title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: Paul Addison claimed that Churchill opposed anti-Semitism (as in 1904, when he was fiercely critical of the proposed Aliens Bill) and argued that he would never have tried "to stoke up racial animosity against immigrants, or to persecute minorities".


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: Churchill described the Arabs as a "lower manifestation" than the Jews, whom he viewed as a "higher grade race" compared to the "great hordes of Islam".


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: In the lead-up to the Second World War, Churchill expressed disgust at Nazi antisemitism; Clement Attlee recalled that Churchill openly wept when recounting to him the humiliations inflicted upon Jews by the SA during the Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses in April 1933. In August 1932, while in Munich, Churchill was snubbed for a meeting by Adolf Hitler when the two happened to be sharing the same hotel. Churchill expressed to Hitler's confidante Ernst Hanfstaengl, "Why is your chief so violent about the Jews?... what is the sense of being against a man simply because of his birth? How can any man help how he is born?" When this was reported to him, Hitler declined the meeting.


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: In 1937, during the midst of the Arab revolt in Palestine, Churchill spoke at length during Parliamentary debates on the British policy in Palestine. Churchill insisted that the British government not renege on its 1917 promise to create a Jewish national home in Palestine, opposing the idea of granting Palestine self-rule due to the necessary Arab majority that would rule in Britain's place. Churchill held the belief that an eventual Jewish state within Palestine would advance the prosperity of the country, asking rhetorically before the Peel Commission:


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: Why is there injustice done if people come in and make a livelihood for more and make the desert into palm groves and orange groves?


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: Churchill's first-hand experience with Arab culture, both as a soldier and an MP, had "not impressed him", in the words of historian Martin Gilbert; an Arab majority, Churchill maintained, would have resulted in both cultural and material stagnation. Churchill rejected the Arab wish to stop Jewish migration to Palestine:


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: I do not admit that the dog in the manger has the final right to the manger, though he may have lain there for a very long time I do not admit that right. I do not admit for instance that a great wrong has been done to the Red Indians of America or the black people of Australia. I do not admit that a wrong has been to those people by the fact that a stronger race, a higher-grade race or at any rate a more worldly-wise race, to put it that way, has come in and taken their place. I do not admit it. I do not think the Red Indians had any right to say, 'American continent belongs to us and we are not going to have any of these European settlers coming in here'. They had not the right, nor had they the power."


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: At the same time, Churchill believed that British policy should not result in what he called "harsh injustice" to the Arab majority, and that the Arab people would not be displaced by the Jewish influx. He further emphasised the British responsibility to ensure that Palestine's Jews would not discriminate economically against their Arab neighbours, stating that such discrimination would result in the future restriction of Jewish immigration to Palestine. Churchill summarised his views before the Peel Commission bluntly: "It is a question of which civilisation you prefer."


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: In 1904, ten years before the passage of the third Home Rule bill, Churchill said about Irish Home Rule: "I remain of the opinion that a separate parliament for Ireland would be dangerous and impractical." He held a belief that Ireland should have remained part of the United Kingdom. However, in 1912, during a speech in Belfast, he surprisingly supported the creation of an Irish parliament ruled from Dublin, a decision that upset Ulster Unionists. These comments were seen as a retraction of his comments from 1904. He said: "History and poetry, justice and good sense, alike demand that this race, gifted, virtuous and brave, which has lived so long and endured so much should not, in view of her passionate desire, be shut out of the family of nations and should not be lost forever among indiscriminate multitudes of men." He wanted a new relationship between Great Britain and Ireland to foster a "federation of English speaking peoples all over the world".


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: In 1906, Churchill defended the Indian minority in South Africa. In 1919, he openly condemned the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, referring to it as "unutterably monstrous". After the Second World War's end, Churchill paid tribute to the Indian contribution in the war, "The loyalty of the Indian Army to the King-Emperor, the proud fidelity to their treaties of the Indian Princes, the unsurpassed bravery of Indian soldiers and officers, both Moslem and Hindu, shine for ever in the annals of war."


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: Churchill did make disparaging remarks about Indians, mainly directed at Gandhi and the Indian National Congress party and secessionists generally. Some historians have debated whether Churchill was driven in this antipathy by imperialism or by racism. He was angered in autumn 1930 by the Labour government's decision to grant Dominion status to India. He argued that it would hasten calls for full independence from the British Empire. He joined the Indian Empire Society which opposed the granting of Dominion status. In his view, India was not ready for home rule because he believed that the Brahmins would gain control and further oppress both the "untouchables" and the religious minorities. In March 1931, when riots broke out in Cawnpore between Hindus and Muslims, he claimed that the situation proved his case.


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: John Charmley has argued that Churchill's denigration of Mahatma Gandhi in the early 1930s contributed to fellow British Conservatives' dismissal of his early warnings about the rise of Adolf Hitler. Churchill's comments on Indians – as well as his views on race as a whole – were judged by his contemporaries within the Conservative Party to be extreme. Churchill's personal doctor, Lord Moran, commented at one point that, in regards to other races, "Winston thinks only of the colour of their skin." Alternatively, in 1935, Churchill supported the Indian nationalists and advised them on how to improve the country, saying, “I am genuinely sympathetic towards India. I have got real fears about the future. India, I feel is a burden on us. We have got to maintain an army and for the sake of India we have to maintain Singapore and Near East strength. If India could look after herself we would be delighted. … I would be only too delighted if the Reforms are a success. I have all along felt that there are fifty Indias. But you have got the thing now; make it a success and if you do I will advocate your getting much more.” Gandhi responded positively to Churchill's advice, and said, “I have held the opinion that I can always rely on his sympathy and goodwill.” In September 1942, Churchill addressed the House of Commons, praising India for its role and suggesting Gandhi be placed under protection. In 1948, he expressed shock at Gandhi’s assassination.


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: At lunch in July 1944, Churchill said to India's representative on the War Cabinet Sir Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar, "The old idea that the Indian was in any way inferior to the white man must go. We must all be pals together. I want to see a great shining India, of which we can be as proud as we are of a great Canada or a great Australia."


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: During World War II, Churchill prioritised the stockpiling of food for Britain over feeding Indian subjects during the Bengal famine of 1943, against the pleas made by Secretary of State for India, Leo Amery and the Viceroy of India, Lord Linlithgow, but eventually eased the famine by directing shipments of grains to India from Australia. The famine resulted in the death of up to three million Indians, which Shashi Tharoor and Madhusree Mukerjee have blamed on Churchill's response.


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: India Secretary Amery wrote in his diary that upon learning Indian separatists were refusing to resist the Japanese and contribute to the war effort, Churchill, in private conversation, said out of frustration, he "hated Indians" and considered them "a beastly people with a beastly religion". According to Amery, during the Bengal famine, Churchill stated that any potential relief efforts sent to India would accomplish little to nothing, as Indians "breeding like rabbits", but then asked his transport minister how they could be sent food. Leo Amery likened Churchill's understanding of India's problems to King George III's apathy for the Americas. In his private diaries, Amery wrote "on the subject of India, Winston is not quite sane" and that he did not "see much difference between [Churchill's] outlook and Hitler's". In his 2018 biography of Winston Churchill, British historian Andrew Roberts commented on the topic by stating that: "Almost all of the remarks Leo Amery ascribed to Churchill were paraphrases rather than direct quotations, and should be seen in light of what one of the Prime Minister’s private secretaries called his 'provocative humour'. These racially charged jokes, which would be regarded as totally unacceptable today, were then, as one historian puts it, 'part of the bedrock of contemporary British humour and were regular features of Punch during the inter-war years and after'."


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: His War Cabinet rejected Canadian proposals to send food aid to India, asking the US and Australia to send aid in their stead; according to historian Arthur Herman, Churchill's overarching concern was the ongoing Second World War, leading to his decisions to divert food supplies from India to Allied military campaigns. However, Churchill did push for whatever famine relief efforts India itself could provide, but these were hidebound by corruption and inefficiency in the Bengali government. Churchill responded by appointing Earl Wavell as Viceroy on 1 October 1943 and ordering the military under Wavell's direction to transport aid into Bengal. The combination of relief transports and a successfully harvested winter rice crop eased the famine in December 1943, but the death toll by then was over three million. When Churchill was first told of the severity, he wrote to Wavell, "The material and cultural conditions of the many peoples of India will naturally engage your earnest attention. The hard pressures of world-war have for the first time for many years brought conditions of scarcity, verging in some localities into actual famine, upon India. Every effort must be made, even by the diversion of shipping urgently needed for war purposes, to deal with local shortages." In April 1944, Churchill wrote to Franklin Roosevelt, "I am seriously concerned about the food situation in India and its possible reactions on our joint operations. Last year we had a grievous famine in Bengal through which at least 700,000 people died...I have had much hesitation in asking you to add to the great assistance you are giving us with shipping but a satisfactory situation in India is of such vital importance to the success of our joint plans against the Japanese that I am impelled to ask you to consider a special allocation of ships to carry wheat to India from Australia without reducing the assistance you are now providing for us, who are at a positive minimum if war efficiency is to be maintained. We have the wheat (in Australia) but we lack the ships."


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: However, Churchill ordered the excess grain be exported to Europe instead of to the British troops on the front line, adding to the buffer stocks being created against the possibility of future invasions in both Greece and Yugoslavia.


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: In 1902, Churchill called China a "barbaric nation" and advocated for the "partition of China". He wrote:


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: I think we shall have to take the Chinese in hand and regulate them. I believe that as civilized nations become more powerful they will get more ruthless, and the time will come when the world will impatiently bear the existence of great barbaric nations who may at any time arm themselves and menace civilized nations. I believe in the ultimate partition of China – I mean ultimate. I hope we shall not have to do it in our day. The Aryan stock is bound to triumph.


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: In May 1954, Violet Bonham-Carter asked Churchill's opinion about a Labour Party visit to China. Winston Churchill replied:


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: I hate people with slit eyes and pigtails. I don't like the look of them or the smell of them – but I suppose it does no great harm to have a look at them.


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: Churchill was enthusiastic about the potential of chemical warfare after his appointment as Minister of Munitions in July 1917 during the First World War. Out of all ordnance and munitions, it is argued that Churchill who himself saw action on the Western Front placed his greatest faith in chemical warfare to win the war, after the Germans first used it in 1915. When arguing about the use of tear gas against Afghan rebels in the North-West Frontier Province of the British Raj in 1919, Churchill said "If it is fair for an Afghan to shoot down a British soldier behind a rock and cut him in pieces as he lies wounded on the ground, why is it not fair for a British artilleryman to fire a shell which makes the said native sneeze? It is really too silly."


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: In 1919 during the Russian Revolution, as Minister of War and Air, Churchill secretly had 50,000 stockpiled adamsite gas bombs shipped to Arkhangelsk in Russia for use against the Communist Bolshevik Red Army after Sir Keith Price, the head of chemical warfare at Porton Down, agreed with Churchill that its use would be effective. 509 were dropped in total to good effect, however this secret was soon revealed, and Churchill lied that the Bolsheviks were using chemical weapons, and the remaining British gas bombs were dumped in the White Sea.


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: In 1920, more than 100,000 armed tribesman revolted against British control in Iraq. Estimations suggested that 25,000 British and 80,000 Indian troops would be required to keep control of the country, however Churchill argued that if Britain relied on its air power, the number of troops in Iraq could be reduced to just 4,000 British and 10,000 Indian troops. This argument convinced the British government, and the recently formed Royal Air Force was sent to Iraq. Over the next few months the RAF dropped 97 tons of bombs resulting in 9,000 Iraqis being killed, but even so this failed to quell resistance — Arab and Kurdish uprisings in Iraq continued to endanger British rule. Churchill suggested the use of tear gas by the RAF against the rebel tribesmen (referring to them as "uncivilized tribes") instead of continuing the bombing campaign as tear gas would frighten and disperse armed rebel tribesmen without loss of life and without serious or lasting effects on those caught in the gas.


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: I do not understand this squeamishness about the use of gas. We have definitely adopted the position at the Peace Conference of arguing in favour of the retention of gas as a permanent method of warfare. It is sheer affectation to lacerate a man with the poisonous fragment of a bursting shell and to boggle at making his eyes water by means of lachrymatory [tear] gas.


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: I am strongly in favour of using poisoned gas against uncivilised tribes. The moral effect should be so good that the loss of life should be reduced to a minimum. It is not necessary to use only the most deadly gasses: gasses can be used which cause great inconvenience and would spread a lively terror and yet would leave no serious permanent effects on most of those affected.


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: Churchill's use of "uncivilised tribes" to refer to the rebel Iraqi tribesman, as well as his eagerness to use chemical weapons against them, is today a controversial topic. Unknown to many today, "Uncivilised tribe" was the then-accepted official term for a stateless opponent: the British Manual of Military Law stated that the law of war applied only to conflict "between civilized nations." Already in the Manual of 1914, it was clearly stated that "they do not apply in wars with uncivilized States and tribes"; instead the British commander should observe "the rules of justice and humanity" according to his own individual discretion. It should also be noted that although such language is seen as patronising and racist today, it was hardly unique to use such a phrase in the 1920s. Churchill's advocation for the use of chemical weapons by Britain on her enemies was not reserved for any specific peoples or race by any means. His defenders say that what he intended was the use of generally non-lethal (tear) gas, but those gases were known to kill children and the ill.


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: During the Second World War when Churchill was Prime Minister, he stated he was fully prepared to use lethal chemical weapons against German soldiers if Operation Sealion (Nazi Germany's planned 1940 invasion of the British mainland) had succeeded. On 30 May 1940, he told the Cabinet "we should not hesitate to contaminate our beaches with gas". He also proposed its use against the Japanese Empire during the same World War.


title: Racial views of Winston Churchill

text: In 2002, after Churchill was named the Greatest Briton of all time, journalist Amy Iggulden wrote an article collating some of Churchill's comments on race. According to Amit Roy in 2003, Indians had traditionally seen Churchill in a negative light and his imperialist views as racist. In 2010, Madhusree Mukerjee wrote "Churchill's Secret War" about the possible role played by Churchill in the Bengal famine. By the mid-2010s, there had been increase in discussion of the topic and several media outlets questioned whether there would be a reassessment of Churchill's legacy. Labour parliamentary candidate Benjamin Whittingham gained wide attention when he called Churchill a white supremacist in 2014. During the George Floyd protests in the United Kingdom in June 2020, the statue of Winston Churchill in Parliament Square, London, was vandalised with spray paint with the phrase "was a racist" being scrawled underneath his name. Photos circulated online and the public outrage this caused was widespread both in the UK and abroad and garnered much media coverage which ultimately furthered public discussion of Churchill's views on race. In October 2020, Churchill College launched "Churchill, Empire and Race", to critically examine Churchill's views and actions relating to empire and race. In June 2021, the programme was abruptly terminated following a dispute with the college's leadership. In 2022, Tariq Ali wrote "".


title: Community service

text: Community service is unpaid work performed by a person or group of people for the benefit and betterment of their community without any form of compensation. Community service can be distinct from volunteering, since it is not always performed on a voluntary basis and may be compulsory. While individual benefits may be realized, they may be performed for a variety of reasons, including citizenship requirements, alternatives to criminal justice sanctions, school or class requirements, and requisites to obtain certain benefits.


title: Community service

text: Community service is a non-paying job performed by one person or a group of people for the benefit of their community or its institutions. Community service is distinct from volunteering, since it is not always performed on a voluntary basis. It may be performed for a variety of reasons.


title: Community service

text: Some educational jurisdictions in the United States require students to perform community service hours to graduate from high school. In some high schools in Washington, for example, students must finish 200 hours of community service to get a diploma. Some school districts in Washington, including Seattle Public Schools, differentiate between community service and "service learning," requiring students to demonstrate that their work has contributed to their education. If a student in high school is taking an Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID) course, community service is often needed. Whether American public schools could require volunteer hours for high school graduation was challenged in "Immediato v. Rye Neck School District", but the court found no violation.


title: Community service

text: Many other high schools do not require community service hours for graduation, but still see an impressive number of students get involved in their communities. For example, in Palo Alto, California, students at Palo Alto High School log about 45,000 hours of community service every year. As a result, the school's College and Career Center awards 250–300 students the President's Volunteer Service Award every year for their hard work.


title: Community service

text: Though not technically considered a requirement, many colleges include community service as an unofficial requirement for acceptance. However, some colleges prefer work experience over community service, and some require that their students also continue community service for some specific number of hours to graduate. Some schools also offer unique "community service" courses, awarding credit to students who complete a certain number of community service hours. Some academic honor societies, along with some fraternities and sororities in North America, require community service to join and others require each member to continue doing community service.


title: Community service

text: Many students organizations exist for the purpose of community service, the largest of which is Alpha Phi Omega. Community service projects are also done by sororities and fraternities.


title: Community service

text: Beginning in the 1980s, colleges began using service-learning as a pedagogy. A partnership of college presidents began in 1985 with the initiative of boosting community service in their colleges. This alliance called Campus Compact, led the way for many other schools to adopt service-learning courses and activities.


title: Community service

text: Service-learning courses vary widely in time span, quality, and in the balance of "service" and "learning" stressed in the course. A typical service-learning course, however, has these factors in common:


title: Community service

text: Reflection is sometimes symbolized by the hyphen in the term "service-learning" to indicate that it has a central role in learning by serving. Reflection is simply a scheduled consideration of one's own experiences and thoughts. This can take many forms, including journals, blogs, and discussions.


title: Community service

text: Service-learning courses present learning the material in context, meaning that students often learn effectively and tend to apply what was learned. As the book "Where’s the Learning in Service-Learning?" notes, "Students engaged in service-learning are engaged in authentic situations; they get to know real people whose lives are affected by these issues… As a result, they have lots of questions—real questions that they want to have answered." Thus, students become interested and motivated to learn the materials to resolve their questions.


title: Community service

text: Community service learning strives to connect or re-connect students with serving their community after they finish their course. It creates a bridge for the lack of community service found among college-age people in the United States.


title: Community service

text: The one serving may be able to take something away from the experience and be able to use any newfound knowledge or interpersonal discoveries to improve their future servitude and the people around them. To gain the most from community service requires balancing learning with serving. Learning and serving at the same time improves a student's community while teaching life lessons and building character.


title: Community service

text: Community service-learning is "about leadership development as well as traditional information and skill acquisition". Therefore, the combination of people doing service and learning at the same time teaches them how to be effective and how to be effective regarding what is important to them. It can improve their overall experience and application opportunities they gain from it. By adding service to learning, and balancing the two, community service can become more than just the act of serving. The goal of service-learning is to achieve large change through small actions. By being a classroom, a hands-on learning experience, and an opportunity to change the community, people are able to not only serve, but impact themselves as well.


title: Community service

text: According to Fayetteville State University, "service learning is a process of involving students in community service activities combined with facilitated means for applying the experience to their academic and personal development. It is a form of experiential education aimed at enhancing and enriching student learning in course material. When compared to other forms of experiential learning like internships and cooperative education, it is similar in that it is student-centered, hands-on and directly applicable to the curriculum."


title: Community service

text: Professor Freddy Cardoza defines community service-learning as "a pedogogy (or a specific teaching-learning approach) that has few lectures, and is a more interactive hands on educational strategy which provides students with instruction while leading them through meaningful community service experiences and engaging them in personal reflection on those experiences in order to build character and to teach problem-solving skills and civic responsibility." Cardoza stressed that it was important for a student take some time and reflect on what they are experiencing, seeing, doing, and what problems they are encountering and how they are going to apply what they have been learning to solve these problems. In other words, service-learning aims to link the personal and interpersonal development with cognitive development, as well as equipping the student with critical knowledge to help them understand the world.


title: Community service

text: Character.org defines service-learning as "different than community service in several key ways. Service learning includes student leadership, reflective and academic components, and chances for celebration once the service activity has been successfully completed. Students reflect on community needs, ways to help, and once their service has been completed, they can internalise how their efforts have helped, while learning more about academics such as geography, math, or science."


title: Community service

text: For community service to be effective, a different sector of community service learning; critical service, emerged in colleges throughout nations. The emergence of critical service learning in colleges had to do with solving the question of how students can create longstanding, effective change in the services they do for their communities.Critical service learning is centered around teaching and learning methods that focus on the transformation of power and deconstructions of systemic inequalities through community engagement by students. According to Mitchell, there are three different approaches required to achieve a critical learning service status. These are: redistributing power to marginalized groups of people; developing meaningful partnerships with community members/partners and those in the classroom; and, approaching service learning through the lens of making impactful social change. The ultimate goal of this sector is to connect students' services to their learning discourses. Students then ask themselves how their services create political and social change in these communities. Meeting individual needs in relation to poverty is not the main focus for critical service learning. Instead it is to address how students can become agents of social change and dismantle the institutions that allow for inequalities to exist in the communities they serve in the first place.


title: Community service

text: Critical service learning emerged though the ideologies of Dewey in 1902. His main goal was reconnecting education and communities. He argued that it was essential that students took their learning discourses and used it to connect to their personal experiences. Doing this would allow for social development and the well-being of communities. Between World War 1 and World War 2 Kilpatrick, a  progressive leader, introduced “the project method” to educational practices. He stressed the importance of introducing social reforms that focused on the livelihood of persons outside of the classrooms. Some attempts to create policy for critical service learning started in the 50s and continued through the 60s. In the 50s, The Citizenship Education Project set precedents to understanding the frameworks between learning in the classrooms and action in the communities. This precedent led to many more political reform efforts to incorporate critical service learning into education in the 70s. Many educational institutions introduced political proposals that focused on the integration of learning and civic engagement with communities. Reform documents were not made until the 80s but Reagan and his era had already moved past progressivism and towards neoliberalism. Since reforms in the past 100 years  haven't seemed to work, educational leaders and schools have made critical service learning into more grassroots type movements. By not focusing on state reforms, critical service learning has now become a methodology in University programs and other local organizations. Community and Critical service brings an opportunity of change for students and for the communities they serve.


title: Community service

text: People convicted of a crime may be required to perform community service or to work for agencies in the sentencing jurisdiction either entirely or partially as a substitution of other judicial remedies and sanctions, such as incarceration or fines. For instance, a fine may be reduced in exchange for a prescribed number of hours of community service. The court may allow the defendant to choose their community service, which must then be documented by "credible agencies", such as non-profit organizations, or may mandate a specific service.


title: Community service

text: Sometimes the sentencing is specifically targeted to the defendant's crime, for example, a litterer may have to clean a park or roadside, or a drunk driver might appear before school groups to explain why drunk driving is a crime. Also, a sentence allowing for a broader choice may prohibit certain services that the offender would reasonably be expected to perform anyway.


title: Community service

text: Some employers involve their staff in some kind of community service programming, such as with the United Way of America. This may be completely voluntary or a condition of employment, or anything in between.


title: Community service

text: In addition, approximately 40% of Fortune 500 companies offer volunteer grant programs where companies provide monetary donations to nonprofit organizations in recognition of their employee's volunteerism (e.g. $500 volunteer grant after 25 hours of community service).


title: Community service

text: Community service in the United States is often similar to that in Canada. In Europe and Australia, community service is an option for many criminal sentences as an alternative to incarceration. In the United Kingdom, community service is now officially referred to by the Home Office as more straightforward "compulsory unpaid work". Compulsory unpaid work includes up to 300 hours of activities, such as conservation work, cleaning up graffiti, or working with a charity. The Howard League for Penal Reform (the world's oldest prison reform organization) is a prominent advocate for increased community sentencing to reduce prison population and improve rehabilitation.


title: Community service

text: Starting in 2010, Danish high school students receive a special diploma if they complete at least 20 hours of voluntary work.


title: Community service

text: The International Baccalaureate program formerly required 50 hours of community service, together with a written reflection on the service performed, to fulfill the requirement of 150 hours of CAS (creativity, action, and service) and receive an IB Diploma.


title: Community service

text: Florence Nightingale organized fundraisers to raise money for the hospital and arrange more stable living conditions to improve the health of the soldiers in the hospital. Florence Nightingale served a specific group of people and benefited the public—which is an example of community service.


title: Community service

text: Many institutions require and/or give incentive to students or employees alike to volunteer their time to community service programs. From volunteering to participating in such charity events like walks or runs, institutes continue the practice or requiring their employees or students to grow in camaraderie while giving back to various communities. Many institutions also provide opportunities for employees and students to work together, and most student groups participate in their own form of community service. Each is unique in its own right; all are incredibly popular with employees; and in all of these programs, human resources plays an integral role.


title: Community service

text: One such program, Johns Hopkins University, under the leadership of Johns Hopkins University president Ronald J. Daniels and the chief executive officer of Baltimore City Schools, the university's human resources and community affairs departments worked with the school system to develop the Johns Hopkins Takes Time for Schools program in 2009, launching it on March 3, 2010. The program is a service partnership aimed at providing support and assistance to Baltimore City Schools (BCS) while providing faculty and staff an avenue for community service, offering their talents to the city's youth and improving the administrative and educational capacities of the area's school system.


title: Community service

text: Some institutes even give their students or employees a guaranteed number of days or weeks of leave for certain acceptable community service programs. One example is East Carolina University, which gives 24 hours of community service leave for full-time employees per year as an incentive and compensation for community service.


title: Community service

text: Religion is one of the greatest motivating forces behind community service. “Although beneficence and good works are also important secular goals, religion remains one of the major motivating forces behind community service.” All the major religious groups emphasize values of charity, compassion, and community.


title: Community service

text: Beyond required community service, some religious groups emphasize serving one's community. These groups and churches reach out by holding Vacation Bible Schools for children, hosting Red Cross blood drives, having fall carnivals, or offering free meals. Through these services, churches are able to benefit neighborhoods and families. Some churches create non-profit organizations that can help the public. Crisis pregnancy centers are often run by religious groups to promote pro-life values in local families. To meet impoverished people's needs, some churches provide a food pantry or start a homeless shelter. Also, certain churches provide day care so that busy parents can work.


title: Community service

text: Christianity promotes community service, in fact, volunteer work is popular amongst churches. According to Diana R. Garland, a professor of social work at Baylor University in Texas, “In the United States, congregations serve as a major source of volunteers, with church attendance known to be the best general predictor of involvement in volunteering.” Some non-governmental (NGO) community service organizations were founded by Christians seeking to put their beliefs into practice. Three prominent examples are Samaritan's Purse, Salvation Army, and Habitat for Humanity.


title: Community service

text: Samaritan's Purse was inspired by a prayer of evangelist Robert Pierce, "Let my heart be broken for the things which break the heart of God." After traveling through Asia and seeing first-hand the suffering of impoverished children, lepers, and orphans—in 1970, Pierce founded Samaritan's Purse. Today, Samaritan's Purse reaches millions of people across the globe by providing aid such as disaster relief, medical assistance, and child care. A notable Samaritan's Purse project is Operation Christmas Child headed by Franklin Graham.


title: Community service

text: The Salvation Army was founded by William Booth and his wife Catherine Booth in 1865. Booth was a Methodist minister and preacher on the streets of London. His tent meetings gathered crowds of drunkards, prostitutes and thieves who eventually became the first "soldiers" in the army, which has grown to 1,442,388 members in 126 countries. The Salvation Army's motto is "Doing the Most Good" and does so by providing aid such as shelter, food, clothing, spiritual training and disaster relief.


title: Community service

text: Habitat for Humanity provides housing for people in need. Founded by Millard Fuller, its vision is to "...put God’s love into action by bringing people together to build homes, communities and hope". Habitat for Humanity has built or repaired over 800,000 homes and served more than 4 million people worldwide since its creation in 1976. They describe their vision as "...a world where everyone has a decent place to live".


title: Community service

text: Islam promotes volunteerism by calling on its followers to provide their time, knowledge, and wealth of their own free will. In Islam one of the pillars of the religion is "Zakat" which is the obligatory form of charity especially to the needy. There are two different forms of volunteerism in Islam.


title: Community service

text: The first form of Volunteering involves spending money or providing physical support in order to help others. This can be a form of Zakat or Sadaqah. These two acts of volunteering also counts as forms of worship for the sake of spiritual purification. This form is called Al-Mujahadah fi sabil Allah bi al-Amwal, which means, striving in the cause of Allah with one’s goods (Sulaiman).


title: Community service

text: The second form of volunteering involves providing goods and services without spending money. An example providing a service without spending money would be, "visiting the sick, being an attendant to the blind, collection and distribution of donations, constructing houses (for the homeless), schools (for the poor children), orphanages, retirement centers, nursing homes, hospitals and working in the Nongovernment Islamic Organizations that need volunteers due to limited resources"(Sulaiman). The second example would be," providing intellectual support, for example, being a teacher or tutor for the poor" (Sulaiman).


title: Community service

text: Community service also allows those participating to reflect on the difference they are making in society. Some participants of a community service project may find themselves gaining a greater understanding of their roles in the community, as well as the impact of their contributions towards those in need of service. Because community service outlets vary, those who serve are exposed to many different kinds of people, environments, and situations.


title: Community service

text: A benefit of participating in community service is to gain greater experience and benefits to help individuals to gain advantages for their careers. According to "The Give and Take of Volunteering: Motives, Benefits, and Personal Connections among Irish Volunteers", " Career benefits took different forms depending on the person's career stage and on the type of work involved"(McKeena). At the beginning of a profession, volunteering could be beneficial, giving people at a more practical level of hands-on experience in health and social care, while persons at a more advanced level of their careers achieved career-related benefits from high-level relationships for job-related reasons (Mckenna).


title: Community service

text: With each new community service project, some participants may gain insightful experience in a variety of areas. Participants may also internalize the information that they found personally insightful for future use. While simply performing community service is valuable to the recipients, those serving often find it beneficial to pause and reflect on how they are changing society for the better. Schools often take students on community service projects so they can learn how their individual actions affect the well-being of the public. Participants may find that serving the public fosters a more solidified view of self and purpose.


title: Community service

text: Those involved in community service learning may also find that after serving the community for an extended period of time, they have an advantage in real-world experience. Eventually, the skills and knowledge obtained while working with the community may be applied in future areas of work. Community service may also increase a participant's social connectivity. Because most community service opportunities allow others to interact and work with other individuals, this service may help volunteers network and connect with others towards a common goal.


title: Community service

text: People gain the most from their community service projects when they volunteer their time to help people that they have never interacted with before. This direct contact allows people to see life from a different perspective and reevaluate their opinions of others. Many young people who get involved in community service come out with a more well-rounded worldview.


title: Community service

text: Another benefit in participating in community service is a greater understanding and appreciation for diversity. Appreciating other cultures and breaking down stereotypes is important to becoming a responsible citizen and better person. By participating in a community service project where interaction is required, personal relationships can begin to grow. These personal relationships help people have informal and consistent interactions that through time, often breakdown negative stereotypes.


title: Community service

text: These relationships can also facilitate more opinions and viewpoints surrounding various topics that help participants to grow in diversity. Stereotypes can be defined as, "believing unfairly that all people or things with a specific characteristic are the same." Stereotypes often reveal themselves in quick judgments based solely off of visible characteristics. These judgments move into a biased opinion when you believe that these judgments are always true. These stereotypes can be harmful to both personal relationships and relationships within the work place. Community service helps people to realize that everyone does not fall into these preconceived ideas.


title: Community service

text: Along with breaking down stereotypes, community service work can assist people in realizing that those they are helping and working with are no different from themselves. This realization can lead to empathizing with others. Learning to understand the needs and motivations of others, especially those who live different lives from our own, is an important part of living a productive life. This leads to a view of humanity that can help a person stay free of biased opinions of others and can lead to a more diverse and ultimately more productive and thought provoking life.


title: Community service

text: Also, volunteer work that’s relevant to your job position can be added as work experience in your resume. According to U.S. News & World Report, “If your volunteer work is relevant to the job position, you may want to include it under the professional or work experience sections on your resume.” This depends on how long you’ve worked as a volunteer. If you don’t have more than 2 years of experience, it’s not worthwhile to list your community service as work experience.


title: Community service

text: Civilians have a desire and aptitude to organize themselves apart from government to address the needs in their communities. However, making sure an effort has a positive effect on society requires clear analysis and a strategy. Analysis identifies root causes of problems that project implementation must address. Individuals, like neighborhoods, enjoy permanent change only if it is an inner one—and the greatest form of community service is encouraging that inner change.


title: Community service

text: Abraham Kuyper advocates "sphere sovereignty", which honors the independence and autonomy of the "intermediate bodies" in society, such as schools, press, business, and the arts. He champions the right of every community to operate its own organizations and manage its own groups, with the foundational belief that parents know what their child really needs, and that local people are more capable of helping fellow locals. Those who agree with his views perceive community service as a tool of empowerment that can help people achieve better employment and lifestyle, avoiding what they see as destructive decision making for mal-established goals by poorly developed community service efforts.


title: Community service

text: Amy L. Sherman, in her book "Restorers of Hope", suggests that community service planning should be made with the valuable opinion of the local residents, since they have firsthand knowledge of the inside realities of their community's current state. Making them a part of the movement, change or project creates in the members of the community a sense of belonging and hope.


title: Bessie Coleman

text: Bessie Coleman (January 26, 1892April 30, 1926) was an early American civil aviator. She was the first African-American woman and first Native American to hold a pilot license. She earned her license from the "Fédération Aéronautique Internationale" on June 15, 1921, and was the first Black person to earn an international pilot's license.


title: Bessie Coleman

text: Born to a family of sharecroppers in Texas, Coleman worked in the cotton fields at a young age while also studying in a small segregated school. She attended one term of college at Langston University. Coleman developed an early interest in flying, but African Americans, Native Americans, and women had no flight training opportunities in the United States, so she saved and obtained sponsorships in Chicago to go to France for flight school.


title: Bessie Coleman

text: She then became a high-profile pilot in notoriously dangerous air shows in the United States. She was popularly known as "Queen Bess" and "Brave Bessie", and hoped to start a school for African-American fliers. Coleman died in a plane crash in 1926. Her pioneering role was an inspiration to early pilots and to the African-American and Native American communities.


title: Bessie Coleman

text: Elizabeth Coleman (sometimes, Bessie) was born on January 26, 1892, in Atlanta, Texas, the tenth of thirteen children of George Coleman, a mixed African American who had Cherokee grandparents, and Susan Coleman, who was African American. Nine of the children survived childhood, which was typical for the time. When Coleman was two years old, her family moved to Waxahachie, Texas, where they lived as sharecroppers. Coleman began attending school in Waxahachie at the age of six. She walked four miles each day to her segregated, one-room school, where she loved to read and established herself as an outstanding math student. She completed her elementary education in that school.


title: Bessie Coleman

text: Every year, Coleman's routine of school, chores, and church was interrupted by the cotton harvest. In 1901, George Coleman left his family. He returned to Oklahoma, or Indian Territory, as it was then called, to find better opportunities, but his wife and children did not follow. At the age of 12, Bessie was accepted into the Missionary Baptist Church School on scholarship. When she turned eighteen, she took her savings and enrolled in the Oklahoma Colored Agricultural and Normal University in Langston, Oklahoma (now called Langston University). She completed one term before her money ran out and she returned home.


title: Bessie Coleman

text: In 1915, at the age of 23, Coleman moved to Chicago, Illinois, where she lived with her brothers. In Chicago, she worked as a manicurist at the White Sox Barber Shop. There she heard stories of flying during wartime from pilots returning home from World War I. She took a second job as a restaurant manager of a chili parlor to save money in hopes of becoming a pilot. American flight schools of the time admitted neither women nor black people, so Robert S. Abbott, founder and publisher of the "Chicago Defender" newspaper, encouraged her to study abroad. Abbot publicized Coleman's quest in his newspaper and she received financial sponsorship from banker Jesse Binga and the "Defender".


title: Bessie Coleman

text: Bessie Coleman took a French-language class at the Berlitz Language Schools in Chicago and then traveled to Paris on November 20, 1920, so she could earn her pilot license. She learned to fly in a Nieuport 564 biplane with "a steering system that consisted of a vertical stick the thickness of a baseball bat in front of the pilot and a rudder bar under the pilot's feet."


title: Bessie Coleman

text: On June 15, 1921, Coleman became the first black woman and first Native American to earn an aviation pilot's license and the first black person and first Native American to earn an international aviation license from the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. Determined to polish her skills, Coleman spent the next two months taking lessons from a French ace pilot near Paris and, in September 1921, she sailed for America. She became a media sensation when she returned to the U.S.


title: Bessie Coleman

text: With the age of commercial flight still a decade or more in the future, Coleman quickly realized that in order to make a living as a civilian aviator she would have to become a "barnstorming" stunt flier, performing dangerous tricks in the air with the then-still-novel technology of airplanes for paying audiences. But, to succeed in this highly competitive arena, she would need advanced lessons and a more extensive repertoire. Returning to Chicago, Coleman could not find anyone willing to teach her, so in February 1922, she sailed again for Europe.


title: Bessie Coleman

text: She spent the next two months in France completing an advanced course in aviation. She then left for the Netherlands to meet with Anthony Fokker, one of the world's most distinguished aircraft designers. She also traveled to Germany, where she visited the Fokker Corporation and received additional training from one of the company's chief pilots. She then returned to the United States to launch her career in exhibition flying.


title: Bessie Coleman

text: "Queen Bess," as she was known, was a highly popular draw for the next five years. Invited to important events and often interviewed by newspapers, she was admired by both blacks and whites. She primarily flew Curtiss JN-4 Jenny biplanes and other aircraft that had been army surplus aircraft left over from the war. She made her first appearance in an American airshow on September 3, 1922, at an event honoring veterans of the all-black 369th Infantry Regiment of World War I. Held at Curtiss Field on Long Island near New York City, and sponsored by her friend Abbott and the "Chicago Defender" newspaper, the show billed Coleman as "the world's greatest woman flier" and featured aerial displays by eight other American ace pilots, and a jump by black parachutist Hubert Julian.


title: Bessie Coleman

text: Six weeks later she returned to Chicago, performing in an air show, this time to honor World War I's 370th Infantry Regiment. Coleman delivered a stunning demonstration of daredevil maneuversincluding figure eights, loops, and near-ground dips to a large and enthusiastic crowd at the Checkerboard Airdrome – now the grounds of Hines Veterans Administration Medical Center, Hines, Illinois, Loyola Hospital, Maywood, and nearby Cook County Forest Preserve.


title: Bessie Coleman

text: The thrill of stunt flying and the admiration of cheering crowds were only part of Coleman's dream. Coleman never lost sight of her childhood vow to one day "amount to something." As a professional aviator, Coleman often would be criticized by the press for her opportunistic nature and the flamboyant style she brought to her exhibition flying. She also quickly gained a reputation as a skilled and daring pilot who would stop at nothing to complete a difficult stunt. In Los Angeles, she broke a leg and three ribs when her plane stalled and crashed on February 22, 1923.


title: Bessie Coleman

text: Committed to promoting aviation and combating racism, Coleman spoke to audiences across the country about the pursuit of aviation and goals for African Americans. She absolutely refused to participate in aviation events that prohibited the attendance of African Americans.


title: Bessie Coleman

text: In the 1920s, she met the Rev. Hezakiah Hill and his wife Viola on a speaking tour in Orlando, Florida. The community activists invited her to stay with them at the parsonage of Mount Zion Missionary Baptist Church on Washington Street in the neighbourhood of Parramore. A local street was renamed "Bessie Coleman" Street in her honour in 2013. The couple, who treated her as a daughter, persuaded her to stay, and Coleman opened a beauty shop in Orlando to earn extra money to buy her own plane.


title: Bessie Coleman

text: Through her media contacts, she was offered a role in a feature-length film titled, "Shadow and Sunshine", to be financed by the African American Seminole Film Producing Company. She gladly accepted, hoping the publicity would help to advance her career and provide her with some of the money she needed to establish her own flying school. But upon learning that the first scene in the movie required her to appear in tattered clothes, with a walking stick and a pack on her back, she refused to proceed. "Clearly ... [Bessie's] walking off the movie set was a statement of principle. Opportunist though she was about her career, she was never an opportunist about race. She had no intention of perpetuating the derogatory image most whites had of most blacks," wrote Doris Rich.


title: Bessie Coleman

text: Coleman would not live long enough to establish a school for young black aviators, but her pioneering achievements served as an inspiration for a generation of African-American men and women. "Because of Bessie Coleman," wrote Lieutenant William J. Powell in "Black Wings" (1934), dedicated to Coleman, "we have overcome that which was worse than racial barriers. We have overcome the barriers within ourselves and dared to dream." Powell served in a segregated unit during World War I, and tirelessly promoted the cause of black aviation through his book, his journals, and the Bessie Coleman Aero Club, which he founded in 1929.


title: Bessie Coleman

text: On April 30, 1926, Coleman was in Jacksonville, Florida. She had recently purchased a Curtiss JN-4 (Jenny) in Dallas. Her mechanic and publicity agent, 24-year-old William D. Wills, flew the plane from Dallas in preparation for an airshow and had to make three forced landings along the way because the plane had been so poorly maintained. Upon learning this, Coleman's friends and family did not consider the aircraft safe and implored her not to fly it, but she refused. On take-off, Wills was flying the plane with Coleman in the other seat. She was planning a parachute jump for the next day, and wanted to examine the terrain as seen from the cockpit.


title: Bessie Coleman

text: About ten minutes into the flight, the plane unexpectedly went into a dive and then a spin at 3,000 feet above the ground. Coleman was thrown from the plane at , and was killed instantly when she hit the ground. Wills was unable to regain control of the plane, and it plummeted to the ground. He died upon impact. The plane exploded, bursting into flames. Although the wreckage of the plane was badly burned, it was later discovered that a wrench used to service the engine had jammed the controls. Coleman was 34 years old.


title: Bessie Coleman

text: Funeral services were held in Florida before her body was sent back to Chicago. While there was little mention in most media, news of her death was widely carried in the African-American press. Ten thousand mourners attended her ceremonies in Chicago, which were led by activist Ida B. Wells.


title: Hot Summer Nights (film)

text: Hot Summer Nights is a 2017 American neo-noir coming-of-age crime drama film written and directed by Elijah Bynum, in his directorial debut. It stars Timothée Chalamet, Maika Monroe, Alex Roe, Maia Mitchell, William Fichtner, Thomas Jane, Rachel O'Shaughnessy, and Emory Cohen. Set on Cape Cod in the summer of 1991, the plot follows Daniel Middleton, a teenage boy who becomes entangled in the drug trade.


title: Hot Summer Nights (film)

text: The film premiered at South by Southwest on March 13, 2017. It was released on June 28, 2018, through DirecTV Cinema, before beginning a theatrical limited release on July 27, 2018, by A24.


title: Hot Summer Nights (film)

text: In 1991, Daniel, an awkward teenager, is sent by his mother to spend the summer with his aunt on Cape Cod after the death of his father. He is not excited about it at first, but soon he meets Hunter Strawberry, the bad boy in town. While working at a convenience store, Hunter hurriedly asks Daniel to hide marijuana from approaching police. They later become business partners in selling drugs from a man named Dex. He provides Daniel and Hunter with the marijuana they need to facilitate their business but warns them about the fatal consequences if he gets crossed.


title: Hot Summer Nights (film)

text: Hunter's younger sister McKayla is the most crushed-on girl on Cape Cod. After escaping from her boyfriend at the drive-in, McKayla asks Daniel to take her home. Although Hunter forbids him to see McKayla, Daniel cannot help himself. At the summer carnival, he surprisingly kisses her, resulting in a beating by McKayla's boyfriend and his friends. Daniel and McKayla soon start dating secretly. At the same time, Hunter develops a relationship with Amy, the daughter of Sergeant Frank Calhoun, who becomes suspicious about his daughter's whereabouts.


title: Hot Summer Nights (film)

text: Selling marijuana becomes very profitable, and Daniel and Hunter start to make a lot of money. Their success and rising tensions within their lives intertwine with the impending Hurricane Bob, soon to reach Cape Cod. Daniel wants to start selling cocaine without letting Dex know, but Dex finds out and wants Hunter to kill Daniel. Hunter tells Daniel to run and never come back, and when Dex finds Hunter, he kills him. McKayla sees her brother killed and flees town. According to the narrator, Daniel and McKayla are never seen again.


title: Hot Summer Nights (film)

text: On March 26, 2015, it was announced that Elijah Bynum would make his directorial debut with his own 2013 Black List script, "Hot Summer Nights", set in 1991 Cape Cod. Imperative Entertainment would finance and produce the film with its Bradley Thomas and Dan Friedkin. On June 24, 2015, Maika Monroe, Timothée Chalamet, and Alex Roe were cast in the lead roles. Later, Maia Mitchell, Emory Cohen and Thomas Jane were also added to the cast. Filming began in August 2015 in Atlanta, Georgia, subbing in as Cape Cod.


title: Hot Summer Nights (film)

text: "Hot Summer Nights" premiered at South by Southwest on March 13, 2017. In September 2017, A24 and DirecTV Cinema acquired distribution rights to the film. It was released through DirecTV Cinema on June 28, 2018, before receiving a theatrical limited release by A24 on July 27, 2018.


title: Hot Summer Nights (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 43% based on 40 reviews, with an average score of 5.21/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Hot Summer Nights" is easy on the eyes and clearly indebted to some great films, but its strengths – including a charismatic young cast – are often outweighed by its uninspired story." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 44 out of 100, based on 18 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews."


title: Hot Summer Nights (film)

text: Michael Roffman, writing for "Consequence of Sound", praised the film, calling it "A brazen anti-coming-of-age thriller that oozes with all the right confidence, chutzpah, and passion." Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" magazine gave the film 2.5 out of 5, and wrote, "The result is chaotic, but never lacking in energy – and the cast is up for anything."


title: Hot Summer Nights (film)

text: "IndieWire" critic David Ehrlich criticized the script as "empty," and referred to the film as "A sweaty pastiche that shares its protagonist's desire to be all things to all people, only to wind up losing any sense of itself along the way." Emily Yoshida of Vulture was critical of the reliance on nostalgia and muddled storytelling, and wrote, "As it cliff dives, unprompted, into reheated cocaine-nightmare territory done better by any number of 1990s '70s nostalgia films before it, it not only ceases to be fun, but stops pretending it has any vision for where its lead characters should go."


title: Pink Friday

text: Pink Friday is the debut studio album by rapper Nicki Minaj. It was released on November 22, 2010, by Young Money, Cash Money and Universal Motown. After signing a recording contract with Young Money Entertainment in 2009, Minaj began planning the album that same year and work continued into 2010. Minaj enlisted a variety of producers whose efforts resulted in a primarily hip hop and pop record, which sees additional influences from R&B. The album features guest vocals from Eminem, Rihanna, Drake, will.i.am, Kanye West and Natasha Bedingfield.


title: Pink Friday

text: The album was promoted with eight singles, including the internationally successful single "Super Bass", and US "Billboard" Hot 100 top 40 singles "Your Love", "Check It Out", "Right Thru Me", "Moment 4 Life", and "Fly". Minaj also supported the album with a five-date promotional concert tour during October 2010. After a much anticipated release, "Pink Friday" reached number one on the US "Billboard" 200, selling 375,000 copies in its first week, marking the second highest sales debut for a female rapper since Lauryn Hill.


title: Pink Friday

text: The album received mostly positive critical reviews, however critics were ambivalent on Minaj's exploration of pop. Internationally, it also charted within the top 20 in Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom. As of February 2018, the album has sold two million traditional copies in the United States. The album has been certified 3× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for combined album sales, track sales, and song streams equivalent of three million album-sale units. "Pink Friday" was nominated for Best Rap Album at the 54th Grammy Awards in 2012, alongside Minaj's other nominations for Best New Artist and Best Rap Performance for the single "Moment 4 Life".


title: Pink Friday

text: After a major record label bidding war, Young Money Entertainment announced on August 31, 2009, that Nicki Minaj had signed a 360 deal with the label in which she retains and owns all of her 360 rights – including merchandising, sponsorships, endorsements, touring and publishing. Recording sessions for the album took place at several recording locations, including 25 Sound Studios in Detroit, Chalice Recording Studios in Los Angeles, and Glenwood Place Studios in Burbank, California. Hip-hop producer Swizz Beatz confirmed his collaboration with Minaj for the album, with Minaj discussing a song "Catch Me", that she described as "moody" and "mellow futuristic" which later became a bonus track on the album. Minaj also confirmed to "Entertainment Weekly" that the Black Eyed Peas member and record producer will.i.am contributed production to the album. Hip-hop artist and producer Kanye West was also confirmed for the album. Producer Bangladesh also contributed to the album. In 2011, a track entitled "We Miss You" from the album leaked online. Minaj responded saying the song "was sent to Mariah Carey and Keyshia Cole over a year ago" but did not "make "Pink Friday" due to clearance issues".


title: Pink Friday

text: "Your Love" is a mid-tempo hip-hop, pop, and R&B song, with an auto-tuned chorus. It samples the instrumentals and background vocals of Annie Lennox's cover version of "No More I Love You's" by the Lover Speaks, with the addition of additional bass, drum-loops and hip-hop backbeats. "Roman's Revenge" features American rapper Eminem; the song includes both rappers exchanging bars over a "spastic beat" produced by Swizz Beatz. Lyrically, "Roman's Revenge" has been described as "unrelenting", "bonkers", "angry" and "outrageous". "Did It On'em" is a hardcore hip hop and post-dubstep song that has instrumentally been described as having a massive, ungainly beat. The lyrics speak of Minaj winning over her competition, by saying she "shitted on 'em" or "pissed on 'em."


title: Pink Friday

text: "Right Thru Me" is styled with pop-rap tones, and has an electronic beat, while being influenced by R&B. Lyrically, the song describes someone who wonders aloud about how a lover can see the real her. Lyrically, "Moment 4 Life", is about a desire to maintain a feeling of accomplishment, as Drake follows behind Minaj and raps the same theme of enjoying the moment. Straying away from the standard rap song construction of three verses and a hook, Nicki performs a brain-dump of sorts on the track, spitting as if she's making a speech to both her fans and detractors. "Check It Out" features the nearly constant repetition of the piano and vocal hook from the Buggles' 1979 classic, "Video Killed the Radio Star", which is famous for being the first video ever played on MTV. "Super Bass" utilizes electronic music and bubblegum pop in its composition, while Minaj raps over a hip hop beat, Minaj explained the song's concept, stating: "'Super Bass' is about the boy that you are crushing over, [...] And you kind of want to get your mack on, but you're taking the playful approach."


title: Pink Friday

text: "Massive Attack" was released on April 13, 2010, through digital distribution. The song was a distinct change from Minaj's previous work on mixtapes and features, thus receiving mixed to positive reviews from critics, commending lyrical content and distinctiveness, but critiquing that it did not fit her "Barbie" persona well. The song bubbled under the US "Billboard" Hot 100 at number 22, and peaked at number 65 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. "Massive Attack" was initially announced as the album's lead single, however, after the single's poor chart performance, it was pulled from the album.


title: Pink Friday

text: "Your Love" was released as the album's first official US single on June 1, 2010, and as the first single in the United Kingdom on July 2, 2010. Initially, the song had never been planned for release, but due to abounding airplay it was mastered and used as the follow-up to "Massive Attack". The song peaked at number 14 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, number four on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart and topped the Hot Rap Songs chart for eight consecutive weeks. Minaj became the first female artist to top the Hot Rap Songs chart unaccompanied since 2002. It also charted in Canada and the UK.


title: Pink Friday

text: "Check It Out" was released on September 3, 2010. It was a joint single from the album between will.i.am and Minaj. A music video for the song was directed by Rich Lee and was released on October 25, 2010. The song has since peaked at number 24 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. "Right Thru Me" was released on September 24, 2010. A music video directed by Diane Martel was released for the single on October 27, 2010. The song peaked at number 26 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Pink Friday

text: "Moment 4 Life", which features Drake, was released on December 7, 2010, as the album's fourth single. The music video for "Moment 4 Life" was released on January 27, 2011. The song peaked at number 13 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and topped both the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs and Rap Songs charts. "Roman's Revenge" featuring Eminem was released as a promotional single to iTunes on October 30, 2010.


title: Pink Friday

text: "Super Bass" was released as the album's fifth single and officially impacted radio on April 5, 2011. It was released to iTunes in some markets on May 13, 2011. The song became an international top ten hit. In its seventh week on the "Billboard" Hot 100, the song had peaked at number 3, making it Minaj's first top ten placement as a lead artist.


title: Pink Friday

text: "Did It On'em" was sent to Urban radio on April 7, 2011, as the album's sixth single. The song peaked at number 49 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and at numbers 3 and 4 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs and Rap Songs charts respectively. "Girls Fall Like Dominoes" was released in Australia on April 11, 2011, and in the United Kingdom on April 15, 2011.


title: Pink Friday

text: "Fly", which features Rihanna, was the album's eighth and final single. It was sent to US rhythmic radio and to Top 40/Mainstream radio on August 30, 2011. The song peaked at number 19 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 as well as in the top 20 in Australia and the United Kingdom.


title: Pink Friday

text: On July 8, 2010, Minaj announced via Twitter that the album would be released on November 23, 2010. It was later announced that the album was pushed up by one day to November 22, 2010. Minaj's official website and related social networking outlets later announced that the digital download version of the album would be available for pre-order through iTunes on October 30, less than a month before the release date of the physical edition.


title: Pink Friday

text: On her Twitter, Minaj stated that if she reached one million followers she would dedicate a Ustream to her fans. On August 3, 2010, Minaj went on Ustream to call fans who emailed her their phone numbers and to reveal the album's title. Later that same day, Minaj revealed on Ustream that the album's name would be "Pink Friday", stating, "To carry on a great tradition of Black Friday, we are going to switch it up this year in honor of the Nicki Minaj album and call that day Pink Friday, and call my album "Pink Friday"!" A deluxe edition of the album was also confirmed. Minaj released the official artwork for her album cover on Friday, October 15, 2010. "Rap-Up" commented on the album cover, stating "The cover features Minaj as a doll alarmingly staring at the camera, sitting armless on the ground with her elongated legs in a flowing silver corset, pink stilettos, and a stark pink wig."


title: Pink Friday

text: Prior to the release of "Pink Friday", MAC Cosmetics announced and launched a lipstick called "Pink 4 Friday" that was sold for four consecutive Fridays beginning November 26, 2010, in promotion of the album. In 2011, OPI Products created a six-piece nail polish collection with Minaj, in which the colors of the collection were named after select songs from the album. In December 2011, Mattel produced a custom-made, Minaj-themed Barbie doll valued at about $15,000 for auction. The doll's design was modeled after Minaj as how she appears on the "Pink Friday" album cover, with the pink wig and a similar outfit.


title: Pink Friday

text: A 2020 reissue of the album, titled "Complete Edition", was released to coincide with its 10th anniversary on November 20, 2020, containing all the bonus tracks that were released from other versions of the album, such as "Bedrock", and the Lil Wayne remix of "Roman's Revenge".


title: Pink Friday

text: Minaj announced via the social networking site Twitter that she would kick off a five-date promotional tour a month before the album dropped. Tweeting, "Ok Barbz, here are the 1st 5 dates on my Pink Friday Tour," the tour began in Philadelphia on October 22, and ran through October 30 in Trinidad and Tobago.


title: Pink Friday

text: "Pink Friday" was met with mostly positive critical reviews. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 68, based on 26 reviews.


title: Pink Friday

text: Reviewing the album for "The Boston Globe", James Reed called it "a brash pop album brimming with Minaj's various personae and Technicolor rhymes". "Entertainment Weekly"s Brad Wete applauded Minaj's "knack for melody" and "boasting lyrics", while Sam Wolfson of "NME" noted Minaj's "pop sensibility", "volatility and quirks ... reminiscent of heyday Lil Wayne". "Los Angeles Times" writer Margaret Wappler commented that the album "shows Minaj is on the cusp", while Ann Powers noted Minaj's attempt to showcase her multi-faceted range and complimented her female perspective. Marc Hogan of "Spin" said it succeeded more as "a budding artist's love letter to pop – well-wrought and exuberantly penned", while "Pitchfork" critic Scott Plagenhoef believed "even when she's aiming down the middle of the road, she's at least better than almost anyone else", while citing the hip-hop bonus tracks "Blow Ya Mind" and "Muny" as among the album's best. He stated that the "pop album" is "a depressing Nicki Minaj album." AllMusic's David Jeffries wrote that the album "both dazzles and disappoints", stating "Feed off the production, the great musical ideas, and Minaj's keen sense of her surroundings, and "Pink Friday" is an outstanding success". Allison Stewart of "The Washington Post" wrote that the album "nibbles at the edges of what female rappers are allowed to do, even as it provides a steady helping of pop hits". Robert Christgau from "MSN Music" called Minaj "the quick-lipped hoyden of the year" who is "proud to be shameless, with the hooks to back it up", and later named "Pink Friday" the 12th best album of 2010.


title: Pink Friday

text: Some reviewers were more critical. Andy Gill of "The Independent" felt that "Right Thru Me" is the only track that exhibits "adequate use of [Minaj's] R&B vocal skills" among an album of unoriginal "rap braggadocio". "Slant Magazine"s Jesse Cataldo praised Minaj's versatility on tracks like "Roman's Revenge", but was disappointed with the collaborative "Moment 4 Life", noting she could have shown more confidence by acting as a foil for Drake, but didn't. In "The Observer", Kitty Empire called the album a "triumph of prevarication", but observed a stylistic identity crisis, with a satisfactory but characterless portion of pop music. Rich Juzwiak of "The Village Voice" criticized the album's "R&B crossover" material and found it lyrically "underwhelming". Alexis Petridis of "The Guardian" commented that "for every burst of originality, there's a burst of generic frosty synth and Auto-Tune", noting that "the pop- and R&B-influenced tracks simply aren't as exciting, lyrically or musically, as the foam-mouthed hardcore ones".


title: Pink Friday

text: "Pink Friday" debuted at number two on the US "Billboard" 200 chart, selling 375,000 copies in its first week. This marked the second-highest sales week for a female hip hop recording artist, behind Lauryn Hill's "The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill" in 1998. On December 17, 2010, the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). In its eleventh week on the chart, the album sold 45,000 copies and topped the "Billboard" 200. The album also held the record for the most weeks in the top ten on the "Billboard" 200 chart by a female rap album, having spent fourteen consecutive weeks in the top ten since its release. On March 22, 2016, the album was certified triple platinum by the RIAA for combined album sales, track sales, on-demand audio, and video streams equivalent of three million album-sale units. As of February 2018, the album has sold two million traditional copies in the United States.


title: Pink Friday

text: Internationally, "Pink Friday" peaked at number eight in Canada, and within the top twenty in Australia, Ireland and the United Kingdom. In the United Kingdom, it has sold 282,000 copies, as of April 2012.


title: Pink Friday

text: According to DeMicia Inman of "Nylon", "Pink Friday"s commercial success "propelled [Minaj] into worldwide fame, which comes with more weight and responsibility than handing out mixtapes and street DVDs in club parking lots" and also "expanded the constraints that previously contained women to battle it out for a metaphorical throne". Dayna Haffenden of "Complex" wrote that "throughout the 13-song tracklist, she proved her pen game was not to be questioned, while showcasing her vulnerability and chameleonic abilities". Nick Soulsby of "PopMatters" wrote that "we're witnessing an avalanche of female rappers rising to the top" and that "we're living in a house that Minaj built and recognition that she is the finest rapper of the past decade... is overdue". "Billboard" credited "Pink Friday" with helping Minaj reintroduce female rap into the mainstream in the United States. Writing in 2021, Ellish Gilligan of Junkee wrote that "the influence of "Pink Friday" in pop, rap and even hyperpop in undeniable" and added that is still inspiring albums like Doja Cat's "Planet Her" (2021).


title: Vulnerable species

text: A vulnerable species is a species which has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being threatened with extinction unless the circumstances that are threatening its survival and reproduction improve.


title: Vulnerable species

text: Vulnerability is mainly caused by habitat loss or destruction of the species' home. Vulnerable habitat or species are monitored and can become increasingly threatened. Some species listed as "vulnerable" may be common in captivity, an example being the military macaw.


title: Vulnerable species

text: There are currently 5196 animals and 6789 plants classified as Vulnerable, compared with 1998 levels of 2815 and 3222, respectively. Practices such as cryoconservation of animal genetic resources have been enforced in efforts to conserve vulnerable breeds of livestock specifically.


title: Vulnerable species

text: The International Union for Conservation of Nature uses several criteria to enter species in this category. A taxon is Vulnerable when it is not critically endangered or Endangered but is facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-term future, as defined by any of the following criteria (A to E):


title: Vulnerable species

text: B) Extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 20,000 km or area of occupancy estimated to be less than 2000 km, and estimates indicating any two of the following:


title: Vulnerable species

text: E) Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 10% within 100 years.


title: Vulnerable species

text: The examples of vulnerable animal species are hyacinth macaw, mountain zebra, gaur, black crowned crane and blue crane


title: Rolls-Royce Cullinan

text: The Rolls-Royce Cullinan is a full-sized luxury sport utility vehicle (SUV) manufactured by Rolls-Royce Motor Cars as the brand's first all-wheel drive vehicle. It is named after the Cullinan Diamond, the largest gem-quality rough diamond ever discovered.


title: Rolls-Royce Cullinan

text: The Cullinan sits above the Ghost and below the Phantom in Rolls-Royce's line, with a starting price in the United States of approximately US$ 325,000 (£ 255,000). It was unveiled in May 2018 at the Concorso d'Eleganza Villa d'Este. In the US, it is not exempt from the Energy Tax Act because it is classified as a station wagon rather than an SUV.


title: Rolls-Royce Cullinan

text: In 2017 it was reported that a design was in the works and that the name would be Cullinan. This was due to its competitors such as Bentley and Lamborghini venturing into the SUV business with the Bentayga and the Urus respectively. At the 2015 Frankfurt Auto Show, Rolls Royce's CEO Torsten Müller-Ötvös said that the SUV will be revealed in 2018 and be on the market in 2019.


title: Rolls-Royce Cullinan

text: The name "Cullinan" was confirmed by Rolls Royce on 13 February 2018. It is named after the Cullinan diamond, the largest diamond ever found at 3100 carats.


title: Rolls-Royce Cullinan

text: According to own Statement of BMW AG, Rolls Royce and similar institutions, this generation of automobile with combustion engine has a preview to an end until 2030, due the company only producing electric models.


title: Rolls-Royce Cullinan

text: As of 2019 the British carmaker claimed that despite expanding production and hiring more employees, there simply wasn't enough supply to satisfy the demand fuelled by brand loyalist and new-found female, younger buyers.


title: Rolls-Royce Cullinan

text: Most of the Cullinan's exterior design has been adapted from the novel 8th generation Rolls Royce Phantom such as the front grille and the headlights.


title: Rolls-Royce Cullinan

text: The interior features a new leather applied seats and wooden appliances. The car has new leather camping seats known as the "cocktail suit" which is deployed from the luggage compartment. This car is the only Rolls Royce to have a glass partition between the luggage compartment and the passenger compartment.


title: Rolls-Royce Cullinan

text: The Cullinan features various driving modes and among them, the off-road mode gives the car its full potential. It also has a dynamic suspension system that changes its height by 40 mm at off-road mode.


title: Rolls-Royce Cullinan

text: The car is reported to have started its testing phase on 2 January 2016, and has since been seen testing on snow.


title: Rolls-Royce Cullinan

text: The final tests were conducted with the partnership of National Geographic in 2018 and it was tested in various terrains.


title: Rolls-Royce Cullinan

text: The Cullinan uses an aluminium spaceframe chassis; this is a version of Rolls-Royce's modular "Architecture of Luxury" platform. This platform made its debut in the Phantom VIII.


title: Rolls-Royce Cullinan

text: The Cullinan uses a double-wishbone front axle and a 5-link rear axle. It is fitted with self-levelling air suspension and electronically controlled dampers front and rear. It is also equipped with electrically actuated active anti-roll bars.


title: Rolls-Royce Cullinan

text: The Cullinan is also fitted with a stereo camera integrated into the front windscreen that scans the road ahead and adjusts the suspension proactively so as to improve ride quality. This system, dubbed "The Flagbearer" by Rolls-Royce, operates at speeds of up to . Michael Snell, Marketing Manager of the Americas for Rolls-Royce Motor Cars NA stated, "Even with the updated improvements to Cullinan's suspension and drive systems, the ride experience has not been compromised as the vehicle still retains our signature "Magic Carpet Ride" experience while you drive over any terrain."


title: Rolls-Royce Cullinan

text: Like the Phantom VIII, the Cullinan employs a four-wheel steering system to improve both maneuverability at low speeds and stability at higher speeds.


title: Rolls-Royce Cullinan

text: The Cullinan is exclusively available with a twin-turbocharged 6.75-litre V12 engine. ZF's 8HP 8-speed automatic transmission is the Cullinan's sole gearbox option. The Cullinan uses a permanent all-wheel drive system.


title: Rolls-Royce Cullinan

text: The Black Cullinan is a special edition of the Cullinan which is performance based. Its exterior features are painted black (including the Spirit of Ecstasy) and its Interior consists of carbon fibre applications. The leather used in the interior is black and borders are coloured according to the exterior colour.


title: Rolls-Royce Cullinan

text: The current production car with the Rolls Royce Black Badge marque along with this car is the Rolls Royce Ghost Black Badge.


title: Rolls-Royce Cullinan

text: It is a one-off Rolls Royce Cullinan. The Rolls Royce Motor Cars claims that the car is based on a star brighter than the sun. The exterior has been painted bright yellow while the interior has a Starlight Headliner, first used in the Phantom Celestial.


title: Jeanette Nuñez

text: Jeanette Marie Nuñez (born June 6, 1972) is an American businesswoman and politician serving as the 20th lieutenant governor of Florida since 2019. A member of the Republican Party, she represented Miami-Dade County in the Florida House of Representatives from 2010 to 2018, also serving as speaker pro tempore for her final two years in the office. Nuñez is the first Latina to serve as Florida lieutenant governor.


title: Jeanette Nuñez

text: Nuñez was born in Miami to a Cuban father Victor C. Sanchez and Teresita Sanchez and is one of three daughters. In 1994, she earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science and international relations from Florida International University (FIU). In 1998, Nuñez completed her Master of Public Administration at FIU.


title: Jeanette Nuñez

text: Her first job after completing her undergraduate studies was as an aide to State Senator Alex Diaz de la Portilla. Nuñez later entered the health care industry, working as the vice-president of government affairs at Jackson Health System. Nuñez also worked for Florida International University as an adjunct professor and advisor. She also served as the vice-president of external affairs at Kendall Regional Medical Center and Aventura Hospital & Medical Center, until becoming the lieutenant governor of Florida.


title: Jeanette Nuñez

text: When incumbent state representative David Rivera was unable to seek re-election in 2010 due to term limits, Nuñez ran to succeed him in the 112th District, which included parts of Broward, Collier, and Miami-Dade counties, stretching from Doral to Naples. In the Republican primary, she faced Juan D'Arce and James Patrick Guerrero, and campaigned on working to pass legislation to "improve the economy" and to "reform the Medicaid program in order to contain the ever-growing costs that affect taxpayers." Ultimately, Nuñez won the primary over her opponents, receiving 66% of the vote to D'Arce's 19% and Guerrero's 15%. Advancing to the general election, she faced Sandra Ruiz, the Democratic nominee and a Doral City councilwoman, and Robert Van Name, an independent candidate. Nuñez campaigned on job creation, noting, "For me, the most important issue for District 112 and in fact for the entire state of Florida is creating jobs, improving the economy and lowering the tax burden for businesses and property owners." The "Naples Daily News" criticized the nature of the district, noting, "If there is a textbook reason for redistricting reform, this race...would be it," and opined that "there is little sense of Collier connection from either Miami-based candidate." Despite this, they endorsed Nuñez over Ruiz because Nuñez met with the editorial board and Ruiz did not, which they noted was "a dreadful measuring stick for picking such a high-ranking public servant." Ultimately, Nuñez won out over her opponents by a comfortable margin, scoring 56% of the vote to Ruiz's 39% and Van Name's 5%.


title: Jeanette Nuñez

text: When the state's legislative districts were redrawn in 2012, Nuñez was drawn into the 119th District, where she opted to seek re-election. She was challenged in the Republican primary by Libby Perez, but easily won renomination with 73% of the vote. Nuñez only faced write-in opposition in the general election and easily won re-election.


title: Jeanette Nuñez

text: During the 2014 legislative session, Nuñez worked with state senator Jack Latvala to sponsor legislation that "would allow the children of undocumented immigrants to pay the same in-state tuition rates for college as other Floridians," which ended up passing the legislature.


title: Jeanette Nuñez

text: As reported by "The Hill" in 2018, Jeanette Nuñez introduced legislation in Florida "to standardize daylight saving time for the entire calendar year". To make the "Sunshine Protection Act" nationwide, Senator Marco Rubio sponsored a bill in the Senate since the state bill cannot take effect until the federal government makes the change. This is because the "provision would shift the state into a different time zone permanently", something which requires a federal regulatory action or an act of Congress.


title: Jeanette Nuñez

text: On September 5, 2018, then-congressman Ron DeSantis selected Nuñez to be his running mate in the 2018 Florida gubernatorial election, facing off against Andrew Gillum and running mate Chris King. DeSantis and Nuñez would go on to win the election by a margin of less than half of a percentage point. Nuñez is the first Latina woman to serve as lieutenant governor of Florida.


title: Jeanette Nuñez

text: Nuñez was sworn in as lieutenant governor on January 8, 2019, succeeding Carlos Lopez-Cantera. During her time in office, she has hosted various roundtables and events in support of exiles from Venezuela.


title: Oromo language

text: Oromo ( or ; Oromo: "Afaan Oromoo"), in the linguistic literature of the early 20th century also called Galla (a name with a pejorative meaning and therefore rejected by the Oromo people), is an Afroasiatic language that belongs to the Cushitic branch. It is native to the Ethiopian state of Oromia and Northern Kenya and is spoken predominantly by the Oromo people and neighboring ethnic groups in the Horn of Africa. It is used as a lingua franca particularly in Ethiopia and northeastern Kenya.


title: Oromo language

text: With more than 36 million speakers making up 33.8% of the total Ethiopian population, Oromo has the largest number of native speakers in Ethiopia, and ranks as the second most widely spoken language in Ethiopia by total number of speakers (including second-language speakers) following Amharic. Forms of Oromo are spoken as a first language by an additional half-million people in parts of northern and eastern Kenya. It is also spoken by smaller numbers of emigrants in other African countries such as South Africa, Libya, Egypt and Sudan. Oromo is the most widely spoken Cushitic language and among the five languages of Africa with the largest mother-tongue populations.


title: Oromo language

text: Oromo serves as one of the official working languages of Ethiopia and is also the working language of several of the states within the Ethiopian federal system including Oromia, Harari and Dire Dawa regional states and of the Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region. It is a language of primary education in Oromia, Harari, Dire Dawa, Benishangul-Gumuz and Addis Ababa and of the Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region. It is used as an internet language for federal websites along with Tigrinya. Under Haile Selassie's regime, Oromo was banned in education, in conversation, and in administrative matters.


title: Oromo language

text: About 85 percent of Oromo speakers live in Ethiopia, mainly in the Oromia Region. In addition, in Somalia there are also some speakers of the language. In Kenya, the Ethnologue also lists 722,000 speakers of Borana and Orma, two languages closely related to Ethiopian Oromo. Within Ethiopia, Oromo is the language with the largest number of native speakers.


title: Oromo language

text: Within Africa, Oromo is the language with the fourth most speakers, after Arabic (if one counts the mutually unintelligible spoken forms of Arabic as a single language and assumes the same for the varieties of Oromo), Swahili, and Hausa.


title: Oromo language

text: Besides first language speakers, a number of members of other ethnicities who are in contact with the Oromo speak it as a second language. See, for example, the Omotic-speaking Bambassi and the Nilo-Saharan-speaking Kwama in northwestern Oromia.


title: Oromo language

text: The Oromo people use a highly developed oral tradition. In the 19th century, scholars began writing in the Oromo language using Latin script. In 1842, Johann Ludwig Krapf began translations of the Gospels of John and Matthew into Oromo, as well as a first grammar and vocabulary. The first Oromo dictionary and grammar was produced by German scholar Karl Tutschek in 1844. The first printing of a transliteration of Oromo language was in 1846 in a German newspaper in an article on the Oromo in Germany.


title: Oromo language

text: After Abyssinia annexed Oromo's territory, the language's development into a full-fledged writing instrument was interrupted. The few works that had been published, most notably Onesimos Nesib's and Aster Ganno's translations of the Bible from the late 19th century, were written in the Ge'ez alphabet. Following the 1974 Revolution, the government undertook a literacy campaign in several languages, including Oromo, and publishing and radio broadcasts began in the language. All Oromo materials printed in Ethiopia at that time, such as the newspaper , and many others, were written in the traditional Ethiopic script.


title: Oromo language

text: Plans to introduce Oromo language instruction in schools, however, were not realized until the government of Mengistu Haile Mariam was overthrown in 1991, except in regions controlled by the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF). With the creation of the regional state of Oromia under the new system of ethnic federalism in Ethiopia, it has been possible to introduce Oromo as the medium of instruction in elementary schools throughout the region, including areas where other ethnic groups live speaking their languages, and as a language of administration within the region. Since the OLF left the transitional Ethiopian government in the early 1990s, the Oromo Peoples' Democratic Organization (OPDO) continued developing Oromo in Ethiopia.


title: Oromo language

text: Radio broadcasts began in the Oromo language in Somalia in 1960 by Radio Mogadishu. The programme featured music and propaganda. A song (Liberation is Milk) became a hit in Ethiopia. To combat Somali wide-reaching influence, the Ethiopian Government initiated an Oromo language program radio of their own. Within Kenya there has been radio broadcasting in Oromo (in the Borana dialect) on the Voice of Kenya since at least the 1980s. The Borana Bible in Kenya was printed in 1995 using the Latin alphabet, but not using the same spelling rules as in Ethiopian Qubee. The first comprehensive online Oromo dictionary was developed by the Jimma Times Oromiffa Group (JTOG) in cooperation with SelamSoft. Voice of America also broadcasts in Oromo alongside its other horn of Africa programs. Oromo and Qubee are currently utilized by the Ethiopian government's state radios, TV stations and regional government newspaper.


title: Oromo language

text: Oromo is written with a Latin alphabet called which was formally adopted in 1991. Various versions of the Latin-based orthography had been used previously, mostly by Oromos outside of Ethiopia and by the OLF by the late 1970s (Heine 1986). With the adoption of Qubee, it is believed more texts were written in the Oromo language between 1991 and 1997 than in the previous 100 years. In Kenya, the Borana and Waata also use Roman letters but with different systems.


title: Oromo language

text: The Sapalo script was an indigenous Oromo script invented by Sheikh Bakri Sapalo (1895–1980; also known by his birth name, Abubaker Usman Odaa) in the late 1950s, and used underground afterwards. Despite structural and organizational influences from Ge'ez and the Arabic script, it is a graphically independent creation designed specifically for Oromo phonology. It is largely alphasyllabic in nature, but lacks the inherent vowel present in many such systems; in actual use, all consonant characters are obligatorially marked either with vowel signs (producing CV syllables) or with separate marks used to denote long consonants and consonants not followed by a vowel (e.g. in word-final environments or as part of consonant clusters).


title: Oromo language

text: Like most other Ethiopian languages, whether Semitic, Cushitic, or Omotic, Oromo has a set of ejective consonants, that is, voiceless stops or affricates that are accompanied by glottalization and an explosive burst of air. Oromo has another glottalized phone that is more unusual, an implosive retroflex stop, "dh" in Oromo orthography, a sound that is like an English "d" produced with the tongue curled back slightly and with the air drawn in so that a glottal stop is heard before the following vowel begins. It is retroflex in most dialects, though it is not strongly implosive and may reduce to a flap between vowels. One source describes it as voiceless .


title: Oromo language

text: Oromo has the typical Eastern Cushitic set of five short and five long vowels, indicated in the orthography by doubling the five vowel letters. The difference in length is contrastive, for example, 'lake', 'new'. Gemination is also significant in Oromo. That is, consonant length can distinguish words from one another, for example, 'bad', 'highland'.