title: Labour Party (Norway)

text: From the establishment of "Vort Arbeide" in 1884, the party had a growing and notable organisation of newspapers and other press outlets. The party press system eventually resulted in "Norsk Arbeiderpresse" ("Norwegian Labour Press", now "A-pressen"). In January 1913, the party had 24 newspapers and six more newspapers were founded in 1913. The party also had the periodical "Det 20de Aarhundre". In 1920, the party had 33 newspapers and 6 semi-affiliated newspapers. The party had its own publishing house, Det norske Arbeiderpartis forlag, succeeded by Tiden Norsk Forlag. In addition to books and pamphlets, Det norske Arbeiderpartis forlag published "Maidagen" (annual May Day publication), "Arbeidets Jul" (annual Christmas publication) and "Arbeiderkalenderen" (calendar). The party also published a monthly political magazine, "Kontakt", between 1947 and 1954 which was edited by Torolf Elster.


title: Labour Party (Norway)

text: From its roots as a radical alternative to the political establishment, the party grew to its current dominance through several eras. The party experienced a split in 1921 caused by a decision made two years earlier to join the Comintern and the Social Democratic Labour Party of Norway was formed. In 1923, the party left the Comintern while a significant minority of its members left the party to form the Communist Party of Norway. In 1927, the Social Democrats were reunited with Labour. Some Communists also joined Labour whereas other Communists tried a failed merger endeavor which culminated in the formation of the "Arbeiderklassens Samlingsparti". The same year, Helga Karlsen became the party's first Member of Parliament.


title: Labour Party (Norway)

text: In 1928, Christopher Hornsrud formed Labour's first government, but it lasted only two weeks. During the early 1930s, Labour abandoned its revolutionary profile and set a reformist course. Labour then returned to government in 1935 and remained in power throughout the Second World War. The party was a member of the Labour and Socialist International between 1938 and 1940. When Norway was invaded by Nazi Germany in 1940, the Labour-led government and the Norwegian royal family fled to London, whence it led a government-in-exile for the duration of the war.


title: Labour Party (Norway)

text: Immediately following the end of the Second World War, the Labour Party emerged victorious from the 1945 Norwegian parliamentary election. For the first time, the party secured an absolute majority in the Storting, taking 76 of 150 seats. Einar Gerhardsen of the Labour Party subsequently formed his first government, and he went on to dominate the post-war political scene over the following years. Gerhardsen is commonly referred to as "Landsfaderen" (Father of the Nation) and is generally considered one of the principal architects behind the reconstruction of Norway after the Second World War. The period from 1945 has been described as the golden age of the Norwegian Labour Party, and the party retained its parliamentary majority until the 1961 election. In 1963, the Kings Bay Affair drove the opposition to table a motion of no-confidence against the Gerhardsen's cabinet; the motion was ultimately successful, and Labour was forced to step down from government for the first time in 28 years. However, the incoming centre-right coalition proved short-lived, and Labour returned to government less than one month later, and remained in office until 1965.


title: Labour Party (Norway)

text: The Labour Party later formed government in the periods of 1971–1972, 1973–1981, 1986–1989, and 1990–1997. Labour prime ministers in this period included party veterans Oscar Torp, Trygve Bratteli, and Gro Harlem Brundtland, and the party remained the largest in Norway throughout the remainder of the 20th century.


title: Labour Party (Norway)

text: In the year 2000, the centre-right coalition led by Kjell Magne Bondevik of the Christian Democrats was toppled in a confidence vote, and the Labour Party returned to power under Jens Stoltenberg, who became prime minister. However, after a period of intense infighting between Stoltenberg and former prime minister Thorbjørn Jagland, and a turbulent spell in government, the party collapsed to only 24.3% of the vote in the 2001 Norwegian parliamentary election, marking its worst result since 1924. The party returned to the opposition under Stoltenberg's leadership, before later recovering to 32.7% in the 2005 Norwegian parliamentary election. The Labour Party subsequently formed its first ever peace-time coalition government along with the Socialist Left and Centre parties. Their cooperation was dubbed the Red-green coalition, in emulation of similar constellations in Germany.


title: Labour Party (Norway)

text: In 2011, the party changed its official name from the Norwegian Labour Party ("Det norske arbeiderparti") to the Labour Party ("Arbeiderpartiet"). The party claimed there had been confusion among voters at polling stations because of the difference between the official name and the common use name of Labour Party. The name change caused "Arbeiderpartiet" to appear on the ballot, eliminating any potential confusion. On 22 July 2011, a terrorist opened fire at the Labour Party's youth camp (ages 13–25), killing 69 people and killing eight more in Oslo with a bomb towards a government building (which was led by the Labour Party). Stoltenberg's initial response to the 22 July attack was well received by the Norwegian public. As he reaffirmed his government's commitment to the values of openness and tolerance in the face of adversity or intolerance his approval rating soared as high as 94%, only to decrease sharply after the 22 July Commission report highlighted the laggard response time of police cost dozens of lives.


title: Labour Party (Norway)

text: In the 2013 Norwegian parliamentary election, the Red-green coalition lost its majority in the Storting, but the Labour Party remained the largest party in the Storting. Jens Stoltenber, who had served as prime minister for 10 of the past 13 years, remained party leader until he stepped down in 2014 after being appointed Secretary General of NATO. Later, Jonas Gahr Støre, a prominent profile in the Stoltenberg government, was chosen as new party leader on 14 June 2014. In the 2017 Norwegian parliamentary election, he led the party to a surprise defeat, as Labour fell 3.4 perentage points to 27.4%, and from 55 to 49 seats in the Storting, while the Conservative Party managed to retain a majority along with its smaller centre-right partners. Erna Solberg, Conservative prime minister since 2013, remained in office throughout the 2017—2021 term. In the same year, the Labour Party was targeted by hackers suspected to be from Russia.


title: Labour Party (Norway)

text: In 2021, the Labour Party returned to government after eight years in opposition, following the 2021 Norwegian parliamentary election. The party dropped to 48 seats from the 49 it had secured in 2017, but its centre-left coalition secured a landslide victory overall, taking 100 of the 169 seats in the Storting. The energy crisis was the most important issue for voters. Party leader Jonas Gahr Støre assumed the Norwegian premiership on 14 October 2021, at the helm of a minority coalition with the Centre Party. Soon after assuming power, the new coalition was faced with a series of crises, including the Russian invasion of Ukraine and subsequent energy price hikes. The government was criticized for its handling of these crises, and by August 2022, Støre had dropped to 31% in preferred prime minister polling, against 49% for Erna Solberg, the Conservative prime minister in the 2013—2021 period. Meanwhile, the Labour Party hit record-low ratings in voting intention polls in late 2022, with a number of polls placing it below the 20%-mark in September 2022.


title: Labour Party (Norway)

text: The Labour Party organisation is divided into county- and municipality-level chapters, numbering approximately 2,500 associations in total. Historically, the party has maintained a close association with the Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions (LO), and until the mid-1990s, a dual-membership agreement existed between the two organizations, with LO members automatically holding membership in the Labour Party as well. The party had about 200,500 members at its peak in 1950. The dual-membership clause was scrapped in 1995, and that year its membership level fell to just over 72,500 from 128,000 in 1990. In 2021, the party comprised 45,553 members according to its own official website. Since 2005, the party has maintained a policy requiring full gender parity at every level of organisation above ordinary membership.


title: Labour Party (Norway)

text: The supreme body of the party is the Party Congress which is held every two years. The most senior body between these congresses is the National Delegate's Meeting which is made up of the party's Executive Board and two delegates from each of the 19 counties. The Executive Board itself consists of 16 elected members as well as the leadership of the party. The party is headed by a single leader, while the number of deputy leaders has fluctuated between one and two in different periods. As of 2022, the party leadership is made up of leader Jonas Gahr Støre, who has held the position since 2014, and deputy leader Bjørnar Selnes Skjæran, who was first elected to the position in 2021.


title: Labour Party (Norway)

text: The party's youth organisation is the Workers' Youth League, and it maintains a women's wing known as the Labour Party Women's Network. The party participates in elections to the Sami Parliament of Norway, and work related to this has its own organisational structure with seven local groups, a bi-yearly congress, a national council and the Labour group in the Sami parliament.


title: Types of cheese

text: There are many different types of cheese. Cheeses can be grouped or classified according to criteria such as length of fermentation, texture, methods of production, fat content, animal milk, and country or region of origin. The method most commonly and traditionally used is based on moisture content, which is then further narrowed down by fat content and curing or ripening methods. The criteria may either be used singly or in combination, with no single method being universally used.


title: Types of cheese

text: The combination of types produces around 51 different varieties recognized by the International Dairy Federation, over 400 identified by Walter and Hargrove, over 500 by Burkhalter, and over 1,000 by Sandine and Elliker. Some attempts have been made to rationalise the classification of cheese; a scheme was proposed by Pieter Walstra that uses the primary and secondary starter combined with moisture content, and Walter and Hargrove suggested classifying by production methods. This last scheme results in 18 types, which are then further grouped by moisture content.


title: Types of cheese

text: The main factor in categorizing these cheeses is age. Fresh cheeses without additional preservatives can spoil in a matter of days.


title: Types of cheese

text: For these simplest cheeses, milk is curdled and drained, with little other processing. Examples include cottage cheese, cream cheese, curd cheese, farmer cheese, caș, chhena, fromage blanc, queso fresco, paneer, fresh goat's milk chèvre, Breingen-Tortoille, Irish Mellieriem Rochers and Belgian Mellieriem Rochers. Such cheeses are often soft and spreadable, with a mild flavour.


title: Types of cheese

text: Whey cheeses are fresh cheeses made from whey, a by-product from the process of producing other cheeses which would otherwise be discarded. Corsican brocciu, Italian ricotta, Romanian urda, Greek mizithra, Cypriot anari cheese, Himalayan chhurpi and Norwegian Brunost are examples. Brocciu is mostly eaten fresh, and is as such a major ingredient in Corsican cuisine, but it can also be found in an aged form.


title: Types of cheese

text: Some fresh cheeses such as "fromage blanc" and "fromage frais" (the latter differing from the former in that it contains live cultures) are commonly sold and consumed as desserts.


title: Types of cheese

text: Stretched curd, for which the Italian term "pasta filata" is often used, is a group of cheeses where the hot curd is stretched, today normally mechanically, producing various effects. Many traditional "pasta filata" cheeses such as the Italian mozzarella and halloumi from the Eastern Mediterranean also fall into the fresh cheese category. Fresh curds are stretched and kneaded in hot water to form a ball of mozzarella, which in southern Italy is usually eaten within a few hours of being made. Stored in brine, it can easily be shipped, and it is known worldwide for its use on pizza. But not all stretch-curd cheeses are fresh; the Italian provolone, Ragusano, caciocavallo and many others are hard or semi-hard, and aged. Oaxaca cheese from Mexico is semi-hard, but not aged. Like the pressed cooked cheeses (below), all these are made using thermophilic lactic fermentation starters. Many of the various types of string cheese are made this way.


title: Types of cheese

text: Swiss-type cheeses, also known as Alpine cheeses, are a group of hard or semi-hard cheeses with a distinct character, whose origins lie in the Alps of Europe, although they are now eaten and imitated in most cheesemaking parts of the world. They are classified as "cooked", meaning made using thermophilic lactic fermentation starters, incubating the curd with a period at a high temperature of 45°C or more. Since they are later pressed to expel excess moisture, the group are also described as "'cooked pressed cheeses'", "fromages à pâte pressée cuite" in French. Their distinct character arose from the requirements of cheese made in the summer on high Alpine grasslands ("alpage" in French), and then transported with the cows down to the valleys in the winter, in the historic culture of Alpine transhumance. Traditionally the cheeses were made in large rounds or "wheels" with a hard rind, and were robust enough for both keeping and transporting.


title: Types of cheese

text: The best known cheeses of the type, all made from cow's milk, include the Swiss Emmental, Gruyère and Appenzeller, as well as the French Beaufort and Comté (from the Jura Mountains, near the Alps). Both countries have many other traditional varieties, as do the Alpine regions of Austria (Alpkäse) and Italy (Asiago), though these have not achieved the same degree of intercontinental fame. Most global modern production is industrial, and usually made in rectangular blocks, and by wrapping in plastic no rind is allowed to form. Historical production was all with "raw" milk, although the periods of high heat in making largely controlled unwelcome bacteria, but modern production may use thermized or pasteurized milk.


title: Types of cheese

text: The general eating characteristics of the Alpine cheeses are a firm but still elastic texture, flavor that is not sharp, acidic or salty, but rather nutty and buttery. When melted, which they often are in cooking, they are "gooey", and "slick, stretchy and runny".


title: Types of cheese

text: Another related group of cooked pressed cheeses is the very hard Italian "grana" cheeses; the best known are Parmesan and Grana Padano. Although their origins lie in the flat and (originally) swampy Po Valley, they share the broad Alpine cheesemaking process, and began after local monasteries initiated drainage programmes from the 11th century onwards. These were Benedictine and Cistercian monasteries, both with sister-houses benefiting from Alpine cheesemaking. They seem to have borrowed their techniques from them, but produced very different cheeses, using much more salt, and less heating, which suited the local availability of materials.


title: Types of cheese

text: Categorizing cheeses by moisture content or firmness is a common but inexact practice. The lines between soft, semi-soft, semi-hard and hard are arbitrary, and many types of cheese are made in softer or firmer variants. The factor that controls cheese hardness is moisture content, which depends on the pressure with which it is packed into molds, and upon aging time.


title: Types of cheese

text: Cream cheeses are not matured. Brie and Neufchâtel are soft-type cheeses that mature for no more than a month. Neufchâtel is a soft cheese which can be sold after 10 days of maturation.


title: Types of cheese

text: Semi-soft cheeses, and the sub-group "Monastery" cheeses, have a high moisture content and tend to be mild-tasting. Well-known varieties include Havarti, Munster, Port Salut and Butterkäse.


title: Types of cheese

text: Cheeses that range in texture from semi-soft to firm include Swiss-style cheeses such as Emmental and Gruyère. The same bacteria that give such cheeses their eyes also contribute to their aromatic and sharp flavours. Other semi-soft to firm cheeses include Gouda, Edam, Jarlsberg, Cantal, and Kashkaval/Cașcaval. Cheeses of this type are ideal for melting and are often served on toast for quick snacks or simple meals.


title: Types of cheese

text: Harder cheeses have a lower moisture content than softer cheeses. They are generally packed into molds under more pressure and aged for a longer time than the soft cheeses. Cheeses that are classified as semi-hard to hard include the familiar Cheddar, originating in the village of Cheddar in England but now used as a generic term for this style of cheese, of which varieties are imitated worldwide and are marketed by strength or the length of time they have been aged.


title: Types of cheese

text: Cheddar is one of a family of semi-hard or hard cheeses (including Cheshire and Gloucester), whose curd is cut, gently heated, piled, and stirred before being pressed into forms. Colby and Monterey Jack are similar but milder cheeses; their curd is rinsed before it is pressed, washing away some acidity and calcium. A similar curd-washing takes place when making the Dutch cheeses Edam and Gouda.


title: Types of cheese

text: Hard cheeses—grating cheeses such as Grana Padano, Parmesan or Pecorino—are quite firmly packed into large forms and aged for months or years.


title: Types of cheese

text: Some cheeses are categorized by the source of the milk used to produce them or by the added fat content of the milk from which they are produced. While most of the world's commercially available cheese is made from cow's milk, many parts of the world also produce cheese from goats and sheep. Examples include Roquefort (produced in France) and Pecorino (produced in Italy) from ewe's milk. One farm in Sweden also produces cheese from moose's milk. Sometimes cheeses marketed under the same name are made from milk of different species—feta cheeses, for example, are made from sheep's milk in Greece. Pule cheese are made from Balkan donkey milk and goat's milk (produced in Serbia).


title: Types of cheese

text: Double cream cheeses are soft cheeses of cows' milk enriched with cream so that their fat in dry matter (FDM or FiDM) content is 60–75%; triple cream cheeses are enriched to at least 75%.


title: Types of cheese

text: There are three main categories of cheese in which the presence of mold is an important feature: soft-ripened cheeses, washed-rind cheeses and blue cheeses.


title: Types of cheese

text: Soft-ripened cheeses begin firm and rather chalky in texture, but are aged from the exterior inwards by exposing them to mold. The mold may be a velvety bloom of "P. camemberti" that forms a flexible white crust and contributes to the smooth, runny, or gooey textures and more intense flavours of these aged cheeses. Brie and Camembert, the most famous of these cheeses, are made by allowing white mold to grow on the outside of a soft cheese for a few days or weeks. Goat's milk cheeses are often treated in a similar manner, sometimes with white molds (Chèvre-Boîte) and sometimes with blue.


title: Types of cheese

text: Washed-rind cheeses are soft in character and ripen inwards like those with white molds; however, they are treated differently. Washed-rind cheeses are periodically cured in a solution of saltwater brine or mold-bearing agents that may include beer, wine, brandy and spices, making their surfaces amenable to a class of bacteria ("Brevibacterium linens", the reddish-orange smear bacteria) that impart pungent odors and distinctive flavours and produce a firm, flavourful rind around the cheese. Washed-rind cheeses can be soft (Limburger), semi-hard, or hard (Appenzeller). The same bacteria can also have some effect on cheeses that are simply ripened in humid conditions, like Camembert. The process requires regular washings, particularly in the early stages of production, making it quite labor-intensive compared to other methods of cheese production.


title: Types of cheese

text: S-rind cheeses are also smear-ripened with solutions of bacteria or fungi (most commonly "Brevibacterium linens", "Debaryomyces hansenii" or "Geotrichum candidum"), which usually gives them a stronger flavor as the cheese matures. In some cases, older cheeses are smeared on young cheeses to transfer the microorganisms. Many, but not all, of these cheeses have a distinctive pinkish or orange coloring of the exterior. Unlike with other washed-rind cheeses, the washing is done to ensure uniform growth of desired bacteria or fungi and to prevent the growth of undesired molds. Examples of smear-ripened cheeses include Munster and Port Salut.


title: Types of cheese

text: So-called blue cheese is created by inoculating a cheese with "Penicillium roqueforti" or "Penicillium glaucum". This is done while the cheese is still in the form of loosely pressed curds, and may be further enhanced by piercing a ripening block of cheese with skewers in an atmosphere in which the mold is prevalent. The mold grows within the cheese as it ages. These cheeses have distinct blue veins, which gives them their name and, often, assertive flavours. The molds range from pale green to dark blue, and may be accompanied by white and crusty brown molds. Their texture can be soft or firm. Some of the most renowned cheeses in this type include Roquefort, Gorgonzola and Stilton.


title: Types of cheese

text: Granular cheese is a type of cheese produced by repeatedly stirring and draining a mixture of curd and whey. It can refer to a wide variety of cheeses, including the grana cheeses such as Parmigiano-Reggiano.


title: Types of cheese

text: Brined or pickled cheese is matured in a solution of brine in an airtight or semi-permeable container. This process gives the cheese good stability, inhibiting bacterial growth even in hot countries. Brined cheeses may be soft or hard, varying in moisture content, and in color and flavor, according to the type of milk used. All will be rindless, and generally taste clean, salty and acidic when fresh, developing some piquancy when aged, and most will be white. Varieties of brined cheese include bryndza, feta, halloumi, sirene, and telemea. Brined cheese is the main type of cheese produced and eaten in the Middle East and Mediterranean areas.


title: Types of cheese

text: Processed cheese is made from traditional cheese and emulsifying salts, often with the addition of milk, more salt, preservatives, and food coloring. Its texture is consistent, and it melts smoothly. It is sold packaged and either pre-sliced or unsliced, in several varieties. Some are sold as sausage-like logs and chipolatas (mostly in Germany and the US), and some are molded into the shape of animals and objects. It is also available as "Easy Cheese", a product distributed by Mondelez International, that is packaged in aerosol cans and available in some countries.


title: Types of cheese

text: Some, if not most, varieties of processed cheese are made using a combination of real cheese waste (which is steam-cleaned, boiled and further processed), whey powders, and various mixtures of vegetable oils, palm oils or fats. Some processed-cheese slices contain as little as two to six percent cheese; some have smoke flavours added.


title: LC circuit

text: An LC circuit, also called a resonant circuit, tank circuit, or tuned circuit, is an electric circuit consisting of an inductor, represented by the letter L, and a capacitor, represented by the letter C, connected together. The circuit can act as an electrical resonator, an electrical analogue of a tuning fork, storing energy oscillating at the circuit's resonant frequency.


title: LC circuit

text: LC circuits are used either for generating signals at a particular frequency, or picking out a signal at a particular frequency from a more complex signal; this function is called a bandpass filter. They are key components in many electronic devices, particularly radio equipment, used in circuits such as oscillators, filters, tuners and frequency mixers.


title: LC circuit

text: An LC circuit is an idealized model since it assumes there is no dissipation of energy due to resistance. Any practical implementation of an LC circuit will always include loss resulting from small but non-zero resistance within the components and connecting wires. The purpose of an LC circuit is usually to oscillate with minimal damping, so the resistance is made as low as possible. While no practical circuit is without losses, it is nonetheless instructive to study this ideal form of the circuit to gain understanding and physical intuition. For a circuit model incorporating resistance, see RLC circuit.


title: LC circuit

text: The two-element LC circuit described above is the simplest type of inductor-capacitor network (or LC network). It is also referred to as a "second order LC circuit" to distinguish it from more complicated (higher order) LC networks with more inductors and capacitors. Such LC networks with more than two reactances may have more than one resonant frequency.


title: LC circuit

text: The order of the network is the order of the rational function describing the network in the complex frequency variable . Generally, the order is equal to the number of L and C elements in the circuit and in any event cannot exceed this number.


title: LC circuit

text: An LC circuit, oscillating at its natural resonant frequency, can store electrical energy. See the animation. A capacitor stores energy in the electric field () between its plates, depending on the voltage across it, and an inductor stores energy in its magnetic field (), depending on the current through it.


title: LC circuit

text: If an inductor is connected across a charged capacitor, the voltage across the capacitor will drive a current through the inductor, building up a magnetic field around it. The voltage across the capacitor falls to zero as the charge is used up by the current flow. At this point, the energy stored in the coil's magnetic field induces a voltage across the coil, because inductors oppose changes in current. This induced voltage causes a current to begin to recharge the capacitor with a voltage of opposite polarity to its original charge. Due to Faraday's law, the EMF which drives the current is caused by a decrease in the magnetic field, thus the energy required to charge the capacitor is extracted from the magnetic field. When the magnetic field is completely dissipated the current will stop and the charge will again be stored in the capacitor, with the opposite polarity as before. Then the cycle will begin again, with the current flowing in the opposite direction through the inductor.


title: LC circuit

text: The charge flows back and forth between the plates of the capacitor, through the inductor. The energy oscillates back and forth between the capacitor and the inductor until (if not replenished from an external circuit) internal resistance makes the oscillations die out. The tuned circuit's action, known mathematically as a harmonic oscillator, is similar to a pendulum swinging back and forth, or water sloshing back and forth in a tank; for this reason the circuit is also called a "tank circuit". The natural frequency (that is, the frequency at which it will oscillate when isolated from any other system, as described above) is determined by the capacitance and inductance values. In most applications the tuned circuit is part of a larger circuit which applies alternating current to it, driving continuous oscillations. If the frequency of the applied current is the circuit's natural resonant frequency (natural frequency formula_1 below ), resonance will occur, and a small driving current can excite large amplitude oscillating voltages and currents. In typical tuned circuits in electronic equipment the oscillations are very fast, from thousands to billions of times per second.


title: LC circuit

text: Resonance occurs when an LC circuit is driven from an external source at an angular frequency at which the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal in magnitude. The frequency at which this equality holds for the particular circuit is called the resonant frequency. The resonant frequency of the LC circuit is


title: LC circuit

text: where is the inductance in henries, and is the capacitance in farads. The angular frequency has units of radians per second.


title: LC circuit

text: The resonance effect of the LC circuit has many important applications in signal processing and communications systems.


title: LC circuit

text: By Kirchhoff's voltage law, the voltage across the capacitor plus the voltage across the inductor must equal zero:


title: LC circuit

text: Likewise, by Kirchhoff's current law, the current through the capacitor equals the current through the inductor:


title: LC circuit

text: and can be solved for and by considering the initial conditions. Since the exponential is complex, the solution represents a sinusoidal alternating current. Since the electric current is a physical quantity, it must be real-valued. As a result, it can be shown that the constants and must be complex conjugates:


title: LC circuit

text: Next, we can use Euler's formula to obtain a real sinusoid with amplitude , angular frequency , and phase angle formula_16.


title: LC circuit

text: In the series configuration of the LC circuit, the inductor (L) and capacitor (C) are connected in series, as shown here. The total voltage across the open terminals is simply the sum of the voltage across the inductor and the voltage across the capacitor. The current into the positive terminal of the circuit is equal to the current through both the capacitor and the inductor.


title: LC circuit

text: Inductive reactance magnitude increases as frequency increases, while capacitive reactance magnitude decreases with the increase in frequency. At one particular frequency, these two reactances are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign; that frequency is called the resonant frequency for the given circuit.


title: LC circuit

text: which is defined as the resonant angular frequency of the circuit. Converting angular frequency (in radians per second) into frequency (in hertz), one has


title: LC circuit

text: In a series configuration, and cancel each other out. In real, rather than idealised, components, the current is opposed, mostly by the resistance of the coil windings. Thus, the current supplied to a series resonant circuit is maximal at resonance.


title: LC circuit

text: In the series configuration, resonance occurs when the complex electrical impedance of the circuit approaches zero.


title: LC circuit

text: First consider the impedance of the series LC circuit. The total impedance is given by the sum of the inductive and capacitive impedances:


title: LC circuit

text: The numerator implies that in the limit as , the total impedance will be zero and otherwise non-zero. Therefore the series LC circuit, when connected in series with a load, will act as a band-pass filter having zero impedance at the resonant frequency of the LC circuit.


title: LC circuit

text: When the inductor (L) and capacitor (C) are connected in parallel as shown here, the voltage across the open terminals is equal to both the voltage across the inductor and the voltage across the capacitor. The total current flowing into the positive terminal of the circuit is equal to the sum of the current flowing through the inductor and the current flowing through the capacitor:


title: LC circuit

text: When equals , the two branch currents are equal and opposite. They cancel out each other to give minimal current in the main line (in principle, zero current). However, there is a large current circulating between the capacitor and inductor. In principle, this circulating current is infinite, but in reality is limited by resistance in the circuit, particularly resistance in the inductor windings. Since total current is minimal, in this state the total impedance is maximal.


title: LC circuit

text: Note that any branch current is not minimal at resonance, but each is given separately by dividing source voltage () by reactance (). Hence , as per Ohm's law.


title: LC circuit

text: Thus, the parallel LC circuit connected in series with a load will act as band-stop filter having infinite impedance at the resonant frequency of the LC circuit, while the parallel LC circuit connected in parallel with a load will act as band-pass filter.


title: LC circuit

text: We begin by defining the relation between current and voltage across the capacitor and inductor in the usual way:


title: LC circuit

text: Then by application of Kirchoff's laws, we may arrive at the system's governing differential equations


title: LC circuit

text: The Laplace transform has turned our differential equation into an algebraic equation. Solving for in the domain (frequency domain) is much simpler viz.


title: LC circuit

text: The final term is dependent on the exact form of the input voltage. Two common cases are the Heaviside step function and a sine wave. For a Heaviside step function we get


title: LC circuit

text: The first evidence that a capacitor and inductor could produce electrical oscillations was discovered in 1826 by French scientist Felix Savary. He found that when a Leyden jar was discharged through a wire wound around an iron needle, sometimes the needle was left magnetized in one direction and sometimes in the opposite direction. He correctly deduced that this was caused by a damped oscillating discharge current in the wire, which reversed the magnetization of the needle back and forth until it was too small to have an effect, leaving the needle magnetized in a random direction. American physicist Joseph Henry repeated Savary's experiment in 1842 and came to the same conclusion, apparently independently.


title: LC circuit

text: Irish scientist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in 1853 showed mathematically that the discharge of a Leyden jar through an inductance should be oscillatory, and derived its resonant frequency. British radio researcher Oliver Lodge, by discharging a large battery of Leyden jars through a long wire, created a tuned circuit with its resonant frequency in the audio range, which produced a musical tone from the spark when it was discharged. In 1857, German physicist Berend Wilhelm Feddersen photographed the spark produced by a resonant Leyden jar circuit in a rotating mirror, providing visible evidence of the oscillations. In 1868, Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell calculated the effect of applying an alternating current to a circuit with inductance and capacitance, showing that the response is maximum at the resonant frequency. The first example of an electrical resonance curve was published in 1887 by German physicist Heinrich Hertz in his pioneering paper on the discovery of radio waves, showing the length of spark obtainable from his spark-gap LC resonator detectors as a function of frequency.


title: LC circuit

text: One of the first demonstrations of resonance between tuned circuits was Lodge's "syntonic jars" experiment around 1889. He placed two resonant circuits next to each other, each consisting of a Leyden jar connected to an adjustable one-turn coil with a spark gap. When a high voltage from an induction coil was applied to one tuned circuit, creating sparks and thus oscillating currents, sparks were excited in the other tuned circuit only when the circuits were adjusted to resonance. Lodge and some English scientists preferred the term ""syntony"" for this effect, but the term ""resonance"" eventually stuck. The first practical use for LC circuits was in the 1890s in spark-gap radio transmitters to allow the receiver and transmitter to be tuned to the same frequency. The first patent for a radio system that allowed tuning was filed by Lodge in 1897, although the first practical systems were invented in 1900 by Italian radio pioneer Guglielmo Marconi.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: Xenoblade Chronicles X is a 2015 action role-playing game developed by Monolith Soft and published by Nintendo for the Wii U console. "Xenoblade Chronicles X" forms part of the "Xeno" metaseries, being a spiritual successor to "Xenoblade Chronicles" without any narrative connections to prior "Xeno" titles. Carrying over several gameplay elements from "Xenoblade Chronicles", players explore the open world planet Mira, completing a variety of quests and unlocking new regions to explore and gather resources from across Mira's five continents.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: "Xenoblade Chronicles X" takes place on the uncharted planet Mira. Following Earth's destruction during an alien war, humanity attempts to escape, with only a few ships surviving. One such ship, the colony New Los Angeles (NLA), narrowly escapes and crashes on Mira. After being rescued from a hibernation pod by a woman named Elma, the player character, a customizable Avatar, becomes a member of BLADE, which protects NLA and seeks the Lifehold - vital to their survival - while fending off the hostile Ganglion and investigating Mira's secrets.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: Beginning development after work finished on "Xenoblade Chronicles", "Xenoblade Chronicles X" features multiple returning staff from earlier "Xeno" titles, including series creator Tetsuya Takahashi as executive director and scenario co-writer. The staff also included "Xenoblade Chronicles" director Koh Kojima and producer Shingo Kawabata, "Xenoblade Chronicles" scenario co-writer Yuichiro Takeda, and "Xenosaga" artists Kunihiko Tanaka and Kouichi Mugitani. The team set themselves the challenge of creating an expansive world for players to explore within a tight development budget. The implementation of online multiplayer both proved challenging due to the team's inexperience, and the game required a comprehensive story rewrite to recast the protagonist as a player-created avatar. The music was created by anime composer Hiroyuki Sawano.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: The game was first announced in 2013 under the working title ""X"", set for a release date the following year, but was later delayed to 2015. The game's localization was handled by Nintendo Treehouse and 8-4, undergoing changes for its Western release. Upon release, "Xenoblade Chronicles X" was well received. The game received praise for its story, combat, and vast world size, while receiving some criticism for its sometimes complicated learning curve. The basic game engine and foundation work of "Xenoblade Chronicles X" was used in the team's next "Xeno" game, "Xenoblade Chronicles 2".


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: "Xenoblade Chronicles X" is an action role-playing video game in which the player controls a customizable avatar; they can adjust the avatar's gender, facial features, build, and voice. Working from the home hub of New Los Angeles (NLA), the avatar explores the five continents of the open world planet Mira alongside a party of companions. Quests are divided into story quests that advance the main narrative, affinity quests which strengthen bonds between the avatar and their comrades, small-scale missions which reward in-game money and additional features, and side quests taken from NLA's citizens. Accessible quests are limited based on the amount of Mira explored, which is tied to the main story's completion percentage. Completing quests and fighting enemies grants the character several types of experience points (EXP); standard EXP raises a character's health and general statistics, while Class EXP raises a character's assigned Class.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: The avatar can adopt different roles within BLADE, each of which grants different advantages; Pathfinders open up new locations, Interceptors defend research teams from hostile lifeforms, Harriers actively seek hostile lifeforms, including powerful monsters called Tyrants; Reclaimers retrieve wreckage from the White Whale, Curators explore new locations and collect data for BLADE, Prospectors collect rare resources, Outfitters develop gear, and Mediators resolve conflicts among NLA's people. The avatar initially explores Mira on foot, but gains access to the transformable Skell mechs during the later half of the game after completing a specific set of quests. Skells initially come with a bipedal walking mode and a vehicle-form driving mode. Each Skell has a limited amount of fuel, and when depleted, it cannot be used until the fuel is replenished. Skells are kept at a special hangar in NLA, where they can be customized and fitted with new weapons or loaned to another party member. There are three Skell types, with increasing armor quality and fuel levels, allowing further travel and greater battle efficiency. Skells have "Insurance", used to repair and maintain the Skells. Multiple Skell models can be bought and upgraded over the course of the game.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: Aside from standard enemies from among the game's antagonistic force, the party can also battle Mira's indigenous wildlife. While some creatures are docile until attacked, others will attack if they hear or see you. Upon entering battle, each character attacks with their assigned automatically to a set rhythm based on their assigned weapons; each character has health points (HP) and Tension points (TP), and a morale gauge which determines their effectiveness in battle. Attack strength varies depending on a party member's position upon attacking. Healing the party in-battle can be done with types of Arts, but is mainly done using a quick-time event (QTE) tied to the Soul Voice system, a line-up of commands which trigger a Soul Challenge QTE, healing the party or granting positive effects. Successfully completing a Soul Challenge raises the party's morale. If a battle is successfully completed, knocked-out party members will revive and the party will recover HP. If the avatar is knocked out, they can either teleport to a safe location or be revived if the other party members defeated all engaged enemies within thirty seconds.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: The party consists of the avatar and up to three party members controlled by artificial intelligence. Each character has a melee weapon, a ranged weapon, and a selection of abilities called Arts. After raising a character's level from gaining EXP, new Arts are unlocked, with Class-based Arts unlocking upon raising a Class' rank. EXP portions can also be used to strengthen Arts. Arts have different abilities, ranging from standard or powerful attacks, supporting the party, and inflicting or lifting status ailments. Once used, each Art has a cool-down timer, taking a variable amount of time depending on the Art used. A secondary cool-down timer activates when the ability becomes available, triggering additional effects if the timer is allowed to refill. TP rise with each normal attack, and are used to trigger special Arts ranging from powerful attacks to reviving fallen allies. When their TP meter is high enough, a character enters "Overdrive", which increases attack power and decreases cool-down time. Skell battle mechanics are identical to those of the avatar and party, with additional abilities including raising the defense of party members not equipped with Skells. If the Skell is defeated, it is evacuated to NLA for repair, with the status of both party and Skell determined by a final QTE triggered at the end of an unsuccessful battle, with a perfect trigger resulting in additional status buffs to the party.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: In addition to the single-player campaign, "Xenoblade Chronicles X" features a multiplayer element. After connecting online, players can loan their avatars for other player's parties in their games, forming units dubbed Squads. These Squads can be up to 32-players strong, enabling the sharing of reports and active participation in battles in other player's worlds. Squads can take part in "Tasks", time-limited random missions where players collect a set number of resources from Mira's environment. Completing Tasks is rewarded with items and equipment. Some multi-player missions pit parties against a Global Nemesis, an exceptionally powerful monster. Fast travel options are unlocked when new areas are discovered, accessed through both special red seats in the environment and BLADE outposts. Functions related to mapping Mira, fast travel points, adjusting character equipment and messages related to single-player and multi-player components are handled through the Wii U GamePad. The game is also compatible with the console's Off TV Play function.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: "Xenoblade Chronicles X" is unconnected to any previous game in the "Xeno" series, although there are thematic and aesthetic references. After Earth is caught in the crossfire of an alien war, humanity escapes on spaceships — only a few ships make it off the planet, one of them being the White Whale, containing the city New Los Angeles (NLA). The game takes place on Mira, an uncharted world far away from Earth where the White Whale crash-lands: NLA becomes the center of human activity and commerce. Mira is divided into five continents — Primordia, which has the most Earth-like environment; Noctilum, covered by forests and filled with bioluminescent lifeforms; Oblivia, dominated by desert and ancient ruins; Sylvalum, a pale landscape clouded in mist and dominated by large plants and rock formations; and Cauldros, a volcanic land controlled by the Ganglion.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: The main character is a player-created avatar whose body type, appearance, and voice can be chosen from a variety of options. The avatar becomes a member of BLADE (Builders of the Legacy After the Destruction of Earth). Joining the avatar on their missions is Elma, the leader of BLADE and Colonel of NLA's Skell forces; Lin Lee Koo, BLADE's engineer and a girl genius who created and maintains NLA's Skell mechs; and Lao Huang, a former US Army officer with a cool exterior.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: "Xenoblade Chronicles X" opens as humanity, warned of its impending destruction in the crossfire between two warring alien races, constructs interstellar arks to escape Earth. However, only a few arks escape the destruction, including the White Whale. Two years after launching, the White Whale is attacked and transported to Mira. During the crash-landing, the Lifehold—a device containing the majority of the human colonists—is separated from the White Whale, with lifepods containing colonists being scattered across Mira. The avatar is awoken from a lifepod by Elma and brought back to New Los Angeles. While suffering from amnesia, the avatar joins BLADE, working with Elma and Lin to recover more lifepods and search for the Lifehold. During their missions across Mira, BLADE encounters multiple alien races, learning that those attacking them are part of the Ganglion coalition, an alliance of races led by the Ganglion race, who are intent on destroying humanity.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: During one mission, the avatar is wounded, revealing that they are in a robot body. All the people of NLA are in robot bodies called Mimeosomes, with their true bodies held within the Lifehold. The White Whale's power supply is depleting without the Lifehold, meaning the Mimeosomes will eventually shut down, killing the human population. BLADE fight off multiple attempts to destroy the White Whale and the Lifehold, eventually dissolving the alliance between the Ganglion and their allies. Due to his bitterness against NLA's leaders for abandoning his family on Earth, Lao attempts to betray the White Whale to the Ganglion, but is persuaded otherwise and gives them the information needed to find the Lifehold. Other missions also reveal that humanity are descended from the Samaarians, an other-dimensional alien race who once controlled the Ganglion.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: Within the Lifehold, BLADE discovers a pool of genetic material for recreating Earth's lifeforms and restoring humanity. Elma explains that their human bodies were destroyed with Earth, but their memories and consciousnesses are preserved in the Lifehold's computers for transfer into newly created bodies. Due to the plan's questionable ethics, this decision was kept secret from the general population. Luxaar attacks the group, but Lao fatally stabs him. The two fall into the pool of genetic material causing Luxaar and Lao to merge. BLADE is reluctantly forced to kill them. Before dying, Lao reveals from Luxaar's memories that humanity's DNA was designed by their Samaarian ancestors to destroy the Ganglion using a genetic failsafe. Though Lao dies, Elma assures the group that the Lifehold can revive him. With the Lifehold power restored, Elma deactivates her Mimeosome and reveals her true form as an alien. A narration by Lin reveals that Elma visited Earth thirty years before the Ganglion arrived, giving humanity their means of escape. In a post-credits scene, a team led by Elma discover that the Lifehold's databases containing humanity's memories were destroyed upon impact with Mira. Elma speculates that Mira is somehow preserving humanity. Lao is then seen unconscious on a beach, waking when approached by a cloaked figure.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: "Xenoblade Chronicles X" was developed by Japanese development company Monolith Soft, with Tetsuya Takahashi forming the original concept and serving as the game's executive director. Following the completion of "Xenoblade Chronicles" for the Wii in 2011, Takahashi approached Nintendo producer Hitoshi Yamagami and asked if he could develop a new science fiction-themed role-playing game built upon the systems of "Xenoblade Chronicles". Yamagami and Nintendo were willing, and talks turned towards what Takahashi and Monolith Soft could do on Nintendo's Wii U console. "Xenoblade Chronicles" directors Genki Yokota of Nintendo and Koh Kojima of Monolith Soft returning in their original roles. The producers were Shingo Kawabata of Monolith Soft and Hitoshi Yamagami of Nintendo. Discussions about how to realize "Xenoblade Chronicles X" went on for around six months. While planned for release early in the Wii U's life cycle, the planned release date was pushed forward due to development issues. They later commented that it was a challenge fitting the entire game onto a single Wii U game disc, with Kawabata commenting that the game "barely fits" onto the 32 gigabyte disc. "Xenoblade Chronicles X" was Monolith Soft's first high-definition video game. To help cope with this first, the team decided against using cutting-edge technology when designing the game. The team used the lessons and experience from their time developing "Xenoblade Chronicles", in addition to setting limits upon what they did during production; a specified self-imposed limitation was not using middleware to speed up the production process.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: The battle system was based upon the basic mechanics of that used in "Xenoblade Chronicles", but with an increased sense of speed to make it feel more like an action game. Takahashi described creating the battle system one of the main challenges of development. The complete removal of "healer" classes from the system was because Takahashi felt people quickly grew tired of this role, which partly served as inspiration for the command-based "Soul Voice" system. Another goal for Takahashi was to encourage active criticism from players that he could use to improve his later work, as it felt he had received too little criticism for "Xenoblade Chronicles". While many role-playing games tried to be accessible, "Xenoblade Chronicles X" was tailored towards the hardcore players of the genre, while also presenting the many layers of information to players an understandable and manageable way. The online functionality initially used very "basic" technology due to the team's inexperience with high-definition and online development, but with development help from Nintendo the current online multiplayer structure was created. The multiplayer segments also helped counteract the feeling of isolation players would experience exploring the game's world. The online functions were only incorporated halfway through development. The team focused on making the online mode "loosely connected" so that players can feel the presence of others. However, due to the game's role-playing elements, they also consciously made it for players to focus on playing alone without any disruption.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: Creating Mira was the first priority when full development on the game began, mirroring the design of "Xenoblade Chronicles". The team initially envisioned the story taking place over several different planets, but this was discarded as stretching out the possible content over several worlds would limit the experience for players. After evaluating their content plans, they settled on a single planet with five continents. Creating an open world game was part of the team's goal when designing the game. A key part of creating Mira's continents was using a limited number of assets to create varied environments. When conceiving the game structure, Takahashi drew inspiration from role-playing games from Europe and North America. When designing the open world structure, the team did not install the entire space on the hard disk as the Wii U did not allow for direct installation, instead tuning the open world so it ran smoothly without installing. The game used an extensive library of sound effects, for which the team brought in external company Sound Racer, who had worked on multiple video game franchises including "Xenosaga" and "Final Fantasy". Sound effect work was produced by Shojiro Nakaoka.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: The game map was an estimated five times larger than that of "Xenoblade Chronicles", which proved problematic especially during the debugging phase. The open world was proving so problematic that at one point the team were considering scrapping it completely. The hexagonal map structure, with unlockable information points, was designed to solve the problem of players making their way through large fields. The restrictive nature of the main story quests was designed so players could be eased into the expansive nature of Mira. The choice of Los Angeles as the model for the game's hub city was inspired by Takahashi's liking for the city; his initial idea of modelling the hub after New York City was scrapped due to budgetary constraints in creating the necessary tall buildings. Creating the environment of NLA proved problematic due to the console's memory limitations, and the team worked especially hard on decreasing load times and ensuring collision detection worked properly.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: The artwork and character designs for the game was worked on by a number of different artists. The main character templates and main cast were created by Kunihiko Tanaka, the main artist for the "Xenosaga" games. Tanaka was brought on board to bring out the "Xeno" elements of the game. A core part of the art team was Kouichi Mugitani, who provided character illustrations for "Xenosaga Episode III" and worked as production designer for all three "Xenosaga" titles. Allied mecha designs were handled by Takayuki Yanase, who had previously worked on the anime "" and "Mobile Suit Gundam 00", along with the video game "". Enemy mechs were designed by Yasushi Suzuki, who had previously worked on "Sin and Punishment" and its sequel "". Alien NPC characters were designed by Raita Kazama, who also helped design Mira's primitive fauna. Yoko Tsukamoto, an artist for "Lord of Vermilion" and "Xenoblade Chronicles", was brought in to add fantasy elements to the world, while additional designs for enemies native to Mira were created by Takashi Kojo. Weapons were designed by Hideyuki Matsumoto, who had worked on both the "Xenosaga" and "Front Mission" series. Background art design was outsourced to Kusanagi, a company whose previous art-based work included "". The large number of artists ensured diversity among the alien races. The game's art director was Norihiro Takami.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: Creating the large flora and fauna of Mira was difficult as the team required both passive and combat situations for them. While designing each creature and race to be alien to lifeforms from Earth, they also wanted to create familiar silhouettes so they would appear "familiar and exotic at the same time in a way that [is] unsettling". The human armor designs and the alien Wrothian race drew inspiration from samurai and their armor. The concept for the Skell mechs was a machine switching between a humanoid and vehicular form. Their designs consciously drew influence from the "Gundam" franchise. The size of the Skells (between nine and ten meters high in-game) was calculated as the best human-to-robot size ratio when taking the game's combat scenarios into account. The Skells were an intentional callback to the mechs featured in Takahashi's first "Xeno" title "Xenogears", with the mechanics present in "Xenoblade Chronicle X" echoing scrapped gameplay ideas from "Xenogears". Another design callback featured in the game were the Lifehold pods, shaped similarly to monolith objects from earlier "Xeno" titles.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: Takahashi created most of the main scenario himself, working on the script alongside "Xenoblade Chronicles" co-writer Yuichiro Takeda and "Gundam" series writer Kazuho Hyodo. Takahashi and Takeda decided they could not write the entire story, estimated at the time as substantially larger than "Xenoblade Chronicles". On advice from Takeda, he brought in Hyodo. Due to Hyodo's extensive involvement in science fiction stories, Takahashi felt confident leaving much of the work to him. The choice of a science fiction setting was influenced by Takahashi's wish to do something different from the fantasy setting of "Xenoblade Chronicles". "Xenoblade Chronicles X" was the first time Hyodo had worked on a video game. One of the main goals for Takahashi was having humans and the robot Skells coexisting and functioning in the world. Due to the scale and experimental nature of the game, the Monolith Soft team made an effort to move away from the philosophical storylines their company had become known for with previous titles. Speaking about his goals for the game, Takahashi felt that he had finally created what he had wanted to since first founding Monolith Soft in 1999.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: After foundation work had been completed for Mira, the main focus turned towards creating the game's scenario. From there, Takahashi and Kojima had several meetings about the story with Takeda, Hyodo and Yokota. Takahashi had already written a large amount of the plot beforehand, with its size being compared to a novel by Kojima. Takeda carefully picked out the stories that fit with the game's content and scale and turned them into scripts. As Hyodo wrote several quest scenarios, he was approved by the staff members to create additional characters. Despite Takeda preferring middle-aged male characters, he thought it would be a good idea to recruit Hyodo for young female characters with important roles. According to Takeda, the scenario including the main story and quests took about a year and a half to write. For the cast, the team gathered what they described as an "exceptional" voice cast, who were highly professional during recording despite the high work load of recording the lengthy script. The team felt the game should continue the tradition from "Xenoblade Chronicles" of having characters talk during battle as it made the original game stand out. Compared to 3,000 battle lines from the original, the number of battle dialogues increased to 11,000 lines for this game; Kojima thought that it was a misprint when he first saw the word count. The total voice work was four times that of "Xenoblade Chronicles", resulting in some of the actors losing their voices during recording of battle lines.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: The scenario initially had a set main character with their own narrative, but midway through development the online mode was introduced, and the team decided to rework the story to accommodate a player-created avatar. Takeda said it was a challenge to adjust the story from a pre-defined protagonist to avatars as the main character, which drastically changed the flow of the story. The changes resulted in several proposed characters, including the original lead and a proposed villain dubbed the "Black Knight" being cut; the Black Knight made a minor cameo in the final game during the post-credits ending. The game's title had multiple meanings, which varied between regions. Despite carrying the ""Xenoblade"" title, "Xenoblade Chronicles X" was not a sequel, but instead a spiritual successor carrying over the basic themes of the original "Xenoblade Chronicles". For this reason, it was not titled as a numerical sequel. The ""X"" designation stands for "cross" in the Japanese release, which stood for both the meeting of different races in the game's story and the interaction of players online during gameplay. For the English version, the "X" symbol stood for the unknown, and also represented alien life and the unknown planet of Mira, in addition to the interaction in battle between humans and the Skells.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: The game's soundtrack was handled by Hiroyuki Sawano. Sawano had earned acclaim for his work on the soundtracks for multiple anime series including "Attack on Titan", "Guilty Crown" and "Kill la Kill". Takahashi had been a long-time fan of Sawano, so he personally insisted on having Sawano compose for this game. Sawano was more than willing to discuss the project when Takahashi suggested it. When they first met, Takahashi showed Sawano a concept video for the game, which provided the inspiration for Sawano's subsequent work. Sawano created the music based on the musical selections and resources provided by Monolith Soft staff, before working on the music in his own studio.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: Once he had finished work on the theme demos, Sawano created the score for orchestra and band. He created the broader orchestral elements on his computer, adding the smaller layers and elements himself so he had complete control over how the score evolved. To help with this, he went to a music copyist and had them create scores for each individual instrument. After creating the main theme and the core musical themes, he then moved on to the rest of the soundtrack—estimated at over ninety tracks—over three different periods during production. Due to Takahashi's liking for Sawano's music, Sawano had the freedom to stick to his musical style. The score was directed and co-produced by Legendoor's Yasushi Horiguchi, who was brought on board the project alongside Sawano.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: While "Xenoblade Chronicles" featured only one vocal theme, "Xenoblade Chronicles X" featured enough that it was considered rather high for genre standards. During early discussions about the game's music, Sawano and Takahashi thought it would be fun to include a large number of vocal themes. Sawano brought in several vocalists to create these tracks. The vocalists included rapper David Whitaker, singers Mika Kobayashi, Yumiko Inoue, Aimee Blackschleger, Cyua, mpi, and Sayulee. The ending theme, "Your Voice", was sung by Kobayashi. The lyrics for all vocal tracks were written by Whitaker, mpi and Rie. They had all worked with Sawano on previous projects. Sawano said that "Xenoblade Chronicles X" had the highest number of vocal tracks of any project to date.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: An official soundtrack album, "Xenoblade X Original Soundtrack", was released on May 20, 2015. It was published by Defstar Records and distributed by Sony Music Entertainment Japan. The game's music was arranged into 55 tracks. The album received mixed reviews from music critics.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: Nintendo confirmed in 2012 that Monolith Soft was developing a new title for the Wii U. The game was officially announced in a Nintendo Direct in January 2013 under the working title ""X"". At E3 2013, it was announced that it was scheduled for a 2014 release. The game's official title and updated release window of 2015 was announced at E3 2014. In an interview following the game's Japanese release, Kojima expressed sorrow at the amount of work the game had provided for Mario Club, Nintendo's in-house testing group. Then-CEO Satoru Iwata commented that he froze for a moment when he first saw the group's testing fee for the game.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: By November 2014, the game was entering the final stages of production. While Nintendo had decided not to create an official website at that point, Monolith Soft decided to create their own website for the game. While they initially thought Nintendo would object, they were allowed to go ahead with creating and maintaining the website. Monolith Soft also created an official Twitter account for the game alongside the new website. "Xenoblade Chronicles X" was published in Japan by Nintendo on April 29, 2015. The Japanese version came with standard and a hardware bundle featuring a version of the game with a reversible cover, black Wii U console and gamepad, and an artbook. Alongside the game's release, downloadable content (DLC) was made available for purchase, featuring four new characters with accompanying stories split between three quests, and optional data packs to speed loading times. The data packs were provided so that when flying Skells portions of the world could be loaded from storage to make for a smoother playing experience.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: A worldwide release for "Xenoblade Chronicles X" was confirmed at E3 2013. Its Western release dates were announced at E3 2015, the month following its Japanese release. In contrast to other prominent Wii U titles Nintendo had scheduled for that year, "Xenoblade Chronicles X" was not prominently advertised. This was due to the game having an established audience among both role-playing fans in general and fans of the "Xeno" series. "Xenoblade Chronicles X" was released in North America and Europe on 4 December 2015. In Australia and New Zealand, the game was released on 5 December. The additional characters released as paid DLC in Japan were released as part of the game in the West. Following its release, "Xenoblade Chronicles X" received software updates via download: the first was minor adjustments to in-game text, while the second added Spanish and French subtitles.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: The Western localization was handled collaboratively by Nintendo Treehouse and 8-4, a company whose previous localization credits include "Fire Emblem Awakening" and "Tales of Vesperia". Due to the substantial size of the game and its voice acting, localization proved challenging for Nintendo. As with the Japanese version, external studio Sound Racer worked on the sound environment. For its Western release, the game received multiple changes; the mech's names were changed from "Dolls" to "Skells", a character customization slider for altering breast size of female avatars was completely removed, and character Lin's bikini outfit was removed. In an interview, Lin's voice actress Cassandra Lee Morris said that Lin was given an older voice compared to her Japanese counterpart as the team felt a young-sounding voice would grate on players over the course of the game. In the wake of fan criticism following the game's release, both Morris and Takahashi defended the changes as necessary parts of the localization process.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: Japanese gaming publication "Dengeki" gave the game a positive review, referring to it as a masterpiece; they praised the gameplay, detailed world, story direction, and music, and said it has a "very high degree of perfection". Japanese gaming magazine "Famitsu" gave "Xenoblade Chronicles X" a score of 34/40, with scores of 9, 9, 8 and 8 from the four reviewers; they praised the gameplay, plot, large open world, and sense of freedom, but two of the reviewers criticized it for having an abundance of cutscenes.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: Upon its Western release, "Xenoblade Chronicles X" earned an aggregated review score of 84/100 at Metacritic, indicating "generally favorable" reception. Nintendo Life praised the game's battle system, deep upgrade pathways, vast world size, and graphics, but criticized the occasional difficulty spike and fetch quest. IGN scored it 8.2/10, stating that, "Out in the wilderness, Xenoblade Chronicles X presents seemingly endless reasons to fight and wander the planet.", and that "Xenoblade Chronicles X is a massive RPG with enough surface area, sub quests, and customization to keep you busy". However, the game was criticized by IGN with a narrative that "makes important moments feel bland, with low production value that robs emotional scenes of any dramatic weight". Nintendo World Report scored it 9.5/10, stating that it is "required playing for anyone with the slightest inclination toward RPGs, and if you need to buy the system then do it" as it is "an essential part of the Wii U library."


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: Destructoid scored it 9/10, stating that it "feels like an MMO world I've been living in for several weeks now" though the "more grimdark theme isn't quite as charming as the original "Xenoblade", but everything else makes up for it." GameSpot stated that, of "all the open-world games to come out this year, Xenoblade Chronicles X may be the most formidable" as a "truly enormous game, both in scale and scope," praising the landscapes, creature design, unlockables and quests, combat, and character progression and customization, but criticizing the inconsistent soundtrack, ambiguous systems, and disappointing story. Eurogamer said it is "Japanese RPG-making at its most ambitious and determined."


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: The game was the third best-selling game during its release week in Japan, selling around 85,000 copies. During its second week and third week, it sold over 11,000 and 2,000 copies respectively. In addition to its physical copies, the game garnered nearly 23,000 digital copies during May 2015. It was the most downloaded title in Japan for the month of May, largely surpassing other titles such as "Minecraft", "", and "". As of June 2015, 110,000 physical copies had been sold. By the end of the year, a total of 114,665 were sold in Japan.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: Upon its release in the United Kingdom, the game managed to secure 28th place in the charts. Despite its modest position, the game's launch sales was 73% higher than its predecessor had been in the same region. In France, the game sold over 40,000 physical copies after two weeks. In the United States, the game sold over 200,000 physical copies during the month of December, nearly doubling the game's then-lifetime sales in Japan.


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: The foundation work for "Xenoblade Chronicles X" provided a base architecture upon which the staff were able to build for the next "Xeno" game for the Nintendo Switch, resulting in a far shorter development time than previous "Xenoblade" titles. The next game, titled "Xenoblade Chronicles 2" and released worldwide on December 1, 2017, acts as a thematic sequel to "Xenoblade Chronicles", shifting back to a story-driven approach after the focus on gameplay for "Xenoblade Chronicles X". Elma was released as a recruitable "Blade" for the expansion pass of "Xenoblade Chronicles 2".


title: Xenoblade Chronicles X

text: Koh Kojima, the game director of the "Xenoblade Chronicles" series wishes to develop a sequel to "Xenoblade Chronicles X". As of 2018, Tetsuya Takahashi says that while a sequel to "Xenoblade Chronicles X" is possible, Monolith Soft may take the series to a completely new direction. Despite Takahashi's desires to bring "Xenoblade Chronicles X" to the Nintendo Switch, he says that "money" is an issue and that reconfiguring it to the Switch would be difficult due to the game's massive size.


title: Breadboard

text: A breadboard, solderless breadboard, or protoboard is a construction base used to build semi-permanent prototypes of electronic circuits. Unlike a perfboard or stripboard, breadboards do not require soldering or destruction of tracks and are hence reusable. For this reason, breadboards are also popular with students and in technological education.


title: Breadboard

text: A variety of electronic systems may be prototyped by using breadboards, from small analog and digital circuits to complete central processing units (CPUs).


title: Breadboard

text: Compared to more permanent circuit connection methods, modern breadboards have high parasitic capacitance, relatively high resistance, and less reliable connections, which are subject to jostle and physical degradation. Signaling is limited to about 10 MHz, and not everything works properly even well below that frequency.


title: Breadboard

text: In the early days of radio, amateurs nailed bare copper wires or terminal strips to a wooden board (often literally a bread cutting board) and soldered electronic components to them. Sometimes a paper schematic diagram was first glued to the board as a guide to placing terminals, then components and wires were installed over their symbols on the schematic. Using thumbtacks or small nails as mounting posts was also common.


title: Breadboard

text: Breadboards have evolved over time, with the term now being used for all kinds of prototype electronic devices. For example, US Patent 3,145,483, was filed in 1961 and describes a wooden plate breadboard with mounted springs and other facilities. US Patent 3,496,419, was filed in 1967 and refers to a particular printed circuit board layout as a "Printed Circuit Breadboard". Both examples refer to and describe other types of breadboards as prior art.


title: Breadboard

text: In 1960, Orville Thompson of DeVry Technical Institute patented a solderless breadboard connecting rows of holes together with spring metal. In 1971, Ronald Portugal of E&L Instruments patented a similar concept with holes in spacings, the same as DIP IC packages, which became the basis of the modern solderless breadboard that is commonly used today.


title: Breadboard

text: A modern solderless breadboard socket consists of a perforated block of plastic with numerous tin plated phosphor bronze or nickel silver alloy spring clips under the perforations. The clips are often called "tie points" or "contact points". The number of tie points is often given in the specification of the breadboard.


title: Breadboard

text: The spacing between the clips (lead pitch) is typically . Integrated circuits (ICs) in dual in-line packages (DIPs) can be inserted to straddle the centerline of the block. Interconnecting wires and the leads of discrete components (such as capacitors, resistors, and inductors) can be inserted into the remaining free holes to complete the circuit. Where ICs are not used, discrete components and connecting wires may use any of the holes. Typically the spring clips are rated for 1 ampere at 5 volts and 0.333 amperes at 15 volts (5 watts).


title: Breadboard

text: Solderless breadboards connect pin to pin by metal strips inside the breadboard. The layout of a typical solderless breadboard is made up from two types of areas, called strips. Strips consist of interconnected electrical terminals.Often breadboard strips or blocks of one brand have male and female dovetail notches so boards can be clipped together to form a large breadboard.


title: Breadboard

text: The main areas, to hold most of the electronic components, are called "terminal strips". In the middle of a terminal strip of a breadboard, one typically finds a notch running in parallel to the long side. The notch is to mark the centerline of the terminal strip and provides limited airflow (cooling) to DIP ICs straddling the centerline. The clips on the right and left of the notch are each connected in a radial way; typically five clips (i.e., beneath five holes) in a row on each side of the notch are electrically connected. The five columns on the left of the notch are often marked as A, B, C, D, and E, while the ones on the right are marked F, G, H, I and J. When a "skinny" dual in-line pin package (DIP) integrated circuit (such as a typical DIP-14 or DIP-16, which have a separation between the pin rows) is plugged into a breadboard, the pins of one side of the chip are supposed to go into column E while the pins of the other side go into column F on the other side of the notch. The rows are identified by numbers from 1 to as many the breadboard design goes. A full-size terminal breadboard strip typically consists of around 56 to 65 rows of connectors. Together with bus strips on each side this makes up a typical 784 to 910 tie point solderless breadboard. Most breadboards are designed to accommodate 17, 30 or 64 rows in the mini, half, and full configurations respectively.


title: Breadboard

text: To provide power to the electronic components, "bus strips" are used. A bus strip usually contains two columns: one for ground and one for a supply voltage. However, some breadboards only provide a single-column power distribution bus strip on each long side. Typically the row intended for a supply voltage is marked in red, while the row for ground is marked in blue or black. Some manufacturers connect all terminals in a column. Others just connect groups of, for example, 25 consecutive terminals in a column. The latter design provides a circuit designer with some more control over crosstalk (inductively coupled noise) on the power supply bus. Often the groups in a bus strip are indicated by gaps in the color marking. Bus strips typically run down one or both sides of a terminal strip or between terminal strips. On large breadboards additional bus strips can often be found on the top and bottom of terminal strips.


title: Breadboard

text: Some manufacturers provide separate bus and terminal strips. Others just provide breadboard blocks which contain both in one block.


title: Breadboard

text: Jump wires (also called jumper wires) for solderless breadboarding can be obtained in ready-to-use jump wire sets or can be manually manufactured. The latter can become tedious work for larger circuits. Ready-to-use jump wires come in different qualities, some even with tiny plugs attached to the wire ends. Jump wire material for ready-made or homemade wires should usually be 22 AWG (0.33 mm) solid copper, tin-plated wire - assuming no tiny plugs are to be attached to the wire ends. The wire ends should be stripped . Shorter stripped wires might result in bad contact with the board's spring clips (insulation being caught in the springs). Longer stripped wires increase the likelihood of short-circuits on the board. Needle-nose pliers and tweezers are helpful when inserting or removing wires, particularly on crowded boards.


title: Breadboard

text: Differently colored wires and color-coding discipline are often adhered to for consistency. However, the number of available colors is typically far fewer than the number of signal types or paths. Typically, a few wire colors are reserved for the supply voltages and ground (e.g., red, blue, black), some are reserved for main signals, and the rest are simply used where convenient. Some ready-to-use jump wire sets use the color to indicate the length of the wires, but these sets do not allow a meaningful color-coding schema.


title: Breadboard

text: In a more robust variant, one or more breadboard strips are mounted on a sheet of metal. Typically, that backing sheet also holds a number of binding posts. These posts provide a clean way to connect an external power supply. This type of breadboard may be slightly easier to handle.


title: Breadboard

text: Some manufacturers provide high-end versions of solderless breadboards. These are typically high-quality breadboard modules mounted on a flat casing. The casing contains additional equipment for breadboarding, such as a power supply, one or more signal generators, serial interfaces, LED display or LCD modules, and logic probes.


title: Breadboard

text: For high-frequency development, a metal breadboard affords a desirable solderable ground plane, often an unetched piece of printed circuit board; integrated circuits are sometimes stuck upside down to the breadboard and soldered to directly, a technique sometimes called "dead bug" construction because of its appearance. Examples of dead bug with ground plane construction are illustrated in a Linear Technologies application note.


title: Breadboard

text: A common use in the system on a chip (SoC) era is to obtain an microcontroller (MCU) on a pre-assembled printed circuit board (PCB) which exposes an array of input/output (IO) pins in a header suitable to plug into a breadboard, and then to prototype a circuit which exploits one or more of the MCU's peripherals, such as general-purpose input/output (GPIO), UART/USART serial transceivers, analog-to-digital converter (ADC), digital-to-analog converter (DAC), pulse-width modulation (PWM; used in motor control), Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI), or I²C.


title: Breadboard

text: Firmware is then developed for the MCU to test, debug, and interact with the circuit prototype. High frequency operation is then largely confined to the SoC's PCB. In the case of high speed interconnects such as SPI and I²C, these can be debugged at a lower speed and later rewired using a different circuit assembly methodology to exploit full-speed operation. A single small SoC often provides most of these electrical interface options in a form factor barely larger than a large postage stamp, available in the American hobby market (and elsewhere) for a few dollars, allowing fairly sophisticated breadboard projects to be created at modest expense.


title: Breadboard

text: Due to relatively large parasitic capacitance compared to a properly laid out PCB (approx 2 pF between adjacent contact columns), high inductance of some connections and a relatively high and not very reproducible contact resistance, solderless breadboards are limited to operation at relatively low frequencies, usually less than 10 MHz, depending on the nature of the circuit. The relatively high contact resistance can already be a problem for some DC and very low frequency circuits. Solderless breadboards are further limited by their voltage and current ratings.


title: Breadboard

text: Solderless breadboards usually cannot accommodate surface-mount technology devices (SMD) or components with grid spacing other than . Further, they cannot accommodate components with multiple rows of connectors if these connectors do not match the dual in-line layout—it is impossible to provide the correct electrical connectivity. Sometimes small PCB adapters called "breakout adapters" can be used to fit the component to the board. Such adapters carry one or more components and have spaced male connector pins in a single in-line or dual in-line layout, for insertion into a solderless breadboard. Larger components are usually plugged into a socket on the adapter, while smaller components (e.g., SMD resistors) are usually soldered directly onto the adapter. The adapter is then plugged into the breadboard via the connectors. However, the need to solder the components onto the adapter negates some of the advantage of using a solderless breadboard.


title: Breadboard

text: Very complex circuits can become unmanageable on a solderless breadboard due to the large amount of wiring required. The very convenience of easy plugging and unplugging of connections also makes it too easy to accidentally disturb a connection, and the system becomes unreliable. It is possible to prototype systems with thousands of connecting points, but great care must be taken in careful assembly, and such a system becomes unreliable as contact resistance develops over time. At some point, very complex systems must be implemented in a more reliable interconnection technology, to have a likelihood of working over a usable time period.


title: Breadboard

text: Alternative methods to create prototypes are point-to-point construction (reminiscent of the original wooden breadboards), wire wrap, wiring pencil, and boards like the stripboard. Complicated systems, such as modern computers comprising millions of transistors, diodes, and resistors, do not lend themselves to prototyping using breadboards, as their complex designs can be difficult to lay out and debug on a breadboard.


title: Breadboard

text: Modern circuit designs are generally developed using a schematic capture and simulation system, and tested in software simulation before the first prototype circuits are built on a printed circuit board. Integrated circuit designs are a more extreme version of the same process: since producing prototype silicon is costly, extensive software simulations are performed before fabricating the first prototypes. However, prototyping techniques are still used for some applications such as RF circuits, or where software models of components are inexact or incomplete.


title: Breadboard

text: It is also possible to use a square grid of pairs of holes where one hole per pair connects to its row and the other connects to its column. This same shape can be in a circle with rows and columns each spiraling opposite clockwise/counterclockwise.


title: Planet symbols

text: A planet symbol (or "planetary symbol") is a graphical symbol used in astrology and astronomy to represent a classical planet (including the Sun and the Moon) or one of the modern planets. The symbols were also used in alchemy to represent the metals associated with the planets, and in calendars for their associated days. The use of these symbols derives from Classical Greco-Roman astronomy, though their current shapes are a development of the 16th century.


title: Planet symbols

text: The International Astronomical Union (IAU) discourages the use of these symbols in modern journal articles, and their style manual proposes one- and two-letter abbreviations for the names of the planets for cases where planetary symbols might be used, such as in the headings of tables.


title: Planet symbols

text: The symbols of Venus and Mars are also used to represent female and male in biology following a convention introduced by Carl Linnaeus in the 1750s.


title: Planet symbols

text: Antecedents of the planetary symbols are attested in the attributes given to classical deities. The Roman planisphere of Bianchini (2nd century, currently in the Louvre, inv. Ma 540) shows the seven planets represented by portraits of the seven corresponding gods, each a bust with a halo and an iconic object or dress, as follows: Mercury has a caduceus and a winged cap; Venus has a necklace and a shining mirror; Mars has a war-helmet and a spear; Jupiter has a laurel crown and a staff; Saturn has a conical headdress and a scythe; the Sun has rays emanating from his head; and the Moon has a crescent atop her head.


title: Planet symbols

text: The written symbols for Mercury, Venus, Jupiter, and Saturn have been traced to forms found in late Greek papyri. Early forms are also found in medieval Byzantine codices which preserve horoscopes.


title: Planet symbols

text: A diagram in the astronomical compendium by Johannes Kamateros (12th century) closely resemble the 11th-century forms shown above, with the Sun represented by a circle with a single ray, Jupiter by the letter "zeta" (the initial of Zeus, Jupiter's counterpart in Greek mythology), Mars by a shield crossed by a spear, and the remaining classical planets by symbols resembling the modern ones, though without the cross-marks seen in modern versions of Mercury, Venus, Jupiter and Saturn. These cross-marks first appear in the late 15th or early 16th century. According to Maunder, the addition of crosses appears to be "an attempt to give a savour of Christianity to the symbols of the old pagan gods."


title: Planet symbols

text: The modern forms of the classical planetary symbols are found in a woodcut of the seven planets in a Latin translation of Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi's "De Magnis Coniunctionibus" printed at Venice in 1506, represented as the corresponding gods riding chariots.


title: Planet symbols

text: Earth is not one of the classical planets, as "planets" by definition were "wandering stars" as seen from Earth's surface.


title: Planet symbols

text: Nonetheless, there is a pre-heliocentric symbol for the world, now used as a planetary symbol for the Earth. This is a circle crossed by a horizontal and vertical line, representing the world divided by four rivers into the four quarters of the world (often translated as the four "corners" of the world): . A variant, now obsolete, had only the horizontal line: .


title: Planet symbols

text: A medieval European symbol for the world – the globus cruciger, (the globe surmounted by a Christian cross) – is also used as a planetary symbol; it resembles an inverted symbol for Venus.


title: Planet symbols

text: The crescent shape has been used to represent the Moon since earliest times. In classical antiquity, it is worn by lunar deities (Selene/Luna, Artemis/Diana, Men, etc.) either on the head or behind the shoulders, with its horns pointing upward.


title: Planet symbols

text: The representation of the moon as a simple crescent with the horns pointing to the side (as a heraldic "crescent increscent" or "crescent decrescent") is attested from late Classical times.


title: Planet symbols

text: The same symbol can be used in a different context not for the Moon itself but for a lunar phase, as part of a sequence of four symbols


title: Planet symbols

text: for "new moon" (U+1F311 🌑), "waxing" (U+263D ☽), "full moon" (U+1F315 🌕) and "waning" (U+263E ☾).


title: Planet symbols

text: The symbol ☿ for Mercury is a caduceus (a staff intertwined with two serpents), a symbol associated with Mercury/Hermes throughout antiquity. Some time after the 11th century, a cross was added to the bottom of the staff to make it seem more Christian.


title: Planet symbols

text: It has been interpreted as a depiction of the hand-mirror of the goddess, which may also explain Venus's association with the planetary metal copper, as mirrors in antiquity were made of polished copper (alloy), though this is not certain. In the Greek Oxyrhynchus Papyri 235, the symbols for Venus and Mercury didn't have the cross on the bottom stroke, and Venus still appears without the cross (⚲) in Johannes Kamateros (12th century).


title: Planet symbols

text: In botany and biology, the symbol for Venus is used to represent the female sex, alongside the symbol for Mars representing the male sex, following a convention introduced by Linnaeus in the 1750s. Arising from the biological convention, the symbol also came to be used in sociological contexts to represent women or femininity.


title: Planet symbols

text: The modern astronomical symbol for the Sun, the circumpunct (), was first used in the Renaissance. It possibly represents Apollo's golden shield with a boss; it is unknown if it traces descent from the nearly identical Egyptian hieroglyph for the Sun.


title: Planet symbols

text: In late Classical times, the Sun is attested as a circle with a single ray. A diagram in Johannes Kamateros' 12th century "Compendium of Astrology" shows the same symbol. This older symbol is encoded by Unicode as in the Alchemical Symbols block. Both symbols have been used alchemically for gold, as have more elaborate symbols showing a disk with multiple rays or even a face.


title: Planet symbols

text: The Mars symbol, ♂, is a depiction of a circle with an arrow emerging from it, pointing at an angle to the upper right in Europe and to the upper left in India. As astrological symbol it represents the planet Mars. It is also the old and obsolete symbol for iron in alchemy. In zoology and botany, it is used to represent the male sex (alongside the astrological symbol for Venus representing the female sex), following a convention introduced by Linnaeus in the 1750s.


title: Planet symbols

text: The symbol dates from at latest the 11th century, at which time it was an arrow across or through a circle, thought to represent the shield and spear of the god Mars; in the medieval form, for example in the 12th-century "Compendium of Astrology" by Johannes Kamateros, the spear is drawn across the shield. The Greek Oxyrhynchus Papyri show a different symbol, perhaps simply a spear.


title: Planet symbols

text: The symbol for Jupiter, ♃, is originally a Greek zeta, Ζ, with a stroke indicating that it is an abbreviation (for Zeus, the Greek equivalent of Roman Jupiter).


title: Planet symbols

text: Salmasius and earlier attestations show that the symbol for Saturn, ♄, derives from the initial letters (Kappa, rho) of its ancient Greek name (), with a stroke to indicate an abbreviation. By the time of Kamateros (12th century), the symbol had been reduced to a shape similar to a lower-case letter "eta" η, with the abbreviation stroke surviving (if at all) in the curl on the bottom-right end. The horizontal stroke was added along with the "Christianization" of other symbols in the early 16th century.


title: Planet symbols

text: The symbols for Uranus were created shortly after its discovery in 1781. One symbol, ⛢, invented by J. G. Köhler and refined by Bode, was intended to represent the newly discovered metal platinum; since platinum, commonly called white gold, was found by chemists mixed with iron, the symbol for platinum combines the alchemical symbols for iron, ♂, and gold, ☉. Gold and iron are the planetary metals for the Sun and Mars, and so share their symbols. Several orientations were suggested, but an upright arrow is now universal.


title: Planet symbols

text: Another symbol, ♅, was suggested by Lalande in 1784. In a letter to Herschel, Lalande described it as "" ("a globe surmounted by the first letter of your name"). The platinum symbol tends to be used by astronomers and the monogram by astrologers.


title: Planet symbols

text: Several symbols were proposed for Neptune to accompany the suggested names for the planet. Claiming the right to name his discovery, Urbain Le Verrier originally proposed to name the planet for the Roman God "Neptune" and the symbol of a trident, while falsely stating that this had been officially approved by the French Bureau des Longitudes. In October, he sought to name the planet "Leverrier", after himself, and he had loyal support in this from the observatory director, François Arago, who in turn proposed a new symbol for the planet, ⯉ (). However, this suggestion met with resistance outside France, and French almanacs quickly reintroduced the name "Herschel" for "Uranus", after that planet's discoverer Sir William Herschel, and "Leverrier" for the new planet, though it was used by anglophone institutions.


title: Planet symbols

text: Professor James Pillans of the University of Edinburgh defended the name "Janus" for the new planet, and proposed a key for its symbol. Meanwhile, Struve presented the name "Neptune" on December 29, 1846, to the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences. In August 1847, the Bureau des Longitudes announced its decision to follow prevailing astronomical practice and adopt the choice of "Neptune", with Arago refraining from participating in this decision.


title: Planet symbols

text: The planetary symbol was Neptune's trident, with the handle stylized either as a cross , following Mercury, Venus and the asteroids, or as an orb , following the symbols for Uranus and Earth. The cross variant is the more common today.


title: Planet symbols

text: Pluto was almost universally considered a planet from its discovery in 1930 until its re-classification as a dwarf planet (planetoid) by the IAU in 2006. Planetary geologists and astrologers continue to treat it as a planet. The original planetary symbol for Pluto was a monogram of the letters P and L. Astrologers generally use a bident with an orb. NASA has used the bident symbol since Pluto's reclassification. These symbols are encoded as and .


title: Planet symbols

text: In the 19th century, planetary symbols for the major asteroids were also in use, including 1 Ceres (a reaper's sickle, encoded ), 2 Pallas (a lance, ) and 3 Juno (a sceptre, encoded ).


title: Planet symbols

text: Encke (1850) used symbols for 5 Astraea, 6 Hebe, 7 Iris, 8 Flora and 9 Metis in the "Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch".


title: Planet symbols

text: In the late 20th century, astrologers abbreviated the symbol for 4 Vesta (the sacred fire of Vesta, encoded ), and introduced new symbols for 5 Astraea (, a stylised % sign, shift-5 on the keyboard for asteroid 5), 10 Hygiea (a caduceus – a common error in the USA for a staff of Asclepius, itself an error for the snake symbol of Hygiea – encoded ) and for 2060 Chiron, discovered in 1977 (a key, ). Chiron's symbol was adapted as additional centaurs were discovered; symbols for 5145 Pholus and 7066 Nessus have been encoded in Unicode. The abbreviation of the Vesta symbol is now universal, and the astrological symbol for Pluto has been used astronomically for Pluto as a dwarf planet.


title: Planet symbols

text: In the early 21st century, symbols for the trans-Neptunian dwarf planets have come into use, particularly Eris (the hand of Eris, ⯰, but also ⯱), Sedna, Haumea, Makemake, , and which are in Unicode. All (except Eris, for which the hand of Eris is a traditional Discordian symbol) were devised by Denis Moskowitz, a software engineer in Massachusetts.


title: Planet symbols

text: From 1845 to 1855, many symbols were created for newly discovered asteroids. But by 1851, the spate of discoveries had led to a general abandonment of these symbols in favour of numbering all asteroids instead.