title: 2067 (film)

text: The Chronical's activation triggers a malfunction in its nuclear power core, threatening to unleash a nuclear explosion before the countdown is completed. Ethan and Jude make their way to the power core, which is located beneath the overgrown ruins of their home city. Finding the ruins littered with skeletons, including Xanthe's, they conclude that a cure against the Sickness was never found. When Jude attempts to comfort him, Ethan recognizes Jude's voice from a recording he found on the decaying Archie, taken moments before his future self was killed. Claiming that he's saving Ethan from himself, Jude directs Ethan at gunpoint to the reactor's control room. Unable to activate the emergency override, Ethan decides to go inside of the airlock and pull the lever.


title: 2067 (film)

text: With 37 minutes to spare, the duo return to the Chronical lab, where Ethan finds another exit that opens the entryway next to his skeleton. Ethan suffers a nervous breakdown and implores Jude to kill him, which Jude refuses to do. Jude then confesses that there was no actual hope of ever changing the future. Refusing to believe that, Ethan locks Jude in a room and plays back his father's log from the day that Richard died. Ethan learns that his mission was a sham from the beginning: Jackson intended to flee from her dying time into the future with a "chosen few", while Richard maintained hope for humankind. To prevent its abuse, Richard keyed the time machine to Ethan's DNA, but when Richard's colleague announced that the machine could be rigged to send a person into the future one-way, Jackson killed Richard. Jude was appointed as Ethan's guardian to ensure that Ethan would be sent forward in time to repair the power failure and stabilise the time portal; once Ethan returned to 2067, Jackson would have him killed.


title: 2067 (film)

text: Ethan tries to shut the Chronical down, but Jude moves to stop him. When Ethan refuses to fight him, Jude, guilt-ridden, commits suicide. Just before Jackson can put her plans in motion, Ethan sends the "Send Ethan Whyte" message into the past along with a copy of Richard's recorded murder on Archie, hundreds of live jungle plants, and a farewell gift to Xanthe. He destroys the Chronical, which changes the timeline: In the past, Jackson is arrested after Archie transmits the recording to a news station, and the plants are used to revitalize the planet. In the future, Ethan's corpse is gone, and Ethan discovers his formerly ruined city is advanced with architecture that is more harmonious with the natural environment.


title: 2067 (film)

text: South African-born director Larney grew up in Australia, in an off-grid home near Grafton, New South Wales built by his impressionist painter father. Larney had done some post-production and visual effects work on "The Matrix" sequels ("The Matrix Reloaded") and "", before directing his first feature, the Malaysian action film "Tombiruo" (2017). "2067" is his first feature film in Australia, which he says is absolutely about hope. He says he had been developing the idea since 2005, when he was 25 years old. Making this film, he was inspired by the films of Stanley Kubrick, Terry Gilliam, Duncan Jones, and Denis Villeneuve. He had previously directed short films "The Clearing" and "Roman’s Ark".


title: 2067 (film)

text: The film received funding from Screen Australia, the South Australian Film Corporation, Adelaide Film Festival Investment Fund and Screen NSW.


title: 2067 (film)

text: Filming took place in Orange, New South Wales and Adelaide Studios. Production design is by Jacinta Leong and the film is produced by Lisa Shaunessy (Arcadia), Jason Taylor (Futurism Studios) and Kate Croser (Kojo) produced the film.


title: 2067 (film)

text: The film's Australian premiere was at the Adelaide Film Festival's opening night on 14 October 2020, where it was shown simultaneously in seven cinemas due to high demand (albeit with spaced seating owing to COVID-19 pandemic social distancing rules).


title: 2067 (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of based on reviews from critics, with an average of .


title: 2067 (film)

text: On Metacritic the film has a score of 39 out of 100 based on reviews from 8 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".


title: 2067 (film)

text: Jake Kleinman of "Inverse" titled his review "The best time travel movie since """, with the byline ""Blade Runner" meets "Walkabout" in this bold new cyberpunk thriller with a climate change message", writing that it delivers a time travel twist on a par with Christopher Nolan's best work.


title: 2067 (film)

text: John DeFore of "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote that it "has a couple of interesting ideas up its sleeve but doesn't know how to reveal them".


title: 2067 (film)

text: Germain Lussier of "Gizmodo" called it a "mixed bag", "impressive from a technical standpoint", with a powerful score by Kirsten Axelholm and Kenneth Lampl, and although it does not live up to its huge ambitions, it is fun to watch and full of interesting ideas and plot twists.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: Communicative language teaching (CLT), or the communicative approach (CA) , is an approach to language teaching that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of study.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: Learners in environments using communication to learn and practice the target language by interactions with one another and the instructor, the study of "authentic texts" (those written in the target language for purposes other than language learning), and the use of the language both in class and outside of class.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: Learners converse about personal experiences with partners, and instructors teach topics outside of the realm of traditional grammar to promote language skills in all types of situations. That method also claims to encourage learners to incorporate their personal experiences into their language learning environment and to focus on the learning experience, in addition to the learning of the target language.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: According to CLT, the goal of language education is the ability to communicate in the target language. This is in contrast to previous views in which grammatical competence was commonly given top priority.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: CLT also positions the teacher as a facilitator, rather than an instructor. Furthermore, the approach is a non-methodical system that does not use a textbook series to teach the target language but works on developing sound oral and verbal skills prior to reading and writing.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: Language teaching was originally considered a cognitive matter that mainly involved memorization. It was later thought instead to be socio-cognitive: language can be learned through the process of social interaction. Today, however, the dominant technique in teaching any language is communicative language teaching (CLT).


title: Communicative language teaching

text: It was Noam Chomsky's theories in the 1960s, focusing on competence and performance in language learning, that gave rise to communicative language teaching, but the conceptual basis for CLT was laid in the 1970s by the linguists Michael Halliday, who studied how language functions are expressed through grammar, and Dell Hymes, who introduced the idea of a wider communicative competence instead of Chomsky's narrower linguistic competence. The rise of CLT in the 1970s and the early 1980s was partly in response to the lack of success with traditional language teaching methods and partly by the increase in demand for language learning. In Europe, the advent of the European Common Market, an economic predecessor to the European Union, led to migration in Europe and an increased number of people who needed to learn a foreign language for work or personal reasons. Meanwhile, more children were given the opportunity to learn foreign languages in school, as the number of secondary schools offering languages rose worldwide as part of a general trend of curriculum-broadening and modernization, with foreign-language study no longer confined to the elite academies. In Britain, the introduction of comprehensive schools, which offered foreign-language study to all children, rather than to the select few of the elite grammar schools, greatly increased the demand for language learning.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: The increased demand included many learners who struggled with traditional methods such as grammar translation, which involves the direct translation of sentence after sentence as a way to learn the language. Those methods assumed that students aimed to master the target language and were willing to study for years before expecting to use the language in real life. However, those assumptions were challenged by adult learners, who were busy with work, and by schoolchildren who were less academically gifted and so could not devote years to learning before they could use the language. Educators realized that to motivate those students an approach with a more immediate reward was necessary, and they began to use CLT, an approach that emphasizes communicative ability and yielded better results.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: Additionally, the trend of progressivism in education provided further pressure for educators to change their methods. Progressivism holds that active learning is more effective than passive learning. As that idea gained traction, in schools there was a general shift towards using techniques where students were more actively involved, such as group work. Foreign-language education was no exception to that trend, and teachers sought to find new methods, such as CLT, that could better embody the shift in thinking.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: The development of communicative language teaching was bolstered by new academic ideas. Before the growth of communicative language teaching, the primary method of language teaching was situational language teaching, a method that was much more clinical in nature and relied less on direct communication. In Britain, applied linguists began to doubt the efficacy of situational language teaching, partly in response to Chomsky's insights into the nature of language. Chomsky had shown that the structural theories of language then prevalent could not explain the variety that is found in real communication. In addition, applied linguists like Christopher Candlin and Henry Widdowson observed that the current model of language learning was ineffective in classrooms. They saw a need for students to develop communicative skill and functional competence in addition to mastering language structures.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: In 1966, the linguist and anthropologist Dell Hymes developed the concept of communicative competence, which redefined what it meant to "know" a language. In addition to speakers having mastery over the structural elements of language, they must also be able to use those structural elements appropriately in a variety of speech domains. That can be neatly summed up by Hymes's statement: "There are rules of use without which the rules of grammar would be useless." The idea of communicative competence stemmed from Chomsky's concept of the linguistic competence of an ideal native speaker. Hymes did not make a concrete formulation of communicative competence, but subsequent authors, notably Michael Canale, have tied the concept to language teaching. Canale and Swain (1980) defined communicative competence in terms of three components: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence. Canale (1983) refined the model by adding discourse competence, which contains the concepts of cohesion and coherence.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: An influential development in the history of communicative language teaching was the work of the Council of Europe in creating new language syllabi. When communicative language teaching had effectively replaced situational language teaching as the standard by leading linguists, the Council of Europe made an effort to once again bolster the growth of the new method, which led to the Council of Europe creating a new language syllabus. Education was a high priority for the Council of Europe, which set out to provide a syllabus that would meet the needs of European immigrants. Among the studies that it used in designing the course was one by a British linguist, D. A. Wilkins, that defined language using "notions" and "functions," rather than more traditional categories of grammar and vocabulary. The new syllabus reinforced the idea that language could not be adequately explained by grammar and syntax but instead relied on real interaction.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: In the mid-1990s, the Dogme 95 manifesto influenced language teaching through the Dogme language teaching movement. It proposed that published materials stifle the communicative approach. As such, the aim of the Dogme approach to language teaching is to focus on real conversations about practical subjects in which communication is the engine of learning. The idea behind the Dogme approach is that communication can lead to explanation, which leads to further learning. That approach is the antithesis of situational language teaching, which emphasizes learning by text and prioritizes grammar over communication.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: A survey of communicative competence by Bachman (1990) divides competency into the broad headings of "organizational competence," which includes both grammatical and discourse (or textual) competence, and "pragmatic competence," which includes both sociolinguistic and "illocutionary" competence. Strategic competence is associated with the interlocutors' ability in using communication strategies.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: CLT teachers choose classroom activities based on what they believe is going to be most effective for students developing communicative abilities in the target language (TL). Oral activities are popular among CLT teachers, as opposed to grammar drills or reading and writing activities, because they include active conversation and creative, unpredicted responses from students. Activities vary based on the level of language class they are being used in. They promote collaboration, fluency, and comfort in the TL. The six activities listed and explained below are commonly used in CLT classrooms.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: Role-play is an oral activity usually done in pairs, whose main goal is to develop students' communicative abilities in a certain setting.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: This activity gives students the chance to improve their communication skills in the TL in a low-pressure situation. Most students are more comfortable speaking in pairs rather than in front of the entire class.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: Instructors need to be aware of the differences between a conversation and an utterance. Students may use the same utterances repeatedly when doing this activity and not actually have a creative conversation. If instructors do not regulate what kinds of conversations students are having, then the students might not be truly improving their communication skills.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: An interview is an oral activity done in pairs, whose main goal is to develop students' interpersonal skills in the TL.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: This activity, since it is highly structured, allows for the instructor to more closely monitor students' responses. It can zone in on one specific aspect of grammar or vocabulary, while still being a primarily communicative activity and giving the students communicative benefits.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: This is an activity that should be used primarily in the lower levels of language classes, because it will be most beneficial to lower-level speakers. Higher-level speakers should be having unpredictable conversations in the TL, where neither the questions nor the answers are scripted or expected. If this activity were used with higher-level speakers it wouldn't have many benefits.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: Group work is a collaborative activity whose purpose is to foster communication in the TL, in a larger group setting.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: Students can feel overwhelmed in language classes, but this activity can take away from that feeling. Students are asked to focus on one piece of information only, which increases their comprehension of that information. Better comprehension leads to better communication with the rest of the group, which improves students' communicative abilities in the TL.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: Instructors should be sure to monitor that each student is contributing equally to the group effort. It takes a good instructor to design the activity well, so that students will contribute equally, and benefit equally from the activity.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: Information gap is a collaborative activity, whose purpose is for students to effectively obtain information that was previously unknown to them, in the TL.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: Completing information gap activities improves students' abilities to communicate about unknown information in the TL. These abilities are directly applicable to many real-world conversations, where the goal is to find out some new piece of information, or simply to exchange information.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: Instructors should not overlook the fact that their students need to be prepared to communicate effectively for this activity. They need to know certain vocabulary words, certain structures of grammar, etc. If the students have not been well prepared for the task at hand, then they will not communicate effectively.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: Opinion sharing is a content-based activity, whose purpose is to engage students' conversational skills, while talking about something they care about.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: Opinion sharing is a great way to get more introverted students to open up and share their opinions. If a student has a strong opinion about a certain topic, then they will speak up and share.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: Respect is key with this activity. If a student does not feel like their opinion is respected by the instructor or their peers, then they will not feel comfortable sharing, and they will not receive the communicative benefits of this activity.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: In doing this activity, students have the opportunity to speak with a number of classmates, while still being in a low-pressure situation, and talking to only one person at a time. After learning more about each other, and getting to share about themselves, students will feel more comfortable talking and sharing during other communicative activities.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: Since this activity is not as structured as some of the others, it is important for instructors to add structure. If certain vocabulary should be used in students' conversations, or a certain grammar is necessary to complete the activity, then instructors should incorporate that into the scavenger hunt.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: Although CLT has been extremely influential in the field of language teaching, it is not universally accepted and has been subject to significant critique.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: In his critique of CLT, Michael Swan addresses both the theoretical and practical problems with CLT. He mentions that CLT is not an altogether cohesive subject but one in which theoretical understandings (by linguists) and practical understandings (by language teachers) differ greatly. Criticism of the theory of CLT includes that it makes broad claims regarding the usefulness of CLT while citing little data, it uses a large amount of confusing vocabulary, and it assumes knowledge that is predominately not language-specific (such as the ability to make educated guesses) to be language-specific. Swan suggests that those theoretical issues lead to confusion in the application of CLT techniques.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: Where confusion in the application of CLT techniques is readily apparent is in classroom settings. Swan suggests that CLT techniques often suggest prioritizing the "function" of a language (what one can do with the language knowledge one has) over the "structure" of a language (the grammatical systems of the language). That priority can leave learners with serious gaps in their knowledge of the formal aspects of their target language. Swan also suggests that in CLT techniques, the languages that a student might already know are not valued or employed in instructional techniques.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: Further critique of CLT techniques in classroom teaching can be attributed to Elaine Ridge. One of her criticisms of CLT is that it falsely implies that there is a general consensus regarding the definition of "communicative competence," which CLT claims to facilitate. Because there is no such agreement, students may be seen to be in possession of "communicative competence" without being able to make full or even adequate use of the language. That individuals are proficient in a language does not necessarily entail that they can make full use of that language, which can limit an individual's potential with that language, especially if that language is an endangered language. That criticism largely has to do with the fact that CLT is often highly praised and is popular though it may not necessarily be the best method of language teaching.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: Ridge also notes that CLT has nonspecific requirements of its teachers, as there is no completely standard definition of what CLT is, which is especially true for the teaching of grammar, the formal rules governing the standardized version of the language in question. Some critics of CLT suggest that the method does not put enough emphasis on the teaching of grammar and instead allows students to produce utterances, despite being grammatically incorrect, as long as the interlocutor can get some meaning from them.


title: Communicative language teaching

text: Stephen Bax's critique of CLT has to do with the context of its implementation. Bax asserts that many researchers associate the use of CLT techniques with modernity and so the lack of CLT techniques as a lack of modernism. That way, those researchers consider teachers or school systems that fail to use CLT techniques as outdated and suggest that their students learn the target language "in spite of" the absence of CLT techniques, as if CLT were the only way to learn a language, and everyone who fails to implement its techniques is ignorant and cannot teach the target language.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: The Corded Ware culture comprises a broad archaeological horizon of Europe between ca. 3000 BC – 2350 BC, thus from the late Neolithic, through the Copper Age, and ending in the early Bronze Age. Corded Ware culture encompassed a vast area, from the contact zone between the Yamnaya culture and the Corded Ware culture in south Central Europe, to the Rhine on the west and the Volga in the east, occupying parts of Northern Europe, Central Europe and Eastern Europe. The Corded Ware culture is thought to have originated from the westward migration of Yamnaya-related people from the steppe-forest zone into the territory of late Neolithic European cultures such as the Globular Amphora and Funnelbeaker cultures, and is considered to be a likely vector for the spread of many of the Indo-European languages in Europe and Asia.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: The term "Corded Ware culture" () was first introduced by the German archaeologist Friedrich Klopfleisch in 1883. He named it after "cord-like" impressions or ornamentation characteristic of its pottery. The term Single Grave culture comes from its burial custom, which consisted of inhumation under tumuli in a crouched position with various artifacts. Battle Axe culture, or Boat Axe culture, is named from its characteristic male grave offering, a stone boat-shaped battle axe.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: Corded Ware encompassed most of continental northern Europe from the Rhine on the west to the Volga in the east, including most of modern-day Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Belarus, Czech Republic, Austria, Hungary, Slovakia, Switzerland, northwestern Romania, northern Ukraine, and the European part of Russia, as well as coastal Norway and the southern portions of Sweden and Finland. In the Late Eneolithic/Early Bronze Age, it encompassed the territory of nearly the entire Balkan Peninsula, where Corded Ware mixed with other steppe elements.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: Archaeologists note that Corded Ware was not a "unified culture," as Corded Ware groups inhabiting a vast geographical area from the Rhine to Volga seem to have regionally specific subsistence strategies and economies. There are differences in the material culture and in settlements and society. At the same time, they had several shared elements that are characteristic of all Corded Ware groups, such as their burial practices, pottery with "cord" decoration and unique stone-axes.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: The contemporary Bell Beaker culture overlapped with the western extremity of this culture, west of the Elbe, and may have contributed to the pan-European spread of that culture. Although a similar social organization and settlement pattern to the Beaker were adopted, the Corded Ware group lacked the new refinements made possible through trade and communication by sea and rivers.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: The origins and dispersal of Corded Ware culture is one of the pivotal unresolved issues of the Indo-European Urheimat problem, and there is a stark division between archaeologists regarding the origins of Corded Ware. The Corded Ware culture has long been regarded as Indo-European, with archaeologists seeing an influence from nomadic pastoral societies of the steppes. Alternatively, some archaeologists believed it developed independently in central Europe.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: The Corded Ware culture was once presumed to be the Urheimat of the Proto-Indo-Europeans based on their possession of the horse and wheeled vehicles, apparent warlike propensities, wide area of distribution and rapid intrusive expansion at the assumed time of the dispersal of Indo-European languages. Today this specific idea has lost currency, as the steppe hypothesis is currently the most widely accepted proposal to explain the origins and spread of the Indo-European languages.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: Recent genetics studies suggest that the people of the Corded Ware culture share significant levels of ancestry with Yamnaya as a consequence of a supposed "massive migration" from the Pontic-Caspian steppe, and the people of both cultures may be directly descended from a genetically similar pre-Yamnaya population. Kristiansen et al. (2017) theorise that the Corded Ware culture originated from male Yamnaya pastoralists, or a closely related population, migrating northwards, and marrying local farmer women, who contributed specific farmer aspects to their culture, which transformed into the Corded ware culture. This culture was carried further into Europe by their offspring.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: However, Barry Cunliffe has criticized the theory that the Corded Ware populations were descended from a mass migration of Yamnaya males, noting that the available Corded Ware samples do not carry paternal haplogroups observed in Yamnaya male specimens. This view is shared by Leo Klejn, who maintains that ""the Yamnaya cannot be the source of the Corded Ware cultures"", as the Corded Ware paternal haplogroups are unrelated to those found in Yamnaya specimens.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: Archaeologists Furholt and Heyd continue to emphasize the differences both between and within the material cultures of these two groups, as well as emphasizing the problems of over-simplifying these long-term social processes.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: The Middle Dnieper culture forms a bridge between the Yamnaya culture and the Corded Ware culture. From the Middle Dnieper culture the Corded Ware culture spread both west and east. The eastward migration gave rise to the Fatyanova culture which had a formative influence on the Abashevo culture, which in turn contributed to the proto-Indo-Iranian Sintashta culture. Its wide area of distribution indicates rapid expansion at the assumed time of the dispersal of the core (excluding Anatolian and Tocharian) Indo-European languages. In a number of regions Corded Ware appears to herald a new culture and physical type. On most of the immense, continental expanse that it covered, the culture was clearly intrusive, and therefore represents one of the most impressive and revolutionary cultural changes attested by archaeology.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: In favour of the view that the culture developed independently was the fact that Corded Ware coincides considerably with the earlier north-central European Funnelbeaker culture (TRB). According to Gimbutas, the Corded Ware culture was preceded by the Globular Amphora culture (3400–2800 BC), which she regarded to be an Indo-European culture. The Globular Amphora culture stretched from central Europe to the Baltic sea, and emerged from the Funnelbeaker culture.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: According to controversial radiocarbon dates, Corded Ware ceramic forms in single graves develop earlier in the area that is now Poland than in western and southern Central Europe. The earliest radiocarbon dates for Corded Ware indeed come from Kujawy and Lesser Poland in central and southern Poland and point to the period around 3000 BC.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: However, subsequent review has challenged this perspective, instead pointing out that the wide variation in dating of the Corded Ware, especially the dating of the culture's beginning, is based on individual outlier graves, is not particularly in line with other archaeological data and runs afoul of plateaus in the radiocarbon calibration curve; in the one case where the dating can be clarified with dendrochronology, in Switzerland, Corded Ware is found for only a short period from 2750 BC to 2400 BC.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: The Middle Dnieper culture is a formative early expression of the Corded Ware culture. It has very scant remains, but occupies the easiest route into Central and Northern Europe from the steppe.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: The Middle Dnieper culture and the Eastern Baltic Corded Ware culture gave rise to the Fatyanovo–Balanovo culture on the upper Volga, which in turn contributed to the Abashevo culture, a predecessor of the proto-Indo-Iranian Sintashta culture.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: The Fatyanovo–Balanovo culture may have been a culture with an Indo-European superstratum over a Uralic substratum, and may account for some of the linguistic borrowings identified in the Indo-Uralic thesis. However, according to Häkkinen, the Uralic–Indo-European contacts only start in the Corded Ware period and the Uralic expansion into the Upper Volga region postdates it. Häkkinen accepts Fatyanovo-Balanovo as an early Indo-European culture, but maintains that their substratum (identified with the Volosovo culture) was neither Uralic nor Indo-European. Genetics seems to support Häkkinen.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: The prototypal Corded Ware culture, German "Schnurkeramikkultur", is found in Central Europe, mainly Germany and Poland, and refers to the characteristic pottery of the era: twisted cord was impressed into the wet clay to create various decorative patterns and motifs. It is known mostly from its burials, and both sexes received the characteristic cord-decorated pottery. Whether made of flax or hemp, they had rope.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: Single Grave term refers to a series of late Neolithic communities of the 3rd millennium BC living in southern Scandinavia, Northern Germany, and the Low Countries that share the practice of single burial, the deceased usually being accompanied by a battle-axe, amber beads, and pottery vessels.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: The term "Single Grave culture" was first introduced by the Danish archaeologist Andreas Peter Madsen in the late 1800s. He found Single Graves to be quite different from the already known dolmens, long barrows and passage graves. In 1898, archaeologist Sophus Müller was first to present a migration-hypothesis stating that previously known dolmens, long barrows, passage graves and newly discovered single graves may represent two completely different groups of people, stating "Single graves are traces of new, from the south coming tribes".


title: Corded Ware culture

text: The cultural emphasis on drinking equipment already characteristic of the early indigenous Funnelbeaker culture, synthesized with newly arrived Corded Ware traditions. Especially in the west (Scandinavia and northern Germany), the drinking vessels have a protruding foot and define the Protruding-Foot Beaker culture (PFB) as a subset of the Single Grave culture. The Beaker culture has been proposed to derive from this specific branch of the Corded Ware culture.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: The Danish-Swedish-Norwegian Battle Axe culture, or the Boat Axe culture, appeared ca. 2800 BC and is known from about 3,000 graves from Scania to Uppland and Trøndelag. The "battle-axes" were primarily a status object. There are strong continuities in stone craft traditions, and very little evidence of any type of full-scale migration, least of all a violent one. The old ways were discontinued as the corresponding cultures on the continent changed, and the farmers living in Scandinavia took part in a few of those changes since they belonged to the same network. Settlements on small, separate farmsteads without any defensive protection is also a strong argument against the people living there being aggressors.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: About 3000 battle axes have been found, in sites distributed over all of Scandinavia, but they are sparse in Norrland and northern Norway. Less than 100 settlements are known, and their remains are negligible as they are located on continually used farmland, and have consequently been plowed away. Einar Østmo reports sites inside the Arctic Circle in the Lofoten, and as far north as the present city of Tromsø.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: The Swedish-Norwegian Battle Axe culture was based on the same agricultural practices as the previous Funnelbeaker culture, but the appearance of metal changed the social system. This is marked by the fact that the Funnelbeaker culture had collective megalithic graves with a great deal of sacrifices to the graves, but the Battle Axe culture has individual graves with individual sacrifices.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: A new aspect was given to the culture in 1993, when a "death house" in Turinge, in Södermanland was excavated. Along the once heavily timbered walls were found the remains of about twenty clay vessels, six work axes and a battle axe, which all came from the last period of the culture. There were also the cremated remains of at least six people. This is the earliest find of cremation in Scandinavia and it shows close contacts with Central Europe.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: In the context of the entry of Germanic into the region, Einar Østmo emphasizes that the Atlantic and North Sea coastal regions of Scandinavia, and the circum-Baltic areas were united by a vigorous maritime economy, permitting a far wider geographical spread and a closer cultural unity than interior continental cultures could attain. He points to the widely disseminated number of rock carvings assigned to this era, which display "thousands" of ships. To seafaring cultures like this one, the sea is a highway and not a divider.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: The Finnish Battle Axe culture was a mixed cattle-breeder and hunter-gatherer culture, and one of the few in this horizon to provide rich finds from settlements.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: There are very few discovered settlements, which led to the traditional view of this culture as exclusively nomadic pastoralists, similar to that of the Yamnaya culture, and the reconstructed culture of the Indo-Europeans as inferred from philology.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: However, this view was modified, as some evidence of sedentary farming emerged. Traces of emmer, common wheat and barley were found at a Corded Ware site at Bronocice in south-east Poland. Wheeled vehicles (presumably drawn by oxen) are in evidence, a continuation from the Funnelbeaker culture era.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: Cows' milk was used systematically from 3400 BC onwards in the northern Alpine foreland. Sheep were kept more frequently in the western part of Switzerland due to the stronger Mediterranean influence. Changes in slaughter age and animal size are possibly evidence for sheep being kept for their wool at Corded Ware sites in this region.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: Burial occurred in flat graves or below small tumuli in a flexed position; on the continent males lay on their right side, females on the left, with the faces of both oriented to the south. However, in Sweden and also parts of northern Poland the graves were oriented north-south, men lay on their left side and women on the right side - both facing east. Originally, there was probably a wooden construction, since the graves are often positioned in a line. This is in contrast with practices in Denmark where the dead were buried below small mounds with a vertical stratigraphy: the oldest below the ground, the second above this grave, and occasionally even a third burial above those. Other types of burials are the niche-graves of Poland. Grave goods for men typically included a stone battle axe. Pottery in the shape of beakers and other types are the most common burial gifts, generally speaking. These were often decorated with cord, sometimes with incisions and other types of impressions. Other grave goods also included wagons and sacrificed animals.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: The approximately contemporary Beaker culture had similar burial traditions, and together they covered most of Western and Central Europe. The Beaker culture originated around 2800 BC in the Iberian Peninsula and subsequently extended into Central Europe, where it partly coexisted with the Corded Ware region.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: In April 2011, it was reported that an untypical Corded Ware burial had been discovered in a suburb of Prague. The remains, believed to be male, were orientated in the same way as women's burials and were not accompanied by any gender-specific grave goods. Based on this, and the importance usually attached to funeral rites by people from this period, the archaeologists suggested that this was unlikely to be accidental, and conclude that it was likely that this individual "was a man with a different sexual orientation, homosexual or transsexual", while media reports heralded the discovery of the world's first "gay caveman". Archaeologists and biological anthropologists criticised media coverage as sensationalist. "If this burial represents a transgendered individual (as well it could), that doesn't necessarily mean the person had a 'different sexual orientation' and certainly doesn't mean that he would have considered himself (or that his culture would have considered him) 'homosexual,'" anthropologist Kristina Killgrove commented. Other items of criticism were that someone buried in the Copper Age was not a "caveman" and that identifying the sex of skeletal remains is difficult and inexact. Turek notes that there are several examples of Corded Ware graves containing older biological males with typically female grave goods and body orientation. He suggests that "aged men may have decided to 'retire' as women for symbolic and practical reasons." A detailed account of the burial has not yet appeared in


title: Corded Ware culture

text: The Corded Ware culture may have played a central role in the spread of the Indo-European languages in Europe during the Copper and Bronze Ages. According to Mallory (1999), the Corded Ware culture may have been "the common prehistoric ancestor of the later Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, and possibly some of the Indo-European languages of Italy." Yet, Mallory (1999) also notes that the Corded Ware can not account for Greek, Illyrian, Thracian and East Italic, which may be derived from Southeast Europe. Mallory (2013) proposes that the Beaker culture was associated with a European branch of Indo-European dialects, termed "North-west Indo-European", spreading northwards from the Alpine regions and ancestral to not only Celtic but equally Italic, Germanic and Balto-Slavic.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: According to Anthony (2007), the Corded Ware horizon may have introduced Germanic, Baltic and Slavic into northern Europe. According to Anthony, the Pre-Germanic dialects may have developed in the Usatovo culture in south-eastern Central Europe between the Dniestr and the Vistula between c. 3100 and 2800 BC, and spread with the Corded Ware culture. Between 3100 and 2800/2600 BC, a real folk migration of Proto-Indo-European speakers from the Yamnaya culture took place into the Danube Valley, which eventually reached as far as Hungary, where pre-Celtic and pre-Italic may have developed. Slavic and Baltic developed at the middle Dniepr (present-day Ukraine).


title: Corded Ware culture

text: Haak et al. (2015) envision a migration from the Yamnaya culture into Germany. Allentoft et al. (2015) envision a migration from the Yamnaya culture towards north-western Europe via Central Europe, and towards the Baltic area and the eastern periphery of the Corded Ware culture via the territory of present-day Ukraine, Belarus and Russia.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: According to Gimbutas' original theory, the process of "Indo-Europeanization" of Corded Ware (and, later, the rest of Europe) was essentially a cultural transformation, not one of physical type. The Yamnaya migration from Eastern to Central and Western Europe is understood by Gimbutas as a military victory, resulting in the Yamnaya imposing a new administrative system, language and religion upon the indigenous groups. The Old Europeans (indigenous groups) had neither a warrior class nor horses, and lived in (probably) theocratic monarchies presided over by a queen-priestess in relatively egalitarian societies, in contrast with the social structure of the Yamnaya-derived cultures that followed them.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: David Anthony (2007), in his "revised Steppe hypothesis" proposes that the spread of the Indo-European languages probably did not happen through "chain-type folk migrations," but by the introduction of these languages by ritual and political elites, which were emulated by large groups of people, a process which he calls "elite recruitment". Yet, in supplementary information to Haak et al. (2015) Anthony, together with Lazaridis, Haak, Patterson, and Reich, notes that the mass migration of Yamnaya people to northern Europe shows that "the Steppe hypothesis does not require elite dominance to have transmitted Indo-European languages into Europe. Instead, our results show that the languages could have been introduced simply by strength of numbers: via major migration in which both sexes participated."


title: Corded Ware culture

text: Linguist Guus Kroonen points out that speakers of Indo-European languages encountered existing populations in Europe that spoke unrelated, non-Indo-European languages when they migrated further into Europe from the Yamnaya culture's steppe zone at the margin of Europe. He focuses on both the effects on Indo-European languages that resulted from this contact and investigation of the pre-existing languages. Relatively little is known about the Pre-Indo-European linguistic landscape of Europe, except for Basque, as the ""Indo-Europeanization"" of Europe caused a largely unrecorded, massive linguistic extinction event, most likely through language shift. Kroonen's 2015 study purports to show that Pre-Indo-European speech contains a clear Neolithic signature emanating from the Aegean language family and thus patterns with the prehistoric migration of Europe’s first farming populations.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: Marija Gimbutas, as part of her theory, had already inferred that the Corded Ware culture's intrusion into Scandinavia formed a synthesis with the indigenous people of the Funnelbeaker culture, giving birth to the Proto-Germanic language. According to Edgar Polomé, 30% of the non-Indo-European substratum found in the modern German language derives from non-Indo-European-speakers of Funnelbeaker culture, indigenous to southern Scandinavia. She claimed that when Yamnaya Indo-European speakers came into contact with the indigenous peoples during the 3rd millennium BC, they came to dominate the local populations yet parts of the indigenous lexicon persisted in the formation of Proto-Germanic, thus giving Proto-Germanic the status of being an "Indo-Europeanized" language. However, more recent linguists have substantially reduced the number of roots claimed to be uniquely Germanic, and more recent treatments of Proto-Germanic tend to reject or simply omit discussion of the Germanic substrate hypothesis, giving little reason to consider Germanic anything but a typical Indo-European dialect with at most minor substrate influence.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: found that a large proportion of the ancestry of the Corded Ware culture's population is similar to that of the Yamnaya culture, tracing the Corded Ware culture's origins to a "massive migration" of the Yamnaya or an earlier (pre-Yamnaya) population from the steppes 4,500 years ago. The DNA of late Neolithic Corded Ware skeletons found in Germany was found to be around 75% similar to DNA from individuals of the Yamnaya culture. Yet, Haak et al. (2015) warned:


title: Corded Ware culture

text: The same study estimated a 40–54% ancestral contribution of so-called "steppe ancestry" in the DNA of modern Central & Northern Europeans, and a 20–32% contribution in modern Southern Europeans, excluding Sardinians (7.1% or less), and to a lesser extent Sicilians (11.6% or less). Haak et al. (2015) further found that autosomal DNA tests indicate that westward migration from the steppes was responsible for the introduction of a component of ancestry referred to as "Ancient North Eurasian" admixture into western Europe. "Ancient North Eurasian" is the name given in genetic literature to a component that represents descent from the people of the Mal'ta-Buret' culture or a population closely related to them. The "Ancient North Eurasian" genetic component is visible in tests of the Yamnaya people as well as modern-day Europeans, but not of Western or Central Europeans predating the Corded Ware culture.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: In an archaeogentic study focusing on late Neolithic and Bronze Age individuals from Bohemia, , which includes Haak and Heyd as co-authors, suggest that the early Corded Ware culture was a "polyethnic" society characterized by genetic, cultural, and linguistic diversity, resulting from the agglomeration of people of the Globular Amphora culture and Yamnaya-related migrants, who had highly differentiated genetic profiles, a different material culture, and probably spoke different languages. 100% of the Bohemian Corded Ware samples found without steppe-derived ancestry were female, indicating that this genetic diversity was a result of Corded Ware males marrying and assimilating local Globular Amphora females. Later Corded Ware individuals of Central Europe were less differentiated genetically. This study also detected ancestry similar to Latvia Middle Neolithic ("Latvia_MN-like"), or Ukraine Neolithic in early Corded Ware individuals, suggesting either a northeast European Eneolithic forest steppe contribution to early CW, partially supported by archaeology, or alternatively a contribution from a hypothetical steppe population carrying this ancestry, which the authors consider less likely. This ancestry made up 5-15% of the early Corded Ware ancestry, depending on the model used.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: According to Malmström et al. (2019), neither R1a nor R1b-M269 have been reported among Neolithic populations of central and western Europe, although it was common among earlier hunter gatherers of Eastern Europe. Haak et al. note that their results suggest that these haplogroups "spread into Europe from the East after 3,000 BC."


title: Corded Ware culture

text: The majority of CWC-men carried haplogroup R1a-M417, the remaining ones R1b and I2a. Note that, although related to the Corded Ware population, Yamnaya males mainly carried R1b-Z2103, while R1b-bearing Corded Ware males had R1b-L51, suggesting that Corded Ware culture males cannot be directly patrilineally descended from Yamnaya individuals. Yet, Linderholm et al. (2020) found seven CW males which were narrowed down to either R1b-M269 or R-L11, while Allentoft et al. (2015) report two CW males with R1b, and Furtwängler et al. (2020) report three CW males with R1b. According to Sjögren et al. (2020), R1b-M269 "is the major lineage associated with the arrival of Steppe ancestry in western Europe after 2500 BC[E]."


title: Corded Ware culture

text: Papac et al. (2021) argue that the differences in Y-DNA between early CW and Yamnaya males suggest that the Yamnaya culture did not have a direct role in the origins and expansion of the Corded Ware culture. They found that a majority of early Corded Ware males in Bohemia belonged to R1b-L151, while R1a lineages became predominant over time. The study detected a reduction in male haplogroup diversity over time, reducing from five different lineages in early CW to a single dominant lineage, R1a-M417(xZ645), in late CW. The authors suggest that males of this haplogroup had around 15% more surviving offspring per generation compared to other males, which may have been caused by "selection, social structure, or influx of nonlocal R1a-M417(xZ645) lineages." The sample included one individual ancestral to haplogroup R1b-P312, which is the most common male lineage found in individuals of the Bell Beaker culture.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: A 2015 study by Allentoft et al. in Nature found the people of the Corded Ware culture to be genetically similar to the Beaker culture, the Unetice culture and the Nordic Bronze Age. People of the Nordic Bronze Age and Corded Ware show the highest lactose tolerance among Bronze Age Europeans.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: The study also found a close genetic relationship between the Corded Ware culture and the Sintashta culture, suggesting that the Sintashta culture emerged as a result of an eastward expansion of Corded Ware peoples. The Sintashta culture is in turn closely genetically related to the Andronovo culture, by which it was succeeded. Many cultural similarities between the Sintashta/Andronovo culture, the Nordic Bronze Age and the people of the Rigveda have been detected.


title: Corded Ware culture

text: Narasimhan et al. (2019) found the Sintashta culture, the Potapovka culture, the Andronovo culture and the Srubnaya culture to be closely related to the Corded Ware culture. These cultures were found to harbor mixed ancestry from the Yamnaya culture and peoples of the Middle Neolithic of Central Europe. The genetic data suggested that these cultures were ultimately derived of a remigration of Central European peoples with steppe ancestry back into the steppe.


title: Skin whitening

text: Skin whitening, also known as skin lightening and skin bleaching, is the practice of using chemical substances in an attempt to lighten the skin or provide an even skin color by reducing the melanin concentration in the skin. Several chemicals have been shown to be effective in skin whitening, while some have proven to be toxic or have questionable safety profiles. This includes mercury compounds which may cause neurological problems and kidney problems.


title: Skin whitening

text: In a number of African countries, between 25 and 80% of women regularly use skin whitening products. In Asia, this number is around 40%. In India, specifically, over half of skin care products are sold to whiten skin. In Pakistan, where skin lightening products are popular, creams have been found to contain toxic levels of hydroquinone and mercury.


title: Skin whitening

text: Efforts to lighten the skin date back to at least the 1500s in Asia. While a number of agents—such as kojic acid and alpha hydroxy acid—are allowed in cosmetics in Europe, a number of others such as hydroquinone and tretinoin are not. While some countries do not allow mercury compounds in cosmetics, others still do, and they can be purchased online.


title: Skin whitening

text: Areas of increased pigmentation such as moles may be depigmented to match the surrounding skin. Effective agents for specific areas include corticosteroids, tretinoin, and hydroquinone. These agents, however, are not allowed in cosmetics in Europe due to concerns of side effects. Attempts to whiten large areas of skin may also be carried out by certain cultures. This may be done for reasons of appearance, politics, or economics.


title: Skin whitening

text: Skin whiteners can help you achieve lighter skin tones, many of them contain harmful ingredients like the steroid clobetasol propionate, inorganic mercury (mercuric chloride or amalgamated mercury), glutathione (an antioxidant traditionally used in cancer treatment), and the organic compound hydroquinone. Skin lighteners' main health risks are linked to: (i) The overuse of topicalclobetasol, which can cause systemic steroid effects from daily usage, especially on broad skin regions; and (ii) concealed mercury content, which can lead to mercury poisoning depending on individual susceptibility. Many skin whiteners contain a toxic form of mercury as the active ingredient. Their use, therefore, may harm a person's health and is illegal in many countries.


title: Skin whitening

text: Hydroquinone is a commonly used agent in skin whiteners, though the European Union banned it from cosmetics in 2000. It works by decreasing melanin production. Tretinoin, also known as all-trans retinoic acid, may be used to whiten specific areas. It may be used in combination with steroids and hydroquinone.


title: Skin whitening

text: Alpha hydroxy acid (AHA) is also used as a skin bleacher, but its biochemical mechanism is unclear. Side effects may include sun sensitivity, skin redness, thickening, or itching. Low concentrations may be used in cosmetics. Kojic acid has been found to be an effective lightener in some studies, and is also allowed to be used in cosmetics. Side effects, however, include redness and eczema.


title: Skin whitening

text: Glutathione is the most common agent taken by mouth in an attempt to whiten the skin. It may also be used as a cream. It is an antioxidant normally made by the body. Whether or not it actually works is unclear as of 2019. Due to side effects that may result with intravenous use, the government of the Philippines recommends against such use.


title: Skin whitening

text: One 2017 review found tentative evidence of benefit of tranexamic acid in melasma, while another 2017 review found that evidence to support its use was insufficient. Azelaic acid may be a second-line option for melasma. A number of types of laser treatments have been used in melasma with some evidence of benefit. Reoccurrence, however, is common and certain types of lasers can result in more pigmentation.


title: Skin whitening

text: Skin lightening creams have commonly contained mercury, hydroquinone, and corticosteroids. Because these compounds can induce both superficial and internal side effects, they are illegal to use and market in multiple nations. However, various chemical studies indicate that these compounds continue to be used in sold cosmetic products, though they are not explicitly declared as ingredients.


title: Skin whitening

text: Prolonged usage of mercury-based products can ultimately discolor the skin, as mercury will accumulate within the dermis. Mercury toxicity can cause acute symptoms such as pneumonitis and gastric irritation. However, according to a study by Antoine Mahé and his colleagues, mercurial compounds can also contribute to long-term renal and neurological complications, the latter of which includes insomnia, memory loss, and irritability.


title: Skin whitening

text: Other studies have explored the impact of hydroquinone exposure on health. Hydroquinone rapidly absorbs into the body via dermal contact; long-term usage has been found to cause nephrotoxicity and benzene-induced leukemia in bone marrow. A study by Pascal del Giudice and Pinier Yves indicated that hydroquinone usage is strongly correlated with the development of ochronosis, cataracts, patchy depigmentation, and contact dermatitis. Ochronosis can subsequently lead to lesions and squamous cell carcinomas. While hydroquinone has not been officially classified as a carcinogen, it can metabolize into carcinogenic derivatives and induce genetic changes in the form of DNA damages.


title: Skin whitening

text: Additionally, corticosteroids have become some of the most commonly incorporated lightening agents. Long-term usage over large areas of skin may promote percutaneous absorption, which can produce complications such as skin atrophy and fragility, glaucoma, cataracts, edemas, osteoporosis, menstrual irregularities, and growth suppression. A 2000 study performed in Dakar, Senegal, indicated that chronic usage of skin lighteners was a risk factor for hypertension and diabetes.


title: Skin whitening

text: Chemically lightened skin is also more highly susceptible to sun damage and dermal infection. Long-term users of skin bleachers can easily develop fungal infections and viral warts. Pregnant users may also experience health complications for both them and their children.


title: Skin whitening

text: According to Yetunde Mercy Olumide, advertisements for skin lighteners often present their products as stepping stones to attain greater social capital. For example, representatives of India's Fair & Lovely cosmetics asserted that their products allowed for socioeconomic mobility, akin to education.


title: Skin whitening

text: Skin whiteners typically range widely in pricing; Olumide attributes this to the desire to portray whitening as financially accessible to all. These products are marketed to both men and women, though studies indicate that, in Africa, women use skin bleachers more than men do. A study by Lester Davids and his colleagues indicated that nations in Africa present high rates of usage for skin bleachers. Though many products have been banned due to toxic chemical compositions, Davids found that regulating policies are often not strictly enforced.


title: Skin whitening

text: In India, the sales of skin lightening creams in 2012 totaled around 258 tons, and in 2013 sales were about US$300 million. By 2018, the industry for lightening cosmetics in India had achieved a net worth of nearly $180 million and an annual growth rate of 15%. As of 2013, the global market for skin lighteners was projected to reach $19.8 billion by 2018 based on sales growth primarily in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East.


title: Skin whitening

text: In the United Kingdom, many skin whiteners are illegal due to possible adverse effects. Such products are frequently still sold even after shops have been prosecuted. Trading standards departments lack resources to deal with the problem effectively.


title: Skin whitening

text: Historian Evelyn Nakano Glenn attributes sensitivities to skin tone among African Americans to the history of slavery. Lighter-skinned African Americans were perceived to be more intelligent and skilled than dark-skinned African Americans, who were relegated to more physically taxing, manual labor.


title: Skin whitening

text: Studies have additionally linked paler skin to achieving various forms of social standing and mobility. A study by Kelly Lewis and her colleagues found that, in Tanzania, residents choose to bleach their skin to appear more European and impress peers and potential partners. Both advertisements and consumers have suggested that whiter skin can enhance individual sexual attractiveness. Sociologist Margaret Hunter noted the influence of mass-marketing and celebrity culture emphasizing whiteness as an ideal of beauty. A study by Itisha Nagar also revealed that lighter skin tones in both men and women in India improved their prospects for marriage.


title: Skin whitening

text: Skin whitening is common throughout Asia. In South Korea, light skin is considered an ideal of beauty and most South Koreans believe that having paler skin is the only way to look beautiful. In South Korea, skin whitening is a multi-billion-dollar industry. The K-pop and K-drama industries are saturated with fair-skinned celebrities, some of whom serve as brand ambassadors and beauty ideals. The increasing popularity of K-pop and K-beauty has driven the skin whitening trend elsewhere in Asia, especially in poorer countries like Thailand, where many have begun to use unsafe skin-whitening products. In Nepal, cultural influence from Bollywood, which prominently features lighter skinned lead actors, has been linked to the use of skin whitening creams among some darker skinned men.


title: Skin whitening

text: Other motivations for skin whitening include desiring softer skin and wanting to conceal discolorations arising from pimples, rashes, or chronic skin conditions. Individuals with depigmenting conditions such as vitiligo have also been known to lighten their skin to achieve an even skin tone.


title: Skin whitening

text: Skin whitening agents work by reducing the presence of melanin pigment in the skin. To accomplish this, there are several possible mechanisms of action:


title: Skin whitening

text: Upregulation of tyrosinase caused by tyrosinase inhibitors. Several skin whitening agents, including tyrosinase inhibitors, have been found to cause an increase in the expression of tyrosinase, which by itself would increase melanin synthesis.


title: Skin whitening

text: Microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) is the master transcription factor that controls the expression of TYR, TRP1 and TRP2, MART1, PMEL17, and many other important proteins involved in the function of melanocytes. Downregulation of MITF decreases melanogenesis and is a mechanism of action of some skin whitening agents. Various signaling pathways and genetic mutations influence the expression of MITF.


title: Skin whitening

text: The melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) is a transmembrane and G-protein coupled receptor expressed in melanocytes. MC1R is an important target for the regulation of melanogenesis. Agonism of MC1R increases the ratio of eumelanin to pheomelanin and increases the generation of melanin overall.


title: Skin whitening

text: The MC1R and cAMP signaling pathway starts with the activation of MC1R, which causes activation of adenylyl cyclase (AC), which produces cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), which activates protein kinase A (PKA), which activates by protein phosphorylation cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), which upregulates MITF, of which CREB is a transcription factor.


title: Skin whitening

text: Alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH), beta-melanocyte stimulating hormone (β-MSH), and adrenocorticotropic hormone are endogenous agonists of MC1R. Agouti signaling protein (ASIP) appears to be the only endogenous antagonist of MC1R. Synthetic MC1R agonists have been designed, such as the peptides afamelanotide and melanotan II.


title: Skin whitening

text: Mutations of the MC1R gene correlate and are at least partially responsible for red hair, white skin, and an increased risk for skin cancer in some individuals.


title: Skin whitening

text: Within the skin, melanocytes are present in the basal layer of the epidermis; from these melanocytes originate dendrites that reach keratinocytes.


title: Skin whitening

text: Melanosomes along with the melanin they contain are transferred from melanocytes to keratinocytes when keratinocytes are low in the epidermis. Keratinocytes carry the melanosomes with them as they move towards the surface. Keratinocytes contribute to skin pigmentation by holding the melanin originated in melanocytes and inducing melanogenesis through chemical signals directed at melanocytes. The transfer of melanosomes to keratinocytes is a necessary condition for the visible pigmentation of the skin. Blocking this transfer is a mechanism of action of some skin whitening agents.


title: Skin whitening

text: The protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2) is a transmembrane and G-protein coupled receptor expressed in keratinocytes and involved in melanocyte transfer. Antagonists of PAR2 inhibit the transfer of melanosomes and have skin whitening affects, while agonists of PAR2 have the opposite effect.


title: Skin whitening

text: Some compounds are known to destroy melanocytes; this mechanism of action is often used to remove the remaining pigmentation in cases of vitiligo.


title: Skin whitening

text: Early skin whitening practices were not well-documented. Skin whitening is a practice that has made its way across the entire globe with a multitude of cultures adopting the practice under various ideologies. Commonly, the practice has been marketed towards women under the pretense that porcelain skin was the ideal representation of beauty and status. The first recorded practices of skin whitening can be traced back to over 200 B.C. across a multitude of civilizations which utilized natural sources of ingredients to facilitate the production of skin whitening substances. For example, one of these methods include the use of honey and olive oil as a method of whitening the skin in different civilizations such as in Egypt as well as in Greek culture. According to anthropologist Nina Jablonski, these practices did not become publicized until famous figures, such as Cleopatra and Queen Elizabeth, began to use them regularly. Cosmetic formulas initially spread from continental Europe and China to Britain and Japan, respectively. Various historians argue that, across cultures, skin lightening became a desirable norm due to implications of wealth. Although the majority methods of which the skin whitening process is undertaken have been deemed unsafe due to various side effects, they are still used for a range of purposes; one of which includes the desire for improvement of one's socioeconomic status as well as the socialization in some cultures of one's perceived inferiority based on having darker or lighter skin than others. This process through which perceived inferiority can be exercised physically can be looked back on through a foundational perspective of the "Nigrescence Theory". This theory is explains the distinction of one's own socialized identity through various stages and the pigmentation of skin that someone is born with that is associated with the socialization process within a culture. More specifically, out of the four stages associated with this theory, the first one, named the "pre-encounter" stage, highlight the underlying concept one not associating themselves with their own culture or values due partly to the misinformation one has been taught to believe and therefore seeks validation and worthiness from those who have misinformed that person.


title: Skin whitening

text: The history of skin whitening in East Asia dates to ancient times. To be light in an environment in which the sun was harsh implied wealth and nobility because those individuals were able to remain indoors while servants had to labor outside.


title: Skin whitening

text: Ancient Asian cultures also associated light skin with feminine beauty. "Jade" white skin in Korea is known to have been the ideal as far back as the Gojoseon era. Japan's Edo period saw the start of a trend of women whitening their faces with rice powder as a "moral duty". Chinese women valued a "milk white" complexion and swallowed powdered pearls towards that end.


title: Skin whitening

text: Skin lightening practices had achieved great importance in East Asia as early as the 16th century. Similar to early European cosmetics, white makeup was reported to cause severe health problems and physical malformations. In Japan, samurai mothers who used lead-based white paint on their faces often had children who exhibited symptoms of lead toxicity and stunted bone growth. Japanese nobility, including both men and women, often applied white lead powder to their faces prior to the Meiji restoration. Following the Meiji restoration, men and women reserved white lead makeup and traditional attire for special occasions. In China, Korea, and Japan, washing one's face with rice water was also practiced, as it was believed to naturally whiten skin. Historians also noted that as East Asian women immigrated to the United States, immigrant women engaged in skin lightening more frequently than women who did not immigrate. Advertisements were a large influence in the marketable appeal of skin whitening in China and Taiwan. Skincare products that are recognized to protect the skin included chemicals that assist in skin whitening. These products were marketed and promoted as the solution to appearing young forever. Skincare products have been predominantly created to serve as anti-aging to women in China and Taiwan of all ages.


title: Skin whitening

text: Nina Jablonski and Evelyn Nakano Glenn both assert that skin whitening in many South and Southeast Asian nations such as the Philippines grew in popularity through these nations' histories of European colonization. Multiple studies find that preferences for lighter skin in India were historically linked to both the Indian caste system and centuries of outside rule by light-skinned nations. In the Philippines and many Southeast Asian countries, lighter skin was associated with higher social status. Historians indicate that the social hierarchies in the Philippines encompasses a spectrum of skin tones due to intermarriages between indigenous populations, East Asian settlers from Japan and China, and European and American colonists.


title: Skin whitening

text: In South Asia, the colour of one's skin determined social status as it implied the circumstances of one's positionality. While pale skin suggested being away from the sun, darker skin signified the result of working in external conditions. With colonial influence from Britain's occupation, there was a distinction in superiority and inferiority. With those in power attributing pale complexions, there was an association tied among class and position. The South Asian film industry was a contributing factor from colonialism in the reinforcement of these narratives. Turmeric was a used ingredient in lightening skin tone complexion to be seen as desirable.


title: Skin whitening

text: Skin whitening practices have been documented in ancient Greece and Rome. Bleaching cosmetics often incorporated white lead carbonate and mercury as lightening agents. These products were ultimately known to cause skin erosion.


title: Skin whitening

text: Skin whitening was frequently documented during the Elizabethan era. Queen Elizabeth's own usage of skin lighteners became a prominent standard of beauty. Additionally, according to medieval historians, light skin was an indicator of aristocracy and higher socioeconomic class, as laborers were more frequently exposed to outdoor sunlight. Men and women lightened their skin superficially and chemically, using white powder and Venetian ceruse, respectively. Venetian ceruse consisted of a lead and vinegar mixture, known to cause hair loss, skin corrosion, muscle paralysis, tooth deterioration, blindness, and premature aging. Venetian ceruse was also reported as a source of lead poisoning. Lye and ammonia, found in other skin whiteners, compounded the toxic effects of lead. Other practices done in the name of skin whitening included washing one's face in urine and ingesting wafers of arsenic.


title: Skin whitening

text: According to scholar Shirley Anne Tate, skin whiteners in the United States initially were predominantly used by white women. European immigrants introduced recipes for cosmetic skin lighteners into the Colonial history of the United States American colonies, where they eventually evolved to incorporate Indigenous peoples of the west Americas indigenous and West African herbal traditions. Skin whitening grew in popularity in the 1800s, as white women in the United States began to emulate the skin-whitening practices performed by those in Europe. As such, American women similarly used ceruse, arsenic wafers, and products that contained toxic dosages of lead and mercury.


title: Skin whitening

text: Skin lightening was often not well-received; women who used skin whiteners were described as artificial, while men who used skin whiteners were described as overly effeminate. Despite this reception, skin whitening remained a popular practice. Historians also note that advertisements for skin whiteners in the 20th century often associated pale skin with gentility.


title: Skin whitening

text: According to historian Kathy Peiss, skin whitening among black American women had been documented starting in the mid-nineteenth century. Historians credited the increased marketing of skin whiteners to the culture of the Jim Crow era, as black Americans faced continued social and legal restrictions. Cosmetic advertisements directed at black consumers often framed resulting lighter complexions as cleaner and better. Simultaneously, however, cosmetic and beauty magazines often published criticisms of black women who used skin bleachers, arguing that they appeared unnatural and fraudulent.


title: Skin whitening

text: In the 1930s, tanned skin became popular among white women as a new symbol of wealth; some historians assert that industrialization had created indoor settings for labor, causing tanned skin to be associated more with sunbathing, travel, and leisure. The growth of the Black is Beautiful movement in the 1960s, combined with greater awareness of potential health hazards, also temporarily slowed the sale and popularity of skin bleachers. However, by the 1980s, paler skin once again became more desirable, as tanning became linked to premature aging and sun damage.


title: Skin whitening

text: Skin whitening practices have also been well documented in South America and the Caribbean. Sociologists such as Jack Menke noted that early skin lightening practices among indigenous women were motivated by the attentions of conquistadores. Recovered journals from women in Suriname indicated that they used vegetable mixtures to lighten their skin, which produced painful side effects.


title: Skin whitening

text: Various studies have linked the prevalence of skin whitening in Latin American nations to their histories and legacies of colonization and slavery. Witness accounts in colonial Jamaica reported that women practiced "flaying" and "skinning" on themselves, using astringent lotions to appear lighter. Caribbean creole women were also observed to treat their skin with cashew nut oil, which burned the external layers of skin.


title: Skin whitening

text: Skin whitening practices grew in popularity, partly as a consequence of blanqueamiento in Latin America. The ideologies behind blanqueamiento promoted the idea of social hierarchy, based on Eurocentric features and skin tone.


title: Skin whitening

text: Records indicate prominent usage of skin lighteners in South Africa beginning in the 20th century. Historians suggest that this may be associated with the passage of the Colored Labor Preference Act, in 1955. Skin lighteners in South Africa were first marketed to white consumers, then eventually to consumers of color. Initially, skin whitening was typically practiced by rural and poor South African women; however, studies indicate that the practice has become increasingly prevalent among black women with higher incomes and levels of education. Historian Lynn Thomas attributes the initial popularity of these skin whiteners to the socially desired implications of limited outdoor labor, sexual relationships with lighter-skinned partners, and lighter-skinned heritage. Starting in the 1970s, the South African government established regulations for skin whitening products, banning products that contained mercury or high levels of hydroquinone. By the 1980s, critiques of skin whitening had become incorporated into the anti-apartheid movement, given skin whitening's adverse consequences on health and its social implications of colorism.


title: Skin whitening

text: In Ghana, preferences for lighter skin had been documented beginning in the 16th century. Shirley Anne Tate attributes this to the aesthetics and statuses promoted during the period of colonial rule, citing the social influence and wealth of notable Euro-Ghanaian families. Other studies found that, in Tanzania, skin bleaching has been regularly practiced by middle and working classes, as light skin was perceived to facilitate social mobility.


title: Skin whitening

text: Skin whitening practices in several other African countries increased following the onset of independence movements against European colonial rule. Maya Allen attributed this to the increased flow of European products and commercial influence into colonized regions. Several historians have suggested that the increased prevalence of skin whitening in "the Global South" is potentially tied to both precolonial notions of beauty and post-colonial hierarchies of race.


title: Skin whitening

text: Italics have been preserved whenever they appear in quotations. Text between square brackets are additional notes not present in the source.


title: LittleBigPlanet

text: LittleBigPlanet (stylized as LittleBIGPlanet; abbreviated LBP) is a puzzle platform video game series created and produced by British developer Media Molecule and published by Sony Interactive Entertainment. Most games in the series put a strong emphasis on user-generated content and are based on the series' tagline "Play, Create, Share". The tagline represents the three core elements of the series: playing alone or with others locally (on the same console) or online, creating new content using the in-game creation tools, and sharing creations and discoveries online with other players.


title: LittleBigPlanet

text: Tarsier Studios, Fireproof Games and Supermassive Games also contribute to the development of the PlayStation 3 games, creating in-game assets (DLC) including costumes, backgrounds, objects, and stickers. Some of these assets will also provide the player more tools and gadgets to use in the level editor.


title: LittleBigPlanet

text: The series comprises six games across five gaming platforms. The series was launched in 2008 with the PlayStation 3 game "LittleBigPlanet", which was followed in 2009 by a PlayStation Portable version of the same name, initially developed by Studio Liverpool and later handed to SCE Cambridge Studio. The sequel to the PlayStation 3 version, "LittleBigPlanet 2", was released in January 2011 alongside a smaller spin-off title called "Sackboy's Prehistoric Moves". "LittleBigPlanet PS Vita" was developed by Tarsier Studios and Double Eleven, released in September 2012 for the PlayStation Vita. At E3 2014, Sony announced "LittleBigPlanet 3", a PlayStation 4 installment that was developed by Sumo Digital and released in November 2014. The games are all published by Sony Computer Entertainment. The latest installment for the "LittleBigPlanet" franchise titled "" was revealed during the PS5 live event and released on the PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5 in November 2020. A Windows version was released on 27 October 2022.


title: LittleBigPlanet

text: On 17 January 2015, it was announced that all LittleBigPlanet servers in Japan would shut down on 31 July, along with the PlayStation Portable version and "LittleBigPlanet Karting" in late August in all regions. Due to attacks on the online servers, all LittleBigPlanet servers were taken down in May 2021 (the Vita version remained closed since March). The servers for the PS4 version of "LittleBigPlanet 3" were brought back up on 13 September 2021, however, in the same announcement, it mentioned that the servers for "LittleBigPlanet", "LittleBigPlanet 2", "LittleBigPlanet PS Vita" and the PS3 version of "LittleBigPlanet 3" will remain closed permanently.


title: LittleBigPlanet

text: In the first two installments of the series, gameplay consist primarily of traditional two-dimensional platforming like jumping and avoiding obstacles to successfully navigate to the end of a level to win. Since "LittleBigPlanet 2", the series has included mini-games, including ones that do not follow the platformer genre. Most "LittleBigPlanet" games involve a player playing solo or co-operatively with friends to navigate through a level whilst collecting various "bubbles" along the way, which can take the form of either points or collectibles. In-game collectibles can be used in level creation or to customise Sackboy, the player character. There are also numerous co-operative parts of levels whereby certain prize bubbles can be earned. In "LittleBigPlanet 3" and "Sackboy: A Big Adventure" Collectabells are also present, being used in various shops to purchase more costumes.


title: LittleBigPlanet

text: The Create component primarily refers to level creation in the game, along with other features like character customisation. Players can create their own levels with the built-in level creator. Many items that are collected while playing through the story mode and from "LittleBigPlanet"s community can be used to help with level creation. These levels can remain as the original "LittleBigPlanet" platforming gameplay, or they can include other game types, such as racing, fighting, shooting and sports. The player can also make non-gaming creations such as music and films (commonly known in-game as cut-scenes). In "LittleBigPlanet 2", Sackbots were introduced to give players more control over non-player characters in their levels as well as make the levels in their entirety more intelligent. The creation technique introduced on the game gave the possibility for logic, and it gave the ability to build sets of machines and complex contraptions.


title: LittleBigPlanet

text: Lastly, the Share component relates to sharing creations with the game's community by uploading levels to the PlayStation Network. To-date there are in excess of ten million user-created levels available to play on the LittleBigPlanet server in the PlayStation 3 games. Since the release of "LittleBigPlanet 2" and the LBP.me community website, the Share component has also had a strong emphasis sharing discoveries. Players are encouraged to share levels they find with other players by writing reviews and comments in-game and by sharing links to creations' LBP.me pages via social networks.


title: LittleBigPlanet

text: The series takes place in a world known as LittleBigPlanet. Each curator is in charge of a part of LittleBigPlanet and they govern them independently. LittleBigPlanet has geography inspired by the real-life Earth. All games in the series follow the main protagonist Sackboy, a small anthropomorphic creature made of brown fabric with a zip fastener and button eyes. He can be customised to the player's liking using costumes that are either unlocked in the game, or bought as downloadable content from the PlayStation Store. The player can control Sackboy's four emotions; happiness, sadness, worry and anger, each of which has three levels of intensity. The English language version of each game is narrated by Stephen Fry and in all formats Fry's scripts are written by Dean Wilkinson.


title: LittleBigPlanet

text: The first game in the series was released on the PlayStation 3 platform in 2008 and was the first title developed by Media Molecule, under the name "The Next Big Thing". The game received positive reviews for its design, gameplay, and customisation leading it to win many awards. The player controls Sackboy as he travels around LittleBigPlanet, helping the eight creator curators of LittleBigPlanet with their problems in their own respective realms as he tries to stop The Collector, one of the eight creator curators who has gone rogue, kidnapping the creations of LittleBigPlanet.


title: LittleBigPlanet

text: The second game in the series is a direct sequel to the first "LittleBigPlanet" and was developed by Media Molecule for the PlayStation 3 for a release in 2011. The sequel saw a major shift in the direction of the series, going from a primarily traditional platform game in the first two entries to a more varied style of gameplay called a "platform for games". The second game gave players a wider variety of options when it came to level design, which saw the creation of levels other than platforming such as racing, puzzles, and fighting games. Following the events of the first two entries in the series, the game takes place when an antagonist known as the Negativitron invades LittleBigPlanet and begins to suck up all its inhabitants. Sackboy must team up with a secret organisation known as "The Alliance", led by Larry Da Vinci, to save LittleBigPlanet from the Negativitron. The game also supported the PlayStation Move, with an update post-launch.


title: LittleBigPlanet

text: "LittleBigPlanet 3" is a game for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4. Announced at E3 2014, it was developed by Sumo Digital and


title: LittleBigPlanet

text: released in November 2014. In the game, Sackboy is transported to another world, Bunkum, where he has to awaken its three missing heroes, OddSock, Toggle and Swoop, who are new playable characters.


title: LittleBigPlanet

text: A portable entry of the series was developed primarily by SCE Cambridge Studio in association with Media Molecule for the PlayStation Portable. The game, released in 2009, shared the same name as the original game; however, it was not a port of the PlayStation 3 game, but rather a new entry in the series. It has a story-mode with levels and features many of the same mechanics of its PlayStation 3 counterpart, such as customisations, albeit without the multiplayer component of the game. The game takes place after the events of the PlayStation 3 version of "LittleBigPlanet", in which The Collector has been defeated. A carnival is being held and Sackboy decides to go around the world to invite the eight curators of LittleBigPlanet to the carnival whilst finding materials for his own carnival float.


title: LittleBigPlanet

text: The fourth game in the series was developed by Tarsier Studios, Double Eleven, and XDev for the PlayStation Vita handheld and had a 2012 release. The game features the same core mechanics from "LittleBigPlanet 2", with the focus being on a "platform for games" rather than a platformer like previous entries in the series before "LittleBigPlanet 2". The game utilises the unique controls of the PlayStation Vita by using its multi-touch touchscreen and its rear touchpad to navigate through various obstacles in stages as well as for level creation by users. The game supports cross-buy of DLC costume packs between "LittleBigPlanet 2", as well as "LittleBigPlanet Karting".


title: LittleBigPlanet

text: "LittleBigPlanet Karting" is a kart racing game developed by United Front and San Diego Studio in conjunction with series creator Media Molecule for the PlayStation 3. In its story mode, the player ventures through LittleBigPlanet, Monster Islands, Victoria's Laboratory, The Progress Emporium, Eve's Asylum, Avalonia/The Space Bass, and Hoard, Sweet Hoard, to put an end to the greedy, grabbing Hoard racers, who snatch many pieces of the different planets to stash them in the Garage at the End of the Universe. Sony Entertainment America shut down the North American "LittleBigPlanet Karting" online servers on 31 August 2016.


title: LittleBigPlanet

text: The game was developed by XDev as a spin-off from the "LittleBigPlanet" series utilising the PlayStation Move on the PlayStation 3. It was released in December 2010, as a downloadable title from the PlayStation Store and was later bundled with "LittleBigPlanet 2". The game was described as a "demo" and featured 10 prehistoric inspired story levels. In the game, Sackboy must save Little Big Planet from the T-Rex. Unlike the main games, which can be played as a single-player experience, the game required a minimum of two players to work. This was due to the main mechanics of the spin-off whereby one player would control Sackboy traditionally using the gamepad for platforming while a second player had to use a PlayStation Move similar to a pointer to move obstacles and objects out of the way in order to successfully navigate a level.


title: LittleBigPlanet

text: "Run Sackboy! Run!" is a free-to-play endless running game developed by Firesprite and published by PlayStation Mobile that was released on iOS on 30 October 2014, Android on 17 December 2014 and PlayStation Vita on 31 March 2015. The game has no real plot, except for Sackboy running through Craftworld from the Negativitron.


title: LittleBigPlanet

text: "LittleBigPlanet Hub" is an unreleased free-to-play game for the PlayStation 3. "LittleBigPlanet Hub" was planned to be a free downloadable title from the PlayStation Store which would have allowed players to create levels and play a curated selection of community levels from "LittleBigPlanet" and "LittleBigPlanet 2" as well as 16 levels from the games' story modes. "LittleBigPlanet Hub" also planned feature weekly challenges, not found in other "LittleBigPlanet" games. Downloadable content purchased in other "LittleBigPlanet" games were to be compatible with "LittleBigPlanet Hub", and users would also be able to access additional content from the PlayStation Store.


title: LittleBigPlanet

text: Since its announcement in August 2013, no further details about "LittleBigPlanet Hub" have been revealed.


title: LittleBigPlanet

text: "Sackboy: A Big Adventure" is a 2020 platform game developed by Sumo Digital and published by Sony Interactive Entertainment for the PlayStation 5 and the PlayStation 4. It was announced at the PlayStation 5 reveal event on June 11, 2020 and was released on November 12, 2020. On October 27th, 2022, PlayStation PC LLC released "Sackboy: A Big Adventure" to Windows users under Steam's storefront. The game follows Sackboy who has featured in previous LittleBigPlanet games. Unlike previous LittleBigPlanet entries with 2.5D platforming, it features a range of perspectives and 3D movement.


title: LittleBigPlanet

text: Most of the games in the series have been well received by critics with the "LittleBigPlanet" on PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable gaining Metacritic scores of 95/100 and 87/100 respectively. "LittleBigPlanet 2" garnered nearly as much acclaim as the first game with an average score of 91/100. "LittleBigPlanet PS Vita" also received very positive reviews and was the highest-ranked PS Vita game at the time of its release with an average score of 88/100. However, the release of "LittleBigPlanet 3" did not receive critical acclaim, garnering a mostly positive average of 79/100.


title: LittleBigPlanet

text: Critically, "LittleBigPlanet Karting" is the worst-performing major game in the series so far but still gained a "mixed or average" Metacritic score of 74/100. However, the mobile game "Run Sackboy! Run!" performed worse, with a Metacritic score of 65/100. Additionally, the character of Sackboy is often seen as a PlayStation mascot. In 2011, readers of "Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition" voted Sackboy as the 50th-top video game character of all time.


title: Charles Oakley

text: Charles Oakley (born December 18, 1963) is an American former professional basketball player. Oakley played for the Chicago Bulls, New York Knicks, Toronto Raptors, Washington Wizards, and Houston Rockets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). A power forward, he consistently ranked as one of the best rebounders in the NBA. Since 2017, he has been the coach of the Killer 3's of the BIG3.


title: Charles Oakley

text: Born and raised in Cleveland, Oakley attended John Hay High School and Virginia Union University, a Division II historically black university in Richmond, Virginia. As a senior in 1984–85, Oakley led Virginia Union to the 1985 CIAA championship. The Panthers had a 31–1 overall record that year, with Oakley averaging 24 points and 17.3 rebounds a game. Oakley was named the NCAA Division II Player of the Year. He scored 2,379 points and grabbed 1,642 rebounds in his college career.


title: Charles Oakley

text: Oakley was drafted with the 9th overall pick in the 1985 NBA draft by the Cleveland Cavaliers, but his draft rights were traded to the Chicago Bulls. Oakley provided another scoring option and steady offensive and defensive performances to an up-and-coming Bulls squad led by Michael Jordan. On March 15, 1986, Oakley set a career high in points scored with 35, during a 125-116 loss to the Milwaukee Bucks. Oakley was selected as a part of the NBA All-Rookie First Team in 1986.


title: Charles Oakley

text: Oakley also assumed the role of the team "enforcer", whose duty primarily was to protect young Jordan against cheap shots and roughhousing tactics of opposing players. He was given the nickname, "Oak Tree", for his rugged demeanor and no-nonsense attitude. On April 26, 1987, Oakley set a postseason career high with 25 points scored, alongside grabbing 15 rebounds, in a loss to the Boston Celtics.


title: Charles Oakley

text: With the drafting and development of Horace Grant, the Bulls traded Oakley to the New York Knicks for 7'1" center Bill Cartwright. Oakley eventually became a part of the core which the Knicks built around, which also featured Patrick Ewing, John Starks, Anthony Mason and point guard Mark Jackson.


title: Charles Oakley

text: During the Knicks' 1994 season, which included a record 25 playoff games, Oakley started every regular season and playoff game for a record 107 starts in a single season. On June 1, 1994, Oakley scored 12 points, grabbed 13 rebounds and recorded 7 assists in a Game 5 loss to the Indiana Pacers in the Eastern Conference Finals. The Knicks eventually won that series. The following round, during that year's NBA Finals, Oakley averaged 11 points and 11.9 rebounds per game in a tightly contested seven game series loss to the Houston Rockets.


title: Charles Oakley

text: On March 11, 1998, Oakley grabbed a season high 22 rebounds in a loss against former teammate Anthony Mason and the Charlotte Hornets. Despite regular season success and consistent playoffs appearances, the Knicks did not return to the Finals again during Oakley's tenure. During his time with the Knicks, Oakley was known across the league for being a defensive specialist and outstanding rebounder.


title: Charles Oakley

text: In 1998, Oakley was traded by New York to the Toronto Raptors for blossoming star Marcus Camby. For the Raptors, he provided a veteran presence to a young team that included Vince Carter and Tracy McGrady. On January 7, 2001, Oakley set a career high with 6 blocks, and also nearly missed a triple-double with 12 points, 10 rebounds, and 7 assists.


title: Charles Oakley

text: In 2001, Oakley was traded by the Toronto Raptors with a 2002 2nd-round pick to the Chicago Bulls for Brian Skinner. This was his second tenure with the Bulls. Starting 36 of his 57 played games, he averaged 3.8 points per game, 6 rebounds per game, and 2 assists per game.


title: Charles Oakley

text: In 2002, Oakley signed as a free agent with the Washington Wizards, where he was reunited with former teammate Michael Jordan. Oakley played 42 games during the 2002–03 season, averaging 1.8 points per game, 2.5 rebounds per game, and 1 assist per game.


title: Charles Oakley

text: The 2003–04 season was Oakley's last season. On March 18, 2004, Oakley signed the first of two 10-day contracts with the Houston Rockets. Oakley played only 7 games, in which he averaged 1.3 points per game, 0.7 rebounds per game, and 0.3 assists per game. At the end of the season, Oakley retired from the NBA.


title: Charles Oakley

text: In 2007 Oakley was reported to be attempting an NBA comeback, at age 44. He claimed Dallas, Miami, Cleveland and New York were interested, but said he would "not [come] back cheap".


title: Charles Oakley

text: On December 26, 2010, Oakley was hired as an assistant coach for the Charlotte Bobcats under then-head coach Paul Silas.


title: Charles Oakley

text: He left that position on December 1, 2011 after experiencing health issues with back pain, during the 2010–11 season.


title: Charles Oakley

text: Oakley was inducted into the Virginia Sports Hall of Fame and Museum in honor of his 19-year professional basketball career. The induction ceremony was held on April 30, 2016.


title: Charles Oakley

text: In September 2016, a portion of Deering Street in Oakley's hometown of Cleveland (near his alma mater of John Hay High School) was renamed Charles Oakley Way in his honor.


title: Charles Oakley

text: In 2011, Oakley filed a lawsuit against the Aria Resort and Casino in Las Vegas, alleging a group assault by five security guards employed by the casino on May 28, 2010.