title: Other specified dissociative disorder

text: OSDD-1 is diagnosed when a person is experiencing sub-threshold dissociative identity disorder (DID).


title: Other specified dissociative disorder

text: The DSM states that "This category includes identity disturbance associated with less-than-marked discontinuities in sense of self and agency, or alterations of identity or episodes of possession in an individual who reports no dissociative amnesia".


title: Other specified dissociative disorder

text: OSDD-2 describes a dissociative identity disturbance caused by "prolonged and intense coercive persuasion". The DSM gives the examples of "brainwashing, thought reform, indoctrination while captive, torture, long-term political imprisonment, recruitment by sects/cults or by terror organizations." People with OSDD-2, as a result, experience distressing changes to and/or questioning of their identity.


title: Other specified dissociative disorder

text: OSDD-3 is diagnosed when a person experiences acute dissociative reactions to stressful events. These reactions last anywhere from a few hours to weeks, but typically less than a month. The dissociative conditions are characterised by "constriction of consciousness", including "depersonalization; derealization; perceptual disturbances (e.g., time slowing, macropsia); micro-amnesias; transient stupor; and/or alterations in sensory-motor functioning (e.g., analgesia, paralysis)."


title: Other specified dissociative disorder

text: OSDD-4 is characterised by a dissociative trance; "an acute narrowing or complete loss of awareness of immediate surroundings that manifests as profound unresponsiveness or insensitivity to environmental stimuli." The DSM specifies that "The dissociative trance is not a normal part of a broadly accepted collective cultural or religious practice".


title: Cavalier

text: The term Cavalier () was first used by Roundheads as a term of abuse for the wealthier royalist supporters of King Charles I and his son Charles II of England during the English Civil War, the Interregnum, and the Restoration (1642 – ). It was later adopted by the Royalists themselves. Although it referred originally to political and social attitudes and behaviour, of which clothing was a very small part, it has subsequently become strongly identified with the fashionable clothing of the court at the time. Prince Rupert, commander of much of Charles I's cavalry, is often considered to be an archetypal Cavalier.


title: Cavalier

text: Cavalier derives from the same Latin root as the Italian word and the French word (as well as the Spanish word ), the Vulgar Latin word "caballarius", meaning 'horseman'. Shakespeare used the word "cavaleros" to describe an overbearing swashbuckler or swaggering gallant in Henry IV, Part 2 (c. 1596–1599), in which Robert Shallow says "I'll drink to Master Bardolph, and to all the cavaleros about London". Shallow returns in "The Merry Wives of Windsor" (c. 1597), where he is called "Cavaleiro-justice" (knightly judge) and "bully-rook", a term meaning "blustering cheat".


title: Cavalier

text: "Cavalier" is chiefly associated with the Royalist supporters of King Charles I in his struggle with Parliament in the English Civil War. It first appears as a term of reproach and contempt, applied to the followers of King Charles I in June 1642:


title: Cavalier

text: Charles, in the Answer to the Petition 13 June 1642, speaks of Cavaliers as a "word by what mistake soever it seemes much in disfavour". It was soon reappropriated as a title of honour by the king's party, who in return applied Roundhead to their opponents. At the Restoration, the court party preserved the name, which survived until the rise of the term Tory.


title: Cavalier

text: Cavalier was not understood at the time as primarily a term describing a style of dress, but a whole political and social attitude. However, in modern times the word has become more particularly associated with the court fashions of the period, which included long flowing hair in ringlets, brightly coloured clothing with elaborate trimmings and lace collars and cuffs, and plumed hats. This contrasted with the dress of at least the most extreme Roundhead supporters of Parliament, with their preference for shorter hair and plainer dress, although neither side conformed to the stereotypical images entirely.


title: Cavalier

text: Most Parliamentarian generals wore their hair at much the same length as their Royalist counterparts, though Cromwell was something of an exception. The best patrons in the nobility of Charles I's court painter Sir Anthony van Dyck, the archetypal recorder of the Cavalier image, all took the Parliamentary side in the Civil War. Probably the most famous image identified as of a "cavalier", Frans Hals' "Laughing Cavalier", shows a gentleman from the strongly Calvinist Dutch town of Haarlem, and is dated 1624. These derogatory terms (for at the time they were so intended) also showed what the typical Parliamentarian thought of the Royalist side – capricious men who cared more for vanity than the nation at large.


title: Cavalier

text: The chaplain to King Charles I, Edward Simmons described a Cavalier as "a Child of Honour, a Gentleman well borne and bred, that loves his king for conscience sake, of a clearer countenance, and bolder look than other men, because of a more loyal Heart". There were many men in the Royalist armies who fit this description since most of the Royalist field officers were typically in their early thirties, married with rural estates which had to be managed. Although they did not share the same outlook on how to worship God as the English Independents of the New Model Army, God was often central to their lives. This type of Cavalier was personified by Jacob Astley, 1st Baron Astley of Reading, whose prayer at the start of the Battle of Edgehill has become famous "O Lord, Thou knowest how busy I must be this day. If I forget Thee, do not forget me".


title: Cavalier

text: At the end of the First Civil War, Astley gave his word that he would not take up arms again against Parliament and having given his word he felt duty bound to refuse to help the Royalist cause in the Second Civil War; however, the word was coined by the Roundheads as a pejorative propaganda image of a licentious, hard drinking and frivolous man, who rarely, if ever, thought of God. It is this image which has survived and many Royalists, for example Henry Wilmot, 1st Earl of Rochester, fitted this description to a tee. Of another Cavalier, George Goring, Lord Goring, a general in the Royalist army, the principal advisor to Charles II, Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, said:


title: Cavalier

text: This sense has developed into the modern English use of "cavalier" to describe a recklessly nonchalant attitude, although still with a suggestion of stylishness. Cavalier remained in use as a description for members of the party that supported the monarchy up until the Exclusion Crisis of 1678–1681 when the term was superseded by "Tory" which was another term initially with pejorative connotations. Likewise, during the Exclusion Bill crisis, the term Roundhead was replaced with "Whig", a term introduced by the opponents of the Whigs and also was initially a pejorative term.


title: Cavalier

text: An example of the Cavalier style can be seen in the painting "Charles I, King of England, from Three Angles" by Anthony van Dyck.


title: Project Tiger

text: Project Tiger is a tiger conservation programme launched in April 1973 by the Government of India during Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's tenure. The project aims at ensuring a viable population of the Bengal tiger in its natural habitats, protecting it from extinction, and preserving areas of biological importance as a natural heritage that represent the diversity of ecosystems across the tiger's range in the country. The project's task force visualised these tiger reserves as breeding nuclei, from which surplus animals would migrate to adjacent forests. Funds and commitment were mustered to support the intensive program of habitat protection and rehabilitation under the project.


title: Project Tiger

text: During the tiger census of 2006, a new methodology was used extrapolating site-specific densities of tigers, their co-predators and prey derived from camera trap and sign surveys using GIS. Based on the result of these surveys, the total tiger population was estimated at 1,411 individuals ranging from 1,165 to 1,657 adult and sub-adult tigers of more than 1.5 years of age. It was claimed that owing to the project, the number of tigers increased to 2,603–3,346 individuals by 2018.


title: Project Tiger

text: In a testimony to the success of Project Tiger, in 2022, 54th tiger reserve in India was declared in Ranipur Wildlife Sanctuary, Uttar Pradesh, being the State’s fourth tiger reserve.


title: Project Tiger

text: The monitoring system M-STrIPES was developed to assist patrol and protect tiger habitats. It maps patrol routes and allows forest guards to enter sightings, events and changes when patrolling. It generates protocols based on these data, so that management decisions can be adapted.


title: Project Tiger

text: Project Tiger was administered by the National Tiger Conservation Authority. The overall administration of the project is monitored by a steering committee, which is headed by a director. A field director is appointed for each reserve, who is assisted by a group of field and technical personnel.


title: Project Tiger

text: By the late 1980s, the initial nine reserves covering an area of had been increased to 15 reserves covering an area of . More than 1100 tigers were estimated to inhabit the reserves by 1984. By 1997, 23 tiger reserves encompassed an area of , but the fate of tiger habitat outside the reserves was precarious, due to pressure on habitat, incessant poaching and large-scale development projects such as dams, industry, and mines.


title: Project Tiger

text: Wireless communication systems and outstation patrol camps have been developed within the tiger reserves, due to which poaching has declined considerably. Fire protection is effectively done by suitable preventive and control measures. Voluntary Village relocation has been done in many reserves, especially from the core area. Livestock grazing has been controlled to a great extent in the tiger reserves. Various compensatory developmental works have improved the water regime and the ground and field level vegetation, thereby increasing the animal density. Research data about vegetation changes are also available from many reserves. Plans include the use of advanced information and communication technology in wildlife protection and crime management in tiger reserves, GIS-based digitized database development, and devising a new tiger habitat and population evaluation system.


title: Project Tiger

text: Project Tiger's efforts were hampered by poaching, as well as debacles and irregularities in Sariska and Namdapha, both of which were reported extensively in the Indian media. The Forest Rights Act passed by the Indian government in 2006 recognizes the rights of some forest dwelling communities in forest areas. This has led to controversy over implications of such recognition for tiger conservation. Some have argued that this is problematic as it will increase conflict and opportunities for poaching; some also assert that "tigers and humans cannot co-exist". Others argue that this is a limited perspective that overlooks the reality of human-tiger coexistence and the abuse of power by authorities, evicting local people and making them pariahs in their own traditional lands rather than allowing them a proper role in decision-making, in the tiger crisis. The latter position was supported by the Government of India's Tiger Task Force, and is also taken by some forest dwellers' organizations.


title: Ray Stevens

text: Harold Ray Ragsdale (born January 24, 1939), known professionally as Ray Stevens, is an American country and pop singer-songwriter and comedian, known for his Grammy-winning recordings "Everything Is Beautiful" and "Misty", as well as novelty hits such as "Gitarzan" and "The Streak". Stevens has received gold albums for his music sales. He has worked as a producer, music arranger, and television host. Stevens is also an inductee of the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame, the Georgia Music Hall of Fame, the Christian Music Hall of Fame, and the Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum.


title: Ray Stevens

text: Harold Ray Ragsdale was born on January 24, 1939, in Clarkdale, Georgia. He is the elder of two sons born to Willis Harold Ragsdale (1915–2001) and Frances Stephens Ragsdale (1916–97). He has a younger brother, John, who was an actor and writer. John died in 2020 at the age of 75. While attending high school, Stevens formed his first band, a rhythm and blues group named The Barons. Following his graduation, Stevens enrolled in Georgia State University as a music major.


title: Ray Stevens

text: At 18, Stevens signed to Capitol Records' Prep Records division in 1957, and produced the single "Silver Bracelet", with a cover of "Rang Tang Ding Dong" as the B-side. The single was met with a positive review from "Billboard". The B-side was originally recorded by doo-wop group The Cellos in 1956.


title: Ray Stevens

text: In the 1970s, Stevens became a producer and studio musician in Nashville. He recorded songs for Barnaby Records and Warner Brothers during 1970–79. Stevens' biggest hit in the U.S. was his gospel-inflected single "Everything Is Beautiful" (1970). The single won a Grammy Award, was the theme song for his summer 1970 TV show, hit number one on both the pop and Adult-Contemporary charts, and marked his first time in the Top 40 on the country charts, peaking at number 39. It sold over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc.


title: Ray Stevens

text: Stevens had a transatlantic chart-topping hit in 1974 with "The Streak," a novelty song about streaking that reached number one on the American and British singles charts.


title: Ray Stevens

text: Through the late 1970s and early 1980s, with some exceptions (such as "Shriner's Convention" in 1981), Stevens focused mostly on serious material, as he felt that the novelty song was becoming less popular in the era. Stevens had an adult contemporary crossover hit in 1979 with "I Need Your Help Barry Manilow," a cut from Stevens's Barry Manilow tribute/parody album "The Feeling's Not Right Again".


title: Ray Stevens

text: Stevens then joined MCA in 1984. Feeling that novelty songs were becoming popular again, he authorized the rush release of "Mississippi Squirrel Revival" in 1984, which reached the country top 20. In 1985 he performed at the Lanierland Music Park in Georgia with Pinkard & Bowden.


title: Ray Stevens

text: In April 2010, Stevens released "We the People", a CD/DVD of political songs. This album reached Top-5 on the "Billboard" Comedy Album chart.


title: Ray Stevens

text: "RAY-ality TV" ended its digital TV run in January 2014. In March 2014, a webisode series, also titled "Rayality TV" was launched. In 2014, Stevens co-starred in the movie "Campin' Buddies".


title: Ray Stevens

text: Stevens released the album "Here We Go Again" on March 24, 2015, which includes the Taylor Swift spoof single "Taylor Swift is Stalking Me" and "Come to the USA".


title: Ray Stevens

text: Stevens was married to Penny Jackson Ragsdale for over 60 years, until her death on December 31, 2021, from a lengthy battle with cancer. Two days prior, he had canceled his New Year's Eve concert at CabaRay, due to her rapidly declining health. They had two children and four grandchildren.


title: Olympic National Park

text: Olympic National Park is a United States national park located in the State of Washington, on the Olympic Peninsula. The park has four regions: the Pacific coastline, alpine areas, the west-side temperate rainforest, and the forests of the drier east side. Within the park there are three distinct ecosystems, including subalpine forest and wildflower meadow, temperate forest, and the rugged Pacific coast.


title: Olympic National Park

text: President Theodore Roosevelt originally designated the park as Mount Olympus National Monument on March 2, 1909. The monument was re-designated a national park by Congress and President Franklin D. Roosevelt on June 29, 1938. In 1976, Olympic National Park was designated by UNESCO as an International Biosphere Reserve, and in 1981 as a World Heritage Site. In 1988, Congress designated 95 percent of the park () as the Olympic Wilderness, which was renamed Daniel J. Evans Wilderness in honor of Governor and U.S. Senator Daniel J. Evans in 2017. During his tenure in the Senate, Evans co-sponsored the 1988 bill that created the state's wilderness areas. It is the largest wilderness area in Washington.


title: Olympic National Park

text: The coastal portion of the park is a rugged, sandy beach along with a strip of adjacent forest. It is long but just a few miles wide, with native communities at the mouths of two rivers. The Hoh River has the Hoh people and at the town of La Push at the mouth of the Quileute River live the Quileute.


title: Olympic National Park

text: The beach has unbroken stretches of wilderness ranging from . While some beaches are primarily sand, others are covered with heavy rock and very large boulders. Bushy overgrowth, slippery footing, tides, and misty rainforest weather all hinder foot travel. The coastal strip is more readily accessible than the interior of the Olympics; due to the difficult terrain, very few backpackers venture beyond casual day-hiking distances.


title: Olympic National Park

text: The most popular piece of the coastal strip is the Ozette Loop. The Park Service runs a registration and reservation program to control the usage levels of this area. From the trailhead at Ozette Lake, a leg of the trail is a boardwalk-enhanced path through near primal coastal cedar swamp. Arriving at the ocean, it is a 3-mile walk supplemented by headland trails for high tides. This area has traditionally been favored by the Makah from Neah Bay. The third 3-mile leg is enabled by a boardwalk which has enhanced the loop's visitor numbers.


title: Olympic National Park

text: There are thick groves of trees adjacent to the sand, which results in chunks of timber from fallen trees on the beach. The mostly unaltered Hoh River, toward the south end of the park, discharges large amounts of naturally eroded timber and other drift, which moves north, enriching the beaches. Even today driftwood deposits form a commanding presence, biologically as well as visually, giving a taste of the original condition of the beach viewable to some extent in early photos. Drift material often comes from a considerable distance; the Columbia River formerly contributed huge amounts to the Northwest Pacific coasts.


title: Olympic National Park

text: The smaller coastal portion of the park is separated from the larger, inland portion. President Franklin D. Roosevelt originally had supported connecting them with a continuous strip of parkland.


title: Olympic National Park

text: The park is known for its unique turbidites. It has very exposed turbidities with white calcite veins. Turbidites are rocks or sediments that travel into the ocean as suspended particles in the flow of water, causing a sedimentary layering effect on the ocean floor. Over time the sediments and rock compact and the process repeats as a constant cycle. The park also is known for its tectonic mélanges that have been deemed 'smell rocks' by the locals due to their strong petroleum odor. Mélanges are large individual rocks that are large enough that they are accounted for in map drawings. The Olympic mélanges can be as large as a house.


title: Olympic National Park

text: Within the center of Olympic National Park rise the Olympic Mountains whose sides and ridgelines are topped with massive, ancient glaciers. The mountains themselves are products of accretionary wedge uplifting related to the Juan De Fuca Plate subduction zone. The geologic composition is a curious mélange of basaltic and oceanic sedimentary rock. The western half of the range is dominated by the peak of Mount Olympus, which rises to . Mount Olympus receives a large amount of snow and consequently has the greatest glaciation of any non-volcanic peak in the contiguous United States outside of the North Cascades. It has several glaciers, the largest of which is Hoh Glacier at 3.06 miles (4.93 km) in length. Looking to the east, the range becomes much drier due to the rain shadow of the western mountains. Here, there are numerous high peaks and craggy ridges. The tallest summit of this area is Mount Deception, at .


title: Olympic National Park

text: The western side of the park is mantled by temperate rainforests, including the Hoh Rainforest and Quinault Rainforest, which receive annual precipitation of about , making this perhaps the wettest area in the continental United States (however, parts of the island of Kauai, such as the summit of Mount Waiʻaleʻale, in the state of Hawaii receive more rain).


title: Olympic National Park

text: As opposed to tropical rainforests and most other temperate rainforest regions, the rainforests of the Pacific Northwest are dominated by coniferous trees, including Sitka Spruce, Western Hemlock, Coast Douglas-fir and Western redcedar. Mosses coat the bark of these trees and even drip down from their branches in green, moist tendrils.


title: Olympic National Park

text: Valleys on the eastern side of the park also have notable old-growth forest, but the climate is notably drier. Sitka Spruce is absent, trees on average are somewhat smaller, and undergrowth is generally less dense and different in character. Immediately northeast of the park is a rather small rainshadow area where annual precipitation averages about 16 inches.


title: Olympic National Park

text: According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. Potential natural vegetation Types, Olympic National Park encompasses five classifications: Alpine Meadows & Barren, aka Alpine tundra ("52") potential vegetation type with an Alpine Meadow ("11") potential vegetation form; a Fir/Hemlock ("4") vegetation type with a Pacific Northwest conifer forest ("1") vegetation form; a cedar/hemlock/Douglas fir vegetation type with a Pacific Northwest conifer forest ("1") vegetation form; Western spruce/fir vegetation type ("15") with a Rocky Mountain conifer forest ("3") vegetation form; and a spruce/cedar/hemlock ("1") vegetation type with a Pacific Northwest conifer forest ("1") vegetation form.


title: Olympic National Park

text: Because the park sits on an isolated peninsula, with a high mountain range dividing it from the land to the south, it developed many endemic plant and animal species (like the Olympic Marmot, Piper's bellflower and Flett's violet). The southwestern coastline of the Olympic Peninsula is also the northernmost non-glaciated region on the Pacific coast of North America, with the result that – aided by the distance from peaks to the coast at the Last Glacial Maximum being about twice what it is today – it served as a refuge from which plants colonized glaciated regions to the north.


title: Olympic National Park

text: The park also provides habitat for many species (like the Roosevelt elk) that are native only to the Pacific Northwest coast. As a result, scientists have declared it a biological reserve and studied its unique species to better understand how plants and animals evolve. The park is home to sizable populations of black bears and black-tailed deer. The park also has a noteworthy cougar population, numbering about 150. Mountain goats were accidentally introduced into the park in the 1920s and have caused much damage on the native flora. The NPS has activated management plans to control the goats.


title: Olympic National Park

text: Forest fires are infrequent in the rainforests of the park's western side; however, a severe drought after the driest spring in 100 years, coupled with an extremely low snowpack from the preceding winter, resulted in a rare rainforest fire in the summer of 2015.


title: Olympic National Park

text: According to the Köppen climate classification system, Olympic National Park encompasses two classifications: a temperate oceanic climate ("Cfb") in the western half, and a warm-summer Mediterranean climate ("Csb") in the eastern half. According to the United States Department of Agriculture, the plant hardiness zone at Hoh Rainforest Visitor Center is 8a with an average annual extreme minimum temperature of .


title: Olympic National Park

text: Before the influx of European settlers, Olympic's human population consisted of Native Americans, whose use of the peninsula was thought to have consisted mainly of fishing and hunting. However, recent reviews of the record , coupled with systematic archaeological surveys of the mountains (Olympic and other Northwest ranges) are pointing to much more extensive tribal use of especially the subalpine meadows than seemed formerly to be the case. Most if not all Pacific Northwest indigenous cultures were adversely affected by European diseases (often decimated) and other factors, well before ethnographers, business operations and settlers arrived in the region, so what they saw and recorded was a much-reduced native culture base. Large numbers of cultural sites are now identified in the Olympic mountains, and important artifacts have been found.


title: Olympic National Park

text: When settlers began to appear, extractive industry in the Pacific Northwest was on the rise, particularly in regards to the harvesting of timber, which began heavily in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Public dissent against logging began to take hold in the 1920s, when people got their first glimpses of the clear-cut hillsides. This period saw an explosion of people's interest in the outdoors; with the growing use of the automobile, people took to touring previously remote places like the Olympic Peninsula.


title: Olympic National Park

text: The formal record of a proposal for a new national park on the Olympic Peninsula begins with the expeditions of well-known figures Lieutenant Joseph P. O'Neil and Judge James Wickersham, during the 1890s. These notables met in the Olympic wilderness while exploring, and subsequently combined their political efforts to have the area placed within some protected status. On February 22, 1897, President Grover Cleveland created the Olympic Forest Reserve, which became Olympic National Forest in 1907. Following unsuccessful efforts in the Washington State Legislature to further protect the area in the early 1900s, President Theodore Roosevelt created Mount Olympus National Monument in 1909, primarily to protect the subalpine calving grounds and summer range of the Roosevelt elk herds native to the Olympics.


title: Olympic National Park

text: Public desire for preservation of some of the area grew until President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed a bill creating a national park in 1938. The Civilian Conservation Corps constructed a headquarters in 1939 with funds from the Public Works Administration. It is now on the National Register of Historic Places. The national park was expanded by in 1953 to include the Pacific coastline between the Queets and Hoh rivers, as well as portions of the Queets and Bogachiel valleys.


title: Olympic National Park

text: Even after ONP was declared a park, though, illegal logging continued in the park, and political battles continue to this day over the incredibly valuable timber contained within its boundaries. Logging continues on the Olympic Peninsula, but not within the park.


title: Olympic National Park

text: Animals that inhabit this national park are chipmunks, squirrels, skunks, six species of bats, weasels, coyotes, muskrats, fishers, river otters, beavers, red foxes, mountain goats, martens, bobcats, black bears, Canadian lynxes, moles, snowshoe hares, shrews, and cougars. Whales, dolphins, sea lions, seals, and sea otters swim near this park offshore. Birds that fly in this park including raptors are Winter wrens, and Canada jays, Hammond's flycatchers, Wilson's warblers, Blue Grouses, Pine siskins, ravens, spotted owls, Red-breasted nuthatches, Golden-crowned kinglets, Chestnut-backed chickadees, Swainson's thrushes, Red crossbills, Hermit thrushes, Olive-sided flycatchers, bald eagles, Western tanagers, Northern pygmy owls, Townsend's warblers, Townsend's solitaires, Vaux's swifts, band-tailed pigeons, and evening grosbeaks.


title: Olympic National Park

text: There are several roads in the park, but none penetrate far into the interior. The park features a network of hiking trails, although the size and remoteness mean that it will usually take more than a weekend to get to the high country in the interior. The sights of the rain forest, with plants run riot and dozens of hues of green, are well worth the possibility of rain sometime during the trip, although July, August, and September frequently have long dry spells.


title: Olympic National Park

text: An unusual feature of ONP is the opportunity for backpacking along the beach. The length of the coastline in the park is sufficient for multi-day trips, with the entire day spent walking along the beach. Although idyllic compared to toiling up a mountainside (Seven Lakes Basin is a notable example), one must be aware of the tide; at the narrowest parts of the beaches, the high tide washes up to the cliffs behind, blocking passage. Several promontories must be struggled over, using a combination of muddy steep trails and fixed ropes.


title: Olympic National Park

text: During winter, the viewpoint known as Hurricane Ridge offers numerous winter sports activities. The Hurricane Ridge Winter Sports Club operates Hurricane Ridge Ski and Snowboard Area, a not-for-profit alpine ski area that offers ski lessons, rentals, and inexpensive lift tickets. The small alpine area is serviced by two rope tows and one poma lift. A large amount of backcountry terrain is accessible for skiers, snowboarders, and other backcountry travelers when Hurricane Ridge Road is open. Winter access to Hurricane Ridge Road is currently limited to Friday through Sunday weather permitting. The Hurricane Ridge Winter Access Coalition is a community effort to restore seven-day-a-week access via the Hurricane Ridge Road (the only park road accessing alpine terrain in winter).


title: Olympic National Park

text: Rafting is available on both the Elwha and Hoh Rivers. Boating is common on Ozette Lake, Lake Crescent, and Lake Quinault. Fishing is allowed in the Ozette River, Queets River (below Tshletshy Creek), Hoh River, Quinault River (below North Shore Quinault River Bridge), Quillayute River and Dickey River. A fishing license is not required to fish in the park. Fishing for bull trout and Dolly Varden is not allowed and must be released if incidentally caught.


title: Olympic National Park

text: Views of the Olympic National Park can be seen from the Hurricane Ridge viewpoint. The road leading west from the Hurricane Ridge visitor center has several picnic areas and trailheads. A paved trail called the Hurricane Hill trail is about long each way, with an elevation gain of about . It is not uncommon to find snow on the trails even as late as July. Several other dirt trails of varying distances and difficulty levels branch off of the Hurricane hill trail. The picnic areas are open only in the summer and have restrooms, water, and paved access to picnic tables.


title: Olympic National Park

text: The Hurricane Ridge visitor center has an information desk, a gift shop, restrooms, and a snack bar. The exhibits in the visitor center are open daily.


title: Olympic National Park

text: The Elwha Ecosystem Restoration Project is the second-largest ecosystem restoration project in the history of the National Park Service after the Everglades. It consisted of removing the Glines Canyon Dam and draining its reservoir, Lake Mills and removing the Elwha Dam and its reservoir Lake Aldwell from the Elwha River. Upon removal, the park will revegetate the slopes and river bottoms to prevent erosion and speed up ecological recovery. The primary purpose of this project is to restore anadromous stocks of Pacific Salmon and steelhead to the Elwha River, which have been denied access to the upper of river habitat for more than 95 years by these dams. Removal of the dams was completed in 2014.


title: Fish farming

text: Fish farming or pisciculture involves commercial breeding of fish, usually for food, in fish tanks or artificial enclosures such as fish ponds. It is a particular type of aquaculture, which is the controlled cultivation and harvesting of aquatic animals such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and so on, in natural or pseudo-natural environment. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Worldwide, the most important fish species produced in fish farming are carp, catfish, salmon and tilapia.


title: Fish farming

text: Global demand is increasing for dietary fish protein, which has resulted in widespread overfishing in wild fisheries, resulting in significant decrease in fish stocks and even complete depletion in some regions. Fish farming allows establishment of artificial fish colonies that are provided with sufficient feeding, protection from natural predators and competitive threats, access to veterinarian service, and easier harvesting when needed, while being separate from and thus do not usually impact the sustainable yields of wild fish populations. While fish farming is practised worldwide, China alone provides 62% of the world's farmed fish production. As of 2016, more than 50% of seafood was produced by aquaculture. In the last three decades, aquaculture has been the main driver of the increase in fisheries and aquaculture production, with an average growth of 5.3 percent per year in the period 2000–2018, reaching a record 82.1 million tonnes in 2018.


title: Fish farming

text: Farming carnivorous fish such as salmon, however, does not always reduce pressure on wild fisheries, such farmed fish are usually fed fishmeal and fish oil extracted from wild forage fish. The 2008 global returns for fish farming recorded by the FAO totaled 33.8 million tonnes worth about US$60 billion.


title: Fish farming

text: Aquaculture makes use of local photosynthetic production (extensive) or fish that are fed with external food supply (intensive).


title: Fish farming

text: In these kinds of systems fish production per unit of surface can be increased at will, as long as sufficient oxygen, fresh water and food are provided. Because of the requirement of sufficient fresh water, a massive water purification system must be integrated in the fish farm. One way to achieve this is to combine hydroponic horticulture and water treatment, see below. The exception to this rule are cages which are placed in a river or sea, which supplements the fish crop with sufficient oxygenated water. Some environmentalists object to this practice.


title: Fish farming

text: The cost of inputs per unit of fish weight is higher than in extensive farming, especially because of the high cost of fish feed. It must contain a much higher level of protein (up to 60%) than cattle feed and a balanced amino acid composition, as well. These higher protein-level requirements are a consequence of the higher feed efficiency of aquatic animals (higher feed conversion ratio [FCR], that is, kg of feed per kg of animal produced). Fish such as salmon have an FCR around 1.1 kg of feed per kg of salmon whereas chickens are in the 2.5 kg of feed per kg of chicken range. Fish do not use energy to keep warm, eliminating some carbohydrates and fats in the diet, required to provide this energy. This may be offset, though, by the lower land costs and the higher production which can be obtained due to the high level of input control.


title: Fish farming

text: Aeration of the water is essential, as fish need a sufficient oxygen level for growth. This is achieved by bubbling, cascade flow, or aqueous oxygen. Catfish in genus "Clarias" can breathe atmospheric air and can tolerate much higher levels of pollutants than trout or salmon, which makes aeration and water purification less necessary and makes "Clarias" species especially suited for intensive fish production. In some "Clarias" farms, about 10% of the water volume can consist of fish biomass.


title: Fish farming

text: The risk of infections by parasites such as fish lice, fungi ("Saprolegnia" spp.), intestinal worms (such as nematodes or trematodes), bacteria (e.g., "Yersinia" spp., "Pseudomonas" spp.), and protozoa (such as dinoflagellates) is similar to that in animal husbandry, especially at high population densities. However, animal husbandry is a larger and more technologically mature area of human agriculture and has developed better solutions to pathogen problems. Intensive aquaculture has to provide adequate water quality (oxygen, ammonia, nitrite, etc.) levels to minimize stress on the fish. This requirement makes control of the pathogen problem more difficult. Intensive aquaculture requires tight monitoring and a high level of expertise of the fish farmer.


title: Fish farming

text: Very-high-intensity recycle aquaculture systems (RAS, also Recirculating Aquaculture Systems), where all the production parameters are controlled, are being used for high-value species. By recycling water, little is used per unit of production. However, the process has high capital and operating costs. The higher cost structures mean that RAS is economical only for high-value products, such as broodstock for egg production, fingerlings for net pen aquaculture operations, sturgeon production, research animals, and some special niche markets such as live fish.


title: Fish farming

text: Raising ornamental coldwater fish (goldfish or koi), although theoretically much more profitable due to the higher income per weight of fish produced, has been successfully carried out only in the 21st century. The increased incidences of dangerous viral diseases of koi carp, together with the high value of the fish, has led to initiatives in closed-system koi breeding and growing in a number of countries. Today, a few commercially successful intensive koi-growing facilities are operating in the UK, Germany, and Israel.


title: Fish farming

text: Some producers have adapted their intensive systems in an effort to provide consumers with fish that do not carry dormant forms of viruses and diseases.


title: Fish farming

text: In 2016, juvenile Nile tilapia were given a food containing dried "Schizochytrium" in place of fish oil. When compared to a control group raised on regular food, they exhibited higher weight gain and better food-to-growth conversion, plus their flesh was higher in healthy omega-3 fatty acids.


title: Fish farming

text: Within intensive and extensive aquaculture methods, numerous specific types of fish farms are used; each has benefits and applications unique to its design.


title: Fish farming

text: Fish cages are placed in lakes, bayous, ponds, rivers, or oceans to contain and protect fish until they can be harvested. The method is also called "off-shore cultivation" when the cages are placed in the sea. They can be constructed of a wide variety of components. Fish are stocked in cages, artificially fed, and harvested when they reach market size. A few advantages of fish farming with cages are that many types of waters can be used (rivers, lakes, filled quarries, etc.), many types of fish can be raised, and fish farming can co-exist with sport fishing and other water uses.


title: Fish farming

text: Cage farming of fishes in open seas is also gaining in popularity. Given concerns of disease, poaching, poor water quality, etc., generally pond systems are considered simpler to start and easier to manage. Also, the past occurrences of cage-failures leading to escapes, have raised concern regarding the culture of non-native fish species in dam or open-water cages. On August 22, 2017, there was a massive failure of such cages at a commercial fishery in Washington state in Puget Sound, leading to release of nearly 300,000 Atlantic salmon in non-native waters. This is believed to risk endangering the native Pacific salmon species.


title: Fish farming

text: Marine Scotland has kept records of caged fish escapes since 1999. The have recorded 357 fish escape incidents with 3,795,206 fish escaping into fresh and salt water. One company, Dawnfresh Farming Limited has been responsible for 40 incident and 152,790 Rainbow Trout escaping into freshwater lochs.


title: Fish farming

text: Though the cage-industry has made numerous technological advances in cage construction in recent years, the risk of damage and escape due to storms is always a concern.


title: Fish farming

text: Semi-submersible marine technology is beginning to impact fish farming. In 2018, 1.5 million salmon are in the middle of a year-long trial at Ocean Farm 1 off the coast of Norway. The semi-submersible project is the world's first deep-sea aquaculture project, and includes -high by -diameter pen made from a series of mesh-wire frames and nets. It is designed to disperse wastes better than more conventional farms in sheltered coastal waters, therefore supporting higher fish packing density.


title: Fish farming

text: Recently, copper alloys have become important netting materials in aquaculture. Copper alloys are antimicrobial, that is, they destroy bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, and other microbes. In the marine environment, the antimicrobial/algaecidal properties of copper alloys prevent biofouling, which can briefly be described as the undesirable accumulation, adhesion, and growth of microorganisms, plants, algae, tube worms, barnacles, mollusks, and other organisms.


title: Fish farming

text: The resistance of organism growth on copper alloy nets also provides a cleaner and healthier environment for farmed fish to grow and thrive. Traditional netting involves regular and labor-intensive cleaning. In addition to its antifouling benefits, copper netting has strong structural and corrosion-resistant properties in marine environments.


title: Fish farming

text: Copper-zinc brass alloys are deployed in commercial-scale aquaculture operations in Asia, South America, and USA (Hawaii). Extensive research, including demonstrations and trials, are being implemented on two other copper alloys: copper-nickel and copper-silicon. Each of these alloy types has an inherent ability to reduce biofouling, cage waste, disease, and the need for antibiotics, while simultaneously maintaining water circulation and oxygen requirements. Other types of copper alloys are also being considered for research and development in aquaculture operations.


title: Fish farming

text: The open net pens system is a method that takes place in natural waters, such as rivers, lakes, near the coast or offshore. The breeders rear the fish in large cages floating in the water. The fish are living in natural water but are isolated with a net. Because the only barrier separating the fish from the surrounding environment is a net, this allows the water to flow from the ‘natural’ surrounding through the fish farms.


title: Fish farming

text: The site of the fish farm is crucial for the farm to be a success or not. Before any fish farm is settled, it is highly recommended to be selective with the site location of the farm. The site must be examined on some essential elements. Important conditions on the location are:


title: Fish farming

text: Despite these important site conditions, the open net pen method was very popular in Norway and China. This is because of the cost friendliness and efficiency of this method.


title: Fish farming

text: Because of the ocean's water flow and other reasons, open net pen culture is seen as a high-risk method for the environment. The flow allows chemicals, parasites, waste and diseases to spread in the enclosed environment, and this is not beneficial for the natural environment. Another negative consequence is the high escape rate of the cultured fish from these open net pens. These escaped fish also pose a high risk to the surrounding ecosystems.


title: Fish farming

text: The amount of organic waste produced by fish farms is also alarming. A salmon farm in Scotland, for instance, is estimated to produce as much organic waste as equivalent to a town of people between 10,000 and 20,000 people each year.


title: Fish farming

text: These use irrigation ditches or farm ponds to raise fish. The basic requirement is to have a ditch or pond that retains water, possibly with an above-ground irrigation system (many irrigation systems use buried pipes with headers).


title: Fish farming

text: Using this method, water allotments can be stored in ponds or ditches, usually lined with bentonite clay. In small systems, the fish are often fed commercial fish food, and their waste products can help fertilize the fields. In larger ponds, the pond grows water plants and algae as fish food. Some of the most successful ponds grow introduced strains of plants, as well as introduced strains of fish.


title: Fish farming

text: Control of water quality is crucial. Fertilizing, clarifying, and pH control of the water can increase yields substantially, as long as eutrophication is prevented and oxygen levels stay high. Yields can be low if the fish grow ill from electrolyte stress.


title: Fish farming

text: The composite fish culture system is a technology developed in India by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research in the 1970s. In this system, of both local and imported fish, a combination of five or six fish species is used in a single fish pond. These species are selected so that they do not compete for food among them by having different types of food habitats. As a result, the food available in all the parts of the pond is used. Fish used in this system include catla and silver carp (surface feeders), rohu (a column feeder), and mrigal and common carp (bottom feeders). Other fish also feed on the excreta of the common carp, and this helps contribute to the efficiency of the system which in optimal conditions produces 3000–6000 kg of fish per hectare per year.


title: Fish farming

text: One problem with such composite fish culture is that many of these fish breed only during monsoon. Even if fish are collected from the wild, they can be mixed with other species, as well. Thus, a major problem in fish farming is the lack of availability of good-quality stock. To overcome this problem, ways have now been worked out to breed these fish in ponds using hormonal stimulation. This has ensured the supply of pure fish stock in desired quantities.


title: Fish farming

text: One of the largest problems with freshwater pisciculture is that it can use a million gallons of water per acre (about 1 m of water per m) each year. Extended water purification systems allow for the reuse (recycling) of local water.


title: Fish farming

text: The largest-scale pure fish farms use a system derived (admittedly much refined) from the New Alchemy Institute in the 1970s. Basically, large plastic fish tanks are placed in a greenhouse. A hydroponic bed is placed near, above or between them. When tilapia are raised in the tanks, they are able to eat algae, which naturally grow in the tanks when the tanks are properly fertilized.


title: Fish farming

text: The tank water is slowly circulated to the hydroponic beds, where the tilapia waste feeds commercial plant crops. Carefully cultured microorganisms in the hydroponic bed convert ammonia to nitrates, and the plants are fertilized by the nitrates and phosphates.Other wastes are strained out by the hydroponic media, which double as an aerated pebble-bed filter.


title: Fish farming

text: This system, properly tuned, produces more edible protein per unit area than any other. A wide variety of plants can grow well in the hydroponic beds. Most growers concentrate on herbs (e.g. parsley and basil), which command premium prices in small quantities all year long. The most common customers are restaurant wholesalers.


title: Fish farming

text: Since the system lives in a greenhouse, it adapts to almost all temperate climates, and may also adapt to tropical climates.


title: Fish farming

text: The main environmental impact is discharge of water that must be salted to maintain the fishes' electrolyte balance. Current growers use a variety of proprietary tricks to keep fish healthy, reducing their expenses for salt and wastewater discharge permits. Some veterinary authorities speculate that ultraviolet ozone disinfectant systems (widely used for ornamental fish) may play a prominent part in keeping the tilapia healthy with recirculated water.


title: Fish farming

text: A number of large, well-capitalized ventures in this area have failed. Managing both the biology and markets is complicated. One future development is the combination of integrated recycling systems with urban farming as tried in Sweden by the Greenfish Initiative.


title: Fish farming

text: This is also called a "flow through system" . Trout and other sport fish are often raised from eggs to fry or fingerlings and then trucked to streams and released. Normally, the fry are raised in long, shallow, concrete tanks, fed with fresh stream water. The fry receive commercial fish food in pellets. While not as efficient as the New Alchemists' method, it is also far simpler and has been used for many years to stock streams with sport fish. European eel ("Anguilla anguilla") aquaculturalists procure a limited supply of glass eels, juvenile stages of the European eel which swim north from the Sargasso Sea breeding grounds, for their farms. The European eel is threatened with extinction because of the excessive catch of glass eels by Spanish fishermen and overfishing of adult eels in, e.g., the Dutch IJsselmeer. Although European eel larvae can survive for several weeks, the full life cycle has not yet been achieved in captivity.


title: Fish farming

text: The issue of feeds in fish farming has been a controversial one. Many cultured fishes (tilapia, carp, catfish, many others) can be raised on a strictly herbivorous diet. Top-level carnivores (most salmonidae species in particular) on the other hand, depend on fish feed, of which a large portion is usually derived from wild-caught fish (anchovies, menhaden, etc.). Vegetable-derived proteins have successfully replaced fish meal in feeds for carnivorous fishes, but vegetable-derived oils have not successfully been incorporated into the diets of carnivores. Research is underway to try to change this, such that even salmon and other carnivores could be successfully fed with vegetable products. The F3 Challenge (Fish-Free Feed Challenge), as explained by a report from "Wired" in February 2017, "is a race to sell 100,000 metric tons of fish food, without the fish. Earlier this month, start-ups from places like Pakistan, China, and Belgium joined their American competition at the Google headquarters in Mountain View, California, showing off feed made from seaweed extracts, yeast, and algae grown in bioreactors."


title: Fish farming

text: Not only do the feeds for carnivorous fish, like certain salmon species, remain controversial due to the containment of wild caught fish like anchovies, but they are not helping the health of the fish, as is the case in Norway. Between 2003 and 2007, Aldrin et al., examined three infectious diseases in Norwegian salmon fish farms—heart and skeletal muscle inflammation, pancreas disease, and infectious salmon anemia.


title: Fish farming

text: In 2014, Martinez-Rubio et al., conducted a study in which cardiomyopathy syndrome (CMS), a severe cardiac disease in Atlantic salmon ("Salmo salar"), was investigated pertaining the effects of functional feeds with reduced lipid content and increased eicosapentaenoic acid levels in controlling CMS in salmon after infection with Piscine Myocarditis Virus (PMCV). Functional feeds are defined as high-quality feeds that beyond purposes of nutrition, they are formulated with health promoting features that could be beneficial in supporting disease resistance, such as CMS. Choosing a clinical nutrition approach using functional feeds could potentially move away from chemotherapeutic and antibiotic treatments, which could lower the costs of disease treatment and management in fish farms. In this investigation three fishmeal-based diets were served—one made of 31% lipid and the other two made of 18% lipid (one contained fishmeal and the other krill meal. Results demonstrated a significant difference in the immune and inflammatory responses and pathology in heart tissue as the fish were infected with PMCV. Fish fed with functional feeds with low lipid content demonstrated milder and delayed inflammatory response and therefore, less severe heart lesions at earlier and later stages after PMCV infection.


title: Fish farming

text: Secondly, farmed fish are kept in concentrations never seen in the wild (e.g. 50,000 fish in a area.). However, fish tend also to be animals that aggregate into large schools at high density. Most successful aquaculture species are schooling species, which do not have social problems at high density. Aquaculturists feel that operating a rearing system above its design capacity or above the social density limit of the fish will result in decreased growth rate and increased feed conversion ratio (kg dry feed/kg of fish produced), which results in increased cost and risk of health problems along with a decrease in profits. Stressing the animals is not desirable, but the concept of and measurement of stress must be viewed from the perspective of the animal using the scientific method.


title: Fish farming

text: Sea lice, particularly "Lepeophtheirus salmonis" and various "Caligus" species, including "C. clemensi" and "C. rogercresseyi", can cause deadly infestations of both farm-grown and wild salmon. Sea lice are ectoparasites which feed on mucus, blood, and skin, and migrate and latch onto the skin of wild salmon during free-swimming, planktonic "nauplii" and "copepodid" larval stages, which can persist for several days. Large numbers of highly populated, open-net salmon farms can create exceptionally large concentrations of sea lice; when exposed in river estuaries containing large numbers of open-net farms, many young wild salmon are infected, and do not survive as a result. Adult salmon may survive otherwise critical numbers of sea lice, but small, thin-skinned juvenile salmon migrating to sea are highly vulnerable. On the Pacific coast of Canada, the louse-induced mortality of pink salmon in some regions is commonly over 80%. In Scotland, official figures show that more than nine million fish were lost to disease, parasites, botched treatment attempts and other problems on fish farms between 2016 and 2019. One of the treatments for parasite infestations involved bathing fish in hydrogen peroxide, which can harm or kill farmed fish if they are in a weak condition or if the chemical concentration is too strong.


title: Fish farming

text: A 2008 meta-analysis of available data shows that salmon farming reduces the survival of associated wild salmon populations. This relationship has been shown to hold for Atlantic, steelhead, pink, chum, and coho salmon. The decrease in survival or abundance often exceeds 50%.


title: Fish farming

text: Diseases and parasites are the most commonly cited reasons for such decreases. Some species of sea lice have been noted to target farmed coho and Atlantic salmon. Such parasites have been shown to have an effect on nearby wild fish. One place that has garnered international media attention is British Columbia's Broughton Archipelago. There, juvenile wild salmon must "run a gauntlet" of large fish farms located off-shore near river outlets before making their way to sea. The farms allegedly cause such severe sea lice infestations that one study predicted in 2007 a 99% collapse in the wild salmon population by 2011. This claim, however, has been criticized by numerous scientists who question the correlation between increased fish farming and increases in sea lice infestation among wild salmon.


title: Fish farming

text: Because of parasite problems, some aquaculture operators frequently use strong antibiotic drugs to keep the fish alive, but many fish still die prematurely at rates up to 30%. Additionally, other common drugs used in salmonid fish farms in North America and Europe include anesthetic, chemotherapeutic, and anthelmintic agents. In some cases, these drugs have entered the environment. Additionally, the residual presence of these drugs in human food products has become controversial. Use of antibiotics in food production is thought to increase the prevalence of antibiotic resistance in human diseases. At some facilities, the use of antibiotic drugs in aquaculture has decreased considerably due to vaccinations and other techniques. However, most fish-farming operations still use antibiotics, many of which escape into the surrounding environment.


title: Fish farming

text: The lice and pathogen problems of the 1990s facilitated the development of current treatment methods for sea lice and pathogens, which reduced the stress from parasite/pathogen problems. However, being in an ocean environment, the transfer of disease organisms from the wild fish to the aquaculture fish is an ever-present risk.


title: Fish farming

text: The large number of fish kept long-term in a single location contributes to habitat destruction of the nearby areas. The high concentrations of fish produce a significant amount of condensed faeces, often contaminated with drugs, which again affects local waterways.


title: Fish farming

text: Aquaculture not only impacts the fish on the farm, but it also influences other species, which in return are attracted to or repelled by the farms. Mobile fauna, such as crustaceans, fish, birds, and marine mammals, interact with the process of aquaculture, but the long-term or ecological effects as a result of these interactions is still unknown. Some of these fauna may be attracted or demonstrate repulsion. The attraction/repulsion mechanism has various direct and indirect effects on wild organisms at individual and population levels. The interactions that wild organisms have with aquaculture may have implications on the management of fisheries species and the ecosystem in relation to how the fish farms are structured and organized.


title: Fish farming

text: If aquaculture farms are placed in an area with strong current, pollutants can be flushed out of the area fairly quickly. This helps manage the pollution problem and also aids in overall fish growth.


title: Fish farming

text: Concern remains that resultant bacterial growth fertilised by fish faeces strips the water of oxygen, reducing or killing off the local marine life. Once an area has been so contaminated, fish farms are typically moved to new, uncontaminated areas. This practice has angered nearby fishermen.


title: Fish farming

text: Other potential problems faced by aquaculturists include the obtaining of various permits and water-use rights, profitability, concerns about invasive species and genetic engineering depending on what species are involved, and interaction with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.


title: Fish farming

text: In regards to genetically modified, farmed salmon, concern has been raised over their proven reproductive advantage and how it could potentially decimate local fish populations, if released into the wild. Biologist Rick Howard did a controlled laboratory study where wild fish and GMO fish were allowed to breed. In 1989, AquaBounty Technologies developed the AquAdvantage salmon. The concerns and critiques of cultivating this GMO fish in aquaculture are that the fish will escape and interact with other fish ultimately leading to the reproduction with other fishes. However, the FDA, has determined that while net pens would not be the most appropriate to prevent escapes, raising the salmon in Panama waters would effectively prevent escape because the water conditions there would fail to support long-term survival of any escaped salmon. Another method of preventing Aqua Advantage fish from impacting the ecosystems in the case they escape suggested by the FDA was to create sterile triploid females. This way concerns on reproducing with other fishes would be out of the question. The GMO fish crowded out the wild fish in spawning beds, but the offspring were less likely to survive. The colorant used to make pen-raised salmon appear rosy like the wild fish has been linked with retinal problems in humans.


title: Fish farming

text: In 2005, Alaska passed legislation requiring that any genetically altered fish sold in the state be labeled.


title: Fish farming

text: In 2006, a "Consumer Reports" investigation revealed that farm-raised salmon is frequently sold as wild.


title: Fish farming

text: In 2008, the US National Organic Standards Board allowed farmed fish to be labeled as organic provided less than 25% of their feed came from wild fish. This decision was criticized by the advocacy group Food & Water Watch as "bending the rules" about organic labeling. In the European Union, fish labeling as to species, method of production and origin has been required since 2002.


title: Fish farming

text: Concerns continue over the labeling of salmon as farmed or wild-caught, as well as about the humane treatment of farmed fish. The Marine Stewardship Council has established an Eco label to distinguish between farmed and wild-caught salmon, while the RSPCA has established the Freedom Food label to indicate humane treatment of farmed salmon, as well as other food products.


title: Fish farming

text: Other treatments such as ultraviolet sterilization, ozonation, and oxygen injection are also used to maintain optimal water quality. Through this system, many of the environmental drawbacks of aquaculture are minimized including escaped fish, water usage, and the introduction of pollutants. The practices also increased feed-use efficiency growth by providing optimum water quality.


title: Fish farming

text: One of the drawbacks to recirculating aquaculture systems is the need for periodic water exchanges. However, the rate of water exchange can be reduced through aquaponics, such as the incorporation of hydroponically grown plants and denitrification. Both methods reduce the amount of nitrate in the water, and can potentially eliminate the need for water exchanges, closing the aquaculture system from the environment. The amount of interaction between the aquaculture system and the environment can be measured through the cumulative feed burden (CFB kg/M3), which measures the amount of feed that goes into the RAS relative to the amount of water and waste discharged. The environmental impact of larger indoor fish farming system will be linked to the local infrastructure, and water supply. Areas which are more drought-prone, indoor fish farms might flow out wastewater for watering agricultural farms, reducing the water affliction.


title: Fish farming

text: From 2011, a team from the University of Waterloo led by Tahbit Chowdhury and Gordon Graff examined vertical RAS aquaculture designs aimed at producing protein-rich fish species. However, because of its high capital and operating costs, RAS has generally been restricted to practices such as broodstock maturation, larval rearing, fingerling production, research animal production, specific pathogen-free animal production, and caviar and ornamental fish production. As such, research and design work by Chowdhury and Graff remains difficult to implement. Although the use of RAS for other species is considered by many aquaculturalists to be currently impractical, some limited successful implementation of RAS has occurred with high-value product such as barramundi, sturgeon, and live tilapia in the US, eels and catfish in the Netherlands, trout in Denmark and salmon is planned in Scotland and Canada.


title: Fish farming

text: Tanks saturated with carbon dioxide have been used to make fish unconscious. Their gills are then cut with a knife so that the fish bleed out before they are further processed. This is no longer considered a humane method of slaughter. Methods that induce much less physiological stress are electrical or percussive stunning and this has led to the phasing out of the carbon dioxide slaughter method in Europe.


title: Fish farming

text: According to T. Håstein of the National Veterinary Institute (Oslo, Norway), "Different methods for slaughter of fish are in place and it is no doubt that many of them may be considered as appalling from an animal welfare point of view." A 2004 report by the EFSA Scientific Panel on Animal Health and Welfare explained: "Many existing commercial killing methods expose fish to substantial suffering over a prolonged period of time. For some species, existing methods, whilst capable of killing fish humanely, are not doing so because operators don't have the knowledge to evaluate them." Following are some less humane ways of killing fish.


title: Fish farming

text: Proper stunning renders the fish unconscious immediately and for a sufficient period of time such that the fish is killed in the slaughter process (e.g. through exsanguination) without regaining consciousness.


title: Combat Infantryman Badge

text: The Combat Infantryman Badge (CIB) is a United States Army military decoration. The badge is awarded to infantrymen and Special Forces soldiers in the rank of colonel and below, who fought in active ground combat while assigned as members of either an Infantry or Special Forces unit of brigade size or smaller at any time after 6 December 1941. For those soldiers who are not members of an infantry, or Special Forces unit, the Combat Action Badge (CAB) is awarded instead. For soldiers with an MOS in the medical field they would, with the exception of a Special Forces Medical Sergeant (18D), receive the Combat Medical Badge. 18D Special Forces Medics would receive the Combat Infantryman badge instead.


title: Combat Infantryman Badge

text: The CIB and its non-combat contemporary, the Expert Infantryman Badge (EIB), were created in November 1943 during World War II to boost morale and increase the prestige of service in the Infantry. Specifically, it recognizes the inherent sacrifices of all infantrymen, and that they face a greater risk of being wounded or killed in action than any other military occupational specialties.


title: Combat Infantryman Badge

text: After the United States' declaration of war in 1941, the War Department had difficulty in recruiting soldiers into the Infantry branch in the case when men were given the opportunity to choose their branch of assignment, and the morale of soldiers in the Infantry Branch remained low, namely due to the fact that "[o]f all Soldiers ["sic"], it was recognized that the infantryman continuously operated under the worst conditions and performed a mission that was not assigned to any other Soldier ["sic"] or unit...[t]he infantry, a small portion of the total Armed Forces, was suffering the most casualties while receiving the least public recognition." Lt. Gen. Lesley J. McNair, commanding officer of the U.S. Army Ground Forces, championed the idea of creating an award recognizing the unique dangers faced by infantrymen.


title: Combat Infantryman Badge

text: On 27 October 1943, the War Department formally established the Combat Infantryman Badge (CIB) and the Expert Infantryman Badge (EIB) awards in Section I, War Department Circular 269:


title: Combat Infantryman Badge

text: The present war has demonstrated the importance of highly-proficient, tough, hard, and aggressive infantry, which can be obtained only by developing a high degree of individual all-around proficiency on the part of every infantryman. As a means of attaining the high standards desired and to foster esprit de corps in infantry units; the Expert Infantryman and the Combat Infantryman badges are established for infantry personnel.


title: Combat Infantryman Badge

text: Moreover, War Department Circular 269 stipulated: "...only one of these badges will be worn at one time" and "the Combat Infantryman badge is the highest award"; the awarding of the CIB was officially authorized with an executive order dated 15 November 1943; later, on 30 June 1944, the U.S. Congress approved an extra ten dollars in monthly pay to every infantryman awarded the CIB—excepting commissioned officers. The World War II regulations did not formally prescribe a specific combat service period establishing the infantryman's eligibility for being awarded a Combat Infantryman Badge, thus, in 1947, the U.S. government implemented a policy authorizing the retroactive awarding of the Bronze Star Medal to World War II veteran soldiers who had been awarded the Combat Infantryman Badge, because the CIB was awarded only to soldiers who had borne combat duties befitting the recognition conferred by a Bronze Star Medal. Both awards required a commander's recommendation and a citation in the pertinent orders. General Marshall initiated this after Medal of Honor–recipient Major Charles W. Davis noted to him that: "It would be wonderful, if someone could design a badge for every infantryman who faces the enemy, every day and every night, with so little recognition".


title: Combat Infantryman Badge

text: War Department Circular 105, dated 13 March 1944 amended WD Circular 269. Page 2, paragraph IV. BADGE – Section 1, Circular No. 269 War Department, 1943, is amended by adding paragraph 8 as follows:


title: Combat Infantryman Badge

text: 8. Retroactive award of Expert and Combat Infantryman badges may be awarded to any infantryman who, on or after 6 December 1941, has established eligibility and been recommended for such award under the provisions of paragraph 2b or paragraph 3b. The Expert Infantryman badge may be awarded under paragraph 2a, only to those infantryman who have established eligibility and been recommended for such award on or after 27 October 1943.


title: Combat Infantryman Badge

text: From the beginning, Army leaders have taken care to retain the badge for the unique purpose for which it was established and to prevent the adoption of any other badge that would lower its prestige. At the close of World War II, the largest war in which armor and artillery played key roles in the ground campaigns, a review was conducted of the CIB criteria with consideration being given to creating either additional badges or authorizing the badge to cavalry and armor units. The review noted that any change in policy would detract from the prestige of the badge.


title: Combat Infantryman Badge

text: Campaign or battle credit alone is not sufficient for award of the CIB. The specific eligibility criteria for the CIB require that an officer (SSI 11 or 18) in the grade of colonel or below, or an Army enlisted soldier or warrant officer with an infantry or Special Forces MOS, who subsequent to 6 December 1941 has satisfactorily performed duty while assigned or attached as a member of an infantry, ranger or special forces unit of brigade, regimental, or smaller size during any period such unit was engaged in active ground combat. Eligibility also includes soldiers or officers with an MOS other than infantry or Special Forces that hold a prior or secondary infantry or Special Forces MOS and that are assigned or temporarily attached to an infantry unit of any size smaller than a brigade. Eligibility for Special Forces personnel in Military Occupational Specialties (MOS) 18B, 18C, 18E, 18F, and 18Z (less Special Forces medical sergeant) accrues from 20 December 1989. Retroactive awards of the CIB to Special Forces personnel are not authorized prior to 20 December 1989. A recipient must be personally present and under hostile fire while serving in an assigned infantry or Special Forces primary duty, in a unit actively engaged in ground combat with the enemy. The unit in question can be of any size smaller than brigade.


title: Combat Infantryman Badge

text: On or after 18 September 2001: a soldier must be an Army infantry or special forces officer (SSI 11 or 18) in the grade of Colonel or below, or an Army enlisted soldier or warrant officer with an infantry or special forces MOS, who has satisfactorily performed duty while assigned or attached as a member of an infantry, ranger or special forces unit of brigade, regimental, or smaller size during any period such unit was engaged in active ground combat. A soldier must be personally present and under fire while serving in an assigned infantry or Special Forces primary duty, in a unit engaged in active ground combat, to close with and destroy the enemy with direct fires. Army soldiers possessing MOS of 18D (Special Forces Medical Sergeant) who satisfactorily perform special forces duties while assigned or attached to a special forces unit of brigade, regimental, or smaller size during any period such unit was engaged in active ground combat may be awarded the CIB. These soldiers must have been personally present and engaged in active ground combat, to close with and destroy the enemy with direct fires. Retroactive awards under these criteria are not authorized for service prior to 18 September 2001. Those soldiers possessing MOS of 18D who qualify for award of the CMB from 18 September 2001 to 3 June 2005 will remain qualified for the badge.


title: Combat Infantryman Badge

text: The CIB is authorized for award for the following qualifying wars, conflicts, and operations. To date, a separate award of the CIB has been authorized for qualified soldiers in the following qualifying periods:


title: Combat Infantryman Badge

text: NOTE: Subsequent awards of the CIB are "not authorized" for the same qualifying period, as outlined above. Subsequent awards of the CIB may be awarded provided the soldier has met eligibility criteria in separate Qualifying Periods/Eras. For example, a second award with superimposed star on the wreath could be awarded for a soldier who served in Somalia (3rd Qualifying Era) and OEF (4th Qualifying Era).


title: Combat Infantryman Badge

text: In the Korean War: The special requirements for award of the CIB for service in South Korea are rescinded. Army veterans and Service members who served in South Korea on or after 28 July 1953 and meet the criteria for award of the CIB may submit an application (to include supporting documentation) for award of the CIB.


title: Combat Infantryman Badge

text: The original, World War II–model CIB was a silver and enamel badge, consisting of a rectangular bar with an infantry-blue field upon which is superimposed a Springfield Arsenal Musket, Model 1795. The composite device is superimposed to an elliptic oak-leaf wreath, symbolizing steadfast character, strength, and loyalty. During World War II, there existed metallic, composite models of the CIB composed of a separate EIB rectangle-badge and oak-leaf wreath that then was pinned to the blouse, as a Combat Infantryman Badge. Later, a matte-black subdued metal badge was created for wearing on the fatigues in the field. Since World War II, the CIB has been made in cloth (colored and subdued) for wear, like the matte-metal model, on the fatigue field uniform, and, a miniature (1.25 inches long) lacquered-metal CIB model is available for wearing on the mess dress uniform and civilian clothes.


title: Combat Infantryman Badge

text: On 8 February 1952, the Army approved the addition of stars to the CIB indicating the soldier's having fought in more than one war. The first was the second-award CIB recognizing Korean War combat operations; in that time, the U.S. Army's Institute of Heraldry also had created eighth-award CIB designs. The second- through fourth-award CIB awards were indicated with silver five-point stars, one to three stars centered, at badge's top, between the tips of the oak-leaf wreath; the fifth- through eighth-awards of the CIB were indicated with gold stars. However, Army Regulation 600-8-22 (Military Awards) only authorizes up to three awards of the CIB. There are four periods for which an award of the badge can be made:


title: Combat Infantryman Badge

text: Currently, the Combat Infantryman Badge is worn one-quarter (0.25") inch above the service ribbons above the left-breast pocket of the Class-A uniform coat and of the other uniforms with which the CIB is authorized. As of June 2011, the badge and its sew-on equivalent may be worn on the Army Combat Uniform (ACU).


title: Combat Infantryman Badge

text: The National Infantry Museum has a memorial to the soldiers who have been awarded three CIBs in the course of their Army careers.


title: Combat Infantryman Badge

text: Major General David E. Grange Jr. was the Commanding General at Fort Benning, Georgia, between 1979 and 1981. As a triple CIB recipient himself, Grange understood that being awarded three Combat Infantryman Badges was a very rare achievement and thought a list should be compiled to celebrate the recipients' distinction. With his urging, the National Infantry Museum at Fort Benning began collecting names of known third CIB recipients. By 1983 the museum had collected and set to bronze the names of two hundred and thirty men and preparations were made for the unveiling of a memorial to these soldiers and the recipients yet to be discovered at Fort Benning. An additional 94 names were added to the bronze plaques over the years. After the inauguration of the new NIM, a new exhibit showing the list was displayed.


title: Combat Infantryman Badge

text: Because the gap between the second (Korean War) and fourth (War on Terror) periods of eligibility is more than forty-eight years, longer than any likely career in infantry or special forces units, all known three-time recipients served in World War II and the Korean and Vietnam Wars.


title: Perm, Russia

text: Perm (), previously known as Yagoshikha (Ягошиха) (1723–1781), and Molotov (Молотов) (1940–1957), is the largest city and the administrative centre of Perm Krai, Russia. The city is located on the banks of the Kama River, near the Ural Mountains, covering an area of , with a population of over one million residents. Perm is the fifteenth-largest city in Russia, and the fifth-largest city in the Volga Federal District.


title: Perm, Russia

text: In 1723, a copper-smelting works was founded at the village of "Yagoshikha". In 1781 the settlement of Yagoshikha became the town of "Perm". Perm's position on the navigable Kama River, leading to the Volga, and on the Siberian Route across the Ural Mountains, helped it become an important trade and manufacturing centre. It also lay along the Trans-Siberian Railway. Perm grew considerably as industrialization proceeded in the Urals during the Soviet period, and in 1940 was named "Molotov" in honour of Vyacheslav Molotov. In 1957 the city returned to its historical name.


title: Perm, Russia

text: Modern Perm is still a major railway hub and one of the chief industrial centers of the Urals region. The city's diversified metallurgical and engineering industries produce equipment and machine tools for the petroleum and coal industries, as well as agricultural machinery. A major petroleum refinery uses oil transported by pipeline from the West Siberian oilfields, and the city's large chemical industry makes fertilizers and dyes. The city's institutions of higher education include the Perm A.M. Gorky State University, founded in 1916.


title: Perm, Russia

text: The name "Perm" is of Uralic etymology (Komi-Permyak: Перем, "Perem"; , "Perym"). Komi is a member of the Permic branch of the Uralic languages, which is also named for Perm. In Finnish and Vepsian "perämaa" means "far-away land"; similarly, in Hungarian "perem" means "edge" or "verge". The geologic period of the Permian takes its name from the toponym.


title: Perm, Russia

text: The city is located on the bank of the Kama River upon hilly terrain. The Kama is the main tributary of the Volga River and is one of the deepest and most picturesque rivers of Russia. This river is the waterway which grants the Ural Mountains access to the White Sea, Baltic Sea, Sea of Azov, Black Sea, and Caspian Sea. The Kama divides the city into two parts: the central part and the right bank part. The city stretches for along the Kama and across it. The city street grid parallels the Kama River, travelling generally east-west, while other main streets run perpendicularly to those following the river. The grid pattern accommodates the hills of the city where it crosses them.


title: Perm, Russia

text: Another distinguishing feature of the city's relief is the large number of small rivers and brooks. The largest of them are the Mulyanka, the Yegoshikha, the Motovilikha (all are on the left bank of Kama River), and the Gayva (on the right bank).


title: Perm, Russia

text: Perm is located in the old Permiak area. Perm was first mentioned as the village of Yagoshikha () in 1647; however, the history of the modern city of Perm starts with the development of the Ural region by Tsar Peter the Great. Vasily Tatishchev, appointed by the Tsar as a chief manager of Ural factories, founded Perm together with another major centre of the Ural region, Yekaterinburg.


title: Perm, Russia

text: In the 19th century, Perm became a major trade and industrial centre with a population of more than 20,000 people in the 1860s, with several metallurgy, paper, and steamboat producing factories, including one owned by a British entrepreneur. In 1870, an opera theatre was opened in the city, and in 1871 the first phosphoric factory in Russia was built. In 1916, Perm State University—a major educational institution in modern Russia—was opened.


title: Perm, Russia

text: After the outbreak of the Russian Civil War, Perm became a prime target for both sides because of its military munitions factories. It was heavily rumored from July-September 1918 that the Tsarina Alexandra Feodorovna and her four daughters were imprisoned at the perception and Berezine buildings. According to the File on the Tsar, the Grand Duchess Anastasia would have attempted to flee. On December 25, 1918, the Siberian White Army under Anatoly Pepelyayev (who acknowledged the authority of the Omsk Government of Aleksandr Kolchak), took Perm. On July 1, 1919, the city was retaken by the Red Army.


title: Perm, Russia

text: In the 1930s, Perm grew as a major industrial city with aviation, shipbuilding, and chemical factories built during that period. During the Great Patriotic War (World War II), Perm was a vital center of artillery production in the Soviet Union. During the Cold War, Perm became a closed city.


title: Perm, Russia

text: The city is a major administrative, industrial, scientific, and cultural centre. The leading industries include machinery, defence, oil production (about 3% of Russian output), oil refining, chemical and petrochemical, timber and wood processing and the food industry.


title: Perm, Russia

text: On 20 September 2021, a mass shooting occurred at Perm State University, resulting in six fatalities and 47 injuries.


title: Perm, Russia

text: Perm is the administrative centre of the krai and, within the framework of administrative divisions, it also serves as the administrative center of Permsky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is, together with two rural localities, incorporated separately as the city of krai significance of Perm—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the city of krai significance of Perm is incorporated as Perm Urban Okrug.


title: Perm, Russia

text: Perm has the largest industrial output among cities in the Urals, ahead of Yekaterinburg, Chelyabinsk and Ufa, although Perm has a smaller population than these. Thirty-five per cent of Perm Oblast's industry is located in Perm. The largest industries in the city are electric power engineering, oil and gas refining, machine building, chemicals and petrochemicals, forestry processing, printing and food industry.


title: Perm, Russia

text: Several major industrial companies are located in Perm: Perm Motors and Aviadvigatel, major suppliers of engines to the Russian aircraft industry; rocket engine company Proton-PM, which will mass-produce the RD-191 engine for the upcoming Angara rocket family; electric engineering firms Morion JSC, Perm Scientific and Industrial Group, and Perm Electrical Engineering Plant; Russia's largest exporter of cables and wires, JSC KAMKABEL; and oil and natural gas companies such as LUKoil-Perm Ltd. and LUKoilPernefteprodukt Ltd.


title: Perm, Russia

text: Perm is an important railway junction on the Trans-Siberian Railway with lines radiating to Central Russia, the north part of the Urals, and the far east of Russia. Perm has two major railway stations, the historical Perm I and the modern Perm II. The Kama River is an important direct link between the European part of Russia to the sea ports on the White, Baltic, Azov, Black, and Caspian seas.


title: Perm, Russia

text: Perm's public transit network includes tram, bus, and city-railway routes. The formerly important trolleybus service was discontinued in July 2019.


title: Perm, Russia

text: The "Perm Metro" is a planned construction of a metro system which has been considered. The first plans date back to the 1970s. A feasibility study was compiled in 1990 but economic difficulties during the decade prevented its final planning and construction. The plans were revitalised in the early 2000s, but a lack of funding hampered the project and plans were once again put on hold. Light rail has also been considered.


title: Perm, Russia

text: The Perm Opera and Ballet House is one of the best in Russia. There are many other theatres in Perm, including the Drama Theater, the Puppet Theatre, the Theatre for Young Spectators, the Theatre "Stage Molot", and the "mystical" At the Bridge Theatre.


title: Perm, Russia

text: Among the cities museums and galleries, the Perm State Art Gallery is recognised for its outstanding collections of art, including paintings from 15th- to 18th-century art movements, and wooden sculptures from the region. It is housed in a notable early 19th-century structure, once an orthodox cathedral. The spire of the museum towers over the rest of Perm, as it is situated on the Komsomolsky Prospect. Perm is receiving attention from the development of the new Museum of Contemporary Art, Perm Museum of Contemporary Art (PERMM) which officially opened in March 2009.


title: Perm, Russia

text: The RAV Vast steel tongue drum was invented in Perm by Andrey Remyannikov. This instrument is unique in the tongue drum and handpan world because each note has multiple harmonic overtones that resonate with other notes in the drum. The sound consequently has long sustain and reverberation.


title: Perm, Russia

text: The Legend of Perm Bear or The Walking Bear is a sculpture depicting a walking bear, which is also shown on the city's coat of arms. It is situated in the central part of the city on Lenin Street, in front of the Organ Concert Hall and close to the building of Legislative Assembly of Perm Krai. The author of the sculpture is Vladimir Pavlenko, a monumentalist sculptor from Nizhny Tagil, member of the Artists' Union of Russia and UNESCO International Association of Arts.


title: Perm, Russia

text: Perm is a scientific centre; some of the scientific institutes are combined in the Perm Scientific Center of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences.


title: Perm, Russia

text: Perm is a home to several major universities including Perm State University, Perm State Technical University, Perm branch of state university Higher school of economics, Perm State Teachers' Training University, Perm State Medical Academy, Perm State Pharmaceutical Academy, Perm State Agricultural Academy, The Institute of Art and Culture, Perm State Choreographic School, and others. There are also three military schools in Perm.


title: Perm, Russia

text: Perm has a warm summer continental climate (Köppen: "Dfb"). Winters are long, snowy and quite cold. Summers are moderately warm with cool nights, although summers are shorter than winters. Due to its far inland location, there is a distinct lack of seasonal lag resulting in rapid cooling down of the warm weather as days get shorter. This is less evident during winter.


title: Perm, Russia

text: At the time of the official 2010 Census, the ethnic makeup of the city's population whose ethnicity was known (907,955) was:


title: Perm, Russia

text: In 1995-2008, Perm was the location of the Ural Great basketball team — the only Russian basketball champion besides CSKA.


title: Perm, Russia

text: The Nobel-prize-winning writer Boris Pasternak (1890–1960) lived in Perm for a time, and it figures in his novel "Doctor Zhivago" under the fictional name "Yuriatin" where Yuri sees Lara again in the public library.


title: Fastest recorded tennis serves

text: This list is not historically complete. For instance, not listed here, Roscoe Tanner's serve was clocked at 153 mph at Palm Springs in 1978 during the final against Raúl Ramírez. There are also reports that Bill Tilden had a serve that was clocked at 163.3 mph but there is nothing to verify that. Also, Ellsworth Vines in the Wimbledon finals of 1932 clocked 121 mph (without Radar). Udayachand Shetty's winning serve was clocked by radar at 120 mph using a wooden racquet, at the Gilbey Gins fast serve contest held in Chicago on 24 July 1976. This qualified him to take part in the finals at the West Side Tennis Club in Forest Hills Queens on 20 August 1976.


title: Fastest recorded tennis serves

text: Currently, the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) does not formally recognize service speed records made in Challenger tour events due to lack of uniformity in these tournaments' radar guns (including availability or lack thereof). Nevertheless, the serve speed of recorded by Australian Sam Groth at an ATP Challenger event in Busan, South Korea in May 2012 was measured using ATP-approved equipment and other data gathered appeared within a normal range. However, John Isner holds the ATP's "official" record for the fastest serve at .


title: Fastest recorded tennis serves

text: Reilly Opelka with a second serve in the quarterfinals of the 2021 Italian Open in Rome, holds the record for the fastest second serve ever recorded.


title: Fastest recorded tennis serves

text: Multiple suspected errors in speed gun readings have been observed on ATP equipment. These include the recorded serves of John Isner at , Joao Sousa at , Denis Shapovalov at , Laslo Djere at .


title: Fastest recorded tennis serves

text: The WTA doesn’t keep official serve speed rankings of its own for all its events for a variety of reasons—mainly that serve speed isn’t captured on every court at every tournament, and sometimes the technology being used isn’t consistent from event to event. The Women's Tennis Association does have an external partner that it officially recognizes which measures and maintains serve speed data at selected number of events. It does not recognize at all, nor keep tabs of speed records set outside the main draw phase of WTA Tour tournaments. Therefore serve speeds recorded from the qualifying phase of WTA tournaments are not added to the official WTA serve speed statistics. Also WTA tournament serve speeds recorded by different measurement systems or brands (at the discretion of the host or organizer) that are not using technology provided by ATP/WTA's official supplier or partner (currently SMT/IDS), or speeds recorded at any of the non-WTA professional women's tournaments such as the ITF Women's Circuit, the Fed Cup, and Olympics tennis are not added to WTA's official list of records.


title: Argentavis

text: Argentavis magnificens was among the largest flying birds ever to exist. While it is still considered the heaviest flying bird of all time, "Argentavis" was likely surpassed in wingspan by "Pelagornis sandersi" which is estimated to have possessed wings some 20% longer than "Argentavis" and which was described in 2014. "A. magnificens", sometimes called the Giant Teratorn, is an extinct species known from three sites in the Epecuén and Andalhualá Formations in central and northwestern Argentina dating to the Late Miocene (Huayquerian), where a good sample of fossils has been obtained.


title: Argentavis

text: The single known humerus (upper arm bone) specimen of "Argentavis" is somewhat damaged. Even so, it allows a fairly accurate estimate of its length in life. "Argentavis" humerus was only slightly shorter than an entire human arm. The species apparently had stout, strong legs and large feet which enabled it to walk with ease. The bill was large, rather slender, and had a hooked tip with a wide gape.


title: Argentavis

text: "Argentavis" wingspan estimates varied widely depending on the method used for scaling, i.e. regression analyses or comparisons with the California condor. At one time, wingspans have been published for the species up to but more recent estimates put the wingspan more likely in the range of . Whether this span could have reached appears uncertain per modern authorities. At the time of description, "Argentavis" was the largest winged bird known to exist but is now known to have been exceeded by another extinct species, "Pelagornis sandersi", described in 2014 as having a typical wingspan of . "Argentavis" had an estimated height when standing on the ground that was roughly equivalent to that of a person, at , furthermore its total length (from bill tip to tail tip) was approximately .


title: Argentavis

text: Prior published weights gave "Argentavis" a body mass of , but more refined techniques show a more typical mass would likely have been , although weights could have varied depending on conditions. "Argentavis" retains the title of the heaviest flying bird known still by a considerable margin, for example "Pelagornis" weighed no more than . For comparison, the living bird with the largest wingspan is the wandering albatross, averaging and spanning up to . Since "A. magnificens" is known to have been a land bird, another good point of comparison is the Andean condor, the largest extant flighted land bird going on average wing spread and weight, with a wingspan of up to and an average wingspan of around . This condor can weigh up to . New World vultures such as the condor are thought to be the closest living relations to "Argentavis" and other teratorns. Average weights are of course much less in both the albatross and condor than this teratorn, at approximately and , respectively.


title: Argentavis

text: The ability to fly is not a simple question of weight ratios, except in extreme cases; size and structure of the wing must also be taken into account. As a rule of thumb, a wing loading of 25 kg/m is considered the limit for avian flight. The "heaviest" extant flying birds are known to weigh up to (there are several contenders, among which are the European great bustard and the African kori bustard). An individual mute swan, which may have lost the power of flight due to extreme weight, was found to have weighed . Meanwhile, the sarus crane is the tallest flying bird alive, at up to tall, standing about as high as "Argentavis" due to its long legs and neck.


title: Argentavis

text: The largest flying creatures overall that are known to have existed are not birds, but instead distantly-related archosaurs, namely the azhdarchid pterosaurs of the Cretaceous. The wingspans of larger azhdarchids, such as "Quetzalcoatlus" and "Hatzegopteryx", have been estimated to exceed , with less conservative estimates being or more. Mass estimates for these azhdarchids are on the order of and their estimated height on the ground was roughly analogous to an elephant or small giraffe.


title: Argentavis

text: Comparison with extant birds suggests it laid one or two eggs with a mass of somewhat over (smaller than an ostrich egg) every two years. Climate considerations make it likely that the birds incubated over the winter, mates exchanging duties of incubating and procuring food every few days, and that the young were independent after some 16 months, but not fully mature until aged about a dozen years. Mortality must have been very low; to maintain a viable population less than about 2% of birds may have died each year. Because of its large size and ability to fly, "Argentavis" suffered hardly any predation, and mortality was mainly from old age and disease.


title: Argentavis

text: From the size and structure of its wings, it is inferred that "A. magnificens" flew mainly by soaring, using flapping flight only during short periods. It is probable that it used thermal currents as well. It has been estimated that the minimal velocity for the wing of "A. magnificens" is about or . Especially for takeoff, it would have depended on the wind. Although its legs were strong enough to provide it with a running or jumping start, the wings were simply too long to flap effectively until the bird was some height off the ground. However, skeletal evidence suggests that its breast muscles were not powerful enough for wing flapping for extended periods. "Argentavis" may have used mountain slopes and headwinds to take off, and probably could manage to do so from even gently sloping terrain with little effort. It may have flown and lived much like the modern Andean condor, scanning large areas of land from aloft for carrion. The climate of the Andean foothills in Argentina during the late Miocene was warmer and drier than today, which would have further aided the bird in staying aloft atop thermal updrafts.


title: Argentavis

text: Studies on condor flight indicate that "Argentavis" was fully capable of flight in normal conditions as modern large soaring birds spend very little time flapping their wings regardless of environment.