title: Stamp Act 1765

text: In New York, James McEvers resigned his distributorship four days after the attack on Hutchinson's house. The stamps arrived in New York Harbor on 24 October for several of the northern colonies. Placards appeared throughout the city warning that "the first man that either distributes or makes use of stamped paper let him take care of his house, person, and effects." New York merchants met on 31 October and agreed not to sell any English goods until the Act was repealed. Crowds took to the streets for four days of demonstrations, uncontrolled by the local leaders, culminating in an attack by two thousand people on Governor Cadwallader Colden's home and the burning of two sleighs and a coach. Unrest in New York City continued through the end of the year, and the local Sons of Liberty had difficulty in controlling crowd actions.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: During the Stamp Act 1765 crisis, Archibald McCall (1734–1814) sided against patriots in Westmoreland and Essex County, Virginia. He insisted on collecting the British tax that was placed on stamps and other documents. In reaction, a mob formed and stormed his house in Tappahannock, Virginia. They threw rocks through the windows and McCall was captured, tarred and feathered. The act was an example of "taxation without representation" and a leading event to the war against the British.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: In Frederick, Maryland, a court of 12 magistrates ruled the Stamp Act invalid on 23 November 1765, and directed that businesses and colonial officials proceed in all matters without use of the stamps. A week later, a crowd conducted a mock funeral procession for the act in the streets of Frederick. The magistrates have been dubbed the "12 Immortal Justices," and 23 November has been designated "Repudiation Day" by the Maryland state legislature. On 1 October 2015, Senator Cardin (D-MD) read into the "Congressional Record" a statement noting 2015 as the 250th anniversary of the event. Among the 12 magistrates was William Luckett, who later served as lieutenant colonel in the Maryland Militia at the Battle of Germantown.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Other popular demonstrations occurred in Portsmouth, New Hampshire; Annapolis, Maryland; Wilmington and New Bern, North Carolina; and Charleston, South Carolina. In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania demonstrations were subdued but even targeted Benjamin Franklin's home, although it was not vandalized. By 16 November, twelve of the stamp distributors had resigned. The Georgia distributor did not arrive in America until January 1766, but his first and only official action was to resign.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The overall effect of these protests was to both anger and unite the American people like never before. Opposition to the Act inspired both political and constitutional forms of literature throughout the colonies, strengthened the colonial political perception and involvement, and created new forms of organized resistance. These organized groups quickly learned that they could force royal officials to resign by employing violent measures and threats.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The main issue was the constitutional rights of Englishmen, so the French in Quebec did not react. Some English-speaking merchants were opposed but were in a fairly small minority. The "Quebec Gazette" ceased publication until the act was repealed, apparently over the unwillingness to use stamped paper. In neighboring Nova Scotia a number of former New England residents objected, but recent British immigrants and London-oriented business interests based in Halifax, the provincial capital were more influential. The only major public protest was the hanging in effigy of the stamp distributor and Lord Bute. The act was implemented in both provinces, but Nova Scotia's stamp distributor resigned in January 1766, beset by ungrounded fears for his safety. Authorities there were ordered to allow ships bearing unstamped papers to enter its ports, and business continued unabated after the distributors ran out of stamps. The Act occasioned some protests in Newfoundland, and the drafting of petitions opposing not only the Stamp Act, but the existence of the customhouse at St. John's, based on legislation dating back to the reign of Edward VI forbidding any sort of duties on the importation of goods related to its fisheries.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Violent protests were few in the Caribbean colonies. Political opposition was expressed in a number of colonies, including Barbados and Antigua, and by absentee landowners living in Britain. The worst political violence took place on St. Kitts and Nevis. Riots took place on 31 October 1765, and again on 5 November, targeting the homes and offices of stamp distributors; the number of participants suggests that the percentage of St. Kitts' white population involved matched that of Bostonian involvement in its riots. The delivery of stamps to St. Kitts was successfully blocked, and they were never used there. Montserrat and Antigua also succeeded in avoiding the use of stamps; some correspondents thought that rioting was prevented in Antigua only by the large troop presence. Despite vocal political opposition, Barbados used the stamps, to the pleasure of King George. In Jamaica there was also vocal opposition, which included threats of violence. There was much evasion of the stamps, and ships arriving without stamped papers were allowed to enter port. Despite this, Jamaica produced more stamp revenue (£2,000) than any other colony.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: It was during this time of street demonstrations that locally organized groups started to merge into an inter-colonial organization of a type not previously seen in the colonies. The term "sons of liberty" had been used in a generic fashion well before 1765, but it was only around February 1766 that its influence extended throughout the colonies as an organized group using the formal name "Sons of Liberty", leading to a pattern for future resistance to the British that carried the colonies towards 1776. Historian John C. Miller noted that the name was adopted as a result of Barre's use of the term in his February 1765 speech.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The organization spread month by month after independent starts in several different colonies. By 6 November, a committee was set up in New York to correspond with other colonies, and in December an alliance was formed between groups in New York and Connecticut. In January, a correspondence link was established between Boston and Manhattan, and by March, Providence had initiated connections with New York, New Hampshire, and Newport. By March, Sons of Liberty organizations had been established in New Jersey, Maryland, and Norfolk, Virginia, and a local group established in North Carolina was attracting interest in South Carolina and Georgia.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The officers and leaders of the Sons of Liberty "were drawn almost entirely from the middle and upper ranks of colonial society," but they recognized the need to expand their power base to include "the whole of political society, involving all of its social or economic subdivisions." To do this, the Sons of Liberty relied on large public demonstrations to expand their base. They learned early on that controlling such crowds was problematical, although they strived to control "the possible violence of extra-legal gatherings". The organization professed its loyalty to both local and British established government, but possible military action as a defensive measure was always part of their considerations. Throughout the Stamp Act Crisis, the Sons of Liberty professed continued loyalty to the King because they maintained a "fundamental confidence" that Parliament would do the right thing and repeal the tax.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The Stamp Act Congress was held in New York in October 1765. Twenty-seven delegates from nine colonies were the members of the Congress, and their responsibility was to draft a set of formal petitions stating why Parliament had no right to tax them. Among the delegates were many important men in the colonies. Historian John Miller observes, "The composition of this Stamp Act Congress ought to have been convincing proof to the British government that resistance to parliamentary taxation was by no means confined to the riffraff of colonial seaports."


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The youngest delegate was 26-year-old John Rutledge of South Carolina, and the oldest was 65-year-old Hendrick Fisher of New Jersey. Ten of the delegates were lawyers, ten were merchants, and seven were planters or land-owning farmers; all had served in some type of elective office, and all but three were born in the colonies. Four died before the colonies declared independence, and four signed the Declaration of Independence; nine attended the first and second Continental Congresses, and three were Loyalists during the Revolution.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: New Hampshire declined to send delegates, and North Carolina, Georgia, and Virginia were not represented because their governors did not call their legislatures into session, thus preventing the selection of delegates. Despite the composition of the congress, each of the Thirteen Colonies eventually affirmed its decisions. Six of the nine colonies represented at the Congress agreed to sign the petitions to the King and Parliament produced by the Congress. The delegations from New York, Connecticut, and South Carolina were prohibited from signing any documents without first receiving approval from the colonial assemblies that had appointed them.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Massachusetts governor Francis Bernard believed that his colony's delegates to the Congress would be supportive of Parliament. Timothy Ruggles in particular was Bernard's man, and was elected chairman of the Congress. Ruggles' instructions from Bernard were to "recommend submission to the Stamp Act until Parliament could be persuaded to repeal it." Many delegates felt that a final resolution of the Stamp Act would actually bring Britain and the colonies closer together. Robert Livingston of New York stressed the importance of removing the Stamp Act from the public debate, writing to his colony's agent in England, "If I really wished to see America in a state of independence I should desire as one of the most effectual means to that end that the stamp act should be enforced."


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The Congress met for 12 consecutive days, including Sundays. There was no audience at the meetings, and no information was released about the deliberations. The meeting's final product was called "The Declaration of Rights and Grievances", and was drawn up by delegate John Dickinson of Pennsylvania. This Declaration raised fourteen points of colonial protest. It asserted that colonists possessed all the rights of Englishmen in addition to protesting the Stamp Act issue, and that Parliament could not represent the colonists since they had no voting rights over Parliament. Only the colonial assemblies had a right to tax the colonies. They also asserted that the extension of authority of the admiralty courts to non-naval matters represented an abuse of power.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: In addition to simply arguing for their rights as Englishmen, the congress also asserted that they had certain natural rights solely because they were human beings. Resolution 3 stated, "That it is inseparably essential to the freedom of a people, and the undoubted right of Englishmen, that no taxes be imposed on them, but with their own consent, given personally, or by their representatives." Both Massachusetts and Pennsylvania brought forth the issue in separate resolutions even more directly when they respectively referred to "the Natural rights of Mankind" and "the common rights of mankind".


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Christopher Gadsden of South Carolina had proposed that the Congress' petition should go only to the king, since the rights of the colonies did not originate with Parliament. This radical proposal went too far for most delegates and was rejected. The "Declaration of Rights and Grievances" was duly sent to the king, and petitions were also sent to both Houses of Parliament.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Grenville was replaced by Lord Rockingham as Prime Minister on 10 July 1765. News of the mob violence began to reach England in October. Conflicting sentiments were taking hold in Britain at the same time that resistance was building and accelerating in America. Some wanted to strictly enforce the Stamp Act over colonial resistance, wary of the precedent that would be set by backing down. Others felt the economic effects of reduced trade with America after the Sugar Act and an inability to collect debts while the colonial economy suffered, and they began to lobby for a repeal of the Stamp Act. The colonial protest had included various non-importation agreements among merchants who recognized that a significant portion of British industry and commerce was dependent on the colonial market. This movement had also spread through the colonies; 200 merchants had met in New York City and agreed to import nothing from England until the Stamp Act was repealed.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: When Parliament met in December 1765, it rejected a resolution offered by Grenville that would have condemned colonial resistance to the enforcement of the Act. Outside of Parliament, Rockingham and his secretary Edmund Burke, a member of Parliament himself, organized London merchants who started a committee of correspondence to support repeal of the Stamp Act by urging merchants throughout the country to contact their local representatives in Parliament. When Parliament reconvened on 14 January 1766, the Rockingham ministry formally proposed repeal. Amendments were considered that would have lessened the financial impact on the colonies by allowing colonists to pay the tax in their own scrip, but this was viewed to be too little and too late.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: William Pitt stated in the Parliamentary debate that everything done by the Grenville ministry "has been entirely wrong" with respect to the colonies. He further stated, "It is my opinion that this Kingdom has no right to lay a tax upon the colonies." Pitt still maintained "the authority of this kingdom over the colonies, to be sovereign and supreme, in every circumstance of government and legislature whatsoever," but he made the distinction that taxes were not part of governing, but were "a voluntary gift and grant of the Commons alone." He rejected the notion of virtual representation, as "the most contemptible idea that ever entered into the head of man."


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Pitt's response to Grenville included, "I rejoice that America has resisted. Three millions of people, so dead to all the feelings of liberty as voluntarily to submit to be slaves, would have been fit instruments to make slaves of the rest."


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Between 17 and 27 January, Rockingham shifted the attention from constitutional arguments to economic by presenting petitions complaining of the economic repercussions felt throughout the country. On 7 February, the House of Commons rejected a resolution by 274–134, saying that it would back the King in enforcing the Act. Henry Seymour Conway, the government's leader in the House of Commons, introduced the Declaratory Act in an attempt to address both the constitutional and the economic issues, which affirmed the right of Parliament to legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever", while admitting the inexpediency of attempting to enforce the Stamp Act. Only Pitt and three or four others voted against it. Other resolutions passed which condemned the riots and demanded compensation from the colonies for those who suffered losses because of the actions of the mobs.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The House of Commons heard testimony between 11 and 13 February, the most important witness being Benjamin Franklin on the last day of the hearings. He responded to the question about how the colonists would react if the Act was not repealed: "A total loss of the respect and affection the people of America bear to this country, and of all the commerce that depends on that respect and affection." A Scottish journalist observed Franklin's answers to Parliament and his effect on the repeal; he later wrote to Franklin, "To this very Examination, more than to any thing else, you are indebted to the speedy and total Repeal of this odious Law."


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: A repealing bill was introduced on 21 February to repeal the Stamp Act, and it passed by a vote of 276–168. The King gave royal assent on 18 March 1766. To celebrate the repeal, the Sons of Liberty in Dedham, Massachusetts erected the Pillar of Liberty with a bust of Pitt on top.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Some aspects of the resistance to the act provided a sort of rehearsal for similar acts of resistance to the 1767 Townshend Acts, particularly the activities of the Sons of Liberty and merchants in organizing opposition. The Stamp Act Congress was a predecessor to the later Continental Congresses, notably the Second Continental Congress which oversaw the establishment of American independence. The Committees of Correspondence used to coordinate activities were revived between 1772 and 1774 in response to a variety of controversial and unpopular affairs, and the colonies that met at the 1774 First Continental Congress established a non-importation agreement known as the Continental Association in response to Parliamentary passage of the Intolerable Acts.


title: All India Radio

text: All India Radio (AIR), officially known since 1957 as Akashvani (literary meaning "Voice from the Sky"), is the national public radio broadcaster of India and is a division of Prasar Bharati. It was established in 1936.


title: All India Radio

text: It is the sister service of Prasar Bharati's Doordarshan, an Indian television broadcaster. Headquartered in the Akashvani Bhavan building in New Delhi, it houses the Drama Section, the FM Section, the National Service, and is also home to the Indian television station Doordarshan Kendra, (Delhi).


title: All India Radio

text: All India Radio is the largest radio network in the world, and one of the largest broadcasting organisations in the world in terms of the number of languages broadcast and the spectrum of socio-economic and cultural diversity it serves. AIR's home service comprises 420 stations located across the country, reaching nearly 92% of the country's area and 99.19% of the total population. AIR originates programming in 23 languages and 179 dialects. Vividh Bharati its own channel also has been rated as the most popular radio stations in recent survey of this blog India's Top 5 FM Channel List 2022-2023.


title: All India Radio

text: Ākāśavānī (आकाशवाणी) is a Sanskrit word meaning 'celestial announcement' or 'voice from the sky/heaven'. In Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism, Akashvanis are often featured in stories as a medium of communication from heaven to mankind.


title: All India Radio

text: When the Indian State Broadcasting Service (ISBS) was renamed All India Radio, Rabindranath Tagore rechristened it as Akashvani, "the voice that comes over from the skies", through a poem penned for the inauguration of Calcutta’s shortwave service.


title: All India Radio

text: 'Akashvani' was also used in the context of radio by M. V. Gopalaswami in 1936 after setting up India's first private radio station in his residence, "Vittal Vihar" (about two hundred yards from AIR's current Mysore radio station). "Akashvani" was later given as All India Radio's on-air name in 1957; given its literal meaning in Sanskrit, it was believed to be a more than suitable name for a broadcaster.


title: All India Radio

text: Broadcasting began in June 1923 during the British Raj with programmes by the Bombay Presidency Radio Club and other radio clubs. According to an agreement on 23 July 1927, the private Indian Broadcasting Company Ltd (IBC) was authorized to operate two radio stations: the Bombay station which began on 23 July 1927, and the Calcutta station which followed on 26 August 1927. The company went into liquidation on 1 March 1930. The government took over the broadcasting facilities and began the Indian State Broadcasting Service (ISBS) on 1 April 1930 on an experimental basis for two years, and permanently in May 1932 it then went on to become All India Radio on 8 June 1936.In August 1947, All India Radio hired its first female newsreader, Saeeda Bano, who read the news in Urdu.


title: All India Radio

text: On 1 October 1939, the External Service began with a broadcast in Pushtu. It was intended to counter radio propaganda from Germany directed at Afghanistan, Persia and Arab nations. 1939 also saw the opening of the Dhaka station of Eastern India, in what is now Bangladesh. This station catered and nurtured the pioneers of Bengali intellectuals. The foremost among them, Natyaguru Nurul Momen, became the trail-blazer of the talk-show in 1939. He wrote and directed the first modern radio-play for this station in 1942. When India became independent in 1947, the AIR network had only six stations (Delhi, Bombay, Kolkata, Madras, Lucknow, and Tiruchirappalli). The three radio stations at Lahore, Peshawar and Dhaka remained in what became Pakistan after the division. The total number of radio sets in India at that time was about 275,000. On 3 October 1957, the "Vividh Bharati" Service was launched, to compete with Radio Ceylon. Television broadcasting began in Delhi in 1959 as part of AIR, but was split off from the radio network as "Doordarshan" on 1 April 1976. FM broadcasting began on 23 July 1977 in Chennai, and expanded during the 1990s.


title: All India Radio

text: Deccan Radio (Nizam Radio 1932), the first radio station in Hyderabad State (now Hyderabad, India), went live on air on 3 February 1935. It was launched by Mir Osman Ali Khan the seventh Nizam of Hyderabad with a transmitting power of 200 Watts. On 1 April 1950, Deccan Radio was taken over by the Indian Government, and in 1956 it was merged with All India Radio (AIR). Since then, it has been known as AIR-Hyderabad (100 kW).


title: All India Radio

text: Vividh Bharati is one of the best-known services of All India Radio. Its name roughly translates as "Diverse Indian". It is also known as the Commercial Broadcasting Service or CBS. Commercially, it is the most accessible AIR network and is popular in Mumbai and other large cities. Vividh Bharati offers a wide range of programmes including news, film music, short plays, music and comedy. It operates on different medium wave-band as well as FM frequencies in each city. Vividh Bharati service started in 1957.


title: All India Radio

text: Central Sales Unit (CSU) is single window services of All India Radio for commercial purposes. Its name roughly translates as "Centralised Sales Unit". It is situated in Mumbai. http://prasarbharati.gov.in/AIRCSUContact.php


title: All India Radio

text: The headquarters of the Regional Deputy Directors General are located in Delhi and Chandigarh (NR), Lucknow and Bhopal (CR), Guwahati (NER), Kolkata (ER), Mumbai and Ahmedabad (WR), Chennai and Bangalore (SR). All frequencies are in kHz, unless otherwise noted. Most of the channels are also available online.


title: All India Radio

text: The external services of All India Radio are broadcast in 27 languages to countries outside India via high-power shortwave band broadcasts. Medium wave is also used to reach neighbouring countries. In addition to broadcasts targeted at specific countries by language, there is a General Overseas Service broadcasting in English with hours of programming each day aimed at a general international audience. The external broadcasts were begun on 1 October 1939 by the British government to counter the propaganda of the Nazis directed at the Afghan people. The first broadcasts were in Pashto, beamed to Afghanistan and the North-West Frontier Province. Broadcasts soon began in other languages including: Dari, Persian, Arabic, English, Burmese, Japanese, Chinese, Malay and French. The external services broadcast in 16 foreign and 11 Indian languages, with a total programme output of 70¼ hours per day on medium and shortwave frequencies.


title: All India Radio

text: Two high powered FM stations of All India Radio are being installed in Amritsar and Fazilka in the Punjab to supplement the programmes broadcast from transmitters operating from Jalandhar, New Delhi, Chandigarh and Mumbai and to improve the broadcast services during unfavourable weather conditions in the border regions of Punjab.


title: All India Radio

text: Today, the External Services Division of All India Radio broadcasts daily with 57 transmissions with almost 72 hours or programming covering over 108 countries in 27 languages, of which 15 are foreign and 12 Indian. The foreign languages are: Arabic, Baluchi, Burmese, Chinese, Dari, French, Indonesian, Persian, Pushtu, Russian, Sinhala, Swahili, Thai, Tibetan and English (General Overseas Service). The Indian languages are Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi, Konkani, Kashmiri, Hindi, Kannada, Malayalam, Nepali, Punjabi, Saraiki, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu.


title: All India Radio

text: The longest daily broadcast is the Urdu Service to Pakistan, around the clock on DTH (direct-broadcast satellite) and on short- and medium wave for 12 hrs. The English-language General Overseas Service is broadcast 8 hours daily. During Hajj, there are special broadcasts beamed to Saudi Arabia in Urdu. AIR is planning to produce programmes in the Baluchi language.


title: All India Radio

text: The external services of AIR are also broadcast to Europe in DRM (Digital Radio Mondiale) on 9950 kHz between 1745 and 2230 UTC. These external transmissions are broadcast by high-power transmitters located at Aligarh, Bengaluru, Chennai, Delhi, Gorakhpur, Guwahati, Mumbai and Panaji on shortwave and from Jalandhar, Kolkata, Nagpur, Rajkot and Tuticorin on medium wave. Soon All India Radio Amritsar will also start a booster service on the FM band. Some of these transmitters are 1000 kW (1 MW) or 500 kW. Programmes are beamed to different parts of the world except for the Americas and the reception quality is very good in the target areas. In each language service, the program consists of news, commentary, a press review, talks on matters of general or cultural interest, feature programmes, documentaries and music from India and the target region. Most programmes originate at New Broadcasting House on Parliament Street in New Delhi, with a few originating at SPT Bengaluru, Chennai, Hyderabad, Jalandhar, Kolkata, HPT Malad Mumbai, Thiruvananthapuram and Tuticorin.


title: All India Radio

text: The External Services Division of AIR is a link between India and rest of the world, especially in countries with Indian emigrants and people of Indian origin. It broadcasts the Indian point of view on matters of national and international importance, and demonstrates the Indian way of life through its programs. QSL cards (which are sought-after by international radio hobbyists) are issued to radio hobbyists by AIR in New Delhi for reception reports of their broadcasts.


title: All India Radio

text: Direct-to-home (DTH) service is a satellite broadcast service in which a large number of radio channels are digitally beamed down over a territory from a high-power satellite. AIR broadcasts various national and regional stations available to listen on DD Free Dish. The DTH signals can be received directly at homes using a small-sized dish receiver unit containing a dish antenna installed on a building's rooftop or on a wall facing clear south and one indoors. DTH service is offered on twenty one channels via Insat.


title: All India Radio

text: All India Radio launched news-on-phone service on 25 February 1998 in New Delhi; it now has service in Chennai, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Indore, Patna and Bangalore. The service is accessible through Subscriber trunk dialling (STD), International Direct Dialing (ISD) and local calls. There are plans to establish the service in 11 additional cities including: Ahmedabad, Bhopal, Guwahati, Gwalior, Jabalpur, Jaipur, Kolkata, Lucknow, Ranchi and Shimla. English and Hindi hourly news bulletins may be heard live. News in MP3 format may be directly played from the site, and filenames are time-stamped. AIR news bulletins are available in nine regional languages: Tamil, Kannada, Gujarati, Bengali, Marathi, North East, Punjabi, Telugu and Urdu.


title: All India Radio

text: There is a long tradition of broadcasting documentary features on AIR. There is great interest in radio documentaries, particularly in countries like India, Iran, South Korea and Malaysia. The most prominent broadcaster of English Features was Melville de Mellow, and of Hindi Features, Shiv Sagar Mishra. This format has been revived by AIR producers across India because of its flexibility, its relative low cost to produce, its messaging potential and its creative potential.


title: All India Radio

text: AIR's Central Drama Unit (CDU) is responsible for the national broadcast of plays. Plays produced by the CDU are translated and produced by regional stations. Since its inception in the 1960s, the unit has produced more than 1,500 plays, and the CDU houses a repository of old scripts and productions. The National Programme of Plays is broadcast by the CDU on the fourth Thursday of each month at 9.30 pm. Each play included in the National Programme of Plays is produced in 22 Indian languages and broadcast at the same time by all regional and national network stations. The CDU also produces Chain Plays, half-hour dramas broadcast in succession by a chain of stations.


title: All India Radio

text: The News Service Division's Social Media Cell was established on 20 May 2013 and is responsible for providing AIR news on new media platforms such as websites, Twitter, Facebook, and SMS.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: Thomas Trace Beatie (born 1974) is an American public speaker, author, and advocate of transgender and sexuality issues, with a focus on transgender fertility and reproductive rights.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: Assigned female at birth, Beatie came out as a trans man in early 1997. Beatie had gender reassignment surgery in March 2002 and became known as "the pregnant man" after he became pregnant through artificial insemination in 2007. Beatie chose to be pregnant because his wife Nancy was infertile, doing so with donated sperm.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: The couple filed for divorce in 2012. The Beatie case is the first of its kind on record, where a documented legal male gave birth within a heterosexual marriage to a woman, and for the first time, a court challenged a marriage where the husband gave birth.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: Born on Oahu as Tracy Lagondino, Beatie grew up in Honolulu, Hawaii, the first of two children. His mother, Susan Nickels Beatie, was born in Minnesota. His father, of Korean and Filipino descent, was born and raised in Hawaii. He is related to two former U.S. presidents: William Henry Harrison, his fifth great grandfather, and Benjamin Harrison, his third great uncle.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: He competed in karate and Taekwondo, winning a junior championship in Taekwondo forms in the 1992 Aloha State Games.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: He graduated from the University of Hawaii in 1996 with a bachelor's degree in health science and later pursued an Executive MBA.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: Assigned female at birth, Beatie underwent sex reassignment surgery involving a double mastectomy, also known as "top surgery," and officially changed his sex marker from "female" to "male" on his state and federal identity documents in 2002. However, he retained his female reproductive organs, which later allowed him to become pregnant.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: Beatie married Nancy Gillespie in 2003. The couple moved to Bend, Oregon, in 2005. When the two decided to start a family, Beatie chose to carry the child, since Nancy was unable due to a prior hysterectomy. Beatie suspended testosterone hormone treatment in order to conceive but the first conception was an ectopic pregnancy with triplets that was life-threatening, requiring a surgical intervention and the loss of the embryos and his right fallopian tube. He became successfully pregnant afterwards, twice with donor sperm, delivering both children without complications.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: Beatie stated that he felt no conflict between his pregnancy and his gender as a man, saying that he considered himself the child's father and his wife Nancy the mother.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: He gave birth to his second child, a son, in 2009. The couple's third child, a second son, was born in July 2010.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: Beatie later elected to have "lower" surgery, including the creation of a functional penis. The procedure, performed by transgender surgeon Marci Bowers, was documented on his second appearance of "The Doctors", in 2012. The procedure, called a ring metoidioplasty, included transfer of tissue, elongation of the hormonally enlarged phallus, as well as urethral construction and lengthening.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: Beatie received intense media attention after he wrote a first-person article in the national LGBT magazine "The Advocate" in 2008. In it, Beatie described the prejudice he and Nancy faced after deciding to have a child, writing:


title: Thomas Beatie

text: The article was accompanied by a shirtless photograph of the pregnant Beatie, which became an object of voyeurism among the public according to the queer theorist Jack Halberstam. Within weeks of the online publication, news of his story quickly spread through national and international media, who dubbed Beatie "the pregnant man."


title: Thomas Beatie

text: Beatie made his first television appearance, an hour-long exclusive interview, on the "Oprah Winfrey Show" in April 2008. During the show, he talked about his sense of reproductive right to bear a child independent of his male gender identity. He commented, "It's not a male or female desire to want to have a child [...] it's a human desire [...] I'm a person, and I have the right to have my own biological child." The "Oprah" episode received a spike in Nielsen ratings. The same month, Beatie was profiled in a six-page story in "People", with photography by Mary Ellen Mark.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: Beatie delivered his first child, Susan, in June 2008. Multiple tabloids as well as mainstream news outlets reported the story, after paparazzi captured images of the family leaving the St. Charles Medical Center in Bend, Oregon days later. "People"s senior editor, Patrick Rogers, gave an interview to the CBS "Early Morning Show" about the birth. An August 2008 issue of "People" featured Beatie with his daughter, sharing the cover with a larger image of presidential candidate Barack Obama posing with his family.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: Journalist Barbara Walters announced on "The View" in November 2008 that Thomas was expecting his second child. The next day, ABC aired an interview with the Beaties on 20/20 titled "Journey of a Pregnant Man". During the interview, Walters showed a series of photographs of Beatie, commenting on the "disturbing" nature of the images, many of which highlighted his pregnant belly.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: "Guinness World Records" named Beatie the "World's First Married Man to Give Birth" in 2010. In a TV broadcast from Rome, Italy, "Guinness World Records" presented him with the title of "Unico Uomo Incinto al Mondo," translated as "World's First Pregnant Man."


title: Thomas Beatie

text: Beatie also appeared on "The View", "Good Morning America", a Discovery Channel documentary, "Anderson Live" with Anderson Cooper, "Larry King Live", "", and repeat features on "The Doctors" and "Dr. Drew".


title: Thomas Beatie

text: Between August and November 2016, he was a contestant in the "tenth season" of "Secret Story", the French adaptation of "Big Brother"; his secret was "I'm the first pregnant man ever." He placed 2nd of all the contestants with 28% of the televote in the final.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: Beatie owns a website and T-shirt company featuring the slogan "Define Normal." He has made personal appearances on over a dozen TV talk shows in countries such as Spain, Greece, Germany, Italy, Romania, Russia, Japan, Sweden, Poland, and the UK, and has given keynote speeches at colleges and universities.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: Beatie again attracted media attention when a court in Arizona cited his pregnancies as grounds to refuse to grant him and Nancy a divorce in 2012.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: Thomas initially filed for legal separation, which was afterward converted to a divorce motion by Nancy. News of the break-up with his wife was leaked to tabloids during an April taping of the talk show "The Doctors". Thomas was awarded temporary sole custody of his three children and ordered to pay alimony.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: During the divorce proceedings, the presiding judge stated that because Beatie had given birth to the couple's children, he was legally female and therefore the marriage was not recognized in the state. Arizona Superior Court Judge Douglas Gerlach issued a nunc pro tunc Order questioning whether the Court had jurisdiction over the matter. The Beatie case was the first of its kind on record, where a documented legal male gave birth within a traditional marriage to a woman, and the first time a court challenged a marriage based upon a husband's giving birth. At the time, Arizona did not legally recognize same-sex marriage, so if Beatie were found to be female according to Arizona statute, the ten-year Beatie marriage would not be recognized in that state.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: Beatie's attorneys at the Cantor Law Group filed a memorandum showing that under Arizona State Statute, a transgender man's legal definition is set by certain medical operations, treatments, and finally a certified doctor's approval. "Since Arizona and Hawaii have virtually the same Sex Change Statute, in this case we will prove that under the law Thomas was a man at the time of his wedding. Sterilization is not a requirement of either State's Statute. Under both Arizona's and Hawaii's law Thomas was a man at the time of his marriage, and therefore his three children born during the marriage are legitimate," stated attorney, David Michael Cantor. Judge Gerlach ordered an Evidentiary Hearing and Oral Argument for which the Transgender Law Center filed a friend-of-the-court brief in support of the Beaties' marriage, stating that the case could be significant regarding marriage, divorce, and reproductive rights for transgender people in the state of Arizona and around the country. Expert testimony was provided by Beatie's sex-reassignment surgeon, Dr. Michael Brownstein M.D., in which the doctor implied that gender is more psychological than chromosomal. He also attested that the chest reconstruction procedure Beatie had undergone qualified as a sex-change surgery.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: In 2013, a trial was heard to determine custody, child support, and division of property and debts, even though Arizona is not a common-law state. Despite the marriage's being put into question, the courts proceeded with custody arrangements for the children because both Beatie and Nancy legally adopted each of their three children in Oregon, in the Oregon court orders, Thomas was also listed as "father" and Nancy was listed as "mother" on each birth certificate, and each spouse had equal parental rights to custody.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: The court ruled that it had a lack of subject-matter jurisdiction to grant the Beaties a divorce and that Arizona did not have to comply with accepting out-of-state birth or marriage certificates. Despite medical testimony stating otherwise, Judge Gerlach did not consider gender identity, hormone treatment, and chest reconstruction as a valid sex-change surgery, as grounds for successful gender transition. "If adopted, (it) would lead to circumstances in which a person's sex can become a matter of whim and not a matter of any reasonable, objective standard or policy, which is precisely the kind of absurd result the law abhors." Beatie's attorney said the judgement contained several errors. The court also ruled to give Nancy joint legal decision-making, physical custody and equal parenting time, ordering Beatie to pay her nearly $240 per month in child support. Since the marriage was not considered valid in Arizona alimony was not further enforced, though the division of property was.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: In 2014, an Arizona Appeals Court declared that the marriage of the Beaties was valid and therefore they can get divorced, stating that Beatie should not have had to be sterilized in order to be legally recognized as a man in Arizona or Hawaii.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: In 2000–2001, Beatie was the co-chair and media chair for the Civil Unions-Civil Rights Movement in Honolulu, Hawaii, a non-profit LGBT organization for marriage equality. He helped organize and implement an island-wide, seven-day, 110-mile March for Equality. He also lobbied to pass the state's first hate crimes legislation, which became law in 2001.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: In August 2011, he was the main opening speaker for Stockholm Pride, speaking to an audience of tens of thousands. He also spearheaded one-on-one discussions with doctors, politicians, and policy-makers in support of abolishing the sterilization law for Swedish transgender people. Sweden's forced sterilization law for transgender people was overturned on December 19, 2012.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: Beatie's pregnancy has challenged social and legal definitions of what constitutes being a man or a woman. Beatie's story helped promote transgender issues in the media; other trans men had given birth before Beatie, but were neither reported on nor legally recognized as male. Many media outlets treated Beatie's pregnancy as a "freak show," according to media scholar Andre Cavalcante. Some bloggers were hostile toward Beatie. Women's studies researcher Eve Shapiro writes that media coverage of Beatie's pregnancy ranged from "educational" to "reactionary," and that Beatie "redefines what it means to be a man and perhaps even challenges the binary gender paradigm." Media studies scholar Laura Tropp writes that Beatie's experience "forces society to debate the idea of what is a man and what is a woman." Sociologist Lisa Wade wrote, "I'm not sure what to make, sociologically, of the attention that Thomas' pregnancy is receiving in the mass media, but it is ripe for analysis." "People" Magazine described Beatie as a "pop culture icon" in the magazine's special edition "1000 Greatest Moments In Pop Culture 1974-2011". His legal case is also a precedent-setter for the ability of transgender people to exercise their constitutional right to reproduce and be recognized as their legal gender post transition.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: Shortly after Susan was born, Beatie authored his first book, "Labor of Love: The Story of One Man's Extraordinary Pregnancy" (2008). In "Labor of Love", Beatie describes the fight for his right to have a child. "Publishers Weekly" said the book was "A compelling, unique narrative." "Book List" praised it as "Unforced and unpretentious," and the "New York Times" called it "Defiant and transformative." His other works include:


title: Thomas Beatie

text: The documentary "Pregnant Man" (2008) documented the final weeks of Beatie's pregnancy and the birth of his first child. The documentary was the highest rated show for Discovery Networks for 2008. The documentary continues to screen worldwide.


title: Thomas Beatie

text: In 2015, French director Jan Caplin wrote and directed the short movie "Hippocampe", inspired by Thomas Beatie and his wife's attempts to have a child.


title: Rasputitsa

text: Rasputitsa () is a season of the year when travel on unpaved roads or across country becomes difficult, owing to muddy conditions from rain or melting snow.


title: Rasputitsa

text: In Russia, the term , рас- (ras-), disagreeable, + путь (put), travel, + -ица (-ica) refers to the spring or fall, and also refers to road conditions during such a period.


title: Rasputitsa

text: The Ukrainian equivalent () usually refers to springtime but rarely autumn, when rain and/or melting snow on unpaved roads, tracks, paths, or any poorly-drained off-road area turns the route into impassable deep mud.


title: Rasputitsa

text: Similar terms are Swedish ("bad going"), and Finnish ("broken state of roads"), but both also apply to when water is too iced over for boats but not strong enough to cross on foot or in other vehicles. Finnish eastern dialects also have a loanword (), which is used in the same meaning as .


title: Rasputitsa

text: The term is applied to muddy road conditions in Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine, which are caused by the poor drainage of underlying clay-laden soils found in the region. Roads are subject to weight limitations and closures during the period in certain districts of Russia. The phenomenon was a hindrance in the early 20th century in the Soviet Union since 40% of rural villages were not served by paved roads.


title: Rasputitsa

text: On the Eastern Front during the Second World War, the months-long muddy period slowed the German advance into the Soviet Union during the Battle of Moscow (October 1941 to January 1942) and may have helped save the Soviet capital from German occupation. The advent of Blitzkrieg had the disadvantage that while tanks could operate effectively in summer or in winter, they proved less useful in spring and autumn, when the functioning of an efficient railway system came into its own.


title: Rasputitsa

text: Prior to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, some analysts identified the logistical challenges of the mud season as a likely hindrance to any large-scale invasion in spring. When Russia crossed the border, many of its mobile units found themselves stranded in fields and limited to major roads, where resistance and logistical issues significantly slowed the advance toward Kyiv and elsewhere.


title: The Tyger

text: "The Tyger" is a poem by the English poet William Blake, published in 1794 as part of his "Songs of Experience" collection and rising to prominence in the romantic period. The poem is one of the most anthologised in the , and has been the subject of both literary criticism and many adaptations, including various musical versions. The poem explores and questions Christian religious paradigms prevalent in late 18th century and early 19th century England, discussing God's intention and motivation for creating both the tiger and The Lamb.


title: The Tyger

text: The "Songs of Experience" was published in 1794 as a follow up to Blake's 1789 "Songs of Innocence." The two books were published together under the merged title "Songs of Innocence and of Experience, showing the Two Contrary States of the Human Soul: the author and printer, W. Blake" featuring 54 plates. The illustrations are arranged differently in some copies, while a number of poems were moved from "Songs of Innocence" to "Songs of Experience." Blake continued to print the work throughout his life. Of the copies of the original collection, only 28 published during his life are known to exist, with an additional 16 published posthumously. Only five of the poems from "Songs of Experience" appeared individually before 1839.


title: The Tyger

text: "The Tyger" is six stanzas in length, each stanza being four lines long. Most of the poem follows the metrical pattern of its first line and can be read as trochaic tetrameter catalectic. A number of lines, such as line four in the first stanza, fall into iambic tetrameter.


title: The Tyger

text: The poem is structured around core 'religious' and Christian-centric questions by the persona concerning 'the creature' including the phrase "Who made thee?". These questions use the repetition of alliteration ("frame" and "fearful") combined with imagery (burning, fire, eyes) to frame the arc of the poem.


title: The Tyger

text: The first stanza opens the poem with a central line of questioning stating "What immortal hand or eye, / Could frame thy fearful symmetry?". This direct address to the creature serves as a foundation for the poem's contemplative style as "the Tyger" cannot provide the persona with a satisfactory answer. The second stanza questions "the Tyger" about where he was created, while the third stanza sees the focus move from the tiger, the creation, to the creator. The fourth stanza questions what tools were used in the tiger's creation. In the fifth stanza, the narrator wonders how the creator reacted to "the Tyger", and questions who created the creature. Finally, the sixth stanza is identical to the poem's first stanza but rephrases the last line, altering its meaning. Rather than question who or what "could" create "the Tyger", the speaker wonders who "dares".


title: The Tyger

text: "The Tyger" is the sister poem to "The Lamb" (from "Songs of Innocence"), a reflection of similar ideas from a different perspective, with "The Lamb" bringing attention to innocence. In "The Tyger", there is a duality between beauty and ferocity, with Blake suggesting that understanding one requires an understanding of the other.


title: The Tyger

text: The "Songs of Experience" were written as contrary to the "Songs of Innocence" – a recurring theme in Blake's philosophy and work. Blake argues that humankind's struggles have their origin in the contrasting nature of concepts. Truth, his poetry demonstrates, lays in comprehending the contradictions between innocence and experience. To Blake, experience is not the face of evil but rather another component of existence. Rather than believing in war between good and evil or heaven and hell, Blake thought each man must first see and then resolve the contraries of existence and life. According to Kazin, in "The Tyger" he presents a poem of "triumphant human awareness" and "a hymn to pure being".


title: The Tyger

text: Blake's original tunes for his poems have been lost in time, but many artists have tried to create their own versions of the tunes.


title: The Tyger

text: In Star Trek (1966) Season1 Episode 2. (Episode title "Charlie X") Spock is heard quoting the opening two lines of this poem when under the influence of Charlie Evans


title: Saint Benedict Medal

text: The Saint Benedict Medal is a Christian sacramental medal containing symbols and text related to the life of Saint Benedict of Nursia, used by Roman Catholics, Lutherans, Western Orthodox, Anglicans and Methodists, in the Benedictine Christian tradition, especially votarists and oblates.


title: Saint Benedict Medal

text: This religious object is also a Christian symbol of opening doors and opening difficult paths. Tradition holds that it protects from curses, evil and vice, protects against diseases and protects good health.


title: Saint Benedict Medal

text: The reverse side of the medal carries the "Vade retro satana" ('Begone, Satan!') Sometimes carried as part of a rosary, it is also worn separately.


title: Saint Benedict Medal

text: The exact time and date of the making of the first Saint Benedict Medal are not clear. The medal was originally a cross, dedicated to the devotion in honour of St. Benedict. At some point medals were struck that bore the image of St. Benedict holding a cross aloft in his right hand and his Rule for Monasteries in the other hand. Then a sequence of capital letters was placed around the large figure of the cross moline on the reverse side of the medal. The meaning of what the letters signified was lost over time until around 1647 an old manuscript was discovered at the Benedictine St. Michael's Abbey in Metten. In the manuscript, written in 1415, was a picture depicting St. Benedict holding in one hand a staff which ends in a cross, and a scroll in the other. On the staff and scroll were written in full the words of which the mysterious letters were the initials, a Latin prayer of exorcism against Satan. The manuscript contains the exorcism formula "Vade retro satana" ('Step back, Satan'), and the letters were found to correspond to this phrase.


title: Saint Benedict Medal

text: The exorcism prayer is found in an early thirteenth century legend of the Devil's Bridge at Sens, wherein an architect sold his soul to the devil and then subsequently repented. M. le Curé of Sens, wearing his stole, exorcised the devil, driving him away with holy water and the words, which he made the penitent repeat.


title: Saint Benedict Medal

text: Medals bearing the image of St. Benedict, a cross moline, and these letters began to be struck in Germany, and soon spread over Europe. Vincent de Paul (†1660) seems to have known of it, for his Daughters of Charity have always worn it attached to their beads, and for many years it was only made, at least in France, for them. The medals were first approved by Benedict XIV on 23 December, 1741, and again on 12 March, 1742. The medal in its traditional design was in use for many decades and is still in use today.


title: Saint Benedict Medal

text: In Gabriel Bucelin's 1679 , he recounts several incidents in which St. Benedict's Medal was viewed as efficacious in addressing illness or some local calamity. In the 1743 , Abbot Löbl, of St. Margaret's Monastery of Prague, recommended recourse to the medal as a remedy against bleeding. Prosper Guéranger relates several incidents of religious conversions which he attributes to the intercession of St. Benedict through the pious use of the medal.


title: Saint Benedict Medal

text: The Jubilee medal was struck in 1880, in remembrance of the 1400th anniversary of St. Benedict’s birth. The initials of the formula have been found on Saint Benedict Medals at least since 1780. The Jubilee medal continues to be the most popular design.


title: Saint Benedict Medal

text: On the front of the medal is Saint Benedict holding a cross in his right hand, the Christian symbol of salvation, and in the left his Rule for Monasteries. To Benedict's right, below the cross, is a poisoned cup, a reference to the legend that hostile monks attempted to poison him, and the cup containing poisoned wine shattered when the saint made the sign of the cross over it. To his left, below the rule, the raven that carried off a loaf of poisoned bread. From this is derived the tradition that the medal protects against poisoning.


title: Saint Benedict Medal

text: Above the cup and raven are the words ('The Cross of [our] Holy Father Benedict'). Surrounding the figure of Saint Benedict are the words ('May we be strengthened by his presence in the hour of our death'), since Benedictines regarded him as a particular patron of a happy death. Below the icon of St. Benedict, it is written 'EX SM Casino, MDCCCLXXX' and it means 'Found out from the holy Casino mountain in 1880.'


title: Saint Benedict Medal

text: On the back is a cross, containing the letters C S S M L - N D S M D, initials of the words ('May the holy cross be my light! May the dragon never be my overlord!'). The large C S P B stand for ('The Cross of [our] Holy Father Benedict'). Surrounding the back of the medal are the letters V R S N S M V - S M Q L I V B, in reference to ('Begone Satan! Never tempt me with your vanities! What you offer me is evil. Drink the poison yourself!') and finally, located at the top is the word which means 'peace'.


title: Saint Benedict Medal

text: The medal represents a prayer on the part of the user to invoke God’s blessing and protection through the intercession of St. Benedict. There are no special rules prescribed for its use. It may be worn on a chain around the neck, carried on one's person, placed in one’s vehicle, home, or in one’s place of business. It is sometimes incorporated into a crucifix to create a "St. Benedict's Cross", usually with the reverse side as the halo for the "corpus".


title: Saint Benedict Medal

text: Lay Oblates of St. Benedict are permitted to wear the Medal of St. Benedict instead of the small black cloth scapular.


title: Saint Benedict Medal

text: The Blessing of St. Maur is customarily bestowed on the sick using a relic of the True Cross, in hopes of assisting speedy recovery of their health. Since it is often impossible to have a relic of the True Cross, the Sacred Congregation of Rites in 1959 granted permission for St. Benedict Medals to be used instead of the relic of the True Cross to confer the Blessing.


title: Saint Benedict Medal

text: As with a number of other religious articles, "The faithful, who devoutly use an article of devotion (crucifix or cross, rosary, scapular or medal) properly blessed by any priest, obtain a partial indulgence."


title: Saint Benedict Medal

text: Medals of Saint Benedict are sacramentals that may be blessed legitimately by any priest or deacon, not necessarily a Benedictine.


title: Living with Yourself

text: Living with Yourself is an American comedy-drama streaming television series created by Timothy Greenberg that premiered on October 18, 2019, on Netflix. It stars Paul Rudd and Aisling Bea. Rudd also serves as an executive producer, alongside Greenberg, Anthony Bregman, Jeff Stern, Tony Hernandez, Jonathan Dayton, Valerie Faris, and Jeffrey Blitz.


title: Living with Yourself

text: "Living with Yourself" follows the story of a man who, after undergoing a mysterious treatment that promises him the allure of a better life, discovers that he has been replaced by a cloned version of himself.


title: Living with Yourself

text: On February 16, 2017, it was announced that IFC had given a series greenlight to a new comedy series created by Timothy Greenberg. Executive producers for the series were expected to include Greenberg, Jeffrey Blitz, Anthony Bregman, and Jeff Stern. Blitz was also set to serve as a director and the series was slated to premiere in 2018. Production companies involved with the series were scheduled to consist of Likely Story and Jax Media.


title: Living with Yourself

text: On August 10, 2018, it was announced that the project had moved to Netflix, which had given the production a series order for a first season consisting of eight episodes. The series was set to be written by Greenberg, who was also expected to executive produce alongside Blitz, Bregman, Stern, Tony Hernandez, Jonathan Dayton, Valerie Faris, and Paul Rudd. Dayton and Faris were also anticipated to serve as directors for the series.


title: Living with Yourself

text: Alongside the announcement of the series’ move to Netflix, it was confirmed that Paul Rudd had been cast in the dual lead roles. On August 28, 2018, it was announced that Aisling Bea had joined the cast. Principal photography for the first season took place on location in New York City in 2018.


title: Living with Yourself

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds an approval rating of 81% based on 76 critic ratings, with an average rating of 7.15/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Strange, surreal, and surprising, "Living With Yourself" can't quite sustain its high-concept premise, but it remains engaging thanks to its clever writing and the sheer force of Paul Rudd's dueling performances." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 70 out of 100, based on 26 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Brașov

text: Brașov (, , ; ; ; ; Transylvanian Saxon: "Kruhnen") is a city in Transylvania, Romania and the administrative centre of Brașov County.


title: Brașov

text: According to the latest Romanian census (2011), Brașov has a population of 253,200 making it the 7th most populous city in Romania. The metropolitan area is home to 382,896 residents.


title: Brașov

text: Brașov is located in the central part of the country, about north of Bucharest and from the Black Sea. It is surrounded by the Southern Carpathians and is part of the historical region of Transylvania.


title: Brașov

text: Historically, the city was the center of the Burzenland, once dominated by the Transylvanian Saxons, and a significant commercial hub on the trade roads between Austria (then Archduchy of Austria, within the Habsburg monarchy, and subsequently Austrian Empire) and Turkey (then Ottoman Empire). It is also where the national anthem of Romania was first sung.


title: Brașov

text: According to Dragoș Moldovanu, the name of Brașov came from the name of local river named Bârsa (also pronounced as "Bărsa") that was adopted by Slavs and transformed to Barsa, and later to Barsov, finally to Brasov. According to Pál Binder, the current Romanian and the Hungarian name () are derived from the Turkic word "barasu", meaning "white water" with a Slavic suffix "-ov". Other linguists proposed various etymologies including an Old Slavic anthroponym Brasa. The first attested mention of this name is "Terra Saxonum de Barasu" ("Saxon Land of Baras") in a 1252 document issued by Béla IV of Hungary. According to some historians, "Corona" was name of the city-fortress while "Brassó" was referring to the county, while others consider both names may refer to the city and the county as well.


title: Brașov

text: According to Balázs Orbán, the name "Corona" – a Latin word meaning "crown" – is first mentioned in the Catalogus Ninivensis in 1235 AD, stating a monastic quarter existed in the territory of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Cumania ("In Hungaria assignata est paternitas Dyocesis Cumanie: Corona"). Pál Binder supposed it is a reference to the St. Catherine's Monastery. Others suggest the name derives from the old coat of arms of the city, as it is symbolized by the German name "Kronstadt" meaning "Crown City". The two names of the city, "Kronstadt" and "Corona", were used simultaneously in the Middle Ages, along with the Medieval Latin "Brassovia".


title: Brașov

text: Another historical name used for Brașov is "Stephanopolis", 'from "Stephanos", crown, and "polis", city.


title: Brașov

text: From 1950 to 1960, during part of the Communist period in Romania, the city was called "Orașul Stalin" (Stalin City), "lit." "Stalin City", after the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, and was the capital of Stalin Region. The name change occurred on 22 August 1950, when Constantin Ion Parhon, the nominal Head of State at the time, issued a decree whereby Brașov was renamed "in honor of the great genius of working humanity, the leader of the Soviet people, the liberator and beloved friend of our people, Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin".


title: Brașov

text: The oldest traces of human activity and settlements in Brașov date back to the Neolithic age (about 9500 BCE). Archaeologists working from the last half of the 19th century discovered continuous traces of human settlements in areas situated in Brașov: Valea Cetății, Pietrele lui Solomon, Șprenghi, Tâmpa, Dealul Melcilor, and Noua. The first three locations show traces of Dacian citadels; Șprenghi Hill housed a Roman-style construction. The last two locations had their names applied to Bronze Age cultures — "Schneckenberg" ("Hill of the Snails"; Early Bronze Age) and "Noua" ("The New"; Late Bronze Age).


title: Brașov

text: Transylvanian Saxons played a decisive role in Brașov's development and were invited by Hungarian kings to develop towns, build mines, and cultivate the land of Transylvania at different stages between 1141 and 1300. The settlers came primarily from the Rhineland, Flanders, and the Moselle region, with others from Thuringia, Bavaria, Wallonia, and even France.


title: Brașov

text: In 1211, by order of King Andrew II of Hungary, the Teutonic Knights fortified the Burzenland to defend the border of the Kingdom of Hungary. On the site of the village of Brașov, the Teutonic Knights built Kronstadt – 'the City of the Crown'. Although the crusaders were evicted by 1225, the colonists they brought in long ago remained, along with local population in three distinct settlements they founded on the site of Brașov:


title: Brașov

text: Germans living in Brașov were mainly involved in trade and crafts. The location of the city at the intersection of trade routes linking the Ottoman Empire and Western Europe, together with certain tax exemptions, allowed Saxon merchants to obtain considerable wealth and exert a strong political influence. They contributed a great deal to the architectural flavor of the city. Fortifications around the city were erected and continually expanded, with several towers maintained by different craftsmen's guilds, according to the medieval custom. Part of the fortification ensemble was recently restored using UNESCO funds, and other projects are ongoing. At least two entrances to the city, "Poarta Ecaterinei" (or "Katharinentor") and "Poarta Șchei" (or "Waisenhausgässertor"), are still in existence. The city center is marked by the mayor's former office building () and the surrounding square ("piața"), which includes one of the oldest buildings in Brașov, the Hirscher Haus. Nearby is the "Black Church" ("Biserica Neagră"), which some claim to be the largest Gothic style church in Southeastern Europe.


title: Brașov

text: In 1689, a great fire destroyed the walled city almost entirely, and its rebuilding lasted several decades.


title: Brașov

text: Besides the German (Saxon) population living in the walled city and in the northern suburbs, Brașov had also a significant Romanian and Bulgarian population (living in the Șchei district), and also some Hungarian population (living in the Blumăna district). The cultural and religious importance of the Romanian church and school in Șchei is underlined by the generous donations received from more than thirty hospodars of Moldavia and Wallachia, as well as that from Elizabeth of Russia. In the 17th and 19th centuries, the Romanians in Șchei campaigned for national, political, and cultural rights, and were supported in their efforts by Romanians from all other provinces, as well as by the local Greek merchant community. In 1838, they established the first Romanian language newspaper "Gazeta Transilvaniei" and the first Romanian institutions of higher education: "Școlile Centrale Greco-Ortodoxe" ("The Greek-Orthodox Central Schools", today named after Andrei Șaguna). The Holy Roman Emperor and sovereign of Transylvania Joseph II awarded Romanians citizenship rights for a brief period during the latter decades of the 18th century.


title: Brașov

text: In 1850, the town had 21,782 inhabitants: 8,874 (40.7%) Germans, 8,727 (40%) Romanians, 2,939 (13.4%) Hungarians. In 1910 there were 41,056 inhabitants: 10,841 (26.4%) Germans, 11,786 (28.7%) Romanians, 17,831 (43.4%) Hungarians.


title: Brașov

text: On 29 August 1916, during the First World War, the Romanian Army occupied Brașov. Romanian troops entered the city at around five o'clock p.m. and paraded towards the city square. Romanian rule over the city lasted until early October, when the area was retaken by the Central Powers in the Battle of Brassó (7-9 October 1916). The Romanian mayor installed during the brief Romanian occupation was . His term lasted from 29 August, when the city was occupied by the Romanian Army, until 8 October – the height of the Battle of Brașov. On 9 October, at the end of the battle, the previous mayor () was reinstated.


title: Brașov

text: Following the collapse of Austria-Hungary, the 1 December 1918 Proclamation of the Union of Alba Iulia, adopted by deputies of the Romanians from Transylvania, Banat, Crișana and Maramureș during the Great National Assembly of Alba Iulia declared the union of Transylvania into the Romanian state. Brașov was permanently occupied by Romanian forces on 7 December, as Hungarians gradually withdrew northwards. The King and some Transylvanians suggested that - because of Brașov's central geographical location in the new Romania - it should be considered as the new national capital. Though this did not happen - the inter-war period was a time of flourishing economy and cultural life in general, including the Saxons in Brașov. However, at the end of World War II many ethnic Germans were forcibly deported to the Soviet Union. A majority of them emigrated to West Germany after Romania had become a communist country.


title: Brașov

text: The first Jewish community in Brașov was established in 1828, joining the Neolog association in 1868. Orthodox Jews founded their religious organization in 1877. The Neolog synagogue, seating 800, was built between 1899 and 1905. During the interwar period, the communities had separate institutions, but opened a jointly managed school in 1940. Zionist organizations appeared already in 1920. By 1930, Jews numbered 2594 individuals, or 4% of the total population. In autumn 1940, during the National Legionary State, the antisemitic Iron Guard nationalized all Jewish institutions and seized most shops owned by Jews. In 1941, Jews were drafted for service in forced labor battalions. Those from throughout southern Transylvania were concentrated in Brașov; a further 200 refugees came from Ploiești. In August 1942, 850 Jews between the ages of 18 and 50 were drafted into labor battalions and ordered to work in Brașov, while others were sent to Predeal and Bran. In spring 1943, 250 youths were sent to Suraia camp to build fortifications. By August 1944, the labor battalions were reduced to 250-300 while most of the Jews managed to obtain their freedom. In 1945–1946, the Jewish population increased to 3500.


title: Brașov

text: Like many other cities in Transylvania, Brașov is also home to a significant ethnic Hungarian minority.


title: Brașov

text: During the communist period, industrial development was vastly accelerated. Under Nicolae Ceaușescu's rule, the city was the site of the 1987 Brașov strike. This was brutally repressed by the authorities and resulted in numerous workers being imprisoned.


title: Brașov

text: Industrial development in Brașov started in the inter-war period, with one of the largest factories being the airplane manufacturing plant (IAR Brașov), which produced the first Romanian fighter planes used during World War II. After signing the armistice with USSR on September 12, 1944, the factory started repairing trucks, and in October 1945 it began manufacturing agricultural tractors. IAR 22 was the first Romanian-made wheeled tractor. In 1948 the company was renamed "Uzina Tractorul Brașov" known internationally as Universal Tractor Brașov.


title: Brașov

text: A big part of the factory was demolished during 2013 and 2014 giving way to buildings, shopping mall and recreation parks. Aircraft manufacturing resumed in 1968 at first under the name ICA and then under its old name of IAR at a new location in nearby Ghimbav.


title: Brașov

text: Industrialization was accelerated in the Communist era, with special emphasis being placed on heavy industry, attracting many workers from other parts of the country. Heavy industry is still abundant, including Roman, which manufactures MAN AG trucks as well as native-designed trucks and coaches. Although the industrial base has been in decline in recent years, Brașov is still a site for manufacturing hydraulic transmissions, auto parts, ball-bearings, construction materials, hand tools, furniture, textiles and shoe-wear. There is also a large brewery.


title: Brașov

text: In 2005, the Brașov metropolitan area was created. With its surrounding localities, Brașov had 369,896 inhabitants .


title: Brașov

text: Brașov is administered by a Mayor and a Local Council. The current Mayor of Brașov (starting October 28, 2020) is Allen Coliban from Save Romania Union (USR).


title: Brașov

text: The Brașov Local Council, elected at the 2020 Romanian local elections, is made up of 27 counselors, with the following party composition:


title: Brașov

text: The Brașov local transport network has 44 urban bus and trolleybus lines and 10 metropolitan bus lines. There is also a regular bus line serving Poiana Brașov, a nearby winter resort and part of the city of Brașov. All are operated by RAT Brașov. Because of its central location, the Brașov railway station is one of the busiest stations in Romania with trains to/from most destinations in the country served by rail.


title: Brașov

text: The Brașov-Ghimbav International Airport is an airport development project located in nearby Ghimbav, right by the future A3 motorway. It is the first airport to be developed in post-communist Romania, and the 17th commercial airport in the country. The contract for the construction of the main terminal building, with a total area of 11,780 m (126,799 sq ft), was awarded to the Romanian contractor Bog'Art Bucharest and was signed on 21 August 2019. Construction works for the passenger terminal started on 17 March 2020 and the first commercial flight is set to take place in June 2023.


title: Brașov

text: CFR announced a feasibility study for the construction of a rail line (8 km) which would connect the future airport to the Brașov railway station.


title: Brașov

text: With its central location, Brașov is a suitable location from which to explore Romania, and the distances to several tourist destinations (including the Black Sea resorts, the monasteries in northern Moldavia, and the wooden churches of Maramureș) are similar. It is also the largest city in a mountain resorts area. The old city is very well preserved and is best seen by taking the cable-car to the top of Tâmpa Mountain.


title: Brașov

text: Temperatures from May to September fluctuate around . Brașov benefits from a winter tourism season centered on winter sports and other activities. Poiana Brașov is the most popular Romanian ski resort and an important tourist center preferred by many tourists from other European states.


title: Brașov

text: The city also has several restaurants that serve local as well as international cuisine (e.g. Hungarian and Chinese). Some of these are situated in the city center.


title: Brașov

text: The city has a long tradition in sports, the first sport associations being established at the end of the 19th century (Target shooting Association, Gymnastics School). The Transylvanian Sports Museum is among the oldest in the country and presents the evolution of consecrated sports in the city. During the communist period, universiades and Daciads were held, where local sportsmen were obliged to participate. Nowadays, the infrastructure of the city allows other sports to be practiced, such as football, rugby, tennis, cycling, handball, gliding, skiing, skating, mountain climbing, paintball, bowling, swimming, target shooting, basketball, martial arts, equestrian, volleyball or gymnastics. Annually, at "Olimpia" sports ground, the "Brașov Challenge Cup" tennis competition is held.


title: Brașov

text: Colțea Brașov was the football champion in 1928, managing a second place in 1927, in its only 10 years of existence (1921–1931). It was succeeded by Brașovia Brașov.


title: Brașov

text: , Brașov is hosting two trail semi-marathons: the Semimaraton Intersport Brașov (held in April) and the Brașov International Marathon (held in April or May).


title: Brașov

text: In November 2013, Brașov submitted their bid for the 2020 Winter Youth Olympics. They were up against Lausanne, Switzerland to be awarded the event. In December that year, the city was signed the Youth Olympic Game Candidature Procedure. The host city was to be announced in July 2015, in which Lausanne was selected.


title: Brașov

text: The city of Brașov is home to several local media publications such as Transilvania Express, Monitorul Express, Bună Ziua Brașov or Brașovul Tău. Also, several local television stations exist, such as RTT, MIX TV and Nova TV.


title: Amanda Seales

text: Amanda Ingrid Seales (born July 1, 1981), formerly known by the stage name Amanda Diva, is an American comedian and actress. Since 2017, she has starred in the HBO comedy series "Insecure". In 2019, HBO released her first stand-up comedy special "I Be Knowin". Then, in 2020, Seales launched "Smart Funny & Black", a comedy gameshow that showcases Black culture, history, and experience. Seales was also one of the co-hosts of the syndicated daytime talk show, "The Real", alongside Loni Love, Tamera Mowry, Adrienne Bailon, and Jeannie Mai.


title: Amanda Seales

text: Amanda Seales was born in Inglewood, CA on July 1, 1981. Her mother was born and raised in Mt. Moritz, Grenada. Her father is African-American. As a result, both she and her mother are dual citizens of the US and Grenada. She moved to Orlando, Florida, in 1989, where she later attended Dr. Phillips High School. She graduated from SUNY-Purchase, then acquired a master's degree in African-American studies with a concentration in Hip hop from Columbia University.


title: Amanda Seales

text: Seales's first film was a minor role as Katy in the 1993 movie "Cop and a Half". The next year Seales was featured on the Nickelodeon sitcom "My Brother and Me" (1994) as Deonne Wilburn. In 2002 she appeared on Russell Simmons' "Def Poetry Jam." Seales became publicly known as "VJ Amanda Diva" on MTV2 "Sucker Free Countdown" on Sundays. In 2016 she appeared in a recurring role on the HBO series "Insecure," as Tiffany DuBois. Also in 2016, Seales began hosting her own show on truTV called "Greatest Ever".


title: Amanda Seales

text: On January 26, 2019, HBO debuted her first stand-up comedy special "I Be Knowin'." "Bring the Funny" is a comedy competition series that premiered on July 9, 2019 on NBC. Seales hosts, alongside judges Kenan Thompson, Chrissy Teigen, and Jeff Foxworthy.


title: Amanda Seales

text: Throughout 2019, Seales served as a frequent guest host for the syndicated daytime talk show "The Real". On January 6, 2020, Seales was promoted from guest co-host to permanent co-host. She departed the series after six months of co-hosting, citing her dissatisfaction with the inability to openly speak on recent social issues as a reason. In September 2020, Seales accused "The Real" of stealing ideas from her show "Smart Funny & Black", saying "The Real"'s segment "Black Lives Matter University" featured a logo that closely resembled "Smart Funny & Black"'s emblem.


title: Amanda Seales

text: In June 2020, Seales revealed on social media that she will host the BET Awards 2020 on June 28, 2020.


title: Amanda Seales

text: In February 2022, Seales was cast in the three-part documentary series "Everything's Gonna Be All White", airing on Showtime.


title: Amanda Seales

text: In 2007, Seales replaced Natalie Stewart of the musical duo Floetry on tour with Marsha Ambrosius, and in December of that same year Seales (as Amanda Diva) released her first extended play (EP) "Life Experience". In 2008, she was featured on the song "Manwomanboogie" on Q-Tip's Grammy-nominated album "The Renaissance". On March 3, 2009, Seales released "Spandex, Rhymes & Soul".


title: Amanda Seales

text: She created and hosts the touring variety game show, "Smart Funny & Black", where her love of games and music, was used to serve as a safe space for the Black voice and celebrates the many contributions Black Americans have made to history and pop culture and more.


title: Amanda Seales

text: In November 2014, Seales appeared in a segment on CNN alongside Steve Santagati, hosted by Fredricka Whitfield, discussing the video "10 Hours of Walking in NYC as a Woman". During the segment, Seales said that men catcalling women is not complimentary and that women do not like being catcalled, while Santagati went on to defend men catcalling women, saying that women should take catcalling as a compliment and not abuse.


title: Amanda Seales

text: On June 11, 2017, during a livestream on Katy Perry's YouTube channel, an exchange took place between Seales and Caitlyn Jenner, with Seales saying that Jenner benefits from white privilege. Towards the end of the exchange, Seales told Jenner "This country is here for you. This country ain’t here for me in the same way, sis". Seales has attributed this exchange to her becoming an activist.


title: Amanda Seales

text: On April 18, 2022, Seales began co-hosting a new weekly radio show, "Amanda Seales’ Smart Funny & Black Radio" on SiriusXM, alongside Taj Rani and JeremiahLikeTheBible, featuring topics such as games, celebrity interviews and African-American culture.


title: Amanda Seales

text: In 2019, Seales was involved in a controversy where many people mistakenly reported that she had accused former NFL player and neurosurgeon resident Myron Rolle of sexually harassing several women. She made several Instagram videos alleging he was sexually inappropriate, and was sharing that she had heard those allegations from other women. Multiple people who were spreading that story have since admitted that Seales did not make those allegations herself.


title: Amanda Seales

text: In the weeks preceding Rodney Reed's November 20, 2019 execution date, Seales publicly urged Texas Governor Greg Abbott to exonerate Reed or stay his execution. She later rescinded her support after learning more about his history.


title: Amanda Seales

text: In February 2020, Seales sought controversy while on "The Real" when defending Jussie Smollett after he was arrested for faking a hate crime. While describing the accusations as alleged, she went on to defend the actor saying, "Even if it was a hoax for the sake of bringing attention to this, then I’m like, that’s low-key noble". In 2022, Smollett was found guilty of orchestrating a fake hate crime and sentenced to 150 days in prison.


title: Amanda Seales

text: In 2021, Seales was criticized for portraying an Alpha Kappa Alpha, or "AKA," on the series "Insecure". Real-life members of the sorority responded negatively to Seales' character wearing Alpha Kappa Alpha colors. Seales responded to the criticism in an Instagram video defending her portrayal. It was later reported that the sorority plans to take legal action against Seales.


title: Amanda Seales

text: Seales's first book, 'Small Doses: Potent Truths for Everyday Use' was also released in 2019. The book is an extension of her podcast of the same name. It is a volume of essays, axioms, original illustrations, and photos from her trademark "self-help from the hip” style of commentary.


title: Water on Mars

text: Almost all water on Mars today exists as ice, though it also exists in small quantities as vapor in the atmosphere. What was thought to be low-volume liquid brines in shallow Martian soil, also called recurrent slope lineae, may be grains of flowing sand and dust slipping downhill to make dark streaks. The only place where water ice is visible at the surface is at the north polar ice cap. Abundant water ice is also present beneath the permanent carbon dioxide ice cap at the Martian south pole and in the shallow subsurface at more temperate conditions. More than 5 million km of ice have been detected at or near the surface of Mars, enough to cover the whole planet to a depth of . Even more ice is likely to be locked away in the deep subsurface.


title: Water on Mars

text: Some liquid water may occur transiently on the Martian surface today, but limited to traces of dissolved moisture from the atmosphere and thin films, which are challenging environments for known life. No large standing bodies of liquid water exist on the planet's surface, because the atmospheric pressure there averages just , a figure slightly below the vapor pressure of water at its triple point; under average Martian conditions, warming water on the Martian surface would sublime, meaning transition directly from solid to vapor; conversely, cooling water would deposit, meaning transition directly from vapor to solid. Before about 3.8 billion years ago, Mars may have had a denser atmosphere and higher surface temperatures, allowing vast amounts of liquid water on the surface, possibly including a large ocean that may have covered one-third of the planet. Water has also apparently flowed across the surface for short periods at various intervals more recently in Mars' history. Aeolis Palus in Gale Crater, explored by the "Curiosity" rover, is the geological remains of an ancient freshwater lake that could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life. The present-day inventory of water on Mars can be estimated from spacecraft images, remote sensing techniques (spectroscopic measurements, radar, etc.), and surface investigations from landers and rovers. Geologic evidence of past water includes enormous outflow channels carved by floods, ancient river valley networks, deltas, and lakebeds; and the detection of rocks and minerals on the surface that could only have formed in liquid water. Numerous geomorphic features suggest the presence of ground ice (permafrost) and the movement of ice in glaciers, both in the recent past and present. Gullies and slope lineae along cliffs and crater walls suggest that flowing water continues to shape the surface of Mars, although to a far lesser degree than in the ancient past.


title: Water on Mars

text: Although the surface of Mars was periodically wet and could have been hospitable to microbial life billions of years ago, the current environment at the surface is dry and subfreezing, probably presenting an insurmountable obstacle for living organisms. In addition, Mars lacks a thick atmosphere, ozone layer, and magnetic field, allowing solar and cosmic radiation to strike the surface unimpeded. The damaging effects of ionizing radiation on cellular structure is another one of the prime limiting factors on the survival of life on the surface. Therefore, the best potential locations for discovering life on Mars may be in subsurface environments. Large amounts of underground ice have been found on Mars; the volume of water detected is equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior. In 2018, scientists reported the discovery of a subglacial lake on Mars, below the southern polar ice cap, with a horizontal extent of about , the first known stable body of liquid water on the planet, but subsequent work has questioned this detection.


title: Water on Mars

text: Understanding the extent and situation of water on Mars is vital to assess the planet’s potential for harboring life and for providing usable resources for future human exploration. For this reason, "Follow the Water" was the science theme of NASA's Mars Exploration Program (MEP) in the first decade of the 21st century. NASA and ESA missions including 2001 Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, Mars Exploration Rovers (MERs), Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), and Mars "Phoenix" lander have provided information about water's abundance and distribution on Mars. Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, MRO, and Mars Science Lander "Curiosity" rover are still operating, and discoveries continue to be made.


title: Water on Mars

text: In September 2020, scientists confirmed the existence of several large saltwater lakes under ice in the south polar region of the planet Mars. According to one of the researchers, "We identified the same body of water [as suggested earlier in a preliminary initial detection], but we also found three other bodies of water around the main one ... It's a complex system." In March 2021, researchers reported that a considerable amount of water on ancient Mars has remained, but, for the most part, has likely been sequestered into the rocks and crust of the planet over the years.


title: Water on Mars

text: The notion of water on Mars preceded the space age by hundreds of years. Early telescopic observers correctly assumed that the white polar caps and clouds were indications of water's presence. These observations, coupled with the fact that Mars has a 24-hour day, led astronomer William Herschel to declare in 1784 that Mars probably offered its inhabitants "a situation in many respects similar to ours."


title: Water on Mars

text: By the start of the 20th century, most astronomers recognized that Mars was far colder and drier than Earth. The presence of oceans was no longer accepted, so the paradigm changed to an image of Mars as a "dying" planet with only a meager amount of water. The dark areas, which could be seen to change seasonally, were then thought to be tracts of vegetation. The person most responsible for popularizing this view of Mars was Percival Lowell (1855–1916), who imagined a race of Martians constructing a network of canals to bring water from the poles to the inhabitants at the equator. Although generating tremendous public enthusiasm, Lowell's ideas were rejected by most astronomers. The majority view of the scientific establishment at the time is probably best summarized by English astronomer Edward Walter Maunder (1851–1928) who compared the climate of Mars to conditions atop a peak on an arctic island where only lichen might be expected to survive.


title: Water on Mars

text: In the meantime, many astronomers were refining the tool of planetary spectroscopy in hope of determining the composition of the Martian atmosphere. Between 1925 and 1943, Walter Adams and Theodore Dunham at the Mount Wilson Observatory tried to identify oxygen and water vapor in the Martian atmosphere, with generally negative results. The only component of the Martian atmosphere known for certain was carbon dioxide (CO) identified spectroscopically by Gerard Kuiper in 1947. Water vapor was not unequivocally detected on Mars until 1963.


title: Water on Mars

text: The composition of the polar caps, assumed to be water ice since the time of Cassini (1666), was questioned by a few scientists in the late 1800s who favored CO ice, because of the planet's overall low temperature and apparent lack of appreciable water. This hypothesis was confirmed theoretically by Robert Leighton and Bruce Murray in 1966. Today it is known that the winter caps at both poles are primarily composed of CO ice, but that a permanent (or perennial) cap of water ice remains during the summer at the northern pole. At the southern pole, a small cap of CO ice remains during summer, but this cap too is underlain by water ice.


title: Water on Mars

text: The final piece of the Martian climate puzzle was provided by Mariner 4 in 1965. Grainy television pictures from the spacecraft showed a surface dominated by impact craters, which implied that the surface was very old and had not experienced the level of erosion and tectonic activity seen on Earth. Little erosion meant that liquid water had probably not played a large role in the planet's geomorphology for billions of years. Furthermore, the variations in the radio signal from the spacecraft as it passed behind the planet allowed scientists to calculate the density of the atmosphere. The results showed an atmospheric pressure less than 1% of Earth's at sea level, effectively precluding the existence of liquid water, which would rapidly boil or freeze at such low pressures. Thus, a vision of Mars was born of a world much like the Moon, but with just a wisp of an atmosphere to blow the dust around. This view of Mars would last nearly another decade until Mariner 9 showed a much more dynamic Mars with hints that the planet’s past environment was more clement than the present one.


title: Water on Mars

text: On January 24, 2014, NASA reported that current studies on Mars by the "Curiosity" and "Opportunity" rovers will be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic and/or chemo-litho-autotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable.


title: Water on Mars

text: For many years it was thought that the observed remains of floods were caused by the release of water from a global water table, but research published in 2015 reveals regional deposits of sediment and ice emplaced 450 million years earlier to be the source. "Deposition of sediment from rivers and glacial melt filled giant canyons beneath primordial ocean contained within the planet's northern lowlands. It was the water preserved in these canyon sediments that was later released as great floods, the effects of which can be seen today."


title: Water on Mars

text: It is widely accepted that Mars had abundant water very early in its history, but all large areas of liquid water have since disappeared. A fraction of this water is retained on modern Mars as both ice and locked into the structure of abundant water-rich materials, including clay minerals (phyllosilicates) and sulfates. Studies of hydrogen isotopic ratios indicate that asteroids and comets from beyond 2.5 astronomical units (AU) provide the source of Mars' water, that currently totals 6% to 27% of the Earth's present ocean.


title: Water on Mars

text: The primary rock type on the surface of Mars is basalt, a fine-grained igneous rock made up mostly of the mafic silicate minerals olivine, pyroxene, and plagioclase feldspar. When exposed to water and atmospheric gases, these minerals chemically weather into new (secondary) minerals, some of which may incorporate water into their crystalline structures, either as HO or as hydroxyl (OH). Examples of hydrated (or hydroxylated) minerals include the iron hydroxide goethite (a common component of terrestrial soils); the evaporite minerals gypsum and kieserite; opaline silica; and phyllosilicates (also called clay minerals), such as kaolinite and montmorillonite. All of these minerals have been detected on Mars.


title: Water on Mars

text: One direct effect of chemical weathering is to consume water and other reactive chemical species, taking them from mobile reservoirs like the atmosphere and hydrosphere and sequestering them in rocks and minerals. The amount of water in the Martian crust stored as hydrated minerals is currently unknown, but may be quite large. For example, mineralogical models of the rock outcroppings examined by instruments on the "Opportunity" rover at Meridiani Planum suggest that the sulfate deposits there could contain up to 22% water by weight.


title: Water on Mars

text: On Earth, all chemical weathering reactions involve water to some degree. Thus, many secondary minerals do not actually incorporate water, but still require water to form. Some examples of anhydrous secondary minerals include many carbonates, some sulfates (e.g., anhydrite), and metallic oxides such as the iron oxide mineral hematite. On Mars, a few of these weathering products may theoretically form without water or with scant amounts present as ice or in thin molecular-scale films (monolayers). The extent to which such exotic weathering processes operate on Mars is still uncertain. Minerals that incorporate water or form in the presence of water are generally termed "aqueous minerals".


title: Water on Mars

text: Aqueous minerals are sensitive indicators of the type of environment that existed when the minerals formed. The ease with which aqueous reactions occur (see Gibbs free energy) depends on the pressure, temperature, and on the concentrations of the gaseous and soluble species involved. Two important properties are pH and oxidation-reduction potential (E). For example, the sulfate mineral jarosite forms only in low pH (highly acidic) water. Phyllosilicates usually form in water of neutral to high pH (alkaline). E is a measure of the oxidation state of an aqueous system. Together E and pH indicate the types of minerals that are thermodynamically most stable and therefore most likely to form from a given set of aqueous components. Thus, past environmental conditions on Mars, including those conducive to life, can be inferred from the types of minerals present in the rocks.


title: Water on Mars

text: Aqueous minerals can also form in the subsurface by hydrothermal fluids migrating through pores and fissures. The heat source driving a hydrothermal system may be nearby magma bodies or residual heat from large impacts. One important type of hydrothermal alteration in the Earth's oceanic crust is serpentinization, which occurs when seawater migrates through ultramafic and basaltic rocks. The water-rock reactions result in the oxidation of ferrous iron in olivine and pyroxene to produce ferric iron (as the mineral magnetite) yielding molecular hydrogen (H) as a byproduct. The process creates a highly alkaline and reducing (low Eh) environment favoring the formation of certain phyllosilicates (serpentine minerals) and various carbonate minerals, which together form a rock called serpentinite. The hydrogen gas produced can be an important energy source for chemosynthtetic organisms or it can react with CO to produce methane gas, a process that has been considered as a non-biological source for the trace amounts of methane reported in the Martian atmosphere. Serpentine minerals can also store a lot of water (as hydroxyl) in their crystal structure. A recent study has argued that hypothetical serpentinites in the ancient highland crust of Mars could hold as much as a -thick global equivalent layer (GEL) of water. Although some serpentine minerals have been detected on Mars, no widespread outcroppings are evident from remote sensing data. This fact does not preclude the presence of large amounts of serpentinite hidden at depth in the Martian crust.


title: Water on Mars

text: The rates at which primary minerals convert to secondary aqueous minerals vary. Primary silicate minerals crystallize from magma under pressures and temperatures vastly higher than conditions at the surface of a planet. When exposed to a surface environment these minerals are out of equilibrium and will tend to interact with available chemical components to form more stable mineral phases. In general, the silicate minerals that crystallize at the highest temperatures (solidify first in a cooling magma) weather the most rapidly. On Earth and Mars, the most common mineral to meet this criterion is olivine, which readily weathers to clay minerals in the presence of water.


title: Water on Mars

text: Olivine is widespread on Mars, suggesting that Mars' surface has not been pervasively altered by water; abundant geological evidence suggests otherwise.