title: Haplogroup R1b

text: The age of R1 was estimated by Tatiana Karafet et al. (2008) at between 12,500 and 25,700 BP, and most probably occurred about 18,500 years ago. Since the earliest known example has been dated at circa 14,000 BP, and belongs to R1b1 (R-L754), R1b must have arisen relatively soon after the emergence of R1.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: R1b is a subclade within the "macro-haplogroup" K (M9), the most common group of human male lines outside of Africa. K is believed to have originated in Asia (as is the case with an even earlier ancestral haplogroup, F (F-M89). Karafet T. et al. (2014) "rapid diversification process of K-M526 likely occurred in Southeast Asia, with subsequent westward expansions of the ancestors of haplogroups R and Q".


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: Three genetic studies in 2015 gave support to the Kurgan hypothesis of Marija Gimbutas regarding the Proto-Indo-European homeland. According to those studies, haplogroups R1b-M269 and R1a, now the most common in Europe (R1a is also common in South Asia) would have expanded from the West Eurasian Steppe, along with the Indo-European languages; they also detected an autosomal component present in modern Europeans which was not present in Neolithic Europeans, which would have been introduced with paternal lineages R1b and R1a, as well as Indo-European languages.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: Analysis of ancient Y-DNA from the remains from early Neolithic Central and North European Linear Pottery culture settlements have not yet found males belonging to haplogroup R1b-M269. Olalde et al. (2017) trace the spread of haplogroup R1b-M269 in western Europe, particularly Britain, to the spread of the Beaker culture, with a sudden appearance of many R1b-M269 haplogroups in Western Europe ca. 5000–4500 years BP during the early Bronze Age. In the 2016 "Nature" article "The genetic history of Ice Age Europe".


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: The broader haplogroup R (M207) is a primary subclade of haplogroup P1 (M45) itself a primary branch of P (P295), which is also known as haplogroup K2b2. R-M207 is therefore a secondary branch of K2b (P331), and a direct descendant of K2 (M526).


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: There was "an initial rapid diversification" of K-M526, according to Karafet et al. (2014), which "likely occurred in Southeast Asia, with subsequent westward expansions of the ancestors of haplogroups R and Q".


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: Names such as R1b, R1b1 and so on are phylogenetic (i.e. "family tree") names which make clear their place within the branching of haplogroups, or the phylogenetic tree. An alternative way of naming the same haplogroups and subclades refers to their defining SNP mutations: for example, R-M343 is equivalent to R1b. Phylogenetic names change with new discoveries and SNP-based names are consequently reclassified within the phylogenetic tree. In some cases, an SNP is found to be unreliable as a defining mutation and an SNP-based name is removed completely. For example, before 2005, R1b was synonymous with R-P25, which was later reclassified as R1b1; in 2016, R-P25 was removed completely as a defining SNP, due to a significant rate of back-mutation. (Below is the basic outline of R1b according to the ISOGG Tree as it stood on January 30, 2017.)


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: No confirmed cases of R1b* (R-M343*) – that is R1b (xR1b1, R1b2), also known as R-M343 (xL754, PH155) – have been reported in peer-reviewed literature.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: In early research, because R-M269, R-M73 and R-V88 are by far the most common forms of R1b, examples of R1b (xM73, xM269) were sometimes assumed to signify basal examples of "R1b*". However, while the paragroup R-M343 (xM73, M269, V88) is rare, it does not preclude membership of rare and/or subsequently-discovered, relatively basal subclades of R1b, such as R-L278* (R1b*), R-L389* (R1b1a*), R-P297* (R1b1a1*), R-V1636 (R1b1a2) or R-PH155 (R1b2).


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: The population believed to have the highest proportion of R-M343 (xM73, M269, V88) are the Kurds of southeastern Kazakhstan with 13%. However, more recently, a large study of Y-chromosome variation in Iran, revealed R-M343 (xV88, M73, M269) as high as 4.3% among Iranian sub-populations.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: It remains a possibility that some, or even most of these cases, may be R-L278* (R1b*), R-L389* (R1b1a*), R-P297* (R1b1a1*), R-V1636 (R1b1a2), R-PH155 (R1b2), R1b* (R-M343*), R1a* (R-M420*), an otherwise undocumented branch of R1 (R-M173), and/or back-mutations of a marker, from a positive to a negative ancestral state, and hence constitute undocumented subclades of R1b.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: A compilation of previous studies regarding the distribution of R1b can be found in Cruciani et al. (2010). It is summarised in the table following. (Cruciani did not include some studies suggesting even higher frequencies of R1b1a1b [R-M269] in some parts of Western Europe.)


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: R-L278 among modern men falls into the R-L754 and R-PH155 subclades, though it is possible some very rare R-L278* may exist as not all examples have been tested for both branches. Examples may also exist in ancient DNA, though due to poor quality it is often impossible to tell whether or not the ancients carried the mutations that define subclades.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: Some examples described in older articles, for example two found in Turkey, are now thought to be mostly in the more recently discovered sub-clade R1b1b (R-V88). Most examples of R1b therefore fall into subclades R1b1b (R-V88) or R1b1a (R-P297). Cruciani et al. in the large 2010 study found 3 cases amongst 1173 Italians, 1 out of 328 West Asians and 1 out of 156 East Asians. Varzari found 3 cases in Ukraine, in a study of 322 people from the Dniester–Carpathian Mountains region, who were P25 positive, but M269 negative. Cases from older studies are mainly from Africa, the Middle East or Mediterranean, and are discussed below as probable cases of R1b1b (R-V88).


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: R-L754 contains the vast majority of R1b. The only known example of R-L754* (xL389, V88) is also the earliest known individual to carry R1b: "Villabruna 1", who lived circa 14,000 years BP (north east Italy). Villabruna 1 belonged to the Epigravettian culture.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: R-L389, also known as R1b1a (L388/PF6468, L389/PF6531), contains the very common subclade R-P297 and the rare subclade R-V1636. It is unknown whether all previously reported R-L389* (xP297) belong to R-V1636 or not.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: The SNP marker P297 was recognised in 2008 as ancestral to the significant subclades M73 and M269, combining them into one cluster. This had been given the phylogenetic name R1b1a1a (and, previously, R1b1a).


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: A majority of Eurasian R1b falls within this subclade, representing a very large modern population. Although P297 itself has not yet been much tested for, the same population has been relatively well studied in terms of other markers. Therefore, the branching within this clade can be explained in relatively high detail below.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: Malyarchuk "et al." (2011) found R-M73 in 13.2% (5/38) of Shors, 11.4% (5/44) of Teleuts, 3.3% (2/60) of Kalmyks, 3.1% (2/64) of Khakassians, 1.9% (2/108) of Tuvinians, and 1.1% (1/89) of Altaians. The Kalmyks, Tuvinians, and Altaian belong to a Y-STR cluster marked by DYS390=19, DYS389=14-16 (or 14–15 in the case of the Altaian individual), and DYS385=13-13.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: Dulik "et al." (2012) found R-M73 in 35.3% (6/17) of a sample of the Kumandin of the Altai Republic in Russia. Three of these six Kumandins share an identical 15-loci Y-STR haplotype, and another two differ only at the DYS458 locus, having DYS458=18 instead of DYS458=17. This pair of Kumandin R-M73 haplotypes resembles the haplotypes of two Kalmyks, two Tuvinians, and one Altaian whose Y-DNA has been analyzed by Malyarchuk "et al." (2011). The remaining R-M73 Kumandin has a Y-STR haplotype that is starkly different from the haplotypes of the other R-M73 Kumandins, resembling instead the haplotypes of five Shors, five Teleuts, and two Khakassians.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: While early research into R-M73 claimed that it was significantly represented among the Hazara of Afghanistan and the Bashkirs of the Ural Mountains, this has apparently been overturned. For example, supporting material from a 2010 study by Behar "et al." suggested that Sengupta "et al." (2006) might have misidentified Hazara individuals, who instead belonged to "PQR2" as opposed to "R(xR1a)." However, the assignment of these Hazaras' Y-DNA to the "PQR2" category by Behar "et al." (2010) is probably ascribable to the habit that was popular for a while of labeling R-M269 as "R1b" or "R(xR1a)," with any members of R-M343 (xM269) being placed in a polyphyletic, catch-all "R*" or "P" category. Myres "et al." (2011), Di Cristofaro "et al." (2013), and Lippold "et al." (2014) all agree that the Y-DNA of 32% (8/25) of the HGDP sample of Pakistani Hazara should belong to haplogroup R-M478/M73. Likewise, most Bashkir males have been found to belong to U-152 (R1b1a1a2a1a2b) and some, mostly from southeastern Bashkortostan, belonged to Haplogroup Q-M25 (Q1a1b) rather than R1b; contra this, Myres "et al." (2011) found a high frequency of R-M73 among their sample of Bashkirs from southeast Bashkortostan (77/329 = 23.4% R1b-M73), in agreement with the earlier study of Bashkirs. Besides the high frequency of R-M73 in southeastern Bashkirs, Myres "et al." also reported finding R-M73 in the following samples: 10.3% (14/136) of Balkars from the northwest Caucasus, 9.4% (8/85) of the HGDP samples from northern Pakistan (these are the aforementioned Pakistani Hazaras), 5.8% (4/69) of Karachays from the northwest Caucasus, 2.6% (1/39) of Tatars from Bashkortostan, 1.9% (1/54) of Bashkirs from southwest Bashkortostan, 1.5% (1/67) of Megrels from the south Caucasus, 1.4% (1/70) of Bashkirs from north Bashkortostan, 1.3% (1/80) of Tatars from Kazan, 1.1% (1/89) of a sample from Cappadocia, Turkey, 0.7% (1/141) of Kabardians from the northwest Caucasus, 0.6% (3/522) of a pool of samples from Turkey, and 0.38% (1/263) of Russians from Central Russia.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: Besides the aforementioned Pakistani Hazaras, Di Cristofaro "et al." (2013) found R-M478/M73 in 11.1% (2/18) of Mongols from central Mongolia, 5.0% (1/20) of Kyrgyz from southwest Kyrgyzstan, 4.3% (1/23) of Mongols from southeast Mongolia, 4.3% (4/94) of Uzbeks from Jawzjan, Afghanistan, 3.7% (1/27) of Iranians from Gilan, 2.5% (1/40) of Kyrgyz from central Kyrgyzstan, 2.1% (2/97) of Mongols from northwest Mongolia, and 1.4% (1/74) of Turkmens from Jawzjan, Afghanistan. The Mongols as well as the individual from southwest Kyrgyzstan, the individual from Gilan, and one of the Uzbeks from Jawzjan belong to the same Y-STR haplotype cluster as five of six Kumandin members of R-M73 studied by Dulik "et al." (2012). This cluster's most distinctive Y-STR value is DYS390=19.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: Karafet "et al." (2018) found R-M73 in 37.5% (15/40) of a sample of Teleuts from Bekovo, Kemerovo oblast, 4.5% (3/66) of a sample of Uyghurs from Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, 3.4% (1/29) of a sample of Kazakhs from Kazakhstan, 2.3% (3/129) of a sample of Selkups, 2.3% (1/44) of a sample of Turkmens from Turkmenistan, and 0.7% (1/136) of a sample of Iranians from Iran. Four of these individuals (one of the Teleuts, one of the Uyghurs, the Kazakh, and the Iranian) appear to belong to the aforementioned cluster marked by DYS390=19 (the Kumandin-Mongol R-M73 cluster); the Teleut and the Uyghur also share the modal values at the DYS385 and the DYS389 loci. The Iranian differs from the modal for this cluster by having 13-16 (or 13–29) at DYS389 instead of 14-16 (or 14–30). The Kazakh differs from the modal by having 13–14 at DYS385 instead of 13-13. The other fourteen Teleuts and the three Selkups appear to belong to the Teleut-Shor-Khakassian R-M73 cluster from the data set of Malyarchuk "et al." (2011); this cluster has the modal values of DYS390=22 (but 21 in the case of two Teleuts and one Khakassian), DYS385=13-16, and DYS389=13-17 (or 13–30, but 14–31 in the case of one Selkup).


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: A Kazakhstani paper published in 2017 found haplogroup R1b-M478 Y-DNA in 3.17% (41/1294) of a sample of Kazakhs from Kazakhstan, with this haplogroup being observed with greater than average frequency among members of the Qypshaq (12/29 = 41.4%), Ysty (6/57 = 10.5%), Qongyrat (8/95 = 8.4%), Oshaqty (2/29 = 6.9%), Kerey (1/28 = 3.6%), and Jetyru (3/86 = 3.5%) tribes. A Chinese paper published in 2018 found haplogroup R1b-M478 Y-DNA in 9.2% (7/76) of a sample of Dolan Uyghurs from Horiqol township, Awat County, Xinjiang.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: R-M269, or R1b1a1b (as of 2018) amongst other names, is now the most common Y-DNA lineage in European males. It is carried by an estimated 110 million males in Europe. Like all haplogroups found on the Y-chromosome it is passed only through the male line from father to son.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: R-M269 has received significant scientific and popular interest due to its possible connection to the Indo-European expansion in Europe. Specifically the R-Z2103 subclade has been found to be prevalent in ancient DNA associated with the Yamna culture. Seven individuals were determined to belong to the R1b-M269 subclade.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: Older research, published before researchers could study the DNA of ancient remains, proposed that R-M269 likely originated in Western Asia and was present in Europe by the Neolithic period. But results based on actual ancient DNA noticed that there was a dearth of R-M269 in Europe before the Bronze Age, and the distribution of subclades within Europe is substantially due to the various migrations of the Bronze and Iron Age. Likewise, the oldest samples classified as belonging to R-M269, have been found in Eastern Europe and Pontic-Caspian steppe, not Western Asia. Western European populations are divided between the R-P312/S116 and R-U106/S21 subclades of R-M412 (R-L51).


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: Distribution of R-M269 in Europe increases in frequency from east to west. It peaks at the national level in Wales at a rate of 92%, at 82% in Ireland, 70% in Scotland, 68% in Spain, 60% in France (76% in Normandy), about 60% in Portugal, 50% in Germany, 50% in the Netherlands, 47% in Italy, 45% in Eastern England, 43% in Denmark and 42% in Iceland.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: R-M269 reaches levels as high as 95% in parts of Ireland. It has also been found at lower frequencies throughout central Eurasia, but with relatively high frequency among the Bashkirs of the Perm region (84.0%). This marker is present in China and India at frequencies of less than one percent. In North Africa and adjoining islands, while R-V88 (R1b1b) is more strongly represented, R-M269 appears to have been present since antiquity. R-M269 has been found, for instance, at a rate of ~44% among remains dating from the 11th to 13th centuries at Punta Azul, in the Canary Islands. These remains have been linked to the Bimbache (or Bimape), a subgroup of the Guanche. In living males, it peaks in parts of North Africa, especially Algeria, at a rate of 10%. In Sub-Saharan Africa, R-M269 appears to peak in Namibia, at a rate of 8% among Herero males. In western Asia, R-M269 has been reported in 40% of Armenian males and over 35% in Turkmen males. (The table below lists in more detail the frequencies of M269 in regions in Asia, Europe, and Africa.)


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: Apart from basal R-M269* which has not diverged, there are (as of 2017) two primary branches of R-M269:


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: R-L23 (Z2105/Z2103; a.k.a. R1b1a1b1) has been reported among the peoples of the Idel-Ural (by Trofimova et al. 2015): 21 out of 58 (36.2%) of Burzyansky District Bashkirs, 11 out of 52 (21.2%) of Udmurts, 4 out of 50 (8%) of Komi, 4 out of 59 (6.8%) of Mordvins, 2 out of 53 (3.8%) of Besermyan and 1 out of 43 (2.3%) of Chuvash were R1b-L23.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: Subclades within the paragroup R-M269(xL23) – that is, R-M269* and/or R-PF7558 – appear to be found at their highest frequency in the central Balkans, especially Kosovo with 7.9%, North Macedonia 5.1% and Serbia 4.4%. Unlike most other areas with significant percentages of R-L23, Kosovo, Poland and the Bashkirs of south-east Bashkortostan are notable in having a high percentage of R-L23 (xM412) – at rates of 11.4% (Kosovo), 2.4% (Poland) and 2.4% south-east Bashkortostan. (This Bashkir population is also notable for its high level of R-M73 (R1b1a1a1), at 23.4%.) Five individuals out of 110 tested in the Ararat Valley of Armenia belonged to R-M269(xL23) and 36 to R-L23*, with none belonging to known subclades of L23.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: In 2009, DNA extracted from the femur bones of 6 skeletons in an early-medieval burial place in Ergolding (Bavaria, Germany) dated to around AD 670 yielded the following results: 4 were found to be haplogroup R1b with the closest matches in modern populations of Germany, Ireland and the USA while 2 were in Haplogroup G2a.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: The following gives a summary of most of the studies which specifically tested for M269, showing its distribution (as a percentage of total population) in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia as far as China and Nepal.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: R1b1b (PF6279/V88; previously R1b1a2) is defined by the presence of SNP marker V88, the discovery of which was announced in 2010 by Cruciani et al. Apart from individuals in southern Europe and Western Asia, the majority of R-V88 was found in the Sahel, especially among populations speaking Afroasiatic languages of the Chadic branch.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: Studies in 2005–08 reported "R1b*" at high levels in Jordan, Egypt and Sudan. Subsequent research by Myres et al. (2011) indicates that the samples concerned most likely belong to the subclade R-V88, which is now concentrated in Sub-Saharan Africa. According to Myres et al. (2011), this may be explained by a back-migration from Asia into Africa by R1b-carrying people. Gonzales et al. (2013), using more advanced techniques, indicate that it is equally probable that V88 originated in Central Africa and spread northward towards Asia. The patterns of diversity in African R1b-V88 did not seem to fit with a movement of Chadic-speaking people from the North, across the Sahara to West-Central Africa, but was compatible with the reverse. An origin of V88 lineages in Central Africa, followed by a migration to North Africa. However, Shriner, D., & Rotimi, C. N. (2018), associate the introduction of R1b into Chad, with the more recent movements of Baggara Arabs.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: D'Atanasio et al. (2018) propose that R1b-V88 originated in Europe about 12 000 years ago and crossed to North Africa by about 8000 years ago; it may formerly have been common in southern Europe, where it has since been replaced by waves of other haplogroups, leaving remnant subclades almost exclusively in Sardinia. It first radiated within Africa likely between 7 and 8 000 years ago – at the same time as trans-Saharan expansions within the unrelated haplogroups E-M2 and A-M13 – possibly due to population growth allowed by humid conditions and the adoption of livestock herding in the Sahara. R1b-V1589, the main subclade within R1b-V88, underwent a further expansion around 5500 years ago, likely in the Lake Chad Basin region, from which some lines recrossed the Sahara to North Africa.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: Marcus et al. (2020) provide strong evidence for this proposed model of North to South trans-saharan movement: The earliest basal R1b-V88 haplogroups are found in several Eastern European Hunter Gatherers close to 10 000 years ago. The haplogroup then seemingly further spread with the Neolithic Cardial Ware expansion, which established agriculture in the Western Mediterranean around 7500 BP: R1b-V88 haplogroups were identified in ancient Neolithic individuals in central Italy, Iberia and, at a particularly high frequency, in Sardinia. A part of the branch leading to present-day African haplogroups (V2197) is already derived in some of these ancient Neolithic European individuals, providing further support for a North to South trans-saharan movement.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: As can be seen in the above data table, R-V88 is found in northern Cameroon in west central Africa at a very high frequency, where it is considered to be caused by a pre-Islamic movement of people from Eurasia.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: R1b2 is extremely rare and defined by the presence of PH155. Living males carrying subclades of R-PH155 have been found in Bahrain, Bhutan, Ladakh, Tajikistan, Turkey, Xinjiang, and Yunnan. ISOGG (2022) cites two primary branches: R-M335 (R1b2a) and R-PH200 (R1b2b).


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: The defining SNP of R1b2a, M335, was first documented in 2004, when an example was discovered in Turkey, though it was classified at that time as R1b4. Other examples of R-M335 have been reported in a sample of Hui from Yunnan, China and in a sample of people from Ladakh, India.


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: The following are historic people or dynasties that may belong to the R1b haplogroup, as suggested by the testing descendants or other relatives:


title: Haplogroup R1b

text: Studies have shown that haplogroup R1b could have a protective effect on the immune system. However, later studies have confirmed that the Y-chromosome has a very limited effect on coronary artery disease (CAD), for example, and that the previously purported link between Y-chromosome haplogroups and health is far from established scientifically. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/ATVBAHA.122.317664


title: Sam Simon

text: Samuel Michael Simon (June 6, 1955 – March 8, 2015) was an American director, producer, writer, animal rights activist and philanthropist, who co-developed the television series "The Simpsons".


title: Sam Simon

text: While at Stanford University, Simon worked as a newspaper cartoonist and after graduating became a storyboard artist at Filmation Studios. Simon submitted a spec script for the sitcom "Taxi", which was produced, and he later became the series' showrunner. Over the next few years, Simon wrote and produced for "Cheers", "It's Garry Shandling's Show" and other programs, as well as writing the 1991 film "The Super".


title: Sam Simon

text: Simon turned to fields outside television in his later years. He regularly appeared on Howard Stern's radio shows, managed boxer Lamon Brewster and helped guide him to the World Boxing Organization Heavyweight Championship in 2004, and was a regular poker player and six-time in the money finisher at the World Series of Poker. Simon founded the Sam Simon Foundation, which consists of a mobile veterinary clinic that goes into low-income neighborhoods offering free surgeries for cats and dogs several days per week, as well as a program that rescues and trains shelter dogs. He also funded the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society vessel MY "Sam Simon". Simon was engaged at the time of his death, having been previously twice married, including to the actress Jennifer Tilly. Following a profile of Simon on "60 Minutes" in 2007, CBS writer Daniel Schorn wrote in an online article that Simon was "perhaps the Renaissance man of the baffling, uncertain age we live in."


title: Sam Simon

text: Simon was diagnosed with terminal colorectal cancer in 2012 and given only three to six months to live. Simon died on March 8, 2015. He bequeathed his $100 million estate to various charities that he actively supported during his lifetime.


title: Sam Simon

text: Samuel Michael Simon was born on June 6, 1955, in Los Angeles, California, United States. He grew up in Beverly Hills and Malibu. Simon's family lived opposite Groucho Marx. Simon's father was a clothing manufacturer and was of Estonian-Jewish heritage. Simon had a childhood which has been described as "comfortable" and "privileged". Although his parents wanted Simon to become a lawyer, he was interested in art from a young age, appearing on televised local art programs as young as the age of five. He once was told by Walt Disney that he would one day work at his studio.


title: Sam Simon

text: Simon attended Beverly Hills High School, where he was on the football team and served as a cartoonist for the school newspaper. He was named "Most Humorous" and "Most Talented" in his senior yearbook. He later attended Stanford University, graduating in 1977. Simon had not wished to attend college, but Stanford persuaded him to apply due to his sufficient grades and proficiency at football; Simon quit the football team after one day. Simon drew comics for The Stanford Daily, a college newspaper, but was denied admission to a drawing class for not being talented enough. As he recalled to the Stanford alumni magazine, he was told, "You'd be taking the space of a student who has talent." Simon majored in psychology, but did not focus on his academics.


title: Sam Simon

text: While still at Stanford, Simon's first job was a newspaper sports cartoonist for "The San Francisco Chronicle" and "The San Francisco Examiner". After graduating, he worked as a television storyboard artist, and later a writer, at Filmation Studios. There he worked on several animated shows, including "The New Adventures of Mighty Mouse and Heckle & Jeckle" and "Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids" (1979). Simon recalls Filmation approving of his work because he was "self-taught and unschooled," but Simon felt the majority of what the studio produced was "awful". On the suggestion of Filmation producer Lou Scheimer who was impressed by Simon's writing ability, Simon submitted a spec script for the series "Taxi" which was produced as "Out of Commission" and aired in 1981 during its third season. Simon was hired as a writer, quickly becoming showrunner for its fifth and final season in 1983. Simon next worked as a writer and producer on "Cheers" from seasons one to three (1982–1985), writing five episodes: "Endless Slumper", "Battle of the Ex's", "Fairytales Can Come True", "Cheerio Cheers" and "The Bartender's Tale". Simon created, wrote and produced the short-lived sitcom "Shaping Up" in 1984, alongside Ken Estin; the show starred Leslie Nielsen as a gym owner and ran for five episodes on ABC. Simon also wrote and produced for "Best of the West" (1981), "Barney Miller" (1982) and "It's Garry Shandling's Show" (1987–1988), and wrote the 1991 film "The Super".


title: Sam Simon

text: Simon co-developed the animated series "The Simpsons", which premiered on the Fox network in 1989 and has remained on air ever since. The show is regarded as one of the greatest television series of all time, with "Time" magazine naming it the 20th century's best series. The premise for the series originated as a series of short cartoons airing in 1987 as part of "The Tracey Ullman Show", on which Simon was a writer and executive producer alongside James L. Brooks, with whom Simon had worked on "Taxi". The cartoons were developed into a full series two years later. For "The Simpsons", Simon served alongside Matt Groening (who conceived the show and the five main characters) and Brooks as executive producer and showrunner for the show's first (1989–1990) and second (1990–1991) seasons, and was creative supervisor for the first four seasons. He assembled and led the initial team of writers, consisting of John Swartzwelder, Jon Vitti, George Meyer, Jeff Martin, Al Jean, Mike Reiss, Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky. The cartoonist and writer Mimi Pond, who wrote the first broadcast episode "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire" (1989), explained that she was not permitted to permanently join the show because Simon deliberately kept women out of the writing team.


title: Sam Simon

text: Simon has been credited with "developing [the show's] sensibility." Former "Simpsons" director Brad Bird has described him as "the unsung hero" of the show, while Vitti has stated to "leave out Sam Simon" is to tell "the managed version" of "The Simpsons" history, because "he was the guy we wrote for." Writer Ken Levine called Simon "the real creative force behind "The Simpsons" ... The tone, the storytelling, the level of humor—that was all developed on Sam's watch." Levine says that Simon "brought a level of honesty to the characters" and made them "three-dimensional," adding that his "comedy is all about character, not just a string of gags. In "The Simpsons", the characters are motivated by their emotions and their foibles. 'What are they thinking?'—that is Sam's contribution. The stories come from the characters." Simon crafted much of the world of Springfield, and designed the models for many of the show's recurring characters, including Mr. Burns, Dr. Hibbert, Chief Wiggum and Eddie and Lou, as well as many of the one-time and guest-star roles, such as Bleeding Gums Murphy. One of his contributions to the show's character development was his proposal that Waylon Smithers should be gay, but that this should never have too much attention drawn to it; Smithers' sexuality became one of the show's longest-running gags. Simon saw "The Simpsons" as a chance to solve "what [he] didn't like about the Saturday-morning cartoon shows [he had] worked on ... [he] wanted all the actors in a room together, not reading their lines separated from each other. "The Simpsons" would have been a great radio show. If you just listen to the sound track, it works."


title: Sam Simon

text: "The Simpsons" utilized a process of collaborative script re-writing by the show's whole writing staff; this meant the credited writer may not have been responsible for the majority of an episode's content. Nevertheless, Simon was credited with co-writing the season one episodes "The Telltale Head," "The Crepes of Wrath," and the season finale "Some Enchanted Evening." "Some Enchanted Evening" was intended to be the show's premiere but was delayed due to substandard animation. Simon adapted Edgar Allan Poe's "The Raven" for the third segment of the season two episode "Treehouse of Horror." Groening was nervous about "The Raven" because it did not have many gags, and felt it would be "the worst, most pretentious thing [they had] ever done" on the show. Nevertheless, the segment has often been praised as one of the best "Treehouse of Horror" stories in the show's history. Ryan J. Budke of "TV Squad" described the segment as "one of the most refined "Simpsons" pop references ever," and knows "people that consider this the point that they realized "The Simpsons" could be both highly hilarious and highly intelligent." Simon co-wrote the episode "Two Cars in Every Garage and Three Eyes on Every Fish" with Swartzwelder, an episode which Tom Shales of "The Washington Post" has described as "a bull's-eye political satire". The final episode he co-wrote for season two was "The Way We Was," alongside Jean and Reiss. While Reiss and Jean took over as showrunners, Simon remained on the writing staff for seasons three (1991–1992) and four (1992–1993). For the third season he co-wrote "Treehouse of Horror II," and conceived the story for the Sideshow Bob episode "Black Widower," together with mystery author Thomas Chastain, hoping to construct a full mystery story; Vitti wrote the episode's teleplay. Simon also substantially contributed to the episode "Stark Raving Dad," pitched the episode "Homer at the Bat," and proposed the "Land of Chocolate" sequence from "Burns Verkaufen der Kraftwerk." Simon's final writing credit was for the "Dial 'Z' For Zombies" segment of "Treehouse of Horror III."


title: Sam Simon

text: Although they initially worked well together, Simon and Groening's relationship became "very contentious" according to Groening. Simon never expected the show to be a success, often proclaiming to fellow staff members "We're thirteen and out"—meaning that the show would be canceled after the thirteen episodes of the first season. Therefore, he also told the staff that they had creative freedom to do whatever they wanted to make "The Simpsons" as good a show as possible, regardless of network or public opinion, because he thought it inevitably would not be renewed; he elaborated in 2009 that "Really I was saying that to take the pressure off of everyone. I was just saying let's just go out and make 13 episodes that are really good and really funny." However, Groening interpreted it as meaning Simon was uncommitted and did not care whether the show was a success or not, as Simon's career would survive, whereas his own would not. In 2001, Groening described Simon as "brilliantly funny and one of the smartest writers I've ever worked with, although unpleasant and mentally unbalanced." According to John Ortved's book "", when the show became successful Simon resented the media attention Groening received, particularly the praise for the show's writing; Simon felt that Groening's involvement was limited, and that he should have been the one receiving credit for the show. Simon later spoke well of Groening's influence, particularly on the show's positive tone.


title: Sam Simon

text: As well as Groening, Simon was often at odds with Brooks and production company Gracie Films. While working on "The Simpsons", he and Brooks had co-created the series "Sibs" (1991) and "Phenom" (1993) as part of a multi-series deal for ABC. Simon did not want to work on either series, both of which were poorly received and swiftly canceled, which put a strain on the pair's relationship.


title: Sam Simon

text: Simon left Gracie Films and "The Simpsons" in 1993; he commented that he "wasn't enjoying it anymore," wished to pursue other projects, and that of "any show I've ever worked on, it turns me into a monster. I go crazy. I hate myself." Before leaving, he negotiated a deal that saw him receive a share of the show's profits every year, particularly from home media, and an executive producer credit despite not having worked on the show since 1993. The deal means he made over $10 million a year from "The Simpsons"; he later told "Stanford Magazine" that "tens of millions" was a closer figure. Simon commented: "When I was there I thought I was underpaid. I thought I wasn't getting enough credit for it. Now, I think it's completely the opposite. I get too much credit for it. And the money is ridiculous."


title: Sam Simon

text: In January 1994, Simon co-created with comedian George Carlin the sitcom "The George Carlin Show" for Fox. It aired for 27 episodes before being canceled in December 1995. Simon served as showrunner throughout its run and directed several episodes. Simon persuaded Carlin to do the show after writing it as something which would not be "typically sitcomy." He conceived the show as what Carlin's life would have been like had he never become a comedian; Carlin played a heavy drinking New York taxi driver. Simon commented: "When I was doing "The Simpsons", people couldn't see how smart it was because of the low moments. There's something about this show. People who like it say it's classy. They don't see how vulgar it is." Carlin wrote negatively of his relationship with Simon. On his own website, Carlin wrote of the show: "always check mental health of creative partner beforehand. Loved the actors, loved the crew. Had a great time. Couldn't wait to get the fuck out of there." In his final book, the posthumously published "Last Words" (2009), Carlin elaborated: "I had a great time. I never laughed so much, so often, so hard as I did with cast members Alex Rocco, Chris Rich, Tony Starke. There was a very strange, very good sense of humor on that stage ... The biggest problem, though, was that Sam Simon was a fucking horrible person to be around. Very, very funny, extremely bright and brilliant, but an unhappy person who treated other people poorly." Simon described himself as "combative" and said that most people see him as having a "bad attitude".


title: Sam Simon

text: In the late 1990s, Simon primarily worked as a director. He directed on the American adaptation of the sitcom "Men Behaving Badly" in 1996, the "Friends" season three episode "The One Without the Ski Trip" in 1997, and several episodes of "The Norm Show" (1999) and "The Michael Richards Show" (2000). From 1998 to 2003, he served as a consulting producer and director for "The Drew Carey Show", and directed the show's series finale. He was also a creative consultant on "Bless This House" in 1996.


title: Sam Simon

text: From 1999 to some time in the early 2000s, Simon was President of e-Nexus Studios the once entertainment content arm of ZeniMax Media, Parent Company of video game publisher Bethesda Softworks. After E-Nexus was shut down, Simon became President of the creative group at ZeniMax Productions, another subsidiary of ZeniMax.


title: Sam Simon

text: After leaving "The Simpsons" and "The George Carlin Show", Simon sought to find a "life outside television," as working in the industry "made [him] crazy." On working in television, Simon concluded: "In some ways, it's the greatest job in the world. You make a product that's given away, and all it does is make people smile. Nobody gets hurt, there's no damage, and you can get crazy rich." Simon retired from full-time television work, although still worked in the media, frequently contributing, as a writer and a participant, to Howard Stern's radio shows. He wrote and directed the one-off radio sitcom "The Bitter Half" for Stern's Howard 101 in 2006. Simon had his own show on Radioio. Simon returned to television production work in 2012, serving as a consultant and director on the series "Anger Management" for half a day a week.


title: Sam Simon

text: Simon was a staunch advocate for animal rights and veganism, and described himself as an "animal lover". Around the year 2000, he joined People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA). Starting in 2002, he self-funded, at an annual cost of several million dollars, The Sam Simon Foundation, which has a mobile clinic that provides free surgeries for cats and dogs, as well as rescuing and retraining shelter dogs who might otherwise be euthanized. An episode of "60 Minutes" broadcast in March 2007 described it as "the grandest dog shelter in the country, a five star, [] spread in Malibu, perhaps the most desirable real estate on the planet. Here, among the waterfalls and the manicured grounds, The Sam Simon Foundation gives stray and abandoned dogs a new lease on life, literally."


title: Sam Simon

text: As Simon explained, the foundation aims to "rescue dogs" and "train them to be service dogs, [to help] people with disabilities," primarily the deaf. It also provides free veterinary surgeries to pets belonging to low-income families, and trains dogs to help soldiers returning from combat in Iraq and Afghanistan deal with post-traumatic stress disorder. Simon said the money he used was "well spent just for the pleasure it gives me." The training program has a 20% success rate, because many of the rescued dogs "have physical and psychological problems" but the dogs who cannot be trained are put up for adoption. The foundation is non-profit, and does not accept public donations. In 2011, Simon established and self-funded a second non-profit called The Sam Simon Foundation: Feeding Families. This is a food truck which delivers vegan food to about 200 low-income families each week. He also donated an undisclosed sum to the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society in 2012 for the purpose of purchasing another vessel for their fleet, the , which was unveiled in December 2012. Simon was also a board member for Save the Children, and hosted the largest annual fundraiser for PETA, who named him an Honorary Director and their Norfolk, Virginia headquarters building after him. Simon has stated that animal rights charities have been his main target for donations, over other causes like human disease and environmental damage, because "your money can bring success" with visible results. Simon stated in 2011 that there is "nothing [which gives him] more pleasure than" helping others via his charities, and gave away most of his fortune.


title: Sam Simon

text: Simon was a long time fan of boxing, attending fights with his grandfather, but his interest increased particularly after seeing the 1990 heavyweight championship fight between Evander Holyfield and James "Buster" Douglas which he described as "the most electrifying feeling I'd had in my life." He began training and won six out of nine amateur fights; he was also a reserve contestant on the Fox series "Celebrity Boxing". Simon was for eight years the manager of heavyweight boxer Lamon Brewster, the now-retired former World Boxing Organization heavyweight champion. He met Brewster in 1997 and began managing him, helping him rise to the top of the WBO rankings. He considers guiding Brewster to his April 2004 victory over Wladimir Klitschko to win the vacant WBO Heavyweight Championship, with Klitschko the heavy favorite, to be amongst the greatest moments of his life; it "eclipsed everything he had achieved in a glittering 26-year showbiz career." Before the Klitschko fight, Simon calculated he had spent several hundred thousand dollars funding Brewster, paying him a large salary on top of match fees as well as letting him stay rent-free at one of his houses, and taking only a 10% cut of the match fees; however, he never intended boxing to be a substantial "source of revenue". Simon also briefly managed heavyweight Steve Vukosa, but retired from boxing management soon after Brewster became WBO Heavyweight Champion.


title: Sam Simon

text: Simon was a regular poker player, and Texas hold 'em in particular. He was introduced to the game as a child through weekly family poker games and casino trips with his grandfather. Simon did not consider himself a serious player until a game at writer David Steinberg's house with several "scholarly" players, which encouraged him to study the game and enter numerous tournaments, although he decided not to become professional. He competed at the World Series of Poker (WSOP) each year between 2007 and 2011, finishing in the money in six events. In 2007, at the 6,358-player $10,000 No-Limit Texas Hold'em Main Event, he finished 329th with $39,445. He also finished 16th winning $35,493 at the $1,000 1,048-player No-Limit Hold'em w/Re-Buys in 2007, 41st winning $10,708 at the $1,000 706-player No-Limit Hold'em w/ReBuys in 2008, 53rd winning $10,692 at the $1,000 879-player No-Limit Hold'em w/ReBuys in 2008, 20th winning $24,066 at the $10,000 275-player World Championship Pot-Limit Hold'em in 2009, and 500th winning $23,876 at the $10,000 6,865-player No-Limit Hold'em Championship in 2011. He also won the $300 438-player No-Limit Hold'em Bounty $100,000 Guarantee at the 2009 L.A. Poker Open, winning $22,228. His biggest win in terms of both field size and prize money was the $200 1,082-player No-Limit Hold'em $150,000 Guarantee at the 2010 Winnin O' The Green, where he won $57,308. Simon's private poker games between him and his celebrity friends have been described as "raucous and very entertaining". Their reputation led Playboy TV to produce the show "Sam's Game", a televised version featuring Simon as host and master of ceremonies of a Las Vegas celebrity Texas Hold 'em match; he produced the show. He had previously appeared on a 2009 episode of "High Stakes Poker".


title: Sam Simon

text: Simon won nine Primetime Emmy Awards and received ten further nominations for his work. For "The Tracey Ullman Show" he won the Emmys for Outstanding Variety, Music or Comedy Series in 1989 and Outstanding Writing in a Variety or Music Program in 1990. In the former he was nominated again in 1990, for the latter he was also nominated in 1987, 1988 and 1989. He received the Emmy for Outstanding Animated Program (for Programming Less Than One Hour) for "The Simpsons" in 1990, 1991, 1995, 1997, 1998, 2000 and 2001 with further nominations in 1990 (for "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire" which was counted as a separate special), 1992, 1996, 1999 and 2002. He was nominated for Outstanding Comedy Series for "Taxi" in 1983 and "Cheers" in 1985, Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series for "It's Garry Shandling's Show" in 1988 and Outstanding Variety, Music Or Comedy Special for "The Best of Tracey Ullman Show" in 1990. He also won a Peabody Award for "The Simpsons" in 1996. In 2013, Simon was awarded the Writers Guild of America Award Animation Writers Caucus lifetime achievement award for his work in animation; the following year the WGA awarded him the Valentine Davies Award for his humanitarian and philanthropic efforts.


title: Sam Simon

text: Simon was married to actress Jennifer Tilly from 1984 to 1991; they remained friends after their divorce. He married "Playboy" Playmate Jami Ferrell in 2000, and the marriage lasted three weeks. Simon was engaged to chef and caterer Jenna Stewart around 2011. In 2012, he began dating Kate Porter, a make-up artist; they were together until his death.


title: Sam Simon

text: Simon became a vegetarian at the age of 19 and when joining People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals around 2000, he turned to veganism. He had three dogs.


title: Sam Simon

text: He lived in Pacific Palisades, Los Angeles, in the restored Bailey House, designed by Richard Neutra. After his home was destroyed by a fire in 2007, Simon redesigned it to be environmentally friendly; much of the interior is constructed from recycled materials while solar panels provide virtually its entire power needs. The building has a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Gold certificate. He had an extensive art collection; he owned paintings by Thomas Hart Benton, John Singer Sargent and one of the original casts of Auguste Rodin's "The Thinker". He also had a sculpture by Robert Graham and works by Alberto Vargas, Gil Elvgren, Ed Ruscha and Richard Estes.


title: Sam Simon

text: In late 2012, Simon was diagnosed with terminal colorectal cancer that later metastasized to his other organs, including his liver and kidneys. He had been feeling ill for some time and had earlier been misdiagnosed. He was given between three and six months to live; chemotherapy treatment reduced the size of his tumors over the following six months. He arranged for his fortune to be left to various charitable causes, stating "The truth is, I have more money than I'm interested in spending. Everyone in my family is taken care of. And I enjoy this." Simon died in his Los Angeles home from complications of the disease on March 8, 2015, aged 59. His remains were interred at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Los Angeles.


title: Sam Simon

text: Controversy surrounds the management of his trust, and the lack of donations to groups that he supported in his lifetime.


title: It's a Small World

text: "It's a Small World" is a water-based boat ride located in the Fantasyland area at various Disney theme parks worldwide, including Disneyland Park in Anaheim, California; Magic Kingdom at Walt Disney World Resort in Bay Lake, Florida; Tokyo Disneyland, Disneyland Paris; and Hong Kong Disneyland, with its inaugural version having premiered at the 1964 New York World's Fair before permanently moving to Disneyland.


title: It's a Small World

text: The ride features over 300 audio-animatronic dolls in traditional costumes from cultures around the world, frolicking in a spirit of international unity, and singing the attraction's title song, which has a theme of global peace. According to Time.com, the Sherman Brothers' song "It's A Small World" is the most publicly performed song of all time. In recent years, the Small World attractions at the various Disney parks have been updated to include depictions of Disney characters, albeit in a design compatible with the original 1960s design of Mary Blair, alongside the original characters. Countries in the Disneyland version include: The North Pole, Norway, Canada, Sweden, Denmark, England, Wales, France, Spain, Scotland, Ireland, The Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Russia, Greece, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Afghanistan, India, Indonesia, Thailand, China, North Korea, South Korea, Japan, Egypt, Uganda, Kenya, Chile, Argentina, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, Mexico, New Zealand, Philippines, Hawaii (United States), Australia, Tahiti, Papua New Guinea, and the United States.


title: It's a Small World

text: Fabricated at the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank as "Children of the World", it was created by WED Enterprises, then shipped to the 1964 New York World's Fair's UNICEF pavilion, sponsored by Pepsi, where it featured at its entrance a kinetic sculpture, "The Tower of the Four Winds", a 120-foot perpetually spinning mobile created by WED designer Rolly Crump. It was added to four attractions — "Magic Skyway" (Ford), "Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln" (Illinois), "The Carousel of Progress" (General Electric), and "CircleVision 360" (Kodak)—already under development, which were used by Disney to sponsor, fund, and test concepts and develop ride systems and innovative entertainment intended to be moved and rebuilt at Disneyland after the World's Fair closed in 1966.


title: It's a Small World

text: Mary Blair was responsible for the attraction's whimsical design and color styling. Blair had been an art director on several Disney animated features, including "Cinderella", "Alice In Wonderland", and "Peter Pan". Like many Disneyland attractions, scenes and characters were designed by Marc Davis, while his wife, Alice Davis, designed the costumes for the dolls. Rolly Crump designed the toys and other supplemental figures on display. The animated dolls were designed and sculpted by Blaine Gibson. Walt was personally involved with Gibson's and Greg S. Marinello development of the dolls' facial designs; each animated doll face is completely identical in shape.


title: It's a Small World

text: Arrow Development was deeply involved in the design of the passenger-carrying boats and propulsion system of the attraction. Two patents that were filed by Arrow Development staff and assigned to The Walt Disney Company illustrate passenger boats and vehicle guidance systems with features very similar to those later utilized on the Disneyland installation of the attraction. The firm is credited with manufacturing the Disneyland installation.


title: It's a Small World

text: "Children of the World" was the working title of the attraction. Its tentative soundtrack, which can be heard on the album, featured the national anthems of each country represented throughout the ride all playing all at once, which resulted in a disharmonic cacophony. Walt conducted a walk-through of the attraction scale model with his staff songwriters Robert B. Sherman and Richard M. Sherman, saying, "I need "one" song that can be easily translated into many languages and be played as a round." The Sherman brothers then wrote "It's a Small World (After All)" in the wake of the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, which influenced the song's message of peace and brotherhood. When they first presented it to Walt, they played it as a slow ballad. Walt requested something more cheerful, so they sped up the tempo and sang in counterpoint. Walt was so delighted with the final result that he renamed the attraction "It's a Small World" after the Sherman Brothers' song.


title: It's a Small World

text: Robert J. Sherman, youngest son of Robert B. Sherman, has claimed that this song is the single most-performed and most-translated piece of music. In 2014, it was estimated that the song had played nearly 50 million times worldwide on the attractions alone, beating out the radio and TV estimates for "You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin' " and "Yesterday", which were believed to have been played at least eight and seven million times respectively.


title: It's a Small World

text: A third verse celebrating the attraction's 50th anniversary was written and popularized, but not incorporated into the ride.


title: It's a Small World

text: In 2022, a 1964 recording of "It's a Small World (After All)" performed by the Disneyland Boys Choir was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the United States National Recording Registry as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".


title: It's a Small World

text: The first incarnation of It's a Small World, which debuted at the 1964 New York World's Fair, was an afterthought and nearly did not happen. Ford and General Electric had engaged Disney early on to create their pavilions for the 1964 New York World's Fair. WED Enterprises had already long been at work developing a "dancing-doll" designed to reproduce human movement resulting in a crude early audio-animatronics fashioned as Abraham Lincoln when the State of Illinois approached Disney to create the Illinois Pavilion, representatives of the state instantly approved after being "introduced" to the robotic figurehead. A nine wide-screen "CircleVision 360°" exhibit for Kodak's pavilion was also being planned as an improvement over the existing Disneyland eleven 4:3 format screen "Circarama" (which later failed the installation deadline for opening) when Pepsi approached Disney with a plan to tribute UNICEF.


title: It's a Small World

text: Disney seemed to be the showman to give us the package we want ... He's terrific. He's got his hands in more bowls than anyone I've ever seen, but he accomplishes what he sets out to do. — J.G. Mullaly, Ford's World's Fair program manager.


title: It's a Small World

text: The attraction was incredibly successful. Ten million 60¢ and 95¢ tickets for children and adults, respectively, were collected in two half-year seasons and the proceeds were donated to UNICEF. While other attractions had lines out the doors, there seemed to always be a seat available aboard It's a Small World. Its high rider-per-hour capacity was recognized as a valuable innovation and was incorporated indirectly and directly into future attractions. Pirates of the Caribbean had been under construction at Disneyland as a subterranean walk-through. That design was scrapped as concrete was broken out so similar boats could sail past scenes which (because the original walk-through scene length was not shortened) were now different each voyage, another concept which forever influenced attraction design and popularity.


title: It's a Small World

text: The boats enter the show building through a tunnel under the Small World clock and emerge from the attraction fifteen minutes later. The show building interior is larger than the façade. Voyagers see animatronic dolls in traditional local costumes singing "It's a Small World (After All)" together, each in their native language. Boats carry voyagers as they visit the regions of the world.


title: It's a Small World

text: Other Disney park installations wind the flume around one large room, emphasizing its theme that the world is small and interconnected. Each installation may vary the countries which are represented and the order in which they appear. The boats are stored behind the facade and go in and out backstage in between the Spanish room.


title: It's a Small World

text: The ride was originally sponsored by Bank of America from when it opened until 1990. The ride was then sponsored by Mattel from 1992 to 1999.


title: It's a Small World

text: The Tower of the Four Winds was not relocated to Disneyland's It's a Small World after the New York World's Fair; in its place is an outdoor oval flume and boarding queue decorated with topiary backed by a large, flat facade with stylized cutout turrets, towers and minarets which are vaguely reminiscent of world landmarks (such as the Eiffel Tower and the Leaning Tower of Pisa). The facade was designed by Disney Imagineer Rolly Crump, who was inspired by Mary Blair's styling. Walt Disney asked Rolly to design a large 30-foot clock, a central feature of the exterior façade, with a smiling face that rocks back and forth to a ticking sound.


title: It's a Small World

text: A parade of wooden dolls in native culture costumes dance out from doors at the base of the Small World clock to an instrumental toy soldier version of "It's a Small World (After All)" in preparation for each quarter-hour, reminiscent of a European automaton clock. As the last doll returns into the clock, the parade doors close and the large central pair of doors open to reveal two giant toy blocks – the large block displays stylized numerals of the hour, the small one displays the minutes, while large and small bells toll to count the hours and quarters.


title: It's a Small World

text: The exterior has been subtly repainted over the years, first as all-white with a gold/silver trim (1966), then in various shades of blue (1977), then in pink and white with pastel accents (1992). Portions of the left side of the original façade were removed in 1991 to make room for the entrance to Mickey's Toontown. As of 2020, the facade is white with a gold trim as it was in 1966, except the original gold and silver paint of the clock, the smiling clock face is now entirely gold leaf. The façade was repainted back to its original color scheme in 2002. The gardens around the building are decorated with topiary animals.


title: It's a Small World

text: During the 2005–2006 holiday season, an elaborate multimedia presentation was projected on the outdoor façade which registered colored patterns matched to the façade each quarter-hour after dusk. Guests were encouraged to view the popular "Remember... Dreams Come True" fireworks presentation from the It's a Small World Mall and nearby parade viewing platform built for Light Magic (which had included a smoking area, now relocated under the Monorail track between the Matterhorn Bobsleds and Autopia) to decrease overwhelming crowds gathered for viewing the fireworks spectacular in Plaza and Main Street.


title: It's a Small World

text: When the ride was moved to Disneyland in 1966, a scene representing Oceania was added to the ride, which was not included at the World's Fair due to time and budget constraints. At the same time, hello and goodbye rooms were added to the attraction, which have also seen several changes over the years. In the 1960s-‘70s there were stylized cutouts of flowers saying hello and goodbye in different languages, these were then changed to stylized rainbows with cutout butterflies in the 1980s-‘90s, before changing to a nautical theme with stylized boats with different greetings at the turn of the millennium. When Bank of America sponsored the ride, there was also a message in the goodbye room that read:


title: It's a Small World

text: From Bank of America. The finale scene also received changes, as originally the color palette was white with colored pastels, such as pink, yellow, and light blue, and in the early 1980s this would be changed to a darker color palette of black, as well as purple and blue. There also used to be a large stylized sun at the end of the finale scene, which would be removed circa 1990 for unknown reasons. In addition, many other scenes also saw subtle changes through the years.


title: It's a Small World

text: Disneyland's "It's a Small World" was closed from January to November 2008 (closed and reopening in holiday version, skipping the summer season) to receive a major refurbishment. The building's structure was improved, permanent attachments created for the "It's a Small World Holiday" overlay, the water flume replaced and its propulsion upgraded to electric water jet turbines, and the attraction's aging fiberglass boats redesigned in durable plastic. The refurbishment added 29 new Disney characters, each in their native land in a similar manner to the Hong Kong Disneyland version. The refurbishment also restored the original white and pastel colors in the finale, as well as the farewell sun and tapestry, the latter of which hadn't been seen since the 1964-65 World's Fair.


title: It's a Small World

text: Osram Sylvania has agreed to a twelve-year sponsorship. In 2014, the sponsor logo at the attraction's entrance changed to that of Siemens AG, the parent company of Sylvania. The sponsorship ended its run after the 2017 Christmas season.


title: It's a Small World

text: As part of Disney's "Let the Memories Begin" campaign for 2011, a nighttime projection show premiered at Disneyland's It's a Small World in Anaheim on January 27, 2011. "The Magic, the Memories and You" show projected sequences of Disney attractions and characters set to Disney music onto the exterior façade of It's a Small World to fill its architectural features, personalized with exclusive photographs and videos of park guests taken that day by Disney's PhotoPass cast members. The show also existed in Walt Disney World's Magic Kingdom, but was projected onto Cinderella Castle. As the "Let the Memories Begin" campaign drew to a close, the show ended its run on Labor Day, September 3, 2012, at both locations. The Florida version was eventually replaced by "Celebrate the Magic" in fall 2012 and later by "Once Upon a Time" in 2016. "The Magic, The Memories and You" theme song later rewritten for "Celebrate! Tokyo Disneyland" as part of the Tokyo Disney Resort 35th Anniversary celebration that premiered at Tokyo Disneyland on July 10, 2018, which also created as nod and tribute for the former nighttime projection show.


title: It's a Small World

text: On October 1, 1971, a version of the ride opened in Florida's Walt Disney World Fantasyland within Magic Kingdom. The boarding queue was built inside the Enchanted Hall (which is a alleyway that transitions from Fantasyland to Liberty Square), and the three-dimensional facade that is seen outdoors in the other Disney parks was instead located in a slightly smaller scale along the far wall. The clock lacks the parade of wooden dolls and instead goes straight to opening the central pair of doors to reveal the time. The company Kodak sponsored the attraction for an unknown period of time in the early 1980s, before the toy company Mattel sponsored the attraction from 1991 until 1998, when it transferred its sponsorship to another Magic Kingdom attraction, Buzz Lightyear's Space Ranger Spin in nearby Tomorrowland from that attraction's opening in 1998 until 1999, when it also dropped its sponsorship of that attraction, thus ending Mattel's history as a Walt Disney World sponsor. In 2005, the attraction's load area was redesigned to feature an indoor version of the facade and clock tower based on the attraction's Disneyland counterpart. In 2021, for the parks 50th anniversary, its facade was repainted in bright colors.


title: It's a Small World

text: The Tokyo Disneyland version of the attraction is identical in layout to the Magic Kingdom version except for these differences:


title: It's a Small World

text: On March 1, 2017, Tokyo Disneyland's version of "It's a Small World" closed down for refurbishment for its first major update since the park's opening in 1983. Reopened on April 8, 2018 coinciding with Tokyo Disneyland's 35th anniversary, the attraction featured 40 characters from Disney properties including "Cinderella", "Alice in Wonderland", "Peter Pan", "The Aristocats", "Brave", "The Little Mermaid", "Aladdin", "Pinocchio", "The Jungle Book", "The Lion King", "Hercules", "The Three Caballeros", "Mulan", "Tangled", "Lilo & Stitch", "Frozen", "Finding Nemo", and "Moana" similar to its counterparts in California and Hong Kong.


title: It's a Small World

text: The attraction was initially set to be relocated to another area in Fantasyland with a new facade similar to the California counterpart as part of original expansion plans announced in October 2014 for the resort within the next ten years before being revised and updated. The updated version of the attraction soft-opened on April 8, 2018, revealing a redone color scheme for the façade, a new tick-tock sound and parade music (similar to the ones used in Hong Kong and Anaheim), an entirely redone loading area dubbed “Small World Station,” a new Welcome room, an extended Goodbye room, redone set pieces, and music tracks new to the ride including a Mandarin language track added to the China scene formerly exclusive to the Hong Kong version along with the aforementioned Disney characters.


title: It's a Small World

text: The attraction at Disneyland Paris is a departure from other versions of the attraction. The façade features rearranged and slightly redesigned landmarks with a completely different clock tower. The exterior clock face features a wide-awake sun on its left half and a sleeping moon on its right half. Unlike all other versions of the ride, every scene is housed in one room with arches being used to define sections of the ride. The scenery design is a complete departure from Mary Blair's distinctive style, though the dolls used remain identical to all other versions. The ride also uses a completely different soundtrack composed by John Debney (which was also used for roughly a decade at the Californian version from 1992 to 2002, before switching back to the original 1966 soundtrack), which can be described as more ornate compared to the original soundtrack. This is the first version of the ride to incorporate a scene for North America with dolls representing Canada and the United States, and a distinct Middle Eastern section with dolls singing in Arabic and Hebrew. In the Finale room, in addition to the song being sung in English, it is also sung in Dutch French German and Russian. Also, the attraction had a post-show area called World Chorus that was sponsored by Orange S.A., which opened with the park in 1992 and then closed in 2010 to make way for the Princess Pavilion meet and greet area.


title: It's a Small World

text: As part of an ongoing plan to refurbish several attractions for the park's 25th anniversary, this version went under an extensive refurbishment for six months before it reopened on December 19, 2015. The refurbishment included a different color scheme for the façade that is identical to the color scheme when it first opened, restored assets and special effects, refurbished boats, new LED lighting to replace the old stage lighting, and all 176 dolls in the ride being progressively replaced through 2017. The entrance and exit rooms have been completely revamped, being identical to the entrance scene in Hong Kong Disneyland's version and the exit scene in the Magic Kingdom and Hong Kong Disneyland versions (rendered in the Mary Blair style similar to the other parks). The soundtrack has been completely remastered with the base instrumental removed from the majority of the ride's audio except for the finale, making the soundtrack more similar to the original version. Additionally, new audio tracks are added including a new recording of someone yodeling to the tune of the song in the Switzerland scene.


title: It's a Small World

text: Disneyland Paris’ "It’s a Small World" has been closed to guests since November 29, 2021 and will remain closed until Autumn 2022. Now, as the construction continues on this classic attraction, construction walls have gone up around the building.


title: It's a Small World

text: The Hong Kong Disneyland version of the attraction is mostly modeled after the original Disneyland counterpart, using a canal for the boats to travel through instead of the open-ended water track found in the Magic Kingdom, Tokyo, and Paris versions. Some of this version's prominent and unique characteristics include:


title: It's a Small World

text: The attraction is the largest indoor attraction at Hong Kong Disneyland. It is situated beyond the Hong Kong Disneyland Railroad, next to Disney's Storybook Theater where Mickey and the Wondrous Book is performed daily.


title: It's a Small World

text: Since 1997, Disneyland has featured "It's a Small World Holiday" during the end-of-the-year Christmas and holiday season. The attraction is closed in late October to receive temporary holiday decorations inside and outside and reopens in early November before the start of the busy holiday tourist season. After the holiday season, "It's a Small World Holiday" stays open until late January where it closes to remove the holiday overlay and return to classic "It's a Small World" in early February. Almost one million lights are included during the holidays. The overlay has proved very popular and has led to the installation of Fastpass machines. The attraction is the same boat voyage through many regions of the world, though the main theme song is not played in full. Instead, the children sing "Jingle Bells" and a bridge of "Deck the Halls" in addition to the main theme. Other versions of this overlay have been implemented at different international versions of the ride since. Since the holiday 2009 season, the Disney characters and The Spirit of America room (formerly the covered transition room) have joined in the "It's a Small World Holiday" at Disneyland. During the 2019 holiday season, Disney Imagineering added 3 new scents on "It's a Small World" Holiday. Since 1997, the European room has implemented a peppermint gingerbread scent, now accompanied by 3 new scents such as cherry blossoms in Asia, cinnamon in South America, and coconuts in the South Seas. For the 2020–2021 season, the overlay didn't take place due to COVID-19 and the ongoing closure of Disneyland Park.


title: It's a Small World

text: Prior to the 2018 refurbishment, Tokyo Disneyland had a version of "It's a Small World Holiday" called "It's a Small World Very Merry Holidays".


title: It's a Small World

text: Disneyland Paris had a version of the overlay in which the full holiday soundtrack was not used. For the 2009 winter season, it received an overhaul with an official name of "It's a Small World Celebration". The overhaul included new lighting and decorations throughout the ride, and the entire ride now uses the full "It's a Small World Holiday" soundtrack. Following a 2015 renovation, "It's a Small World Celebration" was planned to use an updated soundtrack originally set for winter 2016. However, it was delayed for unknown reasons. “It's a Small World Celebration” returned for the 2017–2018 holiday season, featuring an updated soundtrack.


title: It's a Small World

text: Hong Kong Disneyland implemented its own version called "It's a Small World Christmas" that highlights the Disney character scenes in Christmas fashion with an appearance of Santa Claus in the North Pole scene.


title: It's a Small World

text: The Magic Kingdom does not have its own holiday edition of "It's a Small World", and the regular ride operates continuously through the holiday season.


title: VelociCoaster

text: VelociCoaster (marketed as Jurassic World VelociCoaster) is a launched roller coaster at Universal's Islands of Adventure in Orlando, Florida. Manufactured by Intamin and themed to the "Jurassic World" film franchise, the ride officially opened on June 10, 2021. It is located in the Islands of Adventure's Jurassic Park area, occupying the site of the former "Triceratops Encounter" attraction. VelociCoaster features two high-speed launches powered by linear synchronous motors, a signature top hat, four inversions, and a maximum speed of .


title: VelociCoaster

text: Universal Orlando hired Intamin to construct a new ride to replace the inactive "Triceratops Encounter" attraction, which had been closed for nearly a decade. The initiative, dubbed "Project 791" in permits filed by the park, would be the third collaboration between both parties following Harry Potter and the Escape from Gringotts (2014) and Hagrid's Magical Creatures Motorbike Adventure (2019). The permits filed in 2018 called for the demolition and site clearing of Triceratops Encounter, signaling to the public that a new attraction may be coming. Construction walls were erected in January 2019, and project documents were leaked online shortly after showing an overhead layout of a proposed roller coaster project.


title: VelociCoaster

text: Construction entered full swing by the spring of 2019, with the removal of Triceratops Encounter and the clearing of unused land in and around the park's existing Discovery Centre building. A bridge connecting The Lost Continent and Jurassic Park areas was also razed. In June 2019, the first pieces of track for the unannounced coaster were delivered and stored offsite. In July 2019, Universal Parks & Resorts filed a trademark with the United States Patent and Trademark Office for the name "VelociCoaster", which fans quickly deduced to be the name of the new unannounced coaster.


title: VelociCoaster

text: In early 2020, following months of concrete groundwork and further preparation, the extensive collection of track and supports already in storage were delivered to the construction site and installed. Construction was temporarily halted during the initial COVID-19 lockdown and later resumed at a rapid pace. Much of the construction was completed by the time Universal Orlando Resort was cleared to reopen in June 2020, attracting the unreserved attention of park guests and local media. The tall top hat element, the highest point of the ride, was topped out and completed the following month in early July.


title: VelociCoaster

text: Universal initially refused to confirm that it was constructing a roller coaster, even after the ride had been topped out. On September 28, 2020, Universal formally announced the new ride as Jurassic World VelociCoaster, billing it as a "new species of roller coaster" and the tallest and fastest launch coaster in Florida. It was confirmed that the ride would feature twelve airtime moments, a zero-g stall, and a barrel roll over the lagoon for its finale.


title: VelociCoaster

text: Universal continued to release new information on VelociCoaster before the ride's 2021 scheduled opening. In December 2020, closeups of the trains were published, and early testing was underway. In January 2021, VelociCoaster hosted its first riders. More details surrounding the specs of the new coaster were released shortly after, including its drop at an 80-degree angle and the use of a lap bar instead of an over-the-shoulder restraint. The first launch accelerates guests from in 2 seconds, and the second one adds an acceleration boost from in 2.4 seconds.


title: VelociCoaster

text: Construction walls around the construction area were taken down in late February 2021, giving park guests better views of the new coaster. In April 2021, VelociCoaster's official opening date was announced. A soft opening to press and enthusiasts was hosted on May 7, 2021, and the ride was well-received. An official on-ride point-of-view video was released to the public on May 28. The attraction formally opened on June 10, 2021, with guests waiting in the queue for up to four hours.


title: VelociCoaster

text: The queue begins outside the lower floor of the Discovery Center. Two raptor statues are on display at the entrance. The paddock features glowing neon lights, and the coaster can be occasionally seen launching outside the building. For lines that stretch outdoor, there is an extended queue area that provides close-up views of the coaster's track, as well as shade and cooling fans. Inside, guests see more raptor statues and eventually move into a room with six windows overlooking the ride track. A video projection special effect is used to show a "Velociraptor" chasing each coaster train as it passes by. Inside one of the windows, guests can find a clipboard and a radar gun. In another is a cup with permanent ripples referencing the first "Jurassic Park" film. Guests then enter a room with a video presentation by Dr. Henry Wu. There are a few lockers with various items, such as football equipment, raptor toys, and books. Guests enter an examination room where two animatronic "Velociraptors" are caged and muzzled.


title: VelociCoaster

text: The examination room is followed by the lockers area, where guests can secure loose articles. They are unique for their two-way design, in which a door swings open on one side to insert belongings, and then swings open on the other side as guests exit the ride and retrieve them. In addition, a family room can be found in this area, where guests can wait here while others ride the coaster. The family room contains a TV monitor that plays the "Jurassic World Camp Cretaceous" series by Netflix. Prior to reaching the metal detectors, there are advertisement posters of fictional Jurassic World attractions, such as Gyrosphere Valley, T-Rex Kingdom, and the Mosasaurus show. The posters also show attractions that exist at Islands of Adventure, such as . After passing the metal detectors, guests walk up a flight of stairs into a final pre-show room displaying a video with characters Claire Dearing and Owen Grady. In the video, Grady rebukes the idea of taking a ride on VelociCoaster and tries to discourage guests as well. The room features various Jurassic World props on display including zappers, net guns, a waiver and a dino tracker. Guests then reach the station, where they board the train.


title: VelociCoaster

text: The loading area is to the west of the queue. Once exiting the station, riders take an S-turn into the pre-launch sequence, where Owen warns the riders one last time and "Velociraptors" can be seen on either side of the track. As the "Velociraptors" escape, riders are launched from in 2 seconds. Immediately after the launch track, the train passes through a Jr. Immelmann through some rock work. The train dives down and back up through a dive loop. The train turns to the left as it dives under itself and snaps back to the right, where the on-ride camera is located. The train heads through an overbanked turn and rises up into an off-axis airtime hill. The ride rises through the rock work via a turnaround, and completes a downward s-bend, where the train passes Blue and Charlie, 2 of the 4 "Velociraptors" seen on the ride. The train goes through another overbanked turn and hits a sharp S-bend, passing Delta and Echo, and going through some more rock work. Following a slow outward-banked hill, the ride enters its second launch, propelling riders to in 2.4 seconds. Following the launch, the ride climbs to its tallest point, a tall top hat. The ride plummets down a drop at an 80 degree angle, and turns to the right and snaps back to the left to complete the long zero-g stall. The ride then rises up into a 125-degree overbanked turn, then heads into an outerbanked airtime hill. The ride enters a 113-degree overbanked turn and passes over a speed hill. Following this, the ride enters its signature element, a heartline roll (dubbed the ""Mosasaurus" Roll") at . This is followed by an off-axis airtime hill before reaching the brake run. As the train returns to the station, Owen thanks the riders before being called to a situation at the River Adventure.


title: Urology

text: Urology (from Greek οὖρον "ouron" "urine" and "-logia" "study of"), also known as genitourinary surgery, is the branch of medicine that focuses on surgical and medical diseases of the urinary-tract system and the reproductive organs. Organs under the domain of urology include the kidneys, adrenal glands, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra, and the male reproductive organs (testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, and penis).


title: Urology

text: The urinary and reproductive tracts are closely linked, and disorders of one often affect the other. Thus a major spectrum of the conditions managed in urology exists under the domain of genitourinary disorders. Urology combines the management of medical (i.e., non-surgical) conditions, such as urinary-tract infections and benign prostatic hyperplasia, with the management of surgical conditions such as bladder or prostate cancer, kidney stones, congenital abnormalities, traumatic injury, and stress incontinence.


title: Urology

text: Urological techniques include minimally invasive robotic and laparoscopic surgery, laser-assisted surgeries, and other scope-guided procedures. Urologists receive training in open and minimally invasive surgical techniques, employing real-time ultrasound guidance, fiber-optic endoscopic equipment, and various lasers in the treatment of multiple benign and malignant conditions. Urology is closely related to (and urologists often collaborate with the practitioners of) oncology, nephrology, gynaecology, andrology, pediatric surgery, colorectal surgery, gastroenterology, and endocrinology.


title: Urology

text: Urology is one of the most competitive and highly sought surgical specialties for physicians, with new urologists comprising less than 1.5% of United States medical-school graduates each year.


title: Urology

text: Urologists are physicians which have specialized in the field after completing their general degree in medicine. Upon successful completion of a residency program, many urologists choose to undergo further advanced training in a subspecialty area of expertise through a fellowship lasting an additional 12 to 36 months. Subspecialties may include: urologic surgery, urologic oncology and urologic oncological surgery, endourology and endourologic surgery, urogynecology and urogynecologic surgery, reconstructive urologic surgery (a form of reconstructive surgery), minimally-invasive urologic surgery, pediatric urology and pediatric urologic surgery (including adolescent urology, the treatment of premature or delayed puberty, and the treatment of congenital urological syndromes, malformations, and deformations), transplant urology (the field of transplant medicine and surgery concerned with transplantation of organs such as the kidneys, bladder tissue, ureters, and, recently, penises), voiding dysfunction, paruresis, neurourology, and androurology and sexual medicine. Additionally, some urologists supplement their fellowships with a master's degree (2–3 years) or with a Ph.D. (4–6 years) in related topics to prepare them for academic as well as focused clinical employment.


title: Urology

text: As of 2022, there are 146 residency programs that offered 356 categorical positions. Urology is one of the early match programs, with results given to applicants by early February (6 weeks before NRMP match). Applications are accepted starting Sep 1, with some programs accepting applications until early Jan.


title: Urology

text: It is a relatively competitive specialty to match into, with only 65.6% of US seniors matching in the 2022 match cycle. The number of positions has grown from 278 in 2012 to 356 in 2022. Matching is significantly more difficult for IMGs and students who have a year or more off before residency - match rates were 27% and 55% respectively in 2012.


title: Urology

text: The medical school environment may also be a factor. A study in 2012 also showed after an analysis of match rates from schools between 2005 and 2009 that 20 schools sent more than 15 students into urology (1 standard deviation above the median), with Northwestern University sending 44 students over those 5 years.


title: Urology

text: After urology residency, there are seven subspecialties recognized by the AUA (American Urological Association):


title: Urology

text: Training is completed through the Royal Australasian College of Surgeons (RACS). The program requires six years of full-time training (for those who commenced prior to 2016), or five years for those who commenced after 2016. The program is accredited by the Australian Medical Council.


title: Urology

text: In Nepal, the formal urologist degree awarded is MCh (Magister Chirurgiae). This is a three years course post masters and includes thesis and a mandatory publication. This degree is awarded after completing MBBS (four and half year plus a one-year rotatory internship) and MS (Mastery of surgery) in general surgery (three years course). Till now two universities Tribhuvan University and Kathmandu University as well as two Autonomous institutes BP Koirala Institute of health sciences and National Academy of Medical Sciences (Bir Hospital) run the MCh Urology programme. This degree is equivalent to Clinical PhD and called as "Chikitsa Bidhyabaridhi" by Tribhuvan University (Government University) and is considered to be the highest degree among the surgical discipline degrees.


title: Urology

text: Urology is a relatively new field in Ethiopia. By 2001, there were only five qualified Urologists in the country. All trained abroad, in countries like India, Tanzania and Hungary. Before this chapter all urology cases were managed by general surgeons. The only urological unit in the country was at Tikur Anbessa Tertiary Hospital. The services provided included ESWL and endo-urology. The urology training program was started in 2009 with a curriculum for general surgeons which had a three-year training program. Up to 2019, six urologists have graduated by this program for general surgeons. The first residency program started accepting general practitioners in 2010 for a five-year program. The first two years were trainings in general surgery, the next three years were dedicated urology training program, which included the same three-year training as of the general surgeons three year curriculum. It started with two residents who graduated in 2015 with a certificate in specialty of urology. Up to 2019, seventeen urologists have graduated from this five-year residency program. From the start these programs in 2009 up to 2019, a total of 23 urologists have been trained in Tikur Anbessa Tertioary Hospital. As of 2020, there were 26 trainees in the program. All of the urologists who graduated from Tikur Anbessa Tertioary Hospital were as of 2020 working in different parts of the country.


title: Urology

text: As a medical discipline that involves the care of many organs and physiological systems, urology can be broken down into several subdisciplines. At many larger academic centers and university hospitals that excel in patient care and clinical research, urologists often specialize in a particular sub discipline.


title: Urology

text: Endourology is the branch of urology that deals with the closed manipulation of the urinary tract. It has lately grown to include all minimally invasive urologic surgical procedures. As opposed to open surgery, endourology is performed using small cameras and instruments inserted into the urinary tract. Transurethral surgery has been the cornerstone of endourology. Most of the urinary tract can be reached via the urethra, enabling prostate surgery, surgery of tumors of the urothelium, stone surgery, and simple urethral and ureteral procedures. Recently, the addition of laparoscopy and robotics has further subdivided this branch of urology.


title: Urology

text: Laparoscopy is a rapidly evolving branch of urology and has replaced some open surgical procedures. Robot-assisted surgery of the prostate, kidney, and ureter has been expanding this field. Today, many prostatectomies in the United States are carried out by so-called robotic assistance. This has created controversy, however, as robotics greatly increase the cost of surgery and the benefit for the patient may or may not be proportional to the extra cost. Moreover, current (2011) market situation for robotic equipment is a de facto monopoly of one publicly held corporation which further fuels the cost-effectiveness controversy.


title: Urology

text: Urologic oncology concerns the surgical treatment of malignant genitourinary diseases such as cancer of the prostate, adrenal glands, bladder, kidneys, ureters, testicles, and penis, as well as the skin and subcutaneous tissue and muscle and fascia of those areas (that particular subspecialty overlaps with dermatological oncology and related areas of oncology). The treatment of genitourinary cancer is managed by either a urologist or an oncologist, depending on the treatment type (surgical or medical). Most urologic oncologists in Western countries use minimally invasive techniques (laparoscopy or endourology, robotic-assisted surgery) to manage urologic cancers amenable to surgical management.


title: Urology

text: Neurourology concerns nervous system control of the genitourinary system, and of conditions causing abnormal urination. Neurological diseases and disorders such as a stroke, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and spinal cord injury can disrupt the lower urinary tract and result in conditions such as urinary incontinence, detrusor overactivity, urinary retention, and detrusor sphincter dyssynergia. Urodynamic studies play an important diagnostic role in neurourology. Therapy for nervous system disorders includes clean intermittent self-catheterization of the bladder, anticholinergic drugs, injection of Botulinum toxin into the bladder wall and advanced and less commonly used therapies such as sacral neuromodulation.


title: Urology

text: Less marked neurological abnormalities can cause urological disorders as well—for example, abnormalities of the sensory nervous system are thought by many researchers to play a role in disorders of painful or frequent urination (e.g. painful bladder syndrome also known as interstitial cystitis).


title: Urology

text: Pediatric urology concerns urologic disorders in children. Such disorders include cryptorchidism (undescended testes), congenital abnormalities of the genitourinary tract, enuresis, underdeveloped genitalia (due to delayed growth or delayed puberty, often an endocrinological problem), and vesicoureteral reflux.


title: Urology

text: Andrology is the medical specialty that deals with male health, particularly relating to the problems of the male reproductive system and urological problems that are unique to men such as prostate cancer, male fertility problems, and surgery of the male reproductive system. It is the counterpart to gynaecology, which deals with medical issues that are specific to female health, especially reproductive and urologic health.


title: Urology

text: Reconstructive urology is a highly specialized field of male urology that restores both structure and function to the genitourinary tract. Prostate procedures, full or partial hysterectomies, trauma (auto accidents, gunshot wounds, industrial accidents, straddle injuries, etc.), disease, obstructions, blockages (e.g., urethral strictures), and occasionally, childbirth, can necessitate reconstructive surgery. The urinary bladder, ureters (the tubes that lead from the kidneys to the urinary bladder) and genitalia are other examples of reconstructive urology.


title: Urology

text: Female urology is a branch of urology dealing with overactive bladder, pelvic organ prolapse, and urinary incontinence. Many of these physicians also practice neurourology and reconstructive urology as mentioned above. Female urologists (many of whom are men) complete a 1–3-year fellowship after completion of a 5–6-year urology residency. Thorough knowledge of the female pelvic floor together with intimate understanding of the physiology and pathology of voiding are necessary to diagnose and treat these disorders. Depending on the cause of the individual problem, a medical or surgical treatment can be the solution. Their field of practice heavily overlaps with that of urogynecologists, physicians in a sub-discipline of gynecology, who have done a three-year fellowship after a four-year OBGYN residency.


title: Urology

text: There are a number of peer-reviewed journals and publications about urology, including "The Journal of Urology", "European Urology", the "African Journal of Urology", "British Journal of Urology International", "BMC Urology", Indian Journal of Urology", "Nature Reviews Urology", and "Urology".


title: Urology

text: There are national organizations such as the American Urological Association, the American Association of Clinical Urologists, European Association of Urology, the Large Urology Group Practice Association (LUGPA), and The Society for Basic Urologic Research. Urology is also included under the auspices of the International Continence Society.


title: Urology

text: Teaching organizations include the European Board of Urology, as well as the Vattikuti Urology Institute in Detroit, which also hosts an annual International Robotic Urology Symposium devoted to new technologies. The American non-profit IVUMed teaches urology in developing countries.


title: Wilfrid Brambell

text: Henry Wilfrid Brambell (22 March 1912 – 18 January 1985) was an Irish television and film actor and comedian, best remembered for playing the grubby rag-and-bone man Albert Steptoe alongside Harry H. Corbett in the long-running BBC television sitcom "Steptoe and Son" (1962–65, 1970–74). He achieved international recognition in 1964 for his appearance alongside the Beatles in "A Hard Day's Night", playing the fictional grandfather of Paul McCartney.


title: Wilfrid Brambell

text: Brambell was born in Dublin, the youngest of three sons born to Henry Lytton Brambell (1870–1937), a cashier at the Guinness Brewery, and his wife, Edith Marks (1879–1965), a former opera singer. The family surname was changed from "Bramble" by Wilfrid's grandfather Frederick William Brambell. His two older brothers were Frederick Edward Brambell (1905–1980) and James Christopher Marks "Jim" Brambell (1907–1992).


title: Wilfrid Brambell

text: His first appearance was as a child, entertaining the wounded troops during the First World War. After leaving school, he worked part-time as a reporter for "The Irish Times" and part-time as an actor at the Abbey Theatre before becoming a professional actor for the Gate Theatre. He also did repertory at Swansea, Bristol and Chesterfield. In the Second World War, he joined the British military forces entertainment organisation ENSA.


title: Wilfrid Brambell

text: Brambell had roles in film and television from 1947, first appearing (uncredited) in "Odd Man Out" as a tram passenger. His television career began during the 1950s, when he was cast in small roles in three Nigel Kneale/Rudolph Cartier productions for BBC Television: as a drunk in "The Quatermass Experiment" (1953), as both an old man in a pub and later a prisoner in "Nineteen Eighty-Four" (1954), and as a tramp in "Quatermass II" (1955).


title: Wilfrid Brambell

text: All of these roles earned him a reputation for playing old men, though he was only in his forties at the time. He appeared in the short film series" Scotland Yard" in the episode, "The Grand Junction Case". He appeared as Bill Gaye in the 1962 Maurice Chevalier/Hayley Mills picture, "In Search of the Castaways". He was heard on the original London cast recording of the long-running West End stage musical The Canterbury Tales in which he starred at London's Phoenix Theatre.".


title: Wilfrid Brambell

text: He also released two 45-rpm singles, "Second Hand"/"Rag Time Ragabone Man", that played on his "Steptoe and Son" character, followed in 1971 by "Time Marches On", his tribute to the Beatles.


title: Wilfrid Brambell

text: Brambell was featured in many prominent theatre roles. In 1966, he played Ebenezer Scrooge in a musical version of "A Christmas Carol". This was adapted for radio the same year, and appeared on Radio 2 on Christmas Eve. Brambell's booming baritone voice surprised many listeners: he played the role straight, true to the Dickens original, and not in the stereotype Albert Steptoe character. In 1971, he starred in the premiere of Eric Chappell's play, "The Banana Box", in which he played Rooksby. This part was later renamed Rigsby for the television adaptation called "Rising Damp", with Leonard Rossiter replacing Brambell in the role. Brambell also played Bert Thomson, an Irish widower, in the film "Holiday on the Buses"; the character in question started a close friendship with Stan Butler's mother, Mabel.


title: Wilfrid Brambell

text: It was this ability to play old men that led to his casting in his best remembered role as Albert Steptoe, the irascible father in "Steptoe and Son", a man who – when the series began – was said to be in his sixties, even though Brambell was only aged 50 in 1962 (thirteen years older than Harry H. Corbett, who played his son Harold). The series began as a pilot on the BBC's "Comedy Playhouse", and its success led to the commissioning of a full series. It ran from 1962 to 1974, including a five-year hiatus. A constant thread throughout the series was Albert being referred to by Harold as a "dirty old man"; for example, when he was eating pickled onions while taking a bath, and retrieving dropped onions from the bathwater. There were also two feature film spin-offs, a stage show and an American incarnation titled "Sanford and Son", some episodes of which were almost exact remakes of the original British scripts.


title: Wilfrid Brambell

text: The success of "Steptoe and Son" made Brambell a high-profile figure on British television, and earned him the supporting role of Paul McCartney's grandfather in the Beatles' first film, "A Hard Day's Night" (1964). A running joke is made throughout the film of his character being "a very clean old man", in contrast to his being referred to as a "dirty old man" in "Steptoe and Son". In real life, he was indeed nothing like his "Steptoe" persona, being dapper and well-spoken – he notably spoke with a distinct received pronunciation accent; in strong contrast to either his "Steptoe" cockney accent, or his native Irish accent which he would use where the role dictated. In 1965, Brambell told the BBC that he did not want to do another series of "Steptoe and Son", and in September that year, he went to New York City to appear in the Broadway musical "Kelly" at the Broadhurst Theatre. It closed after a single performance.


title: Wilfrid Brambell

text: Apart from his role as the older Steptoe, Brambell achieved recognition in many films. His performance in 'The Terence Davies Trilogy' won him critical acclaim. Although he appears throughout the full 24-minute piece, Brambell does not speak a single word.


title: Wilfrid Brambell

text: After the final series of "Steptoe and Son" concluded in 1974, Brambell had some guest roles in films and on television. He and Harry H. Corbett also undertook a tour of Australia in 1977 in a stage production based on "Steptoe and Son". In 1982, Brambell appeared on the BBC's television news paying tribute to Corbett, after the latter's death from a heart attack. In 1982, Brambell appeared in Terence Davies's film "Death and Transfiguration", playing a dying elderly man who finally comes to terms with his homosexuality.