title: Mansour Bahrami

text: Mansour Bahrami (; born 26 April 1956) is a former professional tennis player. He is Iranian with dual French nationality since 1989. While only moderately successful on the ATP Tour, his showmanship has made him a long-standing and popular figure in invitational tournaments.


title: Mansour Bahrami

text: Mansour Bahrami reached the Davis Cup team at the age of 16. But following Iran's Islamic Revolution in the late 1970s, tennis was viewed as a capitalist and elitist sport and therefore banned. Because all tennis courts in Iran were closed down, he spent the next three years playing backgammon. In desperation, he fled to France with his life savings, which he gambled in a casino and lost.


title: Mansour Bahrami

text: With his best days behind him and his potential in singles never fully realized, he became a successful doubles player, winning two tournaments and reaching the 1989 French Open doubles final with Éric Winogradsky.


title: Mansour Bahrami

text: Bahrami has been a mainstay of the seniors invitational tennis circuit for more than 25 years. Bahrami is considered to have "found his niche" on the ATP Champions Tour, where his flamboyant, humorous style and propensity for trick shots make him a crowd favorite in the tour's more entertainment-oriented sphere. In reference to his showmanship, his 2009 English-language autobiography was titled "The Court Jester". His comic turns on the court often include faking serves, slow-motion miming, hitting balls backwards between his legs, over his shoulder or from the back, and playing while laying down or seated.


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: "These Boots Are Made for Walkin' is a hit song written by Lee Hazlewood and recorded by American singer Nancy Sinatra. It charted on January 22, 1966, and reached No.1 in the United States "Billboard" Hot 100 and in the UK Singles Chart.


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: Subsequently, many cover versions of the song have been released in a range of styles: metal, pop, rock, punk rock, country, dance, and industrial. Among the more notable versions are the singles released by Megadeth, Billy Ray Cyrus and Jessica Simpson.


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: The song was written by Lee Hazlewood; it was inspired by a line spoken by Frank Sinatra in the comedy-western film "4 for Texas" (1963): "They tell me them boots ain't built for walkin'."


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: Nancy Sinatra's version of the song was released as a single in December 1965, as the second song to be taken from her debut album, "Boots" (1966), and was a follow-up to the minor hit "So Long, Babe". The song became an instant success and, in late February 1966, it topped the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart, a move it replicated in similar charts across the world.


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: "Billboard" described the song as "fine folk-rock material" and praised Sinatra's vocal performance and "the Billy Strange driving dance beat." "Cash Box" described it as a "funky, slow-shufflin' folk-rocker about a gal who serves notice on her boyfriend that she can't be pushed around."


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: Lee Hazlewood intended to record the song himself, saying that "it's not really a girl's song", but Sinatra talked him out of it, saying that "coming from a guy it was harsh and abusive, but was perfect for a little girl to sing". Hazlewood agreed. Sinatra's recording of the song was made with the help of Los Angeles session musicians known as the Wrecking Crew. This session included Chuck Berghofer on double bass, providing the notable bass line with its quarter-tone descent. The session was held on November 19, 1965, at United Western Recorders in Hollywood, and additionally produced the songs "Foursome" and "The City Never Sleeps at Night".


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: In the same year, Sinatra recorded a promotional film, which would later be known as the music video, for the song. It was produced for Color-Sonics and played on Scopitone video jukeboxes. The film was directed by choreographer Robert Sidney and was produced by Official Films at Paramount Studios in Hollywood. In 1986, for the song's 20th anniversary, cable station VH1 played the video.


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: Sinatra told Alison Martino that other videos and performances are from TV shows like "The Ed Sullivan Show", "Hullaballoo" and "Shindig!" These other videos featured Sinatra wearing an iconic pair of red leather boots.


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: The song was used by Stanley Kubrick for a scene in his 1987 film "Full Metal Jacket", where a South Vietnamese prostitute in a miniskirt propositions a couple of American GIs.


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: In Family Guy season eight, episode 18, "Quagmire's Dad", Quagmire's father, Lt. Dan Quagmire used this song to make an entrance when meeting Peter and Joe.


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: In 2006, Pitchfork Media selected it as the 114th best song of the 1960s. Critic Tom Breihan described the song as "maybe the finest bitchy kiss-off in pop history".


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company used portions of the song for its 1960s ad campaign promoting its "wide boots" tires. Nancy Sinatra unsuccessfully sued Goodyear for using the song, claiming that it had violated her publicity rights.


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: During the 1993 standoff in Waco, Texas between David Koresh and the FBI, the FBI played Sinatra's recording of the song on a loudspeaker in an attempt to torment Koresh and his followers in hopes they would surrender.


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: Other personnel, as seen in the American Federation of Musicians (AFM) contracts for the session include:


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: Despite multiple claims by Wrecking Crew drummer Hal Blaine that he played drums on the track, the contract shows he was not present at the session.


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: In 1992, Billy Ray Cyrus covered the song and included it on his debut album, "Some Gave All" (1992). Later, the cover was included on the compilations "De Nationale Voorjaars CD 1993", "Alle 40 goed – Country" and "The Definitive Collection".


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: Jessica Simpson recorded her own version of "These Boots Are Made for Walkin (and added her own lyrics) for the soundtrack to the film "The Dukes of Hazzard" (2005). The version was also included in the international version of her fifth studio album, "A Public Affair" (2006). Simpson's cover was co-produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis and was released as the soundtrack's first single on June 20, 2005. It became Simpson's fifth top-20 single in the United States, and its music video drew controversy because of its sexual imagery.


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: Simpson's version of the song is performed from the point of view of her character in "The Dukes of Hazzard", Daisy Duke, and it has several major differences from Sinatra's version. The song's lyrics were changed almost completely as Simpson felt that they did not accurately convey the feelings needed for the film; in the original Sinatra dealt with a cheating boyfriend, while in the new version Simpson explored Daisy Duke's personality and experiences. She rewrote the majority of the lyrics herself, although some elements were retained such as the opening line "You keep saying you got something for me..." and the spoken "Are you ready, boots? Start walkin.


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: Simpson also added some new music to her version of the song. Whereas the original version did not have a bridge, she created one for the cover. A risqué rap-like/spoken breakdown was added after the bridge. Because of the legalities of songwriting, Simpson has not been credited for the new music or lyrics that she wrote. The production of the song was altered as well. Producers Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis gave the cover a country-inspired production because of its relationship to the film "The Dukes of Hazzard", but they also added a more hip hop-like beat.


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: "These Boots Are Made for Walkin peaked at fourteen on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, and in late 2005 the RIAA certified the single Gold for 500,000 legal downloads or more. Its digital downloads were high, but radio airplay was low. Due to this, it is the song that reached the lowest chart position on the "Billboard" Hot 100 for a song topping the Hot Digital Songs chart. It reached the top ten on "Billboard"'s Pop 100 chart, and was Simpson's first single to appear on the chart. On July 23, 2005, the song jumped from 8 – 1 on Hot Digital Songs charts in its second week with 43,000 downloads. On December 11, 2006, the single was certified Gold by the RIAA again, this time by Epic Records. In total, the single has received 1 million digital downloads.


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: Internationally it was a success, reaching top 5 in several European countries. It became her biggest hit in Australia, where it reached number two and remained in the top forty for twenty-four weeks. In Ireland, the single also reached number 2. The song also cracked the top five in the United Kingdom, where it reached number four and is to date, her highest peaking single in Britain. It reached the top ten in the chart European Hot 100 Singles, Belgium, and New Zealand and the top twenty in Austria, Switzerland, and Germany. As the end of the year 2005, the single had sold 69,500 copies in UK.


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: The music video, directed by Brett Ratner, caused controversy because of its sexual imagery. It famously presents "footage of Simpson writhing suggestively against a suds-soaked motor vehicle".


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: American thrash metal band Megadeth covered the song on their 1985 debut album "Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!", which is track four on the original release and eight on the 2002 re-release. Their version (entitled "These Boots") featured altered lyrics, and was produced more as a parody than a true cover.


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: When the album started selling well, the writer of the song, Lee Hazlewood, began demanding that the song be omitted, due to its being a "perversion of the original". Megadeth guitarist and frontman Dave Mustaine made the point that Hazlewood had been paid royalties for years before he made the complaint, although Mustaine eventually omitted the song anyway from newer pressings of the album. When the album was remixed in 2002, a censored version of the song was included as a bonus track. In 2011, an uncensored live version recorded in 1987 was released as part of the 25th anniversary edition of the album "Peace Sells... but Who's Buying?". In 2018, the song was released with the original Lee Hazlewood lyrics on the remixed and remastered version of "Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!"


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: In 1987, Megadeth re-recorded the song as part of the soundtrack for Penelope Spheeris' film "Dudes", changing the title to "These Boots Are Made for Walkin. This version of the song was the last song the Megadeth recorded with Gar Samuelson and Chris Poland, as the two would be kicked out later in the year for their drug habits (Poland would later record with the band in 1990 and 2003-2004).


title: These Boots Are Made for Walkin'

text: Production and performance credits are adapted from the liner notes of "Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!".


title: Psychonauts

text: Psychonauts is a 2005 platform video game developed by Double Fine Productions. The game was initially published by Majesco Entertainment and THQ for Microsoft Windows, Xbox and PlayStation 2. In 2011, Double Fine acquired the rights for the title, allowing the company to republish the title with updates for modern gaming systems and ports for Mac OS X and Linux.


title: Psychonauts

text: "Psychonauts" follows the player-character Razputin (Raz), a young boy gifted with psychic abilities who runs away from the circus to try to sneak into a summer camp for those with similar powers to become a "Psychonaut", a spy with psychic abilities. He finds that there is a sinister plot occurring at the camp that only he can stop. The game is centered on exploring the strange and imaginative minds of various characters that Raz encounters as a Psychonaut-in-training/"Psycadet" to help them overcome their fears or memories of their past, so as to gain their help and progress in the game. Raz gains use of several psychic abilities during the game that are used for both attacking foes and solving puzzles.


title: Psychonauts

text: "Psychonauts" was based on an abandoned concept that Tim Schafer had during the development of "Full Throttle", which he expanded out into a full game through his then new company Double Fine. The game was initially backed by Microsoft's Ed Fries as a premiere title for the original Xbox console, but several internal and external issues led to difficulties for Double Fine in meeting various milestones and responding to testing feedback. Following Fries' departure in 2004, Microsoft dropped the publishing rights, making the game's future unclear. Double Fine was able to secure Majesco as a publisher a few months later allowing them to complete the game after four and a half years of development.


title: Psychonauts

text: Despite being well received, "Psychonauts" did not sell well with only about 400,000 retail units sold at the time of release, leading to a severe financial loss for Majesco and their departure from the video game market; the title was considered a commercial failure. "Psychonauts" since has earned a number of industry awards, gained a cult following and has been considered one of the greatest video games ever made. Following the acquisition of the game, Double Fine's republishing capabilities and support for modern platforms has allowed them to offer the game through digital distribution, and the company has reported that their own sales of the game have far exceeded what was initially sold on its original release, with cumulative sales of nearly 1.7 million . A sequel, "Psychonauts 2", was announced at The Game Awards in December 2015 and was released on August 25, 2021.


title: Psychonauts

text: "Psychonauts" is a platform game that incorporates various adventure elements. The player controls the main character Raz in a third-person, three-dimensional view, helping Raz to uncover a mystery at the Psychonauts training camp. Raz begins with basic movement abilities such as running and jumping, but as the game progresses, Razputin gains additional psychic powers such as telekinesis, levitation, invisibility, and pyrokinesis. These abilities allow the player to explore more of the camp as well as fight off enemies. These powers can either be awarded by completing certain story missions, gaining psi ranks during the game, or by purchasing them with hidden arrowheads scattered around the camp. Powers can be improved — such as more damaging pyrokinesis or longer periods of invisibility — through gaining additional psi ranks. The player can assign three of these powers to their controller or keyboard for quick use, but all earned powers are available at any time through a selection screen.


title: Psychonauts

text: The game includes both the "real world" of the camp and its surroundings, as well as a number of "mental worlds" which exist in the consciousness of the game's various characters. The mental worlds have wildly differing art and level design aesthetics, but generally have a specific goal that Raz must complete to help resolve a psychological issue a character may have, allowing the game's plot to progress. Within the mental worlds are censors that react negatively to Raz's presence and will attack him. There are also various collectibles within the mental worlds, including "figments" of the character's imagination which help increase Razputin’s psi ranking, "emotional baggage" which can be sorted by finding tags and bringing them to the baggage, and "memory vaults" which can unlock a short series of slides providing extra information on that character's backstory. Most of these worlds culminate in a boss battle that fully resolves the character's emotional distress and advance the story. The player is able to revisit any of these worlds after completing them to locate any additional collectibles they may have missed. Razputin is given some items early in the game, one that allows him to leave any mental world at any time, and another that can provide hints about what to do next or how to defeat certain enemies.


title: Psychonauts

text: Raz can take damage from psychically empowered creatures around the camp at night, or by censors in the mental worlds; due to a curse placed on his family, Raz is also vulnerable to water. If Raz’s health is drained, he is respawned at the most-recent checkpoint. However, this can only be done so many times while Raz is within a mental world, indicated by the number of remaining astral projections; if these are expended through respawning, Raz is ejected from the character's mind and must re-enter to make another attempt. Health and additional projections can be collected throughout the levels, or purchased at the camp store.


title: Psychonauts

text: The story is set in the fictional Whispering Rock Psychic Summer Camp, a remote US government training facility under the guise of a children's summer camp. Centuries ago the area was hit by a meteor made of psitanium (a fictional element that can grant psychic powers or strengthen existing powers), creating a huge crater. The psitanium affected the local wildlife, giving them limited psychic powers, such as bears with the ability to attack with telekinetic claws, cougars with pyrokinesis, and rats with confusion gas. The Native Americans of the area called psitanium "whispering rock", which they used to build arrowheads. When settlers began inhabiting the region, the psychoactive properties of the meteor slowly drove them insane. An asylum named Thorny Towers Home of the Disturbed was built to house the afflicted, but within fifteen years, the asylum had more residents than the town did and the founder Houston Thorny committed suicide by throwing himself from the asylum's tower. The government relocated the remaining inhabitants and flooded the crater to prevent further settlement, creating what is now Lake Oblongata. The asylum still stands, but has fallen into disrepair.


title: Psychonauts

text: The government took advantage of the psitanium deposit to set up a training camp for Psychonauts, a group of agents gifted with psychic abilities by the psitanium used to help defeat evil-doers. The training ground is disguised as a summer camp for young children, but in reality helps the children to hone their abilities and to train them to be Psychonauts themselves. Due to this, only those recruited by the Psychonauts are allowed into the camp.


title: Psychonauts

text: The protagonist and playable character of the game is Razputin Aquato (or Raz for short) (voice actor Richard Horvitz), the son of a family of circus performers, who runs away from the circus to become a Psychonaut, despite his father Augustus' wishes. His family is cursed to die in water, and a watery hand called the Hand of Galochio attempts to submerge Raz whenever he approaches any significantly deep water. When at camp, Raz meets four of the Psychonauts that run the camp: the cool and calculating Sasha Nein (voice actor Stephen Stanton), the fun-loving Milla Vodello (voice actress Alexis Lezin), the regimental Agent/Coach Morceau Oleander (voice actor Nick Jameson), and the aged, Mark Twainesque Ford Cruller (voice actor David Kaye), said by Razputin to have been the greatest leader the Psychonauts ever had, until a past psychic duel shattered Ford's psyche and left him with dissociative identity disorder. Only when he is near the large concentration of Psitanium does his psyche come together enough to form his real personality. During his time at camp, Raz meets several of the other gifted children including Lili Zanotto (voice actress Nikki Rapp), the daughter of the Grand Head of the Psychonauts, with whom he falls in love; and Dogen Boole, the grandson of one of the Psychonaut's founders who can communicate with animals and goes around with a tin foil hat to prevent his abilities from causing anyone's head to explode. Raz also meet the residents of the insane asylum including ex-dentist and brain surgeon Dr. Caligosto Loboto; as well as Boyd Cooper, a former security guard that holds a number of government conspiracy theories about a person known as "the Milkman"; Fred Bonaparte, an asylum orderly struggling control over his mind by a hallucination of his ancestor, Napoleon Bonaparte; Gloria Van Gouton, a former actress driven insane by a family tragedy; Edgar Teglee, a painter whose girlfriend cheated on him; and Linda, the gigantic lungfish that brings campers to the asylum.


title: Psychonauts

text: Razputin, having fled from the circus, tries to sneak into the camp, but is caught by the Psychonauts. They agree to let him stay until his parents arrive, but refuse to let him take part in any activities. However, they do allow him to take part in Coach Oleander's "Basic Braining" course, which he easily passes. Impressed, Agent Nein invites Raz to take part in an experiment to determine the extent of his abilities. During the experiment, Raz comes across a vision of Dr. Loboto, an insane ex-dentist, extracting Dogen's brain, but is unable to intervene. Raz eventually realizes that the vision is true after finding Dogen without his brain, but the Psychonauts refuse to believe him. After receiving additional training from Agent Vodello, Raz learns that Dr. Loboto is working on behalf of Coach Oleander, who intends to harvest the campers' brains to power an army of psychic death tanks. Lili is soon abducted as well, and with both Agents Nein and Vodello missing, Raz takes it upon himself to infiltrate the abandoned Thorny Towers Home of the Disturbed insane asylum where she was taken. Agent Cruller gives him a piece of bacon which he can use to contact Agent Cruller at any time, and tasks him with retrieving the stolen brains so that he can return them to the campers.


title: Psychonauts

text: Raz frees the mutated lungfish Linda from Coach Oleander's control, and she takes him safely across the lake. At the asylum, Raz helps the inmates overcome their illnesses, and they help him access the upper levels of the asylum, where Loboto has set up his lab. He frees Lili and restores Agents Nein and Vodello's minds, allowing them to confront Coach Oleander. The inmates subsequently burn down the asylum, allowing Coach Oleander to transfer his brain to a giant tank. Raz defeats him, but when he approaches the tank, it releases a cloud of sneezing powder, causing him to sneeze his brain out. Raz uses his telekinesis to place his brain inside the tank, merging it with Oleander's. Inside, Raz discovers that Coach Oleander's evil springs from his childhood fear of his father, who ran a butcher shop, being amplified by the psitanium. At the same time, Raz’s own father appears and the two dads join forces. However, he turns out to be an imposter, with Raz’s real father, Augustus, appearing and using his own psychic abilities to fix his son's tangled mind and beat the personal demons. At the camp's closing ceremony, Agent Cruller presents him with a uniform and welcomes him into the Psychonauts. Raz prepares to leave camp with his father, but word arrives that the Grand Head of the Psychonauts—Lili's father, Truman Zanotto—has been captured. Thus Raz and the Psychonauts fly off on their new mission.


title: Psychonauts

text: "Psychonauts" was the debut title for Double Fine Productions, a development studio that Tim Schafer founded after leaving LucasArts following their decision to exit the point-and-click adventure game market. Schafer's initial studio hires included several others that worked alongside him on "Grim Fandango".


title: Psychonauts

text: The backstory for "Psychonauts" was originally conceived during the development of "Full Throttle", where Tim Schafer envisioned a sequence where the protagonist Ben goes under a peyote-induced psychedelic experience. While this was eventually ejected from the original game (for not being family friendly enough), Schafer kept the idea and eventually developed it into "Psychonauts". While still working at LucasArts, Tim Schafer decided to use the name "Raz" for a main character because he liked the nickname of the LucasArts animator, Razmig "Raz" Mavlian. When Mavlian joined Double Fine, there was increased confusion between the character and the animator. The game's associate producer, Camilla Fossen, suggested the name "Rasputin". As a compromise, Double Fine's lawyer suggested the trademarkable name "Razputin", which was used for the game.


title: Psychonauts

text: Most of the game's dialog and script was written by Schafer and Erik Wolpaw, who at the time was a columnist for the website Old Man Murray. After establishing the game's main characters, Schafer undertook his own exercise to write out how the characters would see themselves and the other characters' on a social media site similar to Friendster, which Schafer was a fan of at the time and from where he met his wife-to-be. This helped him to solidify the characters in his own head prior to writing the game's dialog, as well as providing a means of introducing the characters to the rest of the development team. To help flesh out character dialog outside of cut scenes, Schafer developed an approach that used dozens of spoken lines by a character that could be stitched together in a random manner by the game as to reduce apparent repetition; such stitching included elements like vocal pauses and coughs that made the dialog sound more natural. Schafer used the camp and woods setting as a natural place that children would want to wander and explore.


title: Psychonauts

text: The game's mental worlds were generally a result of an idea presented by Schafer to the team, fleshed out through concept art and gameplay concepts around the idea, and then executed into the game with the asset and gameplay developers, so each world had its own unique identity. One of the game's most famous levels is "The Milkman Conspiracy", which takes place in the mind of Boyd, one of the patients at the mental hospital who is obsessed with conspiracy theories. Schafer had been interested in knowing what went on inside the minds of those that believed in conspiracy theories, inspired by watching "Capricorn One" as a child. During a Double Fine dinner event, someone had uttered the line "I am the milkman, my milk is delicious.", which led Schafer to create the idea of Boyd, a milkman bent on conspiracy theories. Schafer then worked out a web of conspiracy theories, wanting the level to be a maze-like structure around those, tying that in to Boyd's backstory as a person who had been fired from many different jobs, partially inspired by a homeless person that Double Fine occasionally paid to help clean their office front. Schaefer had wanted the 1950s suburban vibe to the level as it would fit in with the spy theme from the same period. Artist Scott Campbell fleshed out these ideas, along with the featureless G-men modeled after the "Spy vs. Spy" characters. Peter Chan came up with the idea of vaulting the suburban setting into vertical spaces as to create a maze-like effect, which inspired the level designers and gameplay developers to create a level where the local gravity would change for Raz, thus allowing him to move across the warped setting that was created. The level's unique gameplay aspect, where Raz would need to give specific G-men a proper object as in point-and-click adventure games, was from gameplay developer Erik Robson as a means to take advantage of the inventory feature that they had given Raz. Schafer had wanted Wolpaw to write the lines for the G-men, but as he was too busy, Schafer ended up writing these himself.


title: Psychonauts

text: The art design crew included background artist Peter Chan and cartoonist Scott Campbell. Voice actor Richard Steven Horvitz, best known for his portrayal of Zim in the cult favorite animated series "Invader Zim", provides the voice of Raz, the game's protagonist. Initially the team tried to bring in children to provide the voices for the main cast, similar to "Peanuts" cartoons, but struggled with their lack of acting experience. Schafer had selected Horvitz based on his audition tapes and ability to provide a wide range of vocal intonations on the spot, providing them with numerous takes to work with. Raz was originally conceived as an ostrich suffering from mental imbalance and multiple personalities. Tim Schafer killed the idea because he strongly believes in games being "wish fulfillments," guessing that not many people fantasize about being an insane ostrich.


title: Psychonauts

text: Double Fine created a number of internal tools and processes to help with the development of the game, as outlined by executive producer Caroline Esmurdoc. With the focus of the game on Raz as the playable character within a platform game, the team created the "Raz Action Status Meeting" (RASM). These were held bi-weekly with each meeting focusing on one specific movement or action that Raz had, reviewing how the character controlled and the visual feedback from that so that the overall combination of moves felt appropriate. With extensive use of the Lua scripting language, they created their own internal Lua Debugger nicknamed Dougie, after a homeless man near their offices they had befriended, that helped to normalize their debugging processes and enable third-party tools to interact with the name. With a large number of planned cutscenes, Double Fine took the time to create a cutscene editor so that the scriptwriters could work directly with the models and environments already created by the programmers without requiring the programmer's direct participation. For level design, though they had initially relied on the idea of simply placing various triggers throughout a level to create an event, the resulting Lua code was large and bulky with potential for future error. They assigned eight of the game programmers to assist the level developers to trim this code, and instituted an internal testing department to overlook the stability of the whole game which had grown beyond what they could do internally. Initially this was formed from unpaid volunteers they solicited on Double Fine's web site, but following the signing of the Majesco publication deal in 2004, they were able to commit full-time staff to this team.


title: Psychonauts

text: Esmurdoc described the development of "Psychonauts" as difficult due to various setbacks, compounded by the new studio's lack of experience in how to manage those setbacks. The game's initial development began in 2001 during the Dot-com boom. Due to the cost of office space at that time, Double Fine had established an office in an inexpensive warehouse in San Francisco that initially fit their development needs. By 2003, they had come to realize the area they were in was not safe or readily accommodating, slowing down their development. With the collapse of the dot-com bubble, they were able to secure better office space, though this further delayed production. Schafer was also handling many of the duties for both the studio and the development of the game. Though some of the routine business tasks were offloaded to other studio heads, Schafer brought Esmurdoc onto the project in 2004 to help produce the game while he could focus on the creative side.


title: Psychonauts

text: The intent to allow all developers to have artistic freedom with the game created some internal strife in the team, particularly in the level design; they had initially scoped that level designers would create the basic parts of a level - main paths, scripted events, and the level's general design, while the artists would build out the world from that. As development progressed, they determined that the artists should be the ones constructing the level geometry, which the level designers resented. Subsequently, levels that were generated were not to the expected standards due to conflicts in the toolsets they used and Schafer's inability to oversee the process while handling the other duties of the studio. In 2003, the decision was made to dismiss all but one of the level design team, and unify the level design and art into a World Building team overseen by Erik Robson, the remaining level designer and who would go on to become the game's lead designer; the change, which Esmurdoc stated was for the better, disrupted the other departments at Double Fine.


title: Psychonauts

text: "Psychonauts" was to be published by Microsoft for release exclusively on their Xbox console; Schafer attributes this to Microsoft's Ed Fries, who at the time of "Psychonauts"s initial development in 2001, was looking to develop a portfolio of games for the new console system. Schafer believes that Fries was a proponent of "pushing games as art", which helped to solidify Double Fine's concept of "Psychonauts" as an appropriate title for the console after the team's collected experience of developing for personal computers. However, according to Esmurdoc, Microsoft had also created some milestones that were unclear or difficult to meet, which delayed the development process. She also believes that their own lack of a clear vision of the ultimate product made it difficult to solidify a development and release schedule for the game as well as created confusion with the publisher. Schafer stated that Microsoft also found some of their gameplay decisions to be confusing based on play-testing and requested them to include more instructional information, a common approach for games during the early 2000s, while Schafer and his team felt such confusion was simply the nature of the adventure-based platform that they were developing. Double Fine was also resistant to make changes that Microsoft had suggested from play-testing, such as making the humor secondary to the story, removing the summer camp theme, and drastically altering the story. Fries departed Microsoft in January 2004; shortly thereafter, the company soon pulled the publishing deal for "Psychonauts". Esmurdoc said that Microsoft's management considered Double Fine to be "expensive and late", which she agreed had been true but did not reflect on the progress they had been making at this point. Schafer also noted that at the time of Microsoft's cancellation that they were planning on transitioning to the Xbox 360 and were not funding any further development of games that would not be released after 2004; even though Schafer had set an approximate release date in the first quarter of 2005 by this point, Microsoft still opted to cancel. Following this, Schafer and Esmurdoc worked to secure a new publishing deal while using internal funds and careful management to keep the project going. One source of funds that helped keep the company operational came from Will Wright, who had recently sold his company Maxis to Electronic Arts. Prevented from investing into Double Fine by the Maxis deal, he instead provided Double Fine a loan of funds that kept them afloat over the next several months. Wright is credited for this support within the game.


title: Psychonauts

text: By August 2004, Double Fine had negotiated a new publishing deal with Majesco Entertainment to release the game on Windows as well as the Xbox. Tim Schafer was quoted as saying "Together we are going to make what could conservatively be called the greatest game of all time ever, and I think that's awesome." Though the publishing deal ensured they would be able to continue the development, Esmurdoc stated they had to forgo plans for hiring new developers to meet the scope of the game as agreed to with Majesco. Subsequently, the studio entered, as described by Esmurdoc, "the most insane crunch I have ever witnessed" in order to complete the game. This was compounded when Majesco announced a PlayStation 2 port to be developed by Budcat Creations in October 2004, which further stretched the availability of Double Fine's staff resources. The game went gold in March 2005; Esmurdoc attributes much of the success of this on the solidarity of the development team that kept working towards this point.


title: Psychonauts

text: Esmurdoc stated that "Psychonauts" took about 4.5 years to complete — though that without all the complications the real development time was closer to 2 years — with a team of 42 full-time developers and additional contractors, with a final budget of $11.5 million.


title: Psychonauts

text: The soundtrack to "Psychonauts" was composed by Peter McConnell, known for his work on LucasArts titles such as "Grim Fandango" and "Day of the Tentacle". Schafer's familiarity with McConnell, having worked with him on numerous projects in the past, led Schafer to select him for the soundtrack composition. The "Psychonauts Original Soundtrack", featuring all the in-game music, was released in 2005. The following year, in late 2006, Double Fine released a second soundtrack, "Psychonauts Original Cinematic Score", containing music from the game's cutscenes as well as a remix of the main theme and credits.


title: Psychonauts

text: The final U.S. release date for the game on Xbox and Windows was April 19, 2005, with the PlayStation 2 port following on June 21, 2005. "Psychonauts" was re-released via Valve's Steam digital distribution platform on October 11, 2006.


title: Psychonauts

text: In June 2011, the original publishing deal with Majesco expired, and full publication rights for the game reverted to Double Fine. In September 2011, Double Fine released an updated version for Microsoft Windows and a port to Mac OS X and Linux through Steam. The new version provided support for Steam features including achievements and cloud saving. The Mac OS X port was developed in partnership with Steven Dengler's Dracogen. In conjunction with this release, an iOS application, "Psychonauts Vault Viewer!", was released at the same time, featuring the memory vaults from the game with commentary by Tim Schafer and Scott Campbell.


title: Psychonauts

text: With control of the game's rights, Double Fine was able to offer "Psychonauts" as part of a Humble Bundle in June 2012. As a result, the game sold well, with Schafer stating that they sold more copies of "Psychonauts" in the first few hours of the Bundle's start than they had since the release of the retail copy of the game. Later in 2012, Schafer commented that their ability to use digital venues such as Steam that "[Double Fine] made more on Psychonauts this year than we ever have before".


title: Psychonauts

text: Although initially unplayable on the Xbox 360, Tim Schafer spearheaded a successful e-mail campaign by fans which led to "Psychonauts" being added to the Xbox 360 backwards compatible list on December 12, 2006,


title: Psychonauts

text: and on December 4, 2007, Microsoft made "Psychonauts" one of the initial launch titles made available for direct download on the Xbox 360 through their Xbox Originals program. When Majesco's rights expired, the game was temporarily removed from the service in August 2011, as Microsoft does not allow unpublished content on its Xbox Live Marketplace. Schafer worked with Microsoft to gain their help in publishing the title under the Microsoft Studios name, and the game returned to the Marketplace in February 2012. The game was added to the PlayStation Network store as a "PS2 Classic" for the PlayStation 3 in August 2012.


title: Psychonauts

text: As part of a deal with Nordic Games, who gained the rights to "Costume Quest" and "Stacking" after THQ's bankruptcy, Double Fine took over publishing rights for both games, while Nordic published and distribute retail copies of all three games for Windows and Mac OS X systems.


title: Psychonauts

text: In 2016, Double Fine also released "Psychonauts" as a classic title for use with the PlayStation 4's emulation software.


title: Psychonauts

text: "Psychonauts" received positive reception, according to review aggregator Metacritic. Schafer and Wolpaw's comedic writing was highly praised, as well as the uniqueness and quirks that the individual characters were given. Alex Navarro of GameSpot commented favorably on the "bizarre" cast of characters, their conversations that the player can overhear while exploring the camp, and how these conversations will change as the story progresses, eliminating repetition that is typical of such non-player characters in platform games. Tom Bramwell of Eurogamer found that he was incentivized to go back and explore or experiment in the game's level to find more of the comedic dialog that others had observed. The game was also noted for its innovations, such as the use of a second-person perspective during a boss battle.


title: Psychonauts

text: The game's art and level design (in particular, the designs of the various mental worlds that Raz visits) were well-received Jason Hill of the "Sydney Morning Herald" stated that each of the dream worlds "is a memorable journey through the bizarre inner psyche" of the associated character. Two particular levels have been considered iconic of the game's humor and style: the aforementioned Milkman Conspiracy, and Lungfishopolis, where Raz enters the mind of a lungfish monster that lives near camp; in the lungfish's mind Raz is portrayed as a giant monster akin to Godzilla that is attacking the tiny lungfish citizens of Lungfishopolis, effectively creating an absurd role reversal of the typical giant monster formula.


title: Psychonauts

text: The overall game structure has been a point of criticism. Some reviewers identified that the first several hours of the game are focused on tutorials and instruction, and are less interesting than the later mental worlds. The game's final level, the "Meat Circus", was also considered unexpectedly difficult when compared to earlier sections of the game, featuring a time limit and many obstacles that required an unusual level of precision. On its re-release in 2011, Double Fine adjusted the difficulty of this level to address these complaints. Some found that the game's humor started to wane or become predictable in the latter part of the game.


title: Psychonauts

text: GamingOnLinux reviewer Hamish Paul Wilson gave the game 8/10, praising the game's creativity and presentation, but also criticizing several other areas of the game, including the large number of unaddressed bugs. Wilson concluded that ""Psychonauts" has to be viewed as a flawed masterpiece". In 2010, the game was included as one of the titles in the book "1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die".


title: Psychonauts

text: The editors of "Computer Games Magazine" presented "Psychonauts" with their 2005 awards for "Best Art Direction" and "Best Writing", and named it the year's tenth-best computer game. They called the game "a wonderfully weird journey high on atmosphere, art direction, and creativity." "Psychonauts" won "PC Gamer US"s 2005 "Best Game You Didn't Play" award. The editors wrote, "Okay, look, we gave it an Editors' Choice award — that's your cue to "run out right now" and buy Tim Schafer's magnificent action/adventure game. So far, only about 12,000 PC gamers have." It was also a nominee for the magazine's "Game of the Year 2005" award, which ultimately went to "Battlefield 2". "Psychonauts" also won the award for Best Writing at the 6th Annual Game Developers Choice Awards.


title: Psychonauts

text: Despite "Psychonauts" earning high critical praise and a number of awards, it was a commercial failure upon its initial release. Although the game was first cited as the primary contributing factor to a strong quarter immediately following its launch, a month later Majesco revised their fiscal year projections from a net profit of $18 million to a net loss of $18 million, and at the same time its CEO, Carl Yankowski, announced his immediate resignation. By the end of the year, the title had shipped fewer than 100,000 copies in North America, and Majesco announced its plans to withdraw from the "big budget console game marketplace". Schafer stated that by March 2012 the retail version "Psychonauts" had sold 400,000 copies.


title: Psychonauts

text: Following Double Fine's acquisition of the rights, they were able to offer the game on more digital storefronts and expand to other platforms; as previously described, this allowed the company to achieve sales in a short term far in excess of what they had been prior to obtaining the rights. In August 2015, Steam Spy estimates approximately 1,157,000 owners of the game on the digital distributor Steam alone. In the announcement for "Psychonauts 2" in December 2015, Schafer indicated that "Psychonauts" sold nearly 1.7 million copies, with more than 1.2 million occurring after Double Fine's acquisition of the rights. Double Fine lists 736,119 sold copies via the Humble Bundle (including a Steam key), 430,141 copies via the Steam storefront, 32,000 GOG.com copies, and 23,368 Humble Store copies.


title: Psychonauts

text: A sequel to "Psychonauts" has been of great interest to Schafer, as well as to fans of the game and the gaming press. Schafer had pitched the idea to publishers but most felt the game too strange to take up. During the Kickstarter campaign for Double Fine's "Broken Age" in February 2012, Schafer commented on the development costs of a sequel over social media, leading to a potential interest in backing by Markus Persson, at the time the owner of Mojang. Though Persson ultimately did not fund this, interactions between him and Double Fine revealed the possibility of several interested investors to help.


title: Psychonauts

text: In mid-2015, Schafer along with other industry leaders launched Fig, a crowd-sourced platform for video games that included the option for accredited investors to invest in the offered campaigns. Later, at the 2015 Game Awards in December, Schafer announced their plans to work on "Psychonauts 2", using Fig to raise the $3.3 million needed to complete the game, with an anticipated release in 2018. The campaign succeeded on January 6, 2016. The sequel was released on August 25, 2021 and sees the return of Richard Horvitz and Nikki Rapp as the voices of Raz and Lili respectively, along with Wolpaw for writing, Chan and Campbell for art, and McConnell for music.


title: Psychonauts

text: Additionally, Double Fine has developed a VR title called "Psychonauts in the Rhombus of Ruin" for use on Oculus Rift, HTC Vive, and PlayStation VR. Released in 2017, it serves as a standalone chapter to tie the original game and its sequel, based on Raz and the other Psychonauts rescuing Truman Zanotto.


title: Psychonauts

text: The character Raz has made appearances in other Double Fine games, including as a massive Mount Rushmore-like mountain sculpture in "Brütal Legend", and on a cardboard cutout within "Costume Quest 2". Raz also appeared in a downloadable content package as a playable character for "". A cameo of Raz appears in "" which can be found at the Red Queen's castle as a propped-up skeleton that bears a striking resemblance to the protagonist itself.


title: David Threlfall

text: David John Threlfall (born 12 October 1953) is an English stage, film and television actor and director. He is best known for playing Frank Gallagher in Channel 4's series "Shameless". He has also directed several episodes of the show. In April 2014, he portrayed comedian Tommy Cooper in a television film entitled "". In 2014, he starred alongside Jude Law in the thriller "Black Sea".


title: David Threlfall

text: The son of a plumber, Tommy Threlfall and his wife, Joyce Foulds, David was born in Crumpsall, Manchester, Lancashire. The family lived in Blackley then moved to the Bradford area of Manchester and then Burnage when he was 8/9. His introduction to drama came from school and two English teachers, at Wilbraham High School, where he was a contemporary of the younger Lorraine Ashbourne.


title: David Threlfall

text: He studied at Art college in Sheffield (now Sheffield Hallam University), but only stayed for a year. A few months of labouring and thinking followed. Then, having consulted a magazine in a public library which listed drama colleges, Threlfall successfully applied to Manchester Polytechnic School of Drama. By graduation, he had an audition with Mike Leigh.


title: David Threlfall

text: Threlfall has been a supporter of Manchester City since childhood and was the voice over for the film played before every home game during the 2017–18 season.


title: David Threlfall

text: Threlfall graduated from the Manchester Polytechnic School of Theatre. He has notched up a wide range of film and television credits since his 1977 acting debut in "The Kiss of Death" (Mike Leigh). Was in the original "Play for Today" version of the film "Scum" as the eloquent Archer. Television appearances include Trevor in Mike Leigh's 1977 made-for-TV film "Kiss of Death", Leslie Titmuss in "Paradise Postponed", Edgar in the Granada Television production of "King Lear" (1983) opposite Laurence Olivier in the title role. He also had regular roles in the situation comedies "Nightingales" and "Men of the World", and guest appearances in dramas such as "Cutting It", "The Knock", "" and "Spooks". He played Prince Charles in "" (1993) and his father Prince Philip in "The Queen's Sister" (2005). Threlfall played the central character of Frank Gallagher in Paul Abbott's "Shameless", shown on Channel 4 for 11 series between 2004 and 2013.


title: David Threlfall

text: He also played the role of Friedrich Kritzinger in the BBC/HBO drama "Conspiracy", a dramatisation of the infamous Wannsee Conference. In 2006, he played the domineering husband of wartime diarist Nella Last, in the TV drama "Housewife, 49". Film credits include John le Carré's "The Russia House", "Patriot Games", "", "", alongside Cate Blanchett, and "Nowhere Boy" in which he took the part of John Lennon's Uncle George.


title: David Threlfall

text: He also had a small role in the 2006 film "Alien Autopsy" and played the character Martin Blower in the 2007 film "Hot Fuzz", acting alongside Simon Pegg and Nick Frost. He starred in an episode of "The Whistle Blowers". He starred as the lead role in the fifth episode of the BBC docu-drama series "" as the Emperor Constantine I.


title: David Threlfall

text: Threlfall voiced the part of Iago in "Othello" for the Arcangel audio production of same. He also voiced the detective Paolo Baldi in BBC Radio 4's "Baldi". He also read Joseph Conrad's "Heart of Darkness" for a radio adaptation. In 1980, he played Smike in the eight-hour stage version of "The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby" for the Royal Shakespeare Company in both London and New York.


title: David Threlfall

text: Other notable stage performances include "Riddley Walker", "Oedipus", "Macbeth, Your Home In The West" and "Peer Gynt" at the Royal Exchange Theatre, Manchester, Bolingbroke in "Richard II" and Orgon in "Tartuffe" at the National Theatre in London. Threlfall played Jack in "When the Whales Came" (1989), opposite Paul Scofield and Helen Mirren. In 2010, he appeared as a guest on "Have I Got News for You".


title: David Threlfall

text: In 2013, he played retired London detective Len Harper in the short murder mystery BBC series "What Remains" alongside Russell Tovey and Amber Rose Revah.


title: David Threlfall

text: In March 2016, he appeared as the lead in "Don Quixote", at the Swan Theatre, Stratford for the Royal Shakespeare Company. The play was revived in 2018 at the Garrick Theatre in London.


title: David Threlfall

text: Threlfall was awarded an Honorary Doctorate from Manchester Metropolitan University on 15 July 2013. An Honorary Doctorate from Sheffield Hallam University in 2014. He has a SWET (Olivier) Award, a TONY and EMMY Nomination, The Clarence Derwent Award, 5 RTS Awards and a BAFTA for Housewife49 with Victoria Wood.


title: David Threlfall

text: Threlfall has been married to Bosnian actress Brana Bajic since 1995. They met in 1994, whilst working on "The Count of Monte Cristo" at the Royal Exchange Theatre in Manchester. They have two children.


title: David Threlfall

text: Threlfall has said that despite his "Shameless" character being a chain smoker, in real life he is a non-smoker who has a dislike for nicotine.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The 1964–1965 New York World's Fair was a world's fair that held over 140 pavilions and 110 restaurants, representing 80 nations (hosted by 37), 24 US states, and over 45 corporations with the goal and the final result of building exhibits or attractions at Flushing Meadows–Corona Park in Queens, New York City. The immense fair covered on half the park, with numerous pools or fountains, and an amusement park with rides near the lake. However, the fair did not receive official support or approval from the Bureau of International Expositions (BIE).


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: Hailing itself as a "universal and international" exposition, the fair's theme was "Peace Through Understanding", dedicated to "Man's Achievement on a Shrinking Globe in an Expanding Universe". American companies dominated the exposition as exhibitors. The theme was symbolized by a 12-story-high, stainless-steel model of the Earth called the Unisphere, built on the foundation of the Perisphere from the 1939 World's Fair. The fair ran for two six-month seasons, April 22 – October 18, 1964, and April 21 – October 17, 1965. Admission price for adults (13 and older) was $2.00 in 1964 ( after calculating for inflation). Admission in 1965 increased to $2.50 ( after calculating for inflation). In both years, children (2–12) admission cost $1.00 ( after calculating for inflation).


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The fair is noted as a showcase of mid-twentieth-century American culture and technology. The nascent Space Age, with its vista of promise, was well represented. More than 51 million people attended the fair, though fewer than the hoped-for 70 million. It remains a touchstone for many American Baby Boomers who visited the optimistic exposition as children, before the turbulent years of the Vietnam War and many to be forthcoming cultural changes.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: In many ways the fair symbolized a grand consumer show, covering many products then-produced in America for transportation, living, and consumer electronic needs in a way that would never be repeated at future world's fairs in North America. American manufacturers of pens, chemicals, computers, and automobiles had a major presence. This fair gave many attendees their first interaction with computer equipment. Corporations demonstrated the use of mainframe computers, computer terminals with keyboards and CRT displays, teletype machines, punch cards, and telephone modems in an era when computer equipment was kept in back offices away from the public, decades before the Internet and home computers were at everyone's disposal.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The selected site, Flushing Meadows–Corona Park in the borough of Queens, was originally a natural wetland straddling the Flushing River. Flushing had been a Dutch settlement, named after the city of Vlissingen (anglicized into "Flushing"). The site was then converted into the Corona Ash Dumps, which were featured prominently in F. Scott Fitzgerald's "The Great Gatsby" as the "Valley of Ashes". The site was used for the 1939-1940 New York World's Fair, and at the conclusion of the fair, was used as a park.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: Preceding these fairs was the 1853–1854 Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations, located in the New York Crystal Palace at what is now Bryant Park in the New York City borough of Manhattan.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The 1964–1965 Fair was conceived by a group of New York businessmen who remembered their childhood experiences at the 1939 New York World's Fair. Thoughts of an economic boon to the city as the result of increased tourism was a major reason for holding another fair 25 years after the 1939–1940 extravaganza. Then-New York City mayor, Robert F. Wagner, Jr., commissioned Frederick Pittera, a producer of international fairs and exhibitions, and author of the history of International Fairs & Exhibitions for the "Encyclopædia Britannica" and "Compton's Encyclopedia", to prepare the first feasibility studies for the 1964–1965 New York World's Fair. He was joined by Austrian architect Victor Gruen (creator of the shopping mall) in studies that eventually led the Eisenhower Commission to award the world's fair to New York City in competition with a number of American cities.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The year 1964 was nominally selected for the event to commemorate the 300th anniversary of the naming of New York, after King Charles II sent an English fleet to seize it from the Dutch in 1664. Prince James (the Duke of York) then renamed the former Dutch colony New Amsterdam as New York.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: Organizers turned to private financing and the sale of bonds to pay the huge costs to stage the event. The organizers hired New York's "Master Builder" Robert Moses, to head the corporation established to run the fair because he was experienced in raising money for vast public projects. Moses had been a formidable figure in the city since coming to power in the 1930s. He was responsible for the construction of much of the city's highway infrastructure and, as parks commissioner for decades, the creation of much of the city's park system.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: In the mid-1930s, Moses oversaw the conversion of a vast Queens tidal marsh garbage dump into the fairgrounds that hosted the 1939–1940 World's Fair. Called Flushing Meadows Park, it was Moses' grandest park scheme. He envisioned this vast park, comprising some of land, easily accessible from Manhattan, as a major recreational playground for New Yorkers. When the 1939–1940 World's Fair ended in financial failure, Moses did not have the available funds to complete work on his project. He saw the 1964–1965 Fair as a means to finish what the earlier fair had begun.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: To ensure profits to complete the park, fair organizers knew they would have to maximize receipts. An estimated attendance of 70 million people would be needed to turn a profit and, for attendance that large, the fair would need to be held for two years. The World's Fair Corporation also decided to charge site-rental fees to all exhibitors who wished to construct pavilions on the grounds. This decision caused the fair to come into conflict with the Bureau of International Expositions (BIE), as the international body headquartered in Paris that sanctions world's fairs: BIE rules stated that an international exposition could run for one six-month period only, and no rent could be charged to exhibitors. In addition, the rules allowed only one exposition in any given country within a 10-year period, and the Seattle World's Fair had already been sanctioned for 1962, as two years prior.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The United States was not a member of the BIE at the time, but fair organizers understood that approval by the BIE would ensure that its nearly 40 member nations would participate in the fair. Moses, undaunted by the rules, journeyed to Paris to seek official approval for the New York fair. When the BIE balked at New York's bid, Moses, used to having his way in New York, angered the BIE delegates by taking his case to the press, publicly stating his disdain for the BIE and its rules. The BIE retaliated by formally requesting its member nations "not" to participate in the New York fair. The 1964–1965 New York World's Fair is the only significant world's fair since the formation of the BIE to be held without its endorsement.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: Many of the pavilions were built in a Mid-century modern style that was heavily influenced by "Googie architecture". This was a futurist architectural style influenced by car culture, jet aircraft, the Space Age, and the Atomic Age, which were all on display at the fair. Some pavilions were explicitly shaped like the product they were promoting, such as the US Royal tire-shaped Ferris wheel, or even the corporate logo, such as the Johnson Wax pavilion. Other pavilions were more abstract representations, such as the oblate spheroid-shaped IBM pavilion, or the General Electric circular dome shaped "Carousel of Progress".


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The pavilion architectures expressed a new-found freedom of form enabled by modern building materials, such as reinforced concrete, fiberglass, plastic, tempered glass, and stainless steel. The facade or the entire structure of a pavilion served as a giant billboard advertising the country or organization housed inside, flamboyantly competing for the attention of busy and distracted fairgoers.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: By contrast, some of the smaller international, US state, and organizational pavilions were built in more traditional styles, such as a Chinese temple or a Swiss chalet. Countries took this opportunity to showcase culinary aspects of their culture as well, with fondue being promoted at the Swiss Pavilion's Alpine restaurant thanks to the Swiss Cheese Union. After the fair's final closing in 1965, some pavilions crafted of wood were carefully disassembled and transported elsewhere for re-use.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: Other pavilions were "decorated sheds", a building method later described by Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown, using plain structural shells embellished with applied decorations. This allowed designers to simulate a traditional style while bypassing expensive and time-consuming methods of traditional construction. The expedient was considered acceptable for temporary buildings planned to be used for only two years, and then to be demolished.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The Underground World Home which was designed by architect Jay Swayze was also featured at the fair. Fairgoers could tour the home for the price of one dollar. It was a large underground bunker-home and it was unveiled in response to the Cold War. The home had ten rooms and and was entirely underground. It featured air conditioning and backlit murals to create the illusion of the outdoor lighting. The murals were hand painted by Mrs. Glenn Smith.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The BIE withholding official recognition was a serious handicap for fair promoters. The absence of Canada, Australia, most of the major European nations, and the Soviet Union, all members of the BIE, tarnished the image of the fair. Additionally, New York was forced to compete with both Seattle and Montreal for international participants, with many nations choosing the officially-sanctioned world's fairs of those other North American cities over the New York Fair. The promoters turned to trade and tourism organizations within many countries to sponsor national exhibits in lieu of official government sponsorship of pavilions.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: New York City, in the middle of the twentieth century, was at a zenith of economic power and world prestige. Unconcerned by BIE rules, nations with smaller economies (as well as private groups in (or relevant to) some BIE members) saw it as an honor to host an exhibit at the Fair. Therefore, smaller nations made up the majority of the international participation. Spain, Vatican City, Republic of China, Japan, Mexico, Sweden, Austria, Denmark, Thailand, Philippines, Greece, and Pakistan, and Ireland to name some, hosted national presences at the Fair. Indonesia sponsored a pavilion, but relations deteriorated rapidly between that nation and the US during 1964, fueled by anti-Western and anti-American rhetoric and policies by Indonesian president Sukarno, which angered US President Lyndon Johnson. Indonesia withdrew from the United Nations in January 1965, and officially from the Fair in March. The Fair Corporation then seized and shut down the Indonesian pavilion, and it remained closed and barricaded for the 1965 season.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: One of the fair's most popular exhibits was the Vatican Pavilion, which featured Michelangelo's "Pietà", brought in from St. Peter's Basilica with the permission of Pope John XXIII; today, a small plaza and exedra monument mark the spot (and Pope Paul VI's visit in October 1965). People waited in line for hours to view the Michelangelo sculpture; a novel conveyor belt system was used to move them through the viewing in an orderly fashion. A modern replica of the artwork had been transported beforehand to ensure that the statue could be installed without being damaged. The copy is now on view in the Immaculate Conception Seminary in Douglaston, Queens, New York. The exedra monument is now used with permits since 1975 for prayer vigils by Our Lady of the Roses relocated from Bayside, New York.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: A recreation of a medieval Belgian village proved very popular. Fairgoers were treated to the "Bel-Gem Brussels Waffle"—a combination of waffle, strawberries and whipped cream, sold by a Brussels couple, Maurice Vermersch and his wife.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: Fairgoers could also enjoy sampling sandwiches from around the world at the popular 7-Up International Sandwich Garden Pavilion which featured the innovative fiberglass Seven Up Tower. In addition to all the 7-Up beverages one could drink, fair-goers were invited to sample varied culinary delights representing sixteen countries. While dining, visitors enjoyed live performances on four circular stages from various instrumentalists which included a five piece musical ensemble, the 7-Up Continental Band. The musical programs included popular show tunes from the Broadway stage in America, as well as musical favorites from both Europe and Latin America. The soloist John Serry Sr. appeared regularly with the orchestra to complement the international flavor of the musical program. The dining pods featured furnishings designed by the futuristic Finnish-American architect Eero Saarinen and were enclosed by twenty-four futuristic fiberglass domes that were topped by a commanding clock tower that soared more than above the entire pavilion.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: Emerging African nations displayed their wares in the Africa Pavilion. Controversy broke out when the Jordanian pavilion displayed a mural emphasizing the plight of the Palestinian people. The Jordanians also donated an ancient column which still remains at the former fair site.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The city of West Berlin, a Cold War hot-spot, hosted a popular exhibit in a pavilion that was designed by Hans Wehrhahn.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: On April 21, 1965, as part of the opening ceremonies for the second season of the 1964–1965 New York World's Fair, Ethiopian long-distance runners Abebe Bikila and Mamo Wolde participated in an exclusive ceremonial half marathon. They ran from the Arsenal in Central Park at 64th Street & Fifth Avenue in Manhattan to the Singer Bowl at the fair. They carried with them a parchment scroll with greetings from Haile Selassie.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The United States Pavilion was titled "Challenge to Greatness", and focused on President Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" proposals. The main show in the multimillion-dollar pavilion was a 15-minute ride through a filmed presentation of American history. Visitors seated in moving grandstands rode past movie screens that slid in, out, and above the path of the traveling audience.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: Elsewhere, there were tributes to the late President John F. Kennedy, who had broken ground for the pavilion in December 1962 but had been assassinated in November 1963 before the fair opened.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: A painting of the Belgian artist Luc-Peter Crombé received the main award of the jury. It is a semi-religious presentation of three young men challenging flames.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: A United States Space Park was sponsored by NASA, the Department of Defense and the fair. Exhibits included a full-scale model of the aft skirt and five F-1 engines of the first stage of a Saturn V, a Titan II booster with a Gemini capsule, an Atlas with a Mercury capsule and a Thor-Delta rocket. On display at ground level were "Aurora 7", the Mercury capsule flown by Scott Carpenter on the second US crewed orbital flight; full-scale models of an X-15 aircraft, an Agena upper stage; a Gemini spacecraft; an Apollo command/service module, and a Lunar Excursion Module. Replicas of uncrewed spacecraft included lunar probe Ranger VII; Mariner II and Mariner IV; Syncom, Telstar I, and Echo II communications satellites; Explorer I and Explorer XVI; and Tiros and Nimbus weather satellites.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: New York played host to the fair at its six-million-dollar open-air pavilion called the "Tent of Tomorrow". Designed by famed modernist architect Philip Johnson, the 350-feet-by-250-feet (107 × 76 m) pavilion was supported by sixteen 100-feet-high (30-metre) concrete columns, from which a 50,000-square-foot (4,600 m) roof of polychrome tiles was suspended. Complementing the pavilion were the fair's three observation towers, two of which had cafeterias in their in-the-round observation-deck crowns. The pavilion's main floor, used for local art and industry displays including a 26-feet (8-metre) scale reproduction of the New York State Power Authority's St. Lawrence hydroelectric plant, comprised a 9,000-square-foot (800 m) terrazzo replica of the official Texaco highway map of New York State, displaying the map's cities, towns, routes and Texaco gas stations in 567 mosaic panels.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: Wisconsin exhibited the "World's Largest Cheese". Florida brought a dolphin show, flamingos, a talented cockatoo from Miami's Parrot Jungle, and water skiers to New York. Oklahoma gave weary fairgoers a restful park to relax in. Missouri displayed the state's space-related industries. Visitors could dine at Hawaii's "Five Volcanoes" restaurant.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: At the New York City pavilion, the "Panorama of the City of New York" (a huge scale model of the city) was on display, complete with a simulated helicopter ride around the metropolis for easy viewing. Left over from the 1939 Fair, this building had been used partially as a recreational public roller skating rink.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: Louisiana had a pavilion called "Louisiana's Bourbon Street" (later renamed to just "Bourbon Street"), which was inspired by New Orleans' French Quarter. It started off with financial trouble, not being able to complete its construction and subsequently filing for bankruptcy. A private company, called Pavilion Property, bought up the assets and assumed its debts. This prompted Louisiana Governor John McKeithen to sever all ties and withdraw state's sanction, leaving the pavilion completely to private enterprise.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: Special media attention was given to a racially integrated minstrel show that was intended to be a satirical anti-bigotry review, called "America, Be Seated", and produced by Mike Todd Jr. During the opening of the fair, several civil rights protests were staged by members of the NAACP, who believed that the "minstrel-style" show was demeaning to African-Americans.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The pavilion included ten theater restaurants, which served a variety of Creole food, a Jazz club called "Jazzland" which hosted live jazz artists, miniature Mardi Gras parades, a teenage dancing venue, a voodoo shop, and a doll museum. Due to the presence of the various bars, the pavilion was especially popular at night. Notable go-go dancer Candy Johnson headlined a show at a venue called "Gay New Orleans Nightclub". Near the closure of the fair, the pavilion was reported to have achieved the highest gross income of any single commercial pavilion at the fair. The 26-year-old director of operations, Gordon Novel, was called an "Entrepreneurial Prodigy & Boy Wonder" in "Variety" for his accomplishments.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) organized a protest during the World's Fair. About 700 protestors participated; of those, 300 were arrested. Demonstrators used walkie-talkies to communicate during the protest. Protestors demanded that the Civil Rights Act be passed and criticized the lack of inclusive hiring for the World's Fair. During President Johnson's speech, demonstrators shouted "Jim Crow must go!" and "Freedom now!" and jeered as he outlined his plans for the Great Society. The mayor of New York later publicly apologized on behalf of the city.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: More radically, Louis Lomax, of the Brooklyn chapter of CORE, had proposed a "stall-in"; 500 drivers would go to the fair and stop or deliberately run out of gas on the way there, creating a traffic jam. Because it would clog the highways, it would also have been a protest against Robert Moses and his newly renovated traffic networks. Henry A. Barnes, the New York City Traffic Commissioner, made it illegal to intentionally run out of gas on a New York roadway. Tactics such as using emergency brakes to stop subways and releasing rats during Johnson's speech were also proposed. James Farmer, who was the national chair of CORE at the time, suspended the group. Martin Luther King, Jr. wrote a letter stating that he did not support the stall-in as a tactic, but also would not condemn it. He wrote: "Which is worse, a ‘Stall-In’ at the World’s Fair or a ‘Stall-In’ in the United States Senate? The former merely ties up the traffic of a single city. But the latter seeks to tie up the traffic of history, and endanger the psychological lives of twenty million people". Despite a "New York Times" article stating that "the stall is on", only a few drivers actually showed up. Isaiah Brunson, chair of the Brooklyn chapter, promised future protests, but went into hiding a few days later.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: Many of the large US corporations built pavilions to demonstrate their wares, vision, and corporate cultures.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: Industries played a major role at the New York World's Fair of 1939–1940 by hosting huge, elaborate exhibits. Many of them returned to the New York World's Fair of 1964–1965 with even more elaborate versions of the shows that they had presented 25 years earlier. The most notable of these was General Motors Corporation whose Futurama proved to be the fair's most popular exhibit, in which visitors seated in moving chairs glided past elaborately detailed miniature 3D model scenery showing what life might be like in the "near-future". Nearly 26 million people took the journey into the future during the fair's two-year run.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The IBM Corporation had a popular pavilion, where a giant 500-seat grandstand called the "People Wall" was pushed by hydraulic rams high up into an ellipsoidal theater designed by Eero Saarinen. There, a film by Charles and Ray Eames titled "Think" was shown on fourteen projectors on nine screens, illuminating the workings of computer logic. At ground level beneath the theater, visitors could explore "" (an exhibit of mathematical models and curiosities) and view the "Mathematics Peep Show" (a series of short films illustrating basic mathematical concepts).


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The Bell System (prior to its break up into regional companies) hosted a 15-minute ride in moving armchairs depicting the history of communications in dioramas and film named "Ride of Communications". Other Bell exhibits included the Picturephone as well as a demonstration of the computer modem.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The Westinghouse Corporation planted a second time capsule next to an earlier 1939 version; today both Westinghouse Time Capsules are marked by a monument southwest of the Unisphere which is to be opened in the year 6939. Some of its contents were a World's Fair Guidebook, an electric toothbrush, credit cards (relatively new at the time), and a 50-star United States flag.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The Sinclair Oil Corporation sponsored "Dinoland", featuring life-size replicas of nine different dinosaurs, including the corporation's signature Brontosaurus. The statues were created by Louis Paul Jonas Studios in Hudson, New York. They also contained a "space age" gas station with orbiting gas pumps shaped like rockets, and a marine fuel station in the vicinity of the World's Fair Marina.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The Ford Motor Company introduced the Ford Mustang automobile to the public at its pavilion on April 17, 1964. The Ford pavilion featured the "Magic Skyway" ride, in which guests rode in Ford, Mercury, and Lincoln convertibles past scenes featuring dinosaurs and cavemen, concluding with a futuristic cityscape. The vehicles used were the Mustang, Galaxie, Thunderbird, Falcon, Mercury Park Lane, Mercury Comet and Lincoln Continental. After the Fair, the Audio-Animatronic dinosaurs would move to Disneyland, becoming part of the Santa Fe & Disneyland Railroad's "Primeval World" diorama in 1966, while the vehicles were collected by Ford and sent to the Dearborn Headquarters where employees purchased the cars as used and at a discount. When the fair opened again for 1965, all-new vehicles were again used as convertibles only.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: DuPont presented a musical review by composer Michael Brown called "The Wonderful World of Chemistry".


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The Chunky Candy Corporation put on what was a state-of-the-art, transparent display of candy manufacturing where visitors were able to view "all the steps in a highly automated process". The Pavilion also included an interactive sculpture playground called "Sculpture Continuum", designed by Oliver O'Connor Barrett.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The fair was also a showplace for independent films. One of the most noted was a religious film titled "Parable" which showed at the Protestant Pavilion. It depicted humanity as a traveling circus and Jesus Christ as a clown. This marked the beginning of a new depiction of Jesus and was the inspiration for the 1971 musical "Godspell". "Parable" later went on to be honored at Cannes, as well as the Edinburgh Film Festival and Venice Film Festival. Another religious film was presented by evangelist Billy Graham called "Man in the 5th Dimension". It was shot in the 70mm Todd-AO widescreen process for exclusive presentation in a specially designed theater equipped with audio equipment that enabled viewers to listen to the film in Chinese, French, German, Japanese, Russian, and Spanish. The 13-½ minute film "Man's Search for Happiness" was made for the Mormon Pavilion.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The surprise hit of the fair was a non-commercial movie short presented by the SC Johnson Wax Company called "To Be Alive!". The film celebrated the joy of life found worldwide and in all cultures, and it won a special award from the New York Film Critics Circle and the 1966 Academy Award for Best Documentary (Short Subject).


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The fair is remembered as the venue that Walt Disney used to design and perfect his system of "Audio-Animatronics", in which electromechanical actuators and computers control the movement of lifelike robots to act out scenes. WED Enterprises designed and created four shows at the fair:


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: WED also created the "Tower of the Four Winds" which was located at the "It's a Small World" pavilion. In addition, costumed versions of Walt Disney's famous cartoon characters roamed around the fairgrounds and interacted with guests. After the fair, there was some discussion of The Walt Disney Company retaining these exhibits on-site and converting Flushing Meadows Park into an East Coast version of Disneyland, but this idea was abandoned. Instead, Disney relocated several of the exhibits to Disneyland in Anaheim, California, and subsequently replicated them at other Disney theme parks. Walt Disney World near Orlando, Florida, which opened with Magic Kingdom in 1971, is essentially the realization of the original concept of an "East Coast Disneyland"; Epcot, which opened in 1982, was designed as a permanent world's fair.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The fair featured an official band, the Cities Services World's Band of America (C.S.W.F.B.A.) conducted by Paul Lavalle. It was a 50-piece group, operating seven days a week, on location 7 to 9 hours a day. They toured the fairgrounds on a 72-foot long bandwagon that went into a V-shape when performing. The opening day's big musical performance was Lavalle conducting a 94-piece orchestra in the world premiere of Ferde Grofé's "World's Fair Suite" commissioned by Bob Moses. Moses had previously commissioned Grofé to compose the theme for his 1939 New York World's Fair. Mr. Grofé was present, listening from a wheelchair, having suffered a stroke in 1961. His score was in five movements—"Unisphere", "International", "Fun at the Fair", "Pavilions of Industry" and "National". Numerous other ensembles performed throughout the fair, including Guy Lombardo and the United States Marine Band.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: One of the fair's major crowd-attracting and financial shortcomings was the absence of a midway. The fair's organizers were opposed on principle to the honky-tonk atmosphere engendered by midways, and this omission was another thing that had irked the BIE, which insisted that all officially sanctioned fairs have a midway. What amusements the fair actually hosted often failed to attract crowds. The Meadow Lake Amusement Area was not easily accessible, and officials objected to shows being advertised.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: Furthermore, although the Amusement Area was supposed to remain open for four hours after the exhibits closed at 10pm, the fair presented a fountain-and-fireworks show every night at 9pm at the Pool of Industry. Fairgoers would see this show and then leave the fair rather than head to the Amusement Area, and few people remained on the fairgrounds by midnight.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The fair's big entertainment spectacles, including the "Wonder World" at the Meadow Lake Amphitheater, "To Broadway with Love" in the Texas Pavilion, and Dick Button's "Ice-travaganza" in the New York City Pavilion, all were closed prematurely with heavy financial losses. It became apparent that fairgoers did not go to the fair for its entertainment value, especially as there was plenty of entertainment in Manhattan.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: A notable exception to this situation was "Les Poupées de Paris" ("The Dolls of Paris"), an adults-only musical puppet show created, produced and directed by Sid and Marty Krofft. This show, modeled after the Paris revues "Lido" and "Folies Bergère", was heavily attended, and financially successful.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: Some spectacles were staged for the newsreel cameras, such as a May 1964 demonstration by Bell Aerosystems where Bill Suitor ("Jetpackman") performed a 16-second flight, hopping over the "Court of the Presidents of the United States", the circular path surrounding the Unisphere fountain.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The fair ended in controversy over allegations of financial mismanagement. Controversy had plagued it during much of its two-year run. The Fair Corporation sold "advanced" tickets ahead of opening for each season, thus reflecting distorted profits compared to actual sales "during" the seasons. The receipts of advanced sales were booked entirely against the first season of the fair. This made it appear that the fair had plenty of operating cash when, in fact, it was borrowing from the second season's gate to pay the bills. Before and during the 1964 season, the fair spent much money despite underwhelming attendance, below expectations. By the end of the 1964 season, Moses and the press began to realize that there would not be enough money to pay the bills, and accordingly the fair teetered on bankruptcy. In March 1965, a group of bankers and politicians asked showman Billy Rose to take over the fair, which he declined, stating: "I'd rather be hit by a baseball bat", adding that "cancer in its last stages never attracted me very much".


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: While the 1939–1940 New York World's Fair returned 40 cents on the dollar to bond investors, the 1964–1965 fair returned only 19.2 cents on the dollar.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: New York City was left with a much-improved Flushing Meadows–Corona Park following the fair, taking possession of the park from the Fair Corporation in June 1967. Today, the paths and their names remain almost unchanged from the days of the fair.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The Unisphere stands at the center of the park as a symbol of "Man's Achievements on a Shrinking Globe in an Expanding Universe". The Unisphere has become the iconic sculptural feature of the park, as well as a symbol of the borough of Queens in general. It stands on the site formerly occupied by the Perisphere during the earlier 1939–1940 Fair.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: An ancient Roman column from Jordan still stands near the Unisphere. A stone bench marking the site of the Vatican pavilion also stands east of the main fountain.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The New York Hall of Science, founded during the 1964 World's Fair, was one of the country's first dedicated science museums; it still operates in an expanded facility in its original location at the park's northern corner. The Hall of Science anchors a Space Park exhibiting the rockets and vehicles used in America's early space exploration projects. The Space Park gradually deteriorated due to neglect, but in 2004 the surviving rockets were restored and placed back on display.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The carousel that was the centerpiece of Carousel Park in the Lake Amusement Area was relocated to the former Transportation Area outside of the Queens Zoo in the northwestern part of the park. It still operates as the Flushing Meadows Carousel, and is now listed on the National Register of Historic Places.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The New York State Pavilion, constructed as the state's exhibit hall for the World's Fair, is also a prominent visible structure in the park. However, no new use for the building was found after the Fair, and the building sat derelict and decaying for decades. A suggestion to reinstall the mosaic floor at the World Trade Center did not materialize.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: In 1993, the Queens Theatre in the Park took over the Circarama adjacent to the towers and continues to operate there, using the ruined state pavilion as a storage depot. The ruins were featured in the 1997 movie "Men in Black". Some conservation and restoration techniques were demonstrated in 2008 by researchers from the University of Pennsylvania. The New York State Pavilion was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2009.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: In fall 2013, NYC Parks announced plans to restore the pavilion for $73 million, and in 2015, the entire structure was repainted yellow.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: A pre-existing structure from the 1939 fair served as the temporary headquarters of the United Nations General Assembly, and then became the New York City Pavilion in the 1964 fair. Afterwards, it was subdivided into the Queens Center for Art (now Queens Museum) and an ice-skating rink. The Museum continues to display the scale model "Panorama of the City of New York", which is updated occasionally. The Museum also has a large display of memorabilia from the two world's fairs, as well as an original 3D scale model of the entire 1964 World's Fair site. In April 2011, the Queens Museum started an expansion project that almost doubled its floor space, bringing the total to about . The space formerly occupied by the ice skating rink was incorporated into the museum's expansion, completed in 2013.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: The Pavilion (World's Fair Building / Winston Churchill Tribute) was dismantled after the fair, and reassembled by 1968 on the fairgrounds site as the aviary for the Flushing Meadows Zoo (now the Queens Zoo). The building was a diameter geodesic dome attributed to either Buckminster Fuller or Thomas C. Howard, and produced by Synergetics of Raleigh, North Carolina. It remains as the aviary of the Queens Zoo, which was closed in 1988 and then reopened in 1992 after a $16 million renovation project.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: Other buildings remained for a while after the 1964 Fair's conclusion in hopes that a new use for them could be found, but were subsequently demolished. This included the Travel and Transportation Pavilion, destroyed in 1967 after a failed conversion to a fire station, and the Federal Pavilion, demolished in 1977 after extensive deterioration.


title: 1964 New York World's Fair

text: Like its 1939 predecessor, the 1964 World's Fair lost money. It was unable to repay its financial backers their investment, and it became embroiled in legal disputes with its creditors until 1970, when the books were finally closed and the Fair Corporation was dissolved. Most of the pavilions constructed for the fair were demolished within six months following the fair's close. While only a handful of pavilions and exhibits survived, some of them traveled great distances and found new homes following the fair:


title: Doug Williams (quarterback)

text: Douglas Lee Williams (born August 9, 1955) is an American football executive and former quarterback and coach. Williams is best known for his performance with the Washington Redskins in Super Bowl XXII against the Denver Broncos, where he was named Super Bowl MVP after passing for 340 yards and four touchdowns, a single-quarter Super Bowl record which he set in the second quarter, making him the first black quarterback to both start and win a Super Bowl.


title: Doug Williams (quarterback)

text: Following his playing career, Williams began coaching, most notably serving as the head coach of the Grambling State Tigers. Following that, Williams has been a team executive for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Virginia Destroyers, and Washington Commanders.


title: Doug Williams (quarterback)

text: Williams attended Grambling State University where he played under head coach Eddie Robinson. In his first two seasons, he played on the same team as future NFL receiver Sammy White. Williams guided the Tigers to a 36–7 (.837 winning percentage) record as a four-year starter, and led the Tigers to three Southwestern Athletic Conference Championships. Williams was named Black College Player of the Year twice.


title: Doug Williams (quarterback)

text: In 1977, Williams led the NCAA in several categories, including total yards from scrimmage (3,249), passing yards (3,286), touchdown passes (38), and yards per play (8.6). Williams finished fourth in the Heisman Trophy voting, behind Earl Campbell, Terry Miller, and Ken MacAfee. Williams graduated from Grambling with a bachelor's degree in education, and he began work on his master's degree before the 1978 NFL Draft.


title: Doug Williams (quarterback)

text: Despite the success that he enjoyed on the field, Tampa Bay Buccaneers offensive coordinator Joe Gibbs was the only NFL coach who visited Williams to work him out and scout him. Gibbs spent two days with the , quarterback, reviewing play books, film, and going through passing drills. Impressed by his poise, work ethic, and studious nature, Gibbs rated Williams as the best quarterback in the draft, writing in his scouting report that Williams had “a big-time arm with perfect passing mechanics” and was “a natural leader...very academic and extremely prepared...football smart,” and recommended that the Buccaneers select Williams with their first-round draft choice.


title: Doug Williams (quarterback)

text: Following the recommendation of Gibbs, Tampa Bay drafted Williams in the first round (17th overall) of the 1978 NFL Draft. Williams became the first African-American quarterback taken in the first round of an NFL draft. His first preseason pass, a 75-yard incompletion that sailed 10 yards past receiver Isaac Hagins, drew a standing ovation from the Tampa Stadium crowd. He was the first quarterback in Buccaneer history capable of throwing long passes downfield. In a 1979 game against the Chicago Bears, Williams and Bears quarterback Vince Evans made history by making it the first NFL game ever to have a black starting quarterback on both teams. Tampa Bay, which had won just two games in the first two years of the franchise, went to the playoffs three times in five seasons with Williams as starter and played in the . During his time in Tampa Bay, Williams improved his completion percentage each season.


title: Doug Williams (quarterback)

text: Williams was the only starting African-American quarterback in the NFL at that time, and dealt with racism from the fans, and even his own coaching staff. In his book Rise of the Black QB, author Jason Reid cited an incident in the 1978 Tampa Bay training camp, in which quarterbacks coach Bill Nelsen began berating Williams in what was described as going beyond coaching and becoming a personal attack. Just a position coach at the time, Gibbs, who was at the opposite end of the field, sprinted over to Nelsen and confronted him. "I think Coach Gibbs knew that it wasn't a matter of being coached hard," recalled Williams. "He knew I could handle that. But he (Gibbs) immediately sensed that something else was going on." Gibbs threw his clipboard down, pointed his finger in Nelsen's face and said, "Don't you ever talk to him like that again! Is that clear?" According to Williams, Nelsen never confonted Williams in that manner again.


title: Doug Williams (quarterback)

text: During his tenure with the Buccaneers, Williams was paid $120,000 a year, the lowest salary for a starting quarterback in the league, and less than the salary of 12 backups. After the 1982 season, Williams asked for a $600,000 contract. Bucs owner Hugh Culverhouse refused to budge from his initial offer of $400,000 despite protests from coach John McKay. Feeling that Culverhouse was not paying him what a starter should earn, Williams sat out the 1983 season. That year, the Bucs went 2–14, and did not make the playoffs again until the 1997 season 14 years later. Tampa Bay lost ten games in every season but one in that stretch, including 12 in a row from 1983 to 1984. Culverhouse's willingness to let Williams walk away over such a relatively small amount of money was seen as insensitive, especially as it came only months after Williams’ wife Janice died of an aneurysm.


title: Doug Williams (quarterback)

text: After a year away from football, Williams signed with the Oklahoma Outlaws of the upstart United States Football League. The Outlaws briefly called Hall of Fame coach and quarterback guru Sid Gillman out of retirement as director of football operations, and Williams was Gillman's highest-profile signing. Williams signed a $3 million contract with a $1 million signing bonus, making him easily one of the highest-paid players in all of football. Years later, he recalled that he was won over when Outlaws owners William Tatham Sr. and Bill Tatham Jr. "treated me as a human," rather than "a piece of cattle in a stockyard."


title: Doug Williams (quarterback)

text: In 1984, Williams led the Outlaws of the USFL in passing, completing 261 out of 528 passes for 3,084 yards and 15 touchdowns. However, he threw 21 interceptions, ending up with a passer rating of 60.5 during a 6–12 season. In 1985, the team moved to Arizona and merged with the Arizona Wranglers to become the Arizona Outlaws. Williams showed some improvement, completing 271 out of 509 passes for 3,673 yards with 21 touchdowns and 17 interceptions.


title: Doug Williams (quarterback)

text: After the USFL was shut down in 1986, Williams returned to the NFL, joining the Washington Redskins. He was reunited with his former offensive coordinator, Joe Gibbs, who was now the team's head coach. Initially, Williams served as the backup for starting quarterback Jay Schroeder, but after Schroeder became injured, Williams stepped in and led the Redskins to an opening-day victory against the Philadelphia Eagles in the 1987 season. Williams and Schroeder had a somewhat chilly relationship, stemming from Schroeder ordering Williams to get off the field when the Redskins thought Schroeder had been injured in the and sent Williams in to substitute for him. It would be one of three times in 1987 that Williams substituted for Schroeder and led the team to victory (the other two were November 15 against Detroit and December 26 at Minnesota). Williams only started two games, September 20 at Atlanta and November 23 against the Rams. While both starts were losses, at the end of the season, when the Redskins had qualified for the playoffs, Williams, with his 94.0 passer rating, was chosen as the starter. He led the team to Super Bowl XXII in which they routed the Denver Broncos, becoming the first black quarterback to both play in and win a Super Bowl.