title: Koke (footballer, born 1992)

text: Aged only 20/21, Koke started in 38 of his 48 official appearances during 2012–13 and scored three goals – this included 112 minutes of play in the final of the Copa del Rey, won against Real Madrid at the Santiago Bernabéu. He also began to excel at passing, either through set pieces or open play.


title: Koke (footballer, born 1992)

text: On 1 September 2013, Koke scored his first goal of the new season, contributing to a 2–1 away win over Real Sociedad. His performances in October earned him the accolade of La Liga Player of the Month, while Simeone won the equivalent managerial award; on 3 March 2014, he scored to help his team to a 2–2 home draw in the "Derbi madrileño" against Real Madrid.


title: Koke (footballer, born 1992)

text: On 9 April 2014, Koke scored his first goal in the UEFA Champions League, netting the only goal of a quarter-final against Barcelona to send Atlético to the semi-finals for the first time since 1974. He finished the domestic league season as the player with the second most assists with 14, as Atlético won the league title for the first time in 18 years after drawing 1–1 with Barcelona at Camp Nou in the final matchday; he was a nominee at La Liga Awards at attacking midfielder, losing out to Andrés Iniesta.


title: Koke (footballer, born 1992)

text: On 25 June 2014, Koke signed a new five-year deal with Atlético. He was named player of the match in their Champions League group match at Malmö FF on 4 November, scoring the first goal of a 2–0 win. In a penalty shootout against Bayer 04 Leverkusen in the round of 16, on 18 March of the following year, he had his attempt saved by Bernd Leno, but his team nonetheless advanced.


title: Koke (footballer, born 1992)

text: Koke started 2015–16 slowly, scoring one goal and registering not a single assist by the middle of November. By the middle of April 2016, after a spell of six decisive passes in as many games, he equalled his season's assist record of 12; later that month he surpassed that tally, also moving to first place in the assists chart ahead of Barcelona's Luis Suárez, and was voted Player of the Month for the second time.


title: Koke (footballer, born 1992)

text: On 23 October 2016, Koke was sent off for the first time in his career, for two yellow cards in a 0–1 loss at Sevilla. The following 24 May, he signed a new five-year contract until 2024. Only two months after turning 26, he entered the top 10 appearance makers in Atlético history with his 361st against Deportivo de La Coruña on 1 April 2018.


title: Koke (footballer, born 1992)

text: Koke played his 400th official match for the club on 20 January 2019 – becoming the youngest player to do so in the process, at the age of 27 – scoring once and providing one assist in a 3–0 away defeat of SD Huesca. After Diego Godín's departure in the summer, he became team captain.


title: Koke (footballer, born 1992)

text: On 23 June 2020, Koke played his 450th game in a 1–0 away win against Levante UD, again the youngest to reach that figure for the club. The following 12 May, as his side neared the league title, he made his 500th appearance in a 2–1 home victory over Real Sociedad, a feat only done before by Adelardo Rodríguez.


title: Koke (footballer, born 1992)

text: Koke was a member of the Spain under-20 side which reached the quarter-finals at the 2011 FIFA World Cup in Colombia. He missed in the last-16 penalty shootout against South Korea, but his team advanced nonetheless.


title: Koke (footballer, born 1992)

text: Koke featured in the Spanish team at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, playing all three games as the tournament ended at the group stage for the nation. He also represented the under-21s at the 2013 UEFA European Championship, being named to the team of the tournament as Spain won the competition by beating Italy 4–2 in Jerusalem in the final.


title: Koke (footballer, born 1992)

text: On 14 August 2013, Koke made his debut for the senior team, replacing Santi Cazorla for the final 12 minutes of a 2–0 friendly win in Ecuador. His first competitive appearance for "La Furia Roja" came on 6 September of that year, as he played the full 90 minutes in a 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifier in Finland that ended with a 2–0 win.


title: Koke (footballer, born 1992)

text: Koke was named in Spain's 30-man provisional squad for the 2014 World Cup, and was also included in the final list for the tournament. On 19 June, he made his debut in the tournament after replacing Xabi Alonso at half-time as the champions trailed 0–2 to Chile at the Maracanã in the second group game, but could not change the scoreline as elimination was confirmed. He started in the final fixture, a 3–0 victory over Australia.


title: Koke (footballer, born 1992)

text: Koke was also selected by manager Julen Lopetegui for the 2018 World Cup in Russia. On 1 July, he was one of two Spanish players to miss his attempt in the round-of-16 shootout against the hosts, a 3–4 loss in Moscow.


title: Koke (footballer, born 1992)

text: After two years without a cap, Koke returned to international duty on 11 November 2020 in a 1–1 friendly draw away to the Netherlands, in which he captained the country for the first time. The following May, he was included in the 24-man squad for Euro 2020.


title: Koke (footballer, born 1992)

text: Koke is right-footed, but his versatility allows him to play as right, left or central midfielder. He is also known for his passing, and ability to create attacking opportunities.


title: Koke (footballer, born 1992)

text: He has everything: talent, physical ability, he is a footballer of the present and the future... He has been marked out as the conductor of Spain's orchestra for the next 10 years. I have a special affection for him because we play in the same position and I think he is an extraordinary player.


title: Brindavanam (2010 film)

text: Brindavanam is a 2010 Indian Telugu-language romantic comedy film written and directed by Vamshi Paidipally. The film stars N. T. Rama Rao Jr., Kajal Aggarwal, and Samantha while Prakash Raj, Srihari, Kota Srinivasa Rao, Mukesh Rishi, Ajay, Tanikella Bharani, and Brahmanandam playing pivotal roles. The film was produced by Dil Raju's Sri Venkateswara Creations. S. Thaman composed the music with cinematography by Chota K. Naidu, dialogues by Koratala Siva, and editing by Marthand K.


title: Brindavanam (2010 film)

text: The film released on 14 October 2010 and was a critical and commercial success. The film is remade as "Love Master" in Odia"," "Brindavana" in Kannada"," "Khoka 420" in Indian Bengali"," "Buk Fatey To Mukh Foteyna" in Bangladeshi Bengali, "Vrundavan" in Marathi, "Hum Hai Jodi No 1" in Bhojpuri.


title: Brindavanam (2010 film)

text: Krishna alias Krish (N. T. Rama Rao Jr.) is the son of Surendra (Mukesh Rishi), a multimillionaire in Hyderabad. He is in a relationship with Indu (Samantha Ruth Prabhu), who has a friend Bhoomi (Kajal Aggarwal). Bhoomi's father, Bhanu Prasad (Prakash Raj), wants to get her married to her cousin suitor (Ajay), who is a rowdy, which Bhoomi does not like. Naturally, her grandfather Durga Prasad (Kota Srinivasa Rao) tells to the family that she has already fallen in love with a guy in the city to halt the marriage, but Bhaanu Prasad asks Bhoomi to bring her boyfriend home with her. Indu sends Krish as Bhoomi's lover just to let her escape the wedding situation.


title: Brindavanam (2010 film)

text: Upon arriving in Bhoomi's village, Krish learns through Bhoomi about everyone in her family. He thinks that the people in her home are living as individuals and not as an actual family with bonds and emotions. Krish changes the attitudes of Bhoomi's uncles (Raghu Babu, Ahuti Prasad) who are lazy at home doing nothing, and successfully wins the heart of the family members. Durga Prasad then reveals to Krish that Bhanu Prasad and his stepbrother Sivudu (Srihari) have been rivals for 25 years because Durga Prasad married a second time when his first wife died, against Bhaanu Prasad's wishes, and Sivudu is born to the new couple. This is the reason for Bhanu Prasad's hatred towards Sivudu. Upon splitting their inherited wealth in half, the two brothers have their father, Durga Prasad live in each of their households for six-month periods. Krish decides to reunite the two brothers and succeeds, much to the happiness of the two families.


title: Brindavanam (2010 film)

text: Bhanu Prasad, impressed by Krish, accepts Bhoomi's love and decides to get them married. This worries Krish and Bhoomi as the initial plan was to only cancel the marriage of Bhoomi and her suitor, not to have Bhaanu Prasad accept their "relationship". Bhoomi's suitor, out of lust for her and anger on the wedding's cancellation, vows to get her by any means. The story takes a turn when Indu, who is none other than Sivudu's wife's sister's a.k.a. adopted daughter, arrives in the scene. Sivudu decides to get Indu married to her lover alongside Bhoomi's marriage, not aware of Krish's real identity. Indu then lies to Sivudu that her lover has ditched her in order to save Krish's act. Sivudu orders his men to find Indu's lover's (Krish's) parents and bring them to him. Bhanu Prasad also asks Krish to bring his parents to settle the marriage alliance. Indu sets up a fake father (Brahmanandam) and mother (Hema) for Krish before his parents arrive at the place, but when Krish's parents arrive at the scene, they are shocked to see Krish there (who they thought was on a world tour). Krish explains the whole situation to them and has them play along.


title: Brindavanam (2010 film)

text: Bhanu Prasad engages Bhoomi with Krish and tells them to decide when they want to marry. Just as when Krish thinks that all is settled and prepares to walk out of Bhoomi's life, Bhoomi reveals that she has fallen in love with Krish, which Indu overhears. Fate takes another turn when Bhoomi's suitor finds out about the real identities and reveals this to Sivudu, who confronts Indu. Bhanu Prasad, too learns of the act, and along with Sivudu, beats up Krish before Durga Prasad intervenes. Durga Prasad reveals to them that the act was created by him in order to save Bhoomi from her ruthless suitor. He also reveals that Krish did not cheat Indu (which is what Sivudu thinks) and that it was Indu who sent Krish. He reveals to Bhaanu Prasad that Bhoomi is also in love with Krish.


title: Brindavanam (2010 film)

text: Just as things cool down, Bhoomi's suitor takes Bhoomi away by force, only to be chased by Krish. Krish finally beats up Bhoomi's suitor into submission and leaves with Bhoomi, but another problem arises when Krish has to decide between Indu, whom he loves, and Bhoomi, who loves him. Suddenly Lord Krishna (portrayed holographically by N. T. Rama Rao) appears in front of him to tell Krish that it is part of his life, but when Krish asks for a solution, Lord Krishna disappears, leaving Krish's fate to the audience.


title: Brindavanam (2010 film)

text: In mid-July 2009, it was informed that Dil Raju would produce a film with N. T. Rama Rao Jr. titled "Brindavanam" with the caption "Govindudu Andari Vadele" which would be directed by Vamsi Paidipally who worked with Dil Raju previously in 2007 for the Average grosser "Munna" which starred Prabhas and Ileana. It was also said that the film would start its shoot in September 2009. The film was launched at Annapurna Studios in Hyderabad on 15 August 2009. On that day, it was declared that S. Thaman composed the music, Chota K. Naidu handled the Cinematography, Koratala Siva penned the dialogues while duo Ram-Lakshman composed the fights for the film. A Traditional and beautiful Villa set was constructed by Art director Anand Sai near Bachupally in 3 out of 4 acres land with the rest 1 acre utilized for a beautiful garden arrangement with refreshing environment which was dismantled on the film's completion.


title: Brindavanam (2010 film)

text: A. S. Prakash and Anand Sai were the art directors of the film, while Ram and Lakshman composed the fight sequences of the film.


title: Brindavanam (2010 film)

text: Initially, it was said that Dil Raju opted to select a new heroine opposite N. T. Rama Rao Jr. in this film. But Dil Raju later planned to select Trisha Krishnan as the heroine opposite N. T. Rama Rao Jr. However Kajal Aggarwal replaced Trisha as the heroine as she latter opted out of the project citing lack of Dates. By late November 2009, it was informed that one of the heroines was yet to be confirmed while Kota Srinivasa Rao, Prakash Raj and Srihari would appear in crucial roles. During an interaction with the media, Kajal Aggarwal revealed about her character in the film in mid January 2010. She spoke "My character in the film is more like myself. It has been great working with NTR and the director Vamsi Paidipalli. I play Bhoomi in the film, who is very reserved and quite an introvert. I am enjoying every moment working for the film". Even before the release of her debut film "Ye Maaya Chesave" on 19 February, Samantha Ruth Prabhu was selected as the second heroine in mid-February 2010.


title: Brindavanam (2010 film)

text: Though it was planned that the film would start its shooting from 27 November 2009, the filming ultimately started from 1 December 2009 as N. T. Rama Rao Jr.'s preceding project "Adhurs" was in its final stage of production. The shooting continued in Pollachi at Tamil Nadu and there the first schedule of the shoot was completed. The makers planned the second schedule from 21 December to 6 January in Hyderabad. During the shoot of the second schedule, when the filming was continuing inside the Government Junior College on the Qurshid Jha Devidi premises at Hussainialam in the old city area of Hyderabad, a group of Telangana Rashtra Samithi activists assembled at the entrance. The agitators urged the film unit to stop the shooting, and when the director came out to pacify them, the protesters urged him to raise the Jai Telangana slogan and left as the latter obliged. In the end of January 2010, a chase sequence was shot near Shabdalaya Studios at Banjara Hills in Hyderabad under the supervision of Peter Hynes. In early February 2010, it was reported that the shooting continued in Pollachi again from 19 February 2010. After returning from Pollachi, the shooting continued in a specially constructed set at Miyapur in Hyderabad in the end of February 2010. Then it was reported that the shooting would continue at Badami in Karnataka and parts of Kerala after completion of the scheduled shoot in the House.


title: Brindavanam (2010 film)

text: After a brief gap, the shooting continued at Vikarabad forest area in the end of June 2010, where a fight sequence was shot under the supervision of prominent fight choreographers Ram-Lakshman. However, the shooting was postponed for a week due to the sudden death of Kota Srinivasa Rao's son Kota Prasad. After canning a couple of fights and songs, the filming was said to continue in the beautiful locales of Greece with one of the two songs left to be picturised to be shot. In early August 2010, N. T. Rama Rao Jr. joined the sets of the film at the Villa set constructed at Bachupally. There the climax sequence was shot from 12 August 2010 which was followed by a song shoot on the leads at Annapurna Studios.


title: Brindavanam (2010 film)

text: But N. T. Rama Rao Jr. was injured on the sets while performing a stunt sequence with ropes near Kokapet Mines. He was immediately rushed to KIMS hospital in Begumpet and got six stitches on his forehead. He was discharged by afternoon but was advised a 3-day rest by the doctors thus delaying the shoot. Later a part of the climax sequence and some crucial sequences were shot in Kerala at Chalakudy near Cochin including Athirapally waterfalls. Later the filming continued in Switzerland for 10 days where the song "Nijamena" was shot on N. T. Rama Rao Jr. and Kajal Aggarwal. After some patch work, the entire shooting ended on 15 September 2010.


title: Brindavanam (2010 film)

text: The soundtrack was composed by S. S. Thaman marking his first collaboration with both Vamsi Paidipally and N. T. Rama Rao Jr. respectively. The music was released on the night of 12 September 2010 through Aditya Music label at Shilpakala Vedika in Hyderabad and Venu Madhav and Udaya Bhanu hosted the function. Telugu film personalities including K Raghavendra Rao, S S Rajamouli, Siddharth, M. M. Keeravani, Prabhas, Samantha, Kajal Aggarwal, Koti, Boyapati Srinu, Brahmaji, K S Rama Rao, Chota K Naidu, Meher Ramesh, Sri Hari, Ashwini Dutt, Brahmanandam and Vijayan attended the audio release function. The Album received positive response from critics.


title: Brindavanam (2010 film)

text: In mid March 2010, when the filming was nearly 60% complete, Dil Raju announced that the film is being planned for a Mid July release. However, later in the end of August 2010, it was announced that the film would release on 1 October 2010 worldwide. But in the end of September 2010, the release date was shifted to 8 October 2010. The release of Mahesh Babu's Khaleja made matters worse and the film's release date was further shifted to 14 October 2010. Though it was rumored that the film's release was preponed to 9 October 2010 due to N. T. Rama Rao Jr.'s fans' pressure, Dil Raju confirmed that the film would release on 14 October 2010 in order to ensure a gap of a week from the release of Khaleja. On 8 October 2010 the film was awarded an U/A certificate from Central Board of Film Certification.


title: Brindavanam (2010 film)

text: The film was distributed by Sri Venkateswara Creations all over Andhra Pradesh. In early April 2010, the film's USA screening rights were sold to BlueSky Cinemas, Inc. along with "Rama Rama Krishna Krishna" which was also produced by Dil Raju. In mid April 2010, EuroAndhra released a press note confirming that they acquired the screening rights of the film along with "Rama Rama Krishna Krishna" and Siddharth starrer "Baava" in UK/EU and they thanked BlueSky Cinemas, Inc. for giving them the opportunity.


title: Brindavanam (2010 film)

text: The film generally received positive reviews from critics. "NDTV" gave a review stating, "Vamsi, now proves that he, too, can top the Box Office with his subject and narration of a story. Koratala Siva's dialogues and Chota K Naidu's camera have helped him to realise his dream of putting together a good entertainer. NTR's performance is unquestionably the highlight of the film. " "Idlebrain.com" gave a review stating "First half of the movie is adequate. The major part of the second half is entertaining. The climax of the movie is debatable. The plus points are NTR and entertainment in the second half. On the flip side, the story of the movie gives us a deja vu feeling in many aspects and the emotional part should have been natural. Brindavanam is a decent and clean movie with enough ingredients to make it work at the box office. It is up to NTR to get a range for the movie" and rated the film 3.25/5. "IndiaGlitz" gave a review stating "Vamsi scripted a perfect screenplay for the film and it was so tight that the audiences could not move out of their seats and make them stick even in song sequences. Each and every scene in the movie was narrated with precision and the director should be commended for running the movie with perfection. You can watch the film with the whole family because of entertainment values. Definitely, the film will give you a relief after a stressful day." "Oneindia Entertainment" gave a review stating, "Though the story has the shades of old films, Vamsi has scripted a tight screenplay and he has narrated every scene with precision. You can watch the film with a family because of the entertainment values. Dil Raju is once again back on track. Vamsi Paidipalli has brought a smile on his face with his wholesome entertainer."


title: Brindavanam (2010 film)

text: Brindavanam opened to positive reports and became the biggest hit in Jr. NTR's career. The film collected the highest opening numbers in Jr NTR's career and second best opening week of all time behind SS Rajamouli's Magadheera. Brindavanam ran for 50 days in 158 centers and 100 days in 11 direct centers. "Brindavanam" became the fifth biggest grosser of Telugu cinema by the end of its theatrical run and the fifth Telugu cinema to cross 30 crore share mark.


title: Brindavanam (2010 film)

text: It was first remade in Odia as "Love Master" starring Babushaan & Riya Dey. It was remade in Kannada as "Brindavana" starring Darshan, Karthika Nair and Milana Nagaraj. It was remade in Bengali as "Khoka 420" starring Dev, Nusrat Jahan and Subhashree Ganguly. It was also remade in Bangladeshi as "Buk Fatey To Mukh Foteyna" starring Shakib Khan and Apu Biswas. It was remade in Marathi as "Vrundavan" starring Raqesh Vashisth, Pooja Sawant and Vaidehi Parashurami. It was remade in Bhojpuri as "Hum Hai Jodi No 1" starring Rani Chatterjee, Ravi Kishan, Poonam Dubey and Aanara Gupta in 2016. Later it is reported that Tamil Actor Vijaykanth will be remade this movie in Tamil. he later gets the remake rights of this movie.


title: Islands in the Stream (song)

text: "Islands in the Stream" is a song written by the Bee Gees and recorded by American country music artists Kenny Rogers and Dolly Parton. Named after an Ernest Hemingway novel, it was released in August 1983 as the first single from Rogers's album "Eyes That See in the Dark". The song was originally written for Diana Ross in an R&B style but later reworked for the duet by Rogers and Parton. The Bee Gees released a live version of the song in 1998 and a studio version in 2001.


title: Islands in the Stream (song)

text: The song reached number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart in the United States, giving both Rogers and Parton their second pop number-one hit (after Rogers's "Lady" in 1980 and Parton's "9 to 5" in 1981). It also topped the Country and Adult Contemporary charts. It has been double certified Platinum and gold certified singles by the Recording Industry Association of America for 2 million and half a million digital sales in US. In 2005 the song topped CMT's poll of the best country duets of all time; Parton and Rogers reunited to perform the song on the CMT special.


title: Islands in the Stream (song)

text: Rogers and Parton went on to record a Christmas album together, and had an additional hit with their 1985 duet "Real Love".


title: Islands in the Stream (song)

text: Due to licensing reasons, this song was not included on digital release of "Eyes That See in the Dark" from Capitol Records Nashville. Sony Music, the current owner of RCA Records, protected copyrights for this recording, and is digitally available only in various compilations from Sony Music, especially those of Dolly Parton.


title: Islands in the Stream (song)

text: The song is sung in C major moderate time, with Rogers and Parton alternating lead vocals. Their version features a key change from C major to A-flat major.


title: Islands in the Stream (song)

text: The song knocked Bonnie Tyler's "Total Eclipse of the Heart" out of No. 1 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, also topping the Country and Adult Contemporary listings. In December of that year, it was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for selling over two million physical copies in the US. After becoming available for digital download, it had sold a further 834,000 digital copies in the US, .


title: Islands in the Stream (song)

text: In Australia, the song was number one for one week in December 1983 and became one of the highest selling singles of 1984.


title: Islands in the Stream (song)

text: The song reached a peak of No. 7 in the UK singles chart in 1983. , it had also sold 245,577 digital copies in the UK. , it had racked up 287,200 downloads and 4.83 million streams in the UK.


title: Islands in the Stream (song)

text: In April 2008, South Bend, Indiana, radio station WZOW played the song continuously for several days on end, a stunt drawing attention to the station's format change from alternative rock to adult contemporary.


title: Islands in the Stream (song)

text: The song was also used as a karaoke song in two season 2 episodes of ABC's "The Good Doctor", "Islands Part One" and "Tough Titmouse".


title: Islands in the Stream (song)

text: The Bee Gees performed their version live at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas on 14 November 1997, which was released a year later on "One Night Only", with solo vocal by Barry Gibb. A studio version was recorded for their 2001 retrospective "", which has since featured on the 2004 "Number Ones" and on the 2010 "Mythology" box set. The chorus of Pras's 1998 hit "Ghetto Supastar (That Is What You Are)", which in turn is a reworking of the original Rogers and Parton release, replaces the final chorus in the studio recording. The live version of the song appears on their "Love Songs" compilation.


title: Islands in the Stream (song)

text: On March 8, 2009, Welsh actors Ruth Jones and Rob Brydon, in character as Vanessa Jenkins and Bryn West from the hit BBC sitcom "Gavin & Stacey", released a version of the song as a single for Comic Relief. Sir Tom Jones also features on the song, performing the final verse and chorus, whilst Robin Gibb appears on the single as a backing vocalist.


title: Islands in the Stream (song)

text: Re-titled "(Barry) Islands in the Stream", in reference to the Barry Island setting of "Gavin & Stacey", it entered at the top of the UK Singles Chart on March 15, 2009. This meant the Gibb Brothers had achieved number one songs in five successive decades, the first songwriters to achieve this feat. It also made Tom Jones, at the age of 68, the oldest person to have a UK number one song, until the record was taken in 2020 by Captain Tom Moore for his involvement in "You'll Never Walk Alone" at the age of 99.


title: Islands in the Stream (song)

text: The video was filmed in Barry Island, Las Vegas and the Nevada desert, with both Gibb and Jones appearing in the video alongside Jones and Brydon. Nigel Lythgoe also makes a cameo appearance as a talent competition judge.


title: World government

text: World government is the concept of a single political authority with jurisdiction over all humanity. It is conceived in a variety of forms, from tyrannical to democratic, which reflects its wide array of proponents and detractors.


title: World government

text: A world government with executive, legislative, and judicial functions and an administrative apparatus has never existed.


title: World government

text: The inception of the United Nations (UN) in the mid-20th century remains the closest approximation to a world government, as it is by far the largest and most powerful international institution. However, the UN is mostly limited to an advisory role, with the stated purpose of fostering cooperation between existing national governments, rather than exerting authority over them. Nevertheless, the organization is commonly viewed as either a model for, or preliminary step towards, a global government.


title: World government

text: The concept of universal governance has existed since antiquity and been the subject of discussion, debate, and even advocacy by some kings, philosophers, religious leaders, and secular humanists. Some of these have discussed it as a natural and inevitable outcome of human social evolution, and interest in it has coincided with the trends of globalization. Opponents of world government, who come from a broad political spectrum, view the concept as a tool for violent totalitarianism, unfeasible, or simply unnecessary, and in the case of some sectors of fundamentalist Christianity, as a vehicle for the Antichrist to bring about the end-times.


title: World government

text: World government for Earth is frequently featured in fiction, particularly within the science fiction genre; well-known examples include the "World State" in Aldous Huxley's "Brave New World," the "Dictatorship of the Air" in H. G. Wells' "The Shape of Things to Come," the United Nations in James S. A Corey's "The Expanse", and United Earth (amongst other planetary sovereignties and even larger polities) in the Star Trek franchise. This concept also applies to other genres, while not as commonly, including well known examples such as One Piece, or to a degree, Nineteen Eighty Four.


title: World government

text: Wendt defines a state as an "organization possessing a monopoly on the legitimate use of organized violence within a society." According to Wendt, a world state would need to fulfill the following requirements:


title: World government

text: A world government would not require a centrally controlled army or a central decision-making body, as long as the four conditions are fulfilled. In order to develop a world state, three changes must occur in the world system:


title: World government

text: Wendt argues that a struggle among sovereign individuals results in the formation of a collective identity and eventually a state. The same forces are present within the international system and could possibly, and potentially inevitably lead to the development of a world state through this five-stage process. When the world state would emerge, the traditional expression of states would become localized expressions of the world state. This process occurs within the default state of anarchy present in the world system.


title: World government

text: Immanuel Kant conceptualized the state as sovereign individuals formed out of conflict. Part of the traditional philosophical objections to a world state (Kant, Hegel) are overcome by modern technological innovations. Wendt argues that new methods of communication and coordination can overcome these challenges.


title: World government

text: World government was an aspiration of ancient rulers as early as the Bronze Age (3300 BCE to 1200); Ancient Egyptian kings aimed to rule "All That the Sun Encircles", Mesopotamian kings "All from the Sunrise to the Sunset", and ancient Chinese and Japanese emperors "All under Heaven".


title: World government

text: The Chinese had a particularly well-developed notion of world government in the form of Great Unity, or "Da Yitong" (大同), a Utopian vision for a united and just society bound by moral virtue and principles of good governance. The Han dynasty, which successfully united much of China for over four centuries, evidently aspired to this vision by erecting an Altar of the Great Unity in 113 BC.


title: World government

text: Contemporaneously, the Ancient Greek historian Polybius described Roman rule over much of the known world at the time as a "marvelous" achievement worthy of consideration by future historians. The "Pax Romana", a roughly two-century period of stable Roman hegemony across three continents, reflected the positive aspirations of a world government, as it was deemed to have brought prosperity and security to what was once a politically and culturally fractious region. Marxism-Leninism would later envision a world revolution leading to world communism.


title: World government

text: The idea of world government outlived the fall of Rome for centuries, particularly in its former heartland of Italy. In his fourteenth century work "De Monarchia", Florentine poet and philosopher Dante Alighieri, considered by many to be a proto-protestant, appealed for a universal monarchy that would work separate from and uninfluenced by the Roman Catholic Church to establish peace in humanity's lifetime and the afterlife, respectively:


title: World government

text: But what has been the condition of the world since that day the seamless robe [of Pax Romana] first suffered mutilation by the claws of avarice, we can read—would that we could not also see! O human race! what tempests must need toss thee, what treasure be thrown into the sea, what shipwrecks must be endured, so long as thou, like a beast of many heads, strivest after diverse ends! Thou art sick in either intellect, and sick likewise in thy affection. Thou healest not thy high understanding by argument irrefutable, nor thy lower by the countenance of experience. Nor dost thou heal thy affection by the sweetness of divine persuasion, when the voice of the Holy Spirit breathes upon thee, 'Behold, how good and how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in unity!'


title: World government

text: Di Gattinara was an Italian diplomat who widely promoted Dante's "De Monarchia" and its call for a universal monarchy. An advisor of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, and the chancellor of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, he conceived global government as uniting all Christian nations under a Respublica Christiana, which was the only political entity able to establish world peace.


title: World government

text: The Spanish philosopher Francisco de Vitoria is considered an author of "global political philosophy" and international law, along with Alberico Gentili and Hugo Grotius. This came at a time when the University of Salamanca was engaged in unprecedented thought concerning human rights, international law, and early economics based on the experiences of the Spanish Empire. De Vitoria conceived of the "res publica totius orbis", or the "republic of the whole world".


title: World government

text: The Dutch philosopher and jurist Hugo Grotius, widely regarded as a founder of international law, believed in the eventual formation of a world government to enforce it. His book, "De jure belli ac pacis" ("On the Law of War and Peace"), published in Paris in 1625, is still cited as a foundational work in the field. Though he does not advocate for world government "per se," Grotius argues that a "common law among nations", consisting of a framework of principles of natural law, bind all people and societies regardless of local custom.


title: World government

text: In his essay "" (1795), Kant describes three basic requirements for organizing human affairs to permanently abolish the threat of present and future war, and, thereby, help establish a new era of lasting peace throughout the world. Kant described his proposed peace program as containing two steps.


title: World government

text: The "Preliminary Articles" described the steps that should be taken immediately, or with all deliberate speed:


title: World government

text: Three Definitive Articles would provide not merely a cessation of hostilities, but a foundation on which to build a peace.


title: World government

text: Kant argued against a world government on the grounds that it would be prone to tyranny. He instead advocated for league of independent republican states akin to the intergovernmental organizations that would emerge over a century and a half later.


title: World government

text: The year of the battle at Jena (1806), when Napoleon overwhelmed Prussia, Johann Gottlieb Fichte in "Characteristics of the Present Age" described what he perceived to be a very deep and dominant historical trend:


title: World government

text: International organizations started forming in the late 19th century, among the earliest being the International Committee of the Red Cross in 1863, the Telegraphic Union in 1865 and the Universal Postal Union in 1874. The increase in international trade at the turn of the 20th century accelerated the formation of international organizations, and, by the start of World War I in 1914, there were approximately 450 of them.


title: World government

text: Some notable philosophers and political leaders were also promoting the value of world government during the post-industrial, pre-World War era. Ulysses S. Grant, US President, was convinced that rapid advances in technology and industry would result in greater unity and eventually "one nation, so that armies and navies are no longer necessary." In China, political reformer Kang Youwei viewed human political organization growing into fewer, larger units, eventually into "one world". Bahá'u'lláh founded the Baháʼí Faith teaching that the establishment of world unity and a global federation of nations was a key principle of the religion. Author H. G. Wells was a strong proponent of the creation of a world state, arguing that such a state would ensure world peace and justice.


title: World government

text: Karl Marx, the traditional founder of communism, viewed the capitalist epoch being succeeded by a socialist epoch in which the working class throughout the world will unite to render nationalism meaningless.


title: World government

text: Support for the idea of establishing international law grew during this period as well. The Institute of International Law was formed in 1873 by Belgian Jurist Gustave Rolin-Jaequemyns, leading to the creation of concrete legal drafts, for example by the Swiss Johaan Bluntschli in 1866. In 1883, James Lorimer published "The Institutes of the Law of Nations" in which he explored the idea of a world government establishing the global rule of law. The first embryonic world parliament, called the Inter-Parliamentary Union, was organized in 1886 by Cremer and Passy, composed of legislators from many countries. In 1904 the Union formally proposed "an international congress which should meet periodically to discuss international questions".


title: World government

text: As early as his 1905 statement to Congress, U.S. president Theodore Roosevelt highlighted the need for "an organization of the civilized nations" and cited the international arbitration tribunal at The Hague as a role model to be advanced further. During his acceptance speech for the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize, Roosevelt described a world federation as a "master stroke" and advocated for some form of international police power to maintain peace. Historian William Roscoe Thayer observed that the speech "foreshadowed many of the terms which have since been preached by the advocates of a League of Nations", which would not be established for another 14 years. Hamilton Holt of "The Independent" lauded Roosevelt's plan for a "Federation of the World", writing that not since the "Great Design" of Henry IV has "so comprehensive a plan" for universal peace been proposed.


title: World government

text: Although Roosevelt supported global government conceptually, he was critical of specific proposals and of leaders of organizations promoting the cause of international governance. According to historian John Milton Cooper, Roosevelt praised the plan of his presidential successor, William Howard Taft, for "a league under existing conditions and with such wisdom in refusing to let adherence to the principle be clouded by insistence upon improper or unimportant methods of enforcement that we can speak of the league as a practical matter."


title: World government

text: In a 1907 letter to Andrew Carnegie, Roosevelt expressed his hope "to see The Hague Court greatly increased in power and permanency", and in one of his very last public speeches he said: "Let us support any reasonable plan whether in the form of a League of Nations or in any other shape, which bids fair to lessen the probable number of future wars and to limit their scope."


title: World government

text: The League of Nations (LoN) was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920. At its largest size from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. The League's goals included upholding the Rights of Man, such as the rights of non-whites, women, and soldiers; disarmament, preventing war through collective security, settling disputes between countries through negotiation, diplomacy, and improving global quality of life. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift in thought from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and so depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions and economic sanctions and provide an army, when needed. However, these powers proved reluctant to do so. Lacking many of the key elements necessary to maintain world peace, the League failed to prevent World War II. Adolf Hitler withdrew Germany from the League of Nations once he planned to take over Europe. The rest of the Axis Powers soon followed him. Having failed its primary goal, the League of Nations fell apart. The League of Nations consisted of the Assembly, the council, and the Permanent Secretariat. Below these were many agencies. The Assembly was where delegates from all member states conferred. Each country was allowed three representatives and one vote.


title: World government

text: The Nazi Party of Germany envisaged the establishment of a world government under the complete hegemony of the Third Reich. In its move to overthrow the post-World War I Treaty of Versailles, Germany had already withdrawn itself from the League of Nations, and it did not intend to join a similar internationalist organization ever again. In his stated political aim of expanding the living space ("Lebensraum") of the Germanic people by destroying or driving out "lesser-deserving races" in and from other territories, dictator Adolf Hitler devised an ideological system of self-perpetuating expansionism, in which the growth of a state's population would require the conquest of more territory which would, in turn, lead to a further growth in population which would then require even more conquests. In 1927, Rudolf Hess relayed to Walther Hewel Hitler's belief that world peace could only be acquired "when one power, the racially best one, has attained uncontested supremacy". When this control would be achieved, this power could then set up for itself a world police and assure itself "the necessary living space... The lower races will have to restrict themselves accordingly".


title: World government

text: During its imperial period (1868–1947), the Japanese Empire elaborated a worldview, ""Hakkō ichiu"", translated as "eight corners of the world under one roof". This was the idea behind the attempt to establish a Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere and behind the struggle for world domination.


title: World government

text: The Atlantic Charter was a published statement agreed between the United Kingdom and the United States. It was intended as the blueprint for the postwar world after World War II, and turned out to be the foundation for many of the international agreements that currently shape the world. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the post-war independence of British and French possessions, and much more are derived from the Atlantic Charter. The Atlantic charter was made to show the goals of the allied powers during World War II. It first started with the United States and Great Britain, and later all the allies would follow the charter. Some goals include access to raw materials, reduction of trade restrictions, and freedom from fear and wants. The name, The Atlantic Charter, came from a newspaper that coined the title. However, Winston Churchill would use it, and from then on the Atlantic Charter was the official name. In retaliation, the Axis powers would raise their morale and try to work their way into Great Britain. The Atlantic Charter was a stepping stone into the creation of the United Nations.


title: World government

text: On June 5, 1948, at the dedication of the War Memorial in Omaha, Nebraska, U.S. President Harry S. Truman's remarked, "We must make the United Nations continue to work, and to be a going concern, to see that difficulties between nations may be settled just as we settle difficulties between States here in the United States. When Kansas and Colorado fall out over the waters in the Arkansas River, they don't go to war over it; they go to the Supreme Court of the United States, and the matter is settled in a just and honorable way. There is not a difficulty in the whole world that cannot be settled in exactly the same way in a world court". The cultural moment of the late 1940s was the peak of World Federalism among Americans.


title: World government

text: World War II (1939–1945) resulted in an unprecedented scale of destruction of lives (over 60 million dead, most of them civilians), and the use of weapons of mass destruction. Some of the acts committed against civilians during the war were on such a massive scale of savagery, they came to be widely considered as crimes against humanity itself. As the war's conclusion drew near, many shocked voices called for the establishment of institutions able to permanently prevent deadly international conflicts. This led to the founding of the United Nations (UN) in 1945, which adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. Many, however, felt that the UN, essentially a forum for discussion and coordination between sovereign governments, was insufficiently empowered for the task. A number of prominent persons, such as Albert Einstein, Winston Churchill, Bertrand Russell and Mahatma Gandhi, called on governments to proceed further by taking gradual steps towards forming an effectual federal world government. The United Nations main goal is to work on international law, international security, economic development, human rights, social progress, and eventually world peace. The United Nations replaced the League of Nations in 1945, after World War II. Almost every internationally recognized country is in the U.N.; as it contains 193 member states out of the 196 total nations of the world. The United Nations gather regularly in order to solve big problems throughout the world. There are six official languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish. The United Nations is also financed by some of the wealthiest nations. The flag shows the Earth from a map that shows all of the populated continents.


title: World government

text: A United Nations Parliamentary Assembly (UNPA) is a proposed addition to the United Nations System that would allow for participation of member nations' legislators and, eventually, direct election of UN parliament members by citizens worldwide. The idea of a world parliament was raised at the founding of the League of Nations in the 1920s and again following the end of World War II in 1945, but remained dormant throughout the Cold War. In the 1990s and 2000s, the rise of global trade and the power of world organizations that govern it led to calls for a parliamentary assembly to scrutinize their activity. The Campaign for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly was formed in 2007 by Democracy Without Borders to coordinate pro-UNPA efforts, which as of January 2019 has received the support of over 1,500 Members of Parliament from over 100 countries worldwide, in addition to numerous non-governmental organizations, Nobel and Right Livelihood laureates and heads or former heads of state or government and foreign ministers.


title: World government

text: In France, 1948, Garry Davis began an unauthorized speech calling for a world government from the balcony of the UN General Assembly, until he was dragged away by the guards. Davis renounced his American citizenship and started a Registry of World Citizens. On September 4, 1953, Davis announced from the city hall of Ellsworth, Maine, the formation of the "World Government of World Citizens" based on 3 "World Laws"One God (or Absolute Value), One World, and One Humanity. Following this declaration, mandated, he claimed, by Article twenty one, Section three of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, he formed the United World Service Authority in New York City as the administrative agency of the new government. Its first task was to design and begin selling "World Passports", which the organisation argues is legitimatised by on Article 13, Section 2 of the UDHR.


title: World government

text: The years between the end of World War II and the start of the Korean War—which roughly marked the entrenchment of Cold War polarity—saw a flourishing of the nascent world federalist movement. Wendell Willkie's 1943 book "One World" sold over 2 million copies, laying out many of the argument and principles that would inspire global federalism. A contemporaneous work, Emery Reves' "The Anatomy of Peace" (1945), argued for replacing the UN with a federal world government. The world federalist movement in the U.S., led by diverse figures such as Grenville Clark, Norman Cousins, and Alan Cranston, grew larger and more prominent: in 1947, several grassroots organizations merged to form the United World Federalists—later renamed the World Federalist Association, then Citizens for Global Solutions—claiming 47,000 members by 1949. A committee of academics and intellectuals formed by Robert Maynard Hutchins of the University of Chicago published a "Preliminary Draft of a World Constitution" and from 1947 to 1951 published a magazine edited by the daughter of Thomas Mann, Elisabeth Mann Borgese, which was devoted to world government; its title was "Common Cause".


title: World government

text: In 1949, six U.S. states — California, Connecticut, Florida, Maine, New Jersey, and North Carolina — applied for an Article V convention to propose an amendment “to enable the participation of the United States in a world federal government.” Multiple other state legislatures introduced or debated the same proposal. These resolutions were part of this effort.


title: World government

text: Similar movements concurrently formed in many other countries, culminating in a 1947 meeting in Montreux, Switzerland that formed a global coalition called the World Federalist Movement. By 1950, the movement claimed 56 member groups in 22 countries, with some 156,000 members.


title: World government

text: By 1950, the Cold War began to dominate international politics and the UN Security Council became effectively paralyzed by its permanent members' ability to exercise veto power. The United Nations Security Council Resolution 82 and 83 backed the defense of South Korea, although the Soviets were then boycotting meetings in protest.


title: World government

text: While enthusiasm for multinational federalism in Europe incrementally led, over the following decades, to the formation of the European Union, the Cold War eliminated the prospects of any progress towards federation with a more global scope. Global integration became stagnant during the Cold War, and the conflict became the driver behind one-third of all wars during the period. The idea of world government all but disappeared from wide public discourse.


title: World government

text: As the Cold War dwindled in 1991, interest in a federal world government was renewed. When the conflict ended by 1992, without the external assistance, many proxy wars petered out or ended by negotiated settlements. This kicked off a period in the 1990s of unprecedented international activism and an expansion of international institutions. According to the "Human Security Report 2005", this was the first effective functioning of the United Nations as it was designed to operate.


title: World government

text: The most visible achievement of the world federalism movement during the 1990s is the Rome Statute of 1998, which led to the establishment of the International Criminal Court in 2002. In Europe, progress towards forming a federal union of European states gained much momentum, starting in 1952 as a trade deal between the German and French people led, in 1992, to the Maastricht Treaty that established the name and enlarged the agreement that the European Union is based upon. The EU expanded (1995, 2004, 2007, 2013) to encompass, in 2013, over half a billion people in 28 member states (27 after Brexit). Following the EU's example, other supranational unions were established, including the African Union in 2002, the Union of South American Nations in 2008, and the Eurasian Economic Union in 2015.


title: World government

text: , there is no functioning global international military, executive, legislature, judiciary, or constitution with jurisdiction over the entire planet.


title: World government

text: The world is divided geographically and demographically into mutually exclusive territories and political structures called states which are independent and sovereign in most cases. There are numerous bodies, institutions, unions, coalitions, agreements and contracts between these units of authority, but, except in cases where a nation is under military occupation by another, "all" such arrangements depend on the continued consent of the participant nations. Countries that violate or do not enforce international laws may be subject to penalty or coercion often in the form of economic limitations such as embargo by cooperating countries, even if the violating country is not part of the United Nations. In this way a country's cooperation in international affairs is voluntary, but non-cooperation still has diplomatic consequences.


title: World government

text: A functioning system of International law encompasses international treaties, customs and globally accepted legal principles. With the exceptions of cases brought before the ICC and ICJ, the laws are interpreted by national courts. Many violations of treaty or customary law obligations are overlooked. International Criminal Court (ICC) was a relatively recent development in international law, it is the first permanent international criminal court established to ensure that the gravest international crimes (war crimes, genocide, other crimes against humanity, etc.) do not go unpunished. The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court establishing the ICC and its jurisdiction was signed by 139 national governments, of which 100 ratified it by October 2005.


title: World government

text: The United Nations (UN) is the primary formal organization coordinating activities between states on a global scale and the only inter-governmental organization with a truly universal membership (193 governments). In addition to the main organs and various humanitarian programs and commissions of the UN itself, there are about 20 functional organizations affiliated with the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), such as the World Health Organization, the International Labour Organization, and International Telecommunication Union. Of particular interest politically are the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the World Trade Organization.Militarily, the UN deploys peacekeeping forces, usually to build and maintain post-conflict peace and stability. When a more aggressive international military action is undertaken, either "ad hoc" coalitions (for example, the Multi-National Force – Iraq) or regional military alliances (for example, NATO) are used.


title: World government

text: The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) formed together in July 1944 at the Mount Washington Hotel in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, United States, to foster global monetary cooperation and to fight poverty by financially assisting states in need. These institutions have been criticized as simply oligarchic hegemonies of the Great Powers, most notably the United States, which maintains the only veto, for instance, in the International Monetary Fund.


title: World government

text: The World Trade Organization (WTO) sets the rules of international trade. It has a semi-legislative body (the General Council, reaching decisions by consensus) and a judicial body (the Dispute Settlement Body). Another influential economical international organization is the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), with membership of 30 democratic members.


title: World government

text: In addition to the formal, or semi-formal, international organizations and laws mentioned above, many other mechanisms act to regulate human activities across national borders. International trade has the effect of requiring cooperation and interdependency between nations without a political body. Trans-national (or multi-national) corporations, some with resources exceeding those available to most governments, govern activities of people on a global scale. The rapid increase in the volume of trans-border digital communications and mass-media distribution (e.g., Internet, satellite television) has allowed information, ideas, and opinions to rapidly spread across the world, creating a complex web of international coordination and influence, mostly outside the control of any formal organizations or laws.


title: World government

text: There are a number of regional organizations that, while not supranational unions, have adopted or intend to adopt policies that may lead to a similar sort of integration in some respects. The European Union is generally recognized as the most integrated among these.


title: Desvenlafaxine

text: Desvenlafaxine, sold under the brand name Pristiq among others, is a medication used to treat depression. It is an antidepressant of the serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) class and is taken by mouth. It is recommended that the need for further treatment be occasionally reassessed. It may be less effective than its parent compound venlafaxine, although some studies have found comparable efficacy.


title: Desvenlafaxine

text: Common side effects include dizziness, trouble sleeping, increased sweating, constipation, sleepiness, anxiety, and sexual problems. Serious side effects may include suicide in those under the age of 25, serotonin syndrome, bleeding, mania, and high blood pressure. A withdrawal syndrome may occur if the dose is decreased or the medication completely stopped. It is unclear if use during pregnancy or breastfeeding is safe.


title: Desvenlafaxine

text: Desvenlafaxine was approved for medical use in the United States in 2008. In Europe its application for use was denied in 2009. But it is available in Spain and Germany. In 2020, it was the 176th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 3million prescriptions.


title: Desvenlafaxine

text: Desvenlafaxine is primarily used as a treatment for major depressive disorder. Use has only been studied up to 8 weeks. It may be less effective than venlafaxine, although some studies have found comparable efficacy with a lower rate of nausea.


title: Desvenlafaxine

text: Doses of 50–400 mg/day appear effective for major depressive disorder, although no additional benefit was demonstrated at doses greater than 50 mg/day, and adverse events and discontinuations were more frequent at higher doses.


title: Desvenlafaxine

text: Desvenlafaxine improves the HAM-D17 score and measures of well-being such as the Sheehan Disability Scale (SDS) and 5-item World Health Organization Well-Being Index (WHO-5).


title: Desvenlafaxine

text: Desvenlafaxine is a synthetic form of the isolated major active metabolite of venlafaxine, and is categorized as a serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI). When most normal metabolizers take venlafaxine, approximately 70% of the dose is metabolized into desvenlafaxine, so the effects of the two drugs are expected to be very similar. It works by blocking the "reuptake" transporters for key neurotransmitters affecting mood, thereby leaving more active neurotransmitters in the synapse. The neurotransmitters affected are serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). It is approximately 10 times more potent at inhibiting serotonin uptake than norepinephrine uptake.


title: Desvenlafaxine

text: Wyeth announced on 23 January 2007 that it received an approvable letter from the Food and Drug Administration for desvenlafaxine. Final approval to sell the drug was contingent on a number of things, including:


title: Desvenlafaxine

text: The FDA approved the drug for antidepressant use in February 2008, and was to be available in US pharmacies in May 2008.


title: Desvenlafaxine

text: In 2009, an application to market desvenlafaxine for major depressive disorder in the European Union was declined. In 2012, Pfizer received authorization in Spain to market desvenlafaxine for the disorder. In August 2022, following a 14-year approval process, desvenlafaxine was brought to the market for the disorder in Germany.


title: Desvenlafaxine

text: Desvenlafaxine is classified as a schedule 4 (prescription only) drug in Australia. It was listed on the PBS (Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme) in 2008 for the treatment of major depressive disorders.


title: Osage Nation

text: The Osage Nation ( ) (Osage: 𐓁𐒻 𐓂𐒼𐒰𐓇𐒼𐒰͘ ("), "People of the Middle Waters") is a Midwestern Native American tribe of the Great Plains. The tribe developed in the Ohio and Mississippi river valleys around 700 BC along with other groups of its language family. They migrated west after the 17th century, settling near the confluence of the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, as a result of Iroquois invading the Ohio Valley in a search for new hunting grounds.


title: Osage Nation

text: The term "Osage" is a French version of the tribe's name, which can be roughly translated as "calm water". The Osage people refer to themselves in their indigenous Dhegihan Siouan language as 𐓏𐒰𐓓𐒰𐓓𐒷 ("), or "Mid-waters".


title: Osage Nation

text: By the early 19th century, the Osage had become the dominant power in the region, feared by neighboring tribes. The tribe controlled the area between the Missouri and Red rivers, the Ozarks to the east and the foothills of the Wichita Mountains to the south. They depended on nomadic buffalo hunting and agriculture.


title: Osage Nation

text: The 19th-century painter George Catlin described the Osage as "the tallest race of men in North America, either red or white skins; there being ... many of them six and a half, and others seven feet." The missionary Isaac McCoy described the Osage as an "uncommonly fierce, courageous, warlike nation" and said they were the "finest looking Indians I have ever seen in the West".


title: Osage Nation

text: In the Ohio Valley, the Osage originally lived among speakers of the same Dhegihan language stock, such as the Kansa, Ponca, Omaha, and Quapaw. Researchers believe that the tribes likely became differentiated in languages and cultures after leaving the lower Ohio country. The Omaha and Ponca settled in what is now Nebraska; the Kansa in Kansas; and the Quapaw in Arkansas.


title: Osage Nation

text: In the 19th century, the Osage were forced by the United States to remove from Kansas to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma), and the majority of their descendants live in Oklahoma. In the early 20th century, oil was discovered on their land. They had retained communal mineral rights during the allotment process, and many Osage became wealthy through returns from leasing fees generated by their headrights. However, during the 1920s and what was known as the Reign of Terror, they suffered manipulation, fraud, and numerous murders by outsiders eager to take over their wealth.


title: Osage Nation

text: In 2011, the nation gained a settlement from the federal government after an 11-year legal struggle over long mismanagement of their oil funds. In the 21st century, the federally recognized Osage Nation has approximately 20,000 enrolled members, 6,780 of whom reside in the tribe's jurisdictional area. Members also live outside the nation's tribal land in Oklahoma and in other states around the country. The tribe is bordered by the Cherokee Nation to the east, the Muscogee Nation and the Pawnee Nation to the south, and the Kaw Nation and Oklahoma proper to the west.


title: Osage Nation

text: Osage people believed they were an integral part of a broader universe. Their ceremonies and social organization represented what was observed around them that was created by Wakonda. Everything created has the spirit of Wakonda within it, from trees, plants, and the sky to animals and human beings. They believed there were two main divisions to life, consisting of the sky and earth. Life is created in the sky, and descends to the earth in material form. The sky was viewed as masculine in nature and the earth as feminine.


title: Osage Nation

text: They revered the behavior of animals such as hawks, deer and bears, which were considered to be very courageous. Other species lived long lives, such as pelicans. Because humans lacked many of the characteristics naturally found within other forms of life around them, they were expected to learn from the others and emulate characteristics desirable for survival. Survival was not a competition between humans and non-humans, but rather a struggle between human communities. Efforts for survival were the responsibility of the people and not of Wakonda, although they might ask Wakonda for help. Considering life a struggle among human groups, they viewed warfare as necessary for self-preservation. The people's survival was dependent on their ability to defend themselves. Over time, the Osage developed clan and kinship systems that mirrored the cosmos as they saw it. Osage clans were typically named after elements of their world: animals, plants and weather phenomenon such as storms.


title: Osage Nation

text: This was a symbolic representation. Each clan had its own responsibilities within the tribe. Names of clans included Red Cedar ("Hon-tse-shu-tsy"), Travelers in the Mist ("Moh-sho-tsa-moie"), Deer Lungs ("Tah-lah-he") and Elk ("O-pon"). Children born to a certain clan had a ceremonial naming in order to introduce them to the community. Without a ceremonial name, an Osage child could not participate in ceremonies, so naming was an important part of Osage identity. The people regulated marriage through the clans: clan members had to marry people from opposite clans or divisions. Clan representation was expressed in the arrangement of Osage villages. The sky people lived on the side opposite the earth people, and the lodges of the Osage spiritual leaders were situated in between the two sides.


title: Osage Nation

text: Osage life was highly ritualized, where there were certain ceremonies would be performed utilizing bundles, ceremonial pipes which used tobacco as offerings to seek Wakonda's aid. These ceremonies were presided over by Osage medicine people and spiritual leaders. Although some of the literature cites these individuals as "priests", this term is misleading and is more Eurocentric in nature. Ceremonies, although very elaborate served basic functions such as requesting aid from Wakonda for continued tribal existence and the blessing of a long life through children.


title: Osage Nation

text: Ceremonial songs were also a way to document the knowledge spiritual leaders gained, considering there was no written language. Songs of this nature were only taught and shared among other Osages who were sincere and had proven themselves. Many songs and ceremonies were created for all facets of life such as adoption, marriage, war, agriculture and to honor the rising of the sun in the morning.


title: Osage Nation

text: The Osage are descendants of cultures of indigenous peoples who had been in North America for thousands of years. Studies of their traditions and language show that they were part of a group of Dhegihan-Siouan speaking people who lived in the Ohio River valley area, extending into present-day Kentucky. According to their own stories (common to other Dhegihan-Siouan tribes, such as the Ponca, Omaha, Kaw and Quapaw), they migrated west as a result of war with the Iroquois and/or to reach more game.


title: Osage Nation

text: Scholars are divided as to whether they think the Osage and other groups left before the Beaver Wars of the Iroquois. Some believe that the Osage started migrating west as early as 1200 CE and are descendants of the Mississippian culture in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys. They attribute their style of government to effects of the long years of war with invading Iroquois. After resettling west of the Mississippi River, the Osage were sometimes allied with the Illiniwek and sometimes competed with them, as that tribe was also driven west of Illinois by warfare with the powerful Iroquois.


title: Osage Nation

text: Eventually the Osage and other Dhegihan-Siouan peoples reached their historic lands, likely developing and splitting into the above tribes in the course of the migration to the Great Plains. By the 17th century, many of the Osage had settled near the Osage River in the western part of present-day Missouri. They were recorded in 1690 as having adopted the horse (a valuable resource often acquired through raids on other tribes.) The desire to acquire more horses contributed to their trading with the French. They attacked and defeated indigenous Caddo tribes to establish dominance in the Plains region by 1750, with control "over half or more of Missouri, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Kansas," which they maintained for nearly 150 years. Together with the Kiowa, Comanche, and Apache, they dominated western Oklahoma.


title: Osage Nation

text: The Osage held high rank among the old hunting tribes of the Great Plains. From their traditional homes in the woodlands of present-day Missouri and Arkansas, the Osage would make semi-annual buffalo hunting forays into the Great Plains to the west. They also hunted deer, rabbit, and other wild game in the central and eastern parts of their domain. The women cultivated varieties of corn, squash, and other vegetables near their villages, which they processed for food. They also harvested and processed nuts and wild berries. In their years of transition, the Osage had cultural practices that had elements of the cultures of both Woodland Native Americans and the Great Plains peoples. The villages of the Osage were important hubs in the Great Plains trading network served by Kaw people as intermediaries.


title: Osage Nation

text: In 1673, French explorers Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet were among the first Europeans documented to contact the Osage, traveling southward from present-day Canada in their journey along the Mississippi River. Marquette's 1673 map noted the Kanza, Osage, and Pawnee tribes thrived in much of modern-day Kansas.


title: Osage Nation

text: The Osage called the Europeans "" (Heavy Eyebrows) because of their facial hair. As experienced warriors, the Osage allied with the French, with whom they traded, against the Illiniwek during the early 18th century. The first half of the 1720s was a time of more interaction between the Osage and French colonizers. Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont founded Fort Orleans in their territory; it was the first European colonial fort on the Missouri River. Jesuit missionaries were assigned to French forts and established missions in an attempt to convert the Osage, learning their language to ingratiate themselves. In 1724, the Osage allied with the French rather than the Spanish in their fight for control of the Mississippi region. In 1725, Bourgmont led a delegation of Osage and other tribal chiefs to Paris. They were shown around France, including a visit to Versailles, Château de Marly and Fontainebleau. They hunted with Louis XV in the royal forest and saw an opera.


title: Osage Nation

text: During the French and Indian War (the North American front of the Seven Years' War), France was defeated by Great Britain and in 1763 ceded control over their lands east of the River Mississippi to the British Crown. The French Crown made a separate deal with Spain, which took nominal control of much of the Illinois Country west of the great river. By the late 18th century, the Osage did extensive business with the French Creole fur trader René Auguste Chouteau, who was based in St. Louis; the city was part of territory under nominal Spanish control after the Seven Years' War but was dominated by French colonists. They were the "de facto" European power in St. Louis and other settlements along the Mississippi, building their wealth on the fur trade. In return for the Chouteau brothers' building a fort in the village of the Great Osage southwest of St. Louis, the Spanish regional government gave the Chouteaus a six-year monopoly on trade (1794–1802). The Chouteaus named the post Fort Carondelet after the Spanish governor. The Osage were pleased to have a fur trading post nearby, as it gave them access to manufactured goods and increased their prestige among the tribes. Lewis and Clark reported in 1804 that the peoples were the Great Osage on the Osage River, the Little Osage upstream, and the Arkansas band on the Verdigris River, a tributary of the Arkansas River. The Osage then numbered some 5,500. The Osage and Quapaw suffered extensive losses from smallpox in 1801–1802. Historians estimate up to 2,000 Osage died in the epidemic.


title: Osage Nation

text: In 1804 after the United States made the Louisiana Purchase, the U.S. government appointed the wealthy French fur trader Jean-Pierre Chouteau, a half-brother of René Auguste Chouteau, as the Indian agent assigned to the Osage. In 1809, he founded the Saint Louis Missouri Fur Company with his son Auguste Pierre Chouteau and other prominent men of St. Louis, most of whom were of French-Creole descent, born in North America. Having lived with the Osage for many years and learned their language, Jean-Pierre Chouteau traded with them and made his home at present-day Salina, Oklahoma, in the western part of their territory.


title: Osage Nation

text: The Choctaw chief Pushmataha, based in Mississippi, made his early reputation in battles against the Osage tribe in the area of southern Arkansas and their borderlands. In the early 19th century, some Cherokee, such as Sequoyah, voluntarily removed from the southeast to the Arkansas River valley under pressure from European-American settlement in their traditional territory. They clashed there with the Osage, who controlled this area. The Osage regarded the Cherokee as invaders. They began raiding Cherokee towns, stealing horses, carrying off captives (usually women and children), and killing others, trying to drive out the Cherokee with a campaign of violence and fear. The Cherokee were not effective in stopping the Osage raids and worked to gain support from related tribes as well as whites. The peoples confronted each other in the "Battle of Claremore Mound," in which 38 Osage warriors were killed and 104 were taken captive by the Cherokee and their allies. As a result of the battle, the United States constructed Fort Smith in present-day Arkansas. It was intended to prevent armed confrontations between the Osage and other tribes. The U.S. compelled the Osage to cede additional land to the federal government in the treaty referred to as Lovely's Purchase.


title: Osage Nation

text: In 1833, the Osage clashed with the Kiowa near the Wichita Mountains in modern-day south-central Oklahoma, in an incident known as the Cutthroat Gap massacre. The Osage cut off the heads of their victims and arranged them in rows of brass cooking buckets. No Osage died in this attack. Later, Kiowa warriors, allied with the Comanche, raided the Osage and others. In 1836, the Osage prohibited the Kickapoo from entering their Missouri reservation, pushing them back to ceded lands in Illinois.


title: Osage Nation

text: After the Lewis and Clark Expedition was completed in 1806, Jefferson appointed Meriwether Lewis as Indian Agent for the territory of Missouri and the region. There were continuing confrontations between the Osage and other tribes in this area. Lewis anticipated that the U.S. would have to go to war with the Osage, because of their raids on eastern Natives and European-American settlements. However, the U.S. lacked sufficient military strength to coerce Osage bands into ceasing their raids. It decided to supply other tribes with weapons and ammunition, provided they attack the Osage to the point they "cut them off completely or drive them from their country."


title: Osage Nation

text: For instance, in September 1807, Lewis persuaded the Potawatomie, Sac, and Fox to attack an Osage village; three Osage warriors were killed. The Osage blamed the Americans for the attack. One of the Chouteau traders intervened and persuaded the Osage to conduct a buffalo hunt rather than seek retaliation by attacking Americans.


title: Osage Nation

text: Lewis tried to control the Osage also by separating the friendly members from the hostile. In a letter dated August 21, 1808, that President Jefferson sent to Lewis, he says that he approves of the measures Lewis has taken in regards to making allies of the friendly Osage from those deemed as hostile. Jefferson writes, "we may go further, & as the principal obstacle to the Indians acting in large bodies is the want of provisions, we might supply that want, & ammunition also if they need it." But the goal foremost pursued by the US was to push the Osage out of areas being settled by European Americans, who began to enter the Louisiana Territory after the U.S. acquired it.


title: Osage Nation

text: The lucrative fur trade continued to stimulate the growth of St. Louis and attracted more settlers there. It became a major port on the Mississippi River. The U.S. and Osage signed their first treaty on November 10, 1808, by which the Osage made a major cession of land in present-day Missouri. Under the Osage Treaty, they ceded to the federal government.


title: Osage Nation

text: This treaty created a buffer line between the Osage and new European-American settlers in the Missouri Territory. It also established the requirement that the U.S. president had to approve all future land sales and cessions by the Osage. The Treaty of Ft. Osage states the U.S. would "protect" the Osage tribe "from the insults and injuries of other tribes of Indians, situated near the settlements of white people...". As was common in Native American relations with the federal government, the Osage found that the U.S. did not carry through on this commitment.


title: Osage Nation

text: Between the first treaty with the U.S. and 1825, the Osage ceded their traditional lands across what are now Missouri, Arkansas, and Oklahoma in the treaties of 1818 and 1825. In exchange, they were to receive reservation lands to the West and supplies to help them adapt to farming and a more settled culture.


title: Osage Nation

text: They were first relocated to a southeast Kansas reservation called the Osage Diminished Reserve. The city of Independence later developed there. The first Osage reservation was a 50 by strip. The United Foreign Missionary Society sent clergy to them, supported by the Presbyterian, Dutch Reformed, and Associate Reformed churches. They established the Union, Harmony, and Hopefield missions.


title: Osage Nation

text: Cultural differences often led to conflicts, as the Protestants tried to impose their culture. The Catholic Church also sent missionaries. The Osage were attracted to their sense of mystery and ritual but felt the Catholics did not fully embrace the Osage sense of the spiritual incarnate in nature.


title: Osage Nation

text: During this period in Kansas, the tribe suffered from the widespread smallpox pandemic of 1837–1838, which caused devastating losses among Native Americans from Canada to New Mexico. All clergy except the Catholics abandoned the Osage during the crisis. Most survivors of the epidemic had received vaccinations against the disease. The Osage believed that the loyalty of Catholic priests, who stayed with them and also died in the epidemic, created a special covenant between the tribe and the Catholic Church, but they did not convert in great number. Catholic clergy accompanied the Osage when they were forced to move again to Indian Territory in what became Oklahoma.


title: Osage Nation

text: Honoring this special relationship, as well as Catholic sisters who taught their children in schools on reservations, numerous Osage elders went to the city of St. Louis in 2014 to celebrate its 250th anniversary of founding by the French. They participated in a mass partially conducted in Osage at St. Francis Xavier College Church of St. Louis University on April 2, 2014, as part of planned activities. One of the con-celebrants was Todd Nance, who is the first Osage to be ordained as a Catholic priest.


title: Osage Nation

text: In 1843, the Osage asked the federal government to send "Black Robes", Jesuit missionaries, to their reservation to educate their children; the Osage considered the Jesuits better able to work with their culture than the Protestant missionaries. The Jesuits also established a girls' school operated by the Sisters of Loretto from Kentucky. During a 35-year period, most of the missionaries were new recruits from Europe: Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, and Belgium. They taught, established more than 100 mission stations, built churches, and created the longest-running school system in Kansas.


title: Osage Nation

text: White squatters continued to be a frequent problem for the Osage, but they recovered from population losses, regaining a total of 5,000 members by 1850. The Kansas–Nebraska Act resulted in numerous settlers arriving in Kansas; both abolitionists and pro-slavery groups were represented among those trying to establish residency in order to vote on whether the territory would have slavery. The Osage lands became overrun with European-American settlers. In 1855, the Osage suffered another epidemic of smallpox, because a generation had grown up without getting vaccinated.


title: Osage Nation

text: Subsequent U.S. treaties and laws through the 1860s further reduced the lands of the Osage in Kansas. During the years of the Civil War, they were buffeted by both sides, as they were located between Union forts in the North, and Confederate forces and allies to the South. While the Osage tried to stay neutral, both sides raided their territory, taking horses and food stores. They struggled simply to survive through famine and the war. During the war, many Caddoan and Creek refugees from Indian Territory came to Osage country in Kansas, which further strained their resources. Although the Osage favored the Union by a five to one ratio, they made a treaty with the Confederacy to try to buy some peace.


title: Osage Nation

text: Following the American Civil War and victory of the Union, the Drum Creek Treaty was passed by Congress on July 15, 1870, and ratified by the Osage at a meeting in Montgomery County, Kansas, on September 10, 1870. It provided that the remainder of Osage land in Kansas be sold, and the proceeds used to relocate the tribe to Indian Territory in the Cherokee Outlet. By delaying agreement with removal, the Osage benefited by a change in administration. They sold their lands to the "peace" administration of President Ulysses S. Grant, for which they received more money: $1.25 an acre rather than the 19 cents previously offered to them by the U.S.


title: Osage Nation

text: In 1867, Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer chose Osage scouts in his campaign against Chief Black Kettle and his band of Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians in western Indian Territory. He knew the Osage for their scouting expertise, excellent terrain knowledge, and military prowess. Custer and his soldiers took Chief Black Kettle and his peaceful band by surprise in the early morning near the Washita River on November 27, 1868. They killed Chief Black Kettle, and the ambush resulted in additional deaths on both sides. This incident became known as the Battle of Washita River, or the Washita massacre, an ignominious part of the United States' Indian Wars.


title: Osage Nation

text: The Osage were one of the few American Indian nations to buy their own reservation. As a result, they retained more rights to the land and sovereignty. They retained mineral rights on their lands. The reservation, of approximately , is coterminous with present-day Osage County, Oklahoma, in the north-central portion of the state between Tulsa and Ponca City.


title: Osage Nation

text: The Osage established four towns: Pawhuska, Hominy, Fairfax, and Gray Horse. Each was dominated by one of the major bands at the time of removal. The Osage continued their relationship with the Catholic Church, which established schools operated by two orders of nuns, as well as mission churches.


title: Osage Nation

text: It was many years before the Osage recovered from the hardships suffered during their last years in Kansas and their early years on the reservation in Indian Territory. For nearly five years during the depression of the 1870s, the Osage did not receive their full annuity in cash. Like other Native Americans, they suffered from the government's failure to provide full or satisfactory rations and goods as part of their annuities during this period. Middlemen made profits by shorting supplies to the Indians or giving them poor-quality food. Some people starved. Many adjustments had to be made to their new way of life.


title: Osage Nation

text: During this time, Indian Office reports showed nearly a 50 percent decline in the Osage population. This resulted from the failure of the U.S. government to provide adequate medical supplies, food and clothing. The people suffered greatly during the winters. While the government failed to supply them, outlaws often smuggled whiskey to the Osage and the Pawnee.


title: Osage Nation

text: In 1879, an Osage delegation went to Washington, D.C., and gained agreement to have all their annuities paid in cash; they hoped to avoid being continually shortchanged in supplies, or by being given supplies of inferior quality - spoiled food and inappropriate goods. They were the first Native American nation to gain full cash payment of annuities. They gradually began to build up their tribe again but suffered encroachment by white outlaws, vagabonds, and thieves.


title: Osage Nation

text: The Osage wrote a constitution in 1881, modeling some parts of it after the United States Constitution. By the start of the 20th century, the federal government and progressives were continuing to press for Native American assimilation, believing this was the best policy for them. Congress passed the Curtis Act and Dawes Act, legislation requiring the dismantling of communal lands on other reservations. They allotted communal lands in 160-acre portions to individual households, declaring the remainder as "surplus" and selling it to non-natives. They also dismantled the tribal governments.


title: Osage Nation

text: In 1894 large quantities of oil were discovered to lie beneath the vast prairie owned by the tribe. Because of his recent work in developing oil production in Kansas, Henry Foster approached the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) to request exclusive privileges to explore the Osage Reservation for oil and natural gas. Foster died shortly afterward, and his brother, Edwin B. Foster, assumed his interests.


title: Osage Nation

text: The BIA granted the request on March 16, 1896, with the stipulation that Foster was to pay the Osage tribe a 10% royalty on all sales of petroleum produced on the reservation. Foster found large quantities of oil, and the Osage benefited greatly monetarily. But this discovery of "black gold" eventually led to more hardships for tribal members.


title: Osage Nation

text: The Osage had learned about negotiating with the U.S. government. Through the efforts of Principal Chief James Bigheart, in 1907 they reached a deal which enabled them to retain communal mineral rights on the reservation lands. These were later found to have large quantities of crude oil, and tribal members benefited from royalty revenues from oil development and production. The government leased lands on their behalf for oil development; the companies/government sent the Osage members royalties that, by the 1920s, had dramatically increased their wealth. In 1923 alone, the Osage earned $30 million in royalties. Since the early 20th century, they are the only tribe within the state of Oklahoma to retain a federally recognized reservation.


title: Osage Nation

text: In 2000 the Osage sued the federal government over its management of the trust assets, alleging that it had failed to pay tribal members appropriate royalties, and had not historically protected the land assets and appreciation. The suit was settled in 2011 for $380 million, and a commitment by the government to make numerous changes to improve the program. In 2016, the Osage nation bought Ted Turner's Bluestem ranch.


title: Osage Nation

text: In 1889, the U.S. federal government claimed to no longer recognize the legitimacy of a governing Osage National Council, which the people had created in 1881, with a constitution that adopted some aspects of that of the United States. In 1906, as part of the Osage Allotment Act, the U.S. Congress created the Osage Tribal Council to handle affairs of the tribe. It extinguished the power of tribal governments in order to enable the admission of the Indian Territory as part of the state of Oklahoma in 1907.


title: Osage Nation

text: As the Osage owned their land, they were in a stronger position than other tribes. The Osage were unyielding in refusing to give up their lands and held up statehood for Oklahoma before signing an allotment act. They were forced to accept allotment but retained their "surplus" land after allotment to households, and apportioned it to individual members. Each of the 2,228 registered Osage members in 1906 (and one non-Osage) received 657 acres, nearly four times the amount of land (usually 160 acres) that most Native American households were allotted in other places when communal lands were distributed. In addition, the tribe retained communal mineral rights to what was below the surface. As development of resources took place, members of the tribe received royalties according to their headrights, paid according to the amount of land they held.


title: Osage Nation

text: Although the Osage were encouraged to become settled farmers, their land was the poorest in the Indian Territory for agricultural purposes. They survived by subsistence farming, later enhanced by raising stock. They leased lands to ranchers for grazing and earned income from the resulting fees. In addition to breaking up communal land, the act replaced tribal government with the Osage National Council, to which members were to be elected to conduct the tribe's political, business, and social affairs. Under the act, initially each Osage male had equal voting rights to elect members of the council, and the principal and assistant principal chiefs. The rights to these lands in future generations was divided among legal heirs, as were the mineral headrights to mineral lease royalties. Under the Allotment Act, only allottees and their descendants who held headrights could vote in the elections or run for office (originally restricted to males). The members voted by their headrights, which generated inequalities among the voters.


title: Osage Nation

text: A 1992 U.S. district court decision ruled that the Osage could vote to reinstate the Osage National Council as city members of the Osage nation, rather than being required to vote by headright. This decision was reversed in 1997 with the United States Court of Appeals ruling that ended the government restoration. In 2004, Congress passed legislation to restore sovereignty to the Osage Nation and enable them to make their own decisions about government and membership qualifications for their people.


title: Osage Nation

text: In March 2010, the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit held that the 1906 Allotment Act had disestablished the Osage reservation established in 1872. This ruling potentially affected the legal status of three of the seven Osage casinos, including the largest one in Tulsa, as it meant the casino was not on federal trust land. Federal Indian gaming law allows tribes to operate casinos only on trust land.


title: Osage Nation

text: The Osage Nation's largest economic enterprise, Osage Casinos, officially opened newly constructed casinos, hotels and convenience stores in Skiatook and Ponca City in December 2013.


title: Osage Nation

text: Before having a vote within the tribe on the question of allotment, the Osage demanded that the government purge their tribal rolls of people who were not legally Osage. The Indian agent had been adding names of persons who were not approved by the tribe, and the Osage submitted a list of more than 400 persons to be investigated. Because the government removed few of the fraudulent people, the Osage had to share their land and oil rights with people who did not belong. But, the Osage had negotiated keeping communal control of the mineral rights. The act stated that all persons listed on tribal rolls prior to January 1, 1906 or born before July 1907 (allottees) would be allocated a share of the reservation's subsurface natural resources, regardless of blood quantum. The headright could be inherited by legal heirs. This communal claim to mineral resources was due to expire in 1926. After that, individual landowners would control the mineral rights to their plots. This provision heightened the pressure for those whites who were eager to gain control of Osage lands before the deadline.


title: Osage Nation

text: Although the Osage Allotment Act protected the tribe's mineral rights for two decades, any adult "of a sound mind" could sell surface land. In the time between 1907 and 1923, Osage individuals sold or leased thousands of acres to non-Indians of formerly restricted land. At the time, many Osage did not understand the value of such contracts and often were taken advantage of by unscrupulous businessmen, con artists, and others trying to grab part of their wealth. Non-Native Americans also tried to cash in on the new Osage wealth by marrying into families with headrights.


title: Osage Nation

text: Alarmed about the way the Osage were using their wealth, in 1921 the U.S. Congress passed a law requiring any Osage of half or more Indian ancestry to be appointed a guardian until proving "competency". Minors with less than half Osage ancestry were required to have guardians appointed, even if their parents were living. This system was not administered by federal courts; rather, local courts appointed guardians from among white attorneys and businessmen. By law, the guardians provided a $4,000 annual allowance to their charges, but initially the government required little record keeping of how they invested the difference. Royalties to persons holding headrights were much higher: $11,000–12,000 per year during the period 1922–1925. Guardians were permitted to collect $200–1,000 per year, and the attorney involved could collect $200 per year, which was withdrawn from each Osage's income. Some attorneys served as guardians and did so for four Osage at once, allowing them to collect $4,800 per year.


title: Osage Nation

text: The tribe auctioned off development rights of their mineral assets for millions of dollars. According to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, in 1924 the total revenue of the Osage from the mineral leases was $24,670,483. After the tribe auctioned mineral leases and more land was explored, the oil business on the Osage reservation boomed. Tens of thousands of oil workers arrived, more than 30 boom towns sprang up and, nearly overnight, Osage headright holders became the "richest people in the world." When royalties peaked in 1925, annual headright earnings were $13,000. A family of four who were all on the allotment roll earned $52,800, comparable to approximately $600,000 in today's economy.


title: Osage Nation

text: The guardianship program created an incentive for corruption, and many Osage were legally deprived of their land, headrights, and/or royalties. Others were murdered, in cases the police generally failed to investigate. The coroner's office colluded by falsifying death certificates, for instance claiming suicides when people had been poisoned. The Osage Allotment Act did not entitle the Native Americans to autopsies, so many deaths went unexamined. In the early 1920s there was a rise in murders and suspicious deaths of Osage, called the "Reign of Terror." In one plot, in 1921, Ernest Burkhart, a European American, married Molly Kyle, an Osage woman with headrights. His uncle William "King of Osage Hills" Hale, a powerful business man who led the plot, and brother Bryan hired accomplices to murder Kyle family heirs. They arranged for the murders of Kyle's mother, two sisters, a brother-in-law, and a cousin, in cases involving poisoning, bombing, and shooting.


title: Osage Nation

text: With local and state officials unsuccessful at solving the murders, in 1925 the Osage requested the help of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. It was the bureau's first murder case. By the time it started investigating, Kyle was already being poisoned. This was discovered and she survived. She had inherited the headrights of the rest of her family. The FBI achieved the prosecution and conviction of the principals in the Kyle family murders. From 1921 to 1925, however, an estimated 60 Osage were killed, and most murders were not solved. John Joseph Mathews, an Osage, explored the disruptive social consequences of the oil boom for the Osage Nation in his semi-autobiographical novel "Sundown" (1934). "Killers of the Flower Moon: The Osage Murders and the Birth of the FBI" (2017) by David Grann was a National Book Award finalist; a related major motion picture is in development.


title: Osage Nation

text: As a result of the murders and increasing problems with trying to protect Osage oil wealth, in 1925 Congress passed legislation limiting inheritance of headrights only to those heirs of half or more Osage ancestry. In addition, they extended the tribal control of mineral rights for another 20 years; later legislation gave the tribe continuing communal control indefinitely. Today, headrights have been passed down primarily among descendants of the Osage who originally possessed them. But the Bureau of Indian Affairs has estimated that 25% of headrights are owned by non-Osage people, including other American Indians, non-Indians, churches, and community organizations. It continues to pay royalties on mineral revenues on a quarterly basis.


title: Osage Nation

text: Beginning in 1999, the Osage Nation sued the United States in the Court of Federal Claims (dockets 99-550 and 00-169) for mismanaging its trust funds and its mineral estate. The litigation eventually included claims reaching into the 19th century. In February 2011, the Court of Federal Claims awarded $330.7 million in damages in partial compensation for some of the mismanagement claims, covering the period from 1972 to 2000. On October 14, 2011, the United States settled the outstanding litigation for a total of $380 million. The tribe has about 16,000 members. The settlement includes commitments by the United States to cooperate with the Osage to institute new procedures to protect tribal trust funds and resource management.