title: Jesse Lee Peterson

text: From 1999 to 2004, Peterson chose Martin Luther King Jr. Day to hold a "National Day of Repudiation of Jesse Jackson" to highlight his opposition to Jackson, who was near King when he was assassinated.


title: Jesse Lee Peterson

text: In 2001, while meeting with Toyota executives in Los Angeles, Peterson accused Jackson of threatening him and his son Jonathan Jackson of assaulting him. In 2006, a jury cleared Jesse Jackson of the threat allegation, but was split on his son's assault allegation. Conservative organization Judicial Watch provided attorneys for Peterson in the lawsuit.


title: Jesse Lee Peterson

text: In 2002, Peterson debated Michael Eric Dyson on "The Case For/Against Reparations for African Americans," hosted by the National Association of Black Journalists.


title: Jesse Lee Peterson

text: In June 2019, video-sharing platform YouTube demonetized Peterson's channel, amongst many others, under an updated hate speech policy.


title: Jesse Lee Peterson

text: In 2022, Peterson gave a speech at the third America First Political Action Conference (AFPAC), which was also attended by Nick Fuentes and Marjorie Taylor Greene. AFPAC has been described as a white nationalist political action committee. The Anti-Defamation League described Peterson's speech as the "one of the most racist" of all delivered at the event, in which he described black people as the destroyers of America.


title: Jesse Lee Peterson

text: Peterson condemns the Democratic Party, opposes Muslims serving in government, and says that racism does not exist. Instead, he believes that every conflict is a spiritual "battle between good and evil". He has spoken out against Kwanzaa and Black History Month.


title: Jesse Lee Peterson

text: Peterson's views have been described by various authors as being consistent with white supremacy, and it has been suggested that white nationalists are encouraged by his rhetoric and compelled to promote him, because Peterson's blackness reduces the shock value of opinions that would be considered outrageous if a white person had expressed them.


title: Jesse Lee Peterson

text: In 2005, he suggested that most African Americans stranded in New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina were relying on the government to save them. In 2012, Peterson said about black unemployment, "One of the things that I would do is take all black people back to the South and put them on the plantation... They need a good hard education on what it is to work."


title: Jesse Lee Peterson

text: He has called Nobel Peace Prize winner Nelson Mandela an "evil man" and said that South Africa was better off under apartheid. In 2020, he called then-U.S. President Donald Trump "the Great White Hope".


title: Jesse Lee Peterson

text: Peterson opposes sex outside marriage. During an interview with former SlutWalk organizer Amber Rose, Peterson responded to the question "if women are sluts what does that make you?" by stating men are "slut makers".


title: Jesse Lee Peterson

text: Peterson stated in a 2012 sermon that "one of the greatest mistakes America made was to allow women the opportunity to vote." He stated that women "can't handle power in the right way", that they "have no patience", and "don't have love". Political analyst Kirsten Powers confronted Peterson on Sean Hannity's program on Fox News, accusing him of using his status as a pastor to preach hatred and fear of women.


title: Jesse Lee Peterson

text: In 2013, Peterson called Trayvon Martin a "thug". CNN host Piers Morgan called Peterson's comments "quite offensive".


title: Jesse Lee Peterson

text: In 2015 on right-wing commentator Sean Hannity's show, Peterson defended Michael Slager, a white former North Charleston, South Carolina police officer who killed Walter Lamar Scott, an unarmed black man by shooting him in the back. Peterson criticized "angry black folks in this country" who disobey instructions of police, while Hannity pushed back against Peterson and called the killing "cold-blooded". Upset, fellow panelist Leo Terrell abruptly walked out of the interview prematurely. In 2017, Slager was sentenced to 20 years in prison for the killing.


title: Jesse Lee Peterson

text: In 2018, Peterson compared the Black Lives Matter movement to the Ku Klux Klan, saying that each could be described as an "agitative organization founded by... black lesbians and homosexuals." In response, "Good Morning Britain" host Piers Morgan accused Peterson of homophobia, and Peterson's microphone was muted before he was kicked off the show.


title: Jesse Lee Peterson

text: In 2019, Peterson called activist Andrew Yang a "communist" and "beta male" for his universal basic income proposal. Peterson said Yang, an American born in New York, "should go back to China or wherever he came from."


title: Jesse Lee Peterson

text: In 2019, a person who was considering marrying a woman who had a previous child conceived by rape called Peterson's radio show and was told by Peterson: "Do not marry a woman...who already has children. It's bad enough on kids when they don't have both parents, it's worse when a so-called step-parent steps in ... they want their natural father and natural mother, and especially their natural father."


title: Jesse Lee Peterson

text: Peterson's views on women have been described as misogynist. in 2012, during a web sermon broadcast by his ministry (BOND), Paterson said “I think that one of the greatest mistakes that America made was to allow women the opportunity to vote. We should've never turned it over to women.”


title: Jesse Lee Peterson

text: On 13 July 2022, "Church Militant", a conservative Catholic news and commentary site, published allegations of Peterson engaging in same-sex relationships, citing interviews with two former male associates.


title: Type 15 tank

text: The Type 15 (, also designated ZTQ-15), nicknamed the Black Panther (), is a Chinese third generation light tank operated by the People's Liberation Army Ground Force and People's Liberation Army Navy Marine Corps. It could become a successor to the Type 62 light tank that was retired from the Chinese army in 2013.


title: Type 15 tank

text: Sightings of Type 15 were reported by Chinese citizens in July 2018, however its existence was formally confirmed by the Chinese Ministry of Defense in December 2018. The tank was confirmed to be in service by 2018 and was showcased in the 70th National Day parade on October 1, 2019.


title: Type 15 tank

text: The Type 15 is designed to fulfill the requirement for a lighter, more mobile modern tank that can effectively operate in highland/plateau, woodland and water-rich regions where the heavier Type 99 and Type 96 main battle tanks might have difficulties traversing.


title: Type 15 tank

text: In the high altitude region like Tibet, the air becomes thin and engines start to lose power. Heavily-armored vehicles such as T-72 and T-90 main battle tanks will have difficulty to traverse in the hypoxic environment, but the Type-15 light tank can operate at high altitudes with its powerful engine and oxygen generators. The new tank is also much more mobile than heavier main battle tanks due to its light weight and high power/weight ratio.


title: Type 15 tank

text: Type 15 light tank features a fully-stabilized 105 mm rifled gun, which is reportedly superior to the old ZPL-94 105 mm rifled gun fitted on Type 88 and Type 59 tanks. It is reported that the main gun has an effective firing range of 3 km and is compatible with all standard NATO 105 mm tank ammunition. The sustained fire rate is supported by a bustle-mounted autoloader system, which reduces the crew to 3. The spent cases are ejected automatically via a hatch at the turret rear. The Type 15 tank can hold 38 rounds of various 105 mm shells.


title: Type 15 tank

text: The ammunition selections include APFSDS, HEAT and HE (High explosive) rounds and gun-launched ATGM. APFSDS and HEAT rounds are used against enemy armor while HE round is used against enemy infantry positions, light/non-armored vehicles, buildings, and field fortifications. The APFSDS projectiles are capable of penetrating of armored steel at .


title: Type 15 tank

text: The penetration capabilities of 105 mm APFSDS are not considered as sufficient to penetrate the front armor of modern main battle tanks such as T-90 or VT-4. To defeat well-protected opponents, the tank would use the 105 mm gun-launched ATGM with tandem high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) warheads, offering much higher penetration. The missile reportedly has a range of 5 km and is capable of engaging low-flying helicopters.


title: Type 15 tank

text: Other armament includes a QJT-88 5.8 mm coaxial machine gun, a remotely-controlled weapon station mounted on the turret roof, which is fitted with QLZ-04 35 mm automatic grenade launcher and QJC-88 12.7 mm heavy machine gun.


title: Type 15 tank

text: Type 15 features modern sensory and fire control systems, including laser rangefinder, advanced ballistic computer, meteorological sensors, gunner thermal imaging sight, and commander's panoramic sight. The fire control system supports automatic target tracking, hunter-killer capabilities, and commander takeover.


title: Type 15 tank

text: Other equipment includes air conditioning system, oxygen-production equipment for the crew, command and control equipment, battlefield management system, and navigation suite fitted with both inertial navigation system (INS) and satellite navigation system.


title: Type 15 tank

text: Unlike previous Chinese tanks with carousel-style autoloader, the ammunition in Type 15 is retrieved from a tail autoloader with blowout panels. The ammunitions are stored in the turret bustle for improved safety.


title: Type 15 tank

text: Type 15 tank features two sets of armor packages providing different tactical mobility. Standard armor package features steel armor protection with additional layers of advanced composite armor panels covering the tank turret, hull, and two sides, with additional lightweight explosive reactive armor blocks protecting the front hull. The enhanced package features thicker explosive reactive armor (ERA) blocks, in addition to the composite armor panels underneath, covering the whole tank turret and hull. ERA mounted armor-skirt and slat armor can also be mounted on the side and rear side of the tank hull for additional protection. Enhanced armor set is designed for open area battle under heavy defensive conditions.


title: Type 15 tank

text: The Type 15 light tank is fitted with a laser warning sensor system to detect incoming rangefinding and anti-tank missiles, and the tank can automatically deploy smoke grenades in dischargers if the tank is being illuminated by enemy laser beam. Chinese-designed active protection system can be mounted on export-oriented VT-5 variant as per customer request. Other protective features include chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) protection, and fire suppression system. The vehicle also features oxygen generators to aid in high-altitude operations.


title: Type 15 tank

text: The Type 15 is powered by a 1,000 hp (746 kW) electronically controlled diesel engine, with hydro-mechanical full automatic transmission. The tank is also capable of neutral steering and features hydropneumatic suspension.


title: Type 15 tank

text: Due to its lighter weight, the Type 15 tank can be more easily airlifted. Y-20 transport planes can only carry one Type 99 tank but can carry up to two Type 15 tanks and achieve long-range deployment of 7,800 kilometers. ZTQ-15 can also be paradropped by the transport aircraft.


title: Type 15 tank

text: During the China-India border dispute along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) in June 2020, Type 15 tanks were reportedly deployed in the Tibetan Plateau.


title: HTML element

text: An HTML element is a type of HTML (HyperText Markup Language) document component, one of several types of HTML nodes (there are also text nodes, comment nodes and others). The first used version of HTML was written by Tim Berners-Lee in 1993 and there have since been many versions of HTML. The most commonly used version is HTML 4.01, which became official standard in December 1999. An HTML document is composed of a tree of simple HTML nodes, such as text nodes, and HTML elements, which add semantics and formatting to parts of document (e.g., make text bold, organize it into paragraphs, lists and tables, or embed hyperlinks and images). Each element can have HTML attributes specified. Elements can also have content, including other elements and text.


title: HTML element

text: As is generally understood, the position of an element is indicated as spanning from a start tag and is terminated by an end tag. This is the case for many, but not all, elements within an HTML document. The distinction is explicitly emphasised in "HTML 4.01 Specification":


title: HTML element

text: As HTML (before HTML5) is based on SGML, its parsing also depends on the Document Type Definition (DTD), specifically an HTML DTD (e.g. HTML 4.01). The DTD specifies which element types are possible (i.e. it defines the set of element types) and also the valid combinations in which they may appear in a document. It is part of general SGML behavior that, where only one valid structure is (per the DTD), its explicit statement in any given document is not generally required. As a simple example, the tag indicating the start of a paragraph element should be complemented by a tag indicating its end. But since the DTD states that paragraph elements cannot be nested, an HTML document fragment is thus inferred to be equivalent to . (If one paragraph element cannot contain another, any currently open paragraph must be closed before starting another.) Because this implication is based on the combination of the DTD and the individual document, it is not usually possible to infer elements from document tags but only by using an SGML—or HTML—aware parser with knowledge of the DTD. HTML5 creates a similar result by defining what tags can be omitted.


title: HTML element

text: SGML is complex, which has limited its widespread understanding and adoption. XML was developed as a simpler alternative. Although both can use the DTD to specify the supported elements and their permitted combinations as document structure, XML parsing is simpler. The relation from tags to elements is always that of parsing the actual tags included in the document, without the implied closures that are part of SGML.


title: HTML element

text: HTML as used on the current web is likely to be either treated as XML, by being XHTML, or as HTML5; in either case the parsing of document tags into Document Object Model (DOM) elements is simplified compared to legacy HTML systems. Once the DOM of elements is obtained, behavior at higher levels of interface (example: screen rendering) is identical or nearly so.


title: HTML element

text: Part of this CSS presentation behavior is the notion of the "box model". This is applied to those elements that CSS considers to be "block" elements, set through the CSS declaration.


title: HTML element

text: HTML also has a similar concept, although different, and the two are very frequently confused. codice_1 and codice_3 are groups within the HTML DTD that group elements as being either "block-level" or "inline". This is used to define their nesting behavior: block-level elements cannot be placed into an inline context. This behavior cannot be changed; it is fixed in the DTD. Block and inline elements have the appropriate and different CSS behaviors attached to them by default, including the relevance of the box model for particular element types.


title: HTML element

text: Note though that this CSS behavior can, and frequently is, changed from the default. Lists with are codice_1 elements and are presented as block elements by default. However, it is quite common to set these with CSS to display as an inline list.


title: HTML element

text: In the HTML syntax, most elements are written with a start tag and an end tag, with the content in between. An HTML tag is composed of the name of the element, surrounded by angle brackets. An end tag also has a slash after the opening angle bracket, to distinguish it from the start tag. For example, a paragraph, which is represented by the element, would be written as:


title: HTML element

text: However, not all of these elements the end tag, or even the start tag, to be present. Some elements, the so-called "void elements", do not have an end tag. A typical example is the (hard line-break) element. A void element's behavior is predefined, and it cannot contain any content or other elements. For example, an address would be written as:


title: HTML element

text: When using XHTML, it is required to open and close all elements, including void elements. This can be done by placing an end tag immediately after the start tag, but this is not legal in HTML 5 and will lead to two elements being created. An alternative way to specify that it is a void element, which is compatible with both XHTML and HTML 5, is to put a codice_5 at the of the tag (not to be confused with the codice_6 at the of a closing tag).


title: HTML element

text: HTML attributes are specified inside the start tag. For example, the element, which represents an abbreviation, expects a codice_7 attribute within its opening tag. This would be written as:


title: HTML element

text: Informally, HTML elements are sometimes referred to as "tags" (an example of synecdoche), though many prefer the term "tag" strictly in reference to the markup delimiting the start and end of an element.


title: HTML element

text: Element (and attribute) names may be written in any combination of upper or lower case in HTML, but must be in lower case in XHTML. The canonical form was upper-case until HTML 4, and was used in HTML specifications, but in recent years, lower-case has become more common.


title: HTML element

text: An example is the element, which must not contain other elements (including markup of text), only text.


title: HTML element

text: This element points the browser at a style sheet to use when presenting the HTML document to the user. Note that in the HTML syntax attributes don't have to be quoted if they are composed only of certain characters: letters, digits, the hyphen-minus and the period. When using the XML syntax (XHTML), on the other hand, all attributes must be quoted, and a spaced trailing slash is required before the last angle bracket:


title: HTML element

text: HTML attributes define desired behavior or indicate additional element properties. Most attributes require a "value". In HTML, the value can be left unquoted if it does not include spaces (codice_8), or it can be quoted with single or double quotes (codice_9 or codice_10). In XML, those quotes are required.


title: HTML element

text: Boolean attributes, on the other hand, do not require a value to be specified. An example is the codice_11 for checkboxes:


title: HTML element

text: In the XML (and thus XHTML) syntax, though, a value is required, and the name should be repeated as the value:


title: HTML element

text: HTML elements are defined in a series of freely available open standards issued since 1995, initially by the IETF and subsequently by the W3C.


title: HTML element

text: During the browser wars of the 1990s, developers of user agents (e.g. web browsers) often developed their own elements, some of which have been adopted in later standards. Other user agents may not recognize non-standard elements, and they will be ignored, possibly causing the page to be displayed improperly.


title: HTML element

text: In 1998, XML (a simplified form of SGML) introduced mechanisms to allow anyone to develop their own elements and incorporate them in XHTML documents, for use with XML-aware user agents.


title: HTML element

text: Subsequently, HTML 4.01 was rewritten in an XML-compatible form, XHTML 1.0 ("eXtensible HTML"). The elements in each are identical, and in most cases valid XHTML 1.0 documents will be valid or nearly valid HTML 4.01 documents. This article mainly focuses on real HTML, unless noted otherwise; however, it remains applicable to XHTML. See HTML for a discussion of the minor differences between the two.


title: HTML element

text: Since the first version of HTML, several elements have become outmoded, and are "deprecated" in later standards, or do not appear at all, in which case they are "invalid" (and will be found invalid, and perhaps not displayed, by validating user agents).


title: HTML element

text: In HTML 4.01 / XHTML 1.0, the status of elements is complicated by the existence of three types of DTD:


title: HTML element

text: HTML5 instead provides a listing of obsolete features to go along with the standardized normative content. They are broken down into "obsolete but conforming" for which implementation instructions exist and "non-conforming" ones that should be replaced.


title: HTML element

text: The first Standard (HTML 2.0) contained four deprecated elements, one of which was invalid in HTML 3.2. All four are invalid in HTML 4.01 Transitional, which also deprecated a further ten elements. All of these, plus two others, are invalid in HTML 4.01 Strict. While the frame elements are still current in the sense of being present in the Transitional and Frameset DTDs, there are no plans to preserve them in future standards, as their function has been largely replaced, and they are highly problematic for user accessibility.


title: HTML element

text: A common source of confusion is the loose use of "deprecated" to refer to both deprecated and invalid status, and to elements that are expected to be formally deprecated in the future.


title: HTML element

text: Since HTML 4, HTML has increasingly focused on the separation of content (the visible text and images) from presentation (like color, font size, and layout). This is often referred to as a separation of concerns. HTML is used to represent the structure or content of a document, its presentation remains the sole responsibility of CSS style sheets. A default style sheet is suggested as part of the CSS standard, giving a default rendering for HTML.


title: HTML element

text: Behavior (interactivity) is also kept separate from content, and is handled by scripts. Images are contained in separate graphics files, separate from text, though they can also be considered part of the content of a page.


title: HTML element

text: Separation of concerns allows the document to be presented by different user agents according to their purposes and abilities. For example, a user agent can select an appropriate style sheet to present a document by displaying on a monitor, printing on paper, or to determine speech characteristics in an audio-only user agent. The structural and semantic functions of the markup remain identical in each case.


title: HTML element

text: Historically, user agents did not always support these features. In the 1990s, as a stop-gap, presentational elements (like and ) were added to HTML, at the cost of creating problems for interoperability and user accessibility. This is now regarded as outmoded and has been superseded by style sheet-based design; most presentational elements are now deprecated.


title: HTML element

text: External image files are incorporated with the or elements. (With XHTML, the SVG language can also be used to write graphics within the document, though linking to external SVG files is generally simpler.) Where an image is not purely decorative, HTML allows replacement content with similar semantic value to be provided for non-visual user agents.


title: HTML element

text: An HTML document can also be extended through the use of scripts to provide additional behaviors beyond the abilities of HTML hyperlinks and forms.


title: HTML element

text: In visual browsers, displayable elements can be rendered as either "block" or "inline". While all elements are part of the document sequence, block elements appear within their parent elements:


title: HTML element

text: Conversely, inline elements are treated as part of the flow of document text; they cannot have margins, width, or height set, and do break across lines.


title: HTML element

text: Block elements, or block-level elements, have a rectangular structure. By default, these elements will span the entire width of its parent element, and will thus not allow any other element to occupy the same horizontal space as it is placed on.


title: HTML element

text: The rectangular structure of a block element is often referred to as the , and is made up of several parts. Each element contains the following:


title: HTML element

text: The above section refers only to the detailed implementation of CSS rendering and has no relevance to HTML elements themselves.


title: HTML element

text: Inline elements cannot be placed directly inside the element; they must be wholly nested within block-level elements.


title: HTML element

text: Phrase elements are used for marking up phrases and adding structure or semantic meaning to text fragments. For example, the codice_13 and codice_13 tags can be used for adding emphasis to text.


title: HTML element

text: These elements are useful primarily for documenting computer code development and user interaction through differentiation of source code (), variables (), user input (), and terminal or other output ().


title: HTML element

text: As visual presentational markup only applies directly to visual browsers, its use is discouraged. Style sheets should be used instead. Several of these elements are deprecated or invalid in HTML 4 / XHTML 1.0, and the remainder are invalid in the current draft of XHTML 2.0. The current draft of HTML5, however, re-includes , , and , assigning new semantic meaning to each. In an HTML5 document, the use of these elements is no longer discouraged, provided that it is semantically correct.


title: HTML element

text: These elements can be combined into a form or in some instances used separately as user-interface controls; in the document, they can be simple HTML or used in conjunction with Scripts. HTML markup specifies the elements that make up a form, and the method by which it will be submitted. However, some form of scripts (server-side, client-side, or both) must be used to process the user's input once it is submitted.


title: HTML element

text: The format of HTML Tables was proposed in the HTML 3.0 Drafts and the later RFC 1942 "HTML Tables". They were inspired by the CALS Table Model. Some elements in these proposals were included in HTML 3.2; the present form of HTML Tables was standardized in HTML 4. (Many of the elements used within tables are neither "block" nor "inline" elements.)


title: HTML element

text: Frames allow a visual HTML browser window to be split into segments, each of which can show a different document. This can lower bandwidth use, as repeating parts of a layout can be used in one frame, while variable content is displayed in another. This may come at a certain usability cost, especially in non-visual user agents, due to separate and independent documents (or websites) being displayed adjacent to each other and being allowed to interact with the same parent window. Because of this cost, frames (excluding the element) are only allowed in HTML 4.01 Frame-set. Iframes can also hold documents on different servers. In this case the interaction between windows is blocked by the browser. Sites like Facebook and Twitter use iframes to display content (plugins) on third party websites. Google AdSense uses iframes to display banners on third party websites.


title: HTML element

text: In HTML 4.01, a document may contain a and a a and a , but not both a and a . However, can be used in a normal document body.


title: HTML element

text: In HTML, codice_15 is an attribute used within the , , or elements. It is supposed to be a URL to a document that provides a long description for the image, frame, or iframe in question. Note that this attribute should contain a URL, – as is commonly mistaken – the text of the description itself.


title: HTML element

text: codice_15 was designed to be used by screen readers to display image information for computer users with accessibility issues, such as the blind or visually impaired, and is widely implemented by both web browsers and screen readers. Some developers object that it is actually seldom used for this purpose because there are relatively few authors who use the attribute and most of those authors use it incorrectly; thus, they recommend deprecating codice_15. The publishing industry has responded, advocating the retention of codice_15.


title: HTML element

text: Since very few graphical browsers support making the link available natively (Opera and iCab being the exceptions), it is useful to include a link to the description page near the element whenever possible, as this can also aid sighted users.


title: HTML element

text: The following elements were part of the early HTML developed by Tim Berners-Lee from 1989 to 1991; they are mentioned in "HTML Tags", but deprecated in "HTML 2.0" and were never part of HTML standards.


title: HTML element

text: This section lists some widely used obsolete elements, which means they are not used in valid code. They may not be supported in all user agents.


title: Matt Hamill

text: Matthew Stanley Hamill (born October 5, 1976) is an American mixed martial artist and wrestler who has competed in the Light Heavyweight division of the UFC. He is a three-time NCAA Division III National Champion in wrestling (167 lb class in 1997, 190 lb class in 1998 and 197 lb class in 1999) while attending the Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT) in Rochester, New York.


title: Matt Hamill

text: Of Irish descent, Hamill was deaf from birth. He was introduced to wrestling by his stepfather Michael Rich, who was the head wrestling coach at Loveland High School. Hamill attended the Rochester Institute of Technology for three years transferring there after a year at Purdue University.


title: Matt Hamill

text: Hamill was on "The Ultimate Fighter 3" reality television show, training under former UFC Light Heavyweight Champion Tito Ortiz in the 205 lb (93 kg) weight class. He won a preliminary fight against Mike Nickels via decision, but was unable to continue into the semi-finals due to injuries.


title: Matt Hamill

text: On June 24, 2006, Hamill fought fellow contestant Jesse Forbes at The Ultimate Fighter 3 Finale on Spike TV and won via knockout.


title: Matt Hamill

text: Hamill faced "The Ultimate Fighter 2's" Seth Petruzelli in a Fight of The Night performance he won via unanimous decision at "" on October 10, 2006. Judges scored the bout (29–28, 30–27, and 29–28) for Hamill.


title: Matt Hamill

text: Hamill fought fellow TUF 3 alumnus Michael Bisping at UFC 75 in London, England on September 8, 2007, where he lost via split decision. The decision was considered controversial as many believed Hamill won the fight. A rematch was scheduled for UFC 78, but due to knee surgery, Hamill withdrew. A rematch since became unlikely because Bisping subsequently dropped down to the Middleweight division after losing a split decision to Rashad Evans.


title: Matt Hamill

text: Hamill next fought Tim Boetsch on April 3, 2008, whom he defeated in the second round by TKO, bringing his record to 4 wins and 1 loss. During the fight, Hamill had a badly split bottom lip due to a knee strike.


title: Matt Hamill

text: Hamill then went on to fight at UFC 88 against former UFC Middleweight Champion Rich Franklin as the co-main event. He lost the fight by TKO after a kick to the liver at 0:39 of the third round.


title: Matt Hamill

text: Hamill fought former NCAA wrestling champion Mark Muñoz at UFC 96, defeating him with a right leg roundhouse kick to the head, knocking Munoz unconscious and earning him the Knockout of the Night award.


title: Matt Hamill

text: His next fight was scheduled to be Brandon Vera at UFC 102, but due to a knee injury while training, Hamill was replaced by Krzysztof Soszynski.


title: Matt Hamill

text: Coming off of knee surgery, Hamill became sick. Hamill faced off against undefeated prospect Jon Jones on December 5, 2009, at . Jones would be disqualified for using illegal 12–6 elbows. The unified rules of mixed martial arts prohibit downward elbow strikes, and Jones was initially only penalized a point from the round. However, because Hamill could not continue due to his dislocated shoulder, he was awarded the DQ win. Consequently, the tape was reviewed and showed that Jones' elbows further damaged Hamill's already bloody and lacerated nose. This marked the first time that Nevada has used its recently enacted instant replay rule, in which the referee's decision was supported by the commission which utilized a slow motion replay to review the elbows. Hamill contested the decision, stating after the fight that he "definitely didn't win" and Jones "definitely didn't lose".


title: Matt Hamill

text: Hamill defeated Keith Jardine on June 19, 2010, at . Hamill won this fight by majority decision. Jardine was docked a point for accidentally poking Hamill in the eye in round 2.


title: Matt Hamill

text: Hamill next fought his former The Ultimate Fighter 3 coach, Tito Ortiz on October 23, 2010, at UFC 121 which he won via unanimous decision.


title: Matt Hamill

text: Hamill was next scheduled to face undefeated Phil Davis at UFC 129. It was then announced that Thiago Silva had failed his UFC 125 post fight drug test, and Hamill was named as his replacement in his bout against former UFC light heavyweight champion and current top contender Quinton Jackson. Hamill lost the fight via a one sided unanimous decision.


title: Matt Hamill

text: At UFC 133 Hamill faced off against up and coming Swedish striker Alexander Gustafsson, replacing an injured Vladimir Matyushenko. After an uneventful first round, Gustafsson dropped Hamill in the second with a straight punch followed by an uppercut, subsequently finishing Hamill with punches and elbows from the mount.


title: Matt Hamill

text: On August 8, 2011, Matt Hamill decided to step away from the UFC and MMA, as he lost his last two fights. "Today is a sad day for me. After six years and 13 fights in the UFC I'm ready to hang up my gloves and retire from this amazing sport," he said on his official website.


title: Matt Hamill

text: Nearly a year later, however, Hamill decided to come out of retirement. Hamill was expected to face UFC newcomer Roger Hollett on September 22, 2012, at UFC 152. However, Hollett was forced out of the bout due to a contract dispute with Bellator and replaced by Vladimir Matyushenko. However, Matyushenko was forced out of the bout after suffering a torn Achilles tendon while training, and was replaced by Hollett, who had settled the issue in time. He won his return fight via unanimous decision (29–28, 30–27, and 30–27).


title: Matt Hamill

text: Hamill faced Thiago Silva on October 9, 2013, at UFC Fight Night 29. Hamill lost the bout by unanimous decision and was subsequently released from the UFC.


title: Matt Hamill

text: In May 2014 Hamill signed a deal with World Series of Fighting. He was expected to debut for the promotion later in 2014, however due to nagging injuries, Hamill would retire for the second time in his career.


title: Matt Hamill

text: Hamill later decided to return to mixed martial arts and was scheduled to fight against Vinny Magalhães at WSOF 20 on April 10, 2015. However Magalhães was pulled from the bout after a contract dispute with Titan Fighting Championships. Hamill was expected to fight in a rematch against Thiago Silva at WSOF 19 on March 28, 2015, but was forced to withdraw from the competition after a sinus infection. Hamill eventually faced Magalhães at held on October 17, 2015. He lost the fight via submission in the first round.


title: Matt Hamill

text: Hamill faced Rameau Thierry Sokoudjou on May 21, 2016, at Venator FC3: Palhares vs. Meek in Italy. He lost the fight via knockout in the first round.


title: Matt Hamill

text: Hamill next faced Julian Marquez on October 14, 2016, at Combate Americas: Empire Rising. He lost the fight via TKO in the first round.


title: Matt Hamill

text: Following a four-fight losing streak, Hamill earned his first win in over four years when he faced fellow UFC veteran Luiz Cané at Fight 2 Night 2 on April 28, 2017, in Brazil. He won the fight via knockout in the first round.


title: Matt Hamill

text: Hamill is divorced and has a daughter from the marriage. Hamill and his longtime girlfriend Brittany Houck were engaged to be married in May 2008.


title: Matt Hamill

text: Hamill is the subject of a 2010 movie entitled "The Hammer" about his early life and wrestling career. Originally set to star Eben Kostbar, it was criticized by the deaf community for featuring a non-deaf actor; however, Hamill himself supported the casting of Kostbar due to his wrestling experience and the fact that Kostbar is fluent in American Sign Language. However, Kostbar withdrew from starring, feeling it would be more appropriate for a member of the deaf community to take the role.


title: Matt Hamill

text: Deaf actor Russell Harvard was chosen as the final choice to voice Hamill. The movie was produced by Joseph McKelheer and Eben Kostbar and was directed by Oren Kaplan.


title: Cellular automaton

text: A cellular automaton (pl. cellular automata, abbrev. CA) is a discrete model of computation studied in automata theory. Cellular automata are also called cellular spaces, tessellation automata, homogeneous structures, cellular structures, tessellation structures, and iterative arrays. Cellular automata have found application in various areas, including physics, theoretical biology and microstructure modeling.


title: Cellular automaton

text: A cellular automaton consists of a regular grid of "cells", each in one of a finite number of "states", such as "on" and "off" (in contrast to a coupled map lattice). The grid can be in any finite number of dimensions. For each cell, a set of cells called its "neighborhood" is defined relative to the specified cell. An initial state (time "t" = 0) is selected by assigning a state for each cell. A new "generation" is created (advancing "t" by 1), according to some fixed "rule" (generally, a mathematical function) that determines the new state of each cell in terms of the current state of the cell and the states of the cells in its neighborhood. Typically, the rule for updating the state of cells is the same for each cell and does not change over time, and is applied to the whole grid simultaneously, though exceptions are known, such as the stochastic cellular automaton and asynchronous cellular automaton.


title: Cellular automaton

text: The concept was originally discovered in the 1940s by Stanislaw Ulam and John von Neumann while they were contemporaries at Los Alamos National Laboratory. While studied by some throughout the 1950s and 1960s, it was not until the 1970s and Conway's Game of Life, a two-dimensional cellular automaton, that interest in the subject expanded beyond academia. In the 1980s, Stephen Wolfram engaged in a systematic study of one-dimensional cellular automata, or what he calls elementary cellular automata; his research assistant Matthew Cook showed that one of these rules is Turing-complete.


title: Cellular automaton

text: The primary classifications of cellular automata, as outlined by Wolfram, are numbered one to four. They are, in order, automata in which patterns generally stabilize into homogeneity, automata in which patterns evolve into mostly stable or oscillating structures, automata in which patterns evolve in a seemingly chaotic fashion, and automata in which patterns become extremely complex and may last for a long time, with stable local structures. This last class is thought to be computationally universal, or capable of simulating a Turing machine. Special types of cellular automata are "reversible", where only a single configuration leads directly to a subsequent one, and "totalistic", in which the future value of individual cells only depends on the total value of a group of neighboring cells. Cellular automata can simulate a variety of real-world systems, including biological and chemical ones.


title: Cellular automaton

text: One way to simulate a two-dimensional cellular automaton is with an infinite sheet of graph paper along with a set of rules for the cells to follow. Each square is called a "cell" and each cell has two possible states, black and white. The "neighborhood" of a cell is the nearby, usually adjacent, cells. The two most common types of neighborhoods are the "von Neumann neighborhood" and the "Moore neighborhood". The former, named after the founding cellular automaton theorist, consists of the four orthogonally adjacent cells. The latter includes the von Neumann neighborhood as well as the four diagonally adjacent cells. For such a cell and its Moore neighborhood, there are 512 (= 2) possible patterns. For each of the 512 possible patterns, the rule table would state whether the center cell will be black or white on the next time interval. Conway's Game of Life is a popular version of this model. Another common neighborhood type is the "extended von Neumann neighborhood", which includes the two closest cells in each orthogonal direction, for a total of eight. The general equation for such a system of rules is "k", where "k" is the number of possible states for a cell, and "s" is the number of neighboring cells (including the cell to be calculated itself) used to determine the cell's next state. Thus, in the two-dimensional system with a Moore neighborhood, the total number of automata possible would be 2, or .


title: Cellular automaton

text: It is usually assumed that every cell in the universe starts in the same state, except for a finite number of cells in other states; the assignment of state values is called a "configuration". More generally, it is sometimes assumed that the universe starts out covered with a periodic pattern, and only a finite number of cells violate that pattern. The latter assumption is common in one-dimensional cellular automata.


title: Cellular automaton

text: Cellular automata are often simulated on a finite grid rather than an infinite one. In two dimensions, the universe would be a rectangle instead of an infinite plane. The obvious problem with finite grids is how to handle the cells on the edges. How they are handled will affect the values of all the cells in the grid. One possible method is to allow the values in those cells to remain constant. Another method is to define neighborhoods differently for these cells. One could say that they have fewer neighbors, but then one would also have to define new rules for the cells located on the edges. These cells are usually handled with a "toroidal" arrangement: when one goes off the top, one comes in at the corresponding position on the bottom, and when one goes off the left, one comes in on the right. (This essentially simulates an infinite periodic tiling, and in the field of partial differential equations is sometimes referred to as "periodic" boundary conditions.) This can be visualized as taping the left and right edges of the rectangle to form a tube, then taping the top and bottom edges of the tube to form a torus (doughnut shape). Universes of other dimensions are handled similarly. This solves boundary problems with neighborhoods, but another advantage is that it is easily programmable using modular arithmetic functions. For example, in a 1-dimensional cellular automaton like the examples below, the neighborhood of a cell "x" is {"x", "x", "x"}, where "t" is the time step (vertical), and "i" is the index (horizontal) in one generation.


title: Cellular automaton

text: Stanislaw Ulam, while working at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in the 1940s, studied the growth of crystals, using a simple lattice network as his model. At the same time, John von Neumann, Ulam's colleague at Los Alamos, was working on the problem of self-replicating systems. Von Neumann's initial design was founded upon the notion of one robot building another robot. This design is known as the kinematic model. As he developed this design, von Neumann came to realize the great difficulty of building a self-replicating robot, and of the great cost in providing the robot with a "sea of parts" from which to build its replicant. Neumann wrote a paper entitled "The general and logical theory of automata" for the Hixon Symposium in 1948. Ulam was the one who suggested using a "discrete" system for creating a reductionist model of self-replication. Nils Aall Barricelli performed many of the earliest explorations of these models of artificial life.


title: Cellular automaton

text: Ulam and von Neumann created a method for calculating liquid motion in the late 1950s. The driving concept of the method was to consider a liquid as a group of discrete units and calculate the motion of each based on its neighbors' behaviors. Thus was born the first system of cellular automata. Like Ulam's lattice network, von Neumann's cellular automata are two-dimensional, with his self-replicator implemented algorithmically. The result was a universal copier and constructor working within a cellular automaton with a small neighborhood (only those cells that touch are neighbors; for von Neumann's cellular automata, only orthogonal cells), and with 29 states per cell. Von Neumann gave an existence proof that a particular pattern would make endless copies of itself within the given cellular universe by designing a 200,000 cell configuration that could do so. This design is known as the tessellation model, and is called a von Neumann universal constructor.


title: Cellular automaton

text: Also in the 1940s, Norbert Wiener and Arturo Rosenblueth developed a model of excitable media with some of the characteristics of a cellular automaton. Their specific motivation was the mathematical description of impulse conduction in cardiac systems. However their model is not a cellular automaton because the medium in which signals propagate is continuous, and wave fronts are curves. A true cellular automaton model of excitable media was developed and studied by J. M. Greenberg and S. P. Hastings in 1978; see Greenberg-Hastings cellular automaton. The original work of Wiener and Rosenblueth contains many insights and continues to be cited in modern research publications on cardiac arrhythmia and excitable systems.


title: Cellular automaton

text: In the 1960s, cellular automata were studied as a particular type of dynamical system and the connection with the mathematical field of symbolic dynamics was established for the first time. In 1969, Gustav A. Hedlund compiled many results following this point of view in what is still considered as a seminal paper for the mathematical study of cellular automata. The most fundamental result is the characterization in the Curtis–Hedlund–Lyndon theorem of the set of global rules of cellular automata as the set of continuous endomorphisms of shift spaces.


title: Cellular automaton

text: In 1969, German computer pioneer Konrad Zuse published his book "Calculating Space", proposing that the physical laws of the universe are discrete by nature, and that the entire universe is the output of a deterministic computation on a single cellular automaton; "Zuse's Theory" became the foundation of the field of study called "digital physics".


title: Cellular automaton

text: Also in 1969 computer scientist Alvy Ray Smith completed a Stanford PhD dissertation on Cellular Automata Theory, the first mathematical treatment of CA as a general class of computers. Many papers came from this dissertation: He showed the equivalence of neighborhoods of various shapes, how to reduce a Moore to a von Neumann neighborhood or how to reduce any neighborhood to a von Neumann neighborhood. He proved that two-dimensional CA are computation universal, introduced 1-dimensional CA, and showed that they too are computation universal, even with simple neighborhoods. He showed how to subsume the complex von Neumann proof of construction universality (and hence self-reproducing machines) into a consequence of computation universality in a 1-dimensional CA. Intended as the introduction to the German edition of von Neumann's book on CA, he wrote a survey of the field with dozens of references to papers, by many authors in many countries over a decade or so of work, often overlooked by modern CA researchers.


title: Cellular automaton

text: In the 1970s a two-state, two-dimensional cellular automaton named Game of Life became widely known, particularly among the early computing community. Invented by John Conway and popularized by Martin Gardner in a "Scientific American" article, its rules are as follows:


title: Cellular automaton

text: Despite its simplicity, the system achieves an impressive diversity of behavior, fluctuating between apparent randomness and order. One of the most apparent features of the Game of Life is the frequent occurrence of "gliders", arrangements of cells that essentially move themselves across the grid. It is possible to arrange the automaton so that the gliders interact to perform computations, and after much effort it has been shown that the Game of Life can emulate a universal Turing machine. It was viewed as a largely recreational topic, and little follow-up work was done outside of investigating the particularities of the Game of Life and a few related rules in the early 1970s.


title: Cellular automaton

text: Stephen Wolfram independently began working on cellular automata in mid-1981 after considering how complex patterns seemed formed in nature in violation of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. His investigations were initially spurred by an interest in modelling systems such as neural networks. He published his first paper in "Reviews of Modern Physics" investigating "elementary cellular automata" (Rule 30 in particular) in June 1983. The unexpected complexity of the behavior of these simple rules led Wolfram to suspect that complexity in nature may be due to similar mechanisms. His investigations, however, led him to realize that cellular automata were poor at modelling neural networks. Additionally, during this period Wolfram formulated the concepts of intrinsic randomness and computational irreducibility, and suggested that rule 110 may be universal—a fact proved later by Wolfram's research assistant Matthew Cook in the 1990s.


title: Cellular automaton

text: Wolfram, in "A New Kind of Science" and several papers dating from the mid-1980s, defined four classes into which cellular automata and several other simple computational models can be divided depending on their behavior. While earlier studies in cellular automata tended to try to identify type of patterns for specific rules, Wolfram's classification was the first attempt to classify the rules themselves. In order of complexity the classes are:


title: Cellular automaton

text: These definitions are qualitative in nature and there is some room for interpretation. According to Wolfram, "...with almost any general classification scheme there are inevitably cases which get assigned to one class by one definition and another class by another definition. And so it is with cellular automata: there are occasionally rules...that show some features of one class and some of another." Wolfram's classification has been empirically matched to a clustering of the compressed lengths of the outputs of cellular automata.


title: Cellular automaton

text: There have been several attempts to classify cellular automata in formally rigorous classes, inspired by the Wolfram's classification. For instance, Culik and Yu proposed three well-defined classes (and a fourth one for the automata not matching any of these), which are sometimes called Culik-Yu classes; membership in these proved undecidable.


title: Cellular automaton

text: Wolfram's class 2 can be partitioned into two subgroups of stable (fixed-point) and oscillating (periodic) rules.


title: Cellular automaton

text: The idea that there are 4 classes of dynamical system came originally from Nobel-prize winning chemist Ilya Prigogine who identified these 4 classes of thermodynamical systems - (1) systems in thermodynamic equilibrium, (2) spatially/temporally uniform systems, (3) chaotic systems, and (4) complex far-from-equilibrium systems with dissipative structures (see figure 1 in Nicolis' paper (Prigogine's student)).


title: Cellular automaton

text: A cellular automaton is "reversible" if, for every current configuration of the cellular automaton, there is exactly one past configuration (preimage). If one thinks of a cellular automaton as a function mapping configurations to configurations, reversibility implies that this function is bijective. If a cellular automaton is reversible, its time-reversed behavior can also be described as a cellular automaton; this fact is a consequence of the Curtis–Hedlund–Lyndon theorem, a topological characterization of cellular automata. For cellular automata in which not every configuration has a preimage, the configurations without preimages are called "Garden of Eden" patterns.


title: Cellular automaton

text: For one-dimensional cellular automata there are known algorithms for deciding whether a rule is reversible or irreversible. However, for cellular automata of two or more dimensions reversibility is undecidable; that is, there is no algorithm that takes as input an automaton rule and is guaranteed to determine correctly whether the automaton is reversible. The proof by Jarkko Kari is related to the tiling problem by Wang tiles.


title: Cellular automaton

text: Reversible cellular automata are often used to simulate such physical phenomena as gas and fluid dynamics, since they obey the laws of thermodynamics. Such cellular automata have rules specially constructed to be reversible. Such systems have been studied by Tommaso Toffoli, Norman Margolus and others. Several techniques can be used to explicitly construct reversible cellular automata with known inverses. Two common ones are the second-order cellular automaton and the block cellular automaton, both of which involve modifying the definition of a cellular automaton in some way. Although such automata do not strictly satisfy the definition given above, it can be shown that they can be emulated by conventional cellular automata with sufficiently large neighborhoods and numbers of states, and can therefore be considered a subset of conventional cellular automata. Conversely, it has been shown that every reversible cellular automaton can be emulated by a block cellular automaton.


title: Cellular automaton

text: A special class of cellular automata are "totalistic" cellular automata. The state of each cell in a totalistic cellular automaton is represented by a number (usually an integer value drawn from a finite set), and the value of a cell at time "t" depends only on the "sum" of the values of the cells in its neighborhood (possibly including the cell itself) at time "t" − 1. If the state of the cell at time "t" depends on both its own state and the total of its neighbors at time "t" − 1 then the cellular automaton is properly called "outer totalistic". Conway's Game of Life is an example of an outer totalistic cellular automaton with cell values 0 and 1; outer totalistic cellular automata with the same Moore neighborhood structure as Life are sometimes called cellular automata.


title: Cellular automaton

text: One way is by using something other than a rectangular (cubic, "etc.") grid. For example, if a plane is tiled with regular hexagons, those hexagons could be used as cells. In many cases the resulting cellular automata are equivalent to those with rectangular grids with specially designed neighborhoods and rules. Another variation would be to make the grid itself irregular, such as with Penrose tiles.


title: Cellular automaton

text: Also, rules can be probabilistic rather than deterministic. Such cellular automata are called probabilistic cellular automata. A probabilistic rule gives, for each pattern at time "t", the probabilities that the central cell will transition to each possible state at time "t" + 1. Sometimes a simpler rule is used; for example: "The rule is the Game of Life, but on each time step there is a 0.001% probability that each cell will transition to the opposite color."


title: Cellular automaton

text: The neighborhood or rules could change over time or space. For example, initially the new state of a cell could be determined by the horizontally adjacent cells, but for the next generation the vertical cells would be used.


title: Cellular automaton

text: In cellular automata, the new state of a cell is not affected by the new state of other cells. This could be changed so that, for instance, a 2 by 2 block of cells can be determined by itself and the cells adjacent to itself.


title: Cellular automaton

text: There are "continuous automata". These are like totalistic cellular automata, but instead of the rule and states being discrete ("e.g." a table, using states {0,1,2}), continuous functions are used, and the states become continuous (usually values in [0,1]). The state of a location is a finite number of real numbers. Certain cellular automata can yield diffusion in liquid patterns in this way.


title: Cellular automaton

text: Continuous spatial automata have a continuum of locations. The state of a location is a finite number of real numbers. Time is also continuous, and the state evolves according to differential equations. One important example is reaction–diffusion textures, differential equations proposed by Alan Turing to explain how chemical reactions could create the stripes on zebras and spots on leopards. When these are approximated by cellular automata, they often yield similar patterns. MacLennan considers continuous spatial automata as a model of computation.


title: Cellular automaton

text: There are known examples of continuous spatial automata, which exhibit propagating phenomena analogous to gliders in the Game of Life.


title: Cellular automaton

text: The simplest nontrivial cellular automaton would be one-dimensional, with two possible states per cell, and a cell's neighbors defined as the adjacent cells on either side of it. A cell and its two neighbors form a neighborhood of 3 cells, so there are 2 = 8 possible patterns for a neighborhood. A rule consists of deciding, for each pattern, whether the cell will be a 1 or a 0 in the next generation. There are then 2 = 256 possible rules.


title: Cellular automaton

text: These 256 cellular automata are generally referred to by their Wolfram code, a standard naming convention invented by Wolfram that gives each rule a number from 0 to 255. A number of papers have analyzed and compared these 256 cellular automata. The rule 30, rule 90, rule 110, and rule 184 cellular automata are particularly interesting. The images below show the history of rules 30 and 110 when the starting configuration consists of a 1 (at the top of each image) surrounded by 0s. Each row of pixels represents a generation in the history of the automaton, with "t"=0 being the top row. Each pixel is colored white for 0 and black for 1.


title: Cellular automaton

text: Rule 30 exhibits "class 3" behavior, meaning even simple input patterns such as that shown lead to chaotic, seemingly random histories.


title: Cellular automaton

text: Rule 110, like the Game of Life, exhibits what Wolfram calls "class 4" behavior, which is neither completely random nor completely repetitive. Localized structures appear and interact in various complicated-looking ways. In the course of the development of "A New Kind of Science", as a research assistant to Wolfram in 1994, Matthew Cook proved that some of these structures were rich enough to support universality. This result is interesting because rule 110 is an extremely simple one-dimensional system, and difficult to engineer to perform specific behavior. This result therefore provides significant support for Wolfram's view that class 4 systems are inherently likely to be universal. Cook presented his proof at a Santa Fe Institute conference on Cellular Automata in 1998, but Wolfram blocked the proof from being included in the conference proceedings, as Wolfram did not want the proof announced before the publication of "A New Kind of Science". In 2004, Cook's proof was finally published in Wolfram's journal "Complex Systems" (Vol. 15, No. 1), over ten years after Cook came up with it. Rule 110 has been the basis for some of the smallest universal Turing machines.


title: Cellular automaton

text: An elementary cellular automaton rule is specified by 8 bits, and all elementary cellular automaton rules can be considered to sit on the vertices of the 8-dimensional unit hypercube. This unit hypercube is the cellular automaton rule space. For next-nearest-neighbor cellular automata, a rule is specified by 2 = 32 bits, and the cellular automaton rule space is a 32-dimensional unit hypercube. A distance between two rules can be defined by the number of steps required to move from one vertex, which represents the first rule, and another vertex, representing another rule, along the edge of the hypercube. This rule-to-rule distance is also called the Hamming distance.


title: Cellular automaton

text: Cellular automaton rule space allows us to ask the question concerning whether rules with similar dynamical behavior are "close" to each other. Graphically drawing a high dimensional hypercube on the 2-dimensional plane remains a difficult task, and one crude locator of a rule in the hypercube is the number of bit-1 in the 8-bit string for elementary rules (or 32-bit string for the next-nearest-neighbor rules). Drawing the rules in different Wolfram classes in these slices of the rule space show that class 1 rules tend to have lower number of bit-1s, thus located in one region of the space, whereas class 3 rules tend to have higher proportion (50%) of bit-1s.


title: Cellular automaton

text: For larger cellular automaton rule space, it is shown that class 4 rules are located between the class 1 and class 3 rules. This observation is the foundation for the phrase edge of chaos, and is reminiscent of the phase transition in thermodynamics.


title: Cellular automaton

text: Additionally, biological phenomena which require explicit modeling of the agents' velocities (for example, those involved in collective cell migration) may be modeled by cellular automata with a more complex state space and rules, such as biological lattice-gas cellular automata. These include phenomena of great medical importance, such as:


title: Cellular automaton

text: The Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction is a spatio-temporal chemical oscillator that can be simulated by means of a cellular automaton. In the 1950s A. M. Zhabotinsky (extending the work of B. P. Belousov) discovered that when a thin, homogenous layer of a mixture of malonic acid, acidified bromate, and a ceric salt were mixed together and left undisturbed, fascinating geometric patterns such as concentric circles and spirals propagate across the medium. In the "Computer Recreations" section of the August 1988 issue of "Scientific American", A. K. Dewdney discussed a cellular automaton developed by Martin Gerhardt and Heike Schuster of the University of Bielefeld (Germany). This automaton produces wave patterns that resemble those in the Belousov-Zhabotinsky reaction.


title: Cellular automaton

text: Probabilistic cellular automata are used in statistical and condensed matter physics to study phenomena like fluid dynamics and phase transitions. The Ising model is a prototypical example, in which each cell can be in either of two states called "up" and "down", making an idealized representation of a magnet. By adjusting the parameters of the model, the proportion of cells being in the same state can be varied, in ways that help explicate how ferromagnets become demagnetized when heated. Moreover, results from studying the demagnetization phase transition can be transferred to other phase transitions, like the evaporation of a liquid into a gas; this convenient cross-applicability is known as universality. The phase transition in the two-dimensional Ising model and other systems in its universality class has been of particular interest, as it requires conformal field theory to understand in depth. Other cellular automata that have been of significance in physics include lattice gas automata, which simulate fluid flows.


title: Cellular automaton

text: Cellular automaton processors are physical implementations of CA concepts, which can process information computationally. Processing elements are arranged in a regular grid of identical cells. The grid is usually a square tiling, or tessellation, of two or three dimensions; other tilings are possible, but not yet used. Cell states are determined only by interactions with adjacent neighbor cells. No means exists to communicate directly with cells farther away. One such cellular automaton processor array configuration is the systolic array. Cell interaction can be via electric charge, magnetism, vibration (phonons at quantum scales), or any other physically useful means. This can be done in several ways so that no wires are needed between any elements. This is very unlike processors used in most computers today (von Neumann designs) which are divided into sections with elements that can communicate with distant elements over wires.


title: Cellular automaton

text: Rule 30 was originally suggested as a possible block cipher for use in cryptography. Two-dimensional cellular automata can be used for constructing a pseudorandom number generator.


title: Cellular automaton

text: Cellular automata have been proposed for public-key cryptography. The one-way function is the evolution of a finite CA whose inverse is believed to be hard to find. Given the rule, anyone can easily calculate future states, but it appears to be very difficult to calculate previous states. Cellular automata have also been applied to design error correction codes.


title: Cellular automaton

text: Cellular automata have been used in generative music and evolutionary music composition and procedural terrain generation in video games.


title: Stryper

text: Stryper is an American Christian metal band from Orange County, California. The group's lineup consists of Michael Sweet (lead vocals, guitar), Oz Fox (guitar), Perry Richardson (bass guitar), and Robert Sweet (drums).


title: Stryper

text: Formed in 1983 as Roxx Regime, the band soon changed their musical message to reflect their Christian beliefs, and the band's name was also changed to Stryper. They went on to become the first overtly Christian heavy metal band to gain acceptance in the mainstream. In 1983, they signed with major label Enigma Records and released their debut album "The Yellow and Black Attack". In the mid-1980s, Stryper enjoyed their most successful period beginning with the release of "To Hell with the Devil", which achieved platinum sales status. Stryper went on to release two more gold albums before disbanding in 1993. In 2003, Stryper came out of retirement for a reunion tour and subsequently signed a multi-album contract with Big3 Records in 2005. In 2013, they signed a multi-album deal with Frontiers Records, and have released "Second Coming", which includes 14 re-recorded songs from their first three albums and an album, "No More Hell to Pay", released on November 5, 2013, "Fallen" on October 16, 2015, and "God Damn Evil" on April 25, 2018, and "Even the Devil Believes" on September 4, 2020.


title: Stryper

text: The name "Stryper" derives from the King James Version of the Bible. "But he was wounded for our transgressions, he was bruised for our iniquities:


title: Stryper

text: the chastisement of our peace was upon him; and with his stripes we are healed." The reference is frequently included as part of their logo. Stryper's drummer, Robert Sweet, also created a backronym for their name: "salvation through redemption, yielding peace, encouragement and righteousness".


title: Stryper

text: The Sweet brothers became Christians in 1975, but began to pull away from their faith. The Sweet brothers rejoined the church after their friend Kenny Metcalf (their first tour keyboardist) persuaded them to do so.


title: Stryper

text: Inspired by bands such as Van Halen, but distressed by their message, they sought to form a band that would extol their worldview and beliefs. Stryper was originally known as Roxx Regime and composed of brothers Michael Sweet on lead vocals and lead guitar and Robert Sweet on drums while Eric Johnson played bass, rounding out the trio. Oz Fox eventually joined the band. Before Oz Fox joined the band, a number of guitarists almost joined Roxx Regime, including Doug Aldrich and C.C. DeVille. The name "Stryper" was adopted when bassist Tim Gaines joined the band though the label urged the band to change its name. The scripture reference, from a passage in Isaiah 53:5, "By His stripes we are healed", became part of the band's logo. Shortly afterward, they released the EP "The Yellow and Black Attack" on July 21, 1984. During this period, Stryper opened for bands like Ratt and Bon Jovi, leading some fans and critics to claim that they were not a true Christian band. Stryper's first full-length album, "Soldiers Under Command", released on May 15, 1985, was the band's first gold record.


title: Stryper

text: Stryper's third album, "To Hell with the Devil", was released on October 24, 1986, and went platinum after spending three months on "Billboard"'s album charts, eventually selling more than 2 million copies. In addition to being Stryper's most successful record, it was both the first contemporary Christian music and Christian metal album to achieve this feat. "Calling on You", "Free" and "Honestly" were hugely popular MTV hits in 1987—so much so, that "Free" and "Honestly" both became most-requested songs on the show "Dial MTV". They were also the second Christian band to get any airplay on MTV, Degarmo & Key having been the first with their song "666." "Honestly" is Stryper's highest-charting song, peaking at No. 23 on the Top 40 charts. The album received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Gospel Performance by a Duo or Group, Choir or Chorus. Michael Sweet is the band's primary songwriter.


title: Stryper

text: Bassist Tim Gaines did not participate in the recording of "To Hell with the Devil", and for a short period of time prior to the release of the record he was replaced by Matt Hurich. Hurich was not with the band more than a month, although he was outfitted with a yellow and black striped bass and a racing costume. Brad Cobb played bass on the album. However, when the promotional photos for the album were being shot, Gaines returned to the band and subsequently participated in its successful world tour. In 1987, the band headlined the Dynamo Open Air Festival in the Netherlands.


title: Stryper

text: Stryper's fourth album, "In God We Trust", released on June 28, 1988, also went gold, and the song "Always There for You" briefly entered the lower levels of the pop charts, peaking at No. 71 despite it being another massive hit on MTV. However, the sound of the album was more pop-oriented than previous releases and a number of critics, as well as Stryper fans, criticized the record for being over-produced. In addition, the image of the band was moving even closer to the glam metal look of the era, giving fans something else to criticize. These factors led to lower sales, and the album spent only five weeks charting on Billboard. The second single and video, "I Believe in You", peaked at No. 88 and a third single "Keep the Fire Burning" failed to chart. As with the previous album, Tim Gaines did not participate in the recording (Brad Cobb once again played bass) but later rejoined the group for another world tour. "In God We Trust" garnered two GMA Dove Awards for "Hard Music Album" and "Hard Music Song" for the title track.


title: Stryper

text: On August 21, 1990, Stryper released the controversial album "Against the Law", which drastically changed the band's image and lyrical message. While their earlier albums all had yellow and black colors in the covers and the lyrics spoke of God and salvation, "Against the Law" featured the band with black leather clothes and with no mention of the word "God" in the lyrics at all. The band's musical sound was also heavier, closer to classic metal. Drummer Robert Sweet said that the change of image and sound was in response to the criticism of the previous album and an attempt to leave behind their glam metal image. The album sold poorly. This was partly due to rumors in the press (both mainstream and Christian) that Stryper's music was trending towards a more mainstream sound as their Christian faith weakened. Fans wondered why they covered Earth Wind & Fire's 1975 song "Shining Star". The video for it would not be a hit on MTV- the first Stryper video that was not. Two other videos followed for "Two Time Woman" and "Lady" which generated minimal airplay. However, many critics still considered the album to be Stryper's best musical production to date.


title: Stryper

text: On July 20, 1991, after being signed to Hollywood Records by label exec Wesley Hein (who had originally signed them to his Enigma Records), Stryper released a greatest hits collection called "Can't Stop the Rock", which featured two new songs. One of which was the Gulf War inspired "Believe". The band continued to tour until February 1992, when frontman Michael Sweet departed the band citing artistic differences and to pursue a solo career.


title: Stryper

text: In early 1992 Stryper fulfilled some commitments in Europe as a trio with Oz Fox on lead vocals. Soon after, on May 5, they performed two shows at Knott's Berry Farm in Buena Park, California. They asked Dale Thompson of the Christian metal band Bride to fill in on lead vocals hoping he would join the band. It was during one of the concerts that Robert Sweet unexpectedly announced that Dale Thompson was going to be their new lead singer. This, however, was later denied by Thompson. In early 1993 the band played several more European dates as a trio with their last show on March 27, 1993, in Sportzentrum, Greifensee, Switzerland.


title: Stryper

text: The former members of Stryper first reunited in 1999, when Michael Sweet and SinDizzy were invited to play at a summer rock festival in Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico. As an encore, Sweet joined Oz Fox and Tim Gaines on stage and played several Stryper songs. Later, in 2000, the first "Stryper Expo" was held in New Jersey, and for the first time in 8 years the complete line-up of Stryper took the stage. That same year, a concert was held in Costa Rica at which the four members played together. A second "Stryper Expo" took place in Los Angeles in 2001.


title: Stryper

text: Hollywood Records asked the former members of Stryper to record tracks for a new greatest hits compilation in 2003 "". The compilation was released with two new songs, "Something" and "For You", marking Stryper's first new music since the early 1990s. A tour followed in support. The band played 36 shows in the United States and finished the tour in San Juan, Puerto Rico. A live album, titled "", was released the following year, and the concert in Puerto Rico was filmed for a live DVD produced and directed by Jack Edward Sawyers. However, that show in Puerto Rico proved to be the last for the original line-up of Stryper until their 2010 reunion. Gaines and the band parted ways in 2004 before they were slated to play Disney's Night of Joy in Orlando. Michael's bassist on his previous solo tours, Tracy Ferrie, replaced him.


title: Stryper

text: Stryper's next album, "Reborn", was released on August 16, 2005, and was the band's first full-length CD of original material in 15 years. It was produced by Michael Sweet. The new album received a positive response from fans and critics, some of whom labeled "Reborn" as one of the best albums of that year. With a more modern sound incorporating aspects of alternative rock and grunge, along with fewer guitar solos, the new record updates their style while keeping the Stryper identity. The record was written by Michael Sweet.


title: Stryper

text: In 2006, the band released the DVD "Greatest Hits: Live in Puerto Rico" with Music Video Distributors. Stryper was scheduled to open for extreme thrash metal band Slayer, headlining in Mexico. A few months later, Slayer pulled out of the Mexican tour and cancelled their headline for personal reasons.


title: Stryper

text: In November 2006, Stryper announced new management. They also announced a follow-up to "Reborn" tentatively due in early to mid 2007. However, that February saw lead singer Michael Sweet postponing the release of the new album two days before its recording was to begin. Sweet's wife Kyle had been diagnosed with stage four ovarian cancer, and the new album was put on hold so that he could care for his family and ailing wife. She underwent surgery and treatment from February 14 to July 14. In April 2008, Kyle announced that her cancer had returned as of October 2007. The new album was in the mixing stage as of January 2008, and Sweet said that it should be released in July or August. Michael Sweet performed with the band Boston in 2007 and was asked to join the band as co-lead vocalist and guitarist and toured with Boston in 2008 with Styx as the opening act. On March 5, 2009, Michael Sweet's wife, Kyle, died from cancer. "Murder by Pride" was released on July 21, 2009, with the lead single "Peace of Mind" preceding it.


title: Stryper

text: "The Covering", a collection of 12 cover songs from bands that inspired Stryper and helped to shape the band's sound and musical identity was on Big3 Records/Sony and was produced by Michael Sweet. Along with the covers, it includes a new, original recording: "God". On September 14, 2010, it was announced that the album's first single, a cover of Black Sabbath's "Heaven and Hell", was available for download on iTunes. The album was released on February 15, 2011.


title: Stryper

text: "No More Hell to Pay", was completed on May 29, 2013, and was released on November 5, through Frontiers Records. "Live at the Whisky", a CD/DVD combination recorded at the Whisky a Go Go, was released in September 2014. "Fallen", was released on October 16, 2015.


title: Stryper

text: In September 2016, frontman Michael Sweet announced the band will be going on hiatus due to personal issues affecting bassist Timothy Gaines. The hiatus will begin once the band has completed the To Hell With the Devil 30th Anniversary Tour. Sweet stated they will not continue without Gaines as the band made a pact to only stay together as they are. During the hiatus the band members will pray about the direction of the band going forward.


title: Stryper

text: During an interview with Antihero Magazine in November 2016, Michael Sweet revealed that the next Stryper album, which was planned for a February 2017 release, would be put on-hold as the band went on hiatus, and while he recorded a Sweet & Lynch album. Sweet also stated that bassist Timothy Gaines was taking time away from the band to deal with personal issues. While Sweet disliked the idea of continuing without Gaines, he was open to filling the bass position with the right person if and when it came to that. Gaines then confirmed that he was no longer a member of the band. Following the band's hiatus, they issued a statement informing that Gaines had been fired from the band, and removed from the roster on the band's website. Gaines claimed that he had been kicked out of the band after being issued an ultimatum. Perry Richardson was announced as the new bass player on October 30, 2017.


title: Stryper

text: On February 5, 2018, Michael Sweet announced the band's next album, "God Damn Evil", which was released April 20, 2018. On February 9, the band released "Take It to the Cross" as a single for the album featuring Matt Bachand of the band Shadows Fall.


title: Stryper

text: The band's latest album, "The Final Battle" was announced on September 22, 2022, and released on October 21, 2022.


title: Stryper

text: During the 1980s, Stryper represented the popular glam metal style of the time, characterized by highly visual performances, twin guitar solos, Michael Sweet's high-pitched, multi-octave screams and big hair. A characteristic element of the band was that all their outfits, sets, and instruments were painted in yellow and black stripes. The number of the stripes represented in various stage props and costumes increased during the show, leading up to "In God We Trust". The band explained the symbolism of the stripes: a direct reference to the whiplash scourges given by Pontius Pilate to Jesus, and draws wording from the King James Version of the Bible's Isaiah 53:5 that relates to the motif of the suffering servant. A trademark of the band's stage act was drummer Robert Sweet's practice of turning his enormous drum kit sideways to the audience so that the crowd could see him playing. This is why Robert was more often called a "visual timekeeper" rather than a drummer.


title: Stryper

text: Apart from its ubiquitous yellow and black stripes, Stryper had other distinctive trademarks. During concerts, Stryper threw Bibles to the concert crowd— editions of the New Testament with the band's logo stickers affixed to them. As a protest against "666" symbols popular among many heavy metal fans of the era, Stryper promoted an alternative numerological symbol; Stryper's trademark use of the "777" symbol subsequently became quite popular among Christian metalheads. Although the number "777" is not actually referenced by the Bible (as opposed to 666, which is famously mentioned in The Book of Revelation as The Number of the Beast) the number "7" is traditionally (in Christian symbolism) associated with divine perfection. The "Los Angeles Times" reported in 1985 that "the band gets sullen fans of Twisted Sister cheering and poking stubby 'one way' fingers heavenward—a refutation of the double-fingered 'devil horns' salute of many metal groups".


title: Stryper

text: Stryper was the first openly Christian heavy metal band to gain recognition in the mainstream music world. Mark Joseph states ""The Yellow and Black Attack" was propelled by the group's success in Japan, which was largely due to an endorsement of the band by famed rock critic Masa Itoh, the man who ruled the Japanese hard rock/metal scene, who many fans looked to for his evaluation of bands. Itoh had heard of Stryper, gotten in touch with their manager Daryn Hinton, and liked what he heard. When he gave the band a positive review in Japan's heavy metal bible "Burrn!" magazine and played the album on his radio show, Stryper suddenly found themselves at the top of the metal heap in Japan with a record that was outselling Mötley Crüe, Bon Jovi, and every other metal band."


title: Stryper

text: Stryper has not been free of controversy. Many Christian critics did not approve of the group's association with the heavy metal subculture, which has often been associated with Satanic imagery. Other Christian detractors viewed the band's flashy costumes as incongruous with the modesty in dress often associated with sincere practitioners of devout Christianity. Televangelist Jimmy Swaggart was a particularly prominent critic, likening Stryper's practice of distributing the New Testament at their shows to "casting pearls before swine". Swaggart's condemnation may not have been a surprise, however, as Stryper was supported by the rival Jim Bakker ministries, who are thanked on several Stryper albums. A 1985 CCM magazine article by Chris Willman, who was also writing for the Los Angeles Times, stated that "Stryper was the target of scattered picketing, boycott threats, and righteous denunciations". For example, concert-goers were often greeted by protesters armed with bullhorns and distribution of Gospel tracts. "It was just like if Ozzy Osbourne was there. They gave us the same treatment, laughs Daryn Hinton."


title: Stryper

text: In 1990, "Rolling Stone" magazine reported that the band had become disillusioned with Christian music. This, combined with a notable shift in tone in the band's lyrics, led to "Against the Law" being banned from many Christian bookstores. The Benson Company, Stryper's sole tie to the Christian market, dropped this album from distribution.


title: Stryper

text: Stryper has sold over 10 million recordings worldwide, and it is estimated that two-thirds of their albums were bought by non-Christians. In 2011, Stryper won the readers choice award for Best Christian / Gospel Artists & Bands. Kim Jones of About.com states, "With 44% of the vote, hard rock legends Stryper beat out all of their competition to be named the best Christian hard rock band, bringing to mind the old adage, 'like a fine wine, some things just get better with age.'"


title: Stryper

text: Ian Christe, author of the heavy metal history book "Sound of the Beast: The Complete Headbanging History of Heavy Metal", mentions the album "To Hell with the Devil" in his book as one of the landmarks of the glam metal movement.


title: Stryper

text: The song "To Hell with the Devil" appears on the Rhino Records release "The Heavy Metal Box", a compilation mainly of secular classic metal bands like Iron Maiden, Judas Priest, and Metallica, as well as hair bands like Twisted Sister and Poison.


title: Stryper

text: In his autobiography "", professional wrestler Chris Jericho mentions that, as he got into heavy metal music as a teenager, Stryper was one of his favorite bands, and during the very beginning of his wrestling career on the Canadian independent circuit, his ring attire was black and yellow, which he purposely did as a tribute to the band.


title: Tetrachromacy

text: Tetrachromacy (from Greek "tetra", meaning "four" and "chromo", meaning "color") is the condition of possessing four independent channels for conveying color information, or possessing four types of cone cell in the eye. Organisms with tetrachromacy are called tetrachromats.


title: Tetrachromacy

text: In tetrachromatic organisms, the sensory color space is four-dimensional, meaning that matching the sensory effect of arbitrarily chosen spectra of light within their visible spectrum requires mixtures of at least four primary colors.


title: Tetrachromacy

text: Tetrachromacy is demonstrated among several species of birds, fishes, amphibians, and reptiles. The common ancestor of all vertebrates was a tetrachromat, but mammals evolved dichromacy, due to the nocturnal bottleneck, losing two of their four cones. Trichromats can see approximately 100 million colour combinations, but a tetrachromat can see more than a billion color combinations.


title: Tetrachromacy

text: The normal explanation of tetrachromacy is that the organism's retina contains four types of higher-intensity light receptors (called cone cells in vertebrates as opposed to rod cells, which are lower-intensity light receptors) with different spectral sensitivity. This means that the organism may see wavelengths beyond those of a typical human's vision, and may be able to distinguish between colors that, to a normal human, appear to be identical. Species with tetrachromatic color vision may have an unknown physiological advantage over rival species.


title: Tetrachromacy

text: Apes (including humans) and Old World monkeys normally have three types of cone cell and are therefore trichromats. However, human tetrachromacy may be possible in some situations.


title: Tetrachromacy

text: Tetrachromacy requires that there be 4 independent photoreceptor cells classes with different spectral sensitivity. However, there must also be the appropriate post-receptoral mechanism to compare the signals from the four classes of receptors. According to the opponent process theory, humans have three opponent channels, which grant trichromacy. Whether a fourth opponent channel is available to facilitate tetrachromacy is unclear.


title: Tetrachromacy

text: Mice, which normally have only two cone pigments (and therefore two opponent channels), have been engineered to express a third cone pigment, and appear to demonstrate increased chromatic discrimination, possibly indicating trichromacy and suggesting they were able to create or re-enable a third opponent channel. This would support the theory that humans should be able to utilize a fourth opponent channel for tetrachromatic vision. However, the original publication's claims about plasticity in the optic nerve have also been disputed.


title: Tetrachromacy

text: It has been theorized that females who carry recessive opsin alleles that can cause color vision deficiency (CVD) could possess tetrachromacy. Female carriers of anomalous trichromacy (mild color blindness) possess heterozygous alleles of the genes that encode the L-opsin or M-opsin. These alleles often have a different spectral sensitivity, so if the carrier expresses both opsin alleles, they may exhibit tetrachromacy.


title: Tetrachromacy

text: In humans, two cone cell pigment genes are present on the X chromosome: the classical type 2 opsin gene OPN1MW. People with two X chromosomes could possess multiple cone cell pigments, perhaps born as full tetrachromats who have four simultaneously functioning kinds of cone cell, each type with a specific pattern of responsiveness to different wavelengths of light in the range of the visible spectrum. One study suggested that 15% of the world's women might have the type of fourth cone whose sensitivity peak is between the standard red and green cones, giving, theoretically, a significant increase in color differentiation. Another study suggests that as many as 50% of women and 8% of men may have four photopigments and corresponding increased chromatic discrimination compared to trichromats. In 2010, after twenty years' study of women with four types of cones (non-functional tetrachromats), neuroscientist Gabriele Jordan identified a woman (subject "cDa29") who could detect a greater variety of colors than trichromats could, corresponding with a functional tetrachromat (or true tetrachromat).


title: Tetrachromacy

text: Variation in cone pigment genes is wide-spread in most human populations, but the most prevalent and pronounced tetrachromacy would derive from female carriers of major red/green pigment anomalies, usually classed as forms of "color blindness" (protanomaly or deuteranomaly). The biological basis for this phenomenon is X-inactivation of heterozygotic alleles for retinal pigment genes, which is the same mechanism that gives the majority of female new-world monkeys trichromatic vision.


title: Tetrachromacy

text: In humans, preliminary visual processing occurs in the neurons of the retina. It is not known how these nerves would respond to a new color channel, that is, whether they could handle it separately or just combine it in with an existing channel. Visual information leaves the eye by way of the optic nerve; it is not known whether the optic nerve has the spare capacity to handle a new color channel. A variety of final image processing takes place in the brain; it is not known how the various areas of the brain would respond if presented with a new color channel.


title: Tetrachromacy

text: Despite being trichromats, humans can experience slight tetrachromacy at low light intensities, using their mesopic vision. In mesopic vision, both cone cells and rod cells are active. While rods typically don't contribute to color vision, they may in these specific light conditions, giving a small region of tetrachromacy in the color space. Human rod cell sensitivity is greatest at 500 nm (bluish-green) wavelength, which is significantly different from the peak spectral sensitivity of the cones (typically 420, 530 and 560 nm).


title: Tetrachromacy

text: Although many birds are tetrachromats with a fourth color in the ultraviolet, humans cannot see ultraviolet light directly because the lens of the eye blocks most light in the wavelength range of 300–400 nm; shorter wavelengths are blocked by the cornea. The photoreceptor cells of the retina are sensitive to near ultraviolet light, and people lacking a lens (a condition known as aphakia) see near ultraviolet light (down to 300 nm) as whitish blue, or for some wavelengths, whitish violet, probably because all three types of cones are roughly equally sensitive to ultraviolet light (with blue cone cells slightly more sensitive).


title: Tetrachromacy

text: While an extended visible range does not denote tetrachromacy, some believe that visual pigments are available with sensitivity in near-UV wavelengths that would enable tetrachromacy in the case of aphakia. However, there is no peer-reviewed evidence supporting this claim.


title: Tetrachromacy

text: Some species of birds, such as the zebra finch and the Columbidae, use the ultraviolet wavelength 300–400 nm specific to tetrachromatic color vision as a tool during mate selection and foraging. When selecting for mates, ultraviolet plumage and skin coloration show a high level of selection. A typical bird eye responds to wavelengths from about 300 to 700 nm. In terms of frequency, this corresponds to a band in the vicinity of 430–1000 THz. Most birds have retinas with four spectral types of cone cell that are believed to mediate tetrachromatic color vision. Bird color vision is further improved by filtering by pigmented oil droplets in the photoreceptors. The oil droplets filter incident light before it reaches the visual pigment in the outer segments of the photoreceptors.


title: Tetrachromacy

text: The four cone types, and the specialization of pigmented oil droplets, give birds better color vision than that of humans. However, more recent research has suggested that tetrachromacy in birds only provides birds with a larger visual spectrum than that in humans (humans cannot see ultraviolet light, 300-400 nm), while the spectral resolution (the "sensitivity" to nuances) is similar.


title: Tetrachromacy

text: The dimensionality of color vision has no upper bound, but vertebrates with color vision higher than tetrachromacy are rare. The next level is "Pentachromacy", which is five-dimensional color vision requiring at least 5 different classes of photoreceptor as well as 5 independent channels of color information through the primary visual system.


title: Tetrachromacy

text: A female that is heterozygous for both the LWS and MWS opsins (and therefore a carrier for both protanomaly and deuteranomaly) would express five opsins of different spectral sensitivity. However, for her to be a true (strong) pentachromat, these opsins would need to be segregated into different photoreceptor cells and she would need to have the appropriate post-receptoral mechanisms to handle 5 opponent process channels, which is contentious.


title: Tetrachromacy

text: Some birds (notably pigeons) have five or more kinds of color receptors in their retinae, and are therefore believed to be pentachromats, though psychophysical evidence of functional pentachromacy is lacking. Research also indicates that some lampreys, members of the Petromyzontiformes, may be pentachromats.


title: Tetrachromacy

text: Invertebrates can have large numbers of different opsin classes, including 15 opsins in bluebottle butterflies or 33 in Mantis Shrimp. However, it has not been shown that color vision in these invertebrates is of a dimension commensurate with the number of opsins.


title: Jez Butterworth

text: Jeremy "Jez" Butterworth (born March 1969) is an English playwright, screenwriter, and film director. He has written screenplays in collaboration with his brothers, John-Henry and Tom.


title: Jez Butterworth

text: In March 1969, Butterworth was born in London, England. He has three brothers: older brothers Tom (born 1966) and Steve (born 1968); and younger brother John-Henry (born 1976). He also has a sister, Joanna. He attended Verulam Comprehensive School, St Albans and St John's College, Cambridge. All the brothers have been active in film and theatre: Steve is a producer, while Tom and John-Henry are writers.


title: Jez Butterworth

text: Butterworth's play "Mojo", which premiered at the Royal Court Theatre in 1995, won the 1996 Laurence Olivier, "Evening Standard", The Writer's Guild, and the George Devine awards, and the Critic's Circle Award. Butterworth also wrote and directed the film adaptation of "Mojo" (1997). The film featured Harold Pinter.


title: Jez Butterworth

text: Butterworth has said that Harold Pinter, 2005 Nobel Literature Laureate, has been a major influence on his work: "I know and admire Harold Pinter enormously. He has a ginormous influence on me. Conversations with him have inspired my work."


title: Jez Butterworth

text: Butterworth co-wrote and directed the film "Birthday Girl" (2001), which was produced by his brother Steve and starred Nicole Kidman.


title: Jez Butterworth

text: Butterworth received positive reviews of his play "The Night Heron" (2002), which premiered in the West End at the Royal Court Theatre. "The Guardian" reviewer wrote: "Can a play be simultaneously very good and very bad? I believe so." "The Winterling" also ran at the Royal Court in 2006. The "British Theatre Guide" wrote: ""The Winterling" can be a difficult play but contains rich veins of comedy."


title: Jez Butterworth

text: In May 2007 Butterworth received the E. M. Forster Award from the American Academy of Arts and Letters.


title: Jez Butterworth

text: His play "Parlour Song" opened in New York to "rave reviews" at the Atlantic Theatre Company, Off-Broadway in March 2008. The Almeida Theatre presented its European première in March 2009.


title: Jez Butterworth

text: Butterworth's fourth play for the Royal Court Theatre was "Jerusalem", which premiered in July 2009 to positive reviews. Described as a "contemporary vision of life in [England's] green and pleasant land", "Jerusalem" was the second important Butterworth production in London in 2009. The production starred Mark Rylance as Johnny Byron, and featured Mackenzie Crook as Ginger in a supporting role. It was a sell-out at the Royal Court, won the Evening Standard Theatre Award and Critics' Circle Theatre Award for the best play of 2009 and, with the same cast, transferred to the Apollo Theatre on Shaftesbury Avenue in January 2010.


title: Jez Butterworth

text: "Jerusalem" opened on Broadway in April 2011, with many of the original UK cast. It returned to London later that year, again playing at the Apollo. In January 2014 "Jerusalem" opened at the San Francisco Playhouse, where it also received rave reviews. "Jerusalem" was nominated for the 2011 Tony Award, Play. Mark Rylance won the 2011 Tony Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Play.