David Copperfield". In September 2000, Eve starred in the BBC drama series "Waking the Dead" in the role of Detective Superintendent Peter Boyd. Eve continued to play Boyd throughout the subsequent nine series of the drama.


title: Trevor Eve

text: Eve was one of the artists who recited Shakespearian sonnets on the 2002 album "When Love Speaks". That same year, Eve played Cropper in "Possession", directed by Neil LaBute, and continued his work in film in "Troy" directed by Wolfgang Petersen in 2004, and "The Family Man" in 2006.


title: Trevor Eve

text: In April 2008, Eve starred as game show host and TV personality Hughie Green in the BBC Four biographical film "Hughie Green, Most Sincerely". In 2010, Eve played the father of the female lead, his real-life daughter, Alice, in "She's Out of My League", and starred as Peter Manson in the ITV/Mammoth Screen remake of "Bouquet of Barbed Wire". In January 2011, he starred in the three-part ITV drama "Kidnap and Ransom", filmed on location in South Africa, and reprised his role as Dominic King in 2012 for the second series.


title: Trevor Eve

text: After co-founding Projector Productions in 1995, Eve has produced TV movies "Cinderella" featuring Kathleen Turner, "Alice through The Looking Glass" starring Kate Beckinsale, and "Twelfth Night" starring Chiwetel Ejiofor. Eve also served as executive producer on his successful series "Kidnap and Ransom", and "The Body Farm" with Tara Fitzgerald.


title: Trevor Eve

text: He also starred in a three-part drama on ITV called "Lawless". Eve played the part of Judge Sir Selwyn Hardcastle in the BBC's "Death Comes to Pemberley" in December 2013, and as Roach in "The Interceptor" in 2014. Eve also worked on son Jack Eve's debut feature film as writer-director, "Death of a Farmer", which having had a screening at the Dinard Film Festival, had its UK premiere at The Borderlines Film Festival on 5 March 2014.


title: Trevor Eve

text: On 19 February 2014, Eve was part of the invited audience at Buckingham Palace to celebrate the centennial of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art. He and his wife were asked to perform in front of the Queen in the Investiture Room, along with Hugh Laurie, Sir Tom Courtenay and Dame Helen Mirren. Eve played Professor Higgins in an extract from "Pygmalion".


title: Trevor Eve

text: In 1982 Eve was awarded the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in a New Play (1981 theatre season), for his performance in "Children of a Lesser God".


title: Trevor Eve

text: In 1997 he was awarded his second Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role for his 1996 performance in "Uncle Vanya" at the Noël Coward Theatre.


title: Trevor Eve

text: Eve met Sharon Maughan in 1979, when they both had parts in the West End production of "Filumena". They married in 1980 and have three children: Alice Sophia (born 1982), who appeared in "Star Trek Into Darkness"; Jack (born 1985), film-maker; and George (born 1994), who is front man for the band Two Bottle Jump. While they were raising their children the couple divided their time between Britain and the United States. Trevor Eve, Sharon Maughan and Alice Eve all appeared in "She's Out of My League" playing father, mother and daughter respectively.


title: Trevor Eve

text: Trevor Eve's interests include golf, painting, architecture and tennis. In 1995 he was seriously injured when he fell badly from his pony while playing polo. He is also a supporter of Chelsea F.C. and a patron of the charity Child Hope UK.


title: Tales of the Jedi (TV series)

text: Tales of the Jedi, also marketed as Star Wars: Tales of the Jedi, is an American animated anthology miniseries created by Dave Filoni. It is part of the "Star Wars" franchise, exploring different Jedi characters from the prequel trilogy era. The series was produced by Lucasfilm Animation, with Charles Murray as head writer and Filoni as supervising director, for the streaming service Disney+.


title: Tales of the Jedi (TV series)

text: Filoni began writing the series while working on the "Star Wars" series "The Mandalorian", and revealed the first official details about it in May 2022. It consists of six episodes split into two "paths", one following the character Ahsoka Tano and the other depicting the character Count Dooku, with the final episode loosely adapting the events of the 2016 novel "" by E. K. Johnston. Ashley Eckstein, Corey Burton, Janina Gavankar, Micheál Richardson, TC Carson, Ian McDiarmid, Liam Neeson, Bryce Dallas Howard, Phil LaMarr, Clancy Brown, Matt Lanter, James Arnold Taylor, and Dee Bradley Baker provide voices for the series, which uses the same animation style as Filoni's previous series, "".


title: Tales of the Jedi (TV series)

text: All episodes of "Tales of the Jedi" were released on Disney+ on October 26, 2022, to generally favorable reviews.


title: Tales of the Jedi (TV series)

text: Each episode of "Tales of the Jedi" tells a short story featuring Jedi from the "Star Wars" prequel trilogy era. The six episodes are split into two "paths": the first following Ahsoka Tano across various points in her life, and the other depicting a young Count Dooku before his fall to the dark side of the Force.


title: Tales of the Jedi (TV series)

text: Yoda, Plo Koon, Tera Sinube, Saesee Tiin, Ima-Gun Di, Caleb Dume, Depa Billaba, and Mon Mothma appear in non-speaking cameos.


title: Tales of the Jedi (TV series)

text: While traveling to work on the "Star Wars" series "The Mandalorian", Dave Filoni began writing short stories about different Jedi characters from the franchise's prequel trilogy era. Carrie Beck, senior vice president of development and production at Lucasfilm, asked if Filoni wanted to turn these into a series, which he compared to her "find[ing] the money" for a revival of his animated series "" on the streaming service Disney+. In December 2021, the logo for "Tales of the Jedi" was included on holiday gifts for Lucasfilm employees alongside logos for upcoming film and television projects at the studio. This was also the name of an unrelated comic book series published by Dark Horse Comics in the 1990s. Lucasfilm confirmed the project in April 2022 when the company announced the schedule for "Star Wars" Celebration, with Filoni set to discuss the animated anthology series in a dedicated panel. This was held at the end of May, and revealed that the series consists of six episodes, five of which are written by Filoni and the other by "The Clone Wars" writer Charles Murray along with Élan Murray. Each episode is approximately 15 minutes long. Filoni also serves as creator, supervising director, and executive producer, with Athena Yvette Portillo and Beck also executive producers.


title: Tales of the Jedi (TV series)

text: Filoni described the series as exploring "two paths and two choices", with one following the character Ahsoka Tano and the other focusing on Count Dooku. Each character is explored in three different eras of their lives. Comparing the series to "The Clone Wars", Filoni noted that "Tales of the Jedi" was slower paced and like "a series of tone poems" with less dialogue and more visual storytelling. This was inspired by the works of Hayao Miyazaki as well as Filoni's mentor, "Star Wars" creator George Lucas. Filoni's first idea for the series was to show how Ahsoka was brought to the Jedi Order by Plo Koon, but he changed this to a story about Ahsoka's first hunting trip with her mother because there had not been many stories about "moms being moms" in "Star Wars". He felt it was important that "Ahsoka's first experience with someone telling her, 'Don't be afraid,' is her mother." Beyond the first episode, which has a happy ending and features the "adorable baby Ahsoka", Filoni warned that "these aren't just fun, happy stories. It gets rough at times." He particularly felt that Dooku's life was "surprisingly tragic", and attributed some of the series' darker episodes to them being written during the COVID-19 pandemic. An aspect of Dooku that Filoni wanted to explore was the relationship with his padawan learner, Qui-Gon Jinn, whom Filoni described as "one of the best and, in some ways, most interesting Jedi, because of his philosophy, which is different from the Jedi Council. And where did he learn that, if not from his mentor, Count Dooku?"


title: Tales of the Jedi (TV series)

text: With the series' announcement in May 2022, it was revealed that Liam Neeson would reprise his role as Qui-Gon Jinn, while his son Micheál Richardson would voice a younger version of the character. Matt Lanter reprises his role as Anakin Skywalker from "The Clone Wars", while Janina Gavankar was cast as Ahsoka Tano's mother, Pav-ti Tano. In July 2022, Ashley Eckstein revealed she would be reprising her role as Ahsoka Tano.


title: Tales of the Jedi (TV series)

text: The series uses the same animation style as "The Clone Wars", with Murray, Nathaniel Villanueva, and Saul Ruiz serving as directors; Villanueva has also previously worked on other "Star Wars" animated projects.


title: Tales of the Jedi (TV series)

text: Kevin Kiner composed music for the series, after previously doing so for "The Clone Wars" and "Rebels".


title: Tales of the Jedi (TV series)

text: Filoni revealed the first details about the series at a "Star Wars" Celebration panel in May 2022, where a teaser was shown and the full first episode screened.


title: Tales of the Jedi (TV series)

text: According to Parrot Analytics, which looks at consumer engagement in consumer research, streaming, downloads, and on social media, "Tales of the Jedi" was the 4th most in-demand streaming show in the United States, during the week of October 29, 2022 to November 4, 2022. According to Whip Media, "Tales of the Jedi" was the 9th most streamed original series across all platforms in the United States, during the week ending October 30, 2022.


title: Tales of the Jedi (TV series)

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 100% of 19 critics' reviews are positive, with an average rating of 8.30/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "Under the reliable stewardship of Dave Filoni, "Tales of the Jedi" is an absorbing expansion of "Star Wars" lore that will delight Padawan-level fans and encyclopedic Force scholars alike."


title: Tales of the Jedi (TV series)

text: Brian Young of "/Film" asserted, "These episodes are full of pathos and interesting connections to the broader "Star Wars" lore. The quality of work from the writers, from Lucasfilm Animation, and the music of Kevin Kiner has never been better. My hope is that these mini-episodes are popular enough to spin more Jedi into the limelight for more tales." Kevin Fox, Jr. of "Paste" gave the series a grade of 8.2 out of 10, stating, "The overall result, as overseen by Dave Filoni, is surprising and strong. "Tales of the Jedi" succeeds by saying exactly what it means to and then making its exit, sure to have viewers ready for more. Whether it's ultimately a one-off season or the start of something greater, it's worth Star Wars fans' time to check it out."


title: Tales of the Jedi (TV series)

text: Jamie Lovett of "ComicBook.com" gave the series a grade of 4 out of 5, saying, "These six "Tales of the Jedi" are beautiful, moving, and deceptively layered for their brevity while packing a few surprises and jaw-dropping moments along the way. Lucasfilm Animation managed to squeeze a lot of "Star Wars" magic into these shorts, and viewers will only be disappointed that there aren't more of them." Alex Stedman of "IGN" gave the series a grade of 8 out of 10, writing, "Tales of the Jedi is a strong, tightly written showcase for two important characters in Star Wars lore: Count Dooku and Ahsoka Tano. Dooku in particular gets a good amount of meat added to his character’s bones, while the other episodes feature a welcome look into Ahsoka at different points in her life. It’s moody and methodical at times, while still managing to weave in some beautifully animated action. It may not be absolutely vital Star Wars content, but there are certainly worse ways to revisit these characters before Ahsoka gets her own series."


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Biblical Hebrew (, or , ), also called Classical Hebrew, is an archaic form of the Hebrew language, a language in the Canaanite branch of Semitic languages spoken by the Israelites in the area known as the Land of Israel, roughly west of the Jordan River and east of the Mediterranean Sea. The term "Hebrew" ("ivrit") was not used for the language in the Bible, which was referred to as ("sefat kena'an", i.e. language of Canaan) or ("Yehudit", i.e. Judaean), but the name was used in Ancient Greek and Mishnaic Hebrew texts.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The Hebrew language is attested in inscriptions from about the 10th century BCE, and spoken Hebrew persisted through and beyond the Second Temple period, which ended in the siege of Jerusalem (70 CE). It eventually developed into Mishnaic Hebrew, spoken up until the fifth century CE.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Biblical Hebrew as recorded in the Hebrew Bible reflects various stages of the Hebrew language in its consonantal skeleton, as well as a vocalization system which was added in the Middle Ages by the Masoretes.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: There is also some evidence of regional dialectal variation, including differences between Biblical Hebrew as spoken in the northern Kingdom of Israel and in the southern Kingdom of Judah. The consonantal text was transmitted in manuscript form, and underwent redaction in the Second Temple period, but its earliest portions (parts of Amos, Isaiah, Hosea and Micah) can be dated to the late 8th to early 7th centuries BCE.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Biblical Hebrew has been written with a number of different writing systems. From around the 12th century BCE until the 6th century BCE the Hebrews used the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet. This was retained by the Samaritans, who use the descendent Samaritan script to this day. However, the Imperial Aramaic alphabet gradually displaced the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet after the exile to Babylon, and it became the source for the Modern Hebrew alphabet. All of these scripts were lacking letters to represent all of the sounds of Biblical Hebrew, although these sounds are reflected in Greek and Latin transcriptions/translations of the time. These scripts originally indicated only consonants, but certain letters, known by the Latin term "matres lectionis", became increasingly used to mark vowels. In the Middle Ages, various systems of diacritics were developed to mark the vowels in Hebrew manuscripts; of these, only the Tiberian vocalization is still in wide use.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Biblical Hebrew possessed a series of emphatic consonants whose precise articulation is disputed, likely ejective or pharyngealized. Earlier Biblical Hebrew possessed three consonants which did not have their own letters in the writing system, but over time they merged with other consonants. The stop consonants developed fricative allophones under the influence of Aramaic, and these sounds eventually became marginally phonemic. The pharyngeal and glottal consonants underwent weakening in some regional dialects, as reflected in the modern Samaritan Hebrew reading tradition. The vowel system of Biblical Hebrew changed over time and is reflected differently in the ancient Greek and Latin transcriptions, medieval vocalization systems, and modern reading traditions.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Biblical Hebrew had a typical Semitic morphology with nonconcatenative morphology, arranging Semitic roots into patterns to form words. Biblical Hebrew distinguished two genders (masculine, feminine), three numbers (singular, plural, and uncommonly, dual). Verbs were marked for voice and mood, and had two conjugations which may have indicated aspect and/or tense (a matter of debate). The tense or aspect of verbs was also influenced by the conjugation , in the so-called waw-consecutive construction. Unlike modern Hebrew, the default word order for biblical Hebrew was verb–subject–object, and verbs inflected for the number, gender, and person of their subject. Pronominal suffixes could be appended to verbs (to indicate object) or nouns (to indicate possession), and nouns had special construct states for use in possessive constructions.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The earliest written sources refer to Biblical Hebrew as "the language of Canaan". The Hebrew Bible also calls the language "Judaean, Judahite" In the Hellenistic period, Greek writings use the names "Hebraios", "Hebraïsti" and in Mishnaic Hebrew we find 'Hebrew' and "Hebrew language". The origin of this term is obscure; suggested origins include the biblical Eber, the ethnonyms Ḫabiru, Ḫapiru, and ˁApiru found in sources from Egypt and the near east, and a derivation from the root "to pass" alluding to crossing over the Jordan River. Jews also began referring to Hebrew as "the Holy Tongue" in Mishnaic Hebrew.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The term "Classical Hebrew" may include all pre-medieval dialects of Hebrew, including Mishnaic Hebrew, or it may be limited to Hebrew contemporaneous with the Hebrew Bible. The term "Biblical Hebrew" refers to pre-Mishnaic dialects (sometimes excluding Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew). The term "Biblical Hebrew" may or may not include extra-biblical texts, such as inscriptions (e.g. the Siloam inscription), and generally also includes later vocalization traditions for the Hebrew Bible's consonantal text, most commonly the early medieval Tiberian vocalization.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The archeological record for the prehistory of Biblical Hebrew is far more complete than the record of Biblical Hebrew itself. Early Northwest Semitic (ENWS) materials are attested from 2350 BCE to 1200 BCE, the end of the Bronze Age. The Northwest Semitic languages, including Hebrew, differentiated noticeably during the Iron Age (1200–540 BCE), although in its earliest stages Biblical Hebrew was not highly differentiated from Ugaritic and the Canaanite of the Amarna letters.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Hebrew developed during the latter half of the second millennium BCE between the Jordan and the Mediterranean Sea, an area known as Canaan. The Israelite tribes established a kingdom in Canaan at the beginning of the first millennium BCE, which later split into the kingdom of Israel in the north and the kingdom of Judah in the south after a disputed succession.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The kingdom of Israel was destroyed by the Assyrians in 722 BCE. The kingdom of Judah was conquered by the Babylonians in 586 BCE. The upper classes were exiled into the Babylonian captivity and Solomon's Temple was destroyed. Later the Persians made Judah a province and permitted Jewish exiles to return and rebuild the Temple. According to the "Gemara", Hebrew of this period was similar to Imperial Aramaic; Hanina bar Hama said that God sent the exiled Jews to Babylon because "[the Babylonian] language is akin to the "Leshon Hakodesh"".


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Aramaic became the common language in the north, in Galilee and Samaria. Hebrew remained in use in Judah; however the returning exiles brought back Aramaic influence, and Aramaic was used for communicating with other ethnic groups during the Persian period. Alexander conquered Judah in 332 BCE, beginning the period of Hellenistic (Greek) domination. During the Hellenistic period Judea became independent under the Hasmonean dynasty, but later the Romans ended their independence, making Herod the Great their governor. One Jewish revolt against the Romans led to the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, and the second Bar Kokhba revolt in 132–135 led to a large departure of the Jewish population of Judea.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Biblical Hebrew after the Second Temple period evolved into Mishnaic Hebrew, which ceased being spoken and developed into a literary language around 200 CE. Hebrew continued to be used as a literary and liturgical language in the form of Medieval Hebrew, and Hebrew began a revival process in the 19th century, culminating in Modern Hebrew becoming the official language of Israel. Currently, Classical Hebrew is generally taught in public schools in Israel, and Biblical Hebrew forms are sometimes used in Modern Hebrew literature, much as archaic and biblical constructions are used in Modern English literature. Since Modern Hebrew contains many biblical elements, Biblical Hebrew is fairly intelligible to Modern Hebrew speakers.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The primary source of Biblical Hebrew material is the Hebrew Bible. Epigraphic materials from the area of Israelite territory are written in a form of Hebrew called Inscriptional Hebrew, although this is meagerly attested. According to Waltke & O'Connor, Inscriptional Hebrew "is not strikingly different from the Hebrew preserved in the Masoretic text." The damp climate of Israel caused the rapid deterioration of papyrus and parchment documents, in contrast to the dry environment of Egypt, and the survival of the Hebrew Bible may be attributed to scribal determination in preserving the text through copying. No manuscript of the Hebrew Bible dates to before 400 BCE, although two silver rolls (the Ketef Hinnom scrolls) from the seventh or sixth century BCE show a version of the Priestly Blessing. Vowel and cantillation marks were added to the older consonantal layer of the Bible between 600 CE and the beginning of the 10th century. The scholars who preserved the pronunciation of the Bibles were known as the Masoretes. The most well-preserved system that was developed, and the only one still in religious use, is the Tiberian vocalization, but both Babylonian and Palestinian vocalizations are also attested. The Palestinian system was preserved mainly in piyyutim, which contain biblical quotations.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: As Biblical Hebrew evolved from the Proto-Semitic language it underwent a number of consonantal mergers parallel with those in other Canaanite languages. There is no evidence that these mergers occurred after the adaptation of the Hebrew alphabet.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: As a Northwest Semitic language, Hebrew shows the shift of initial to , a similar independent pronoun system to the other Northwest Semitic languages (with third person pronouns never containing ), some archaic forms, such as 'we', first person singular pronominal suffix -i or -ya, and commonly preceding pronominal suffixes. Case endings are found in Northwest Semitic languages in the second millennium BCE, but disappear almost totally afterwards. Mimation is absent in singular nouns, but is often retained in the plural, as in Hebrew.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The Northwest Semitic languages formed a dialect continuum in the Iron Age (1200–540 BCE), with Phoenician and Aramaic on each extreme. Hebrew is classed with Phoenician in the Canaanite subgroup, which also includes Ammonite, Edomite, and Moabite. Moabite might be considered a Hebrew dialect, though it possessed distinctive Aramaic features. Although Ugaritic shows a large degree of affinity to Hebrew in poetic structure, vocabulary, and some grammar, it lacks some Canaanite features (like the Canaanite shift and the shift > ), and its similarities are more likely a result of either contact or preserved archaism.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Hebrew underwent the Canaanite shift, where Proto-Semitic tended to shift to , perhaps when stressed. Hebrew also shares with the Canaanite languages the shifts > , and > , widespread reduction of diphthongs, and full assimilation of non-final /n/ to the following consonant if word final, i.e. /bat/ from *bant. There is also evidence of a rule of assimilation of /y/ to the following coronal consonant in pre-tonic position, shared by Hebrew, Phoenician and Aramaic.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Typical Canaanite words in Hebrew include: "roof" "table" "window" "old (thing)" "old (person)" and "expel". Morphological Canaanite features in Hebrew include the masculine plural marker , first person singular pronoun , interrogative pronoun , definite article (appearing in the first millennium BCE), and third person plural feminine verbal marker .


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Biblical Hebrew as preserved in the Hebrew Bible is composed of multiple linguistic layers. The consonantal skeleton of the text is the most ancient, while the vocalization and cantillation are later additions reflecting a later stage of the language. These additions were added after 600 CE; Hebrew had already ceased being used as a spoken language around 200 CE. Biblical Hebrew as reflected in the consonantal text of the Bible and in extra-biblical inscriptions may be subdivided by era.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The oldest form of Biblical Hebrew, Archaic Hebrew, is found in poetic sections of the Bible and inscriptions dating to around 1000 BCE, the early Monarchic Period. This stage is also known as Old Hebrew or Paleo-Hebrew, and is the oldest stratum of Biblical Hebrew. The oldest known artifacts of Archaic Biblical Hebrew are various sections of the Tanakh, including the Song of Moses (Exodus 15) and the Song of Deborah (Judges 5). Biblical poetry uses a number of distinct lexical items, for example for prose 'see', for 'great'. Some have cognates in other Northwest Semitic languages, for example 'do' and 'gold' which are common in Canaanite and Ugaritic. Grammatical differences include the use of , , and as relative particles, negative , and various differences in verbal and pronominal morphology and syntax.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Later pre-exilic Biblical Hebrew (such as is found in prose sections of the Pentateuch, Nevi'im, and some Ketuvim) is known as 'Biblical Hebrew proper' or 'Standard Biblical Hebrew'. This is dated to the period from the 8th to the 6th century BCE. In contrast to Archaic Hebrew, Standard Biblical Hebrew is more consistent in using the definite article , the accusative marker , distinguishing between simple and waw-consecutive verb forms, and in using particles like and rather than asyndeton.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Biblical Hebrew from after the Babylonian exile in 587 BCE is known as 'Late Biblical Hebrew'. Late Biblical Hebrew shows Aramaic influence in phonology, morphology, and lexicon, and this trend is also evident in the later-developed Tiberian vocalization system.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Qumran Hebrew, attested in the Dead Sea Scrolls from ca. 200 BCE to 70 CE, is a continuation of Late Biblical Hebrew. Qumran Hebrew may be considered an intermediate stage between Biblical Hebrew and Mishnaic Hebrew, though Qumran Hebrew shows its own idiosyncratic dialectal features.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Dialect variation in Biblical Hebrew is attested to by the well-known shibboleth incident of Judges 12:6, where Jephthah's forces from Gilead caught Ephraimites trying to cross the Jordan river by making them say šibboleṯ" ('ear of corn') The Ephraimites' identity was given away by their pronunciation: sibboleṯ". The apparent conclusion is that the Ephraimite dialect had for standard . As an alternative explanation, it has been suggested that the proto-Semitic phoneme , which shifted to in most dialects of Hebrew, may have been retained in the Hebrew of the trans-Jordan (however, there is evidence that the word had initial consonant * in proto-Semitic, contradicting this theory); or that the Proto-Semitic sibilant *s, transcribed with šin and traditionally reconstructed as *, had been originally * before a push-type chain shift changed another sibilant *s, transcribed with sameḵ and traditionally reconstructed as /s/ but originally , to , pushed s to in many dialects (e.g. Gileadite) but not others (e.g. Ephraimite), where *s and *s merged into /s/.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Hebrew as spoken in the northern Kingdom of Israel, known also as Israelian Hebrew, shows phonological, lexical, and grammatical differences from southern dialects. The Northern dialect spoken around Samaria shows more frequent simplification of into as attested by the Samaria ostraca (8th century BCE), e.g. (= < 'wine'), while the Southern (Judean) dialect instead adds in an epenthetic vowel /i/, added halfway through the first millennium BCE ( = ). The word play in Amos 8:1–2 may reflect this: given that Amos was addressing the population of the Northern Kingdom, the vocalization *קֵיץ would be more forceful. Other possible Northern features include use of 'who, that', forms like 'to know' rather than and infinitives of certain verbs of the form 'to do' rather than . The Samaria ostraca also show for standard 'year', as in Aramaic.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The guttural phonemes merged over time in some dialects. This was found in Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew, but Jerome attested to the existence of contemporaneous Hebrew speakers who still distinguished pharyngeals. Samaritan Hebrew also shows a general attrition of these phonemes, though are occasionally preserved as .


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, found at Khirbet Qeiyafa, dates to the 10th century BCE. The 15 cm x 16.5 cm (5.9 in x 6.5 in) trapezoid pottery sherd (ostracon) has five lines of text written in ink written in the Proto-Canaanite alphabet (the old form which predates both the Paleo-Hebrew and Phoenician alphabets). The tablet is written from left to right, indicating that Hebrew writing was still in the formative stage.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The Israelite tribes who settled in the land of Israel used a late form of the Proto-Sinaitic Alphabet (known as Proto-Canaanite when found in Israel) around the 12th century BCE, which developed into Early Phoenician and Early Paleo-Hebrew as found in the Gezer calendar (). This script developed into the Paleo-Hebrew script in the 10th or 9th centuries BCE. The Paleo-Hebrew alphabet's main differences from the Phoenician script were "a curving to the left of the downstrokes in the "long-legged" letter-signs... the consistent use of a Waw with a concave top, [and an] x-shaped Taw." The oldest inscriptions in Paleo-Hebrew script are dated to around the middle of the 9th century BCE, the most famous being the Mesha Stele in the Moabite language (which might be considered a dialect of Hebrew). The ancient Hebrew script was in continuous use until the early 6th century BCE, the end of the First Temple period. In the Second Temple Period the Paleo-Hebrew script gradually fell into disuse, and was completely abandoned among the Jews after the failed Bar Kochba revolt. The Samaritans retained the ancient Hebrew alphabet, which evolved into the modern Samaritan alphabet.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: By the end of the First Temple period the Aramaic script, a separate descendant of the Phoenician script, became widespread throughout the region, gradually displacing Paleo-Hebrew. The oldest documents that have been found in the Aramaic Script are fragments of the scrolls of Exodus, Samuel, and Jeremiah found among the Dead Sea scrolls, dating from the late 3rd and early 2nd centuries BCE. It seems that the earlier biblical books were originally written in the Paleo-Hebrew script, while the later books were written directly in the later Assyrian script. Some Qumran texts written in the Assyrian script write the tetragrammaton and some other divine names in Paleo-Hebrew, and this practice is also found in several Jewish-Greek biblical translations. While spoken Hebrew continued to evolve into Mishnaic Hebrew, the scribal tradition for writing the Torah gradually developed. A number of regional "book-hand" styles developed for the purpose of Torah manuscripts and occasionally other literary works, distinct from the calligraphic styles used mainly for private purposes. The Mizrahi and Ashkenazi book-hand styles were later adapted to printed fonts after the invention of the printing press. The modern Hebrew alphabet, also known as the Assyrian or Square script, is a descendant of the Aramaic alphabet.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The Phoenician script had dropped five characters by the 12th century BCE, reflecting the language's twenty-two consonantal phonemes. As a result, the 22 letters of the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet numbered less than the consonant phonemes of ancient Biblical Hebrew; in particular, the letters could each mark two different phonemes. After a sound shift the letters , could only mark one phoneme, but (except in Samaritan Hebrew) still marked two. The old Babylonian vocalization system wrote a superscript above the to indicate it took the value , while the Masoretes added the shin dot to distinguish between the two varieties of the letter.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The original Hebrew alphabet consisted only of consonants, but gradually the letters , , , , also became used to indicate vowels, known as "matres lectionis" when used in this function. It is thought that this was a product of phonetic development: for instance, *bayt ('house') shifted to in construct state but retained its spelling. While no examples of early Hebrew orthography have been found, older Phoenician and Moabite texts show how First Temple period Hebrew would have been written. Phoenician inscriptions from the 10th century BCE do not indicate matres lectiones in the middle or the end of a word, for example and for later and , similarly to the Hebrew Gezer Calendar, which has for instance for and possibly for . Matres lectionis were later added word-finally, for instance the Mesha inscription has for later ; however at this stage they were not yet used word-medially, compare Siloam inscription versus (for later ). The relative terms "defective" and "full"/"plene" are used to refer to alternative spellings of a word with less or more matres lectionis, respectively.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The Hebrew Bible was presumably originally written in a more defective orthography than found in any of the texts known today. Of the extant textual witnesses of the Hebrew Bible, the Masoretic text is generally the most conservative in its use of matres lectionis, with the Samaritan Pentateuch and its forebearers being more full and the Qumran tradition showing the most liberal use of vowel letters. The Masoretic text mostly uses vowel letters for long vowels, showing the tendency to mark all long vowels except for word-internal . In the Qumran tradition, back vowels are usually represented by whether short or long. is generally used for both long and (, ), and final is often written as in analogy to words like , , e.g. , sometimes . is found finally in forms like (Tiberian ), (Tiberian ) while may be used for an a-quality vowel in final position (e.g. ) and in medial position (e.g. ). Pre-Samaritan and Samaritan texts show full spellings in many categories (e.g. vs. Masoretic in Genesis 49:3) but only rarely show full spelling of the Qumran type.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: In general the vowels of Biblical Hebrew were not indicated in the original text, but various sources attest them at various stages of development. Greek and Latin transcriptions of words from the biblical text provide early evidence of the nature of Biblical Hebrew vowels. In particular, there is evidence from the rendering of proper nouns in the Koine Greek Septuagint (3rd–2nd centuries BCE) and the Greek alphabet transcription of the Hebrew biblical text contained in the Secunda (3rd century CE, likely a copy of a preexisting text from before 100 BCE). In the 7th and 8th centuries CE various systems of vocalic notation were developed to indicate vowels in the biblical text. The most prominent, best preserved, and the only system still in use, is the Tiberian vocalization system, created by scholars known as Masoretes around 850 CE. There are also various extant manuscripts making use of less common vocalization systems (Babylonian and Palestinian), known as "superlinear vocalizations" because their vocalization marks are placed above the letters. In addition, the Samaritan reading tradition is independent of these systems, and was occasionally notated with a separate vocalization system. These systems often record vowels at different stages of historical development; for example, the name of the Judge Samson is recorded in Greek as Σαμψών "Sampsōn" with the first vowel as , while Tiberian with shows the effect of the law of attenuation whereby in closed unstressed syllables became . All of these systems together are used to reconstruct the original vocalization of Biblical Hebrew.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: At an early stage, in documents written in the paleo-Hebrew script, words were divided by short vertical lines and later by dots, as reflected by the Mesha Stone, the Siloam inscription, the Ophel inscription, and paleo-Hebrew script documents from Qumran. Word division was not used in Phoenician inscriptions; however, there is not direct evidence for biblical texts being written without word division, as suggested by Nahmanides in his introduction to the Torah. Word division using spaces was commonly used from the beginning of the 7th century BCE for documents in the Aramaic script. In addition to marking vowels, the Tiberian system also uses cantillation marks, which serve to mark word stress, semantic structure, and the musical motifs used in formal recitation of the text.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: While the Tiberian, Babylonian, and Palestinian reading traditions are extinct, various other systems of pronunciation have evolved over time, notably the Yemenite, Sephardi, Ashkenazi, and Samaritan traditions. Modern Hebrew pronunciation is also used by some to read biblical texts. The modern reading traditions do not stem solely from the Tiberian system; for instance, the Sephardic tradition's distinction between qamatz gadol and qatan is pre-Tiberian. However, the only orthographic system used to mark vowels is the Tiberian vocalization.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The phonetic nature of some Biblical Hebrew consonants is disputed. The so-called "emphatics" were likely pharyngealized, but possibly ejective or velarized. The pharyngealization of emphatic consonants is viewed as a Central Semitic innovation.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Some argue that were affricated (), but Egyptian starts using "s" in place of earlier "ṯ" to represent Canaanite "s" around 1000 BC. It is likely that Canaanite was already dialectally split by that time and the northern, Early Phoenician dialect that the Greeks were in contact with could have preserved the affricate pronunciation until at least, unlike the more southern Canaanite dialects (like Hebrew) that the Egyptians were in contact with, so that there is no contradiction.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Originally, the Hebrew letters and each represented two possible phonemes, uvular and pharyngeal, with the distinction unmarked in Hebrew orthography. However the uvular phonemes and merged with their pharyngeal counterparts and respectively c. 200 BCE.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: This is observed by noting that these phonemes are distinguished consistently in the Septuagint of the Pentateuch (e.g. Isaac = versus Rachel = ), but this becomes more sporadic in later books and is generally absent in Ezra and Nehemiah.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The phoneme , is also not directly indicated by Hebrew orthography but is clearly attested by later developments: It is written with (also used for ) but later merged with (normally indicated with ). As a result, three etymologically distinct phonemes can be distinguished through a combination of spelling and pronunciation: written , written , and (pronounced but written ). The specific pronunciation of as is based on comparative evidence ( is the corresponding Proto-Semitic phoneme and still attested in Modern South Arabian languages as well as early borrowings (e.g. "balsam" < Greek "balsamon" < Hebrew "baśam"). began merging with in Late Biblical Hebrew, as indicated by interchange of orthographic and , possibly under the influence of Aramaic, and this became the rule in Mishnaic Hebrew. In all Jewish reading traditions and have merged completely; however in Samaritan Hebrew has instead merged with .


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Allophonic spirantization of to (known as begadkefat spirantization) developed sometime during the lifetime of Biblical Hebrew under the influence of Aramaic. This probably happened after the original Old Aramaic phonemes disappeared in the 7th century BCE, and most likely occurred after the loss of Hebrew c. 200 BCE. It is known to have occurred in Hebrew by the 2nd century CE. After a certain point this alternation became contrastive in word-medial and final position (though bearing low functional load), but in word-initial position they remained allophonic. This is evidenced both by the Tiberian vocalization's consistent use of word-initial spirants after a vowel in sandhi, as well as Rabbi Saadia Gaon's attestation to the use of this alternation in Tiberian Aramaic at the beginning of the 10th century CE.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The Dead Sea scrolls show evidence of confusion of the phonemes , e.g. "ħmr" for Masoretic 'he said'. However the testimony of Jerome indicates that this was a regionalism and not universal. Confusion of gutturals was also attested in later Mishnaic Hebrew and Aramaic (see Eruvin 53b). In Samaritan Hebrew, have generally all merged, either into , a glide or , or by vanishing completely (often creating a long vowel), except that original sometimes have reflex before .


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Geminate consonants are phonemically contrastive in Biblical Hebrew. In the Secunda are never geminate. In the Tiberian tradition cannot be geminate; historically first degeminated, followed by , , and finally , as evidenced by changes in the quality of the preceding vowel.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The vowel system of Biblical Hebrew has changed considerably over time. The following vowels are those reconstructed for the earliest stage of Hebrew, those attested by the Secunda, those of the various vocalization traditions (Tiberian and varieties of Babylonian and Palestinian), and those of the Samaritan tradition, with vowels absent in some traditions color-coded.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The following sections present the vowel changes that Biblical Hebrew underwent, in approximate chronological order.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Proto-Semitic is the ancestral language of all the Semitic languages, and in traditional reconstructions possessed 29 consonants; 6 monophthong vowels, consisting of three qualities and two lengths, , in which the long vowels occurred only in open syllables; and two diphthongs . The stress system of Proto-Semitic is unknown but it is commonly described as being much like the system of Classical Latin or the modern pronunciation of Classical Arabic: If the penultimate (second last) syllable is light (has a short vowel followed by a single consonant), stress goes on the antepenult (third to last); otherwise, it goes on the penult.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Various changes, mostly in morphology, took place between Proto-Semitic and Proto-Central-Semitic, the language at the root of the Central Semitic languages. The phonemic system was inherited essentially unchanged, but the emphatic consonants may have changed their realization in Central Semitic from ejectives to pharyngealized consonants.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The morphology of Proto-Central-Semitic shows significant changes compared with Proto-Semitic, especially in its verbs, and is much like in Classical Arabic. Nouns in the singular were usually declined in three cases: /-u/ (nominative), /-a/ (accusative) or /-i/ (genitive). In some circumstances (but never in the construct state), nouns also took a final nasal after the case ending: "nunation" (final /-n/) occurred in some languages, "mimation" (final /-m/) in others. The original meaning of this marker is uncertain. In Classical Arabic, final /-n/ on nouns indicates indefiniteness and disappears when the noun is preceded by a definite article or otherwise becomes definite in meaning. In other languages, final /-n/ may be present whenever a noun is not in the construct state. Old Canaanite had mimation, of uncertain meaning, in an occurrence of the word "urušalemim" (Jerusalem) as given in an Egyptian transcription.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Broken plural forms in Arabic are declined like singulars, and often take singular agreement as well. Dual and "strong plural" forms use endings with a long vowel or diphthong, declined in only two cases: nominative and objective (combination accusative/genitive), with the objective form often becoming the default one after the loss of case endings. Both Hebrew and Arabic had a special form of nunation/mimation that co-occurred with the dual and masculine sound plural endings whenever the noun was not in the construct state. The endings were evidently felt as an inherent part of the ending and, as a result, are still used. Examples are Arabic strong masculine plural "-ūna" (nominative), "-īna" (objective), and dual endings "-āni" (nominative), "-ayni" (objective); corresponding construct-state endings are "-ū, -ī" (strong masculine plural), "-ā, -ay" (dual). (The strong feminine endings in Classical Arabic are "-ātu" nominative, "-āti" objective, marked with a singular-style "-n" nunation in the indefinite state only.)


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Hebrew has almost lost the broken plural (if it ever had it), and any vestigial forms that may remain have been extended with the strong plural endings. The dual and strong plural endings were likely much like the Arabic forms given above at one point, with only the objective-case forms ultimately surviving. For example, dual "-ayim" is probably from "*-aymi" with an extended mimation ending (cf. Arabic "-ayni" above), while dual construct "-ē" is from "*-ay" without mimation. Similarly, "-īm" < "*-īma", "-ōt" < "*-āti". (Note that expected plural construct state "*-ī" was replaced by dual "-ē".)


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Feminine nouns at this point ended in a suffix /-at-/ or /-t-/ and took normal case endings. When the ending /-at-/ became final because of loss or non-presence of the case ending, both Hebrew and Arabic show a later shift to /-ah/ and then . The final /t/ consonant therefore is silent in the absolute state, but becomes /t/ again in the construct state and when these words take suffixes, e.g. תֹורָה /toːraː/ "law" becomes תֹורַת /toːrat/ "law of", and תֹורָתְךָ /toːraːtəxaː/ "your law", etc. (This is equivalent to the Arabic letter Tāʼ Marbūṭah ة, a modified final form of the letter He ه which indicates this same phoneme shifting, and only its pronunciation varies between construct and absolute state.)


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Hebrew shows the Canaanite shift whereby often shifted to ; the conditions of this shift are disputed. This shift had occurred by the 14th century BCE, as demonstrated by its presence in the Amarna letters ().


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: As a result of the Canaanite shift, the Proto-Hebrew vowel system is reconstructed as (and possibly rare ). Furthermore, stress at this point appears to have shifted so that it was consistently on the penultimate (next to last) syllable, and was still non-phonemic. The predominant final stress of Biblical Hebrew was a result of loss of final unstressed vowels and a shift away from remaining open syllables (see below).


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Final unstressed short vowels dropped out in most words, making it possible for long vowels to occur in closed syllables.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Vowel lengthening in stressed, open syllables occurred "between" the two steps, with the result that short vowels at the beginning of a -VCV ending lengthened in nouns but not verbs. This is most noticeable with short : e.g. "*kataba" ('he wrote') > but "*dabara" ('word' acc.') > .


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The dropping of final short vowels in verb forms tended to erase mood distinctions, but also some gender distinctions; however, unexpected vowel lengthening occurred in many situations to preserve the distinctions. For example, in the suffix conjugation, first-singular *"-tu" appears to have been remade into *"-tī" already by Proto-Hebrew on the basis of possessive "-ī" (likewise first singular personal pronoun "*ʔana" became "*ʔanī").


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Similarly, in the second-singular, inherited "*-ta -ti" competed with lengthened "*-tā -tī" for masculine and feminine forms. The expected result would be "-t" or "-tā" for masculine, "-t" or "-tī" for feminine, and in fact both variants of both forms are found in the Bible (with "-h" marking the long "-ā" and "-y" marking the long "-ī"). The situation appears to have been quite fluid for several centuries, with "-t" and "-tā/tī" forms found in competition both in writing and in speech (cf. the Secunda (Hexapla) of Origen, which records both pronunciations, although quite often in disagreement with the written form as passed down to us). Ultimately, writing stabilized on the shorter "-t" for both genders, while speech chose feminine "-t" but masculine "-tā". This is the reason for the unexpected qamatz vowel written under the final letter of such words.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The exact same process affected possessive "*-ka" ('your' masc. sing.) and "*-ki" ('your' fem. sing.), and personal pronouns "*ʔanta, *ʔanti", with the same split into shorter and longer forms and the same ultimate resolution.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: In the process of lengthening, the high vowels were lowered. In the Secunda, the lengthened reflexes of are ; when kept short they generally have reflexes .


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Stressed open syllables with a short vowel (i.e. syllables consisting of a short vowel followed by a consonant and another vowel) had the vowel reduced to and the stressed moved one syllable later in the word (usually to the last syllable of the word). Stress was originally penultimate and loss of final short vowels made many words have final stress. However, words whose final syllable had a long vowel or ended with a consonant were unaffected and still had penultimate stress at this point. This change did not happen in pausal position, where the penultimate stress is preserved, and vowel lengthening rather than reduction occurs.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Note that many, perhaps most, Hebrew words with a schwa directly before a final stress are due to this stress shift.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: This sound change shifted many more originally penultimate-stressed words to have final stress. The above changes can be seen to divide words into a number of main classes based on stress and syllable properties:


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: were reduced to in the second syllable before the stress, and occasionally reduced rather than lengthened in pretonic position, especially when initial (e.g. σεμω = 'his name'). Thus the vowel system of the Secunda was .


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The later Jewish traditions (Tiberian, Babylonian, Palestinian) show similar vowel developments. By the Tiberian time, all short vowels in stressed syllables and open pretonic lengthened, making vowel length allophonic. Vowels in open or stressed syllables had allophonic length (e.g. in ('he will have mercy') < previously short < by Tiberian degemination of < PSem ). The Babylonian and Palestinian vocalizations systems also do not mark vowel length. In the Tiberian and Babylonian systems, and lengthened become the back vowel . In unaccented closed syllables, become (Tiberian), (Babylonian), or (Palestinian) – generally becoming the second vowel before geminates (e.g. ) and the first otherwise. In the Tiberian tradition pretonic vowels are reduced more commonly than in the Secunda. It does not occur for , but is occasional for (e.g. 'nails' < ), and is common for (e.g. 'open place' < ). In Tiberian Hebrew pretonic is most commonly preserved by geminating the following consonant, e.g. ('red' pl.) (cf. 'red' sg.); this pretonic gemination is also found in some forms with other vowels like ⁓ ('prisoner').


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The Babylonian and Palestinian systems have only one reduced vowel phoneme like the Secunda, though in Palestinian Hebrew it developed the pronunciation . However the Tiberian tradition possesses three reduced vowels of which has questionable phonemicity. under a non-guttural letter was pronounced as an ultrashort copy of the following vowel before a guttural, e.g. , and as preceding , e.g. , but was always pronounced as under gutturals, e.g. . When reduced, etymological become under gutturals (e.g. 'you [mp.] said' cf. 'he said'), and generally under non-gutturals, but > (and rarely > ) may still occur, especially after stops (or their spirantized counterparts) and (e.g. /dɔ̆ˈmi/). Samaritan and Qumran Hebrew have full vowels in place of the reduced vowels of Tiberian Hebrew.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Samaritan Hebrew also does not reflect etymological vowel length; however the elision of guttural consonants has created new phonemic vowel length, e.g. ('great') vs. ('wide'). Samaritan Hebrew vowels are allophonically lengthened (to a lesser degree) in open syllables, e.g. , , though this is less strong in post-tonic vowels. Pretonic gemination is also found in Samaritan Hebrew, but not always in the same locations as in Tiberian Hebrew, e.g. TH SH ; TH SH . While Proto-Hebrew long vowels usually retain their vowel quality in the later traditions of Hebrew, in Samaritan Hebrew may have reflex in closed stressed syllables, e.g. /, may become either or , and > . The reduced vowels of the other traditions appear as full vowels, though there may be evidence that Samaritan Hebrew once had similar vowel reduction. Samaritan results from the neutralization of the distinction between and in closed post-tonic syllables, e.g. ('house') ('the house') .


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Various more specific conditioned shifts of vowel quality have also occurred. Diphthongs were frequently monophthongized, but the scope and results of this shift varied among dialects. In particular, the Samaria ostraca show < < for Southern ('wine'), and Samaritan Hebrew shows instead the shift > . Original tended to shift to (e.g. and 'word'; 'outside' and 'outer') beginning in the second half of the second millennium BCE. This was carried through completely in Samaritan Hebrew but met more resistance in other traditions such as the Babylonian and Qumran traditions. Philippi's law is the process by which original in closed stressed syllables shifts to (e.g. > 'daughter'), or sometimes in the Tiberian tradition (e.g. > 'truth'). This is absent in the transcriptions of the Secunda, but there is evidence that the law's onset predates the Secunda. In the Samaritan tradition Philippi's law is applied consistently, e.g. > ('heart'). In some traditions the short vowel tended to shift to in unstressed closed syllables: this is known as the law of attenuation. It is common in the Tiberian tradition, e.g. > Tiberian ('seven'), but exceptions are frequent. It is less common in the Babylonian vocalization, e.g. ('seven'), and differences in Greek and Latin transcriptions demonstrate that it began quite late. Attenuation generally did not occur before , e.g. Tiberian ('key') versus ('opening [construct]'), and often was blocked before a geminate, e.g. ('gift'). Attenuation is rarely present in Samaritan Hebrew, e.g. . In the Tiberian tradition take offglide before . This is absent in the Secunda and in Samaritan Hebrew but present in the transcriptions of Jerome. In the Tiberian tradition an ultrashort echo vowel is sometimes added to clusters where the first element is a guttural, e.g. ('he will listen') ('his work') but ('he will make glorious') 'its breadth'.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The following charts summarize the most common reflexes of the Proto-Semitic vowels in the various stages of Hebrew:


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Proto-Hebrew generally had penultimate stress. The ultimate stress of later traditions of Hebrew usually resulted from the loss of final vowels in many words, preserving the location of proto-Semitic stress. Tiberian Hebrew has phonemic stress, e.g. ('they built') vs. ('in us'); stress is most commonly ultimate, less commonly penultimate, and antipenultimate stress exists marginally, e.g. ('into the tent'). There does not seem to be evidence for stress in the Secunda varying from that of the Tiberian tradition. Despite sharing the loss of final vowels with Tiberian Hebrew, Samaritan Hebrew has generally not preserved Proto-Semitic stress, and has predominantly penultimate stress, with occasional ultimate stress. There is evidence that Qumran Hebrew had a similar stress pattern to Samaritan Hebrew.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Medieval grammarians of Arabic and Hebrew classified words as belonging to three parts of speech: Arabic "ism" ('noun'), "fiʻl" ('verb'), and "ḥarf" ('particle'); other grammarians have included more categories. In particular, adjectives and nouns show more affinity to each other than in most European languages. Biblical Hebrew has a typical Semitic morphology, characterized by the use of roots. Most words in Biblical Hebrew are formed from a "root", a sequence of consonants with a general associated meaning. Roots are usually triconsonantal, with biconsonantal roots less common (depending on how some words are analyzed) and rare cases of quadri- and quinquiconsonantal roots. Roots are modified by affixation to form words. Verbal patterns are more productive and consistent, while noun patterns are less predictable.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The most common nominal prefix used is , used for substantives of location ( 'assembly'), instruments ( 'key'), and abstractions ( 'judgement'). The vowel after is normally , but appears sometimes as , or in the case of as (contracted from ). The prefix is used to denote the action of the verb; it is derived from more common for initial- verbs, e.g. ('thanksgiving'; < ydy). Prefixed is used in adjectives, e.g. ('deceptive'), and also occurs in nouns with initial sibilants, e.g. ('finger'). In the latter case this prefix was added for phonetic reasons, and the prefix is called either "prothetic" or "prosthetic". Prefixed often occurs in quadriliteral animal names, perhaps as a prefix, e.g. ('bat'), ('mouse'), ('scorpion').


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: In proto-Semitic nouns were marked for case: in the singular the markers were in the nominative, in the accusative (used also for adverbials), and in the genitive, as evidenced in Akkadian, Ugaritic, and Arabic. The Amarna letters show that this was probably still present in Hebrew In the development of Hebrew, final were dropped first, and later was elided as well. Mimation, a nominal suffix of unclear meaning, was found in early Canaanite, as shown by early Egyptian transcriptions () of Jerusalem as "Urušalimim", but there is no indication of its presence after 1800 BCE. Final is preserved in , originally meaning 'at night' but in prose replacing ('night'), and in the "connective vowels" of some prepositions (originally adverbials), e.g. ('with us'); nouns preserve in forms like . Construct state nouns lost case vowels at an early period (similar to Akkadian), as shown by the reflexes of ( in absolute but in construct) and the reflexes of ( and ) However forms like show that this was not yet a feature of Proto-Hebrew.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Biblical Hebrew has two genders, masculine and feminine, which are reflected in nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs. Hebrew distinguishes between singular and plural numbers, and plural forms may also be used for collectives and honorifics. Hebrew has a morphological dual form for nouns that naturally occur in pairs, and for units of measurement and time this contrasts with the plural ( 'day' 'two days' 'days'). A widespread misconception is that the Hebrew plural denotes three or more objects. In truth, it denotes two or more objects. However adjectives, pronouns, and verbs do not have dual forms, and most nominal dual forms can function as plurals ( 'six wings' from Isaiah 6:2). Finite verbs are marked for subject person, number, and gender. Nouns also have a construct form which is used in genitive constructions.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Nouns are marked as definite with the prefix /ha-/ followed by gemination of the initial consonant of the noun. In Tiberian Hebrew the vowel of the article may become or in certain phonetic environments, for example ('the wise man'), ('the man').


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The traditions differ on the form of segolate nouns, nouns stemming from roots with two final consonants. The anaptyctic of the Tiberian tradition in segolates appears in the Septuagint (3rd century BCE) but not the Hexapla (2nd century CE), e.g. = Γαθερ versus = Χεσλ (Psalms 49:14). This may reflect dialectal variation or phonetic versus phonemic transcriptions. Both the Palestinian and Babylonian traditions have an anaptyctic vowel in segolates, in the Palestinian tradition (e.g. 'land' = Tiberian Deuteronomy 26:15) and in Babylonian (e.g. 'item' = Tiberian Jeremiah 22:28). The Qumran tradition sometimes shows some type of back epenthetic vowel when the first vowel is back, e.g. for Tiberian ('tent').


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Biblical Hebrew has two sets of personal pronouns: the free-standing independent pronouns have a nominative function, while the pronominal suffixes are genitive or accusative. Only the first person suffix has different possessive and objective forms ( and ).


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Verbal consonantal roots are placed into derived verbal stems, known as "binyanim" in Hebrew; the binyanim mainly serve to indicate grammatical voice. This includes various distinctions of reflexivity, passivity, and causativity. Verbs of all binyanim have three non-finite forms (one participle, two infinitives), three modal forms (cohortative, imperative, jussive), and two major conjugations (prefixing, suffixing). The meaning of the prefixing and suffixing conjugations are also affected by the conjugation , and their meaning with respect to tense and aspect is a matter of debate.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The default word order in Biblical Hebrew is commonly thought to be VSO, though one scholar has argued that this is due to the prevalence of clauses with a "wayyiqtol" verb form compared to other less marked forms that use SVO either more often or at least to a comparable degree. Attributive adjectives normally follow the noun they modify. In Biblical Hebrew, possession is normally expressed with status constructus, a construction in which the possessed noun occurs in a phonologically reduced, "construct" form and is followed by the possessor noun in its normal, "absolute" form. Pronominal direct objects are either suffixed to the verb or alternatively expressed on the object-marking pronoun .


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: Biblical Hebrew has two main conjugation types, the suffix conjugation, also called the Perfect, and the prefix conjugation, also called Imperfect. The Perfect verb form expressed the idea of the verb as a completed action, viewing it from start to finish as a whole, and not focusing on the process by which the verb came to be completed, stating it as a simple fact. This is often used in the past tense, however there are some contexts in which a Perfect verb translates into the present and future tenses.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The Imperfect portrays the verb as an incomplete action along with the process by which it came about, either as an event that has not begun, an event that has begun but is still in the process, or a habitual or cyclic action that is on an ongoing repetition. The Imperfect can also express modal or conditional verbs, as well as commands in the Jussive and Cohortative moods. It is conjectured that the imperfect can express modal quality through the paragogic nun added to certain imperfect forms. While often future tense, it also has uses in the past and present under certain contexts. Biblical Hebrew tense is not necessarily reflected in the verb forms per se, but rather is determined primarily by context. The Participles also reflect ongoing or continuous actions, but are also subject to the context determining their tense.


title: Biblical Hebrew

text: The following is a sample from Psalm 18 as appears in the Masoretic text with medieval Tiberian niqqud and cantillation and the Greek transcription of the Secunda of the Hexapla along with its reconstructed pronunciation.


title: Abbottabad

text: Abbottabad (; Urdu, , ) is the capital city of Abbottabad District in the Hazara region of eastern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. It is the 40th largest city in Pakistan and fourth largest in the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa by population. It is about north of Islamabad-Rawalpindi and east of Peshawar, at an elevation of . Kashmir lies a short distance to the east.


title: Abbottabad

text: Following the Second Anglo-Sikh War, The British had annexed the entire Punjab region up to Peshawar. Abbottabad was founded in the early 1850s, by a British military officer in the Bengal Army of British Raj, James Abbott and replaced Haripur, as Hazara's capital.


title: Abbottabad

text: On the 9th of November 1901, the British established a North-West Frontier Province from the north-western districts of The Punjab, this meant that Abbottabad was now a part of the newly formed province.


title: Abbottabad

text: Following the Announcement of Partition of British Raj into Dominion of Pakistan and Dominion of India, a referendum was held in the NWFP and the result was in favour of Pakistan. In 1955, Abbottabad and the whole NWFP became a part of West Pakistan, but the province was established again in 1970 and Hazara District and the two tribal agencies were merged to form the new Hazara Division with its capital at Abbottabad.


title: Abbottabad

text: Osama bin Laden, the founder and first leader of the Islamist militant group al-Qaeda held refuge at a a compound in Abbottabad and was shot and killed there by U.S. Forces on the 2nd of May, 2011.


title: Abbottabad

text: Established in 1947, Abbottabad houses Pakistan Army's initial officer training academy, the Pakistan Military Academy, referred to by its acronym, PMA.


title: Abbottabad

text: Abbottabad was founded and named after Major James Abbott in January 1853 as the headquarters of Hazara District during the British Raj after the annexation of Punjab. He remained the first Deputy Commissioner of the Hazara district from 1845 until April 1853. Major Abbott is noted for having written a poem titled "Abbottabad", before his return to Britain, in which he wrote of his fondness for the town and his sadness at having to leave it.


title: Abbottabad

text: In the early 20th century, Abbottabad became an important military cantonment and sanatorium, serving as the headquarters of a brigade in the Second Division of the Northern Army Corps. The garrison consisted of four battalions of native infantry, of the Frontier Force (including the 5th Gurkha Rifles) and two native mountain batteries.


title: Abbottabad

text: In 1901, the population of the town and cantonment was 7,764 with an average income of Rs. 14,900. This increased to Rs. 22,300 in 1903, chiefly derived from octroi. During this time chief public institutions were built such as the Albert Victor Unaided Anglo-Vernacular High School, the Municipal Anglo-Vernacular High School and the government dispensary. In 1911, the population had risen to 11,506 and the town contained four battalions of Gurkhas. In June 1948, the British Red Cross opened a hospital in Abbottabad to deal with thousands of injured being brought in from Kashmir.


title: Abbottabad

text: In October 2005, Abbottabad was devastated by the Kashmir earthquake. Although most of Abbottabad survived, many older buildings were destroyed or severely damaged.


title: Abbottabad

text: On 25 January 2011, Indonesian terrorist Umar Patek was arrested in Abbottabad. Patek, a member of the Jemaah Islamiyah terrorist group, was wanted in connection with a deadly series of church bombings in Indonesia in 2000, and three attacks that killed 202 people in tourist districts of Indonesia in what became known as the Bali bombings.


title: Abbottabad

text: On 2 May 2011, Abbottabad gained worldwide attention when U.S. President Barack Obama announced that Osama bin Laden had been killed in his compound in the city. In February 2012, nine months after bin Laden was killed, Pakistani authorities demolished the compound where Osama bin Laden had lived.


title: Abbottabad

text: Abbottabad is in the Orash Valley lying between 34°92′N latitude and 73°13′E longitude at an altitude of . To the north is the picturesque Kaghan Valley.