title: Newsmax TV

text: After the election was won by Democrat Joe Biden, Newsmax struck a defiant tone, focusing on conspiracy theories and allegations of voter fraud as a way to attract Fox News viewers angered by what they saw as insufficient loyalty to Trump. Emily VanDerWerff of "Vox" reported that the outlet did not "go full arch-conservative" and "doesn't give airtime to QAnon paranoiacs", but that it "spent lots of time arguing that other media outlets jumped the gun in calling the election for Biden and that Trump still has a path to win this thing." Newsmax was thus positioned further to the right of Fox but less so than One America News Network, another conservative news channel that embraced a far-right editorial stance during and after the Trump administration.


title: Newsmax TV

text: CNN's Brian Stelter, in an on-air interview, asked Newsmax CEO Christopher Ruddy why the network chose to air "election denialism" and "bogus voter fraud stuff," to which Ruddy replied that the network featured all points of view and argued that all of the other major news outlets who had reported Biden's election win were "rushing."


title: Newsmax TV

text: Since the election, Newsmax has seen increasing viewership; according to Nielsen, Newsmax averaged 182,000 viewers in the week leading up to the election. In the week that followed, the average increased further with daily averages around 400,000 viewers, with "Greg Kelly Reports" and "Spicer & Co." having attracted numbers in the 700,000–800,000 range. On December 7, 2020, "Greg Kelly Reports" beat its timeslot competitor on Fox News, "The Story with Martha MacCallum", in average key demographic viewership for the first time (229,000 to 203,000), while Stelter observed that overall the program "has nearly a million viewers on a good night".


title: Newsmax TV

text: A small number of cable providers, including Breezeline (formerly Atlantic Broadband), dropped the channel in January 2022, noting the channel's wide free availability on streaming advertising-supported video-on-demand platforms, and that their drop of the channel came due to paid carriage being required by Newsmax TV, not its content.


title: Newsmax TV

text: As of October 2022, Newsmax was in a distant fourth place among the cable news channels, behind Fox News, CNN and MSNBC but ahead of NewsNation.


title: Newsmax TV

text: Newsmax TV mainly depends on its carriage on cable services for viewership, along with streaming on their website and open digital media player platforms such as Roku and in the UK via online video subscription service NewsPlayer+. It has historically made its feed available to free-to-air terrestrial television affiliates, but those affiliations as of 2021 have mostly been discontinued, except for a single affiliate in Alexandria, Minnesota, which carries the Newsmax feed as part of Selective TV's slate of cable and terrestrial stations to the Alexandria area.


title: The High Note

text: The High Note is a 2020 American comedy-drama film directed by Nisha Ganatra and written by Flora Greeson. It stars Dakota Johnson, Tracee Ellis Ross, Kelvin Harrison Jr., Zoë Chao, Bill Pullman, Eddie Izzard, and Ice Cube, and follows a famous singer's personal assistant who wants to become a music producer.


title: The High Note

text: It was released in selected theaters and through Premium VOD on May 29, 2020, by Focus Features. It received mixed reviews from critics, although the cast was praised.


title: The High Note

text: Maggie Sherwoode is the longtime personal assistant to legendary R&B singer Grace Davis, who still has a successful touring career despite not releasing new material for a decade. Also an aspiring music producer, Maggie remixes Grace's songs in her free time. Grace's egocentric manager, Jack Robertson, believes that her time has passed and she should accept a Las Vegas residency and release live albums rather than record new material.


title: The High Note

text: At a grocery store, Maggie meets aspiring musician David Cliff, watching him perform outdoors. He invites her to a party at his house, where to her surprise she learns that despite slumming it as a musician he is quite wealthy. Impressed by his voice, she lies about being a professional producer and offers to work with him on an album. He accepts and they begin work together with Maggie coaching him through his nerves.


title: The High Note

text: Grace is displeased when a famous music producer modernizes one of her songs, remixing it with excessive synths and pop elements. Appalled, Maggie shows Grace her own version of the song, and Grace releases Maggie's version, without payment or credit. While pleased to be producing for her, Jack pulls her aside to reveal how her tactlessness ruined potential future deals. When Grace later expresses her interest in recording a new album to her record label, they discourage her, pushing her towards the Vegas residency. Maggie encourages Grace to disregard the label and create new material but Grace lectures her on how women of her age and race rarely succeed in music.


title: The High Note

text: Maggie and David begin a romance as recording for his demo comes to a close. At the same time, she learns that Ariana Grande has backed out of opening for Grace's album launch. She initially books Dan Deakins to open for Grace before realizing it would be the perfect place for David to perform his songs. She enlists Dan's assistant to help but is surprised when Dan himself, after listening to David's songs, decides to step away to allow him to perform.


title: The High Note

text: On the night of the party, Maggie tells Jack and Grace that Dan has backed out and promises to fix it. She then asks David, who believed they were going on a date, to sing. Hearing that the party is for Grace Davis, David leaves in a huff, refusing to perform. Maggie tells Jack and Grace she was unable to deliver a backup performer and Grace berates her, mocking her ambitions to become a producer when she cannot even succeed as an assistant before firing her.


title: The High Note

text: Maggie moves back home with her father Max, a radio DJ, and starts planning her future. After encouragement from her father, she reaches out to David to continue work on their album and to Grace to thank her for her time working for her. At the same time, Grace realizes that she misses Maggie who was a faithful assistant who never used her.


title: The High Note

text: Grace arrives at Maggie's home and offers a roundabout apology. After complimenting her production work on the live album, she reveals that she has never worked with a female producer before but wants Maggie to be the first, also telling her that she has begun writing new material. While Grace is singing for her, David arrives. Before Maggie can introduce them, he reveals that Grace is his estranged mother, something she has kept from the public. He also tells her that Dan Deakins has been passing around his material leading him to an offer of representation from a studio.


title: The High Note

text: Later, David performs at a music festival. He asks Grace to join him on stage, revealing she is his mother, and they sing a duet as Maggie watches. Later in the studio, Maggie produces Grace's new album.


title: The High Note

text: Flora Greeson's screenplay, then titled "Covers", was featured in the 2018 Black List, compiling the year's best unproduced scripts. In February 2019, it was announced Nisha Ganatra would direct the film, and that Tim Bevan and Eric Fellner would produce it under their Working Title Films banner. In May 2019, it was announced that Dakota Johnson, Tracee Ellis Ross, Kelvin Harrison Jr. and Zoë Chao had joined the cast, and Ice Cube and June Diane Raphael were added in June. Bill Pullman, Eddie Izzard and Diplo eventually joint the cast as well.


title: The High Note

text: Principal photography began in May 2019 around Los Angeles. In February 2020 the film was re-titled "The High Note".


title: The High Note

text: "The High Note" soundtrack was released on May 29, 2020, through Republic, Universal. The lead single, "Love Myself" by Ross, was released on May 15.


title: The High Note

text: "The High Note" was originally scheduled for a wide theatrical release on May 8, 2020, but due to movie theater closures beginning in mid-March, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was cancelled.


title: The High Note

text: The film made $87,800 from 50 theaters (mostly drive-ins) in its opening weekend. In its third weekend it made $59,000 from 64 theaters, for a running total of $293,000. By June 28, it had grossed $420,000 in the United States. It was also released in several countries with relaxed COVID-19 theater restrictions, including South Korea, the Netherlands and France, and grossed $1.7 million as of August 28.


title: The High Note

text: In its opening weekend, "The High Note" was the second-most rented film on FandangoNow, third-most from the iTunes Store, and 11th-most on Amazon Prime Video. In its second weekend it fell to fourth on FandangoNow and 10th on iTunes, but ranked second on Spectrum. It remained in the top 10 on all services in its third weekend. After lowering its rental price, it returned to the #10 spot on FandangoNow and Apple TV in mid-July.


title: The High Note

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The site's critics consensus reads, ""The High Note" doesn't quite soar above rom-com formula, but audiences seeking some comfort viewing should find themselves solidly in harmony with this well-acted genre entry." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 58 out of 100, based on 34 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews."


title: The High Note

text: Writing for "Forbes", Scott Mendelson gave the film a positive review, writing: "It's leisurely-paced, relatively grounded and rooted in the specific pleasures of watching good actors play nice people who deal with their specific conflicts as nicely as possible."


title: The High Note

text: Owen Gleiberman of "Variety" said the film "can't decide if it's a behind-the-music-industry drama or a go-for-your-dream fairy tale" and that "the feel-good factor hovers over this movie like a fuzzy bland cloud."


title: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash

text: On October 25, 1999, a chartered Learjet 35 business jet was scheduled to fly from Orlando, Florida, United States to Dallas, Texas, United States. Early in the flight, the aircraft, which was climbing to its assigned altitude on autopilot, lost cabin pressure, and all six on board were incapacitated by hypoxia, a lack of oxygen in the brain and body. The aircraft continued climbing past its assigned altitude, then failed to make the westward turn toward Dallas over North Florida and continued on its northwestern course, flying over the southern and midwestern United States for almost four hours and . The plane ran out of fuel over South Dakota and crashed into a field near Aberdeen after an uncontrolled descent.


title: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash

text: The two pilots were Michael Kling and Stephanie Bellegarrigue. The four passengers on board were PGA golfer Payne Stewart; his agent, and former Alabama football QB, Robert Fraley; president of the agency, Van Ardan; and Bruce Borland, a golf architect with the Jack Nicklaus golf course design company.


title: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash

text: On October 25, 1999, a Learjet 35, registration operated by Sunjet Aviation of Sanford, Florida, departed Orlando International Airport at 13:19 UTC (09:19 EDT) on a two-day, five-flight trip. Before departure, the aircraft had been fueled with of Jet A, enough for four hours and 45 minutes of flight. On board were two pilots and four passengers.


title: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash

text: At 13:27:13 UTC, the air traffic controller from the Jacksonville Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) instructed the pilot to climb and maintain flight level (FL) 390 ( above sea level). At 13:27:18 UTC (09:27:18 EDT), the pilot acknowledged the clearance by stating, "three nine zero bravo alpha." This was the last known radio transmission from the airplane, and occurred while the aircraft was passing through . The next attempt to contact the aircraft occurred six minutes, twenty seconds later (fourteen minutes after departure), with the aircraft at , and the controller's message went unacknowledged. The controller attempted to contact N47BA five more times in the next minutes, again with no answer.


title: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash

text: About 14:54 UTC (now 09:54 CDT in the Central Time zone), a United States Air Force F-16 test pilot named Colonel Olson, from the 40th Flight Test Squadron at Eglin Air Force Base in western Florida, who happened to be in the air nearby , was directed by controllers to intercept N47BA. When the fighter was about from the Learjet, at an altitude of about , Olson made two radio calls to N47BA but did not receive a response. The F-16 pilot made a visual inspection of the Lear, finding no visible damage to the airplane. Both engines were running and the plane's red, rotating anti-collision beacon was on which is standard operation for aircraft in flight. Olson could not see inside the passenger section of the airplane because the windows seemed to be dark. Further, he stated that the entire right cockpit windshield was opaque, as if condensation or ice covered the inside. He also indicated that the left cockpit windshield was opaque, although several sections of the center of the windshield seemed to be only thinly covered by condensation or ice; a small rectangular section of the windshield was clear, with only a small section of the glare shield visible through this area. He did not see any flight control movement. At about 15:12 UTC, Olson concluded his inspection of N47BA and broke formation, proceeding to Scott Air Force Base in southwestern Illinois.


title: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash

text: At 16:13 UTC, almost three hours into the flight of the unresponsive Learjet, two F-16s from the 138th Fighter Wing of the Oklahoma Air National Guard, flying under the call-sign "TULSA 13 flight," were directed by the Minneapolis ARTCC to intercept the Learjet. The TULSA 13 lead pilot reported that he could not see any movement in the cockpit, that the windshield was dark and that he could not tell if the windshield was iced. A few minutes later, a TULSA 13 pilot reported, "We're not seeing anything inside, could be just a dark cockpit though... he is not reacting, moving or anything like that he should be able to have seen us by now." At 16:39 UTC, TULSA 13 left to rendezvous with a tanker for refueling.


title: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash

text: About 16:50 UTC, two F-16s from the 119th Wing of the North Dakota Air National Guard with the identification "NODAK 32" were directed to intercept N47BA. TULSA 13 flight also returned from refueling and all four fighters maneuvered close to the Lear. The TULSA 13 lead pilot reported, "We've got two visuals on it. It's looking like the cockpit window is iced over and there's no displacement in any of the control surfaces as far as the ailerons or trims." About 17:01 UTC, TULSA 13 flight returned to the tanker again, while NODAK 32 remained with N47BA.


title: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash

text: There was some speculation in the media that the fighter jets were prepared to shoot down the Learjet if it threatened to crash in a heavily populated area. Officials at the Pentagon strongly denied that possibility. Shooting down the plane "was never an option," Air Force spokesman Captain Joe Della Vedova said, adding that "I don't know where that came from."


title: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash

text: Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien authorized the Royal Canadian Air Force to shoot down the plane if it entered Canadian airspace without making contact. He writes in his 2018 memoirs, "The plane was heading toward the city of Winnipeg and the air traffic controllers feared that it would crash into the Manitoba capital. I was asked to give permission for the military to bring down the plane if that became necessary. With a heavy heart, I authorized the procedure. Shortly after I made my decision, I learned that the plane had crashed in South Dakota." Chrétien relates that Stewart was "an excellent golfer, whom I knew and liked very much."


title: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash

text: The Learjet's cockpit voice recorder (CVR), which was recovered from the wreckage, contained an audio recording of the last thirty minutes of the flight (it was an older model which only recorded thirty minutes of audio; the aircraft was also not equipped with a flight data recorder). At 17:10:41 UTC, the Learjet's engines can be heard winding down on the CVR recording, indicating that the plane's fuel had been exhausted. In addition, sounds of the stick shaker and the disconnection of the autopilot can be heard. With the engines powered down, the autopilot would have attempted to maintain altitude, causing the plane's airspeed to drop until it approached stall speed, at which point the stick shaker would have automatically engaged to warn the pilot and the autopilot would have switched itself off.


title: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash

text: At 17:11:01 UTC, the Lear began a right turn and descent. NODAK 32 remained to the west, while TULSA 13 broke away from the tanker and followed N47BA down. At 17:11:26 UTC, the NODAK 32 lead pilot reported, "The target is descending and he is doing multiple rolls, looks like he's out of control... in a severe descent, request an emergency descent to follow target." The TULSA 13 pilot reported, "It's soon to impact the ground; he is in a descending spiral."


title: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash

text: Impact occurred approximately 17:13 UTC, or 12:13 local, after a total flight time of 3 hours, 54 minutes, with the aircraft hitting the ground at nearly supersonic speed and at an extreme angle. The Learjet crashed in South Dakota, just outside Mina in Edmunds County, on relatively flat ground and left a crater long, wide, and deep. None of its components remained intact.


title: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash

text: The 42-year-old captain, Michael Kling, held an airline transport pilot certificate and type ratings for the Boeing 707, Boeing 737, and Learjet 35. He also had Air Force experience flying the KC-135 and Boeing E-3 Sentry. Kling was also an instructor pilot on the KC-135E in the Maine Air National Guard. According to Sunjet Aviation records, the captain had accumulated a total of 4,280 hours of flight time (military and commercial) and had flown a total of 60 hours with Sunjet, 38 as a Learjet pilot-in-command and 22 as a Learjet second-in-command.


title: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash

text: The first officer, 27-year-old Stephanie Bellegarrigue, held a commercial pilot certificate and type ratings for Learjet and Cessna Citation 500. She was also a certified flight instructor. She had accumulated a total of 1,751 hours of flight time, of which 251 hours were with Sunjet Aviation as a second-in-command and 99 as a Learjet second-in-command.


title: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash

text: The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) has several levels of investigation, of which the highest is a "major" investigation. Because of the extraordinary circumstances in this crash, a major investigation was performed.


title: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash

text: The Board added a commentary regarding the possible reasons why the crew did not obtain supplemental oxygen:


title: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash

text: The NTSB report showed that the plane had several instances of maintenance work related to cabin pressure in the months leading up to the crash. The NTSB was unable to determine whether they stemmed from a common problem – replacements and repairs were documented, but not the pilot discrepancy reports that prompted them or the frequency of such reports. The report criticised Sunjet Aviation for the possibility that this would have made the problem harder to identify, track, and resolve, as well as the fact that in at least one instance the plane was flown with an unauthorized maintenance deferral for cabin pressure problems.


title: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash

text: Stewart was ultimately headed to Houston for the 1999 Tour Championship but planned a stop in Dallas for discussions with the athletic department of his alma mater, Southern Methodist University, about building a new home course for the school's golf program. Stewart was memorialized at the Tour Championship with a lone bagpipe player playing at the first hole at Champions Golf Club prior to the beginning of the first day of play.


title: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash

text: The owner of the crash site, after consulting the wives of Stewart and several other victims, created a memorial on about of the site. At its center is a rock pulled from the site inscribed with the names of the victims and a Bible passage.


title: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash

text: The 2000 U.S. Open, held at Pebble Beach Golf Links, began with a golf version of a 21-gun salute when 21 of Stewart's fellow players simultaneously hit balls into the Pacific Ocean.


title: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash

text: On June 8, 2005, a Florida state court jury in Orlando found that Learjet was not liable for the deaths of Stewart and his agents.


title: 1999 South Dakota Learjet crash

text: The documentary series "Mayday," also known by the titles "Air Crash Investigation" and "Air Disasters," features this incident in the first episode of its 16th season. The episode, titled "Deadly Silence", was first aired on June 7, 2016.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and teachings of Hinduism that emerged in Ancient India which include six systems ("shad-darśana") – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta. In Indian tradition, the word used for philosophy is Darshana (Viewpoint or perspective), from the Sanskrit root ('to see, to experience').


title: Hindu philosophy

text: These are also called the Astika (theistic) philosophical traditions and are those that accept the Vedas as an authoritative, important source of knowledge. Ancient and medieval India was also the source of philosophies that share philosophical concepts but rejected the Vedas, and these have been called (heterodox or non-orthodox) Indian philosophies. Nāstika Indian philosophies include Buddhism, Jainism, Chārvāka, Ājīvika, and others.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Western scholars have debated the relationship and differences within āstika philosophies and with nāstika philosophies, starting with the writings of Indologists and Orientalists of the 18th and 19th centuries, which were themselves derived from limited availability of Indian literature and medieval doxographies. The various sibling traditions included in Hindu philosophies are diverse, and they are united by shared history and concepts, same textual resources, similar ontological and soteriological focus, and cosmology. While Buddhism and Jainism are considered distinct philosophies and religions, some heterodox (nāstika) traditions such as Cārvāka are often considered as distinct schools within Hindu philosophy because the word "Hindu" is also an exonym and historically, the term has also been used as a geographical and cultural identifier for people living in the Indian subcontinent.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Hindu philosophy also includes several sub-schools of theistic philosophies that integrate ideas from two or more of the six orthodox philosophies, such as the realism of the Nyāya, the naturalism of the Vaiśeṣika, the dualism of the Sāṅkhya, the non-dualism and knowledge of Self as essential to liberation of Advaita, the self-discipline of Yoga and the asceticism and elements of theistic ideas. Examples of such schools include Pāśupata Śaiva, Śaiva siddhānta, Pratyabhijña, Raseśvara and Vaiṣṇava. Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions. The ideas of these sub-schools are found in the Puranas and Āgamas.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Each school of Hindu philosophy has extensive epistemological literature called "Pramana", as well as theories on metaphysics, axiology, and other topics.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: In the history of India, the six orthodox schools had emerged before the start of the Common Era, and some schools emerged possibly even before the Buddha. Some scholars have questioned whether the orthodox and heterodox schools classification is sufficient or accurate, given the diversity and evolution of views within each major school of Indian philosophy, with some sub-schools combining heterodox and orthodox views.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Since ancient times, Indian philosophy has been categorized into and schools of thought. The orthodox schools of Indian philosophy have been called ('six systems'). This schema was created between the 12th and 16th centuries by Vedantins. It was then adopted by the early Western Indologists, and pervades modern understandings of Indian philosophy.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: There are six (orthodox) schools of thought. Each is called a darśana, and each darśana accepts the Vedas as authority. Each also accepts the premise that "Atman" (eternal Self) exists. The schools of philosophy are:


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Schools that do not accept the authority of the Vedas are nāstika philosophies, of which four (heterodox) schools are prominent:


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Besides the major orthodox and non-orthodox schools, there have existed syncretic sub-schools that have combined ideas and introduced new ones of their own. The medieval scholar Madhavacharya, identified by some as Vidyaranya, in his book 'Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha', includes the following, along with Buddhism and Jainism, as sub-schools of Hindu philosophy:


title: Hindu philosophy

text: The above sub-schools introduced their own ideas while adopting concepts from orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy such as realism of the Nyāya, naturalism of Vaiśeṣika, monism and knowledge of Self (Atman) as essential to liberation of Advaita, self-discipline of Yoga, asceticism and elements of theistic ideas. Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Epistemology is called pramana. It has been a key, much debated field of study in Hinduism since ancient times. is a Hindu theory of knowledge and discusses the valid means by which human beings can gain accurate knowledge. The focus of is how correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows, how one does not, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Each of these are further categorized in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error, by the different schools. The schools vary on how many of these six are valid paths of knowledge. For example, the Cārvāka nāstika philosophy holds that only one (perception) is an epistemically reliable means of knowledge, the Samkhya school holds that three are (perception, inference and testimony), while the Mīmāṃsā and Advaita schools hold that all six are epistemically useful and reliable means to knowledge.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Samkhya is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in Hinduism, with origins in the 1st millennium BCE. It is a rationalist school of Indian philosophy, and had a strong influence on other schools of Indian philosophies. Sāmkhya is an enumerationist philosophy whose epistemology accepted three of six "pramāṇas" as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge. These were (perception), (inference) and (, word/testimony of reliable sources).


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Samkhya school espouses dualism between witness-consciousness and 'nature' (mind, perception, matter). It regards the universe as consisting of two realities: "Puruṣa" (witness-consciousness) and "prakriti" ('nature'). "Jiva" (a living being) is that state in which is bonded to in some form. This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of (awareness, intellect) and (individualized ego consciousness, "I-maker"). The universe is described by this school as one created by Purusa-Prakriti entities infused with various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Samkhya philosophy includes a theory of "gunas" (qualities, innate tendencies, psyche). , it states, are of three types: being good, compassionate, illuminating, positive, and constructive; is one of activity, chaotic, passion, impulsive, potentially good or bad; and being the quality of darkness, ignorance, destructive, lethargic, negative. Everything, all life forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three , but in different proportions. The interplay of these defines the character of someone or something, of nature and determines the progress of life. Samkhya theorises a pluralism of Selfs () who possess consciousness. Samkhya has historically been theistic or non-theistic, and there has been debate about its specific view on God.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: The "Samkhya karika", one of the key texts of this school of Hindu philosophy, opens by stating its goal to be "three kinds of human suffering" and means to prevent them. The text then presents a distillation of its theories on epistemology, metaphysics, axiology and soteriology. For example, it states,


title: Hindu philosophy

text: The soteriology in Samkhya aims at the realization of Puruṣa as distinct from Prakriti; this knowledge of the Self is held to end transmigration and lead to absolute freedom (kaivalya).


title: Hindu philosophy

text: In Indian philosophy, Yoga is, among other things, the name of one of the six philosophical schools. The Yoga philosophical system aligns closely with the dualist premises of the Samkhya school. The Yoga school accepts Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is considered theistic because it accepts the concept of personal god (Ishvara), unlike Samkhya. The epistemology of the Yoga school, like the Sāmkhya school, relies on three of six as the means of gaining reliable knowledge: (perception), (inference) and (, word/testimony of reliable sources).


title: Hindu philosophy

text: The universe is conceptualized as a duality in Yoga school: puruṣa (witness-consciousness) and prakṛti (mind, perception, matter); however, the Yoga school discusses this concept more generically as "seer, experiencer" and "seen, experienced" than the Samkhya school.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: A key text of the Yoga school is the "Yoga Sutras of Patanjali". Patanjali may have been, as Max Müller explains, "the author or representative of the Yoga-philosophy without being necessarily the author of the Sutras." Hindu philosophy recognizes many types of Yoga, such as rāja yoga, jñāna yoga, karma yoga, bhakti yoga, tantra yoga, mantra yoga, laya yoga, and hatha yoga.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: The Yoga school builds on the Samkhya school theory that jñāna (knowledge) is a sufficient means to moksha. It suggests that systematic techniques/practice (personal experimentation) combined with Samkhya's approach to knowledge is the path to moksha. Yoga shares several central ideas with Advaita Vedanta, with the difference that Yoga is a form of experimental mysticism while Advaita Vedanta is a form of monistic personalism. Like Advaita Vedanta, the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy holds that liberation/freedom in this life is achievable, and that this occurs when an individual fully understands and realizes the equivalence of Atman (Self) and Brahman.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: The Vaiśeṣika philosophy is a naturalist school. It is a form of atomism in natural philosophy. It postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to (atoms), and that one's experiences are derived from the interplay of substance (a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements), quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence. Knowledge and liberation are achievable by complete understanding of the world of experience, according to Vaiśeṣika school. The Vaiśeṣika is credited to Kaṇāda Kaśyapa from the second half of the first millennium BCE. The foundational text, the "Vaiśeṣika Sūtra", opens as follows:


title: Hindu philosophy

text: The Vaiśeṣika school is related to the Nyāya school but features differences in its epistemology, metaphysics and ontology. The epistemology of the Vaiśeṣika school, like Buddhism, accepted only two means to knowledge as reliable – perception and inference. The Vaiśeṣika school and Buddhism both consider their respective scriptures as indisputable and valid means to knowledge, the difference being that the scriptures held to be a valid and reliable source by Vaiśeṣikas were the Vedas.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Vaiśeṣika metaphysical premises are founded on a form of atomism, that reality is composed of four substances (earth, water, air, and fire). Each of these four are of two types: atomic () and composite. An atom is, according to Vaiśeṣika scholars, that which is indestructible (), indivisible, and has a special kind of dimension, called "small" (). A composite, in this philosophy, is defined to be anything which is divisible into atoms. Whatever human beings perceive is composite, while atoms are invisible. The Vaiśeṣikas stated that size, form, truths and everything that human beings experience as a whole is a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements, their "guṇa" (quality), "karma" (activity), (commonness), (particularity) and (inherence, inseparable connectedness of everything).


title: Hindu philosophy

text: The Nyāya school is a realist āstika philosophy. The school's most significant contributions to Indian philosophy were its systematic development of the theory of logic, methodology, and its treatises on epistemology. The foundational text of the Nyāya school is the "Nyāya Sūtras" of the first millennium BCE. The text is credited to Aksapada Gautama and its composition is variously dated between the sixth and second centuries BCE.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Nyāya epistemology accepts four out of six as reliable means of gaining knowledge – (perception), (inference), (comparison and analogy) and (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).


title: Hindu philosophy

text: In its metaphysics, the Nyāya school is closer to the Vaiśeṣika school than the others. It holds that human suffering results from mistakes/defects produced by activity under wrong knowledge (notions and ignorance). Moksha (liberation), it states, is gained through right knowledge. This premise led Nyāya to concern itself with epistemology, that is, the reliable means to gain correct knowledge and to remove wrong notions. False knowledge is not merely ignorance to Naiyayikas; it includes delusion. Correct knowledge is discovering and overcoming one's delusions, and understanding the true nature of the soul, self and reality. The Nyāya Sūtras begin:


title: Hindu philosophy

text: The Mīmāṃsā school emphasized hermeneutics and exegesis. It is a form of philosophical realism. Key texts of the Mīmāṃsā school are the "Purva Mimamsa Sutras" of Jaimini. The classical Mīmāṃsā school is sometimes referred to as or in reference to the first part of the Vedas.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: The Mīmāṃsā school has several sub-schools defined by epistemology. The Prābhākara subschool of Mīmāṃsā accepted five means to gaining knowledge as epistimetically reliable: (perception), (inference), (comparison and analogy), (postulation, derivation from circumstances), and (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts). The Kumārila Bhaṭṭa sub-school of Mīmāṃsā added a sixth way of knowing to its canon of reliable epistemology: (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof).


title: Hindu philosophy

text: The metaphysics of the Mīmāṃsā school consists of both atheistic and theistic doctrines, and the school showed little interest in systematic examination of the existence of God. Rather, it held that the Self (Atma) is an eternal, omnipresent, inherently active spiritual essence, then focussed on the epistemology and metaphysics of "dharma". To them, dharma meant rituals and duties, not devas (gods), because devas existed only in name. The Mīmāṃsākas held that the Vedas are "eternal authorless infallible", that Vedic (injunctions) and mantras in rituals are prescriptive (actions), and that the rituals are of primary importance and merit. They considered the Upanishads and other texts related to self-knowledge and spirituality to be of secondary importance, a philosophical view that the Vedanta school disagreed with.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Mīmāṃsā gave rise to the study of philology and the philosophy of language. While their deep analysis of language and linguistics influenced other schools, their views were not shared by others. Mīmāṃsākas considered the purpose and power of language was to clearly "prescribe" the proper, correct and right. In contrast, Vedantins extended the scope and value of language as a tool to also "describe", "develop" and "derive". Mīmāṃsākas considered orderly, law-driven, procedural life as the central purpose and noblest necessity of dharma and society, and divine (theistic) sustenance means to that end. The Mimamsa school was influential and foundational to the Vedanta school, with the difference that Mīmāṃsā developed and emphasized (the portion of the śruti which relates to ceremonial acts and sacrificial rites, the early parts of the Vedas), while the Vedanta school developed and emphasized (the portion of the Vedas which relates to knowledge of monism, the latter parts of the Vedas).


title: Hindu philosophy

text: The Vedanta school built upon the teachings of the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras from the first millennium BCE and is the most developed and best-known of the Hindu schools. The epistemology of the Vedantins included, depending on the sub-school, five or six methods as proper and reliable means of gaining any form of knowledge: (perception), (inference), (comparison and analogy), (postulation, derivation from circumstances), (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts). All of these have been further categorized by each sub-school of Vedanta in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: The emergence of the Vedanta school represented a period in which a more knowledge-centered understanding began to emerge, focusing on (knowledge) driven aspects of the Vedic religion and the Upanishads. These included metaphysical concepts such as ātman and Brahman, and an emphasis on meditation, self-discipline, self-knowledge and abstract spirituality, rather than ritualism. The Upanishads were variously interpreted by ancient- and medieval-era Vedanta scholars. Consequently, the Vedanta separated into many sub-schools, ranging from theistic dualism to non-theistic monism, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: "Advaita" literally means "not two, sole, unity". It is a sub-school of Vedanta, and asserts spiritual and universal non-dualism. Its metaphysics is a form of absolute monism, that is all ultimate reality is interconnected oneness. This is the oldest and most widely acknowledged Vedantic school. The foundational texts of this school are the Brahma Sutras and the early Upanishads from the 1st millennium BCE. Its first great consolidator was the 8th century scholar Adi Shankara, who continued the line of thought of the Upanishadic teachers, and that of his teacher's teacher Gaudapada. He wrote extensive commentaries on the major Vedantic scriptures and is celebrated as one of the major Hindu philosophers from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: According to this school of Vedanta, all reality is Brahman, and there exists nothing whatsoever which is not "Brahman". Its metaphysics includes the concept of māyā and ātman. connotes "that which exists, but is constantly changing and thus is spiritually unreal". The empirical reality is considered as always changing and therefore "transitory, incomplete, misleading and not what it appears to be". The concept of is of one Atman, with the light of Atman reflected within each person as . Advaita Vedantins assert that ātman is same as Brahman, and this Brahman is reflected within each human being and all life, all living beings are spiritually interconnected, and there is oneness in all of existence. They hold that dualities and misunderstanding of as the spiritual reality that matters is caused by ignorance, and are the cause of sorrow, suffering. "Jīvanmukti" (liberation during life) can be achieved through Self-knowledge, the understanding that ātman within is same as in another person and all of Brahman – the eternal, unchanging, entirety of cosmic principles and true reality.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Ramanuja (c. 1037–1137) was the foremost proponent of the philosophy of Viśiṣṭādvaita or qualified non-dualism. Viśiṣṭādvaita advocated the concept of a Supreme Being with essential qualities or attributes. Viśiṣṭādvaitins argued against the Advaitin conception of Brahman as an impersonal empty oneness. They saw Brahman as an eternal oneness, but also as the source of all creation, which was omnipresent and actively involved in existence. To them the sense of subject-object perception was illusory and a sign of ignorance. However, the individual's sense of self was not a complete illusion since it was derived from the universal beingness that is Brahman. Ramanuja saw Vishnu as a personification of Brahman.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Dvaita refers to a theistic sub-school in Vedanta tradition of Hindu philosophy. Also called and , the Dvaita sub-school was founded by the 13th-century scholar Madhvacharya. The Dvaita Vedanta school believes that God (Vishnu, Paramatman) and the individual Selfs (Atman) (jīvātman) exist as independent realities, and these are distinct.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Dvaita Vedanta is a dualistic interpretation of the Vedas; it espouses dualism by theorizing the existence of two separate realities. The first and the only independent reality, states the Dvaita school, is that of Vishnu or Brahman. Vishnu is the Paramatman, in a manner similar to monotheistic God in other major religions. The distinguishing factor of Dvaita philosophy, as opposed to monistic Advaita Vedanta, is that God takes on a personal role and is seen as a real eternal entity that governs and controls the universe. Like Vishishtadvaita Vedanta subschool, Dvaita philosophy also embraced Vaishnavism, with the metaphysical concept of Brahman in the Vedas identified with Vishnu and the one and only Supreme Being. However, unlike Vishishtadvaita which envisions ultimate qualified nondualism, the dualism of Dvaita was permanent.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Dvaitādvaita was proposed by Nimbarka, a 13th-century Vaishnava philosopher from the Andhra region. According to this philosophy there are three categories of existence: Brahman, Self, and matter. Self and matter are different from Brahman in that they have attributes and capacities different from Brahman. Brahman exists independently, while Self and matter are dependent. Thus Self and matter have an existence that is separate yet dependent. Further, Brahman is a controller, the Self is the enjoyer, and matter the thing enjoyed. Also, the highest object of worship is Krishna and his consort Radha, attended by thousands of "gopis"; of the Vrindavan; and devotion consists in self-surrender.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Śuddhādvaita is the "purely non-dual" philosophy propounded by Vallabha Acharya (1479–1531). The founding philosopher was also the guru of the Vallabhā sampradāya ("tradition of Vallabh") or "Puṣṭimārga", a Vaishnava tradition focused on the worship of Krishna. Vallabhacharya enunciates that Brahman has created the world without connection with any external agency such as Māyā (which itself is His power) and manifests Himself through the world. That is why Shuddhadvaita is known as "Unmodified transformation" or "Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda". Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual Selfs and the world. The Jagat or Maya is not false or illusionary, the physical material world is. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a "part" (but devoid of bliss) like sparks and fire.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534), stated that the Self or energy of God is both distinct and non-distinct from God, whom he identified as Krishna, Govinda, and that this, although unthinkable, may be experienced through a process of loving devotion ("bhakti"). He followed the Dvaita concept of Madhvacharya. This philosophy of "inconceivable oneness and difference".


title: Hindu philosophy

text: The Cārvāka school is one of the nāstika or "heterodox" philosophies . It rejects supernaturalism, emphasizes materialism and philosophical skepticism, holding empiricism, perception and conditional inference as the proper source of knowledge Cārvāka is an atheistic school of thought. It holds that there is neither afterlife nor rebirth, all existence is mere combination of atoms and substances, feelings and mind are an epiphenomenon, and free will exists.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Bṛhaspati is sometimes referred to as the founder of Cārvāka (also called Lokayata) philosophy. Much of the primary literature of Carvaka, the Barhaspatya sutras (ca. 600 BCE), however, are missing or lost. Its theories and development has been compiled from historic secondary literature such as those found in the shastras, sutras and the Indian epic poetry as well as from the texts of Buddhism and from Jain literature. The by the skeptic philosopher Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa has been considered by many scholars to be an unorthodox Cārvāka text.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: One of the widely studied principles of Cārvāka philosophy was its rejection of inference as a means to establish valid, universal knowledge, and metaphysical truths. In other words, the Cārvāka epistemology states that whenever one infers a truth from a set of observations or truths, one must acknowledge doubt; inferred knowledge is conditional.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Early history of Shaivism is difficult to determine. However, the " Upanishad" (400 – 200 BCE) is considered to be the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism. Shaivism is represented by various philosophical schools, including non-dualist (), dualist (), and non-dualist-with-dualist ("") perspectives. Vidyaranya in his works mentions three major schools of Shaiva thought: Pashupata Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta and Pratyabhijña (Kashmir Shaivism).


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Pāśupata Shaivism (, 'of Paśupati') is the oldest of the major Shaiva schools. The philosophy of Pashupata sect was systematized by "Lakulish" in the 2nd century CE. "Paśu" in Paśupati refers to the effect (or created world), the word designates that which is dependent on something ulterior. Whereas, Pati means the cause (or ), the word designates the Lord, who is the cause of the universe, the , or the ruler. Pashupatas disapproved of Vaishnava theology, known for its doctrine servitude of Selfs to the Supreme Being, on the grounds that dependence upon anything could not be the means of cessation of pain and other desired ends. They recognised that those depending upon another and longing for independence will not be emancipated because they still depend upon something other than themselves. According to Pāśupatas, Self possesses the attributes of the Supreme Deity when it becomes liberated from the 'germ of every pain'.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Pāśupatas divided the created world into the insentient and the sentient. The insentient was the unconscious and thus dependent on the sentient or conscious. The insentient was further divided into effects and causes. The effects were of ten kinds, the earth, four elements and their qualities, colour etc. The causes were of thirteen kinds, the five organs of cognition, the five organs of action, the three internal organs, intellect, the ego principle and the cognising principle. These insentient causes were held responsible for the illusive identification of Self with non-Self. Salvation in Pāśupata involved the union of the Self with God through the intellect.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Considered normative Tantric Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta provides the normative rites, cosmology and theological categories of Tantric Shaivism. Being a dualistic philosophy, the goal of Shaiva Siddhanta is to become an ontologically distinct Shiva (through Shiva's grace). This tradition later merged with the Tamil Saiva movement and expression of concepts of Shaiva Siddhanta can be seen in the bhakti poetry of the Nayanars.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Kashmir Shaivism arose during the eighth or ninth century CE in Kashmir and made significant strides, both philosophical and theological, until the end of the twelfth century CE. It is categorised by various scholars as monistic idealism (absolute idealism, theistic monism, realistic idealism, transcendental physicalism or concrete monism). It is a school of Śaivism consisting of Trika and its philosophical articulation Pratyabhijña.


title: Hindu philosophy

text: Even though, both Kashmir Shaivism and Advaita Vedanta are non-dual philosophies which give primacy to Universal Consciousness ( or "Brahman"), in Kashmir Shavisim, as opposed to Advaita, all things are a manifestation of this Consciousness. This implies that from the point of view of Kashmir Shavisim, the phenomenal world () is real, and it exists and has its being in Consciousness (). However, Advaita holds that Brahman is the reality (pure consciousness) and it is inactive () and the phenomenal world is an appearance (). The objective of human life, according to Kashmir Shaivism, is to merge in Shiva or Universal Consciousness, or to realize one's already existing identity with Shiva, by means of wisdom, yoga and grace.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, or nAChRs, are receptor polypeptides that respond to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Nicotinic receptors also respond to drugs such as the agonist nicotine. They are found in the central and peripheral nervous system, muscle, and many other tissues of many organisms. At the neuromuscular junction they are the primary receptor in muscle for motor nerve-muscle communication that controls muscle contraction. In the peripheral nervous system: (1) they transmit outgoing signals from the presynaptic to the postsynaptic cells within the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system, and (2) they are the receptors found on skeletal muscle that receive acetylcholine released to signal for muscular contraction. In the immune system, nAChRs regulate inflammatory processes and signal through distinct intracellular pathways. In insects, the cholinergic system is limited to the central nervous system.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: The nicotinic receptors are considered cholinergic receptors, since they respond to acetylcholine. Nicotinic receptors get their name from nicotine which does not stimulate the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors but selectively binds to the nicotinic receptors instead. The muscarinic acetylcholine receptor likewise gets its name from a chemical that selectively attaches to that receptor — muscarine. Acetylcholine itself binds to both muscarinic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: As ionotropic receptors, nAChRs are directly linked to ion channels. New evidence suggests that these receptors can also use second messengers (as metabotropic receptors do) in some cases. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are the best-studied of the ionotropic receptors.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: Since nicotinic receptors help transmit outgoing signals for the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, nicotinic receptor antagonists such as hexamethonium interfere with the transmission of these signals. Thus, for example, nicotinic receptor antagonists interfere with the baroreflex that normally corrects changes in blood pressure by sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation of the heart.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: Nicotinic receptors, with a molecular mass of 290 kDa, are made up of five subunits, arranged symmetrically around a central pore. Each subunit comprises four transmembrane domains with both the N- and C-terminus located extracellularly. They possess similarities with GABA receptors, glycine receptors, and the type 3 serotonin receptors (which are all ionotropic receptors), or the signature Cys-loop proteins.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: In vertebrates, nicotinic receptors are broadly classified into two subtypes based on their primary sites of expression: "muscle-type" nicotinic receptors and "neuronal-type" nicotinic receptors. In the muscle-type receptors, found at the neuromuscular junction, receptors are either the embryonic form, composed of α, β, γ, and δ subunits in a 2:1:1:1 ratio ((α)βγδ), or the adult form composed of α, β, δ, and ε subunits in a 2:1:1:1 ratio ((α)βδε). The neuronal subtypes are various homomeric (all one type of subunit) or heteromeric (at least one α and one β) combinations of twelve different nicotinic receptor subunits: α−α and β−β. Examples of the neuronal subtypes include: (α)(β), (α)(β), (α)(β), ααβ(β), (α), and many others. In both muscle-type and neuronal-type receptors, the subunits are very similar to one another, especially in the hydrophobic regions.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: A number of electron microscopy and x-ray crystallography studies have provided very high resolution structural information for muscle and neuronal nAChRs and their binding domains.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: As with all ligand-gated ion channels, opening of the nAChR channel pore requires the binding of a chemical messenger. Several different terms are used to refer to the molecules that bind receptors, such as ligand, agonist, or transmitter. As well as the endogenous agonist acetylcholine, agonists of the nAChR include nicotine, epibatidine, and choline. Nicotinic antagonists that block the receptor include mecamylamine, dihydro-β-erythroidine, and hexamethonium.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: In muscle-type nAChRs, the acetylcholine binding sites are located at the α and either ε or δ subunits interface. In neuronal nAChRs, the binding site is located at the interface of an α and a β subunit or between two α subunits in the case of α receptors. The binding site is located in the extracellular domain near the N terminus. When an agonist binds to the site, all present subunits undergo a conformational change and the channel is opened and a pore with a diameter of about 0.65 nm opens.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: Nicotinic AChRs may exist in different interconvertible conformational states. Binding of an agonist stabilizes the open and desensitized states. In normal physiological conditions, the receptor needs exactly two molecules of ACh to open. Opening of the channel allows positively charged ions to move across it; in particular, sodium enters the cell and potassium exits. The net flow of positively charged ions is inward.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: The nAChR is a non-selective cation channel, meaning that several different positively charged ions can cross through. It is permeable to Na and K, with some subunit combinations that are also permeable to Ca. The amount of sodium and potassium the channels allow through their pores (their conductance) varies from 50–110 pS, with the conductance depending on the specific subunit composition as well as the permeant ion.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: Many neuronal nAChRs can affect the release of other neurotransmitters. The channel usually opens rapidly and tends to remain open until the agonist diffuses away, which usually takes about 1 millisecond. AChRs can spontaneously open with no ligands bound or can spontaneously close with ligands bound, and mutations in the channel can shift the likelihood of either event. Therefore, ACh binding changes the probability of pore opening, which increases as more ACh binds.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: The nAChR is unable to bind ACh when bound to any of the snake venom α-neurotoxins. These α-neurotoxins antagonistically bind tightly and noncovalently to nAChRs of skeletal muscles and in neurons, thereby blocking the action of ACh at the postsynaptic membrane, inhibiting ion flow and leading to paralysis and death. The nAChR contains two binding sites for snake venom neurotoxins. Progress in discovering the dynamics of binding action of these sites has proved difficult, although recent studies using normal mode dynamics have aided in predicting the nature of both the binding mechanisms of snake toxins and of ACh to nAChRs. These studies have shown that a twist-like motion caused by ACh binding is likely responsible for pore opening, and that one or two molecules of α-bungarotoxin (or other long-chain α-neurotoxin) suffice to halt this motion. The toxins seem to lock together neighboring receptor subunits, inhibiting the twist and therefore, the opening motion.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: The activation of receptors by nicotine modifies the state of neurons through two main mechanisms. On one hand, the movement of cations causes a depolarization of the plasma membrane (which results in an excitatory postsynaptic potential in neurons) leading to the activation of voltage-gated ion channels. On the other hand, the entry of calcium acts, either directly or indirectly, on different intracellular cascades. This leads, for example, to the regulation of activity of some genes or the release of neurotransmitters.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: Ligand-bound desensitization of receptors was first characterized by Katz and Thesleff in the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: Prolonged or repeated exposure to a stimulus often results in decreased responsiveness of that receptor toward a stimulus, termed desensitization. nAChR function can be modulated by phosphorylation by the activation of second messenger-dependent protein kinases. PKA and PKC, as well as tyrosine kinases, have been shown to phosphorylate the nAChR resulting in its desensitization. It has been reported that, after prolonged receptor exposure to the agonist, the agonist itself causes an agonist-induced conformational change in the receptor, resulting in receptor desensitization.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: Desensitized receptors can revert to a prolonged open state when an agonist is bound in the presence of a positive allosteric modulator, for example PNU-120,596. Also, there is evidence that indicates specific chaperone molecules have regulatory effects on these receptors.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: The subunits of the nicotinic receptors belong to a multigene family (16 members in humans) and the assembly of combinations of subunits results in a large number of different receptors (for more information see the Ligand-Gated Ion Channel database). These receptors, with highly variable kinetic, electrophysiological and pharmacological properties, respond to nicotine differently, at very different effective concentrations. This functional diversity allows them to take part in two major types of neurotransmission. Classical synaptic transmission (wiring transmission) involves the release of high concentrations of neurotransmitter, acting on immediately neighboring receptors. In contrast, paracrine transmission (volume transmission) involves neurotransmitters released by axon terminals, which then diffuse through the extra-cellular medium until they reach their receptors, which may be distant. Nicotinic receptors can also be found in different synaptic locations; for example the muscle nicotinic receptor always functions post-synaptically. The neuronal forms of the receptor can be found both post-synaptically (involved in classical neurotransmission) and pre-synaptically where they can influence the release of multiple neurotransmitters.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: 17 vertebrate nAChR subunits have been identified, which are divided into muscle-type and neuronal-type subunits. Although an α subunit/gene is present in avian species such as the chicken, it is not present in human or mammalian species.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: The nAChR subunits have been divided into 4 subfamilies (I–IV) based on similarities in protein sequence. In addition, subfamily III has been further divided into 3 types.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: Neuronal nAChRs are transmembrane proteins that form pentameric structures assembled from a family of subunits composed of α–α and β–β. These subunits were discovered from the mid-1980s through the early 1990s, when cDNAs for multiple nAChR subunits were cloned from rat and chicken brains, leading to the identification of eleven different genes (twelve in chickens) that code for neuronal nAChR subunits; The subunit genes identified were named α–α (α only found in chickens) and β–β. It has also been discovered that various subunit combinations could form functional nAChRs that could be activated by acetylcholine and nicotine, and the different combinations of subunits generate subtypes of nAChRs with diverse functional and pharmacological properties. When expressed alone, α, α, α, and α are able to form functional receptors, but other α subunits require the presence of β subunits to form functional receptors. In mammals, nAchR subunits have been found to be encoded by 17 genes, and of these, nine genes encoding α-subunits and three encoding β-subunits are expressed in the brain. β subunit-containing nAChRs (βnAChRs) and αnAChRs are widely expressed in the brain, whereas other nAChR subunits have more restricted expression. The pentameric assembly of nAChRs is subjected to the subunits that are produced in various cell types such as in the human lung where epithelial and muscular pentamers largely differ.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: An important nAchR gene cluster (CHRNA5/A3/B4) contains the genes encoding for the α, α3 and β subunits. Genetic studies have identified single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the chromosomal locus encoding these three nAChR genes as risk factors for nicotine dependence, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, alcoholism, and peripheral arterial disease. The CHRNA5/A3/B4 nAChR subunit genes are found in a tight cluster in chromosomal region 15q24–25. The nAChR subunits encoded by this locus form the predominant nicotinic receptor subtypes expressed in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and other key central nervous system (CNS) sites, such as the medial habenula, a structure between the limbic forebrain and midbrain involved in major cholinergic circuitry pathways. Further research of the CHRNA5/A3/B4 genes have revealed that “neuronal” nAChR genes are also expressed in non-neuronal cells where they are involved in various fundamental processes, such as inflammation. The CHRNA5/A3/B4 genes are co-expressed in many cell types and the transcriptional activities of the promoter regions of the three genes are regulated by many of the same transcription factors, demonstrating that their clustering may reflect control of gene expression.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: CHRNB3 and CHRNA6 are also grouped in a gene cluster, located on 8p11. Multiple studies have shown that SNPS in the CHRNB3–CHRNA6 have been linked to nicotine dependence and smoking behavior, such as two SNPs in CHRNB3, rs6474413 and rs10958726. Genetic variation in this region also displays influence susceptibility to use drugs of abuse, including cocaine and alcohol consumption. Nicotinic receptors containing α or β subunits expressed in brain regions, especially in the ventral tegmental area and substantia nigra, are important for drug behaviors due to their role in dopamine release. Genetic variation in these genes can alter sensitivity to drugs of abuse in numerous ways, including changing the amino acid structure of the protein or cause alterations in transcriptional and translational regulation.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: Other well studied nAChR genes include the CHRNA4 and CHRNB2, which have been associated as Autosomal Dominant Nocturnal Frontal Lobe Epilepsy (ADNFLE) genes. Both of these nAChR subunits are present in the brain and the occurrence of mutations in these two subunits cause a generalized type of epilepsy. Examples include the CHRNA4 insertion mutation 776ins3 that is associated with nocturnal seizures and psychiatric disorders, and the CHRNB2 mutation I312M that seems to cause not only epilepsy but also very specific cognitive deficits, such as deficits in learning and memory. There is naturally occurring genetic variation between these two genes and analysis of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and other gene modifications show a higher variation in the CHRNA4 gene than in the CHRNB2 gene, implying that nAChR β, the protein encoded by CHRNB2, associates with more subunits than α. CHRNA2 has also been reported as a third candidate for nocturnal frontal lobe seizures.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: Several studies have reported an association between CHRNA7 and endophenotypes of psychiatric disorders and nicotine dependence, contributing to the significant clinical relevance of α and research being done on it. CHRNA7 was one of the first genes that had been considered to be involved with schizophrenia. Studies identified several CHRNA7 promoter polymorphisms that reduce the genes transcriptional activity to be associated with schizophrenia, which is consistent with the finding of reduced levels of a7 nAChRs in the brain of schizophrenic patients. Both nAChRs subtypes, αβ and α, have been found to be significantly reduced in post-mortem studies of individuals with schizophrenia. Additionally, smoking rates are significantly higher in those with schizophrenia, implying that smoking nicotine may be a form of self-medicating.


title: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: Nicotinic receptors are pentamers of these subunits; i.e., each receptor contains five subunits. Thus, there is immense potential of variation of these subunits, some of which are more commonly found than others. The most broadly expressed subtypes include (α)βδε (adult muscle-type), (α)(β) (ganglion-type), (α)(β) (CNS-type) and (α) (another CNS-type). A comparison follows:


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Anheuser-Busch, a wholly owned subsidiary of Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV, is the largest brewing company in the United States, with a market share of 45 percent in 2016.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: The company operates 12 breweries in the United States and nearly 20 in other countries, which increased after Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV acquired SABMiller in 2016.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: "Budweiser" is a 5.0% ABV Adjunct pale lager that was introduced in 1876 by Adolphus Busch and has become one of the best selling beers in the United States. It is made with up to 30% rice in addition to hops and barley malt. Budweiser is produced in various breweries located around the United States and the rest of the world. It is a filtered beer available in draught and packaged forms. Lower strength versions are distributed in regions with restrictive alcohol laws.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Introduced in 1982 as Budweiser Light, and known exclusively as Bud Light by late 1984, it's Budweiser's flagship light beer with 4.2% ABV and . In 1985, the ads transitioned to "Gimme a Light", which worked better than the "Drink It All" song for the new name.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: From 1993 to 1998, Bud Light aired 30-second commercials featuring Rob and Laura from the CBS series "The Dick Van Dyke Show". The Bud Light King and Queen along with the Bud Knight characters were later created for commercials.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: A slightly sweeter, higher alcohol version of Bud Light launched in early 2012, with 6% ABV. This product is noted for being packaged in a new translucent blue glass bottle. Bud Light Platinum has , 8 fewer than a regular Budweiser.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Bud Light with lime flavor added. It has . Released in May 2008 with 4.2% alcohol content, the same alcohol content as Bud Light.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Bud Light released their own alcoholic seltzer water beverage in mid-January, 2020. The four flavors available include black cherry, lemon lime, strawberry, and mango, and are made from cane sugar and fruit flavor. Each can has 100 calories per 12 US fl oz serving and has 5% ABV.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Since April 2012, AB has released a line of 8% alcohol by volume (6% ABV in Canada) flavored malt beverages titled "Bud Light Lime Ritas," with its flagship flavor being the "Lime-a-Rita," a lime flavored beverage. The drinks are available in a twenty-five ounce can, as well as a twelve-pack of eight ounce cans. Since then, AB has released the strawberry-flavored "Straw-Ber-Rita," the mango flavored "Mang-o-Rita," and the raspberry flavored "Raz-Ber-Rita." For the winter 2013 season, AB released the cranberry-flavored "Cran-Brrr-Rita" as well, and wound up extending it through January and February 2014 due to strong sales. After the release of the "Mang-o-Rita" and "Raz-Ber-Rita," A-B released an eighteen-pack case containing six "Lime-a-Ritas," four "Straw-Ber-Ritas," four "Mang-o-Ritas," and four "Raz-Ber-Ritas."


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: In August 2014, A-B released a new fall seasonal extension for their "Rita" line, "Apple-Ahh-Rita," an apple-flavored margarita sold until November 2014.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: In February 2015, A-B released a new summer seasonal extension for their "Rita" line, "Lemon-Ade-Rita," a lemonade flavored margarita.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: In summer 2016, A-B released the newest "rita" flavor of their line named "Water-melon-rita", a watermelon flavored margarita. A-B also released the "Grape-Ahh-Rita," a grape flavored margarita. In fall 2016, A-B released the new "Cherry-Ahh-Rita," a cherry-flavored margarita.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: In summer 2017, A-B released the new "Peach-A-Rita". A-B also released the new "Orange-A-Rita," in certain states and the "Grape-Ahh-Rita" was renamed "Grape-A-Rita". Also in summer 2017, A-B introduced "Splash by Lime-A-Rita," a line of lighter Lime-A-Ritas with less alcohol, calories, and carbs available in three flavors; the existing "Straw-Ber-Rita" and the two new flavors "Pine-Apple-Rita" and "Coco-Nut-Rita." In the fall of 2017, A-B introduced Pome-Granate-Rita.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: In 2018, A-B introduced several flavors, including, Pine-Apple-Rita, Coco-Nut-Rita, Grape-Fruit-Rita, Berry-A-Rita, and brought back the watermelon flavor.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: In 2019, Passion-Fruit-Rita and Cherry-Lime-Rita were introduced and cranberry came back. In 2020, A-B introduced Guav-A-Rita.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Budweiser Select, or Bud Select, is a light pale lager that contains 4.3% ABV and . Anheuser-Busch has aggressively promoted Budweiser Select. Its slogan was "The Real Deal". The company hired Jay-Z as a spokesman for the brand.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: A version of Budweiser Select that contains is "a direct counterstrike to Miller's MGD 64" according to Anheuser-Busch officials. Budweiser currently claims that it is the lightest beer in the world. The food energy in both Miller's MGD 64 and Budweiser's Select 55 have been reduced simply by lowering the fermentables content. MGD 64 has only 2.8% alcohol content and some Select 55 states "alcohol content not more than 3.2% by weight / 4% by volume", possibly to allow its sale in areas where that is the limit. The actual alcohol content of "55" is reported to be 2.4% ABV; by comparison, most American lagers have around 5%.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Budweiser Brew No. 66 is a 4% alcohol by volume lager that is brewed and distributed in the United Kingdom by InBev UK Limited. Launched in July 2010, Budweiser 66 has 84 Calories in a 300 ml serving (just over 10 oz).


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Introduced in October 1993 as Ice by Budweiser, it has more alcohol (5.5% ABV) than Budweiser. It is best known for an advertising campaign that involved a malevolent penguin that stalked Bud Ice drinkers and stole their beer, announcing its presence by singing the "doo-be-doo-be-doo" phrase from "Strangers in the Night".


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: A beer with caffeine, ginseng, guarana and alcohol. It contains 6.6% ABV. It was marketed as a caffeinated malt beverage, similar to Sparks. On June 26, 2008, Anheuser-Busch announced that it would remove caffeine and guarana from the beverage in response to concerns that the product was being marketed to consumers under the age of 21.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: A blend of Budweiser or Bud Light and Clamato. This beverage became available nationally in late 2007.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Non-alcoholic version of Budweiser developed for the Middle Eastern market. Also available in Green Apple and Tropical Fruits versions.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Shortly after Prohibition Brew's discontinuation, InBev announced a new Non-alcohol beer brink called Budweiser Zero. NBA player Dwyane Wade partnered with the company in the creation of the drink, stating "it was personal to me because of my mom's and dad's journey through addiction" and called the drink "a can that gives you that encouragement" while attempting to avoid alcohol. In May of 2022, InBev announced that they were falling short of their previously stated goal of 20% of their beverage volume being alcohol free, having reached 6% saturation at the time.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: The drink features zero sugar, zero alcohol, zero carbs, and fifty calories. Various promotions tied to the product have been offered, such as free Uber rides, and an NFT offering. It has been received with mixed reviews. InBev has received negative press from critics with complaints such as "who drinks Budweiser for the taste", and The Week calling it "an attack on American values". It has mixed to positive reviews among taste testers, being praised to its beer-like appearance and taste, and slightly criticized for being bland in flavor.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Budweiser American Ale debuted in 2008. The beer was claimed to offer complex taste without much bitterness. American Ale had a distinctive hoppier flavor than other Anheuser-Busch beers, in an attempt to capture some of the American craft beer market, although most American craft beers are hoppier. American Ale was the first beer under the Budweiser name that was brewed with a top fermenting yeast. The beer's darker color was a departure from the other Budweiser brands. Production was discontinued by 2015.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Budweiser Brew Masters' Private Reserve is an all-malt lager with a honey color and robust taste. It is based on a "Budweiser brewmaster holiday tradition of collecting the richest part of the batch which is tapped to the brew kettles to toast the holiday season."


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Introduced in limited test markets between 1970 and 1973, it's slogan was "The first malt liquor good enough to bear the name."


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Bud Dry was introduced nationally in the U.S. in April 1990 with the slogan of "Why ask why? Try Bud Dry." It was originally successful in test markets and was expected to be a popular beer with the rise in light lager popularity. Dry beer is a form of pale lager where the sugars are more fully fermented to give a less sweet beer. It is also known as the "Diät-Pils" style. However, after the introduction of Bud Ice in 1994, Bud Dry was not heavily marketed. Production was discontinued in December 2010.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Bud Ice Light contains 5.0% ABV and . It undergoes fractional freezing, which Bud Light does not undergo. It was discontinued in 2010.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: On October 5, 2009, Budweiser officially released Bud Light Golden Wheat, a response to the increase in the amount of wheat beers produced from craft brewers around the country. This beer had , 8.3 grams of carbohydrates and 4.1% alcohol by volume. It was an American Hefeweizen which is based on the classic German Hefeweizen style. Production was discontinued in 2012.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: An attempt to appeal to the tastes of beer drinkers in the United Kingdom, this specially brewed beer contained 4.2% alcohol by volume. It was discontinued in 2006 after it failed to meet sales expectations.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: A red ale marketed during the 1990s in the United States. It was enjoyed by some consumers, but neither as well known nor as popular as other Anheuser-Busch brands. Discontinued circa 2000.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: In 2015, AB InBev committed to ensuring that low-alcohol and nonalcoholic beers would represent at least 20% of its global beer volume by 2025. They followed the announcement by launching their Prohibition Brew-branded non-alcoholic drink and introduced it to the Canadian market in 2016. It was brewed in the same method as Budweiser, with the alcohol removed via evaporation. It was discontinued in 2020, in favor of a new non-alcoholic beer brand, Budweiser Zero, which features a different recipe and a partnership with professional NBA player Dwyane Wade.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Michelob is a 4.7% ABV pale lager developed by Adolphus Busch in 1896 as a "draught beer for connoisseurs". Michelob is the German name for Měcholupy, now in the Czech Republic, where Anton Dreher had a brewery.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: In 1961, Anheuser-Busch produced a pasteurized version of Michelob which allowed legal shipment of the beer across state lines. Bottled beer began to be shipped soon after, and the brand was introduced in cans in 1966. Bottled Michelob was originally sold in a uniquely shaped bottle named the teardrop bottle because it resembled a water droplet. The teardrop bottle was awarded a medal from the Institute of Design in 1962. Five years later the bottle was redesigned for efficiency in the production line. This bottle was used until 2002 when it was dropped in favor of a traditional bottle. The teardrop bottle was used again from January 2007 to October 2008.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: The company introduced Michelob Light in 1978. Michelob Classic Dark was made available in 1981 in kegs, with a bottled version following three years later. In 1991, Michelob Golden Draft was introduced to compete against Miller Genuine Draft in the Midwest.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: AmberBock is a 5.1% ABV amber lager which uses roasted black barley malt in the ingredients, and which received a World Beer Cup Bronze Medal in 1998.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: From the beginning, the specialty beers have had a very limited distribution. The chief outlet has been through a "holiday sampler pack" produced during the Christmas holiday season. Other specialty beers that are no longer in production include Michelob Hefeweizen and Michelob Black & Tan. Some (notably Michelob AmberBock) have subsequently gone into larger production, while others have not. The brewery continues to experiment with specialty beers—in 2005 an oak-aged vanilla beer was sold under the Michelob logo, available in single pints. In 2006 Michelob added a chocolate beer to the oak-aged vanilla Celebrate holiday season beer released a year earlier. Michelob also brewed Michelob Bavarian Style Wheat and Michelob Porter for its "holiday sampler pack". In 2007, Michelob launched its Seasonal Specialty Line. These include:


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: The early 21st century saw in the U.S. a demand for diet beer similar to that of the early 1970s, and in 2002 the Michelob line responded with the introduction of Michelob Ultra, advertised as being low in carbohydrates. Later Michelob Ultra Amber, a darker, more flavorful beer, was added to this sub-line.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: According to a report by Beer Marketer's Insights and published by "USA Today" on December 9, 2013, sales of Michelob Light declined by nearly 70% between 2007 and 2012. The article listed Michelob Light as one of "nine beers many Americans no longer drink."


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: All fruit flavors have the following nutrition content: 107 calories, 6.0g carbs, 0.5g protein and 0.0g fat, per 12 oz bottle.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Advertisements for Michelob Ultra feature people engaged in sporting activities. The Michelob ULTRA Open at Kingsmill and Michelob Ultra Futures Players Championship, were sponsored by Michelob Ultra. Michelob Ultra serves as a presenting sponsor of the Tour of Missouri bicycle race and sponsors the King of the Mountains jersey. Michelob also sponsors the Rugby Super League, and many of its teams have shirt sponsorships with its AmberBock brand. PGA Tour players Sergio García and Brooks Koepka are both sponsored by Michelob, as well as veteran beach volleyball player Kerry Walsh. Lance Armstrong signed on October 6, 2009 a three-year agreement to become Michelob Ultra's new spokesperson and ambassador, but was dropped by the company in 2012 after being accused of using performance-enhancing drugs.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Michelob sponsored several episodes of the "Diggnation" podcast. The hosts, Kevin Rose and Alex Albrecht, sampled the beer during the show and several episodes included interviews with the company's head brew-master to discuss the different products that can be found in the sampler packs. Also, an episode of the show was filmed inside the Michelob brewery.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Michelob is famous for its late-1980s TV commercials that used the slogan, "The night belongs to Michelob", which centered on its "night" theme and used songs that had the word "night" or a form of the word "night" in its title, including "The Way You Look Tonight" by Frank Sinatra, "Move Better in the Night" by Roger Daltrey, "Tonight, Tonight, Tonight" by Genesis, "Don't You Know What the Night Can Do?" and "Talking Back to the Night" by Steve Winwood, and a new recording of "After Midnight" by Eric Clapton. In the 1980s and 1990s, Michelob used the slogan "Some days are better than others".


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: "Rolling Rock" is a 4.5% ABV pale lager launched in 1939 by the Latrobe Brewing Company. In May 2006, Anheuser-Busch purchased the Rolling Rock brand from InBev for $82 million and began brewing Rolling Rock at its Newark facility in mid July 2006. Other pale lagers marketed under the Rolling Rock brand name are "Rock Green Light", 3.7% ABV, and "Rock Light", 3.5%; the company also produces a 5% ABV amber lager, "Rolling Rock Red". Ingredients are pale barley malt, rice, corn and hops.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: "Busch Beer", a 4.7% ABV economy brand lager was introduced in 1955 as "Busch Bavarian Beer"; the brand name was changed in 1979 to "Busch Beer". Other beers marketed under the "Busch" brand name are Busch Light, a 4.1% light lager introduced in 1989, "Busch Ice", a 5.9% ice beer introduced in 1995, and "Busch NA", a non-alcoholic brew. Ingredients are a mix of American-grown and imported hops and a combination of malt and corn. At a slightly lower price point than flagship brand Budweiser, it serves as Anheuser-Busch's second most popular brand. It competes directly with the MillerCoors brand Milwaukee's Best, Keystone/Keystone Premium, while Busch Light competes directly with Milwaukee's Best Light, Keystone Light and Southpaw Light and Busch Ice competes directly with the Milwaukee's Best Ice, Keystone Ice/V9 and Icehouse.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: In September 2020, Busch released "Dog Brew", a non-alcoholic beverage for dogs. The "beer" contains neither alcohol nor hops, but is instead made with pork bone broth, water, vegetables, herbs, and spices.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: "Shock Top" is a 5.2% ABV Belgian-style wheat ale introduced under the name "Spring Heat Spiced Wheat" brewed in Fort Collins, Colorado as a seasonal beer in 2006, then all year from 2007. The beer is brewed with wheat malt, two-row barley, orange, lemon, lime peel, coriander and Cascade and Willamette hops. Entering as the Spring Heat Spiced Wheat, Shock Top Belgian White won gold and bronze medals in the Belgian Wit (White) category at the 2006 and 2007 North American Beer Awards, earning the reputation as America's Beer respectively.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: "Natural Light" is an economy brand 4.2% ABV reduced-calorie pale lager introduced in 1977. The brand was originally called Anheuser-Busch Natural Light. In 2008 "The Wall Street Journal" listed it as the fifth largest selling beer in the U.S. "Natural Ice" is an economy brand 5.9% ABV ice beer, introduced in 1995. Nearly two decades after the introduction of Natural Ice a malt liquor named "Natty Daddy" (8% and 5.9% ABV) was added to the market in 2012. It competes directly with the MillerCoors brand Keystone Light, Milwaukee's Best Light, Southpaw Light while Natural Ice competes directly with Keystone Ice/V9, Milwaukee's Best Ice and Icehouse and Natty Daddy competes against Keylightful, Keystone Lime and Icehouse Edge. Anheuser Busch continues to add to the Natural Light profile releasing Naturdays in 2019. Currently there are three flavors, original strawberry lemonade, pineapple lemonade and red, white and blueberry.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: "Johnny Appleseed" is a 5.5% ABV cider produced by Anheuser-Busch subsidiary Brokenstraw Beverage LLC and introduced in April 2014. Brokenstraw Beverage was created by Anheuser-Busch in 2014 as a corporate identity to manufacture and distribute "Johnny Appleseed" out of their Baldwinsville, New York brewery.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: "LandShark Lager", brewed in Jacksonville, Florida, is a 4.6% ABV island-style lager launched in 2006 as the house lager for "Jimmy Buffett's Margaritaville" restaurant chain, to compete with Grupo Modelo's Corona.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Under a sponsorship deal, Dolphin Stadium, home of the Miami Dolphins, Florida Marlins and the Miami Hurricanes, was renamed "Land Shark Stadium" for the 2009 football season. The contract ended in early 2010, and the stadium was renamed "Sun Life Stadium" as of January 18, 2010, in time for both the 2010 NFL Pro Bowl and Super Bowl XLIV. The stadium was renamed Hard Rock Stadium in 2016.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: LandShark also has Bar & Grill locations in Pensacola, Florida, Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, Atlantic City, New Jersey, Branson, Missouri, Buford, Georgia, and Biloxi, Mississippi.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: The name is derived from the Jimmy Buffett song "Fins", where men in a beach town trying to woo a vacationing woman are referred to as "sharks that can swim on the land."


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Goose Island started in 1988 as a brewpub in Chicago, and opened a separate bottling plant there in 1995. The brewery and its beers were purchased by Anheuser-Busch InBev in 2011. The Chicago brewery continues to produce and sell small batch beers while their national offerings are made in bulk at various Anheuser-Busch facilities.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: On February 5, 2014, it was announced that "Blue Point Brewing Company" was being sold to Anheuser-Busch InBev for nearly $24 million. As of the time of sale, the brewery will continue to operate in its Patchogue, New York, location.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: In November 2014, it was reported that 10 Barrel Brewing, with brewpubs in Bend, Oregon, and Boise, Idaho, would be acquired by Anheuser-Busch. This was the second small brewing company acquired by the company in that calendar year.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Elysian was founded in Seattle, Washington, in 1995 by Dave Buhler, Joe Bisacca, and Dick Cantwell. On January 23, 2015, it was announced that Elysian would be sold to Anheuser-Busch in a deal expected to close within three months.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Four Peaks announced on December 18, 2015, that it had been acquired by ABInbev as part of its High End unit.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Several days after acquiring the Four Peaks brand and assets, InBev announced the purchase of Breckenridge Brewery, with brewpubs based in Colorado.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Devils Backbone announced on April 12, 2016, that it had been acquired by ABInbev as part of its High End unit.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Karbach Brewing Company announced on November 3, 2016, that it had been acquired by ABInbev as part of its High End unit.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Wicked Weed Brewing announced on May 3, 2017, that it had been acquired by ABInbev as part of its High End unit.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: "King Cobra" is a 6% alcohol by volume malt liquor introduced in 1984. It is brewed with a warmer fermentation than used for the company's pale lagers, and the ingredients include barley malt and corn. Shortly after its launch, King Cobra was supported by an advertising campaign featuring actor, martial artist, and former American football player Fred Williamson and the tag-line "Don't let the smooth taste fool you!"


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: "Hurricane High Gravity Lager" is an 8.1% alcohol malt liquor beverage available primarily in the United States. It is available in 40 ounce bottles, as well as 12, 16, 24, and 25 ounce cans. Recently, Hurricane High Gravity 8.1% has gone from a Black Label to a Silver Label in all of its serving sizes. Hurricane also comes in a lower alcohol content just called Hurricane malt liquor usually sold in a 40-ounce bottle with an ABV of 5.9%.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: The company introduced a flavored 12% ABV malt liquor under the name "Spykes" in 2007. It was sold in colorful, 2-ounce bottles. Available flavors included mango, lime, melon and chocolate. It was withdrawn in the same year after criticism from alcohol industry watchdog groups that it was being marketed to underage customers, and the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau found that the labeling of Spykes was illegal.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: As of January 2013, Anheuser-Busch InBev had 32.2% ownership in the Craft Brew Alliance, a beer brewing company that is composed of several beer and cider brands.


title: Anheuser-Busch brands

text: Beers made by smaller "craft" breweries which are co-distributed with A-B brands by select distributors:


title: Honey trapping

text: Honey trapping is an investigative practice involving the use of romantic or sexual relationships for interpersonal, political (including state espionage), or monetary purpose. The "honey pot or trap" involves making contact with an individual who has information or resources required by a group or individual; the trapper will then seek to entice the target into a false relationship (which may or may not include actual physical involvement) in which they can glean information or influence over the target.


title: Honey trapping

text: Private investigators are often employed to create a "honey pot" by wives, husbands, and other partners usually when an illicit romantic affair is suspected of the "target", or subject of the investigation. Occasionally, the term may be used for the practice of creating an affair for the purpose of taking incriminating photos for use in blackmail. A honey trap is used primarily to collect evidence on the subject of the honey trap. Honey trapping is used in getting a new user addicted to illegal drugs and also for drug smuggling.


title: Honey trapping

text: During the Cold War, female agents called "Mozhno girls" or "Mozhnos" were used by the Russian KGB to spy on foreign officials by seducing them. The name Mozhno comes from the Russian word "можно", meaning "it is permitted", as these agents were allowed to breach regulations restricting Russian contact with foreigners.


title: Honey trapping

text: In 2009, the British MI5 distributed a 14-page document to hundreds of British banks, businesses, and financial institutions, titled "The Threat from Chinese Espionage". It described a wide-ranging Chinese effort to blackmail Western business people over sexual relationships. The document explicitly warns that Chinese intelligence services are trying to cultivate "long-term relationships" and have been known to "exploit vulnerabilities such as sexual relationships ... to pressurise individuals to co-operate with them."


title: Honey trapping

text: Each assignment varies depending on what the agent and client decide on during their prior consultation. A common assignment consists of the agent initiating contact with the subject through face-to-face interaction. The agent will attempt to take the communication further into other outlets including: e-mail, text messaging, phone calls, etc. The step after this can be considered the most crucial moment of the assignment. The agent will propose a second meeting to the subject. Whether or not the subject agrees to further communication will determine whether the assignment will go deeper or come to an end. Hotels are often used as a meeting place to determine whether the subject intends for the relationship to escalate. Once the investigation comes to an end, the agent will turn over any record of communication they had with the subject. Other documents that are recorded include: photographs, videos, venue appointments, etc.


title: Don Messick

text: Donald Earle Messick (September 7, 1926 – October 24, 1997) was an American voice actor. He was best known for his performances in Hanna-Barbera cartoons.


title: Don Messick

text: His best-remembered vocal creations include Scooby-Doo, Bamm-Bamm Rubble and Hoppy in "The Flintstones", Astro in "The Jetsons", Muttley in "Wacky Races" and "Dastardly and Muttley in Their Flying Machines", Boo-Boo Bear and Ranger Smith in "The Yogi Bear Show", Sebastian the Cat in "Josie and the Pussycats"; Gears, Ratchet, and Scavenger in "The Transformers", Papa Smurf and Azrael in "The Smurfs", Hamton J. Pig in "Tiny Toon Adventures", and Dr. Benton Quest in "Jonny Quest".


title: Don Messick

text: Messick was born on September 7, 1926 in Buffalo, New York, the son of Binford Earl Messick, a house painter, and Lena Birch ( Hughes). He was raised by his maternal grandparents in the Bolton Hill neighborhood of Baltimore, where he received his early training as a performer at the Ramsay Street School of Acting.


title: Don Messick

text: At first, Messick wanted to be a ventriloquist and even supported himself as one for a time in the late 1940s and early 1950s. At age 15, Messick performed in front of the program manager and chief announcer at radio station WBOC in Salisbury, Maryland, and was given his own weekly show, for which Messick performed all of the character voices and sound effects.


title: Don Messick

text: Messick moved back to Baltimore a year later, after graduating high school, and approached radio station WCAO about getting his one-man show on the air. As Messick worked to reduce the Baltimore accent identified by the manager of WCAO as an impediment to his radio career, Messick's father was killed, along with two other men, in an accident at the Nanticoke School. Two other workers and he were taking down a flagpole when it came into contact with electric power lines, electrocuting all three men.


title: Don Messick

text: In 1944, Messick joined the US Army, performing for troops as a part of the Special Services for 20 months. Messick's first big break came when he was hired by the Mutual Broadcasting radio station in Los Angeles, where he played Raggedy Andy and Farmer Seedling on the radio series "The Raggedy Ann Show".


title: Don Messick

text: At MGM, Tex Avery was producing the "Droopy" cartoons. The regular voice actor Bill Thompson was unavailable. Avery hired Messick after Daws Butler, who voiced characters for MGM, suggested him.


title: Don Messick

text: When William Hanna and Joseph Barbera formed their own animation studio, Hanna-Barbera, in 1957, Messick and Butler became a voice-acting team for the company. Messick and Butler's first collaboration was "Ruff and Reddy". Messick was Ruff the cat and the Droopy-sounding Professor Gizmo, while Butler played the dog Reddy. Messick also narrated the show, which had a serialized storyline. From 1958 to 1959, Messick played Tadpole in the animated television series "Spunky and Tadpole," produced by Beverly Hills Productions.


title: Don Messick

text: From 1957 to 1965, Butler and Messick gave voice to a large number of characters. Always the sidekick, Messick's characters were not headliners. His notable roles in this era were Boo Boo Bear, Ranger Smith, Major Minor, Pixie Mouse, Astro, and Dr. Benton Quest replacing John Stephenson.


title: Don Messick

text: He was used primarily for his narration skills, which were heard on many of those cartoons in which Daws Butler starred. In narrating "The Huckleberry Hound Show" Yogi Bear cartoons, he played Ranger Smith in something close to his natural voice.


title: Don Messick

text: Messick was eventually featured as Ricochet Rabbit in "Ricochet Rabbit" (1964–65), while Deputy Droop-a-Long was voiced by Mel Blanc. He did the voices of the title character in "Precious Pupp" and Shag Rugg from "Hillbilly Bears", and both segments from "The Atom Ant/Secret Squirrel Show". In 1966, Messick took over the roles of Atom Ant and Mr. Peebles of "The Magilla Gorilla Show" from Howard Morris, who had left Hanna-Barbera.