title: Saint John, New Brunswick

text: What is considered the golden age of the Saint John arts community was during the post-war era from 1940 to 1970 when the city produced renowned artists and writers such as poet Kay Smith, painters Jack Humphrey, Miller Brittain, Bruno Bobak, Fred Ross, and sculptor John Hooper and folk-singer Tom Connors. Poet Bliss Carman once wrote about Saint John, "All the beauty and mystery Of life were there, adventure bold, Youth, and the glamour of the sea, And all its sorrows old."


title: Saint John, New Brunswick

text: Early settlers influenced music in Saint John from the time the area had been a series of forts for the English and French colonists. Working class fishers, labourers and shipbuilders carried Maritime traditions and folk songs with kitchen parties and outdoor gatherings. But musical high culture was captured by the wealthy. New Brunswick's solicitor-general 1784–1808, Ward Chipman Sr was known to have fancy soirées at his home with all the latest songs from London. A notable Loyalist musician, Stephen Humbert, moved in 1783 from New Jersey to Saint John and opened a Sacred Vocal Music School. In 1801 Humbert published Union Harmony, the first Canadian music book in English. The Mechanics' Institute, built in 1840, was the first large-scale platform for comic opera and concerts. In 1950 The Saint John Symphony was founded by Kelsey Jones; by 1983 the organization became Symphony New Brunswick. Some musicians from Saint John include Berkley Chadwick, Stompin' Tom Connors, Ken Tobias, Blank Banshee, Stevedore Steve, Jane Coop, Bruce Holder, Frances James, the songwriter Michael F. Kelly, Ned Landry, the composer and teacher Edward Betts Manning, Paul Murray, Catherine McKinnon, Patricia Rideout, Philip Thomson, and the tenor and choir conductor Gordon Wry.


title: Saint John, New Brunswick

text: Music festivals have long been a part of the city's cultural scene. New Brunswick's Music Festival was held in Saint John every Spring in the early- to mid-20th century. As the city's music changed with the times, so did its festivals. Other popular festivals include the now defunct Festival By The Sea and Salty Jam catering to various genres of pop music.


title: Saint John, New Brunswick

text: The Area 506 music festival is held every New Brunswick Day long-weekend at Long Wharf on Saint John Harbour. The festival is set up with shipping containers from the port with vendors from New Brunswick companies to promote local business. A main stage area is also set up for night time shows with local acts as well as major groups. Major bands to have played Area 506 include Tegan and Sara, Stars, Bahamas, Interpol, and Arkells. Each year the festival also includes a bevy of bands coming out of the Saint John music scene. Quality Block Party music festival hosts independent New Brunswick musicians in smaller venues throughout uptown Saint John. The festival gets its name from the old quality block on Germain Street.


title: Saint John, New Brunswick

text: In 1964, the University of New Brunswick created UNB Saint John in buildings throughout the uptown CBD. In 1968, UNBSJ opened a new campus in the city's Tucker Park neighbourhood. This campus has undergone expansion over the years and is the fastest-growing component of the UNB system, with many new buildings constructed from the 1970s to the first decade of the 21st century. A trend in recent years has been a growth in the number of international students. The city also hosts a New Brunswick Community College campus in the East End of the city. There has also been a satellite campus of Dalhousie Medical School added within the UNBSJ campus in 2010, instructing 30 medical students each year.


title: Saint John, New Brunswick

text: In the fall of 2007, a report commissioned by the provincial government recommended UNBSJ and the NBCC be reformed and consolidated into a new polytechnic post-secondary institute. The proposal immediately came under heavy criticism and led to the organizing of several protests in the uptown area, citing the diminishment of UNB as a nationally accredited university, the reduction in accessibility to receive degrees – and these are only a couple of the reasons why the community was enraged by the recommendation. Support for keeping UNBSJ as it was, and expanding the university under its current structure, fell slightly below 90%. Seeing too much political capital would be lost, and several Saint John MPs were likely not to support the initiative if the policies recommended by the report were legislated, the government abandoned the commission's report and created an intra-provincial post-secondary commission.


title: Saint John, New Brunswick

text: Saint John is served by two school boards: Anglophone South School District schools and Francophone Sud School District (based out of Dieppe, New Brunswick) for the city's only Francophone school, Centre-Scolaire-Communautaire Samuel-de-Champlain. Saint John is also home to Canada's oldest publicly funded school, Saint John High School. The other high schools in the city are Harbour View High School, St. Malachy's High School, and Simonds High School.


title: Protestant work ethic

text: The Protestant work ethic, also known as the Calvinist work ethic or the Puritan work ethic, is a work ethic concept in theology, sociology, economics and history which emphasizes that diligence, discipline, and frugality are a result of a person's subscription to the values espoused by the Protestant faith, particularly Calvinism.


title: Protestant work ethic

text: The phrase was initially coined in 1904–1905 by Max Weber in his book "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism". Weber asserted that Protestant ethics and values, along with the Calvinist doctrines of asceticism and predestination, enabled the rise and spread of capitalism. It is one of the most influential and cited books in sociology, although the thesis presented has been controversial since its release. In opposition to Weber, historians such as Fernand Braudel and Hugh Trevor-Roper assert that the Protestant work ethic did not create capitalism and that capitalism developed in pre-Reformation Catholic communities. Just as priests and caring professionals are deemed to have a vocation (or "calling" from God) for their work, according to the Protestant work ethic the lowly workman also has a noble vocation which he can fulfill through dedication to his work.


title: Protestant work ethic

text: The concept is often credited with helping to define the societies of Northern, Central and Western Europe as well as the United States of America.


title: Protestant work ethic

text: Protestants, beginning with Martin Luther, conceptualized worldly work as a duty which benefits both the individual and society as a whole. Thus, the Catholic idea of good works was transformed into an obligation to consistently work diligently as a sign of grace. Whereas Catholicism teaches that good works are required of Catholics as a necessary manifestation of the faith they received, and that faith apart from works is dead and barren, the Calvinist theologians taught that only those who were predestined to be saved would be saved.


title: Protestant work ethic

text: For Protestants, salvation is a gift from God; this is the Protestant distinction of "sola gratia". In light of salvation being a gift of grace, Protestants viewed work as stewardship given to them. Thus Protestants were not working in order to achieve salvation but viewed work as the means by which they could be a blessing to others. Hard work and frugality were thought to be two important applications of being a steward of what God had given them. Protestants were thus attracted to these qualities and strove to reach them.


title: Protestant work ethic

text: There are many specific theological examples in the Bible that support Protestant theology. Old Testament examples abound, such as God's command in Exodus 20:8-10 to "Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy. Six days you shall labor, and do all your work, but the seventh day is a Sabbath to the Lord your God." Another passage from the Book of Proverbs in the Old Testament provides an example: "A little sleep, a little slumber, a little folding of the hands to rest, and poverty will come upon you like a robber, and want like an armed man."


title: Protestant work ethic

text: The New Testament also provides many examples, such as the Parable of the Ten Minas in the Book of Luke.


title: Protestant work ethic

text: Protestant theology shares its origins with other and older Judeo-Christian theologies, if for no other reason than that it shares some of the same source documents.


title: Protestant work ethic

text: The first permanent English Settlement in America in the 17th century, at Jamestown, was led by John Smith. He trained the first English settlers to work at farming and fishing. These settlers were ill-equipped to survive in the English settlements in the early 1600's and were on the precipice of dying. John Smith emphasized the Protestant Work Ethic and helped propagate it by stating "He that will not work, shall not eat" which is a direct allusion to 2 thessalonians 3:10. This policy is credited with helping the early colony survive and thrive in its relatively harsh environment.


title: Protestant work ethic

text: Writer Frank Chodorov argued that the Protestant ethic was long considered indispensable for American political figures:


title: Protestant work ethic

text: Some support exists that the Protestant Work Ethic may be so ingrained in American culture that when it appears people may not even recognize it. This may be due to the fact that ethics may be difficult to measure. Due to the history of Protestantism in the United States, it may be difficult to separate the successes of the country from the ethic that may have significantly contributed to propelling it.


title: Protestant work ethic

text: The original New England Colonies in 1677 were mostly Protestant in origin and thus were subject to the ethic.


title: Protestant work ethic

text: There are some examples of scholarly work which support that the ethic has had a significant effect on some modern societies. Work at the University of Groningen supports this effect. Other empirical research provides positive correlations as well.


title: Protestant work ethic

text: Recent scholarly work by Lawrence Harrison, Samuel P. Huntington, and David Landes has revitalized interest in Weber's thesis. In a "New York Times" article, published on June 8, 2003, Niall Ferguson pointed out that data from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) seems to confirm that "the experience of Western Europe in the past quarter-century offers an unexpected confirmation of the Protestant ethic".


title: Protestant work ethic

text: Tshilidzi Marwala asserted in 2020 that the principles of Protestant ethic are important for development in Africa and that they should be secularized and used as an alternative to the ethic of Prosperity Christianity, which advocates miracles as a basis of development.


title: Protestant work ethic

text: Joseph Schumpeter argued that capitalism began in Italy in the 14th century, not in the Protestant areas of Europe. Other factors that further developed the European market economy included the strengthening of property rights and lowering of transaction costs with the decline and monetization of feudalism, and the increase in real wages following the epidemics of bubonic plague.


title: Protestant work ethic

text: Economists Sascha Becker and Ludger Wößmann have posited an alternate theory, claiming that the literacy gap between Protestants (as a result of the Reformation) and Catholics was sufficient explanation for the economic gaps, and that the "results hold when we exploit the initial concentric dispersion of the Reformation to use distance to Wittenberg as an instrument for Protestantism". However, they also note that, between Luther (1500) and Prussia during the Franco-Prussian War (1871), the limited data available has meant that the period in question is regarded as a "black box" and that only "some cursory discussion and analysis" is possible.


title: Protestant work ethic

text: Historian Fernand Braudel wrote that "all historians" opposed the "tenuous theory" of Protestant ethic, despite not being able to entirely quash the theory "once and for all". Braudel continues to remark that the "northern countries took over the place that earlier had been so long and brilliantly been occupied by the old capitalist centers of the Mediterranean. They invented nothing, either in technology or business management".


title: Protestant work ethic

text: Social scientist Rodney Stark commented that "during their critical period of economic development, these northern centers of capitalism were Catholic, not Protestant", with the Reformation still far off in the future. Furthermore, he also highlighted the conclusions of other historians, noting that, compared to Catholics, Protestants were "not more likely to hold the high-status capitalist positions", that Catholic Europe did not lag in its industrial development compared to Protestant areas, and that even Weber wrote that "fully developed capitalism had appeared in Europe" long before the Reformation. As British historian Hugh Trevor-Roper stated, the concept that "large-scale industrial capitalism was ideologically impossible before the Reformation is exploded by the simple fact that it existed".


title: Protestant work ethic

text: Andersen "et al" found that the location of monasteries of the Catholic Order of Cistercians, and specifically their density, highly correlated to this work ethic in later centuries; ninety percent of these monasteries were founded before the year 1300 AD. Joseph Henrich found that this correlation extends right up to the twenty-first century.


title: Protestant work ethic

text: Pastor John Starke writes that the Protestant work ethic "multiplied myths about Protestantism, Calvinism, vocation, and capitalism. To this day, many believe Protestants work hard so as to build evidence for salvation." Others have connected the concept of a Protestant work ethic to racist ideals. Civil rights activist Martin Luther King Jr. said:


title: Master chief petty officer

text: Master chief petty officer (MCPO) is an enlisted rank in some navies. It is the ninth (just below the rank of MCPON) enlisted rank (with pay grade E-9) in the United States Navy and United States Coast Guard, just above Senior Chief Petty Officer (SCPO). Master chief petty officers are addressed as "Master Chief (last name)" in colloquial contexts. They constitute the top 1.25% of the enlisted members of the maritime forces.


title: Master chief petty officer

text: Prior to 1958, chief petty officer was the highest enlisted rate in both the U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard. This changed on 20 May 1958 with the passage of Public Law 85-422, the Military Pay Act of 1958, which established two new enlisted pay grades of E-8 and E-9 in all five branches of the U.S. Armed Forces. In the Navy and Coast Guard, the new E-8 pay grade was titled Senior Chief Petty Officer and the new E-9 pay grade as Master Chief Petty Officer, with the first selectees promoting to their respective grades in 1959 and 1960.


title: Master chief petty officer

text: In the Navy, advancement to master chief petty officer is similar to that of chief petty officer and senior chief petty officer. It carries requirements of time in service, superior evaluation scores, and selection by a board of master chiefs. Similarly, senior chief petty officers and chief petty officers are chosen by selection boards. In the Coast Guard, advancement to master chief petty officer is similar to other advancements consisting of competition with other advancement-eligible senior chief petty officers. Eligible candidates are prioritized based on written examination scores, evaluations, award points, time in service, and time in grade. Master chief petty officers are then selected monthly from this prioritization list as positions become available.


title: Master chief petty officer

text: Petty officers of all grades possess both a rate (the enlisted term for rank) and rating (job, similar to a military occupational specialty (MOS) in other branches). The full title (most commonly used) is a combination of the two. Thus, a master chief petty officer with the rating of fire controlman would properly be called a master chief fire controlman.


title: Master chief petty officer

text: Each rating has an official abbreviation, such as FC for fire controlman, FT for fire control technician, and STS for sonar technician, submarines. When combined with the rate abbreviation (MC for master chief without rating), it produces the full rate designation, such as FCCM for fire controlman chief master (more commonly said as Master Chief Fire Controlman). It is not uncommon practice to refer to the master chief by this shorthand in all but the most formal correspondence (such as printing and inscription on awards). Mostly, though, they are simply called "master chief", regardless of rating.


title: Master chief petty officer

text: The rate insignia for a master chief is a white eagle with spread wings above three chevrons. The chevrons are topped by a rocker (arc) that goes behind the eagle. Two inverted silver stars (a reference to the stars used on the sleeves of line officers) are placed above the eagle. Between the arc and the top chevron is the specialty mark of the enlisted rating. This is used on the service dress blue, dinner dress blue jacket, and dinner dress white jacket uniforms. On other uniforms, the insignia used for shirt collars and caps is the one that has become universally accepted as the symbol of the chief petty officer. This is a gold foul anchor (though sometimes the word "fouled" is used, the proper term is "foul anchor") superimposed with a silver "USN" (Navy) or a silver shield (Coast Guard). As on the rating badge, this is capped by two five-pointed stars, showing one ray down.


title: Master chief petty officer

text: Master chief petty officers are generally considered to be the technical experts in their fields. They serve at sea and ashore in commands of all sizes. Some master chiefs choose to enter the command master chief petty officer program. If selected, a master chief receives additional leadership training and is assigned to a command as the command master chief (CMC). The command master chief is the senior enlisted person at a command and works as a liaison between the commanding officer and the enlisted ranks, serving as the senior enlisted leader. In this capacity, the CMC assists the commanding officer in issues of quality of life, discipline, training, and morale. On submarines, the equivalent of a CMC is called the chief of the boat or "COB". The CMC insignia has a silver star in lieu of the enlisted rating insignia between the rocker and the top chevron.


title: Master chief petty officer

text: Fleet and force master chiefs are appointed by the commander of a fleet or a force command to serve as their senior enlisted adviser. These two ranks are equivalent and their insignia is also the same—a master chief rating badge with two gold stars above the eagle and a gold star for the rating insignia.


title: Master chief petty officer

text: A force master chief petty officer (FORCM) is a master chief who has virtually the same responsibility as command master chiefs, but for larger force commands rather than a single unit. There are 15 force master chief positions in the Navy:


title: Master chief petty officer

text: A fleet master chief petty officer (FLTCM) is a master chief who again has virtually the same responsibility as command master chiefs, but for larger fleet commands. There are four fleet master chief positions in the Navy:


title: Master chief petty officer

text: There exists one post that is unique – Master Chief Petty Officer of the Navy (MCPON, pronounced ). The holder of this post is appointed by the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) to serve as the most senior enlisted member in the Navy. The MCPON adds a third star above the rating insignia described earlier, and all three stars are gold (silver on the gold foul anchor collar device). Likewise, the rating specialty mark is replaced by a gold star. As of August 2018, Russell L. Smith is the current MCPON.


title: Master chief petty officer

text: The Master Chief Petty Officer of the Coast Guard (MCPOCG) is appointed by the Commandant of the Coast Guard to serve as the most senior enlisted member in the Coast Guard. The MCPOCG adds a third star above the rating insignia described earlier, and all three stars are gold (silver on the gold foul anchor collar device). Likewise, the rating specialty mark is replaced by a gold shield. The current master chief petty officer of the Coast Guard is Heath B. Jones.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: Plasmodium falciparum is a unicellular protozoan parasite of humans, and the deadliest species of "Plasmodium" that causes malaria in humans. The parasite is transmitted through the bite of a female "Anopheles" mosquito and causes the disease's most dangerous form, falciparum malaria. It is responsible for around 50% of all malaria cases. "P. falciparum" is therefore regarded as the deadliest parasite in humans. It is also associated with the development of blood cancer (Burkitt's lymphoma) and is classified as a Group 2A (probable) carcinogen.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: The species originated from the malarial parasite "Laverania" found in gorillas, around 10,000 years ago. Alphonse Laveran was the first to identify the parasite in 1880, and named it "Oscillaria malariae". Ronald Ross discovered its transmission by mosquito in 1897. Giovanni Battista Grassi elucidated the complete transmission from a female anopheline mosquito to humans in 1898. In 1897, William H. Welch created the name "Plasmodium falciparum", which ICZN formally adopted in 1954. "P. falciparum" assumes several different forms during its life cycle. The human-infective stage are sporozoites from the salivary gland of a mosquito. The sporozoites grow and multiply in the liver to become merozoites. These merozoites invade the erythrocytes (i.e. red blood cells) to form trophozoites, schizonts and gametocytes, during which the symptoms of malaria are produced. In the mosquito, the gametocytes undergo sexual reproduction to a zygote, which turns into ookinete. Ookinete forms oocytes from which sporozoites are formed.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: As of the World Health Organization "World Malaria Report 2021", there were 241 million cases of malaria worldwide in 2020, resulting in an estimated 627,000 deaths. Nearly all malarial deaths are caused by "P. falciparum", and 95% of such cases occur in Africa. Children under five years of age are most affected, accounting for 80% of the total deaths. In Sub-Saharan Africa, almost 100% of cases were due to "P. falciparum", whereas in most other malarial countries, other, less virulent plasmodial species predominate.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: Falciparum malaria was familiar to the ancient Greeks, who gave the general name ("pyretós") "fever". Hippocrates (c. 460–370 BCE) gave several descriptions on tertian fever and quartan fever. It was prevalent throughout the ancient Egyptian and Roman civilizations. It was the Romans who named the disease "malaria"—"mala" for bad, and "aria" for air, as they believed that the disease was spread by contaminated air, or miasma.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: A German physician, Johann Friedrich Meckel, must have been the first to see "P. falciparum" but without knowing what it was. In 1847, he reported the presence of black pigment granules from the blood and spleen of a patient who died of malaria. The French Army physician Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran, while working at Bône Hospital (now Annaba in Algeria), correctly identified the parasite as a causative pathogen of malaria in 1880. He presented his discovery before the French Academy of Medicine in Paris, and published it in "The Lancet" in 1881. He gave it the scientific name "Oscillaria malariae". However, his discovery was received with skepticism, mainly because by that time, leading physicians such as Theodor Albrecht Edwin Klebs and Corrado Tommasi-Crudeli claimed that they had discovered a bacterium (which they called "Bacillus malariae") as the pathogen of malaria. Laveran's discovery was only widely accepted after five years when Camillo Golgi confirmed the parasite using better microscopes and staining techniques. Laveran was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1907 for his work. In 1900, the Italian zoologist Giovanni Battista Grassi categorized "Plasmodium" species based on the timing of fever in the patient; malignant tertian malaria was caused by "Laverania malariae" (now "P. falciparum"), benign tertian malaria by "Haemamoeba vivax" (now "P. vivax"), and quartan malaria by "Haemamoeba malariae" (now "P. malariae").


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: The British physician Patrick Manson formulated the mosquito-malaria theory in 1894; until that time, malarial parasites were believed to be spread in air as miasma, a Greek word for pollution. His colleague Ronald Ross of the Indian Medical Service validated the theory while working in India. Ross discovered in 1897 that malarial parasites lived in certain mosquitoes. The next year, he demonstrated that a malarial parasite of birds could be transmitted by mosquitoes from one bird to another. Around the same time, Grassi demonstrated that "P. falciparum" was transmitted in humans only by female anopheline mosquito (in his case "Anopheles claviger"). Ross, Manson and Grassi were nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1902. Under controversial circumstances, only Ross was selected for the award.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: There was a long debate on the taxonomy. It was only in 1954 the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature officially approved the binominal "Plasmodium falciparum". The valid genus "Plasmodium" was created by two Italian physicians Ettore Marchiafava and Angelo Celli in 1885. The Greek word "plasma" means "mould" or "form"; "oeidēs" meaning "to see" or "to know." The species name was introduced by an American physician William Henry Welch in 1897. It is derived from the Latin "falx", meaning "sickle" and "parum" meaning "like or equal to another".


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: "P. falciparum" is now generally accepted to have evolved from "Laverania" (a subgenus of "Plasmodium" found in apes) species present in gorilla in Western Africa. Genetic diversity indicates that the human protozoan emerged around 10,000 years ago. The closest relative of "P. falciparum" is "P. praefalciparum", a parasite of gorillas, as supported by mitochondrial, apicoplastic and nuclear DNA sequences. These two species are closely related to the chimpanzee parasite "P. reichenowi", which was previously thought to be the closest relative of "P. falciparum". "P. falciparum" was also once thought to originate from a parasite of birds.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: Levels of genetic polymorphism are extremely low within the "P. falciparum" genome compared to that of closely related, ape infecting species of "Plasmodium" (including "P. praefalciparum"). This suggests that the origin of "P. falciparum" in humans is recent, as a single "P. praefalciparum" strain became capable of infecting humans. The genetic information of "P. falciparum" has signaled a recent expansion that coincides with the agricultural revolution. It is likely that the development of extensive agriculture increased mosquito population densities by giving rise to more breeding sites, which may have triggered the evolution and expansion of "P. falciparum".


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: "P. falciparum" does not have a fixed structure but undergoes continuous change during the course of its life cycle. A sporozoite is spindle-shaped and 10–15 μm long. In the liver it grows into an ovoid schizont of 30–70 μm in diameter. Each schizont produces merozoites, each of which is roughly 1.5 μm in length and 1 μm in diameter. In the erythrocyte the merozoite form a ring-like structure, becoming a trophozoite. A trophozoites feed on the haemoglobin and forms a granular pigment called haemozoin. Unlike those of other "Plasmodium" species, the gametocytes of "P. falciparum" are elongated and crescent-shaped, by which they are sometimes identified. A mature gametocyte is 8–12 μm long and 3–6 μm wide. The ookinete is also elongated measuring about 18–24 μm. An oocyst is rounded and can grow up to 80 μm in diameter. Microscopic examination of a blood film reveals only early (ring-form) trophozoites and gametocytes that are in the peripheral blood. Mature trophozoites or schizonts in peripheral blood smears, as these are usually sequestered in the tissues. On occasion, faint, comma-shaped, red dots are seen on the erythrocyte surface. These dots are Maurer's cleft and are secretory organelles that produce proteins and enzymes essential for nutrient uptake and immune evasion processes.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: The apical complex, which is actually a combination of organelles, is an important structure. It contains secretory organelles called rhoptries and micronemes, which are vital for mobility, adhesion, host cell invasion, and parasitophorous vacuole formation. As an apicomplexan, it harbours a plastid, an apicoplast, similar to plant chloroplasts, which they probably acquired by engulfing (or being invaded by) a eukaryotic alga and retaining the algal plastid as a distinctive organelle encased within four membranes. The apicoplast is involved in the synthesis of lipids and several other compounds and provides an attractive drug target. During the asexual blood stage of infection, an essential function of the apicoplast is to produce the isoprenoid precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) via the MEP (non-mevalonate) pathway.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: In 1995 the Malaria Genome Project was set up to sequence the genome of "P. falciparum". The genome of its mitochondrion was reported in 1995, that of the nonphotosynthetic plastid known as the apicoplast in 1996, and the sequence of the first nuclear chromosome (chromosome 2) in 1998. The sequence of chromosome 3 was reported in 1999 and the entire genome was reported on 3 October 2002. The roughly 24-megabase genome is extremely AT-rich (about 80%) and is organised into 14 chromosomes. Just over 5,300 genes were described. Many genes involved in antigenic variation are located in the subtelomeric regions of the chromosomes. These are divided into the "var", "rif", and "stevor" families. Within the genome, there exist 59 "var", 149 "rif", and 28 "stevor" genes, along with multiple pseudogenes and truncations. It is estimated that 551, or roughly 10%, of the predicted nuclear-encoded proteins are targeted to the apicoplast, while 4.7% of the proteome is targeted to the mitochondria.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: Humans are the intermediate hosts in which asexual reproduction occurs, and female anopheline mosquitos are the definitive hosts harbouring the sexual reproduction stage.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: Infection in humans begins with the bite of an infected female "Anopheles" mosquito. Out of about 460 species of "Anopheles" mosquito, more than 70 species transmit falciparum malaria. "Anopheles gambiae" is one of the best known and most prevalent vectors, particularly in Africa.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: The infective stage called the sporozoite is released from the salivary glands through the proboscis of the mosquito to enter through the skin during feeding. The mosquito saliva contains antihaemostatic and anti-inflammatory enzymes that disrupt blood clotting and inhibit the pain reaction. Typically, each infected bite contains 20–200 sporozoites. A proportion of sporozoites invade liver cells (hepatocytes). The sporozoites move in the bloodstream by gliding, which is driven by a motor made up of the proteins actin and myosin beneath their plasma membrane.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: Entering the hepatocytes, the parasite loses its apical complex and surface coat, and transforms into a trophozoite. Within the parasitophorous vacuole of the hepatocyte, it undergoes 13–14 rounds of mitosis and meiosis which produce a syncytial cell (coenocyte) called a schizont. This process is called schizogony. A schizont contains tens of thousands of nuclei. From the surface of the schizont, tens of thousands of haploid (1n) daughter cells called merozoites emerge. The liver stage can produce up to 90,000 merozoites, which are eventually released into the bloodstream in parasite-filled vesicles called merosomes.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: Merozoites use the apicomplexan invasion organelles (apical complex, pellicle and surface coat) to recognize and enter the host erythrocyte (red blood cell). The merozoites first bind to the erythrocyte in a random orientation. It then reorients such that the apical complex is in proximity to the erythrocyte membrane. The parasite forms a parasitophorous vacuole, to allow for its development inside the erythrocyte. This infection cycle occurs in a highly synchronous fashion, with roughly all of the parasites throughout the blood in the same stage of development. This precise clocking mechanism has been shown to be dependent on the human host's own circadian rhythm.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: Within the erythrocyte, the parasite metabolism depends on the digestion of haemoglobin. The clinical symptoms of malaria such as fever, anemia, and neurological disorder are produced during the blood stage.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: The parasite can also alter the morphology of the erythrocyte, causing knobs on the erythrocyte membrane. Infected erythrocytes are often sequestered in various human tissues or organs, such as the heart, liver and brain. This is caused by parasite-derived cell surface proteins being present on the erythrocyte membrane, and it is these proteins that bind to receptors on human cells. Sequestration in the brain causes cerebral malaria, a very severe form of the disease, which increases the victim's likelihood of death.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: After invading the erythrocyte, the parasite loses its specific invasion organelles (apical complex and surface coat) and de-differentiates into a round trophozoite located within a parasitophorous vacuole. The trophozoite feeds on the haemoglobin of erythrocyte, digesting its proteins and converting (by biocrystallization) the remaining heme into an insoluble and chemically inert β-hematin crystals called haemozoin. The young trophozoite (or "ring" stage, because of its morphology on stained blood films) grows substantially before undergoing multiplication.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: At the schizont stage, the parasite replicates its DNA multiple times and multiple mitotic divisions occur asynchronously. Cell division and multiplication in the erythrocyte is called erythrocytic schizogony. Each schizont forms 16-18 merozoites. The red blood cells are ruptured by the merozoites. The liberated merozoites invade fresh erythrocytes. A free merozoite is in the bloodstream for roughly 60 seconds before it enters another erythrocyte.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: The duration of one complete erythrocytic schizogony is approximately 48 hours. This gives rise to the characteristic clinical manifestations of falciparum malaria, such as fever and chills, corresponding to the synchronous rupture of the infected erythrocytes.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: Some merozoites differentiate into sexual forms, male and female gametocytes. These gametocytes take roughly 7–15 days to reach full maturity, through the process called gametocytogenesis. These are then taken up by a female "Anopheles" mosquito during a blood meal.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: The time of appearance of the symptoms from infection (called incubation period) is shortest for "P. falciparum" among "Plasmodium" species. An average incubation period is 11 days, but may range from 9 to 30 days. In isolated cases, prolonged incubation periods as long as 2, 3 or even 8 years have been recorded. Pregnancy and co-infection with HIV are important conditions for delayed symptoms. Parasites can be detected from blood samples by the 10th day after infection (pre-patent period).


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: Within the mosquito midgut, the female gamete maturation process entails slight morphological changes, becoming more enlarged and spherical. The male gametocyte undergoes a rapid nuclear division within 15 minutes, producing eight flagellated microgametes by a process called exflagellation. The flagellated microgamete fertilizes the female macrogamete to produce a diploid cell called a zygote. The zygote then develops into an ookinete. The ookinete is a motile cell, capable of invading other organs of the mosquito. It traverses the peritrophic membrane of the mosquito midgut and crosses the midgut epithelium. Once through the epithelium, the ookinete enters the basal lamina, and settles to an immotile oocyst. For several days, the oocyst undergoes 10 to 11 rounds of cell division to create a syncytial cell (sporoblast) containing thousands of nuclei. Meiosis takes place inside the sporoblast to produce over 3,000 haploid daughter cells called sporozoites on the surface of the mother cell. Immature sporozoites break through the oocyst wall into the haemolymph. They migrate to the mosquito salivary glands where they undergo further development and become infective to humans.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: A single anopheline mosquito can transmit hundreds of "P. falciparum" sporozoites in a single bite under experimental conditions. But in nature the number is generally less than 80. The sporozoites do not enter the blood stream directly and remain in the skin tissue for 2 to 3 hours. About 15–20% sporozoites enter the lymphatic system where they activate dendritic cells, which send them for destruction by T lymphocytes (CD8+ T cells). At 48 hours after infection, "Plasmodium"-specific CD8+ T cells can be detected in the lymph nodes connected to the skin cells. Most of the sporozoites remaining in the skin tissue are subsequently killed by the innate immune system. The sporozoite glycoprotein specifically activates mast cells. The mast cells then produce signaling molecules such as TNFα and MIP-2, which activate cell eaters (professional phagocytes) such as neutrophils and macrophages.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: Only a small number (0.5-5%) of sporozoites enter the blood stream into the liver. In the liver, the activated CD8+ T cells from the lymph bind the sporozoites through the circumsporozoite protein (CSP). Antigen presentation by dendritic cells in the skin tissue to T cells is also a crucial process. From this stage onward the parasites produce different proteins that help in suppressing communication of the immune cells. Even at the height of the infection when red blood cells (RBCs) are ruptured, the immune signals are not strong enough to activate macrophages or natural killer cells.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: Although "P. falciparum" is easily recognized by human immune system while in the bloodstream, it evades immunity by producing over 2,000 cell membrane antigens. The initial infective stage sporozoites produce circumsporozoite protein (CSP), which binds to hepatocytes. Binding to and entry into the hepatocytes is aided by another protein, thrombospondin-related anonymous protein (TRAP). TRAP and other secretory proteins (including sporozoite microneme protein essential for cell traversal 1, SPECT1 and SPECT2) from microneme allow the sporozoite to move through the blood, avoiding immune cells and penetrating hepatocytes.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: During erythrocyte invasion, merozoites release merozoite cap protein-1 (MCP1), apical membrane antigen 1 (AMA1), erythrocyte-binding antigens (EBA), myosin A tail domain interacting protein (MTIP), and merozoite surface proteins (MSPs). Of these MSPs, MSP1 and MSP2 are primarily responsible for avoiding immune cells. The virulence of "P. falciparum" is mediated by erythrocyte membrane proteins, which are produced by the schizonts and trophozoites inside the erythrocytes and are displayed on the erythrocyte membrane. PfEMP1 is the most important, capable of acting as both an antigen and an adhesion molecule.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: The clinical symptoms of falciparum malaria are produced by the rupture and destruction of erythrocytes by the merozoites. High fever (febrile), called paroxysm, is the most basic indication. The fever has a characteristic cycle of hot stage, cold stage and sweating stages. Since each erythrocytic schizogony takes a cycle of 48 hours, i.e., two days, the febrile symptom appears every third day. This is the reason the infection is classically named tertian malignant fever (tertian, a derivative of Latin word that means "third"). The most common symptoms are fever (>92% of cases), chills (79%), headaches (70%), and sweating (64%). Dizziness, malaise, muscle pain, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, mild diarrhea, and dry cough are also generally associated. High heartrate, jaundice, pallor, orthostatic hypotension, enlarged liver, and enlarged spleen are also diagnosed.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: The insoluble β-hematin crystals, haemozoin, produced from digestion of haemoglobin of the RBCs is the main agent that affect body organs. Acting as a blood toxin, haemozoin-containing RBCs cannot be attacked by phagocytes during immune response to malaria. The phagocytes can ingest free haemozoins liberated after the rupture of RBCs by which they are induced to initiate chains of inflammatory reaction that results in increased fever. It is the haemozoin that is deposited in body organs such as the spleen and liver, as well as in kidneys and lungs, to cause their enlargement and discolouration. Because of this, haemozoin is also known as malarial pigment.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: Unlike other malaria which show regular periodicity of fever, falciparum, though exhibiting a 48-hour cycle, usually is presented by irregular bouts of fever"." This difference is due the ability of "P. falciparum" merozoites to invade a large number of RBCs sequentially without coordinated intervals which is not seen in other malarial parasites. "P. falciparum" is therefore responsible for (almost) all severe human illnesses and deaths due to malaria, in a condition called pernicious or complicated or severe malaria. Complicated malaria occurs more commonly in children under age 5, and sometimes in pregnant women (a condition specifically called pregnancy-associated malaria). Women become susceptible to severe malaria during their first pregnancy. Susceptibility to severe malaria is reduced in subsequent pregnancies due to increased antibody levels against variant surface antigens that appear on infected erythrocytes. But increased immunity in mother increases susceptibility to malaria in newborn babies.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: "P. falciparum" works via sequestration, a process by which group of infected RBCs are clustered, which is not exhibited by any other species of malarial parasites. The mature schizonts change the surface properties of infected erythrocytes, causing them to stick to blood vessel walls (cytoadherence). This leads to obstruction of the microcirculation and results in dysfunction of multiple organs, such as the brain in cerebral malaria.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: Cerebral malaria is the most dangerous condition of any malarial infection and the most severe form of neurological disorders. According to the WHO definition, the clinical symptom is indicated by coma and diagnosis by high level of merozoites in the peripheral blood samples. It is the deadliest form of malaria and is attributed to 0.2 million to over a million annual deaths throughout the ages, and most deaths are children of below 5 years of age. It occurs when the merozoites invade the brain and causes brain damage of varying degrees. Death is caused by oxygen deprivation (hypoxia) due to inflammatory cytokine production and vascular leakage induced by the merozoites. Among the surviving individuals, persistent medical conditions such as neurological impairment, intellectual disability, and behavioural problems exist. Among them, epilepsy is the most common condition for which cerebral malaria is the leading cause of acquired epilepsy among African children.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: The reappearance of falciparum symptom, a phenomenon called recrudescence, is often seen in surviving individuals. Recrudescence can occur even after successful antimalarial medication. It may take a few months or even several years. In some individuals, it takes as along as three years. In isolated cases, the duration can reach or exceed 10 years. It is also a common incident among pregnant women.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: "P. falciparum" is found in all continents except Europe. Historically, it was present in most European countries, but improved health conditions led to the disappearance in the early 20th century. The only European country where it used to be historically prevalent, and from where we got the name malaria, Italy had been declared malaria-eradicated country. In 1947, the Italian government launched the National Malaria Eradication Program, and following, an anti-mosquito campaign was done using DDT. The WHO declared Italy free of malaria in 1970.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: According to the WHO "World Malaria Report 2020", 229 million people suffered from malaria in 2019, a slight increase from 228 million in 2018. 409,000 people died from it. The infection is most prevalent in Africa, where 94% of malaria deaths occur. Children under five years of age are most affected and 67% of malaria deaths occurred in this age group. 80% of the infection is found in Sub-Saharan Africa, 7% in the South-East Asia, and 2% in the Eastern Mediterranean. Nigeria has the highest incidence with 27% of the total global cases. Outside Africa, India has the highest incidence with 4.5% of the global burden. Europe is regarded as a malaria-free region. Historically, the parasite and its disease had been most well known in Europe. But medical programmes, such as insecticide spraying, drug therapy and environmental engineering since the early 20th century resulted in complete eradication in the 1970s. It is estimated that approximately 2.4 billion people are at constant risk of infection.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: In 1640, Huan del Vego first employed the tincture of the cinchona bark for treating malaria; the native Indians of Peru and Ecuador had been using it even earlier for treating fevers. Thompson (1650) introduced this "Jesuits' bark" to England. Its first recorded use there was by John Metford of Northampton in 1656. Morton (1696) presented the first detailed description of the clinical picture of malaria and of its treatment with cinchona. Gize (1816) studied the extraction of crystalline quinine from the cinchona bark and Pelletier and Caventou (1820) in France extracted pure quinine alkaloids, which they named quinine and cinchonine. The total synthesis of quinine was achieved by American chemists R.B. Woodward and W.E. Doering in 1944. Woodward received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1965.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: Attempts to make synthetic antimalarials began in 1891. Atabrine, developed in 1933, was used widely throughout the Pacific in World War II, but was unpopular because of its adverse effects. In the late 1930s, the Germans developed chloroquine, which went into use in the North African campaigns. Creating a secret military project called Project 523, Mao Zedong encouraged Chinese scientists to find new antimalarials after seeing the casualties in the Vietnam War. Tu Youyou discovered artemisinin in the 1970s from sweet wormwood ("Artemisia annua"). This drug became known to Western scientists in the late 1980s and early 1990s and is now a standard treatment. Tu won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2015.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: According to WHO guidelines 2010, artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) are the recommended first-line antimalarial treatments for uncomplicated malaria caused by "P. falciparum". WHO recommends combinations such as artemether/lumefantrine, artesunate/amodiaquine, artesunate/mefloquine, artesunate/sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine, and dihydroartemisinin/piperaquine.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: The choice of ACT is based on the level of resistance to the constituents in the combination. Artemisinin and its derivatives are not appropriate for monotherapy. As second-line antimalarial treatment, when initial treatment does not work, an alternative ACT known to be effective in the region is recommended, such as artesunate plus tetracycline or doxycycline or clindamycin, and quinine plus tetracycline or doxycycline or clindamycin. Any of these combinations is to be given for 7 days. For pregnant women, the recommended first-line treatment during the first trimester is quinine plus clindamycin for 7 days. Artesunate plus clindamycin for 7 days is indicated if this treatment fails. For travellers returning to nonendemic countries, atovaquone/proguanil, artemether/lumefantrineany and quinine plus doxycycline or clindamycin are recommended.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: For adults, intravenous (IV) or intramuscular (IM) artesunate is recommended. Quinine is an acceptable alternative if parenteral artesunate is not available.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: For children, especially in the malaria-endemic areas of Africa, artesunate IV or IM, quinine (IV infusion or divided IM injection), and artemether IM are recommended.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: Parenteral antimalarials should be administered for a minimum of 24 hours, irrespective of the patient's ability to tolerate oral medication earlier. Thereafter, complete treatment is recommended including complete course of ACT or quinine plus clindamycin or doxycycline.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: RTS,S is the only candidate as malaria vaccine to have gone through clinical trials. Analysis of the results of the phase III trial (conducted between 2011 and 2016) revealed a rather low efficacy (20-39% depending on age, with up to 50% in 5–17-month aged babies), indicating that the vaccine will not lead to full protection and eradication.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: On October 6, 2021, the World Health Organization recommended malaria vaccination for children at risk.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified malaria due to "P. falciparum" as Group 2A carcinogen, meaning that the parasite is probably a cancer-causing agent in humans. Its association with a blood cell (lymphocyte) cancer called Burkitt's lymphoma is established. Burkitt's lymphoma was discovered by Denis Burkitt in 1958 from African children, and he later speculated that the cancer was likely due to certain infectious diseases. In 1964, a virus, later called Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) after the discoverers, was identified from the cancer cells. The virus was subsequently proved to be the direct cancer agent, and is now classified as Group 1 carcinogen.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: In 1989, it was realised that EBV requires other infections such as with malaria to cause lymphocyte transformation. It was reported that the incidence of Burkitt's lymphoma decreased with effective treatment of malaria over several years. The actual role played by "P. falciparum" remained unclear for the next two-and-half decades. EBV had been known to induce lymphocytes to become cancerous using its viral proteins (antigens such as EBNA-1, EBNA-2, LMP-1, and LMP2A). From 2014, it became clear that "P. falciparum" contributes to the development of the lymphoma. "P. falciparum"-infected erythrocytes directly bind to B lymphocytes through the CIDR1α domain of PfEMP1. This binding activates toll-like receptors (TLR7 and TLR10) causing continuous activation of lymphocytes to undergo proliferation and differentiation into plasma cells, thereby increasing the secretion of IgM and cytokines. This in turn activates an enzyme called activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID), which tends to cause mutation in the DNA (by double-strand break) of an EBV-infected lymphocytes. The damaged DNA undergoes uncontrolled replication, thus making the cell cancerous.


title: Plasmodium falciparum

text: The high mortality and morbidity caused by "P. falciparum" has placed great selective pressure on the human genome. Several genetic factors provide some resistance to "Plasmodium" infection, including sickle cell trait, thalassaemia traits, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, and the absence of Duffy antigens on red blood cells. E. A. Beet, a doctor working in Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) had observed in 1948 that sickle-cell disease was related to a lower rate of malaria infections. This suggestion was reiterated by J. B. S. Haldane in 1948, who suggested that thalassaemia might provide similar protection. This hypothesis has since been confirmed and extended to hemoglobin E, hemoglobin C and Hemoglobin S.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: Established 18 May 1703, under Tsar Peter the Great as part of the Imperial Russian Navy, the Baltic Fleet is the oldest Russian Navy formation. In 1918 the fleet was inherited by the Russian SFSR then the Soviet Union in 1922, where it was eventually known as the Twice Red Banner Baltic Fleet as part of the Soviet Navy, as during this period it gained the two awards of the Order of the Red Banner. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Baltic Fleet was inherited by the Russian Federation and reverted to its original name as part of the Russian Navy.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: The Baltic Fleet is headquartered in Kaliningrad and its main base in Baltiysk (Pillau), both in Kaliningrad Oblast, and another base in Kronstadt, Saint Petersburg, in the Gulf of Finland.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: The Imperial Russian Baltic Fleet was created during the Great Northern War at the initiative of Tsar Peter the Great, who ordered the first ships for the Baltic Fleet to be constructed at Lodeynoye Pole in 1702 and 1703. The first commander was a recruited Dutch admiral, Cornelius Cruys, who in 1723 was succeeded by Count Fyodor Apraksin. In 1703, the main base of the fleet was established in Kronshtadt. One of the fleet's first actions was the taking of Shlisselburg.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: In 1701 Peter the Great established a special school, the School of Mathematics and Navigation (Russian: Школа математических и навигацких наук), situated in the Sukharev Tower in Moscow. As the territory to the west around the Gulf of Finland was acquired by Russia for a "warm-water" port giving access for its merchantmen and the buildup of a naval force, the city of St. Petersburg was built and developed an extensive port. The School of Mathematics and Navigation was moved to St. Petersburg and in 1752 it was renamed the Naval Cadet Corps. Today it is the St. Petersburg Naval Institute – Peter the Great Naval Corps.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: The Baltic Fleet began to receive new vessels in 1703. The fleet's first vessel was the 24-gun three-masted frigate "Shtandart." She was the fleet's flagship, and is a prime example of the increasing role of the frigate design.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: During the Great Northern War, the Baltic Fleet assisted in taking Viborg, Tallinn, (Estonia), Riga, (Latvia), the West Estonian archipelago (Moonsund archipelago), Helsinki, (Finland), and Turku. The first claimed victories of the new Imperial Russian Navy were the Gangut (Swedish: Hangöudd) in 1714 and, arguably, the Grengam (Swedish: Ledsund) in 1720. From 1715, the English Royal Navy intervened in the Baltic Sea on behalf of the German principality of Hanover, (dynastic home of the current British monarchy) and more or less in a tacit alliance with Russia.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: During the concluding stages of the war, the Russian fleet would land troops along the Swedish coast to devastate coastal settlements. However, after the death of King Charles XII, the Royal Navy would rather protect Swedish interests after a rapprochement between the Kingdom of Sweden and King George I. A Russian attempt to reach the Swedish capital of Stockholm was checked at the Battle of Stäket in 1719. The losses suffered by the Russian Navy at the Grengam in 1720, as well as the arrival of a Royal Navy squadron under Admiral John Norris, also prevented further operations of any greater scale before the war ended in 1721.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: During the "Seven Years' War", (1756–1763), the Russian Baltic Sea fleet was active on the Pomeranian coast of northern Germany and Prussia, helping the infantry to take Memel in 1757 and Kolberg in 1761. The Oresund was blockaded in order to prevent the British Navy from entering the Baltic sea. During the Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790) the fleet, commanded by Samuel Greig, checked the Swedes at Hogland (1788) and the Viborg (1790). An impetuous Russian attack on the Swedish galley flotilla on 9 July 1790 at the Second Battle of Svensksund resulted in a disaster for the Russian Navy who lost some 9,500 out of 14,000 men and about one third of their flotilla. The Russian defeat in this battle effectively ended the war.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: During the series of Russo-Turkish Wars, (1710–1711, 1735–1739, 1768–1774, 1787–1792, 1806–1812, 1828–1829), the fleet sailed into the Mediterranean Sea on the First and Second Archipelago Expeditions and destroyed the Ottoman Imperial Navy at the sea Battles of Chesma (1770), the Dardanelles (1807), Athos (1807), and Navarino (1827). At about the same time, Russian Admiral Ivan Krusenstern circumnavigated the globe, while another Baltic Fleet officer – Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen – discovered the southern ice-covered continent, Antarctica.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: In the Crimean War, (1853–1856), the fleet – although stymied in its operations by the absence of steamships – prevented the British and French Allies from occupying Hangö, Sveaborg, and Saint Petersburg. Despite being greatly outnumbered by the technologically superior Allies, it was the Russian Fleet that introduced into naval warfare such novelties as torpedo mines, invented by Boris Yakobi. Other outstanding inventors who served in the Baltic Fleet were Alexander Stepanovich Popov (who was the first to demonstrate the practical application of electromagnetic (radio) waves), Stepan Makarov (the first to launch torpedoes from a boat), Alexei Krylov (author of the modern ship floodability theory), and Alexander Mozhaiski (co-inventor of aircraft).


title: Baltic Fleet

text: As early as 1861, the first armor-clad ships were built for the Baltic Fleet. In 1863, during the American Civil War, most of the fleet's ocean-going ships, including the flagship "Alexander Nevsky" were sent to New York City. At the same time ten "Uragan"-class monitors based on the American-designed "Passaic"-class monitors were launched.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: It was the policy of the Tsar and his government to show support for the Northern Union Army in the United States during their Civil War, observing and exchanging naval tactics and cooperation. In 1869, the fleet commissioned the first turret on a battleship in the world – "Petr Veliky". Furthermore, in the second half of the 19th and early 20th Century a strong network of coastal artillery batteries was created to cover the approaches to St. Petersburg, Riga, and other important bases.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: By 1900, decades of modernization on the Baltic as well as the Pacific Fleet made Russia the fourth strongest country in the world in terms of naval forces after the UK, France and Germany, ahead of the US and Japan.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: The Baltic Fleet, re-organized into the Second Pacific Squadron (route around Africa) and the Third Pacific Squadron (Suez route, under the command of Admiral Nebogatov), took a prominent part in the Russo-Japanese War. After the defeat of earlier Siberian Military Flotilla vessels, in September 1904, the Second Squadron under the command of Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky was sent on a high-speed dash around South Africa.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: They stopped in French, German and Portuguese colonial ports: Tangier in Morocco, Dakar in Senegal, Gabon, Baía dos Tigres, Lüderitz Bay, and Nossi Be (Madagascar). They then formed a single fleet under the command of Rozhestvensky with the Third Pacific Fleet, across the Indian Ocean to Cam Ranh Bay in French Indochina and then northward to its doomed encounter with the Japanese fleet at the Battle of Tsushima off the east coast of Korea in May, 1905, ending the Russo-Japanese War.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: The Imperial German civilian passenger Hamburg-Amerika Line provided 60 colliers to supply the Baltic Fleet on its journey. During its passage through the North Sea the fleet mistook a fleet of British fishing boats for Japanese torpedo boats and opened fire, killing three sailors in what is known as the Dogger Bank incident.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: The decision to send the fleet to the Pacific was made after Russia had suffered a string of naval defeats in the East China Sea and the Sea of Japan off the coast of China and Korea near its Far East naval base and colony, at the hands of the newly emergent Imperial Japanese Navy and Army in Manchuria. The one-sided outcome of the Tsushima naval battle broke Russian strength in East Asia. It set the stage for the uprising in the abortive Russian Revolution of 1905. That propelled the decline that would see the Romanov dynasty monarchy eventually brought down with the strains of World War I, in the Russian Revolutions of 1917.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: Following the catastrophic losses in battleships during the Russo-Japanese War, Russia embarked on a new naval building program which was to incorporate a number of the most modern dreadnought-type battleships into the fleet along with other vessels and practices adopted from the Western navies. In late 1914, four dreadnoughts of the "Gangut" class entered service with the fleet: ; ; ; and . Four more powerful battlecruisers of the "Borodino" class were under construction, but were never completed. On the whole the heavy units of the fleet remained in port during the war, as the Imperial German Navy's superiority in battleships and other vessels was overwhelming and it was difficult to communicate with Great Britain's Royal Navy forces further west in the North Sea even though they had the Germans bottled up after the Battle of Jutland in 1916.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: The Imperial Russian Navy's Baltic Fleet included a submarine division that had about 30 submarines of several classes and various auxiliary vessels, the largest of which were the transport and mother ships "Europa", "Tosno", "Khabarovsk", "Oland" and "Svjatitel Nikolai". Some of the fleet's 355-ton submarines were made by Electric Boat Company of Groton, Connecticut in the United States, main supplier and builder of subs for the U.S. Navy. Five of these "AG (Holland)" class submarines were prefabricated by the British Pacific Engineering & Construction Company at Barnet (near Vancouver), in Canada's British Columbia, also under contract to the Electric Boat Company. These Canadian-built subs were shipped to Russia, a fellow Ally in the First World War in December 1915.,


title: Baltic Fleet

text: Four of these submarines, AG 11, AG 12, AG 15 and AG 16 were scuttled in the harbour of Hanko on 3 April 1918, just before the 10,000-strong Imperial German Baltic Sea Division landed in support of the "Whites" forces in the little known Finnish Civil War. During the war the fleet was aided by a detachment of British Royal Navy submarines. These subs were later scuttled by their crews near the Harmaja lighthouse outside Helsinki, Finland, on 4 April 1918.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: During the October Revolution the sailors of the Baltic Fleet (renamed "Naval Forces of the Baltic Sea" in March 1918) were among the most ardent supporters of Bolsheviks, and formed an elite among Red military forces. The fleet was forced to evacuate several of its bases after Russia's withdrawal from the First World War, under the terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The "Ice Cruise" of the Baltic Fleet (1918), led by Alexey Schastny, saw the evacuation of most of the fleet's ships to Kronstadt and Petrograd.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: Some ships of the fleet took part in the Russian Civil War, notably by clashing with the British navy operating in the Baltic as part of intervention forces. Over the years, however, the relations of the Baltic Fleet sailors with the Bolshevik regime soured, and they eventually rebelled against the Soviet government in the Kronstadt rebellion in 1921, but were defeated, and the fleet de facto ceased to exist as an active military unit.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: The fleet, renamed the Red-Banner Baltic Fleet on 11 January 1935, was developed further during the Soviet years, initially relying on tsarist warships, but adding modern units built in Soviet yards from the 1930s onwards. Among the fleet's Soviet commanders were Gordey Levchenko in 1938–39 and Arseniy Golovko in 1952–56. Ships and submarines commissioned to the fleet included Soviet submarine "M-256", a Project 615 short-range attack diesel submarine of the Soviet Navy. The fleet also acquired a large number of ground-based aircraft to form a strong naval aviation force.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: In September 1939, the fleet threatened the Baltic states as part of a series of military actions staged to encourage the Baltics to accept Soviet offers of "mutual assistance." Subsequently, in June 1940, the fleet blockaded the Baltics in support of the Soviet invasion.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: Finland, which had refused to sign a "pact of mutual assistance", was attacked by the USSR. The fleet played a limited role in the Winter War with Finland in 1939–1940, mostly through conducting artillery bombardments of Finnish coastal fortifications. Many fleet aircraft were involved in operations against Finland, however. Its operations came to a close with the freezing of the Gulf of Finland during the exceptionally cold winter of that year.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: In the beginning of the German invasion the Baltic Fleet had 2 battleships (both of World War I vintage), 2 cruisers, 2 flotilla leaders, 19 destroyers, 48 MTBs, 65 submarines and other ships, and 656 aircraft. During the war, the fleet, commanded by the Vice-Admiral Vladimir Tributz, defended the Hanko Peninsula, Tallinn, several islands in Estonian SSR, and participated in the breakthrough breach of the Siege of Leningrad. 137 sailors of the Baltic Fleet were awarded a title of the Hero of the Soviet Union.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: For most of the war the fleet was trapped by German and Finnish minefields in Leningrad and nearby Kronstadt, the only bases left in Soviet hands on the Baltic coast. Another key factor was that the Finns had recaptured outer islands of the Gulf of Finland, Suursaari being the most important of them. Many of the fleet sailors fought on land as infantry during the siege.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: Only submarines could risk the passage into the open sea to strike at German shipping. They were particularly successful towards the end of the war, sinking ships like Wilhelm Gustloff, Steuben and Goya, causing great loss of life.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: During the Immediate post-war period the importance of the Red-Banner Baltic Fleet increased despite the Baltic being a shallow sea with the exits easily becoming choke points by other countries. The Baltic Fleet was increased to two Fleets, the 4th Red-Banner Baltic Fleet and the 8th Red-Banner Baltic Fleet on 15 February 1946. However, during the post-Stalinist period and general reforms and downsizing in the Soviet Armed Forces the two fleets of the Baltic were again reduced, with many vessels, some built before the Revolution, were scrapped, and the fleet was again renamed Red-Banner Baltic Fleet on 24 December 1955.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: In Liepāja the Baltic Fleet's 14th submarine squadron, call sign "Kompleks" ("Комплекс") was stationed with 16 submarines (613, 629a, 651); as was the 6th group of rear supply of Baltic Fleet, and the 81st design bureau and reserve command center of the same force.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: Far from being reduced in importance, operations of the Red-Banner Baltic Fleet during the early-Cold War period earned it a great amount of prestige and profile, with the second awarding of the Order of Red Banner being presented on 7 May 1965 when the fleet was again renamed to Twice Red-Banner Baltic Fleet. Although the Soviet Union poured resources into building up the Northern Fleet and the Pacific Fleet, both of which had easy access to the open ocean, the Twice Red-Banner Baltic Fleet assumed the very important position of supporting the northern flank of the European Theatre in case of a confrontation with NATO.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: This role was under-rated from the blue water navies perspective, but was seen as a highly valuable one from the strategic perspective of the Soviet General Staff planning. The Twice Red-Banner Baltic Fleet remained a powerful force, which in the event of war was tasked with conducting amphibious assaults against the coast of Denmark and Germany, in cooperation with allied Polish and East German naval forces.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: A notable incident involving the fleet occurred in 1975 when a mutiny broke out on the frigate "Storozhevoy". There were also numerous allegations by Sweden of Baltic Fleet submarines illegally penetrating its territorial waters.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: In October 1981 the Soviet Whiskey-class submarine "U 137" ran aground in Swedish territorial waters, near the important naval base of Karlskrona, causing a serious diplomatic incident. Swedish naval vessels pulled the submarine into deeper water and permitted it to return to the Soviet fleet in early November.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: The breakup of the Soviet Union deprived the fleet of key bases in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, leaving Kaliningrad Oblast as the fleet's only ice-free naval outlet to the Baltic Sea. However, the Kaliningrad Oblast between Poland and Lithuania is not contiguous with the rest of the national territory of the Russian Federation.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: In the immediate post-Soviet period, the capabilities of the Baltic Fleet were significantly reduced. From 1991/1992 to 1994/95, vessels in the Baltic Fleet declined from 350 at the beginning of the decade to 109 available vessels. At the same time, with the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact, the formerly allied East German Navy was absorbed by West Germany and the Polish Navy no longer supplemented the strength of the Baltic Fleet.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: Russian Land forces in the region were also sharply reduced. In 1989 3rd Guards Motor Rifle Division at Klaipeda was transferred to the fleet as a coastal defence division. It was disbanded on 1 September 1993. In the late 1990s the 336th Guards Naval Infantry Brigade and the remnant of the 11th Guards Army of the Baltic Military District were subordinated to a single command named the Ground and Coastal Forces of the Baltic Fleet under a deputy fleet commander.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: The 11th Guards Army remnant included the 7th Guards Motor Rifle Regiment and the brigade that was the former 18th Guards Motor Rifle Division, plus several Bases for Storage of Weapons and Equipment, holding enough vehicles and weaponry for a division but only having a few hundred men assigned to maintain the equipment and guard the bases. "warfare.be" listings in 2013 report that the staff of the Ground and Coastal Defence Forces of the fleet may have been disbanded in November 2007. In 2007, according to the IISS, the fleet's aviation units were equipped with a total of 23 Su-27, 26 Su-24, 14 An-12/24/26, 2 An-12 Cub (MR/EW), 11 Mi-24 Hind, 19 Ka-28 Helix, 8 Ka-29 Helix assault helicopters, and 17 Mi-8 Hip transport helicopters. As of 2020, the 18th Guards Motorized Rifle Division was reconstituted, serving within the 13th Army Corps, headquartered in Kaliningrad.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: As of 2008 the Baltic Fleet included about 75 combat ships of various types. The main base is in Baltiysk and a second operational base is in Kronstadt. The Leningrad Naval Base is an administrative entity that is not a discrete geographic location but comprises all of the naval institutions and facilities in the St. Petersburg area.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: During the 2010s renewed emphasis was placed on modernizing Russian naval capabilities. In the Baltic, this process has proceeded slowly though there has been particular emphasis on acquiring new light units. New corvettes (of the Steregushchiy, Buyan-M and Karakurt classes) have been incrementally added to the fleet with additional vessels from the Karakurt, and potentially the Steregushchiy-class, anticipated in the 2020s - though not necessarily at a rate that will be sufficient to replace the fleet's older Soviet-era corvettes and missile boats on a one-for-one basis. Nevertheless, utilizing Russia's internal waterways, additional cruise missile-armed light units, drawn from Russia's other Western fleets or from the Caspian Flotilla, have the capacity to reinforce the Baltic Fleet as may be needed. A further aspect of modernization has focused on the build-up of Russian shore-based anti-ship and air defence capabilities in the Kaliningrad region.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: In contrast to the three other Russian fleets, the Baltic Fleet's submarine capabilities are extremely modest with just one older Kilo-class boat deployed in 2020, largely for training purposes. Nevertheless, a strengthening of these capabilities in the 2020s was being considered with various options (including both Improved Kilos and/or new Lada-class submarines) apparently on the table.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: Training and readiness levels have also been emphasized to be of key importance. In June 2016, fleet commander Vice Admiral Viktor Kravchuk and his chief of staff, Vice Admiral Sergei Popov, were dismissed for "serious training shortcomings and distortion of the real situation". N. G. Kuznetsov Naval Academy commander Vice Admiral Alexander Nosatov was made acting commander of the fleet, a position in which he was confirmed on 17 September.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: Analysis undertaken by Anders Nielsen of the Royal Danish Defence College in 2019 concludes that the Russian Baltic Fleet is oriented to contributing to Russian global deployment and expeditionary operations in peacetime. However, it is also the smallest of the Russian Navy's four principal fleets (in terms of surface warships and submarines combined) and therefore, due to its limited strength, would play primarily a defensive role in the Baltic Sea in most conflict or wartime scenarios.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: On Russia's "Navy Day" on July 31, 2022, President Putin reportedly indicated that the Baltic Fleet was to be prioritized for modernization in the coming years. The pending entry of Sweden and Finland into NATO - in response to Russia's invasion of Ukraine - would significantly strengthen NATO naval forces in the Baltic, particularly taking into account the strength of the Swedish Navy's submarine fleet. Russian commentators suggested that a modernization and expansion of Russian submarine forces in the Baltic would therefore likely be a priority in the coming years.


title: Baltic Fleet

text: The Baltic Fleet is subordinate to Russia's Western Military District (headquartered in St. Petersburg) which also incorporates Russia's strongest ground and air formations. The Kaliningrad region serves as the principal base area for the Baltic Fleet and therefore hosts significant land and air forces, both to defend Kaliningrad and to extend Russian shore-based air and sea denial capabilities (A2/AD) into the Baltic Sea and region.


title: Amanda Lepore

text: Amanda Lepore is an American model, singer, and performance artist. A former Club Kid, she has appeared in advertising for numerous companies. Lepore is noted as a regular subject in photographer David LaChapelle's work, serving as his muse, as well as many other photographers, such as Terry Richardson and Ruben van Schalm. She participated in LaChapelle's "Artists and Prostitutes 1985–2005" exhibit in New York City, where she "lived" in a voyeuristic life-sized set.


title: Amanda Lepore

text: Lepore has released several singles, many written by and/or recorded with Cazwell. In 2011, she released her debut studio album, "I...Amanda Lepore", on Peace Bisquit.


title: Amanda Lepore

text: Amanda grew up in the Essex County community of Cedar Grove, New Jersey, with one sibling, an older brother. Her father was an Italian-American chemical engineer, and her mother was a German-American housewife. Her mother had schizophrenia and spent much time in mental institutions. Lepore later wrote that "Ever since I can first remember, I knew I was a girl. I couldn't understand why my parents were dressing me up in boys' clothing. I thought they were insane."


title: Amanda Lepore

text: When she was 15-years old, Lepore befriended a transgender dancer named Bambi. Lepore then started making costumes for Bambi in exchange for female hormones. Having already grown isolated from her peers and schooling, her parents withdrew her from public school and hired a private tutor. They also took her to a psychologist, who helped her obtain a prescription to begin hormone therapy.


title: Amanda Lepore

text: At the age of 17, and through a legal loophole, Lepore married a male bookstore owner. She was granted permission for gender affirmation surgery, which she had at age 19 in Yonkers, New York. Lepore later left her husband. In 1989, she relocated to New York City.


title: Amanda Lepore

text: In the early 1990s, Lepore tried to establish herself as a nightlife figure (including being a member of the Club Kids). She supported herself by working in a nail salon, as a dominatrix, and later as a cosmetics salesgirl for Patricia Field. After meeting photographer David LaChapelle one evening while hosting at Bowery Bar, she began collaborating with him.


title: Amanda Lepore

text: Lepore has appeared in fashion magazines, including "French Playboy", "Ponytail", "DAMn" and "TUSH". She is on the cover of Lords of Acid's 1999 album "Expand Your Head" and on Thighpaulsandra's 2006 album "The Lepore Extrusion".


title: Amanda Lepore

text: Because of her association with the Club Kids, Lepore had a cameo in the documentary "" (1998) and the feature film "Party Monster" (2003). She can be seen briefly in the fashion spoof comedy "Zoolander" (2001). She was featured in the documentary "Dig!" (2004) and in "Another Gay Sequel" (2008). In 2016, Lepore had a major role in "José André Sibaja"'s film "The Zanctuary", where she played a drug dealer called Miss Divine. Other cast members included Joey Arias and Sophia Lamar, with whom she also appeared in 2018 documentary "I Hate New York" from Spanish director Gustavo Sanchez.


title: Amanda Lepore

text: Lepore has had cameos in music videos for artists including Elton John, Thalía, The Dandy Warhols, Girl in a Coma, Grace Jones, Keanan Duffty, Sharon Needles, TIGA (for his cover of "Sunglasses at Night"), and the alt rock band The Drums (for "Days"). Lepore appears in many of Cazwell's music videos, including "Watch my Mouth" and "All Over Your Face".


title: Amanda Lepore

text: On April 18, 2017, Lepore released her autobiography, "Doll Parts". It was co-written with Thomas Flannery Jr. and published through Regan Arts. The book features numerous pictures of Amanda by photographers such as David LaChapelle, Tina Paul, Josef Jasso, Rob Lebow (who photographed the cover), and Joey Falsetta.


title: Amanda Lepore

text: Lepore's first single, "Deeper," was a 2003 trance dance song written by Wigstock drag queen Lady Bunny.


title: Amanda Lepore

text: In 2005, Lepore released her first album, "Introducing... Amanda Lepore", which contained "Champagne" and "My Hair Looks Fierce". In 2007, she released two remix albums, "Fierce Pussy" and "My Pussy E.P." Lepore performed the main title for "Another Gay Movie", "I Know What Boys Like" and "Cotton Candy" from the soundtrack of "Another Gay Sequel".


title: Amanda Lepore

text: Lepore was a part of True Colors Tour 2007, a 15-city North American benefit tour sponsored by the Logo channel, hosted by comedian Margaret Cho and headlined by Cyndi Lauper. The tour benefited the Human Rights Campaign, PFLAG and the Matthew Shepard Foundation, and it included Erasure, Debbie Harry, The Gossip, Rufus Wainwright, The Dresden Dolls, The MisShapes, Rosie O'Donnell, Indigo Girls, The Cliks, and other special guests. In 2009, Lepore performed at the Majestic Theatre during Metro Pride Fest in Detroit with The Divas of the Majestic: A Divine Lites Productions and Founder, Electra Lites.


title: Amanda Lepore

text: In June 2011, Lepore released her full-length album "I...Amanda Lepore" at the Highline Ballroom with Cazwell, Kat Deluna, Neon Hitch, Ana Matronic, Jonté, and many others. Her debut full-length album "I...Amanda Lepore" was released in 2011 on Peace Bisquit.


title: Amanda Lepore

text: In 2013, her version of the Marilyn Monroe song "I Wanna Be Loved by You" was released through Peace Bisquit.


title: Amanda Lepore

text: In 2014, Lepore was featured on drag performer Sharon Needles' single, "I Wish I Were Amanda Lepore", and she guest starred in the music video for the track, depicting Needles as a fan obsessed with getting plastic surgery to look like her.


title: Amanda Lepore

text: In 2015, she collaborated with Alek Sandar in his song "P.O.R.N.", even appearing in the cover of the single and in the music video.


title: Amanda Lepore

text: On July 31, 2015, she released the remix album "I... Amanda Lepore – Make over sessions". This album included 2 digital CDs that contained remixes of her first studio album "I... Amanda Lepore", released four years prior.


title: Amanda Lepore

text: On December 8, 2017, the song "Buckle Up" was released from her forthcoming EP "Lepore.", which was released on February 16, 2018. The EP contained four new songs: "Buckle Up", "My Panties", "The Jean Genie", and "Too Drunk to Fuck".


title: Amanda Lepore

text: In October 1999, Swatch released "Time Tranny", a watch designed by LaChapelle with Lepore on the face, which displays a printed crack on the glass and marble stripes as the background. A second version displays no cracked glass and a blue and yellow striped background.


title: Amanda Lepore

text: In April 2006, Integrity Toys launched an Amanda Lepore doll produced by Jason Wu as a benefit for AIDS charities.


title: Amanda Lepore

text: Lepore has a line of cosmetics in partnership with CAMP Cosmetics, called "Collection Lepore", as well as a signature perfume.


title: In the End

text: "In the End" is a song by American rock band Linkin Park. It is the eighth track on their debut album, "Hybrid Theory" (2000), and was released as the album's fourth and final single.


title: In the End

text: "In the End" received positive reviews by music critics, with most reviewers complimenting the song's signature piano riff, as well as noting rapper Mike Shinoda's vocal prominence in the song. "In the End" also achieved mainstream popularity, and was a commercial success upon release. The song reached the top ten on numerous worldwide music charts and reached number two on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, the band's highest peak on the chart, as well as their first song that peaked within the top 40 in early 2002, making it a sleeper hit. It also reached number one on the Z100 top 100 songs of 2002 countdown. It ranked at number 121 in "Blender" magazine's "The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born". In June 2021, it became the first nu metal song to surpass one billion streams on Spotify.


title: In the End

text: "In the End" has become one of Linkin Park's most recognizable hits and is considered their signature song. Chester Bennington, the band's lead vocalist, initially disliked the song and did not want it to be included on "Hybrid Theory." It was remixed on "Reanimation" as "Enth E ND". The music video of the song, directed by Nathan Cox and the band's turntablist Joe Hahn, featured the band in a fantasy setting.


title: In the End

text: Ahead of the release for the 20th anniversary reissue for "Hybrid Theory", Linkin Park released a demo version of "In the End" as the second single from the re-release of "Hybrid Theory" on October 1, 2020.


title: In the End

text: "In the End" was shipped to radio on September 11 as a single on October 9, 2001. The single CD was released as a "Part 1" single and a "Part 2" single. They differed in tracks and cover color: the "Part 1" cover is yellow and the "Part 2" cover is red. A DVD version of "In the End" was also released which includes an audio version of "In the End", "Crawling" music video and four 30 seconds interviews.


title: In the End

text: On March 27, 2002, the single was released in Japan as a 7-track CD called "In the End: Live & Rare". It contains live tracks of "Papercut", "Points of Authority" and "A Place for My Head", "Step Up" (originally by the early Linkin Park precursor "Hybrid Theory" that appeared on "Hybrid Theory EP"), "My December" and "High Voltage".


title: In the End

text: The music video for "In the End" was shot at various stops along the 2001 Ozzfest tour and was directed by Nathan Cox and the band's DJ Joe Hahn, who would go on to direct many of Linkin Park's future videos (the two also directed the music video for "Papercut"). Although the background for the "In the End" video was filmed in a California desert, the band itself performed on a studio stage in Los Angeles, with prominent CGI effects and compositing being used to create the finished version. Performing on a studio stage allowed Hahn and Cox to set off water pipes above the stage near the end and drench the band.


title: In the End

text: The music video takes place in a fantasy setting and uses massive CGI animation. The band performs atop a giant statue that looks to be Egyptian, which has a 'winged soldier' on top of it, which is similar-looking to the 'winged soldier' on the cover artwork of Linkin Park's "Hybrid Theory" album.


title: In the End

text: The portions where Mike Shinoda raps take place first in a wasteland with thorny vines sprouting out of the ground, surrounding him and shattering into dust, (first verse) and then grass and plants sprouting up around him (second verse). During the time Mike raps his verses, Chester stands atop a platform with gargoyles on the edges. This platform is in front of a door in the shape of a trapezoid. Near the end of the video, the skies turn dark and it begins to rain, and the band performs in the downpour until the end of the song, where the rain stops and the camera pans away from the tower, showing the wasteland where Shinoda had rapped in is now a lush Greenland. During the rain the statues on the tower begin to move. Mike Shinoda has mentioned that "Princess Mononoke" inspired the music video.


title: In the End

text: The video was co-directed by Nathan "Karma" Cox and LP's turntablist Joe Hahn (who have also directed the videos for "Pts.OF.Athrty", "Papercut", "What I've Done", "Bleed It Out", "Shadow of the Day", and "Leave Out All the Rest"). The production design was by Patrick Tatopoulos who helped design and oversee the production of the non-CGI set. It won the "Best Rock Video" and was nominated for Video of the Year at the 2002 MTV Video Music Awards.


title: In the End

text: The video has over 1.4 billion views on YouTube as of August 2022; this is their second music video that reached a billion views next to "Numb". The video was uploaded twice by Linkin Park's YouTube channel. The video was first uploaded on March 4, 2007, in 240p format. The video was later re-uploaded on October 26, 2009, in 360p format. It was also reuploaded on the same day by the Warner Bros. Records YouTube channel in 480p format. The video was shot in , and copies available on Linkin Park's (only first upload) and Warner Records YouTube channels are in 4:3 letterboxed format. Second reupload on Linkin Park's YouTube channel is in native 16:9 aspect ratio. Upon the release of the 20th Anniversary Box set for Hybrid Theory, the video was then upgraded to HD quality.


title: In the End

text: "In the End" received positive reviews by contemporary rock music critics. VH1 ranked it number 84 on its list of the 100 Greatest Songs of the '00s. The song was also ranked number two by "Loudwire" on its list of "Top 21st century Hard Rock songs". At "Stylus" magazine, it was highlighted as a "nu metal classic". At "Kerrang!", it was included as part of "The Ultimate Nu Metal Mixtape". "NME", however, was more critical of the song, calling it "...another slab of gormless MTV rap rock from the bottom of the food chain."


title: In the End

text: In 2015, the song was named as the best rock song in "Kerrang!"s Rock 100 list followed by the band's 2014 single "Final Masquerade". In the wake of Bennington's passing in 2017, "Billboard" named "In the End" as the best Linkin Park song and labelled it as one of the best pop songs of the 21st century. In the same year, it was listed as the 133rd best alternative rock hit of all-time by "Consequence".


title: In the End

text: "In the End" is Linkin Park's highest-charting single in the US, debuting at number 78 and peaking at number two on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart in March 2002 and being kept off the top spot by "Ain't It Funny" by Jennifer Lopez and Ja Rule. It stayed on the chart a total of 38 weeks. It reached number one on the Modern Rock Tracks chart for five weeks, starting in December 2001, becoming their first hit on this chart. It has spent 44 weeks there, becoming their longest running on that chart and it also hit number three on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart spending 40 weeks on the chart, their second longest after "One Step Closer" at 42 weeks. It also reached number one on the Pop Songs chart for five weeks also and it stayed on the chart for 27 weeks. "In the End" was the seventh best performing single on the "Billboard" Hot 100 during 2002, and was the second best performing rock song and alternative song of the decade on the Alternative Songs chart and the Rock Songs chart only behind Trapt's "Headstrong" and Nickelback's "How You Remind Me" respectively. As of June 2014, the single has sold 2,555,000 copies in the United States.


title: In the End

text: "In the End" reached the top five on the Canadian BDS Airplay chart and remained in the top five for another month. "In the End" debuted higher on the Canadian Hot 100 than it did in the US and peaked at number one three weeks later for two weeks. It peaked higher in Canada than "Papercut".


title: In the End

text: The song was released in Australia, Europe and New Zealand on December 22, 2001. "One Step Closer", "Papercut" and "Crawling" reached the UK top 20, while "In the End" reached the top 10. "In the End" continued the trend of higher-charting singles when it debuted and peaked at number eight. It remained in the top 100 of the chart for 20 non-consecutive weeks.


title: In the End

text: "In the End" debuted at number 44 on December 2, 2001, on the ARIA Charts. It steadily rose to peak at number four on February 10, 2002. It is currently the second most successful song for the band in Australia, tied with "One Step Closer" and behind "New Divide". In the week starting July 30, 2017, the single re-entered the charts, at number 10, more than 15 years since the song last appeared in the top 50, following the death of lead singer Chester Bennington.


title: In the End

text: "In the End" reached the top 30 in Switzerland and the top 20 in the Netherlands, Ireland, Germany, Belgium and New Zealand. It is also their first single to chart in France, peaking initially at number 40 and remaining in the chart for 17 weeks. But after the suicide of Chester Bennington in July 2017, the song charted at number 23 for one week. Similarly, it also re-entered the UK chart at number 14 on week starting July 30, 2017.


title: In the End

text: The song was remixed with Izzo (H.O.V.A.) by hip hop artist Jay-Z on their collaborative extended play, Collision Course, and doesn't use the beat of either song.


title: In the End

text: A remix of "In the End", titled "Enth E ND", is included on their remix album "Reanimation". The song features hip hop artists Motion Man and KutMasta Kurt. Opposed from the song being a remix, the song also differs with altered lyrics. The song was released as a promotional single with "FRGT/10".


title: In the End

text: The music video was directed by Jason Goldwatch. It starts off in black and white with someone picking up headphones, interrupted by an image – Mike Shinoda in a car, a flashing image with the letters "LP" written on it, and a TV screen. KutMasta Kurt is shown DJing, then Motion Man is seen in a car, rapping. The camera goes to Mike Shinoda and the video is now in color. The video zooms out to a small screen, then the video becomes black and white again. Mike Shinoda is seen driving a car with KurtMasta Kurt and Motion Man. The video shows the screen again and Mike is seen in color, then becomes black and white again. Mike Shinoda and Motion Man are seen bouncing their heads on screen, then seen driving again. Images flash and Motion Man is seen rapping once again. Random clips are played and Mike Shinoda is once again seen driving, holding a small wired camera.


title: In the End

text: The Memphis rap group Three Six Mafia sampled this song on their 2001 song "Smoke Dat Weed" and it is featured on Juicy J's 2002 album Chronicles of the Juice Man.


title: In the End

text: In 2017, producer Markus Schulz made a trance remix of "In the End" as a tribute to Chester Bennington after the latter's death, which he debuted at Tomorrowland.


title: In the End

text: In 2018, Tommee Profitt produced a cover of "In the End" sung by Fleurie and Jung Youth. It was used in the first season's fifth episode of Legacies.


The 2021–22 UEFA Champions League group stage began on 14 September 2021 and ended on 9 December 2021. A total of 32 teams competed in the group stage to decide the 16 places in the knockout phase of the 2021–22 UEFA Champions League.


title: 2021–22 UEFA Champions League group stage

text: Sheriff Tiraspol made their debut appearance in the group stage. They were the first team from Moldova to play in the Champions League group stage.


text: The draw for the group stage was held on 26 August 2021, 18:00 CEST (19:00 TRT), in Istanbul, Turkey. The 32 teams were drawn into eight groups of four. For the draw, the teams were seeded into four pots, each of eight teams, based on the following principles:


text: Teams from the same association, and due to political reasons, teams from Ukraine and Russia, could not be drawn into the same group. Prior to the draw, UEFA formed pairings of teams from the same association (one pairing for associations with two or three teams, two pairings for associations with four or five teams) based on television audiences, where one team was drawn into Groups A–D and another team was drawn into Groups E–H, so that the two teams would play on different days. The following pairings were announced by UEFA after the group stage teams were confirmed:


text: On each matchday, one set of four groups played their matches on Tuesday, while the other set of four groups played their matches on Wednesday, with the two sets of groups alternating between each matchday. The fixtures were decided after the draw, using a computer draw not shown to public. Each team would not play more than two home matches or two away matches in a row, and would play one home match and one away match on the first and last matchdays (Regulations Article 16.02). This arrangement was different from previous seasons, where the same two teams would play at home on the first and last matchdays.


text: Below are the participating teams (with their 2021 UEFA club coefficients), grouped by their seeding pot. They include:


text: In each group, teams played against each other home-and-away in a round-robin format. The top two teams of each group advanced to the round of 16. The third-placed teams were transferred to the Europa League knockout round play-offs, while the fourth-placed teams were eliminated from European competitions for the season.


text: Teams were ranked according to points (3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw, 0 points for a loss). If two or more teams were tied on points, the following tiebreaking criteria were applied, in the order given, to determine the rankings (see Article 17 Equality of points – group stage, Regulations of the UEFA Champions League):


text: Due to the abolition of the away goals rule, head-to-head away goals were no longer applied as a tiebreaker starting from this season. However, total away goals were still applied as a tiebreaker.


text: The fixtures were announced on 27 August 2021, the day after the draw. The matches were played on 14–15 September, 28–29 September, 19–20 October, 2–3 November, 23–24 November, and 7–8 December 2021. The scheduled kick-off times were 18:45 (two matches on each day) and 21:00 (remaining six matches) CET/CEST.


title: Roman von Ungern-Sternberg

text: Nikolai Robert Maximilian Freiherr von Ungern-Sternberg (; 10 January 1886 – 15 September 1921), often referred to as Roman von Ungern-Sternberg or Baron Ungern, was an anticommunist general in the Russian Civil War and then an independent warlord who intervened in Mongolia against China. A part of the Russian Empire's Baltic German minority, Ungern was an ultraconservative monarchist who aspired to restore the Russian monarchy after the 1917 Russian Revolutions and to revive the Mongol Empire under the rule of the Bogd Khan. His attraction to Vajrayana Buddhism and his eccentric, often violent, treatment of enemies and his own men earned him the sobriquet "the Mad Baron" or "the Bloody Baron".