title: Deterrence theory

text: There are three different arguments that have been developed in relation to the role of reputations in influencing deterrence outcomes. The first argument focuses on a defending state's past behavior in international disputes and crises, which creates strong beliefs in a potential attacking state about the defending state's expected behaviour in future conflicts. The credibilities of a defending state's policies are arguably linked over time, and reputations for resolve have a powerful causal impact on an attacking state's decision whether to challenge either general or immediate deterrence. The second approach argues that reputations have a limited impact on deterrence outcomes because the credibility of deterrence is heavily determined by the specific configuration of military capabilities, interests at stake, and political constraints faced by a defending state in a given situation of attempted deterrence. The argument of that school of thought is that potential attacking states are not likely to draw strong inferences about a defending states resolve from prior conflicts because potential attacking states do not believe that a defending state's past behaviour is a reliable predictor of future behavior. The third approach is a middle ground between the first two approaches and argues that potential attacking states are likely to draw reputational inferences about resolve from the past behaviour of defending states only under certain conditions. The insight is the expectation that decisionmakers use only certain types of information when drawing inferences about reputations, and an attacking state updates and revises its beliefs when a defending state's unanticipated behavior cannot be explained by case-specific variables.


title: Deterrence theory

text: An example shows that the problem extends to the perception of the third parties as well as main adversaries and underlies the way in which attempts at deterrence can fail and even backfire if the assumptions about the others' perceptions are incorrect.


title: Deterrence theory

text: Although costly signaling and bargaining power are more well established arguments in rational deterrence theory, the interests of defending states are not as well known. Attacking states may look beyond the short-term bargaining tactics of a defending state and seek to determine what interests are at stake for the defending state that would justify the risks of a military conflict. The argument is that defending states that have greater interests at stake in a dispute are more resolved to use force and more willing to endure military losses to secure those interests. Even less well-established arguments are the specific interests that are more salient to state leaders such as military interests and economic interests.


title: Deterrence theory

text: Furthermore, Huth argues that both supporters and critics of rational deterrence theory agree that an unfavorable assessment of the domestic and international status quo by state leaders can undermine or severely test the success of deterrence. In a rational choice approach, if the expected utility of not using force is reduced by a declining status quo position, deterrence failure is more likely since the alternative option of using force becomes relatively more attractive.


title: Deterrence theory

text: International relations scholars Dan Reiter and Paul Poast have argued that so-called "tripwires" do not deter aggression. Tripwires entail that small forces are deployed abroad with the assumption that an attack on them will trigger a greater deployment of forces. Dan Altman has argued that tripwires do work to deter aggression, citing the Western deployment of forces to Berlin in 1948–1949 to deter Soviet aggression as a successful example.


title: Deterrence theory

text: A 2022 study by Brian Blankenship and Erik Lin-Greenberg found that high-resolve, low-capability signals (such as tripwires) were not viewed as more reassuring to allies than low-resolve, high-capability alternatives (such as forces stationed offshore). Their study cast doubt on the reassuring value of tripwires.


title: Deterrence theory

text: In 1966, Schelling is prescriptive in outlining the impact of the development of nuclear weapons in the analysis of military power and deterrence. In his analysis, before the widespread use of assured second strike capability, or immediate reprisal, in the form of SSBN submarines, Schelling argues that nuclear weapons give nations the potential to destroy their enemies but also the rest of humanity without drawing immediate reprisal because of the lack of a conceivable defense system and the speed with which nuclear weapons can be deployed. A nation's credible threat of such severe damage empowers their deterrence policies and fuels political coercion and military deadlock, which can produce proxy warfare.


title: Deterrence theory

text: The stability–instability paradox is a key concept in rational deterrence theory. It states that when two countries each have nuclear weapons, the probability of a direct war between them greatly decreases, but the probability of minor or indirect conflicts between them increases. This occurs because rational actors want to avoid nuclear wars, and thus they neither start major conflicts nor allow minor conflicts to escalate into major conflicts—thus making it safe to engage in minor conflicts. For instance, during the Cold War the United States and the Soviet Union never engaged each other in warfare, but fought proxy wars in Korea, Vietnam, Angola, the Middle East, Nicaragua and Afghanistan and spent substantial amounts of money and manpower on gaining relative influence over the third world.


title: Deterrence theory

text: Scholars have debated whether having a superior nuclear arsenal provides a deterrent against other nuclear-armed states with smaller arsenals. Matthew Kroenig has argued that states with nuclear superiority are more likely to win nuclear crises, whereas Todd Sechser, Matthew Fuhrmann and David C. Logan have challenged this assertion. A 2023 study found that a state with nuclear weapons is less likely to be targeted by non-nuclear states, but that a state with nuclear weapons is not less likely to target other nuclear states in low-level conflict. A 2022 study by Kyungwon Suh suggests that nuclear superiority may not reduce the likelihood that nuclear opponents will initiate nuclear crises.


title: Deterrence theory

text: The early stages of the Cold War were generally characterized by the containment of communism, an aggressive stance on behalf of the US especially on developing nations under its sphere of influence. The period was characterized by numerous proxy wars throughout most of the globe, particularly Africa, Asia, Central America, and South America. One notable conflict was the Korean War. George F. Kennan, who is taken to be the founder of this policy in his Long Telegram, asserted that he never advocated military intervention, merely economic support, and that his ideas were misinterpreted as espoused by the general public.


title: Deterrence theory

text: With the US drawdown from Vietnam, the normalization of US relations with China, and the Sino-Soviet Split, the policy of containment was abandoned and a new policy of détente was established, with peaceful co-existence was sought between the United States and the Soviet Union. Although all of those factors contributed to this shift, the most important factor was probably the rough parity achieved in stockpiling nuclear weapons with the clear capability of mutual assured destruction (MAD). Therefore, the period of détente was characterized by a general reduction in the tension between the Soviet Union and the United States and a thawing of the Cold War, which lasted from the late 1960s until the start of the 1980s. The doctrine of mutual nuclear deterrence then characterized relations between the United States and the Soviet Union and relations with Russia until the onset of the New Cold War in the early 2010s. Since then, relations have been less clear.


title: Deterrence theory

text: A third shift occurred with US President Ronald Reagan's arms build-up during the 1980s. Reagan attempted to justify the policy by concerns of growing Soviet influence in Latin America and the post-1979 revolutionary government of Iran. Similar to the old policy of containment, the US funded several proxy wars, including support for Saddam Hussein of Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War, support for the mujahideen in Afghanistan, who were fighting for independence from the Soviet Union, and several anticommunist movements in Latin America such as the overthrow of the Sandinista government in Nicaragua. The funding of the Contras in Nicaragua led to the Iran-Contra Affair, while overt support led to a ruling from the International Court of Justice against the United States in "Nicaragua v. United States".


title: Deterrence theory

text: While the army was dealing with the breakup of the Soviet Union and the spread of nuclear technology to other nations beyond the United States and Russia, the concept of deterrence took on a broader multinational dimension. The US policy on deterrence after the Cold War was outlined in 1995 in the document called "Essentials of Post–Cold War Deterrence". It explains that while relations with Russia continue to follow the traditional characteristics of MAD, but the US policy of deterrence towards nations with minor nuclear capabilities should ensure by threats of immense retaliation (or even pre-emptive action) not to threaten the United States, its interests, or allies. The document explains that such threats must also be used to ensure that nations without nuclear technology refrain from developing nuclear weapons and that a universal ban precludes any nation from maintaining chemical or biological weapons. The current tensions with Iran and North Korea over their nuclear programs are caused partly by the continuation of the policy of deterrence.


title: Deterrence theory

text: Since the early 2000s, there has been an increased focus on cyber deterrence. Cyber deterrence has two meanings:


title: Deterrence theory

text: Scholars have debated how cyber capabilities alter traditional understandings of deterrence, given that it may be harder to attribute responsibility for cyber attacks, the barriers to entry may be lower, the risks and costs may be lower for actors who conduct cyber attacks, it may be harder to signal and interpret intentions, the advantage of offense over defense, and weak actors and non-state actors can develop considerable cyber capabilities. Scholars have also debated the feasibility of launching highly damaging cyber attacks and engaging in destructive cyber warfare, with most scholars expressing skepticism that cyber capabilities have enhanced the ability of states to launch highly destructive attacks. The most prominent cyber attack to date is the Stuxnet attack on Iran's nuclear program. By 2019, the only publicly acknowledged case of a cyber attack causing a power outage was the 2015 Ukraine power grid hack.


title: Deterrence theory

text: There is a risk of unintended escalation in cyberspace due to difficulties in discerning the intent of attackers, and complexities in state-hacker relationships. According to political scientists Joseph Brown and Tanisha Fazal, states frequently neither confirm nor deny responsibility for cyber operations so that they can avoid the escalatory risks (that come with public credit) while also signaling that they have cyber capabilities and resolve (which can be achieved if intelligence agencies and governments believe they were responsible).


title: Deterrence theory

text: According to Lennart Maschmeyer, cyber weapons have limited coercive effectiveness due to a trilemma "whereby speed, intensity, and control are negatively correlated. These constraints pose a trilemma for actors because a gain in one variable tends to produce losses across the other two variables."


title: Deterrence theory

text: Intrawar deterrence is deterrence within a war context. It means that war has broken out but actors still seek to deter certain forms of behavior. In the words of Caitlin Talmadge, "intra-war deterrence failures... can be thought of as causing wars to get worse in some way." Examples of intrawar deterrence include deterring adversaries from resorting to nuclear, chemical and biological weapons attacks or attacking civilian populations indiscriminately. Broadly, it involves any prevention of escalation.


title: Deterrence theory

text: Deterrence theory has been criticized by numerous scholars for various reasons. A prominent strain of criticism argues that rational deterrence theory is contradicted by frequent deterrence failures, which may be attributed to misperceptions. Scholars have also argued that leaders do not behave in ways that are consistent with the predictions of nuclear deterrence theory.


title: Deterrence theory

text: Advocates for nuclear disarmament, such as Global Zero, have criticized nuclear deterrence theory. Sam Nunn, William Perry, Henry Kissinger, and George Shultz have all called upon governments to embrace the vision of a world free of nuclear weapons, and created the Nuclear Security Project to advance that agenda. In 2010, the four were featured in a documentary film entitled "Nuclear Tipping Point" where proposed steps to achieve nuclear disarmament. Kissinger has argued, "The classical notion of deterrence was that there was some consequences before which aggressors and evildoers would recoil. In a world of suicide bombers, that calculation doesn't operate in any comparable way." Shultz said, "If you think of the people who are doing suicide attacks, and people like that get a nuclear weapon, they are almost by definition not deterrable."


title: Deterrence theory

text: Paul Nitze argued in 1994 that nuclear weapons were obsolete in the "new world disorder" after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and he advocated reliance on precision guided munitions to secure a permanent military advantage over future adversaries.


title: Deterrence theory

text: As opposed to the extreme mutually assured destruction form of deterrence, the concept of minimum deterrence in which a state possesses no more nuclear weapons than is necessary to deter an adversary from attacking is presently the most common form of deterrence practiced by nuclear weapon states, such as China, India, Pakistan, Britain, and France. Pursuing minimal deterrence during arms negotiations between the United States and Russia allows each state to make nuclear stockpile reductions without the state becoming vulnerable, but it has been noted that there comes a point that further reductions may be undesirable, once minimal deterrence is reached, as further reductions beyond that point increase a state's vulnerability and provide an incentive for an adversary to expand its nuclear arsenal secretly.


title: Deterrence theory

text: Frank C. Zagare has argued that deterrence theory is logically inconsistent and empirically inaccurate. In place of classical deterrence, rational choice scholars have argued for "perfect deterrence", which assumes that states may vary in their internal characteristics and especially in the credibility of their threats of retaliation.


title: Hamari Adhuri Kahani

text: Hamari Adhuri Kahani () is a 2015 Indian Hindi-language romantic drama film directed by Mohit Suri and produced by Mahesh Bhatt under the banner Vishesh Films and Fox Star Studios. The film stars Emraan Hashmi, Vidya Balan, and Rajkummar Rao. It is based on the love story of Bhatt's parents, Nanabhai Bhatt, Shirin Mohammad Ali and his stepmother. The film was released worldwide on 12 June 2015 receiving mixed reviews from critics.


title: Hamari Adhuri Kahani

text: The movie opens with a woman Vasudha (Vidya Balan) stepping off a bus. An elderly man, Hari, sees a psychiatrist about hallucinations of his wife. His daughter-in-law takes him to his wife's funeral. There, he steals her ashes and leaves a diary for his son.


title: Hamari Adhuri Kahani

text: The story jumps to the past, where Vasudha is a single mother whose husband has been missing for five years. Bound to tradition, she has been waiting for him since he left her. Vasudha meets Aarav Ruparel (Emraan Hashmi) in one of his hotels, where she works as a floral arranger. Vasudha comes to save him in a mock fire drill, and he offers her a job in his hotel in Dubai, which she refuses at first. However, she later gets to know from police that her husband Hari (Rajkumar Rao) murdered five American journalists and is a member of a terrorist group. Worried for her son's future, she accepts the job offer given by Aarav.


title: Hamari Adhuri Kahani

text: Despite knowing about Vasudha's past and her son, Aarav falls in love with her. He tells her about his mother who was a cabaret singer and a single parent, and how she fell in love with a man who tried to commit suicide for failing to save them from poverty. Vasudha shuns his feelings, saying that she belongs to someone else. At his request, she meets Aarav's mother and finally accepts Aarav's love. Vasudha encounters Hari at home, and tells him about Aarav. Hari storms out in anger and is arrested and jailed for being a wanted criminal. Vasudha asks Aarav to save Hari as he is innocent. Aarav tries to save Hari by bribing the home minister, but he reveals that Hari himself admitted to his crime. Vasudha refuses to marry Aarav because Hari's action tells her that he sacrificed his life for them to be together. It is then revealed to Aarav that Hari deliberately accepted his crime so that Vasudha will live in guilt, thinking Hari sacrificed himself for their love.


title: Hamari Adhuri Kahani

text: In order to free Vasudha out of her guilt, Aarav travels to Bastar, where Hari is accused of killing, to prove his innocence. Aarav meets Father Dayal, who reveals Hari's innocence. On the way back to Mumbai, Aarav smells the scent of the flowers that caused him to meet Vasudha. Following the scent, he goes into the jungle, not knowing that the place has mines. He accidentally steps on one of the mines. Realizing his predicament, Aarav smiles just before taking his foot off. Vasudha receives the news of Aarav's death and leaves Hari, who searches for her for two years. After finding her, she reveals to him that she knows about his fake sacrifice and tells him that she is not afraid of any tradition. He warns her that she will come back to him one day. Hari waits for Vasudha twenty-one years in vain.


title: Hamari Adhuri Kahani

text: Back in the present, the old woman from the bus, Vasudha, wants to be reunited with Aarav where he died. Hari takes Vasudha's ashes to scatter them in the forest of Bastar, where Aarav died. Thus, Aarav and Vasudha reunite after death.


title: Hamari Adhuri Kahani

text: On 23 October 2013, Vishesh Films and Fox Star Studios extended their association and announced a three-film deal, "City Lights", "Hamari Adhuri Kahani" and "Mr. X". It was then revealed that the film will be directed by Mohit Suri, and will release on 7 November 2013. Initially it was decided the cast will start filming in May–June 2014, however the dates shifted to October 2014, owing to Emraan Hashmi's son's illness. In February 2014, in an interview with "Bombay Times", producer of the film Mahesh Bhatt revealed that the story of the film will be written by himself and it is based on the love story of his parents, Nanabhai Bhatt, Shirin Mohammad Ali and his stepmother. In an interview with "Mumbai Mirror", Suri said Vidya Balan had to lose weight for the film and get into shape. Before the development of the film, rumours spread that Balan opted out of the film "as she needs some time for herself" and her character is replaced by Shraddha Kapoor. On 14 March 2014, Bhatt refutes the news and confirmed that Balan "is still on board". On 13 June 2014, reports finalising the release date of film – 12 June 2015 – was released.


title: Hamari Adhuri Kahani

text: The leading cast of Emraan Hashmi and Vidya Balan was finalised on 23 October 2013, marking their third collaboration after "The Dirty Picture" (2011) and "Ghanchakkar" (2013). On 12 February 2014, it was confirmed that Rajkummar Rao will be joining the cast of the film. On 6 October 2014, it was suggested that Rao will be playing the role of the husband of the character portrayed by Balan, to which he confirmed that he plays a "pivotal role but not in terms of screen time". On 15 December 2014, it was reported Amala Akkineni will be seen in a cameo appearance in the film, and she will be singing and enacting the title song of the film. On 26 December 2014, it was revealed that Sara Khan will also be joining the cast of the film.


title: Hamari Adhuri Kahani

text: Initially, the first schedule was planned to be widely shot in Cape Town, South Africa. Filming began in Kolkata on 2 October 2014. A portion of the climax scene of the film was shot on 3 October 2014, where Balan and Hashmi joined the immersion processions on the city's crowded roads overlooking the Howrah Bridge. The other portion of the scene was shot on 5 January 2015, inside a bardy style old house in Kolkata.


title: Hamari Adhuri Kahani

text: After wrapping shooting in Kolkata, it was reported that the crew of the film started filming in Dubai for a total of sixteen days. The schedule was planned for a month back but shifted due to the weather conditions in the area. On 20 October 2014, Balan and Hashmi were spotted shooting scenes at Dubai International Airport and further shoots took place around the city, including on Sheikh Zayed Road, Business Bay, Heritage Village, and other locations around Bur Dubai, Jumeirah and Dubai Marina. After Dubai schedule, the team resumed their shoot in Cape Town before visiting back to Dubai for a further two days of shooting. Most of the scenes for the two days shooting took place in Meena Bazaar along with its views of the dhows on Dubai Creek.


title: Hamari Adhuri Kahani

text: The final scene of the United Arab Emirates schedule, was shot on 17 November 2014, in Miracle Garden and Suri added that though the city was generally treated for its high-tech buildings and modern landscapes, he wanted to romanticise it and show its softer side. The film also features Abu Dhabi's Qasr Al Sarb desert resort. The team shot the rest of the film in Mumbai. The shooting for the film was completed during the mid-January 2015.


title: Hamari Adhuri Kahani

text: Music for the film is given by Jeet Gannguli, Mithoon, Ami Mishra and Zubeen Garg. The song "Yeh Kaisi Jagah" was recorded at Zubeen's studio Sound & Silence, Zubeen programmed track music and help to compose the song. Lyrics are penned by Rashmi Virag, Sayeed Quadri, Kunaal Vermaa. "Zaroori Tha" song from the film was originally a soundtrack of singer Rahat Fateh Ali Khan's album "Back 2 Love". The album was named "Best Bollywood Album of June 2015" by Deccan Music.


title: Hamari Adhuri Kahani

text: "Hamari Adhuri Kahani" released worldwide on 12 June 2015. As of 2 July, the film's worldwide gross was on a budget of . The pre-release sale of television, home video and music rights added a further making the film a commercially flop.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: Pinewood Studios is a British film and television studio located in the village of Iver Heath, England. It is approximately west of central London.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: The studio has been the base for many productions over the years from large-scale films to television programmes, commercials, and pop promos. It is well known as the home of the "James Bond" and "Carry On" film franchises.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: Pinewood Studios was built on the estate of Heatherden Hall, a large Victorian country house which was purchased by Canadian financier, and Member of Parliament (MP) for Brentford and Chiswick, Lt. Col. Grant Morden (1880–1932). He added refinements such as a ballroom, a Turkish bath and an indoor squash court. Due to its seclusion, it was used as a discreet meeting place for high-ranking politicians and diplomats; the agreement to create the Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed there.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: In 1934, building tycoon Charles Boot (1874–1945) bought the land and turned it into a country club. The ballroom was converted into a restaurant and many of the bedrooms became furnished suites.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: In 1935, millionaire Methodist and flour magnate J. Arthur Rank (1888–1972) went into partnership with Boot and they transformed the estate into a film studio. Boot based designs for the studio complex on the latest ideas being employed by film studios in Hollywood, California. Boot named the new studio Pinewood because "of the number of trees which grow there and because it seemed to suggest something of the American film centre in its second syllable". Construction began in December of that year, with a new stage completed every three weeks. The studios were finished nine months later, having cost £1 million (approx. £ at prices). Five stages were initially completed and there was provision for an enclosed water tank capable of holding , which is still in use. In the years that followed, he also undertook further work on both the Pinewood Film Studios and the Denham Film Studios, both of which had by then become a part of the newly-formed Rank Organisation.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: On 30 September 1936, the studio complex was officially opened by Dr Leslie Burgin, Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade. The first film director to use the facilities was Herbert Wilcox, completing "London Melody" (1937) featuring Anna Neagle, portions of which had already been filmed at British and Dominions Imperial Studios in Elstree, before a fire there halted production. The first film to be made entirely at Pinewood was "Talk of the Devil" (1936), directed by Carol Reed.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: There followed a prolific period of Pinewood and British film history, with Pinewood following the studios adopting the "unit system", an American industry practice. That enabled several pictures to be filmed simultaneously and, ultimately, Pinewood achieved the highest output of any studio in the world.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: During the Second World War, Pinewood was requisitioned, and the Crown Film Unit, No. 5 Army Film and Photographic Unit, Royal Air Force Film Production Unit, and Polish Air Force Film Unit were based there. The Crown Film Unit completed many classic wartime documentaries, and Roy Boulting's "Desert Victory", Humphrey Jennings' "Fires Were Started", "Coastal Command" and Pat Jackson's "Western Approaches" (all 1943) were filmed there during that period. As well its use by the armed forces, the Royal Mint and Lloyd's of London were installed on sound stages at Pinewood, and were open for business for the duration of the war.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: The Company of Youth, the Rank Organisation acting school (often referred to as "The Charm School"), which launched several film careers, was founded in 1945. The next year, Pinewood re-opened for (non-war-related) business.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: Two landmarks in British film produced at Pinewood were released within two months of each other in 1948: "Oliver Twist", directed by David Lean, and Powell and Pressburger's "The Red Shoes". Due to a shortfall in funds, brought about by financial overspends the previous year, Rank did not have enough money to market "The Red Shoes" sufficiently at first in the US, but it became Rank's biggest earner up to that point, grossing over £1 million by 1951 (the equivalent of £ in terms).


title: Pinewood Studios

text: In the same year, John Davis was appointed managing director. By the following year, Rank had run up an overdraft of £16 million (the equivalent of £ in ), and announced a loss of £3.5 million, mainly due to big budget flops. One of the largest of these had been "Caesar and Cleopatra" (1945), which was originally budgeted at £250,000, but which eventually cost £1,278,000 (the equivalent of £ in ).


title: Pinewood Studios

text: The "Doctor" film series, produced by Betty Box and directed by Ralph Thomas, began with "Doctor in the House" (1954), the most successful film at the box-office of its year in Great Britain. All of the "Doctor" films, running until 1970, were shot at Pinewood. The "Carry On" franchise began in 1958, produced on behalf of Rank by Peter Rogers (who was married to Box), and directed by Gerald Thomas (brother of Ralph). The Norman Wisdom comedies, the last of which was released in 1966, were also filmed at the facility.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: The 1960s were buoyant years for Pinewood, which was no longer solely dependent on the Rank Organisation to fill its stages. "Renters" (producers hiring the sound stages for a film-by-film agreement) were using half of the stages as Pinewood turned into a four walls facility. The James Bond franchise began at Pinewood with the Terence Young directed "Dr. No" (1962), and has continued to be based at the studios since then.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: J. Arthur Rank (by then Lord Rank) retired as chairman in 1962 and was succeeded by John Davis, who had begun to move the Rank Organisation away from mass film production and towards more profitable and less risky businesses such as bingo and holidays.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: The 1970s were an uncertain period for Pinewood and the film industry in general, with the studios being used more for television programmes, including ITC Entertainment's "UFO" (1970), "The Persuaders!" (1971), starring Tony Curtis and Roger Moore, "" (1975–1977), and Superman.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: Four James Bond movies, "For Your Eyes Only"; "Octopussy"; "A View to a Kill" and "The Living Daylights", among several other very large productions, such as "Aliens" and Tim Burton's "Batman", were all produced at Pinewood.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: The 1990s saw many large-scale productions, such as "Alien 3", Tim Burton's "Batman Returns" and three further Bond films, "GoldenEye", "Tomorrow Never Dies" and "The World Is Not Enough" produced at the studios which kept Pinewood operating. As well, "Swear It Again", the debut music video of the first single by Irish pop vocal band Westlife, was shot at the studios in 1999.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: The Rank Group owned the studio until 2001, when it sold Pinewood to a group led by Michael Grade and Ivan Dunleavy. The purchase of Shepperton Studios from a consortium headed by Ridley and Tony Scott, gave rise to the Pinewood Group, eventually comprising Pinewood Studios, Shepperton Studios, Teddington Studios, Pinewood Toronto Studios, Pinewood Indomina Studios, Pinewood Studio Berlin, Pinewood Iskandar Malaysia Studios, and a joint venture in the US with Pinewood Atlanta Studios.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: In 2009, Pinewood and Shepperton received a BAFTA Award for their Outstanding British Contribution to Cinema.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: The Pinewood Studios Group was subject to a hostile takeover approach in 2011. Manchester-based The Peel Group acquired a 73% stake, but Warren James Jewellers retained a 27% stake, so preventing a full takeover. As of 2012, Pinewood's management is waiting to see if the Financial Services Authority would cancel the stock market listing in recognition of the fact that nearly all the shares are held by two groups. In June 2016, five new stages and 10 new workshops were opened at Pinewood.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: The Walt Disney Studios announced a 10-year lease of most of the Pinewood Studios in September 2019, to start in 2020.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: The 007 Stage was originally built for the Bond film "The Spy Who Loved Me" (1977) and featured a massive water tank, one of the largest in Europe. The stage was destroyed by fire in 1984; it was rebuilt four months later and renamed Albert R. Broccoli's 007 Stage in time for filming to commence on "A View to a Kill". Another fire on 30 July 2006 seriously damaged the stage, causing the roof to partly collapse. Construction of a new stage began on 18 September and was completed in under six months. Since then, the stage has accommodated large productions including "" (2010), "Quantum of Solace" (2008). The whole fishing village from "Mamma Mia!" (2008) was built on the stage.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: As well as the 007 Stage, which is the largest stage at any of the studios under The Pinewood Studios Group at , the studio has fifteen other stages ranging from just , to cater for productions of all sizes. One of those studios, the T Stage, is a specialist stage for both television and film productions and the Studios second largest stage at .


title: Pinewood Studios

text: Pinewood Studios paid tribute to Richard Attenborough's body of work by naming a purpose-built film and television stage after him. The Richard Attenborough Stage has an area of . In his absence because of illness, Lord Puttnam and Pinewood chairman Lord Grade officially unveiled the stage on 23 April 2012. Opposite it, is a post-production block named in honour of Stanley Kubrick.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: The studio also has two specialist TV studios, named TV One and TV Two, complete with integral galleries, TV studio floors, TV lighting grids and SD or HD facilities. Both studios stand at just under .


title: Pinewood Studios

text: As stated earlier, Pinewood is situated on the old estate of Heatherden Hall which still stands today. The mansion, its gardens and other parts of the studios have been used in various productions over the years. "Peeping Tom" (1960) shows people driving out through the main gate and has various shots in the studios (showing things behind the camera), offices and corridors. "Return to the Edge of the World" (1978) includes shots of director Michael Powell driving into the studio. The iconic main gate (now no longer used due to the construction of a purpose-built security entrance further along the road) also features in "My Week with Marilyn" (2011) when Eddie Redmayne greets Judi Dench. This film also contains many shots of the dressing-room corridors in the main make-up block. Heatherden Hall (converted to production offices) has appeared in several films: it was made to look fire-damaged and derelict for the children's film "The Amazing Mr Blunden" (1972) and also appeared as the Indian residence of Governor Sir Sidney Ruff-Diamond in "Carry On Up the Khyber" (1969).


title: Pinewood Studios

text: The studios have acres of backlots where huge sets have been built, from castles to whole villages including the Baker Street set built for Billy Wilder's "The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes" and Godric's Hollow from the "Harry Potter" film series.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: The proximity of the ancient woodland Burnham Beeches and Black Park to Pinewood (as well as to Shepperton and Bray studios) and the outstanding natural beauty of the forest have made Burnham Beeches a desirable filming location for productions being filmed at Pinewood. Burnham Beeches has been used for a large number of films, including "Robin Hood Prince of Thieves", "First Knight", "Goldfinger", "The Princess Bride" and "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Fahrenheit 451" at Black Park. Many other films and TV productions have made use of the facilities on offer at the Beeches. ("For a more comprehensive list, see".)


title: Pinewood Studios

text: The studios announced in April 2013 that its first film production facility in the United States would be located south of Atlanta at a complex consisting of in Fayette County, Georgia. Pinewood Atlanta is a joint venture between Pinewood and River's Rock LLC, an independently managed trust of the Cathy family, founders of the Chick-fil-A fast-food chain.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: In August 2019, Pinewood sold their shares in the Atlanta location. The studio officially ended its relationship with the location in October 2020 with the renaming of the studio to Trilith.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: Pinewood Iskandar Malaysia Studios is a studio complex located at a site in Iskandar Puteri, Johor, managed by The Pinewood Studios Group. It targets the Asia-Pacific region. Pinewood Shepperton plc entered into a strategic agreement with Khazanah Nasional Berhad, the investment holding arm of the Government of Malaysia in connection with the development of a new film and television studio facility in Iskandar Malaysia. Heavy investment is pouring into the region, providing necessary funds for infrastructure projects and large business developments.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: Construction began towards the end of 2010, with completion expected by the end of 2012. The state-of-the-art facilities being built as part of the studio complex include of film stages, ranging from to . The first two at while the other two at . The biggest stage at will have a water tank for productions that require work on or under water.[1] There are 2 TV studios, each at .


title: Pinewood Studios

text: In July 2019, Pinewood Iskandar Malaysia Studios was rebranded to Iskandar Malaysia Studios and the affiliation with Pinewood Shepperton plc ended.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: Pinewood has extensive water filming facilities including the Underwater Stage, and an Exterior Tank backed with a green screen measuring x.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: In November 2007, Pinewood announced a £200m expansion plan, known as Project Pinewood. If built the development would see replicas of streetscapes and zones replicating locations from the UK, Europe and the USA. Planned zones include a college campus, Amsterdam, modern European housing, Venice, Lake Como, Paris, an Amphitheatre, Prague, West coast American housing, warehousing and downtown New York sets, Chicago, Vienna, a castle, a UK canal, Chinatown and a London street market built. In addition it will also be used as residential housing, with the proposed creative community, expected to be in the region of 2000 and 2250, being integrated with the film locations. Job creation is also a key part of the plan, helping to boost the economy of both the region and the nation as a whole.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: Following consultations with the local community the plans changed to reflect the community's opinions and suggestions. However, the planning application was still rejected by South Bucks District Council in October 2009, following a prolonged opposition campaign by local residents, who formed a "Stop Project Pinewood" group.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: Pinewood appealed against the decision and a public inquiry commenced on 5 April 2011 and on 20 January 2012, it was announced that the appeal had been turned down. On 15 May 2013, local councillors in South Buckinghamshire rejected a pared down version of the expansion plans. The Chief Executive of the studios, Ivan Dunleavy, said he expected to appeal against the latest decision to the Secretary of State, Eric Pickles, who rejected the previous application, a year earlier. On 19 June 2014 it was reported that Pinewood Studios had received approval to go ahead with the multimillion-pound expansion plans which would see it rival Hollywood film sets.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: Pinewood Studios is one of the sponsors for the short film competition "Enter the Pitch," also known as the Pitch, which launched in 2009. The Pitch is an online short film pitching competition that invites film makers to submit a project that takes inspiration from any story, character, or theme in the Bible. The top ten finalists are invited to Pinewood Studios, where they pitch their film to a panel of industry professionals. The person giving the best pitch wins an apprenticeship with industry professionals and is mentored on how to turn their pitch into a short film.


title: Pinewood Studios

text: The inaugural Pitch winner was Simeon Lumgair's "Derelict" (2009); the most recent was Oneikeh Campbell's "Five Thousand Stars" (2020).


title: Bea Alonzo

text: Phylbert Angelli Ranollo Fagestrom (born October 17, 1987), professionally known as Bea Alonzo (), is a Filipino actress. Alonzo first gained recognition for the 2002 teleserye "Kay Tagal Kang Hinintay". She is best known for her portrayals in the films "One More Chance" (2007), "The Mistress" (2012), "Four Sisters and a Wedding" (2013), and "Eerie" (2019). As of 2021 she is a exclusive artists of GMA Network.


title: Bea Alonzo

text: Bea Alonzo was born as Phylbert Angelli Ranollo Fagestrom on October 17, 1987, in Rizal, to Philip Fagestrom and Mary Anne Ranollo. Alonzo's father is British. Her parents are separated. She has a younger brother on her mother's side. She finished elementary education in 2001 at the Jose Abad Santos Memorial School Quezon City. She attended The Fisher Valley College in Taguig, Ususan Elementary School in Ususan, and Colegio de Santa Ana in Taguig.


title: Bea Alonzo

text: In June 2008, Alonzo released her debut album "The Real Me" under Star Records. It was also in mid-2008 when it was announced that she would play the leading character Betty Pengson in the TV sitcom "Yo Soy Betty La Fea", which originated from Colombia. The Philippines' version was entitled "I Love Betty La Fea". The show premiered in September 2008 at the primetime slot; it ran for eight consecutive months.


title: Bea Alonzo

text: In December 2011, Alonzo renewed her contract with ABS-CBN. She was set to do two movies under Star Cinema and a reunion drama, "The Mistress", with her on-screen partner, John Lloyd Cruz. Alonzo starred in the 2014 international hit TV drama "Sana Bukas pa ang Kahapon" (Tomorrow Belongs To Me), opposite Paulo Avelino and Albert Martinez.


title: Bea Alonzo

text: In 2019, Alonzo appeared in the horror film "Eerie" and the dramatic film "Unbreakable". She also started pursuing writing for film in 2019 by enrolling in the writing workshop of Filipino screenwriter, journalist, novelist, and playwright Ricky Lee. This year, she was also included in the list of Variety.com and the International Film Festival & Awards Macao as among Asia's biggest stars poised for international stardom.


title: Bea Alonzo

text: On July 1, 2021, GMA News announced that she transferred to GMA Network after almost 19 years under ABS-CBN.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: Auditory processing disorder (APD), rarely known as King-Kopetzky syndrome or auditory disability with normal hearing (ADN), is a neurodevelopmental disorder affecting the way the brain processes auditory information. Individuals with APD usually have normal structure and function of the outer, middle, and inner ear (peripheral hearing). However, they cannot process the information they hear in the same way as others do, which leads to difficulties in recognizing and interpreting sounds, especially the sounds composing speech. It is thought that these difficulties arise from dysfunction in the central nervous system. It is highly prevalent in individuals with other neurodevelopmental disorders, such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Autism Spectrum Disorders, Dyslexia, and Sensory Processing Disorder.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: The American Academy of Audiology notes that APD is diagnosed by difficulties in one or more auditory processes known to reflect the function of the central auditory nervous system. It can affect both children and adults. Although the actual prevalence is currently unknown, it has been estimated to be 2–7% in children in US and UK populations. APD can continue into adulthood. Cooper and Gates (1991) estimated the prevalence of adult APD to be 10 to 20%. It has been reported that males are twice as likely to be affected by the disorder as females, and that prevalence is higher in the elderly and increases with age.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: Neurodevelopmental forms of APD are differentiable from aphasia in that aphasia is by definition caused by acquired brain injury, but acquired epileptic aphasia has been viewed as a form of APD.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: Many people experience problems with learning and day-to-day tasks with difficulties over time. Adults with this disorder can experience the signs and symptoms below:


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: It has been discovered that APD and ADHD present overlapping symptoms. Below is a ranked order of behavioral symptoms that are most frequently observed in each disorder. Professionals evaluated the overlap of symptoms between the two disorders. The order below is of symptoms that are almost always observed. This chart shows that although the symptoms listed are different, it is easy to get confused between many of them.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: There is a co-occurrence between ADHD and APD. A systematic review published in 2018 detailed one study that showed 10% of children with APD have confirmed or suspected ADHD. It also stated that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish the two, since characteristics and symptoms between APD and ADHD tend to overlap. The systematic review mentioned here described this overlap between APD and other behavioral disorders and whether or not it was easy to distinguish those children that solely had auditory processing disorder.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: There has been considerable debate over the relationship between APD and Specific language impairment (SLI).


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: SLI is diagnosed when a child has difficulties with understanding or producing spoken language for no obvious cause. The problems cannot be explained in terms of peripheral hearing loss. The child is typically late in starting to talk, and may have problems in producing speech sounds clearly, and in producing or understanding complex sentences. Some theoretical accounts of SLI regard it as the result of auditory processing problems. However, this view of SLI is not universally accepted, and others regard the main difficulties in SLI as stemming from problems with higher-level aspects of language processing. Where a child has both auditory and language problems, it can be difficult to sort out the causality at play.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: Similarly with developmental dyslexia, researchers continue to explore the hypothesis that reading problems emerge as a downstream consequence of difficulties in rapid auditory processing. Again, cause and effect can be hard to unravel. This is one reason why some experts have recommended using non-verbal auditory tests to diagnose APD. Specifically regarding neurological factors, dyslexia has been linked to polymicrogyria which causes cell migrational problems. Children that have polymicrogyri almost always present with deficits on APD testing. It has also been suggested that APD may be related to cluttering, a fluency disorder marked by word and phrase repetitions.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: It has been found that a higher than expected proportion of individuals diagnosed with SLI and dyslexia on the basis of language and reading tests also perform poorly on tests in which auditory processing skills are tested. APD can be assessed using tests that involve identifying, repeating or discriminating speech, and a child may do poorly because of primary language problems. In a study comparing children with a diagnosis of dyslexia and those with a diagnosis of APD, they found the two groups could not be distinguished. Analogous results were observed in studies comparing children diagnosed with SLI or APD, the two groups presenting with similar diagnostic criteria. As such, the diagnosis a child receives may depend on which specialist they consult: the same child who might be diagnosed with APD by an audiologist may instead be diagnosed with SLI by a speech-language therapist or with dyslexia by a psychologist.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: Acquired APD can be caused by any damage to or dysfunction of the central auditory nervous system and can cause auditory processing problems. For an overview of neurological aspects of APD, see T. D. Griffiths' 2002 article "Central Auditory Pathologies".


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: Some studies have indicated an increased prevalence of a family history of hearing impairment in these patients. The pattern of results is suggestive that auditory processing disorder may be related to conditions of autosomal dominant inheritance. The ability to listen to and comprehend multiple messages at the same time is a trait that is heavily influenced by our genes, say federal researchers. These "short circuits in the wiring" sometimes run in families or result from a difficult birth, just like any learning disability. Auditory processing disorder can be associated with conditions affected by genetic traits, such as various developmental disorders. Inheritance of auditory processing disorder refers to whether the condition is inherited from your parents or "runs" in families. Central auditory processing disorder may be hereditary neurological traits from the mother or the father.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: In the majority of cases of developmental APD, the cause is unknown. An exception is acquired epileptic aphasia or Landau-Kleffner syndrome, where a child's development regresses, with language comprehension severely affected. The child is often thought to be deaf, but normal peripheral hearing is found. In other cases, suspected or known causes of APD in children include delay in myelin maturation, ectopic (misplaced) cells in the auditory cortical areas, or genetic predisposition. In a family with autosomal dominant epilepsy, seizures which affected the left temporal lobe seemed to cause problems with auditory processing. In another extended family with a high rate of APD, genetic analysis showed a haplotype in chromosome 12 that fully co-segregated with language impairment.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: Hearing begins in utero, but the central auditory system continues to develop for at least the first decade. There is considerable interest in the idea that disruption to hearing during a sensitive period may have long-term consequences for auditory development. One study showed thalamocortical connectivity in vitro was associated with a time sensitive developmental window and required a specific cell adhesion molecule (lcam5) for proper brain plasticity to occur. This points to connectivity between the thalamus and cortex shortly after being able to hear (in vitro) as at least one critical period for auditory processing. Another study showed that rats reared in a single tone environment during critical periods of development had permanently impaired auditory processing. 'Bad' auditory experiences, such as temporary deafness by cochlear removal in rats leads to neuron shrinkage. In a study looking at attention in APD patients, children with one ear blocked developed a strong right-ear advantage but were not able to modulate that advantage during directed-attention tasks.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: In the 1980s and 1990s, there was considerable interest in the role of chronic Otitis media (middle ear disease or 'glue ear') in causing APD and related language and literacy problems. Otitis media with effusion is a very common childhood disease that causes a fluctuating conductive hearing loss, and there was concern this may disrupt auditory development if it occurred during a sensitive period. Consistent with this, in a sample of young children with chronic ear infections recruited from a hospital otolaryngology department, increased rates of auditory difficulties were found later in childhood. However, this kind of study will have sampling bias because children with otitis media will be more likely to be referred to hospital departments if they are experiencing developmental difficulties. Compared with hospital studies, epidemiological studies, which assesses a whole population for otitis media and then evaluate outcomes, have found much weaker evidence for long-term impacts of otitis media on language outcomes.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: It seems that somatic anxiety (that is, physical symptoms of anxiety such as butterflies in the stomach or cotton mouth) and situations of stress may be determinants of speech-hearing disability.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: Questionnaires can be used for the identification of persons with possible auditory processing disorders, as these address common problems of listening. They can help in the decision for pursuing clinical evaluation. One of the most common listening problems is speech recognition in the presence of background noise. According to the respondents who participated in a study by Neijenhuis, de Wit, and Luinge (2017), the following symptoms are characteristic in children with listening difficulties, and they are typically problematic with adolescents and adults. They include:


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: According to the New Zealand Guidelines on Auditory Processing Disorders (2017) a checklist of key symptoms of APD or comorbidities that can be used to identify individuals who should be referred for audiological and APD assessment includes, among others:


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: Finally, the New Zealand guidelines state that behavioral checklists and questionnaires should only be used to provide guidance for referrals, for information gathering (for example, prior to assessment or as outcome measures for interventions), and as measures to describe the functional impact of auditory processing disorder. They are not designed for the purpose of diagnosing auditory processing disorders. The New Zealand guidelines indicate that a number of questionnaires have been developed to identify children who might benefit from evaluation of their problems in listening. Examples of available questionnaires include the Fisher's Auditory Problems Checklist, the Children's Auditory Performance Scale, the Screening Instrument for Targeting Educational Risk, and the Auditory Processing Domains Questionnaire among others. All of the previous questionnaires were designed for children and none are useful for adolescents and adults.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: The University of Cincinnati Auditory Processing Inventory (UCAPI) was designed for use with adolescents and adults seeking testing for evaluation of problems with listening and/or to be used following diagnosis of an auditory processing disorder to determine the subject's status. Following a model described by Zoppo et al. (2015) a 34-item questionnaire was developed that investigates auditory processing abilities in each of the six common areas of complaint in APD (listening and concentration, understanding speech, following spoken instructions, attention, and other.) The final questionnaire was standardized on normally-achieving young adults ranging from 18 to 27 years of age. Validation data was acquired from subjects with language-learning or auditory processing disorders who were either self-reported or confirmed by diagnostic testing. A UCAPI total score is calculated by combining the totals from the six listening conditions and provides an overall value to categorize listening abilities. Additionally, analysis of the scores from the six listening conditions provides an auditory profile for the subject. Each listening condition can then be utilized by the professional in making recommendation for diagnosing problem of learning through listening and treatment decisions. The UCAPI provides information on listening problems in various populations that can aid examiners in making recommendations for assessment and management.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: APD has been defined anatomically in terms of the integrity of the auditory areas of the nervous system. However, children with symptoms of APD typically have no evidence of neurological disease and the diagnosis is made on the basis of performance on behavioral auditory tests. Auditory processing is "what we do with what we hear", and in APD there is a mismatch between peripheral hearing ability (which is typically normal) and ability to interpret or discriminate sounds. Thus in those with no signs of neurological impairment, APD is diagnosed on the basis of auditory tests. There is, however, no consensus as to which tests should be used for diagnosis, as evidenced by the succession of task force reports that have appeared in recent years. The first of these occurred in 1996. This was followed by a conference organized by the American Academy of Audiology.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: Experts attempting to define diagnostic criteria have to grapple with the problem that a child may do poorly on an auditory test for reasons other than poor auditory perception: for instance, failure could be due to inattention, difficulty in coping with task demands, or limited language ability. In an attempt to rule out at least some of these factors, the American Academy of Audiology conference explicitly advocated that for APD to be diagnosed, the child must have a modality-specific problem, i.e. affecting auditory but not visual processing. However, a committee of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association subsequently rejected modality-specificity as a defining characteristic of auditory processing disorders.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: in 2005 The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) published "Central Auditory Processing Disorders" as an update to the 1996 "Central Auditory Processing: Current Status of Research and Implications for Clinical Practice". The American Academy of Audiology has released more current practice guidelines related to the disorder. ASHA formally defines APA as "a difficulty in the efficiency and effectiveness by which the central nervous system (CNS) utilizes auditory information."


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: In 2018, the British Society of Audiology published a 'position statement and practice guidance' on auditory processing disorder (APD) updated its definition of APD. According to the Society, APD refers to the inability to process speech and on-speech sounds.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: Auditory processing disorder can be developmental or acquired. It may result from ear infections, head injuries or neurodevelopmental delays that affect processing of auditory information. This can include problems with: "...sound localization and lateralization (see also binaural fusion); auditory discrimination; auditory pattern recognition; temporal aspects of audition, including temporal integration, temporal discrimination (e.g., temporal gap detection), temporal ordering, and temporal masking; auditory performance in competing acoustic signals (including dichotic listening); and auditory performance with degraded acoustic signals".


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: The Committee of UK Medical Professionals Steering the UK Auditory Processing Disorder Research Program have developed the following working definition of auditory processing disorder: "APD results from impaired neural function and is characterized by poor recognition, discrimination, separation, grouping, localization, or ordering of speech sounds. It does not solely result from a deficit in general attention, language or other cognitive processes."


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: The issue of modality-specificity has led to considerable debate among experts in this field. Cacace and McFarland have argued that APD should be defined as a "modality-specific" perceptual dysfunction that is not due to peripheral hearing loss. They criticise more inclusive conceptualizations of APD as lacking diagnostic specificity. A requirement for modality-specificity could potentially avoid including children whose poor auditory performance is due to general factors such as poor attention or memory. Others, however, have argued that a modality-specific approach is too narrow, and that it would miss children who had genuine perceptual problems affecting both visual and auditory processing. It is also impractical, as audiologists do not have access to standardized tests that are visual analogs of auditory tests. The debate over this issue remains unresolved between modality-specific researchers such as Cacace, and associations such as the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (among others). It is clear, however, that a modality-specific approach will diagnose fewer children with APD than a modality-general one, and that the latter approach runs a risk of including children who fail auditory tests for reasons other than poor auditory processing. Although modality-specific testing has been advocated for well over a decade, the visual analog of APD testing has met with sustained resistance from the fields of optometry and ophthalmology.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: Another controversy concerns the fact that most traditional tests of APD use verbal materials. The British Society of Audiology has embraced Moore's (2006) recommendation that tests for APD should assess processing of "non-speech sounds". The concern is that if verbal materials are used to test for APD, then children may fail because of limited language ability. An analogy may be drawn with trying to listen to sounds in a foreign language. It is much harder to distinguish between sounds or to remember a sequence of words in a language you do not know well: the problem is not an auditory one, but rather due to lack of expertise in the language.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: In recent years there have been additional criticisms of some popular tests for diagnosis of APD. Tests that use tape-recorded American English have been shown to over-identify APD in speakers of other forms of English. Performance on a battery of non-verbal auditory tests devised by the Medical Research Council's Institute of Hearing Research was found to be heavily influenced by non-sensory task demands, and indices of APD had low reliability when this was controlled for. This research undermines the validity of APD as a distinct entity in its own right and suggests that the use of the term "disorder" itself is unwarranted. In a recent review of such diagnostic issues, it was recommended that children with suspected auditory processing impairments receive a holistic psychometric assessment including general intellectual ability, auditory memory, and attention, phonological processing, language, and literacy. The authors state that "a clearer understanding of the relative contributions of perceptual and non-sensory, unimodal and supramodal factors to performance on psychoacoustic tests may well be the key to unravelling the clinical presentation of these individuals."


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: Depending on how it is defined, APD may share common symptoms with ADD/ADHD, specific language impairment, and autism spectrum disorders. A review showed substantial evidence for atypical processing of auditory information in children with autism. Dawes and Bishop noted how specialists in audiology and speech-language pathology often adopted different approaches to child assessment, and they concluded their review as follows: "We regard it as crucial that these different professional groups work together in carrying out assessment, treatment and management of children and undertaking cross-disciplinary research." In practice, this seems rare.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: To ensure that APD is correctly diagnosed, the examiners must differentiate APD from other disorders with similar symptoms. Factors that should be taken into account during the diagnosis are: attention, auditory neuropathy, fatigue, hearing and sensitivity, intellectual and developmental age, medications, motivation, motor skills, native language and language experience, response strategies and decision-making style, and visual acuity.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: It should also be noted that children under the age of seven cannot be evaluated correctly because their language and auditory processes are still developing. In addition, the presence of APD cannot be evaluated when a child's primary language is not English.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association state that children with (central) auditory processing disorder often:


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: APD can manifest as problems determining the direction of sounds, difficulty perceiving differences between speech sounds and the sequencing of these sounds into meaningful words, confusing similar sounds such as "hat" with "bat", "there" with "where", etc. Fewer words may be perceived than were actually said, as there can be problems detecting the gaps between words, creating the sense that someone is speaking unfamiliar or nonsense words. In addition, it is common for APD to cause speech errors involving the distortion and substitution of consonant sounds. Those with APD may have problems relating what has been said with its meaning, despite obvious recognition that a word has been said, as well as repetition of the word. Background noise, such as the sound of a radio, television or a noisy bar can make it difficult to impossible to understand speech, since spoken words may sound distorted either into irrelevant words or words that don't exist, depending on the severity of the auditory processing disorder. Using a telephone can be problematic for someone with auditory processing disorder, in comparison with someone with normal auditory processing, due to low quality audio, poor signal, intermittent sounds and the chopping of words. Many who have auditory processing disorder subconsciously develop visual coping strategies, such as lip reading, reading body language, and eye contact, to compensate for their auditory deficit, and these coping strategies are not available when using a telephone.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: As noted above, the status of APD as a distinct disorder has been queried, especially by speech-language pathologists and psychologists, who note the overlap between clinical profiles of children diagnosed with APD and those with other forms of specific learning disability. Many audiologists, however, would dispute that APD is just an alternative label for dyslexia, SLI, or ADHD, noting that although it often co-occurs with these conditions, it can be found in isolation.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: Based on sensitized measures of auditory dysfunction and on psychological assessment, patients can be subdivided into seven subcategories:


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: Different subgroups may represent different pathogenic and aetiological factors. Thus, subcategorization provides further understanding of the basis of auditory processing disorder, and hence may guide the rehabilitative management of these patients. This was suggested by Professor Dafydd Stephens and F Zhao at the Welsh Hearing Institute, Cardiff University.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: Treatment of APD typically focuses on three primary areas: changing learning environment, developing higher-order skills to compensate for the disorder, and remediation of the auditory deficit itself. However, there is a lack of well-conducted evaluations of intervention using randomized controlled trial methodology. Most evidence for effectiveness adopts weaker standards of evidence, such as showing that performance improves after training. This does not control for possible influences of practice, maturation, or placebo effects. Recent research has shown that practice with basic auditory processing tasks (i.e. auditory training) may improve performance on auditory processing measures and phonemic awareness measures. Changes after auditory training have also been recorded at the physiological level. Many of these tasks are incorporated into computer-based auditory training programs such as Earobics and Fast ForWord, an adaptive software available at home and in clinics worldwide, but overall, evidence for effectiveness of these computerised interventions in improving language and literacy is not impressive. One small-scale uncontrolled study reported successful outcomes for children with APD using auditory training software.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: Treating additional issues related to APD can result in success. For example, treatment for phonological disorders (difficulty in speech) can result in success in terms of both the phonological disorder as well as APD. In one study, speech therapy improved auditory evoked potentials (a measure of brain activity in the auditory portions of the brain).


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: While there is evidence that language training is effective for improving APD, there is no current research supporting the following APD treatments:


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: However, use of an individual FM transmitter/receiver system by teachers and students has been shown to produce significant improvements with children over time.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: Samuel J. Kopetzky first described the condition in 1948. P. F. King, first discussed the etiological factors behind it in 1954. Helmer Rudolph Myklebust's 1954 study, "Auditory Disorders in Children". suggested auditory processing disorder was separate from language learning difficulties. His work sparked interest in auditory deficits after acquired brain lesions affecting the temporal lobes and led to additional work looking at the physiological basis of auditory processing, but it was not until the late seventies and early eighties that research began on APD in depth.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: In 1977, the first conference on the topic of APD was organized by Robert W. Keith, Ph.D. at the University of Cincinnati. The proceedings of that conference was published by Grune and Stratton under the title "Central Auditory Dysfunction" (Keith RW Ed.) That conference started a new series of studies focusing on APD in children. Virtually all tests currently used to diagnose APD originate from this work. These early researchers also invented many of the auditory training approaches, including interhemispheric transfer training and interaural intensity difference training. This period gave us a rough understanding of the causes and possible treatment options for APD.


title: Auditory processing disorder

text: Much of the work in the late nineties and 2000s has been looking to refining testing, developing more sophisticated treatment options, and looking for genetic risk factors for APD. Scientists have worked on improving behavioral tests of auditory function, neuroimaging, electroacoustic, and electrophysiologic testing. Working with new technology has led to a number of software programs for auditory training. With global awareness of mental disorders and increasing understanding of neuroscience, auditory processing is more in the public and academic consciousness than ever before.


title: Circle (2015 film)

text: Circle is a 2015 American science fiction psychological horror-thriller film written and directed by Aaron Hann and Mario Miscione. The ensemble cast includes Carter Jenkins, Lawrence Kao, Allegra Masters, Michael Nardelli, Julie Benz, Mercy Malick, Lisa Pelikan, and Cesar Garcia. It was inspired by the 1957 drama "12 Angry Men" and was shot in 2014. It premiered at the Seattle International Film Festival on May 28, 2015, before being released to video-on-demand on October 16. In the film, fifty people wake up in a darkened room, only to find that one of them is killed every two minutes or when they attempt to leave. When they realize that they can control which person is selected to die, blocs emerge based on personal values.


title: Circle (2015 film)

text: Fifty people awaken in a darkened room, arranged in two concentric circles around a black dome. When they attempt to move from their designated platforms or touch the others, alarms sound off. When someone ignores the warning and leaves formation, a beam from the dome kills them, and their body is quickly removed. As the others panic, a man attempts to calm them, but the device kills him mid-sentence. Thereafter, every two minutes, another person is killed. After several people die, the group realizes that the room's technology allows them to use hand gestures to vote for who dies, while arrows on the floor show each person their own vote but not others'. They attempt to boycott the vote, but someone is randomly selected to die after two minutes.


title: Circle (2015 film)

text: Following someone's suggestion, the group buys time to think by deciding in advance to eliminate the elderly for the next selections. The captives discuss where they are, how they got there, who has abducted them, and why. A young man, Eric, remembers attempting to flee Los Angeles, and others concur. Eric says that he was pulled into the air, later waking in a red room with other humans. The old man next in line agrees, saying he saw and heard aliens. The disbelieving group eliminates him instead of listening.


title: Circle (2015 film)

text: After another member of the group aggressively targets a 52-year-old cancer survivor over the objections of people who do not consider her elderly, he is eliminated. Several people say they recognize the others: a man identifies the woman next to him as his wife, another man identifies the doctor he was having an affair with, and a tattooed man is eliminated after he admits to a cop's accusation of domestic violence. After several minorities are quickly eliminated, an African-American man claims the process has become racist. Several others dispute this, but when the cop goes on a racist rant, he is selected next.


title: Circle (2015 film)

text: The captives experiment with voting, find they cannot vote for themselves, and attempt to give one vote to every person in the circle. One man gives a second vote for a pregnant woman, so Eric votes for him; this causes a tie and the man is killed in a run-off vote. After several take their own lives by leaving formation to buy the others time, an atheist antagonizes the theists who praised the volunteers' faith. The atheist is briefly saved, but when he mocks the girl beside him for having her boss pay for her breast enlargement, he is killed. A homophobic lawyer targets a lesbian, and he is killed as a result. The group realizes that one of the final two people left must not vote (and be killed) to render a winner.


title: Circle (2015 film)

text: The group creates a schism. One bloc (led by Eric, a Marine, and the cancer survivor) believes that everyone should sacrifice themselves to save a pregnant woman and a little girl, while the other bloc (led by a bearded man and a rich man) wants to eliminate them immediately as a threat to their survival, as they believe everyone is equal and no special privileges should be afforded. The husband and wife team initially vote with the bearded man's bloc but the husband is forced to vote with Eric's bloc when they threaten to eliminate his wife. Under interrogation, the couple admit that they concocted the relationship to curry favor, resulting in the "husband's" elimination.


title: Circle (2015 film)

text: Eric's faction incurs heavy losses but eliminates the other faction, leaving only Eric, the pregnant woman, the girl, and a silent man who has never voted. Eric theorizes that aliens have used the process to learn about humanity's values. After the silent man is eliminated, Eric and the girl agree to simultaneously sacrifice themselves. As the girl dies by suicide, Eric instead casts a last-second vote to kill the pregnant woman, only to realize that the pregnant woman's unborn child counts as a person. Eric votes to kill the child and then wakes up in Los Angeles where he joins a group of people, composed primarily of children and pregnant women, watching a fleet of alien craft float over Los Angeles.


title: Circle (2015 film)

text: The script was inspired by "12 Angry Men". Producer and star Nardelli, already a fan of the directors' webseries "The Vault", became involved after they pitched the script to him. Pre-production took about three years. Nardelli said he was impressed with the script's ability to cover political, social, and psychological issues. In comparing it to "Cube", he said "Circle" provides more answers and gives more of a definitive ending. Casting for some roles was broad, and others were specific; the intention was always to have a wide cross-section. The writer-directors did not intend for any character to be outright villainous, though several espouse intolerant opinions. Hann and Miscione wanted to address topical issues and provide a cynically-tinged, antagonistic presence for the film. Principal photography began in February 2014 and lasted two weeks. All of the scenes were storyboarded prior to shooting, and the directors tried to be as prepared as possible; regardless, they still encountered problems, as all actors had to be available for every shoot. Nardelli said that the psychological extremes experienced by the cast made it difficult to wind down after shooting.


title: Circle (2015 film)

text: "Circle" premiered on May 28, 2015, at the Seattle International Film Festival. FilmBuff released it to video-on-demand on October 16.


title: Circle (2015 film)

text: The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 50% of six surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating is 5/10. John DeFore of "The Hollywood Reporter" called it a ""Twilight Zone"-y drama [that] works better than expected". Tony Kay of City Arts Online wrote: "The movie engineers suspense expertly, and there's puzzle-box fun in trying to piece together exactly what's going on as each prospective execution barrels forward". Ain't It Cool News wrote that although it is not "a fully realized concept", it is "thought-provoking" and provocative. Valeria Koulikova of the "Queen Anne News" wrote: "While the film's attempts to address social problems are beautifully done, leaving a bit of uncertainty in the end would have made a stronger finale".


title: Circle (2015 film)

text: After the film was released on Netflix, the writers and director opened a verified Q&A on Reddit. Among the many topics covered, the writers spoke about the artistic and logistical reasons behind shooting in one room, and the benefits of using unknown actors.


title: Tyler Ritter

text: Tyler David Thomas Ritter (born January 31, 1985) is an American actor who starred as Ronny McCarthy of "The McCarthys".


title: Tyler Ritter

text: Ritter is the son of actor John Ritter and brother of actor Jason Ritter. His grandfather was country singer Tex Ritter, who died a decade before Tyler was born. He grew up in Los Angeles. Despite having acted in high school plays and student films, following his father's unexpected death in 2003, he originally decided not to pursue acting professionally. After graduating from the University of Pennsylvania in 2007, he worked for three years as a teacher in Argentina. At the age of 25, he made the decision to return to Los Angeles and pursue an acting career.


title: Tyler Ritter

text: After featuring in guest roles on "Modern Family" and "Grey's Anatomy", Ritter landed his first starring role on the 2014 sitcom "The McCarthys", playing Ronny McCarthy, the openly gay son in a family of six. Ritter has discussed in interviews the bittersweet nature of his casting, with regard to the death of his father.


title: Tyler Ritter

text: In 2015, Ritter was cast in "NCIS" as Abby Sciuto's brother Luca, appearing in both an episode of "NCIS" and "".


title: Tyler Ritter

text: 2016 saw Ritter cast in two recurring roles. He was cast in the role of Adam on the fourth season of Freeform's comedy "Young and Hungry", and was cast in the role of Detective Billy Malone on the fifth season of the CW series "Arrow".


title: Tyler Ritter

text: In 2020, he had a guest appearance in an Amazon Original series, "Homecoming", directed by Julia Roberts.


title: Tyler Ritter

text: Ritter married Argentine film director Lelia Parma in 2007. In 2017, they welcomed their first child, a son named Benjamin Parma Ritter.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: The history of the Netherlands is a history of seafaring people thriving in the lowland river delta on the North Sea in northwestern Europe. Records begin with the four centuries during which the region formed a militarized border zone of the Roman Empire. This came under increasing pressure from Germanic peoples moving westwards. As Roman power collapsed and the Middle Ages began, three dominant Germanic peoples coalesced in the area, Frisians in the north and coastal areas, Low Saxons in the northeast, and the Franks in the south.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: During the Middle Ages, the descendants of the Carolingian dynasty came to dominate the area and then extended their rule to a large part of Western Europe. The region nowadays corresponding to the Netherlands therefore became part of Lower Lotharingia within the Frankish Holy Roman Empire. For several centuries, lordships such as Brabant, Holland, Zeeland, Friesland, Guelders and others held a changing patchwork of territories. There was no unified equivalent of the modern Netherlands.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: By 1433, the Duke of Burgundy had assumed control over most of the lowlands territories in Lower Lotharingia; he created the Burgundian Netherlands which included modern Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and a part of France.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: The Catholic kings of Spain took strong measures against Protestantism, which polarised the peoples of present-day Belgium and the Netherlands. The subsequent Dutch revolt led to the splitting in 1581 of the Burgundian Netherlands into a Catholic, French- and Dutch-speaking "Spanish Netherlands" (approximately corresponding to modern Belgium and Luxembourg), and a northern "United Provinces" (or "Dutch Republic)", which spoke Dutch and was predominantly Protestant. The latter entity became the modern Netherlands.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: In the Dutch Golden Age, which had its zenith around 1667, there was a flowering of trade, industry, and the sciences. A rich worldwide Dutch empire developed and the Dutch East India Company became one of the earliest and most important of national mercantile companies based on invasion, colonialism and extraction of outside resources.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: During the eighteenth century, the power, wealth and influence of the Netherlands declined. A series of wars with the more powerful British and French neighbours weakened it. The English seized the North American colony of New Amsterdam, and renamed it "New York". There was growing unrest and conflict between the Orangists and the Patriots. The French Revolution spilled over after 1789, and a pro-French Batavian Republic was established in 1795–1806. Napoleon made it a satellite state, the Kingdom of Holland (1806–1810), and later simply a French imperial province.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: After the defeat of Napoleon in 1813–1815, an expanded "United Kingdom of the Netherlands" was created with the House of Orange as monarchs, also ruling Belgium and Luxembourg. The King imposed unpopular Protestant reforms on Belgium, which revolted in 1830 and became independent in 1839. After an initially conservative period, following the introduction of the 1848 constitution, the country became a parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarch. Modern-day Luxembourg became officially independent from the Netherlands in 1839, but a personal union remained until 1890. Since 1890, it is ruled by another branch of the House of Nassau.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: The Netherlands was neutral during the First World War, but during the Second World War, it was invaded and occupied by Nazi Germany. The Nazis, including many collaborators, rounded up and killed almost all of the country's Jewish population. When the Dutch resistance increased, the Nazis cut off food supplies to much of the country, causing severe starvation in 1944–1945. In 1942, the Dutch East Indies were conquered by Japan, but prior to this the Dutch destroyed the oil wells for which Japan was desperate. Indonesia proclaimed its independence from the Netherlands in 1945, followed by Suriname in 1975. The post-war years saw rapid economic recovery (helped by the American Marshall Plan), followed by the introduction of a welfare state during an era of peace and prosperity. The Netherlands formed a new economic alliance with Belgium and Luxembourg, the Benelux, and all three became founding members of the European Union and NATO. In recent decades, the Dutch economy has been closely linked to that of Germany and is highly prosperous. The four countries adopted the Euro on 1 January 2002, along with eight other EU member states.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: The prehistory of the area that is now the Netherlands was largely shaped by its constantly shifting, low-lying geography.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: The area that is now the Netherlands was inhabited by early humans at least 37,000 years ago, as attested by flint tools discovered in Woerden in 2010. In 2009 a fragment of a 40,000-year-old Neanderthal skull was found in sand dredged from the North Sea floor off the coast of Zeeland.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: During the last ice age, the Netherlands had a tundra climate with scarce vegetation and the inhabitants survived as hunter-gatherers. After the end of the ice age, various Paleolithic groups inhabited the area. It is known that around 8000 BC a Mesolithic tribe resided near Burgumer Mar (Friesland). Another group residing elsewhere is known to have made canoes. The oldest recovered canoe in the world is the Pesse canoe. According to C14 dating analysis it was constructed somewhere between 8200 BC and 7600 BC. This canoe is exhibited in the Drents Museum in Assen.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: Autochthonous hunter-gatherers from the Swifterbant culture are attested from around 5600 BC onwards. They are strongly linked to rivers and open water and were related to the southern Scandinavian Ertebølle culture (5300–4000 BC). To the west, the same tribes might have built hunting camps to hunt winter game, including seals.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: Agriculture arrived in the Netherlands somewhere around 5000 BC with the Linear Pottery culture, who were probably central European farmers. Agriculture was practiced only on the loess plateau in the very south (southern Limburg), but even there it was not established permanently. Farms did not develop in the rest of the Netherlands.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: There is also some evidence of small settlements in the rest of the country. These people made the switch to animal husbandry sometime between 4800 BC and 4500 BC. Dutch archaeologist Leendert Louwe Kooijmans wrote, "It is becoming increasingly clear that the agricultural transformation of prehistoric communities was a purely indigenous process that took place very gradually." This transformation took place as early as 4300 BC–4000 BC and featured the introduction of grains in small quantities into a traditional broad-spectrum economy.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: The Funnelbeaker culture was a farming culture extending from Denmark through northern Germany into the northern Netherlands. In this period of Dutch prehistory, the first notable remains were erected: the dolmens, large stone grave monuments. They are found in Drenthe, and were probably built between 4100 BC and 3200 BC.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: To the west, the Vlaardingen culture (around 2600 BC), an apparently more primitive culture of hunter-gatherers survived well into the Neolithic period.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: Around 2950 BCE there was a transition from the Funnelbeaker farming culture to the Corded Ware pastoralist culture, a large archeological horizon appearing in western and central Europe, that is associated with the advance of Indo-European languages. This transition was probably caused by developments in eastern Germany, and it occurred within two generations.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: The Corded Ware and Bell Beaker cultures were not indigenous to the Netherlands but were pan-European in nature, extending across much of northern and central Europe.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: The first evidence of the use of the wheel dates from this period, about 2400 BC. This culture also experimented with working with copper. Evidence of this, including stone anvils, copper knives, and a copper spearhead, was found on the Veluwe. Copper finds show that there was trade with other areas in Europe, as natural copper is not found in Dutch soil.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: The Bronze Age probably started somewhere around 2000 BC and lasted until around 800 BC. The earliest bronze tools have been found in the grave of a Bronze Age individual called "the smith of Wageningen". More Bronze Age objects from later periods have been found in Epe, Drouwen and elsewhere. Broken bronze objects found in Voorschoten were apparently destined for recycling. This indicates how valuable bronze was considered in the Bronze Age. Typical bronze objects from this period included knives, swords, axes, fibulae and bracelets.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: Most of the Bronze Age objects found in the Netherlands have been found in Drenthe. One item shows that trading networks during this period extended a far distance. Large bronze "situlae" (buckets) found in Drenthe were manufactured somewhere in eastern France or in Switzerland. They were used for mixing wine with water (a Roman/Greek custom). The many finds in Drenthe of rare and valuable objects, such as tin-bead necklaces, suggest that Drenthe was a trading centre in the Netherlands in the Bronze Age.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: The Bell Beaker cultures (2700–2100) locally developed into the Bronze Age Barbed-Wire Beaker culture (2100–1800). In the second millennium BC, the region was the boundary between the Atlantic and Nordic horizons and was split into a northern and a southern region, roughly divided by the course of the Rhine.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: In the north, the Elp culture (c. 1800 to 800 BC) was a Bronze Age archaeological culture having earthenware pottery of low quality known as ""Kümmerkeramik"" (or ""Grobkeramik"") as a marker. The initial phase was characterized by tumuli (1800–1200 BC) that were strongly tied to contemporary tumuli in northern Germany and Scandinavia, and were apparently related to the Tumulus culture (1600–1200 BC) in central Europe. This phase was followed by a subsequent change featuring Urnfield (cremation) burial customs (1200–800 BC). The southern region became dominated by the Hilversum culture (1800–800), which apparently inherited the cultural ties with Britain of the previous Barbed-Wire Beaker culture.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: The Iron Age brought a measure of prosperity to the people living in the area of the present-day Netherlands. Iron ore was available throughout the country, including bog iron extracted from the ore in peat bogs ("moeras ijzererts") in the north, the natural iron-bearing balls found in the Veluwe and the red iron ore near the rivers in Brabant. Smiths travelled from small settlement to settlement with bronze and iron, fabricating tools on demand, including axes, knives, pins, arrowheads and swords. Some evidence even suggests the making of Damascus steel swords using an advanced method of forging that combined the flexibility of iron with the strength of steel.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: In Oss, a grave dating from around 500 BC was found in a burial mound 52 metres wide (and thus the largest of its kind in western Europe). Dubbed the "king's grave" ("Vorstengraf (Oss)"), it contained extraordinary objects, including an iron sword with an inlay of gold and coral.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: In the centuries just before the arrival of the Romans, northern areas formerly occupied by the Elp culture emerged as the probably Germanic Harpstedt culture while the southern parts were influenced by the Hallstatt culture and assimilated into the Celtic La Tène culture. The contemporary southern and western migration of Germanic groups and the northern expansion of the Hallstatt culture drew these peoples into each other's sphere of influence. This is consistent with Caesar's account of the Rhine forming the boundary between Celtic and Germanic tribes.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: The Germanic tribes originally inhabited southern Scandinavia, Schleswig-Holstein and Hamburg, but subsequent Iron Age cultures of the same region, like Wessenstedt (800–600 BC) and Jastorf, may also have belonged to this grouping.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: The climate deteriorating in Scandinavia around 850 BC to 760 BC and later and faster around 650 BC might have triggered migrations. Archaeological evidence suggests around 750 BC a relatively uniform Germanic people from the Netherlands to the Vistula and southern Scandinavia. In the west, the newcomers settled the coastal floodplains for the first time, since in adjacent higher grounds the population had increased and the soil had become exhausted.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: By the time this migration was complete, around 250 BC, a few general cultural and linguistic groupings had emerged.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: One grouping – labelled the "North Sea Germanic" – inhabited the northern part of the Netherlands (north of the great rivers) and extending along the North Sea and into Jutland. This group is also sometimes referred to as the "Ingvaeones". Included in this group are the peoples who would later develop into, among others, the early Frisians and the early Saxons.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: A second grouping, which scholars subsequently dubbed the "Weser-Rhine Germanic" (or "Rhine-Weser Germanic"), extended along the middle Rhine and Weser and inhabited the southern part of the Netherlands (south of the great rivers). This group, also sometimes referred to as the "Istvaeones", consisted of tribes that would eventually develop into the Salian Franks.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: The Celtic culture had its origins in the central European Hallstatt culture (c. 800–450 BC), named for the rich grave finds in Hallstatt, Austria. By the later La Tène period (c. 450 BC up to the Roman conquest), this Celtic culture had, whether by diffusion or migration, expanded over a wide range, including into the southern area of the Netherlands. This would have been the northern reach of the Gauls.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: In March 2005 17 Celtic coins were found in Echt (Limburg). The silver coins, mixed with copper and gold, date from around 50 BC to 20 AD. In October 2008 a hoard of 39 gold coins and 70 silver Celtic coins was found in the Amby area of Maastricht. The gold coins were attributed to the Eburones people. Celtic objects have also been found in the area of Zutphen.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: Although it is rare for hoards to be found, in past decades loose Celtic coins and other objects have been found throughout the central, eastern and southern part of the Netherlands. According to archaeologists these finds confirmed that at least the Meuse () river valley in the Netherlands was within the influence of the La Tène culture. Dutch archaeologists even speculate that Zutphen (which lies in the centre of the country) was a Celtic area before the Romans arrived, not a Germanic one at all.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: Scholars debate the actual extent of the Celtic influence. The Celtic influence and contacts between Gaulish and early Germanic culture along the Rhine is assumed to be the source of a number of Celtic loanwords in Proto-Germanic. But according to Belgian linguist Luc van Durme, toponymic evidence of a former Celtic presence in the Low Countries is near to utterly absent. Although there were Celts in the Netherlands, Iron Age innovations did not involve substantial Celtic intrusions and featured a local development from Bronze Age culture.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: Some scholars (De Laet, Gysseling, Hachmann, Kossack & Kuhn) have speculated that a separate ethnic identity, neither Germanic nor Celtic, survived in the Netherlands until the Roman period. They see the Netherlands as having been part of an Iron Age "Nordwestblock" stretching from the Somme to the Weser. Their view is that this culture, which had its own language, was being absorbed by the Celts to the south and the Germanic peoples from the east as late as the immediate pre-Roman period.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: During the Gallic Wars, the Belgic area south of the Oude Rijn and west of the Rhine was conquered by Roman forces under Julius Caesar in a series of campaigns from 57 BC to 53 BC. The tribes located in the area of the Netherlands at this time did not leave behind written records, so all the information known about them during this pre-Roman period is based on what the Romans and Greeks wrote about them. One of the most important is Caesar's own "Commentarii de Bello Gallico". Two main tribes he described as living in what is now the Netherlands were the Menapii, and the Eburones, both in the south, which is where Caesar was active. He established the principle that the Rhine defined a natural boundary between Gaul and Germania magna. But the Rhine was not a strong border, and he made it clear that there was a part of Belgic Gaul where many of the local tribes (including the Eburones) were "Germani cisrhenani", or in other cases, of mixed origin.


title: History of the Netherlands

text: The Menapii stretched from the south of Zeeland, through North Brabant (and possibly South Holland), into the southeast of Gelderland. In later Roman times their territory seems to have been divided or reduced, so that it became mainly contained in what is now western Belgium.