title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: The Z28 came standard with the 5.0 L LG4 4-bbl V8 rated at and was available with either a four-speed manual or three-speed TH200 lockup automatic transmission. The optional LU5 twin TBI 'Cross Fire Injection' with functioning hood scoops was rated at and was only available with an automatic transmission. The new Camaro received positive reviews for its styling and handling, but was also criticized for the low power ratings for the Camaro Z28.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: The Z28s included lightweight fiberglass SMC hoods with functional hood air induction flaps on RPO LU5 cars. The Z28 had a different nose, a three-piece rear spoiler and front, side, as well as rear lower body valances in silver or gold. Just above the valance was a three-color lower body stripe that encircled the car. Headlamp pockets on the Z28 were black. Standard were new 15x7-inch cast-aluminum five-spoke wheels accented with silver or gold. Z28 badges appeared on the right rear bumper and on the side valances. On early models, if the "Conteur" sport seats were selected as an option, the passenger seat was purposefully a mismatched high-back bucket seat design, due to production shortages of the passenger seat.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: The Camaro Z28 was the pace car for the 1982 Indianapolis 500 race, and over 6,000 appearance replicas were sold through Chevrolet dealers. The edition featured special two-tone silver/blue paint and special striping, orange pin-striping on Z28 wheels, and a silver/blue interior with six-way Lear-Seigler manually adjustable seating. Engine choices in the pace cars were the same as the regular production Z28. The car that actually paced the event was equipped with a highly-modified, all-aluminum 5.7 L V8 that was not available on the replica cars.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: At the 1982 Geneva Motor Show, a special European specification version was shown, the Camaro Z28E. The "E" stood for "Export" and it received British National Type Approval in 1982. The Z28E received the DIN carburetted 5-liter V8, while the 2.8-liter V6 was soon added to the lineup.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: The Z28 engines were changed for 1983: the LU5 Crossfire 305 V8 was rated at 175 hp and was supplemented in April 1983 by an all-new 5.0 L L69 4 bbl High-Output (HO) V8. This engine was only available with a manual transmission in 1983. Due to its late introduction, 3,223 L69 V8s were sold for the 1983 model year.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: Transmissions were upgraded for 1983. A Borg-Warner 5-speed manual transmission replaced the previous 4-speed. A 4-speed automatic transmission with overdrive replaced the 3-speed automatic transmission in the Z28. The TH700-R4 automatic overdrive was also available on the base coupe and Berlinetta, but was not available with the L69 H.O. engine in the Z28 for 1983. Aside from the new transmissions, base coupe and Berlinetta carried on as in 1982 with very little change other than newly available colors.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: The dashboard pad on all models received a revised shape and finish. In the Berlinetta, the standard instrument cluster was replaced by electronic readouts, including a bar-graph tachometer and digital speedometer. The new dash came with an overhead console and pod-mounted controls for turn signals, cruise-control, HVAC, windshield wiper, and headlights. The radio was mounted inside a pod on the console that could swivel toward the driver or passenger.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: Drivetrain changes included the discontinuation of the LU5 305 Cross Fire V8, and the addition of a hydraulic clutch linkage on manual transmission cars. The L69 H.O. Z28 became available with an automatic transmission for the first time.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: The Z28's body and features remained mostly unchanged, except the fiberglass SMC hood was replaced with a steel version.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: "Road & Track" selected the 1984 Camaro/Firebird as one of twelve best cars in the world and in the Best Sports GT category in the $11,000 to $14,000 range. "Car and Driver" picked the 1984 Camaro Z28 as the best handling car built in the United States.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: For 1985, Chevrolet introduced the IROC-Z version that was named after the International Race of Champions. Offered as an option package on the Z28, the Camaro IROC-Z featured an upgraded suspension, lowered ride height, specially valved Delco-Bilstein shocks, larger diameter sway bars, a steering/frame brace known as the "wonder bar", a special decal package, and an optional Tuned Port Injection system taken from the Chevrolet Corvette. It also shared the Corvette's Goodyear "Gatorback" unidirectional tires in a 245/50/VR16 size vs. the Corvette's 255/50/VR16 size, and received unique new aluminum 5-spoke 16-by-8-inch wheels. The new wheels were designed with different offsets front and rear, resulting in the words "Front" or "Rear" cast into the wheels to distinguish which wheel went where.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: The Camaro "IROC-Z" was on "Car and Driver" magazine's Ten Best list for 1985. The 305 c.i. 5.0-liter TPI LB9 was rated at , with the 4-bbl 305 LG4 at 155 hp, and the 4-bbl High Output 305 L69 at . A total of 2,497 L69 IROC-Z models were made for 1985. The LB9 was available only on the Z28 and the IROC-Z model with the TH700-R4 automatic transmission. A total of 205 IROC-Zs equipped with the LB9 305 with the G92 (Performance Axle Ratio) option were made in 1985. The G92 option upgraded the rear axle gear ratio from 3.23 to 3.42.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: Also new for 1985, all Camaros featured refreshed noses, and new deeper valances and front spoiler for the Z28 and the newly introduced IROC-Z. The speedometers no longer had the unique double-pointed needle that simultaneously read mph and km/h: they were replaced by conventional single-pointer units.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: For 1985 a (1C5) RPO California IROC-Z was also made, Chevrolet's California Marketing Group came up with the idea and it was for sale in California only. A total of 250 black and 250 red examples were produced. They were all equipped with the 5.0 TPI LB9 engine and TH700-R4 automatic transmission. All came equipped with the IROC-Z fog lights, wheels and ground effects, but with the base Camaro's hood (no louvers), rear decklid (no spoiler), and no exterior decals.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: A newly required Center High Mounted Stop Lamp (CHMSL) was installed on the Camaro. 1986 was the only year to see this attached to the outside hatchback glass on base model Sport Coupes, Z28s, and IROC-Zs except for 1987 base models that did not have a spoiler. This was the final year for the L69 5.0 305 HO 4-bbl option, of which 63 were built for racing in Canada's Player's series and 11 for public sale, making a total of 74. The 2.8 L V6 was now the standard engine in the base model, replacing the 2.5 L I-4 model. The 305 TPI LB9 horsepower rating dropped from to in the IROC-Z models. All V8 engines received a new one-piece rear main seal. Braking performance was 139 feet from 60mph. 1986 would be the final year for the Berlinetta trim level.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: The 350 TPI engine with automatic and 305 TPI with 5-speed manual transmission were available for the first time in the IROC-Z. The new 350 (RPO code L98) was available only in the IROC-Z with an automatic transmission. The TPI 350 motor was visually distinguishable from the TPI 305 as the bumper cover decal had "5.7L" added to the "Tuned Port Injection" decal. It can also be determined by checking the VIN (8th character, F=305, 8=350). The 305 TPI equipped with automatic transmission came with 190 hp, while the Manual 305 TPI got a rating. The 350 L98 gave a boost to 225 hp at 4,400 and 330ftlb at 2,800. All V8 engines received hydraulic roller lifters and a new valve cover/head design. Valve covers featured new sealing and center bolts in the valve covers. Heads featured a new raised lip for improved valve cover sealing and the two center intake bolts were changed from 90-degree orientation to 72 degrees. G92 and L98 cars got the Borg-Warner HD four pinion rear end, produced for GM's Holden of Australia (Firebird WS6 cars went to this unit in 1986). These units can be identified by their 9 bolt (rather than 10) differential cover that has a rubber drain plug. The Borg-Warner logo is also cast into the bottom of the differential case. This rear axle came with tapered rather than straight roller bearings and a cone-clutch rather than disc-clutch limited-slip unit. These units came painted black from the factory while most others were bare metal. All 1987 350 TPI L98 IROC-Zs required 3.27 gears, J65 rear disc brakes, G80 limited-slip differential, and a KC4 engine oil cooler.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: The largest visual change this year was the CHMSL (third brake light) was now mounted inside the rear spoiler instead of on top of the rear hatch (except the base coupe without the spoiler option - on those cars it remained on top of the hatch like the previous year). The Berlinetta was no longer available this year, replaced with a new LT model, while the base Camaro and Z28 continued as before. speedometers became standard in the IROC-Zs and Z28s with tuned port injected engines while the carbureted Camaro models and 2.8 liter V6 retained the 85 m.p.h. speedometer.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: Other changes included a Camaro convertible that was introduced for the first time since 1969 as a regular production option. Available on the Sport Coupe, LT and IROC-Z, the conversion was performed on t-top equipped Camaros by American Sunroof Company (ASC). A total of 1,007 were produced in the first year of production. The 1987 model year marked the 20th anniversary of the Camaro and the convertibles were considered the anniversary editions and included a dash badge that read "20th Anniversary Commemorative Edition". Some 1987 T-Top models were made into convertibles by ASC after the customer took delivery. This is why there are some convertibles with the body VIN code of 2, meaning they were coupes, not convertibles (which have a body VIN code of 3). This was also the last year of production at GM's Norwood, Ohio, facility as sales continued to decline consolidating Camaro assembly to the Van Nuys factory located in Southern California.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: The Camaro line was greatly simplified this year, starting with discontinuing the slow-selling LT model, and dropping the base Z28. The IROC-Z package proved popular and the package became standard on Z28s. This resulted in two models remaining, the base coupe and the IROC-Z. Without the Z28 to bridge the gap between the base Camaro and the flagship IROC-Z, the previously standard aluminum 16-inch 5-spoke wheels were now an option - "base" IROCs now got the previous year Z28's aluminum 15-inch 5-spoke wheels (which also became standard on the base coupes) and P215/65-15 tires. Also, the old Z28's ground effects and spoilers were now standard on the base Camaro coupes. Base models received a new raised spoiler for the first half production year.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: All engines were fuel-injected this year; the 2.8 (173) running 135 HP at 4,900 rpm and 160 lb.ft at 3,900 rpm, the 5.0L 305 cid V8 gained throttle-body injection, bringing net horsepower to 170; the 305 cid TPI manual transmission models were rated at 220 HP at 4,400 rpm and 290 lb.ft at 3,200 rpm, Automatic at 195 HP at 4,000 rpm and 290 lb.ft at 2,800 rpm and the 350 cid TPI got a small boost to 230 HP at 4,400 rpm and 330 lb.ft at 3,200 rpm. G92 (performance axle ratio) available only on IROC-Z with 5.0 TPI (LB9). All 1987 350 TPI L98 IROC-Zs came standard with the 3.27 BW rear end and everything that was included with G92 but did not have the G92 RPO code because it was not mandatory; this changed in 1988 however when a 2.77 rear was standard and G92 had to be specified to get the 3.27 differential. The IROC-Z was also treated to some small cosmetic changes. The "Z28" logos on the ground effects below the doors and on the rear bumper changed to read "IROC-Z". The large IROC-Z call-outs on the door moved from the front of the doors to the back, to put some space between the logos. Option code DX3 offered buyers the option of deleting the IROC-Z's door decals and stripes for a $60.00 credit. Optional 16-inch aluminum wheels were redesigned with two lines instead of one large line in each spoke, and center caps backgrounds changed from black to silver. Dash badges on the IROC still read "Z28" on top and "IROC-Z" below.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: The 1989 model year signified the return of the RS designation (last used in 1987 on a limited-edition California only model). The Rally Sport was now the base model featuring body ground effects mimicking the IROC and the previous Z28 but with the 2.8 V6 fuel-injected engine as standard with the 305 as an option. The raised rear spoiler that became available in 1988 on the base coupes was short-lived and done away with for this year. The engine ratings carried over from '88 with the addition of IROC-Z Coupes had a new dual catalytic converter exhaust option N10 that was standard with the G92 option only available on the 305 TPI motor with a manual transmission and the 350 TPI only available with the TH700-R4 automatic. 1989 was also the last year any third-gen with the B2L RPO 350 TPI L98 engine could be ordered in combination with the CC1 RPO removable T-Top roof panels.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: Power ratings also varied in the 305 from 170 hp (standard RPO L03) to 230 hp (RPO LB9 with manual transmission and RPO N10 dual catalytic converter exhaust) and a boost to 240 hp for the 350 with RPO N10 respectively.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: IROC-Zs with the TPI 350 had the 2.77 rear axle ratio as in the previous year, but the optional RPO G92 Performance Axle package modified the ratio to 3.27 for the TPI 350, and 3.45 for the TPI 305 with manual transmission. RPO G92 also included the aforementioned dual-converter exhaust; 4-wheel disc brakes (RPO J65); engine oil cooler; P245/50ZR16 Goodyear Eagle unidirectional tires; a speedometer; and a tachometer with a 5,500 rpm redline. A total of 1,426 IROC-Z coupes were equipped with the Performance Axle package in 1989.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: To take an IROC-Z coupe to the maximum performance extreme in 1989, when the G92 Performance Axle was ordered with no air conditioning (C41), RPO code 1LE was automatically triggered. This included extra equipment intended to make the IROC-Z more competitive in SCCA Showroom Stock road racing events: larger rotors with 2-piston aluminum calipers from PBR; an aluminum driveshaft; a special baffled fuel tank; specific shock absorbers; and stiffer suspension bushings. The fog lamps were also deleted. The 1LE was simply an option combination, not a separate package or model that dealers were aware of the existence of, resulting in 111 cars built with 1LE equipment in 1989.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: The 1990 model year finished the lowest production to date (35,048), due to a truncated 1990 model run followed by the early introduction of the facelifted 1991 models. 1990 also marked the final year for the IROC-Z; Chevrolet had decided not to renew its contract with the International Race of Champions.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: This year was the first year for an airbag to be offered in any F-body. The new airbag came along with a new "half-moon" gauge cluster, that was offered only in 1990–1992 Camaros. The sharp edges on the dash surfaces were rounded and the lettering on gauges switched to yellow from white. 1990 was a distinguishable model year as it was the only third-generation Camaro that did not feature the updated ground effects of the 1991–1992 models but did have the newer interior/dash features. The 2.8 L V6 was upgraded to the 3.1 L V6.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: The RPO code 1LE was again available in 1990, triggered as in the previous year by RPO G92 Performance Axle combined with no air conditioning on the IROC-Z coupe. Only 62 Camaros were built with 1LE equipment in 1990.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: Camaros in IROC-Z trim that were equipped with the 5.7 TPI Motor received a slight horsepower increase to 245 at 4,400 rpm and torque numbers also rose to 345 at 3,200 rpm.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: Production for the 1991 Camaro started in February 1990. Big changes occurred, as all Camaros received a facelift in the form of a ground effects package for not only RS but also the Z28 models, while the IROC-Z was no longer offered. The Z28 also featured a high rise spoiler and non-functional hood "blisters". The CHMSL was relocated from the spoiler to the top of the Hatch again like the 1986 models, except the housing was now on the inside rather than the outside of the hatch. The Convertible still retained the spoiler mounted 3rd brake light. The 1991 Z28 also received a new wheel design to accent the new body. The B4C "Special Service" option was made available to law enforcement, the government, and military agencies. The B4C amounted to little more than a Z28 powertrain and suspension in the RS. (Car Craft Magazine refers to the B4C as a 1LE equipped with air conditioning; although this is slightly erroneous because in 1991, the large brakes with PBR calipers from the 1LE package were not included with B4C.) Just under 600 B4C Camaros were sold for 1991. Power ratings on the 350 TPI were as follows; at 4,400 rpm and at 3,200 rpm. Power rating on the 305 TPI motor were as follows; at 4,200 rpm and at 3,200 rpm. Power rating on the 305 TBI stayed same at 170 hp(127 kW) at 4,000 rpm and 255 lb⋅ft (346 N⋅m) at 2,400 rpm. Rumors say that these numbers were slightly underrated by GM, but this has not been investigated.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: Beginning with the 1991 model year, GM pioneered some modified assembly techniques with the F-body Camaro and Firebird which were carried forward into the fourth generation. Different seam sealers, structural adhesives, and body assembly techniques were employed in key areas in an effort to reduce squeaks and rattles and improve the perception of quality.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: The SCCA Showroom-Stock-ready 1LE package continued with similar equipment to previous years and was again triggered automatically by the G92 Performance Axle option combined with the C41 basic ventilation system (no air conditioning) on the Z28 coupe. Production of the 1LE increased to 478 units.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: 1992 was the final year of the third generation Camaro. A "25th Anniversary Heritage Edition" option had been planned with Corvette aluminum cylinder heads, tubular exhaust headers, and 6-speed manual transmission, but this was scrapped in favor of a "Heritage Package" option (RPO Z03) which amounted to nothing more than a graphics package of badges and rally stripes. All 1992 Camaros received a "25th Anniversary" badge on the dashboard. The 1992 version of the Camaro B4C (Special Service Package) got the addition of 1LE brakes. A total of 589 B4Cs were sold. The B4C option was also deemed popular enough to be carried on to the fourth-generation model.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: Some TPI 1992 Camaros received some of the "leftovers" from its Corvette cousin, which switched from Tuned Port Injection to the new LT1 engine series in 1992. They received the rough texture, cast aluminum style, intake runners from the TPI Corvette instead of the regular Camaro smooth tube ones. In some cases, they were built with black painted valve covers instead of the normal silver valve covers. Some also received a blank throttlebody plate, like the LT1, instead of the normal plate with "Tuned Port Injection" script. The change was purely cosmetic, performance remained identical to the previous year.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: The RPO 1LE option combination, identical to the previous year in specification and option requirements, had its highest production year of the third generation Camaro, with 705 cars so equipped. As mentioned, the 1LE brakes were included with B4C in 1992, accounting for 589 of the 705 built. This means that only 116 "true" 1LE-only cars (A/C delete, non-Special Service Package) were built for the year.


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: The vast majority of the 1LE cars built during the 1989-1992 period were very sparsely equipped vehicles. Since they were intended for racing, where extra weight is a disadvantage and interiors are often gutted after purchase, most were very lightly optioned. The majority of 1LE Camaros had the base interior, with no power options, cruise control, or even floor mats. Some were even built without radios (201 cars were built as "radio delete" in 1992).


title: Chevrolet Camaro (third generation)

text: This was also the last year of production of the Camaro at the assembly plant in Van Nuys, California (and the United States as a whole until 2015). The last third-generation Camaro produced was a red Z28 coupe on August 27, 1992, that features signatures of the assembly line workers.


title: Logical positivism

text: Logical positivism, later called logical empiricism, and both of which together are also known as neopositivism, is a movement in Western philosophy whose central thesis was the verification principle (also known as the verifiability criterion of meaning). This theory of knowledge asserted that only statements verifiable through direct observation or logical proof are meaningful in terms of conveying truth value, information or factual content. Starting in the late 1920s, groups of philosophers, scientists, and mathematicians formed the Berlin Circle and the Vienna Circle, which, in these two cities, would propound the ideas of logical positivism.


title: Logical positivism

text: Flourishing in several European centres through the 1930s, the movement sought to prevent confusion rooted in unclear language and unverifiable claims by converting philosophy into "scientific philosophy", which, according to the logical positivists, ought to share the bases and structures of empirical sciences' best examples, such as Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity. Despite its ambition to overhaul philosophy by studying and mimicking the extant conduct of empirical science, logical positivism became erroneously stereotyped as a movement to regulate the scientific process and to place strict standards on it.


title: Logical positivism

text: After World War II, the movement shifted to a milder variant, logical empiricism, led mainly by Carl Hempel, who, during the rise of Nazism, had immigrated to the United States. In the ensuing years, the movement's central premises, still unresolved, were heavily criticised by leading philosophers, particularly Willard van Orman Quine and Karl Popper, and even, within the movement itself, by Hempel. The 1962 publication of Thomas Kuhn's landmark book "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" dramatically shifted academic philosophy's focus. In 1967 philosopher John Passmore pronounced logical positivism "dead, or as dead as a philosophical movement ever becomes".


title: Logical positivism

text: Logical positivists picked from Ludwig Wittgenstein's early philosophy of language the verifiability principle or criterion of meaningfulness. As in Ernst Mach's phenomenalism, whereby the mind knows only actual or potential sensory experience, verificationists took all sciences' basic content to be only sensory experience. And some influence came from Percy Bridgman's musings that others proclaimed as operationalism, whereby a physical theory is understood by what laboratory procedures scientists perform to test its predictions. In verificationism, only the "verifiable" was scientific, and thus meaningful (or "cognitively meaningful"), whereas the unverifiable, being unscientific, were meaningless "pseudostatements" (just "emotively meaningful"). Unscientific discourse, as in ethics and metaphysics, would be unfit for discourse by philosophers, newly tasked to organize knowledge, not develop new knowledge.


title: Logical positivism

text: Logical positivism is sometimes stereotyped as forbidding talk of unobservables, such as microscopic entities or such notions as causality and general principles, but that is an exaggeration. Rather, most neopositivists viewed talk of unobservables as metaphorical or elliptical: direct observations phrased abstractly or indirectly. So "theoretical terms" would garner meaning from "observational terms" via "correspondence rules", and thereby "theoretical laws" would be reduced to "empirical laws". Via Bertrand Russell's logicism, reducing mathematics to logic, physics' mathematical formulas would be converted to symbolic logic. Via Russell's logical atomism, ordinary language would break into discrete units of meaning. Rational reconstruction, then, would convert ordinary statements into standardized equivalents, all networked and united by a logical syntax. A scientific theory would be stated with its method of verification, whereby a logical calculus or empirical operation could verify its falsity or truth.


title: Logical positivism

text: In the late 1930s, logical positivists fled Germany and Austria for Britain and the United States. By then, many had replaced Mach's phenomenalism with Otto Neurath's physicalism, whereby science's content is not actual or potential sensations, but instead is entities publicly observable. Rudolf Carnap, who had sparked logical positivism in the Vienna Circle, had sought to replace "verification" with simply "confirmation". With World War II's close in 1945, logical positivism became milder, "logical empiricism", led largely by Carl Hempel, in America, who expounded the covering law model of scientific explanation. Logical positivism became a major underpinning of analytic philosophy, and dominated philosophy in the English-speaking world, including philosophy of science, while influencing sciences, but especially social sciences, into the 1960s. Yet the movement failed to resolve its central problems, and its doctrines were increasingly criticized, most trenchantly by Willard Van Orman Quine, Norwood Hanson, Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn, and Carl Hempel.


title: Logical positivism

text: "Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus", by the young Ludwig Wittgenstein, introduced the view of philosophy as "critique of language", offering the possibility of a theoretically principled distinction of intelligible versus nonsensical discourse. "Tractatus" adhered to a correspondence theory of truth (versus a coherence theory of truth). Wittgenstein's influence also shows in some versions of the verifiability principle. In tractarian doctrine, truths of logic are tautologies, a view widely accepted by logical positivists who were also influenced by Wittgenstein's interpretation of probability although, according to Neurath, some logical positivists found "Tractatus" to contain too much metaphysics.


title: Logical positivism

text: Gottlob Frege began the program of reducing mathematics to logic, continued it with Bertrand Russell, but lost interest in this logicism, and Russell continued it with Alfred North Whitehead in their "Principia Mathematica", inspiring some of the more mathematical logical positivists, such as Hans Hahn and Rudolf Carnap. Carnap's early anti-metaphysical works employed Russell's theory of types. Carnap envisioned a universal language that could reconstruct mathematics and thereby encode physics. Yet Kurt Gödel's incompleteness theorem showed this impossible except in trivial cases, and Alfred Tarski's undefinability theorem shattered all hopes of reducing mathematics to logic. Thus, a universal language failed to stem from Carnap's 1934 work "Logische Syntax der Sprache" ("Logical Syntax of Language"). Still, some logical positivists, including Carl Hempel, continued support of logicism.


title: Logical positivism

text: In Germany, Hegelian metaphysics was a dominant movement, and Hegelian successors such as F H Bradley explained reality by postulating metaphysical entities lacking empirical basis, drawing reaction in the form of positivism. Starting in the late 19th century, there was a "back to Kant" movement. Ernst Mach's positivism and phenomenalism were a major influence.


title: Logical positivism

text: The Vienna Circle, gathering around University of Vienna and Café Central, was led principally by Moritz Schlick. Schlick had held a neo-Kantian position, but later converted, via Carnap's 1928 book "Der logische Aufbau der Welt", that is, "The Logical Structure of the World". A 1929 pamphlet written by Otto Neurath, Hans Hahn, and Rudolf Carnap summarized the Vienna Circle's positions. Another member of Vienna Circle to later prove very influential was Carl Hempel. A friendly but tenacious critic of the Circle was Karl Popper, whom Neurath nicknamed the "Official Opposition".


title: Logical positivism

text: Carnap and other Vienna Circle members, including Hahn and Neurath, saw need for a weaker criterion of meaningfulness than verifiability. A radical "left" wing—led by Neurath and Carnap—began the program of "liberalization of empiricism", and they also emphasized fallibilism and pragmatics, which latter Carnap even suggested as empiricism's basis. A conservative "right" wing—led by Schlick and Waismann—rejected both the liberalization of empiricism and the epistemological nonfoundationalism of a move from phenomenalism to physicalism. As Neurath and somewhat Carnap posed science toward social reform, the split in Vienna Circle also reflected political views.


title: Logical positivism

text: Both Moritz Schlick and Rudolf Carnap had been influenced by and sought to define logical positivism versus the neo-Kantianism of Ernst Cassirer—the then leading figure of Marburg school, so called—and against Edmund Husserl's phenomenology. Logical positivists especially opposed Martin Heidegger's obscure metaphysics, the epitome of what logical positivism rejected. In the early 1930s, Carnap debated Heidegger over "metaphysical pseudosentences". Despite its revolutionary aims, logical positivism was but one view among many vying within Europe, and logical positivists initially spoke their language.


title: Logical positivism

text: As the movement's first emissary to the New World, Moritz Schlick visited Stanford University in 1929, yet otherwise remained in Vienna and was murdered in 1936 at the University by a former student, Johann Nelböck, who was reportedly deranged. That year, a British attendee at some Vienna Circle meetings since 1933, A. J. Ayer saw his "Language, Truth and Logic", written in English, import logical positivism to the English-speaking world. By then, the Nazi Party's 1933 rise to power in Germany had triggered flight of intellectuals. In exile in England, Otto Neurath died in 1945. Rudolf Carnap, Hans Reichenbach, and Carl Hempel—Carnap's protégé who had studied in Berlin with Reichenbach—settled permanently in America. Upon Germany's annexation of Austria in 1938, remaining logical positivists, many of whom were also Jewish, were targeted and continued flight. Logical positivism thus became dominant in the English-speaking world.


title: Logical positivism

text: Concerning reality, the necessary is a state true in all possible worlds—mere logical validity—whereas the contingent hinges on the way the particular world is. Concerning knowledge, the "a priori" is knowable before or without, whereas the "a posteriori" is knowable only after or through, relevant experience. Concerning statements, the "analytic" is true via terms' arrangement and meanings, thus a tautology—true by logical necessity but uninformative about the world—whereas the "synthetic" adds reference to a state of facts, a contingency.


title: Logical positivism

text: In 1739, David Hume cast a fork aggressively dividing "relations of ideas" from "matters of fact and real existence", such that all truths are of one type or the other. By Hume's fork, truths by relations among ideas (abstract) all align on one side (analytic, necessary, "a priori"), whereas truths by states of actualities (concrete) always align on the other side (synthetic, contingent, "a posteriori"). Of any treatises containing neither, Hume orders, "Commit it then to the flames, for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion".


title: Logical positivism

text: Thus awakened from "dogmatic slumber", Immanuel Kant quested to answer Hume's challenge—but by explaining how metaphysics is possible. Eventually, in his 1781 work, Kant crossed the tines of Hume's fork to identify another range of truths by necessity—synthetic "a priori", statements claiming states of facts but known true before experience—by arriving at transcendental idealism, attributing the mind a constructive role in phenomena by arranging sense data into the very experience "space", "time", and "substance". Thus, Kant saved Newton's law of universal gravitation from Hume's problem of induction by finding uniformity of nature to be "a priori" knowledge. Logical positivists rejected Kant's synthetic "a priori", and adopted Hume's fork, whereby a statement is either analytic and "a priori" (thus necessary and verifiable logically) or synthetic and "a posteriori" (thus contingent and verifiable empirically).


title: Logical positivism

text: Early, most logical positivists proposed that all knowledge is based on logical inference from simple "protocol sentences" grounded in observable facts. In the 1936 and 1937 papers "Testability and meaning", individual terms replace sentences as the units of meaning. Further, theoretical terms no longer need to acquire meaning by explicit definition from observational terms: the connection may be indirect, through a system of implicit definitions. Carnap also provided an important, pioneering discussion of disposition predicates.


title: Logical positivism

text: The logical positivists' initial stance was that a statement is "cognitively meaningful" in terms of conveying truth value, information or factual content only if some finite procedure conclusively determines its truth. By this verifiability principle, only statements verifiable either by their analyticity or by empiricism were "cognitively meaningful". Metaphysics, ontology, as well as much of ethics failed this criterion, and so were found "cognitively meaningless". Moritz Schlick, however, did not view ethical or aesthetic statements as cognitively meaningless. "Cognitive meaningfulness" was variously defined: having a truth value; corresponding to a possible state of affairs; intelligible or understandable as are scientific statements.


title: Logical positivism

text: Ethics and aesthetics were subjective preferences, while theology and other metaphysics contained "pseudostatements", neither true nor false. This meaningfulness was cognitive, although other types of meaningfulness—for instance, emotive, expressive, or figurative—occurred in metaphysical discourse, dismissed from further review. Thus, logical positivism indirectly asserted Hume's law, the principle that "is" statements cannot justify "ought" statements, but are separated by an unbridgeable gap. A. J. Ayer's 1936 book asserted an extreme variant—the boo/hooray doctrine—whereby all evaluative judgments are but emotional reactions.


title: Logical positivism

text: In an important pair of papers in 1936 and 1937, "Testability and meaning", Carnap replaced "verification" with "confirmation", on the view that although universal laws cannot be verified they can be confirmed. Later, Carnap employed abundant logical and mathematical methods in researching inductive logic while seeking to provide an account of probability as "degree of confirmation", but was never able to formulate a model. In Carnap's inductive logic, every universal law's degree of confirmation is always zero. In any event, the precise formulation of what came to be called the "criterion of cognitive significance" took three decades (Hempel 1950, Carnap 1956, Carnap 1961).


title: Logical positivism

text: Carl Hempel became a major critic within the logical positivism movement. Hempel criticized the positivist thesis that empirical knowledge is restricted to "Basissätze"/"Beobachtungssätze"/"Protokollsätze" (basic statements or observation statements or protocol statements). Hempel elucidated the paradox of confirmation.


title: Logical positivism

text: The second edition of A. J. Ayer's book arrived in 1946, and discerned "strong" versus "weak" forms of verification. Ayer concluded, "A proposition is said to be verifiable, in the strong sense of the term, if, and only if, its truth could be conclusively established by experience", but is verifiable in the weak sense "if it is possible for experience to render it probable". And yet, "no proposition, other than a tautology, can possibly be anything more than a probable hypothesis". Thus, all are open to weak verification.


title: Logical positivism

text: Upon the global defeat of Nazism, and the removal from philosophy of rivals for radical reform—Marburg neo-Kantianism, Husserlian phenomenology, Heidegger's "existential hermeneutics"—and while hosted in the climate of American pragmatism and commonsense empiricism, the neopositivists shed much of their earlier, revolutionary zeal. No longer crusading to revise traditional philosophy into a new "scientific philosophy", they became respectable members of a new philosophy subdiscipline, "philosophy of science". Receiving support from Ernest Nagel, logical empiricists were especially influential in the social sciences.


title: Logical positivism

text: Comtean positivism had viewed science as "description", whereas the logical positivists posed science as "explanation", perhaps to better realize the envisioned unity of science by covering not only fundamental science—that is, fundamental physics—but the special sciences, too, for instance biology, anthropology, psychology, sociology, and economics. The most widely accepted concept of scientific explanation, held even by neopositivist critic Karl Popper, was the deductive-nomological model (DN model). Yet DN model received its greatest explication by Carl Hempel, first in his 1942 article "The function of general laws in history", and more explicitly with Paul Oppenheim in their 1948 article "Studies in the logic of explanation".


title: Logical positivism

text: In the DN model, the stated phenomenon to be explained is the "explanandum"—which can be an event, law, or theory—whereas premises stated to explain it are the "explanans". Explanans must be true or highly confirmed, contain at least one law, and entail the explanandum. Thus, given initial conditions "C, C . . . C" plus general laws "L, L . . . L", event "E" is a deductive consequence and scientifically explained. In the DN model, a law is an unrestricted generalization by conditional proposition—"If A, then B"—and has empirical content testable. (Differing from a merely true regularity—for instance, "George always carries only $1 bills in his wallet"—a law suggests what "must" be true, and is consequent of a scientific theory's axiomatic structure.)


title: Logical positivism

text: By the Humean empiricist view that humans observe sequences of events, (not cause and effect, as causality and causal mechanisms are unobservable), the DN model neglects causality beyond mere constant conjunction, first event "A" and then always event "B". Hempel's explication of the DN model held natural laws—empirically confirmed regularities—as satisfactory and, if formulated realistically, approximating causal explanation. In later articles, Hempel defended the DN model and proposed a probabilistic explanation, inductive-statistical model (IS model). the DN and IS models together form the "covering law model", as named by a critic, William Dray. Derivation of statistical laws from other statistical laws goes to deductive-statistical model (DS model). Georg Henrik von Wright, another critic, named it "subsumption theory", fitting the ambition of theory reduction.


title: Logical positivism

text: Logical positivists were generally committed to "Unified Science", and sought a common language or, in Neurath's phrase, a "universal slang" whereby all scientific propositions could be expressed. The adequacy of proposals or fragments of proposals for such a language was often asserted on the basis of various "reductions" or "explications" of the terms of one special science to the terms of another, putatively more fundamental. Sometimes these reductions consisted of set-theoretic manipulations of a few logically primitive concepts (as in Carnap's "Logical Structure of the World", 1928). Sometimes, these reductions consisted of allegedly analytic or "a priori" deductive relationships (as in Carnap's "Testability and meaning"). A number of publications over a period of thirty years would attempt to elucidate this concept.


title: Logical positivism

text: As in Comtean positivism's envisioned unity of science, neopositivists aimed to network all special sciences through the covering law model of scientific explanation. And ultimately, by supplying boundary conditions and supplying bridge laws within the covering law model, all the special sciences' laws would reduce to fundamental physics, the fundamental science.


title: Logical positivism

text: After World War II, key tenets of logical positivism, including its atomistic philosophy of science, the verifiability principle, and the fact/value gap, drew escalated criticism. The verifiability criterion made universal statements 'cognitively' meaningless, and even made statements beyond empiricism for technological but not conceptual reasons meaningless, which was taken to pose significant problems for the philosophy of science. These problems were recognized within the movement, which hosted attempted solutions—Carnap's move to "confirmation", Ayer's acceptance of "weak verification"—but the program drew sustained criticism from a number of directions by the 1950s. Even philosophers disagreeing among themselves on which direction general epistemology ought to take, as well as on philosophy of science, agreed that the logical empiricist program was untenable, and it became viewed as self-contradictory: the verifiability criterion of meaning was itself unverified. Notable critics included Popper, Quine, Hanson, Kuhn, Putnam, Austin, Strawson, Goodman, and Rorty.


title: Logical positivism

text: An early, tenacious critic was Karl Popper whose 1934 book "Logik der Forschung", arriving in English in 1959 as "The Logic of Scientific Discovery", directly answered verificationism. Popper considered the problem of induction as rendering empirical verification logically impossible, and the deductive fallacy of affirming the consequent reveals any phenomenon's capacity to host more than one logically possible explanation. Accepting scientific method as hypotheticodeduction, whose inference form is denying the consequent, Popper finds scientific method unable to proceed without falsifiable predictions. Popper thus identifies falsifiability to demarcate not "meaningful" from "meaningless" but simply "scientific" from "unscientific"—a label not in itself unfavorable.


title: Logical positivism

text: Popper finds virtue in metaphysics, required to develop new scientific theories. And an unfalsifiable—thus unscientific, perhaps metaphysical—concept in one era can later, through evolving knowledge or technology, become falsifiable, thus scientific. Popper also found science's quest for truth to rest on values. Popper disparages the "pseudoscientific", which occurs when an unscientific theory is proclaimed true and coupled with seemingly scientific method by "testing" the unfalsifiable theory—whose predictions are confirmed by necessity—or when a scientific theory's falsifiable predictions are strongly falsified but the theory is persistently protected by "immunizing stratagems", such as the appendage of "ad hoc" clauses saving the theory or the recourse to increasingly speculative hypotheses shielding the theory.


title: Logical positivism

text: Explicitly denying the positivist view of meaning and verification, Popper developed the epistemology of critical rationalism, which considers that human knowledge evolves by conjectures and refutations, and that no number, degree, and variety of empirical successes can either verify or confirm scientific theory. For Popper, science's aim is "corroboration" of scientific theory, which strives for scientific realism but accepts the maximal status of strongly corroborated verisimilitude ("truthlikeness"). Popper thus acknowledged the value of the positivist movement's emphasis on science but claimed that he had "killed positivism".


title: Logical positivism

text: Although an empiricist, American logician Willard Van Orman Quine published the 1951 paper "Two Dogmas of Empiricism", which challenged conventional empiricist presumptions. Quine attacked the analytic/synthetic division, which the verificationist program had been hinged upon in order to entail, by consequence of Hume's fork, both necessity and aprioricity. Quine's ontological relativity explained that every term in any statement has its meaning contingent on a vast network of knowledge and belief, the speaker's conception of the entire world. Quine later proposed naturalized epistemology.


title: Logical positivism

text: In 1958, Norwood Hanson's "Patterns of Discovery" undermined the division of observation versus theory, as one can predict, collect, prioritize, and assess data only via some horizon of expectation set by a theory. Thus, any dataset—the direct observations, the scientific facts—is laden with theory.


title: Logical positivism

text: With his landmark "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" (1962), Thomas Kuhn critically destabilized the verificationist program, which was presumed to call for foundationalism. (But already in the 1930s, Otto Neurath had argued for nonfoundationalism via coherentism by likening science to a boat (Neurath's boat) that scientists must rebuild at sea.) Although Kuhn's thesis itself was attacked even by opponents of neopositivism, in the 1970 postscript to "Structure", Kuhn asserted, at least, that there was no algorithm to science—and, on that, even most of Kuhn's critics agreed.


title: Logical positivism

text: Powerful and persuasive, Kuhn's book, unlike the vocabulary and symbols of logic's formal language, was written in natural language open to the layperson. Kuhn's book was first published in a volume of "International Encyclopedia of Unified Science"—a project begun by logical positivists but co-edited by Neurath whose view of science was already nonfoundationalist as mentioned above—and some sense unified science, indeed, but by bringing it into the realm of historical and social assessment, rather than fitting it to the model of physics. Kuhn's ideas were rapidly adopted by scholars in disciplines well outside natural sciences, and, as logical empiricists were extremely influential in the social sciences, ushered academia into postpositivism or postempiricism.


title: Logical positivism

text: The "received view" operates on the "correspondence rule" that states, "The observational terms are taken as referring to specified phenomena or phenomenal properties, and the only interpretation given to the theoretical terms is their explicit definition provided by the correspondence rules". According to Hilary Putnam, a former student of Reichenbach and of Carnap, the dichotomy of observational terms versus theoretical terms introduced a problem within scientific discussion that was nonexistent until this dichotomy was stated by logical positivists. Putnam's four objections:


title: Logical positivism

text: Putnam also alleged that positivism was actually a form of metaphysical idealism by its rejecting scientific theory's ability to garner knowledge about nature's unobservable aspects. With his "no miracles" argument, posed in 1974, Putnam asserted scientific realism, the stance that science achieves true—or approximately true—knowledge of the world as it exists independently of humans' sensory experience. In this, Putnam opposed not only the positivism but other instrumentalism—whereby scientific theory is but a human tool to predict human observations—filling the void left by positivism's decline.


title: Logical positivism

text: By the late 1960s, logical positivism had become exhausted. In 1976, A. J. Ayer quipped that "the most important" defect of logical positivism "was that nearly all of it was false", though he maintained "it was true in spirit." Although logical positivism tends to be recalled as a pillar of scientism, Carl Hempel was key in establishing the philosophy subdiscipline philosophy of science where Thomas Kuhn and Karl Popper brought in the era of postpositivism. John Passmore found logical positivism to be "dead, or as dead as a philosophical movement ever becomes".


title: Logical positivism

text: Logical positivism's fall reopened debate over the metaphysical merit of scientific theory, whether it can offer knowledge of the world beyond human experience (scientific realism) versus whether it is but a human tool to predict human experience (instrumentalism). Meanwhile, it became popular among philosophers to rehash the faults and failures of logical positivism without investigation of them. Thereby, logical positivism has been generally misrepresented, sometimes severely. Arguing for their own views, often framed versus logical positivism, many philosophers have reduced logical positivism to simplisms and stereotypes, especially the notion of logical positivism as a type of foundationalism. In any event, the movement helped anchor analytic philosophy in the English-speaking world, and returned Britain to empiricism. Without the logical positivists, who have been tremendously influential outside philosophy, especially in psychology and other social sciences, intellectual life of the 20th century would be unrecognizable.


title: Blue moon

text: A blue moon is an additional full moon that appears in a subdivision of a year: the third of four full moons in a season.


title: Blue moon

text: The phrase in modern usage has nothing to do with the actual color of the Moon, although a visually blue Moon (the Moon appearing with a bluish tinge) may occur under certain atmospheric conditions—for instance, if volcanic eruptions or fires release particles in the atmosphere of just the right size to preferentially scatter red light.


title: Blue moon

text: The term has traditionally, in the "Maine Farmer's Almanac", referred to an "extra" full moon, where a year which usually has 12 full moons has 13 instead. The "blue moon" reference is applied to the third full moon in a season with four full moons, thus correcting the timing of the last month of a season that would have otherwise been expected too early. This happens every two to three years (seven times in the Metonic cycle of 19 years). The author of a March 1946 article in "Sky & Telescope" attempted to decipher the traditional practice of the editors of the "Maine Farmers' Almanac" by examining old issues of the almanac. Without enough almanacs to see the correct pattern, he conjectured the wrong rule for 'blue moons', which led to the modern colloquial misunderstanding that a blue moon is a second full moon in a single solar calendar month, with no link to the order it occurs in a season. The phrase "once in a blue moon" is also used idiomatically, which means once after a long time. An example in a sentence: "My sister lives in Alaska, so I only see her once in a blue moon."


title: Blue moon

text: Owing to the rarity of a blue moon, the term "blue moon" is used colloquially to mean a rare event, as in the phrase "once in a blue moon".


title: Blue moon

text: One lunation (an average lunar cycle) is 29.53 days. There are about 365.24 days in a tropical year. Therefore, about 12.37 lunations (365.24 days divided by 29.53 days) occur in a tropical year. In the widely used Gregorian calendar, there are 12 months (the word "month" is derived from "moon") in a year, and normally there is one full moon each month, with the date of the full moon falling back by nearly one day every calendar month. Each calendar year contains roughly 11 days more than the number of days in 12 lunar cycles. The extra days accumulate, so every two or three years (seven times in the 19 year Metonic cycle), there is an extra full moon in the year. The extra full moon necessarily falls in one of the four seasons, giving that season four full moons instead of the usual three, and, hence, a "blue" moon.


title: Blue moon

text: The earliest recorded English usage of the term "blue moon" is found in an anti-clerical pamphlet (attacking the Roman clergy, and Cardinal Thomas Wolsey in particular) by two converted Greenwich friars, William Roy and Jerome Barlow, published in 1528 under the title "Rede me and be not wrothe, for I say no thynge but trothe".


title: Blue moon

text: It is not clear from the context that this refers to intercalation; the context of the passage is a dialogue between two priest's servants, spoken by the character "Jeffrey" ("a brefe dialoge betwene two preste's servauntis, named Watkyn and Ieffraye"). The intention may simply be that Jeffrey makes an absurd statement, "the moon is blue", to make the point that priests require laymen to believe in statements even if they are patently false.


title: Blue moon

text: In 2007, Joe Rao, Skywatching Columnist at Space.com, stated that many years previously he had speculated in "Natural History" magazine that the "Blue Moon Rule" might derive from "belewe", which he described as an Old English word meaning 'to betray', because the extra full moon "betrays the usual perception of one full moon per month." He then added that his speculation had been "innovative", but "completely wrong". In 2009, a less detailed version of this speculation was mentioned in Farmers' Almanac.


title: Blue moon

text: In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the "Maine Farmers' Almanac" listed blue moon dates for farmers. These correspond to the third full moon in a quarter of the year when there were four full moons (normally a quarter year has three full moons). Full moon names were given to each lunation in a season. The seasons used were those of the mean tropical year, equal in length, as opposed to the astronomical seasons which vary in length because the earth's speed in its orbit round the sun is not uniform.


title: Blue moon

text: To compare, in 1983 the equal seasons began at 1.48 AM on 23 March, 9.15 AM on 22 June, 4.42 PM on 21 September and 12.10 AM on 22 December, while the astronomical seasons began at 4.39 AM on 21 March, 11.09 PM on 21 June, 2.42 PM on 23 September and 10.30 AM on 22 December (all times GMT). When a season has four full moons the third is called the "blue moon" so that the last can continue to be called with the proper name for that season.


title: Blue moon

text: The March 1946 "Sky and Telescope" article "Once in a Blue Moon" by James Hugh Pruett misinterpreted the 1937 "Maine Farmers' Almanac". "Seven times in 19 years there were—and still are—13 full moons in a year. This gives 11 months with one full moon each and one with two. This second in a month, so I interpret it, was called Blue Moon." Widespread adoption of the definition of a "blue moon" as the second full moon in a month followed its use on the popular radio program "StarDate" on January 31, 1980 and in a question in the "Trivial Pursuit" game in 1986.


title: Blue moon

text: The most literal meaning of "blue moon" is when the moon (not necessarily a full moon) appears to a casual observer to be unusually bluish, which is a rare event. The effect can be caused by smoke or dust particles in the atmosphere, as has happened after forest fires in Sweden and Canada in 1950 and 1951, and after the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883, which caused the moon to appear blue for nearly two years. Other less potent volcanoes have also turned the moon blue. People saw blue moons in 1983 after the eruption of the El Chichón volcano in Mexico, and there are reports of blue moons caused by Mount St. Helens in 1980 and Mount Pinatubo in 1991. In the Antarctic diary of Robert Falcon Scott for July 11, 1911 his entry says, "... the air thick with snow, and the moon a vague blue".


title: Blue moon

text: On September 23, 1950, several muskeg fires that had been smoldering for several years in Alberta, Canada, suddenly blew up into major—and very smoky—fires. Winds carried the smoke eastward and southward with unusual speed, and the conditions of the fire produced large quantities of oily droplets of just the right size (about 1micrometre in diameter) to scatter red and yellow light. Wherever the smoke cleared enough so that the sun was visible, it was lavender or blue. Ontario, Canada, and much of the east coast of the United States were affected by the following day, and two days later, observers in Britain reported an indigo sun in smoke-dimmed skies, followed by an equally blue moon that evening.


title: Blue moon

text: The key to a blue moon is having many particles slightly wider than the wavelength of red light (0.7 micrometer)—and no other sizes present. It is rare, but volcanoes sometimes produce such clouds, as do forest fires. Ash and dust clouds thrown into the atmosphere by fires and storms usually contain a mixture of particles with a wide range of sizes, with most smaller than 1 micrometer, and they tend to scatter blue light. This kind of cloud makes the moon turn red; thus red moons are far more common than blue moons.


title: Blue moon

text: The following blue moons occur between 2009 and 2021. These dates use UTC as the time zone; exact dates vary with different time zones.


title: Blue moon

text: Using the "Maine Farmers' Almanac" definition of blue moon (meaning the third full moon in a season of four full moons, but referenced to astronomical rather than equal seasons), blue moons have occurred on:


title: Blue moon

text: Unlike the astronomical seasonal definition, these dates are dependent on the Gregorian calendar and time zones. These blue moons cannot occur in February.


title: Blue moon

text: A blue moon can occur in January and the following March if there is no full moon at all in February, as is the case in the years 1999, 2018, and 2037.


title: Blue moon

text: The next time New Year's Eve falls on a Blue Moon (as occurred on December 31, 2009 in time zones west of UTC+05) is after one Metonic cycle, in 2028 in time zones west of UTC+08. At that time there will be a total lunar eclipse.


title: NP (complexity)

text: In computational complexity theory, NP (nondeterministic polynomial time) is a complexity class used to classify decision problems. NP is the set of decision problems for which the problem instances, where the answer is "yes", have proofs verifiable in polynomial time by a deterministic Turing machine, or alternatively the set of problems that can be solved in polynomial time by a nondeterministic Turing machine.


title: NP (complexity)

text: An equivalent definition of NP is the set of decision problems "solvable" in polynomial time by a nondeterministic Turing machine. This definition is the basis for the abbreviation NP; "nondeterministic, polynomial time". These two definitions are equivalent because the algorithm based on the Turing machine consists of two phases, the first of which consists of a guess about the solution, which is generated in a nondeterministic way, while the second phase consists of a deterministic algorithm that verifies whether the guess is a solution to the problem.


title: NP (complexity)

text: It is easy to see that the complexity class P (all problems solvable, deterministically, in polynomial time) is contained in NP (problems where solutions can be verified in polynomial time), because if a problem is solvable in polynomial time, then a solution is also verifiable in polynomial time by simply solving the problem. But NP contains many more problems, the hardest of which are called NP-complete problems. An algorithm solving such a problem in polynomial time is also able to solve any other NP problem in polynomial time. The most important P versus NP (“P = NP?”) problem, asks whether polynomial-time algorithms exist for solving NP-complete, and by corollary, all NP problems. It is widely believed that this is not the case.


title: NP (complexity)

text: The complexity class NP is related to the complexity class co-NP, for which the answer "no" can be verified in polynomial time. Whether or not is another outstanding question in complexity theory.


title: NP (complexity)

text: where formula_2 is the set of decision problems that can be solved by a nondeterministic Turing machine in formula_3 time.


title: NP (complexity)

text: Alternatively, NP can be defined using deterministic Turing machines as verifiers. A language "L" is in NP if and only if there exist polynomials "p" and "q", and a deterministic Turing machine "M", such that


title: NP (complexity)

text: Many computer science problems are contained in NP, like decision versions of many search and optimization problems.


title: NP (complexity)

text: Assume that we are given some integers, {−7, −3, −2, 5, 8}, and we wish to know whether some of these integers sum up to zero. Here the answer is "yes", since the integers {−3, −2, 5} corresponds to the sum


title: NP (complexity)

text: To answer whether some of the integers add to zero we can create an algorithm that obtains all the possible subsets. As the number of integers that we feed into the algorithm becomes larger, both the number of subsets and the computation time grows exponentially.


title: NP (complexity)

text: But notice that if we are given a particular subset, we can "efficiently verify" whether the subset sum is zero, by summing the integers of the subset. If the sum is zero, that subset is a "proof" or witness for the answer is "yes". An algorithm that verifies whether a given subset has sum zero is a "verifier". Clearly, summing the integers of a subset can be done in polynomial time, and the subset sum problem is therefore in NP.


title: NP (complexity)

text: The above example can be generalized for any decision problem. Given any instance I of problem formula_4 and witness W, if there exists a "verifier" V so that given the ordered pair (I, W) as input, V returns "yes" in polynomial time if the witness proves that the answer is "yes" or "no" in polynomial time otherwise, then formula_4 is in NP.


title: NP (complexity)

text: The "no"-answer version of this problem is stated as: "given a finite set of integers, does every non-empty subset have a nonzero sum?". The verifier-based definition of NP does "not" require an efficient verifier for the "no"-answers. The class of problems with such verifiers for the "no"-answers is called co-NP. In fact, it is an open question whether all problems in NP also have verifiers for the "no"-answers and thus are in co-NP.


title: NP (complexity)

text: Equivalent to the verifier-based definition is the following characterization: NP is the class of decision problems solvable by a nondeterministic Turing machine that runs in polynomial time. That is to say, a decision problem formula_4 is in NP whenever formula_4 is recognized by some polynomial-time nondeterministic Turing machine formula_8 with an existential acceptance condition, meaning that formula_9 if and only if some computation path of formula_10 leads to an accepting state. This definition is equivalent to the verifier-based definition because a nondeterministic Turing machine could solve an NP problem in polynomial time by nondeterministically selecting a certificate and running the verifier on the certificate. Similarly, if such a machine exists, then a polynomial time verifier can naturally be constructed from it.


title: NP (complexity)

text: In this light, we can define co-NP dually as the class of decision problems recognizable by polynomial-time nondeterministic Turing machines with an existential rejection condition. Since an existential rejection condition is exactly the same thing as a universal acceptance condition, we can understand the "NP vs. co-NP" question as asking whether the existential and universal acceptance conditions have the same expressive power for the class of polynomial-time nondeterministic Turing machines.


title: NP (complexity)

text: NP is closed under union, intersection, concatenation, Kleene star and reversal. It is not known whether NP is closed under complement (this question is the so-called "NP versus co-NP" question).


title: NP (complexity)

text: Because of the many important problems in this class, there have been extensive efforts to find polynomial-time algorithms for problems in NP. However, there remain a large number of problems in NP that defy such attempts, seeming to require super-polynomial time. Whether these problems are not decidable in polynomial time is one of the greatest open questions in computer science (see P versus NP ("P = NP") problem for an in-depth discussion).


title: NP (complexity)

text: An important notion in this context is the set of NP-complete decision problems, which is a subset of NP and might be informally described as the "hardest" problems in NP. If there is a polynomial-time algorithm for even "one" of them, then there is a polynomial-time algorithm for "all" the problems in NP. Because of this, and because dedicated research has failed to find a polynomial algorithm for any NP-complete problem, once a problem has been proven to be NP-complete, this is widely regarded as a sign that a polynomial algorithm for this problem is unlikely to exist.


title: NP (complexity)

text: However, in practical uses, instead of spending computational resources looking for an optimal solution, a good enough (but potentially suboptimal) solution may often be found in polynomial time. Also, the real-life applications of some problems are easier than their theoretical equivalents.


title: NP (complexity)

text: The two definitions of NP as the class of problems solvable by a nondeterministic Turing machine (TM) in polynomial time and the class of problems verifiable by a deterministic Turing machine in polynomial time are equivalent. The proof is described by many textbooks, for example, Sipser's "Introduction to the Theory of Computation", section 7.3.


title: NP (complexity)

text: To show this, first, suppose we have a deterministic verifier. A non-deterministic machine can simply nondeterministically run the verifier on all possible proof strings (this requires only polynomially many steps because it can nondeterministically choose the next character in the proof string in each step, and the length of the proof string must be polynomially bounded). If any proof is valid, some path will accept; if no proof is valid, the string is not in the language and it will reject.


title: NP (complexity)

text: Conversely, suppose we have a non-deterministic TM called A accepting a given language L. At each of its polynomially many steps, the machine's computation tree branches in at most a finite number of directions. There must be at least one accepting path, and the string describing this path is the proof supplied to the verifier. The verifier can then deterministically simulate A, following only the accepting path, and verifying that it accepts at the end. If A rejects the input, there is no accepting path, and the verifier will always reject.


title: NP (complexity)

text: NP contains all problems in P, since one can verify any instance of the problem by simply ignoring the proof and solving it. NP is contained in PSPACE—to show this, it suffices to construct a PSPACE machine that loops over all proof strings and feeds each one to a polynomial-time verifier. Since a polynomial-time machine can only read polynomially many bits, it cannot use more than polynomial space, nor can it read a proof string occupying more than polynomial space (so we do not have to consider proofs longer than this). NP is also contained in EXPTIME, since the same algorithm operates in exponential time.


title: NP (complexity)

text: co-NP contains those problems that have a simple proof for "no" instances, sometimes called counterexamples. For example, primality testing trivially lies in co-NP, since one can refute the primality of an integer by merely supplying a nontrivial factor. NP and co-NP together form the first level in the polynomial hierarchy, higher only than P.


title: NP (complexity)

text: NP is defined using only deterministic machines. If we permit the verifier to be probabilistic (this, however, is not necessarily a BPP machine), we get the class MA solvable using an Arthur–Merlin protocol with no communication from Arthur to Merlin.


title: NP (complexity)

text: The only known strict inclusions come from the time hierarchy theorem and the space hierarchy theorem, and respectively they are formula_11 and formula_12.


title: NP (complexity)

text: In terms of descriptive complexity theory, NP corresponds precisely to the set of languages definable by existential second-order logic (Fagin's theorem).


title: NP (complexity)

text: NP can be seen as a very simple type of interactive proof system, where the prover comes up with the proof certificate and the verifier is a deterministic polynomial-time machine that checks it. It is complete because the right proof string will make it accept if there is one, and it is sound because the verifier cannot accept if there is no acceptable proof string.


title: NP (complexity)

text: A major result of complexity theory is that NP can be characterized as the problems solvable by probabilistically checkable proofs where the verifier uses O(log "n") random bits and examines only a constant number of bits of the proof string (the class PCP(log "n", 1)). More informally, this means that the NP verifier described above can be replaced with one that just "spot-checks" a few places in the proof string, and using a limited number of coin flips can determine the correct answer with high probability. This allows several results about the hardness of approximation algorithms to be proven.


title: NP (complexity)

text: All problems in P, denoted formula_13. Given a certificate for a problem in P, we can ignore the certificate and just solve the problem in polynomial time.


title: NP (complexity)

text: The decision version of the travelling salesman problem is in NP. Given an input matrix of distances between "n" cities, the problem is to determine if there is a route visiting all cities with total distance less than "k".


title: NP (complexity)

text: A proof can simply be a list of the cities. Then verification can clearly be done in polynomial time. It simply adds the matrix entries corresponding to the paths between the cities.


title: NP (complexity)

text: One can think of each guess as "forking" a new copy of the Turing machine to follow each of the possible paths forward, and if at least one machine finds a route of distance less than "k", that machine accepts the input. (Equivalently, this can be thought of as a single Turing machine that always guesses correctly)


title: NP (complexity)

text: A binary search on the range of possible distances can convert the decision version of Traveling Salesman to the optimization version, by calling the decision version repeatedly (a polynomial number of times).


title: NP (complexity)

text: The decision problem version of the integer factorization problem: given integers "n" and "k", is there a factor "f" with 1 < "f" < "k" and "f" dividing "n"?


title: NP (complexity)

text: The Subgraph isomorphism problem of determining whether graph contains a subgraph that is isomorphic to graph .


title: NP (complexity)

text: The boolean satisfiability problem, where we want to know whether or not a certain formula in propositional logic with boolean variables is true for some value of the variables.


title: The Tubes

text: The Tubes are a San Francisco-based rock band. Their eponymous 1975 debut album included the single "White Punks on Dope," while their 1983 single "She's a Beauty" was a top-10 U.S. hit and its music video was frequently played in the early days of MTV. The band also performed in the 1980 film "Xanadu", singing the rock portion of the cross-genre song "Dancin'" opposite a big band.


title: The Tubes

text: The Tubes formed on March 22, 1972, in San Francisco, California, featuring members from two Phoenix, Arizona bands who had relocated to San Francisco in 1969. One, The Beans, included Bill Spooner, Rick Anderson, Vince Welnick and Bob McIntosh. The other, the Red White and Blues Band, featured Prairie Prince, Roger Steen, and David Killingsworth. After performing at Expo '70 in Japan, Killingsworth left the Red, White and Blues Band, leaving Steen and Prince to audition new bass players, albeit unsuccessfully. Before moving to San Francisco the Beans had been a local favorite in Phoenix, selling out shows with a tongue-in-cheek concept rock show called "The Mother of Ascension" featuring costumes and props. After moving, Bill Spooner worked at the Fillmore West concert hall sweeping floors in between Beans shows at the Longshoremen's Hall and other minor venues. The band's loud, heavy jamming style did not attract much attention, and the band needed to go back home to Phoenix. There they would sell out shows, which provided enough money to pay their rent. The Beans' manager and former Alice Cooper Group drummer, John Speer, suggested they add Prince and Steen along with their roadie John Waybill to one of these shows. Waybill's nickname among the band was "Fee," short for "Fiji," thanks to his copious head of hippie hair.


title: The Tubes

text: "The Radar Men from Uranus" played the Celebrity Theatre in Phoenix, as well as a show in Mexico where they were run out of town by the police (it was where Rick Anderson almost drowned after he was washed out to sea while swimming). The group would stick together and play shows at biker bars such as The Inn of The Beginning in Cotati CA. The vocals at this time were shared by Spooner, Steen and Waybill as different characters. Prairie Prince and Phoenix high school friend Michael Cotten were attending art school at the San Francisco Art Institute at this time; they attracted local press attention by painting a mural of crashing waves on the side of the Cliff House Restaurant. Cotten was asked by Spooner to buy an ARP synthesizer instead of a film camera and began to perform with the band as well as create props and costumes.


title: The Tubes

text: One of the first Tubes shows was at the Art Institute cafeteria as part of an art show for classmate and future Hollywood director Kathryn Bigelow. While experimenting with their stage show and art, Prince and Cotten met model Re Styles while painting the Cliff House Mural. Styles had been born Shirley Marie Macleod on March 30, 1950, in Middelburg, Netherlands. She had appeared in both Alejandro Jodorowsky's "The Holy Mountain" and Sun Ra's "Space Is the Place" and posed for "Playboy" and "Penthouse" magazines. By 1975 she was credited with clothing design and dance co-ordination for the band. Onstage she would play Patty Hearst and dress in wild leather outfits during the "Mondo Bondage" dance with Waybill. By 1979, she and Prince were married.


title: The Tubes

text: After several years of playing biker bars, the band needed help. They had a temporary agreement with producer David Rubinson and played on bills with The Pointer Sisters and Sylvester, but were still trying to find an audience. Prince had been hired by newly formed fusion rock band Journey to record demos, and approached their manager Herbie Herbert, a former Santana roadie and Bill Graham employee. Herbert made a deal with Graham that if the Tubes could sell out three local shows, Graham would give him an opening slot on the show of his choice.


title: The Tubes

text: Herbert booked shows at a local club called the Village, which sold out thanks to themes inspired by the San Francisco post-hippie underground culture such as "The Streaker's Ball" and "Mondo Bondage." Much to Graham's dismay, Herbert chose an opening slot for the upcoming Led Zeppelin show at Kezar Stadium. The band pulled out the stops, including Waybill dressed as an early version of "Quay Lewd" throwing "Cocaine" (flour) and "Pills" (candy) at the crowd, who threw it back. Graham threatened Herbert that the band would never play in San Francisco again but calmed down and eventually fell in love with the band, booking them at Winterland and other California venues for New Year's shows and Halloween. After the 1973 Led Zeppelin show, Herbert wanted to manage the band, but Spooner and the group went with local management team Mort Moriarty and Gary Peterson, also known as "Bag O' Bucks." Moriarty was interested in the use of video in rock music and saw the Tubes' stage show as the future of music videos. Bob McIntosh died of cancer at this time, leaving Prince as the only drummer.


title: The Tubes

text: In 1974, Bag O' Bucks filmed a Tubes show at the California Hall and shopped the "video demo" around Los Angeles. George Daly, Columbia Records head of A&R in San Francisco, made some Tubes demos, but CBS' corporate headquarters in New York City would not agree to signing the Tubes to Columbia due to the radical nature of their art. After 18 months, with no success at his own label, Daly, at the suggestion of Rick Wakeman, finally pitched the group to competitor A&M Records, where his former Columbia East Coast A&R colleague and friend, Kip Cohen, had recently headed the A&R division. Daly personally flew managers Moriarity and Petersen down to LA, and Cohen signed the Tubes to A&M, a rare example of cross-company support by major label executives. Working with lawyer Greg Fischbach, the band signed with A&M Records.


title: The Tubes

text: The Tubes' first album, "The Tubes" (1975), was produced by Al Kooper. The track "White Punks on Dope" was an "absurd anthem of wretched excess" and ridiculed the Hollywood kids of the rich and famous. Since then the song has been covered by Mötley Crüe, and the German rock musician Nina Hagen took the tune and set new lyrics to it (not a translation of the original lyrics), titled her work "TV-Glotzer" ("Couch Potato"), using this song as the opening track of her own debut album "Nina Hagen Band" (1978). The album track "What Do You Want from Life?," which became another of the Tubes' signature songs, satirizes consumerism and celebrity culture and climaxes in a monologue by Waybill who, in a rapid game show announcer's patter, name-checks celebrities such as Bob Dylan, Paul Williams and Randolph Mantooth, as well as well-known products of the period, including the Dynagym exercise machine and a host of American vehicles such as "...a herd of Winnebagos" and a "Mercury Montclair..." as part of a list of things that, "if you're an American citizen, you are entitled to(,)" culminating in "a baby's arm holding an apple."


title: The Tubes

text: By late 1975, the band created a stage show unlike any other after hiring Kenny Ortega to direct and choreograph, comedian Jane Dornacker and her band "Leila and the Snakes," and event support/video pioneer T.J. McHose to run a live video feed with films for each song. The show was critically acclaimed and broke them into show business in Los Angeles during sold-out runs at the Roxy Theater, David Allen's Boarding House and Bimbo's in San Francisco, as well as The Bottom Line in New York City. Compared at the time to "The Rocky Horror Picture Show", the Tubes' stage show was closer to "Saturday Night Live" with its mix of topical satire and subversive postmodern Andy Kaufman-like routines such as Waybill beating up a couple in the front row (who were planted) during the "Crime Medley," then taking off his disguise as the band launched into "Mondo Bondage" and a huge stack of "Kill Amplifiers" (cardboard) falling on Quay Lewd during the finale of "White Punks on Dope."


title: The Tubes

text: The band was part of the mid-'70s underground comedy scene that included The Credibility Gap, Firesign Theater, Ace Trucking Company, Kentucky Fried Theater, Groundlings, Ken Shapiro's Channel One Video Theatre and National Lampoon. The L.A. Connection Comedy Theatre performed during the Tubes show intermission many times. In 1975, the Tubes were offered a spot on "Saturday Night Live with Howard Cosell" and "NBC's Saturday Night", but manager Mort Moriarty wanted the band to be able to play several songs in a row to show off how tight their transitions were; both shows declined, and without major network TV appearances, the Tubes missed out on huge TV exposure, cementing their "cult" status until the early 1980s. The band's touring crew was up to 24 people at this point, making it hard to tour for the standard weeks on end most bands of the era were committing to build a fan base.


title: The Tubes

text: The Tubes' second album, "Young and Rich" (1976) on A&M Records, was produced by Ken Scott. It featured "Don't Touch Me There," a suggestive duet between Waybill and Styles, which was arranged in classic "Wall of Sound" style by Jack Nitzsche. The song was co-written by Ron Nagle and Tubes dancer/vocalist Jane Dornacker.


title: The Tubes

text: The band toured America with a new stage show including new numbers "Slipped My Disco," "Madam, I'm Adam" and "Pimp." They also played several sold out nights at The Shrine in Los Angeles and Bimbo's in San Francisco. Mingo Lewis joined the band after performing several shows with them at Bimbos.


title: The Tubes

text: The Tubes' third album "Now" (1977) was an attempt to write less satirical songs with the band sharing song writing duties with Bill Spooner. It was recorded while the band was playing a special engagement on weekends at The Whisky in Los Angeles. They played a small American tour of the west coast and a month-long run at San Francisco's Palace of Fine Arts featuring the band's most elaborate stage show to date. The band had met manager Rikki Farr at a show opening for Alice Cooper. Farr fell in love with the band's stage show and agreed to manage them after they sued Bag O' Bucks to get out of their contract. He used his fame in England to promote them as "America's Answer to Punk."


title: The Tubes

text: The band created a new "best of" stage show and finally played a tour of Europe. They were banned in several towns and attracted front page press attention for their dark satirical stage show that spoofed America's consumer culture with dancers, video and sketches. They appeared on "The Old Grey Whistle Test" and played "God-Bird-Change" and "White Punks on Dope."


title: The Tubes

text: After their live record "What Do You Want from Live" (1978), recorded during their record-breaking run at the Hammersmith Odeon, London, England, the band toured America and played a sold-out run at The Pantages Theater in Hollywood, which attracted celebrities such as the cast of "Laverne and Shirley", Cher, Kate Jackson and Gene Simmons. The stage show had reached new levels of lewdness with Quay Lewd's large dildo hanging out of his costume and a fake bomb threat number called "The Terrorists of Rock," which caused Cher to flee the theater, believing the threat was real. She later asked the band to appear in her next TV special "Cher...Special". The band returned to Europe to follow up their big splash but it was cancelled after Waybill fell off stage and broke his leg. The band returned and played the dates in the fall before headlining the Knebworth Rock Festival with Frank Zappa, Peter Gabriel and Boomtown Rats.


title: The Tubes

text: The fourth album for A&M, "Remote Control" (1979) was a concept album produced by Todd Rundgren, about a television-addicted idiot-savant, inspired by the Jerzy Kosinski novel "Being There" (which was later made into a movie starring Peter Sellers). The cover of "Remote Control" (1979) shows a baby (Rikki Farr's son) in a specially made "Vidi-Trainer" (a car seat/TV with a baby bottle nipple) created by Michael Cotten and Dave Mellot. Much of the new music was rewritten by Rundgren and the band in studio, including "Turn Me On" (formerly "Get Over It"); "The Terrorists of Rock" number was cannibalized to become "Telecide."


title: The Tubes

text: Waybill and Re Styles shared vocals on "Prime Time," although Rundgren had tried to record a version with just Styles. When Waybill found out, he demanded to sing as well. The band performed the song on "Top of the Pops" and on tour in Europe before cutting it from the set, due to tensions between Waybill and Styles.


title: The Tubes

text: Synth player and visual stylist Michael Cotten designed an innovative multimedia stage show for the "Remote Control" tour, which employed multiple TV monitors and a 35mm film projector, which according to Cotten, cost US$12,000 (equivalent to around $50,000 in 2022). They tested it (with no dress rehearsal) at UCLA's Royce Hall, but there were multiple technical problems, including the poor visibility of the small TV screens, and synchronisation problems with the film projections. The show was scrapped after Steen, Waybill and the group's management reportedly complained about the cost, and the show overtaking the music. This led to a stripped-down tour in the U.S, Japan and Europe with Squeeze as the support act. The band also played two shows at the Greek Theatre in Los Angeles, with Yellow Magic Orchestra as support; that show was released on home video in 1982. The band held an auction of Tubes stage props and costumes in 1980 at the Boarding House before the band attempted to play as a straight rock act for several sold-out shows at The Roxy in Los Angeles.


title: The Tubes

text: John Tobler said that with their media savvy and theatrical skills, the Tubes were born to create rock video but arrived several years too early. However, the band did produce at least one collection of music videos, which were issued on the 1982 RCA Capacitance Electronic Disc and Pioneer Laserdisc "The Tubes Video", containing versions of twelve of the band's hits, including "White Punks on Dope," "Mondo Bondage," "Talk to Ya Later," and most of "The Completion Backward Principle" album, in slickly produced music videos based on the group's stage shows. It was directed by Russell Mulcahy and filmed at Shepperton Studios.


title: The Tubes

text: The Tubes put their creativity and art skills mainly into their live performances, in which songs could be full-fledged production numbers with props and costumes built at the Tubes Warehouse by the band, crew and friends. Everything was satirized, from a beach movie parody for "Sushi Girl," to leather clad S&M hijinks in "Mondo Bondage," to the game show antics of "What Do You Want from Life?" At their peak, their live act featured dozens of other performers, including tap dancers and acrobats. The Tubes' stage productions were choreographed by Kenny Ortega and featured cast members Jane Dornacker, LeRoy Jones, Michael Holman, Michael Springer, Cindi Osborn, Heline Gouax, and Mary Niland from 1975 to 1977.


title: The Tubes

text: From 1978 to 1979, the cast included Sharon Collins, Caty Bevan, and Loryanna Catalano. The "Completion Backward" tour featured Shelly Pang, Cheryl Hangland, Joey Richards, and Cynthia Rhodes. From 1983 to 1985, Michele Gray (who later married Todd Rundgren) and Cheryl Hangland were principal dancers. Several crew members — including Tour Manager Steve "Chopper" Borges, Lee Collins, and Gail Lowe — made frequent appearances on stage in various roles as well.


title: The Tubes

text: The Tubes' live shows in the late 1970s and early 1980s were rife with allusions to mainstream film: "Dr. Strangelove" (1964), "Rollerball" (1975), "Saturday Night Fever" (1977), "Grease" (1978)] then-forgotten B-movies ["Wild Women of Wongo" (1958), "Attack of the 50 Foot Woman" (1958)], music (Tom Jones, punk rock, a medley of Nelson Riddle television themes), contemporary pop culture (Patty Hearst, the Viking program), television ("Let's Make a Deal", "Fernwood 2Nite", the anime "Raideen"), and literature (Nelson Algren's "A Walk on the Wild Side").


title: The Tubes

text: These shows were expensive to produce, however, and while they earned the band a reputation for being one of the most entertaining live acts of the time, by the early 1980s, they'd left the band in debt to A&M Records, even after they'd sold their song rights for tour support.


title: The Tubes

text: The band's fifth studio album, the self-produced "Suffer for Sound", was meant to complete the group's contract with A&M. The recession had affected the music industry, and many other bands were cut from A&M at the end of the 1970s. The band owed A&M a large amount of money and after playing the new record for Jerry Moss, Rikki Farr insulted Moss' taste in music to ensure that the band was let go and able to sign with a new label. Tubes friend Matt Leach compiled the outtakes, B-sides, and oddities selection "T.R.A.S.H. (Tubes Rarities and Smash Hits)" (1981). The band was signed to Capitol Records by Bruce Garfield and Bobby Colomby, toning down the X-rated sketches for the live shows and redesigning itself as a leaner ensemble with a view to release more accessible hits. The band worked with Bobby Colomby to find a new musical direction and then met with possible producers including Jeff "Skunk" Baxter before deciding on David Foster. The Tubes and David Foster recorded "Gonna Get it Next Time" for the soundtrack of Chevy Chase's "Modern Problems" directed by Ken Shapiro.


title: The Tubes

text: "The Completion Backward Principle" (1981) was engineered by Humberto Gatica and produced by David Foster (Earth, Wind and Fire). It featured the classic rock radio staple "Talk to Ya Later," written by Waybill, Foster and Toto guitarist Steve Lukather. The songwriting credits were shared again but included input from all members, including "Attack of the 50 Foot Woman" by Prince, "Think About Me" by Cotten, "Don't Want to Wait Anymore" by Vince Welnick and "Matter of Pride" by Steen. The album was a satire of Reagan's "Morning in America" corporate movement and included pictures of the band members cleaned up and wearing suits. The band also had their first Top 40 hit in the United States in 1981, "Don't Want to Wait Anymore," with vocals by Spooner. The band returned to the road in America and Europe with a new stage show designed by Cotten, Prince and Kenny Ortega, featuring new dancers including Cynthia Rhodes, who would leave soon after to star in "Flashdance" and "Staying Alive". Re Styles was said to have left the band: Waybill said at the time that she was "going on to a Hollywood movie career or something". Styles, Cotten and Prince played as the Boring Squares in San Francisco in 1980. The trio were also said to have played a show on Bora Bora in 1984.


title: The Tubes

text: While on tour in Italy the Tubes were forced off stage by local police with machine guns and they escaped the country with the promoter's money after he failed to deliver professional shows. The single "Sports Fans" was recorded live during halftime of the legendary San Francisco 49ers "The Catch" game; Tubes crew members can be seen on the side lines in the slow motion replay.


title: The Tubes

text: As the band gained more mainstream popularity, Waybill auditioned for roles in "Night Shift" and "Streets of Fire" and also appeared on "Late Night with David Letterman" twice.


title: The Tubes

text: "Outside Inside" (1983) was produced by David Foster and included the number 10 US hit "She's a Beauty." The album was recorded with several studio musicians, including members of Chicago and Toto. The slicker sound added to the tension between the "art" oriented members of the group (Cotton, Spooner and Prince) and the pop-music fans (Steen and Waybill). The band performed "The Monkey Time" on "Solid Gold", and toured the United States, mostly playing theme parks like Six Flags Magic Mountain and colleges for a new generation of fans. The band also filmed an hour-long concert special at the Kabuki Theatre in San Francisco which played on MTV and was directed by Jim Yukich. "She's a Beauty" won song of the year and The Tubes performed live at the "BAM" music awards.


title: The Tubes

text: In 1984, the band teamed up with Todd Rundgren again for their eighth album, "Love Bomb" (1985). Tired of spending money at other recording studios, the band built their own studio with Rundgren called "Cavum Soni" and XTC recorded several tracks for "Skylarking" there with Todd. Glen Tilbrook of Squeeze sings back up on "Night People." The entire recording process was video taped by a camera crew on Betamax. Bruce Garfield and Bobby Colomby were dropped by Capitol in the company-wide layoffs that took place pre-reorganization, and like many of their label mates, the Tubes were also released; however, this occurred just as they were going on tour in support of the album. The band found it necessary to self-finance the tour as a matter of respect to honor their commitment to their fans. Between this tour's self-financing and the band's continued self-financing of their San Francisco recording studio built in 1980, the tour left the band a half million dollars in debt, obliging them to play less expensive and smaller venues for a year to pay off their financial commitments. The Tubes also recorded several songs for movie soundtracks including "Hardbodies," "My Science Project", and "Heavenly Bodies". Bill Spooner also recorded a solo album titled "First Chud", released on The Residents' record label Ralph Records. Spooner's next solo project was "Mall to Mars", recorded with coproducer Jim Blake and featuring fellow Tubes member Prairie Prince on drums. The concept album was released on Visible Records, a label owned by long-time Tubes music publishing associate/copyright administrator Richard Kaye, and contains several cover versions including the "Theme from "Star Trek"", "Dimming of the Day", and "They Kicked Me Out of the Band" (that Bill claims is not true... he says, he actually quit the Tubes).


title: The Tubes

text: Waybill released a solo album produced by David Foster ("Read My Lips", Capitol Records) in 1984 and was on-camera talent for the 1985 MTV Video Awards. He also enjoyed a fruitful writing partnership with Capitol Records label mate Richard Marx, their most popular and well known collaboration being "Edge of a Broken Heart," recorded by the female band Vixen. Waybill left the Tubes in 1986.


title: The Tubes

text: Later in the year, the remaining members of the band hired longtime friend from Phoenix, Arizona, David Killingsworth, as lead vocalist. Killingsworth had been the singer in the Red and White Blues Band with Prince and Steen. The band appeared on "The Late Show Starring Joan Rivers" on Fox in 1987 and played "Talk to Ya Later," a new song called "No Baby's Gonna Break My Heart," and were also interviewed.


title: The Tubes

text: Michael Cotten relocated to New York City to pursue a career based on his artwork, stage design and production, and is considered one of the country's top production designers.


title: The Tubes

text: In the fall of 1988, Bill Spooner traveled his final tour with the band and left in early 1989. Vince Welnick departed as well to take to the road with Todd Rundgren in 1989 and then joined the Grateful Dead in 1990. Gary Cambra joined on keyboards and guitar in 1989. He and Roger Steen took over most of the lead vocal duties after Killingsworth left in early 1990.


title: The Tubes

text: In 1993, Fee Waybill rejoined the band. This lineup toured Europe and released two albums, a compilation and the 1996 album "Genius of America". David Medd joined in 1996 to play keyboards alongside Cambra. In 2001, the band released a live CD, "The Tubes World Tour 2001", and continued to tour.


title: The Tubes

text: The band has toured the United States each year with a line-up of Waybill, Steen, Anderson, Medd, Gary Cambra and Prince. Cambra left in 2006.


title: The Tubes

text: After a 2004 tour of the UK, the London show was released as a live album and DVD called "Wild in London".


title: The Tubes

text: In September 2007, the remaining members reunited in Phoenix for induction into the Arizona Music and Entertainment Hall Of Fame.


title: The Tubes

text: They toured the UK in 2009, and the UK and Europe in 2012. In July 2015, they started a 40th anniversary European tour, including dates in Germany, Sweden and the UK. Dates in the U.S. followed.


title: The Tubes

text: In 2017, they toured Europe as support for Alice Cooper, also playing some sole warm-up gigs in the UK.


title: The Tubes

text: On March 11. 2019, they announced a spring USA tour and will perform their "The Completion Backward Principle" album in its entirety.


title: The Tubes

text: Michael Cotten started the Tubes Project in 2005, to save and digitize the band's reel to reel and video tape archive. The collection had been kept in the closet of Tubes fan club president Marilyn Wood's son after being discarded in the late 1980s. Included in the vault are full color shows taped for TV at Bimbos in San Francisco, 1975 and Dutch VARA TV from the 1977 European tour. Over 70 interviews were conducted with band members, crew, managers, cast and colleagues such as Re Styles, Todd Rundgren, Al Kooper, Devo and David Foster. Hundreds of photos were scanned and compiled from band members and fan collections for use in the hour and half documentary.


title: The Tubes

text: After leaving the band, Jane Dornacker performed as stand-up comedian and later worked as a traffic reporter with the team that replaced Howard Stern at WNBC. She was killed in a helicopter crash in 1986, while giving a live report. A benefit show was held for her daughter at the Warfield in San Francisco with the Tubes and Todd Rundgren.