title: Altered Carbon

text: Assisted by Trepp, Kovacs blows out the side of the airship. As he and Kawahara fall to the ocean below, he uses a grenade to destroy Kawahara’s stack, ensuring her permanent death.


title: Altered Carbon

text: In the aftermath, Bancroft is cleared by the U.N. for his involvement with Kawahara. The copy of Kovacs that stayed with Miriam is erased, as double sleeving is illegal, but he makes the surviving copy of Kovacs promise to cover up Miriam's involvement. Irene Elliot gets her body back, Elizabeth and Ryker are freed from the stacks, Resolution 653 passes, and Kovacs is freed and returned to Harlan’s World.


title: Altered Carbon

text: Describing the book, "Kirkus Reviews" said that "The body count is high, the gadgetry pure genius, the sex scenes deliriously overwrought, and the worn cynicism thoroughly distasteful: a welcome return to cyberpunk's badass roots."


title: Altered Carbon

text: A television adaptation was announced in 2016. An initial 10-episode season had been ordered by Netflix. The first season premiered on Netflix on 2 February 2018.


title: Altered Carbon

text: In the series Envoys are presented as having been trained, deployed and led by Quellcrist Falconer as part of a revolution (called "the Uprising") that she leads on Harlan’s World (Kovacs' home planet). Kovacs is shown as having been trained as an Envoy by, and serving as a revolutionary under, Falconer. The Quellist Revolution is crushed by the Protectorate (the established, inter-planetary government) in an apocalyptic assault. Kovacs, the only survivor, is presented as the last Envoy.


title: Altered Carbon

text: In the books, Envoys were and are the elite forces of the Protectorate (which would have been fighting against the revolution); Falconer did lead a revolution but died long before Kovacs was born; Kovacs trained as an Envoy under a different woman; and the Envoy Corps is still very much in use by the Protectorate and remains widely feared, although Kovacs is no longer a member of Corps.


title: Altered Carbon

text: The makers of the show have also chosen to expand the roles of many characters, particularly female characters.


title: Altered Carbon

text: In the book, the hotel in which Kovacs stays while investigating Bancroft's murder is themed after Jimi Hendrix. Since the Hendrix estate does not approve of licensing his image for anything they consider violent, the show instead chose the figure of Edgar Allan Poe and named the hotel The Raven.


title: Altered Carbon

text: On 8 November 2018, Netflix announced an animated companion film, "", set in the same universe and exploring new elements of the story mythology. On 10 February 2020, it was unveiled that the exclusive Netflix "anime featured" spin-off would debut on 19 March 2020. The film was directed by Jo Nakajima at Anima; Yoshiyuki Okada designed the characters, Ren Kikuchi supervised the CG animation, and MONACA composed the music. The Japanese cast includes Tatsuhisa Suzuki as Takeshi Kovacs, Rina Satou as Gina, Ayaka Asai as Holly Togram, Jouji Nakata as Ogai, Kenji Yamauchi as Hideki Tanaseda, Kanehira Yamamoto as Shinji, and Kōji Ishii as Genzo.


title: Samovar

text: A samovar (, , literally "self-brewer") is a metal container traditionally used to heat and boil water. Although originating in Russia, the samovar is well known outside of Russia and has spread through Russian culture to other parts of Eastern Europe, as well as Western and Central and South Asia. Since the heated water is typically used to make tea, many samovars have a ring-shaped attachment (, ) around the chimney to hold and heat a teapot filled with tea concentrate. Though traditionally heated with coal or kindling, many newer samovars use electricity to heat water in a manner similar to an electric water boiler. Antique samovars are often prized for their beautiful workmanship.


title: Samovar

text: Samovars are typically crafted out of plain iron, copper, polished brass, bronze, silver, gold, tin, or nickel. A typical samovar consists of a body, base and chimney, cover and steam vent, handles, tap and key, crown and ring, chimney extension and cap, drip-bowl, and teapot. The body shape can be an urn, krater, barrel, cylinder, or sphere. Sizes and designs vary, from large, "40-pail" ones (though largely metaphorical, food-service sized samovars were often very large indeed), to smaller family-sized ones, holding , to those of a modest size.


title: Samovar

text: A traditional samovar consists of a large metal container with a tap near the bottom and a metal pipe running vertically through the middle. The pipe is filled with solid fuel which is ignited to heat the water in the surrounding container. A small (6 to 8 inch/15 to 20 cm) smoke-stack is put on the top to ensure draft. After the water boils and the fire is extinguished, the smoke-stack can be removed and a teapot placed on top to be heated by the rising hot air. The teapot is used to brew a strong concentrate of tea known as "zavarka" ("заварка"). The tea is served by diluting this concentrate with boiled water from the main container, usually at a water-to-tea ratio of 10-to-1, although tastes vary.


title: Samovar

text: Connections exist to a similar Greek water-heater of classical antiquity, the autepsa, a vase with a central tube for coal.


title: Samovar

text: The Russian tradition was probably influenced by Byzantine and Central Asian cultures. Conversely, Russian culture also influenced Asian, Western Europe and Byzantine cultures.


title: Samovar

text: "Samovar-like" pottery found in Shaki, Azerbaijan in 1989 was estimated to be at least 3,600 years old. While it differed from modern samovars in many respects, it contained the distinguishing functional feature of an inner cylindrical tube that increased the area available for heating the water. Unlike modern samovars, the tube was not closed from below, and so the device relied on an external fire (i.e. by placing it above the flame) instead of carrying its fuel and fire internally.


title: Samovar

text: The first historically recorded samovar-makers were the Russian Lisitsyn brothers, Ivan Fyodorovich and Nazar Fyodorovich. From their childhood they were engaged in metalworking at the brass factory of their father, Fyodor Ivanovich Lisitsyn. In 1778 they made a samovar, and the same year Nazar Lisitsyn registered the first samovar-making factory in Russia. They may not have been the inventors of the samovar, but they were the first documented samovar-makers, and their various and beautiful samovar designs became very influential throughout the later history of samovar-making.


title: Samovar

text: These and other early producers lived in Tula, a city known for its metalworkers and arms-makers. Since the 18th century Tula has been also the main center of Russian samovar production, with "tul'sky samovar" being the brand mark of the city. A Russian saying equivalent to "carrying coal to Newcastle" is "to travel to Tula with one's own samovar". Although Central Russia and Ural region were among the first Samovar producers, over time several samovar producers emerged all over Russia, which gave the samovar its different local characteristics. By the 19th century samovars were already a common feature of Russian tea culture. They were produced in large numbers and exported to Central Asia and other regions.


title: Samovar

text: The samovar was an important attribute of Russian households and taverns to tea-drinking. It was used by all classes, from the poorest peasants up to the most well-suited people. The Russian expression "to have a sit by the samovar" means to have a leisurely talk while drinking tea from a samovar. In everyday use samovars were an economical permanent source of hot water in older times. Various slow-burning items could be used for fuel, such as charcoal or dry pinecones. When not in use, the fire in the samovar pipe faintly smouldered. As needed it could be quickly rekindled with the help of bellows. Although a Russian jackboot "сапог" ("sapog") could be used for this purpose, bellows were manufactured specifically for use on samovars. Today samovars are popular souvenirs among tourists in Russia.


title: Samovar

text: Samovar culture has an analog in Iran and is maintained by expatriates around the world. In Iran, samovars have been used for at least two centuries (roughly since the era of close political and ethnic contact between Russia and Iran started), and electrical, oil-burning or natural gas-consuming samovars are still common. Samovar is "samăvar" in Persian. Iranian craftsmen used Persian art motifs in their samovar production. The Iranian city of Borujerd has been the main centre of samovar production and a few workshops still produce hand-made samovars. Borujerd's samovars are often made with German silver, in keeping with the famous Varsho-Sazi artistic style. The art samovars of Borujerd are often displayed in Iranian and Western museums as illustrations of Iranian art and handicraft.


title: Samovar

text: Kashmiri samovars are made of copper with engraved or embossed calligraphic motifs. In fact in Kashmir, there were two variants of samovar. The copper samovar was used by Muslims and that of brass was used by local Hindus called Kashmiri Pandit. The brass samovars were nickel-plated inside. Inside a samovar there is a fire-container in which charcoal and live coals are placed. Around the fire-container there is a space for water to boil. Green tea leaves, salt, cardamom, and cinnamon are put into the water.


title: Samovar

text: Turkish samovars are popular souvenirs among tourists, and charcoal burning samovars are still popular in the fields. However, in the modern homes they have been replaced with the çaydanlık (lit. "teapot"), a metal teapot with a smaller teapot on top taking the place of the cap of the lower one. To make Turkish tea, the lower part is used to boil the water and the upper part, called "demlik" is used for concentrated tea. Tea is poured first from the "demlik" and then diluted to the desired level with plain boiling water from the lower tea kettle. The body is traditionally made of brass or copper, occasionally also silver or gold, but "çaydanlık" are now also made from stainless steel, aluminium, or ceramics with plastic, steel or aluminium handles.


title: Sandro Tonali

text: Sandro Tonali (; born 8 May 2000) is an Italian professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for club AC Milan and the Italy national team.


title: Sandro Tonali

text: Tonali made his professional debut for Brescia Calcio on 26 August 2017, aged 17, coming on as a substitute in the Serie B away match lost 2–1 against Avellino. On 28 April 2018 he scored his first professional career goal, in a 4–2 defeat against Salernitana in Serie B. He obtained 19 league appearances in total during his first season as a professional player, scoring two goals and providing two assists during the 2017–18 Serie B season.


title: Sandro Tonali

text: The following season, Tonali won the Serie B title with Brescia, and achieved promotion to Serie A, featuring as a starter for the club throughout the entire 2018–19 season.


title: Sandro Tonali

text: He made his Serie A debut on 25 August 2019, aged 19, in a 1–0 away win against Cagliari. On 29 September, he assisted Mario Balotelli's goal from a corner kick in a 2–1 away loss to Napoli; he also scored a goal during the match with a powerful shot from outside the area, which was disallowed by VAR, however, for a foul by Brescia's Dimitri Bisoli on Napoli's Nikola Maksimović. He scored his first Serie A goal on 26 October, netting a long-range free kick into the top corner from the left flank, which was the opening goal in an eventual 3–1 away defeat to Genoa.


title: Sandro Tonali

text: On 9 September 2020, Tonali joined AC Milan, on a season-long loan for €10 million with an option to buy for €15 million, plus bonuses worth €10 million. The player will earn a yearly wage of €2 million for five years. Three days later, he made his non-competitive debut in a friendly at Milanello against his former club Brescia.


title: Sandro Tonali

text: Tonali made his competitive debut for Milan on 17 September 2020, coming on as a substitute in the 83rd minute in a 2–0 victory against Shamrock Rovers FC in the second round of Europa League qualifying. He made his Serie A debut for Milan on 21 September 2020, coming off the bench in the 77th minute in a 2–0 victory over Bologna F.C. 1909 at the San Siro. Tonali finished the season with 37 appearances, 23 of those in the starting eleven.


title: Sandro Tonali

text: On 8 July 2021, Milan officially purchased Tonali's rights from Brescia and he signed a five-year contract with the club. He took a pay-cut to secure his childhood dream move to Milan and was praised by the fans on social media for this gesture.


title: Sandro Tonali

text: Tonali scored his first goal with Milan's shirt on 29 August 2021 against Cagliari, a free kick that opened the scoresheet in eventual 4–1 win. On 3 October at Gewiss Stadium against Atalanta, Tonali dispossessed the ball from Freuler and ran to the opponents box to score the second goal in eventual 3–2 victory for Milan. On 25 February 2022, Tonali assisted Leao's goal against Udinese, becoming the youngest midfielder to have scored more than one goal (two) and delivered more than one assist (two) in Serie A that season.


title: Sandro Tonali

text: On 24 April as the match against Lazio was heading to 1–1 draw, Tonali scored the winner in the stoppage time, securing the lead for his team in Serie A table.


title: Sandro Tonali

text: On 8 May 2022, his 22nd birthday, Tonali scored an equalizing and a winning goal in the 3–1 away Serie A victory against Hellas Verona, with both goals assisted by Rafael Leão in a similar manner. Before that, he also scored an opening goal which was eventually disallowed due to small offside. The comeback victory brought Milan back on top of the Serie A following Inter's 48-hour stay there in a close championship race. Tonali is also the youngest midfielder to have scored five or more goals in Serie A this season (and the second-youngest among all players, older only than Bologna's Aaron Hickey).


title: Sandro Tonali

text: After 3-0 away win against Sassuolo on 22 May, Milan secured their first Scudetto in 11 years, In total, Tonali played 36 games in this campaign, scoring 5 goals and providing 3 assists.


title: Sandro Tonali

text: Tonali's performance this season brought the attention and praise of renowned Italian football pundits, the likes of Di Canio, Donadoni and Capello, the latter went on to state that Tonali would've found a place in even the greatest of Milan's generation in the past.


title: Sandro Tonali

text: With the Italy U19 he took part in the 2018 European Under-19 Championship, reaching the final of the tournament, where Italy lost 4–3 after extra time against Portugal.


title: Sandro Tonali

text: He made his debut with the Italy U21 team on 21 March 2019, in a 0–0 friendly draw against Austria in Trieste. He took part in the 2019 European Under-21 Championship.


title: Sandro Tonali

text: In November 2018, he was called for the first time to the senior national team by manager Roberto Mancini. After appearing for the Italy U21 side in a 0–0 away draw against Ireland on 10 October 2019, in a European qualifier, he was called up to the Italy senior squad once again the following day, for the team's Euro 2020 qualifiers against Greece and Liechtenstein.


title: Sandro Tonali

text: Tonali made his senior international debut on 15 October 2019, coming on as a substitute in the 5–0 away win against Liechtenstein in Vaduz. His first start for Italy came in his following appearance on 15 November, a 3–0 away win over Bosnia and Herzegovina.


title: Sandro Tonali

text: Regarded as a promising young Italian player in his position by the media, Tonali is a "regista". He is often likened to Andrea Pirlo – who also started his career with Brescia – in terms of his movement, coordination, appearance, technical qualities, position, and playing style. A strong, fast, energetic, elegant, and creative midfielder, with excellent vision and an ability to read the game, Tonali usually plays in a central or defensive midfield role as deep-lying playmaker in a 4–3–3 formation, Dictating play for Brescia with his passing in midfield, he set up two goals and scored two himself in his 19 appearances in Serie B during the 2017–18 season. Although naturally right-footed, he is known for his accurate long passing ability with either foot. Moreover, he is also adept at taking set-pieces.


title: Sandro Tonali

text: In addition to Pirlo, Tonali has also cited Steven Gerrard and Luka Modrić as influences, and has also compared his own playing style to that of Gennaro Gattuso. In July 2019, he was named by UEFA as one of the 50 promising young players to watch for the 2019–20 season.


title: Humble Bundle

text: Humble Bundle, Inc. is a digital storefront for video games, which grew out of its original offering of Humble Bundles, collections of games sold at a price determined by the purchaser and with a portion of the price going towards charity and the rest split between the game developers. Humble Bundle continues to offer these limited-time bundles, but have expanded to include a greater and more persistent storefront. The Humble Bundle concept was initially run by Wolfire Games in 2010, but by its second bundle, the Humble Bundle company was spun out to manage the promotion, payments, and distribution of the bundles. In October 2017, the company was acquired by Ziff Davis through its IGN Entertainment subsidiary, though operates as a separate subsidiary.


title: Humble Bundle

text: Initial bundles were typically collections of independently developed games featuring multi-platform support (including Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux platforms) provided without digital rights management (DRM). Occurring every few months, the two-week Humble Bundles drew media attention, with several bundles surpassing $1 million in sales. Subsequently, the bundles became more frequent and expanded to include games from established developers, AAA publishers, games for Android-based devices, bundles promoting game jams, and bundles featuring digital copies of music, books and comic books. Bundles are presently offered on a more regular basis, with a persistent storefront for individual game sales.


title: Humble Bundle

text: The Humble Bundle offerings support a number of charities, including Action Against Hunger, Child's Play, the Electronic Frontier Foundation, , the American Red Cross, WaterAid and the Wikimedia Foundation. By the end of October 2014, participating developers had grossed more than $100 million and by September 2021, the total charitable amount raised by the Bundles exceeded $200 million across 50 different charities. The success of the Humble Bundle approach has inspired a number of similar efforts to offer "pay what you want" bundles for smaller games, including IndieGala and Indie Royale.


title: Humble Bundle

text: The Humble Bundle operation has since grown to include a dedicated storefront, the Humble Store, and a publishing arm, Humble Games, to support indie games. As a corporation, Humble Bundle is headquartered in San Francisco, California, with about 60 employees.


title: Humble Bundle

text: The idea for the Bundle was from Jeff Rosen of Wolfire Games. Rosen describes the inspiration coming to him through similar sales of bundle packages on the Steam platform. Rosen had noted that such sales would have viral word-of-mouth spread across the Internet. Influence also came from a previous "pay-what-you-want" sale for "World of Goo" upon the title's first anniversary; over 57,000 copies of the game were purchased during this sale, generating over US$117,000 after considering PayPal handling fees. Rosen by this point was well connected with other independent developers, for example his brother David is listed as being a game tester for the "Penumbra" series, and "Penumbra" composer Mikko Tarmia contributed to Wolfire Games' game project "Overgrowth". Wolfire had also recently teamed with Unknown Worlds Entertainment to offer a bundle based on their "Natural Selection 2" game. The porter of "Lugaru" to Linux was Ryan C. Gordon, who was also responsible for porting "Aquaria" to Linux. With his close ties to these independent developers, as well as Ron Carmel of 2D Boy, Rosen was able to assemble the package, taking advantage of merchant sales systems offered by PayPal, Amazon Payments, and Google Checkout to minimize the cost of transactions and distribution. The site later added the option to pay via Bitcoin only through Coinbase.


title: Humble Bundle

text: Though achieving word of mouth was a key element of the potential success of the bundle, Rosen also recognized that the process to purchase the Bundles had to be simple; including elements like user account registration or the use of a secondary download client would have potentially driven away sales. Rosen also sought to include charities in the bundle, allowing the purchaser to choose how to distribute the funds between the developers and charities. Rosen believed Child's Play was a worthwhile cause that brought video games to hospitalized children and helped to fight the stigma of video games, while he selected the Electronic Frontier Foundation to support their anti-DRM stance. The means of "pay-what-you-want" would allow purchasers to simply give the money to the charities, but Rosen felt this was not an issue and would "consider that a success" of the sale. Rosen and Wolfire employee John Graham provided technical support during the sales, handling thousands of requests through a few all-night email and chat sessions.


title: Humble Bundle

text: Rosen and Graham began planning for a second Humble Indie Bundle, which launched in December 2010 and raised $1.8 million. The two recognized the value proposition of continuing this model and spun out Humble Bundle as its own company shortly after the release of the second bundle. Rosen and Graham served as its founders. Sequoia Capital had invested $4.7 million of venture capital into Humble Bundle by April 2011, allowing Rosen and Graham to hire staff to help curate further bundles and handle customer services.


title: Humble Bundle

text: On October 13, 2017, Humble Bundle announced it had been acquired by IGN Entertainment, a subsidiary of Ziff Davis. Humble Bundle will continue to operate as a separate entity within IGN, and according to the company, there are no plans to change their current business approach in the short-term. Instead, they see "a lot of opportunities" for the customer bases of both companies, according to Humble Bundle founder John Graham. Graham said that the acquisition by IGN enables them to continue to do the same sales and charity promotions "faster and better" with IGN's resources backing them. IGN's executive vice president Mitch Galbraith said that they felt Humble Bundle was a "great fit" for IGN, and would also help IGN to "give something back" by supporting its charitable drives. As IGN publishes news and reviews of video games, Galbraith responded to several concerns about conflicts of interest, saying that they "will strike the right balance when it comes to our coverage of Humble Bundle and the games they sell" as a result of the acquisition. Among steps to avoid conflicts, Galbraith said that they will keep a firm separation between the IGN editorial staff and Humble Bundle, and will implement policies to report disclosure of ownership when IGN reports on games featured on Humble Bundle's store or promotions.


title: Humble Bundle

text: Rosen and Graham, the founders of Humble Bundle, announced in March 2019 that they have stepped down as CEO and COO of the company, respectively, with Alan Patmore taking over the company operations. Rosen stated that they felt that Humble Bundle had gotten to a point where it was stable with many potential growth opportunities, but beyond his or Graham's mindset of establishing startups. The two plan to remain as advisors to the company for at least the rest of the year.


title: Humble Bundle

text: Since its inception, the Humble Indie Bundle offerings are typically a two-week period where between three and five games are offered at a pay-what-you-want model. Most bundles have featured added bonuses that are announced midway through the period as added incentive for purchasing the games; previous purchases automatically receive these bonuses (after Humble Indie Bundle 9, these midway bonuses were made exclusive to above-average buyers). More recent bundles have included a "beat-the-average" bonus should the purchaser contribute more than the current average price others have performed. Other bundles have featured game soundtracks as either part of the core bundle or as an extra reward. With the DRM-free nature of the offered games, the source code for several games has also been included as part of the bundle's offerings.


title: Humble Bundle

text: Humble Bundle works with developers to determine scheduling and availability of games, and make decisions about which games to include within bundles, asking themselves "will this be exciting for gamers", according to employee Richard Esguerra. The full arrangements with developers to create the bundle typically conclude a month before the bundle goes live. The Humble Bundle group earns about 15% of the total funds raised.


title: Humble Bundle

text: The purchaser is able to name any price for the bundle. The Humble Bundle website interface gives users the chance to determine how to distribute their contribution, defaulting to a specific split between the developers, the charities for that event and a "Humble tip" which is used to cover hosting and other costs of the bundle. The purchasers can choose to give all or none to any of these groups, or any combination of these. In later bundles, purchasers can also buy the bundle as a gift for others. Games are typically available as standalone clients for Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux-based systems; in many cases, the bundles represent the debut of a game on the latter two platforms.


title: Humble Bundle

text: The purchaser can often also obtain redeemable codes for the games on services like Steam or, less often, Desura or Origin. To avoid abuse with these services, later bundles require a minimum purchase price of $1. Starting on October 31, 2013, Steam keys are automatically applied to the user's Steam account when redeemed, in an attempt to prevent the resale of keys. Subsequently, due to feedback, individual product Steam keys from bundle sales were allowed to be giftable to other users, giving them a unique URL through which the receiver could then redeem the key through Steam.


title: Humble Bundle

text: -based Bundles were first launched in January 2012. These Bundles do not feature redemption codes for the Google Play store, but instead require the user to install the Humble Bundle which downloads the Android application package files for the apps directly to the user's device. Some bundles have included games available both on Android and Windows, allowing users to redeem the game for both systems. In May 2015, the Humble Nindie Bundle was introduced, which is the first Humble Bundle offering that includes games from a digital store on dedicated gaming consoles, being the Nintendo eShop on the Wii U and Nintendo 3DS in this case. Due to logistical complications however, the initial offering was limited only to North America, although future offers may expand into other territories. Similarly, in August 2016, Capcom offered several of its PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 games through a Humble Bundle (using PlayStation Network redemption codes), though also limited to North American users.


title: Humble Bundle

text: In April 2021, Humble Bundle announced that among other interface changes, they were removing the charity slider, and instead limiting the charity portion that one could give to either 5% (the default) or 15%. However, after criticism from both developers and users of the store, Humble said in May 2021 they would reverse this decision and retain these sliders, including the ability to pay fully to charity, as part of their overall site redesign. Later in July 2021, Humble announced they will implement a cap on charity amounts, assuring that between a minimum of 15-30% is kept through the storefront, though users will otherwise still be able to customize the charity split to this level. Humble said this cap was necessary for them to continue to benefit users in "the PC storefront landscape".


title: Humble Bundle

text: The Humble Store is an extension of the sales system developed for managing the Humble Bundles. It offers the capabilities of the payment and customer services that they had created for the various Bundles to independent developers as an alternate marketplace for these games. According to Joshua Knoles of the Humble Bundle team, they "wanted to create something that would allow developers to easily sell their games through their own web site as well as provide a painless buying experience for purchasers". Once developers have signed on with the Humble Store, they are given a widget that they can include on their web site which allows users to purchase the game (the Humble Store was usually inaccessible unless one directly searched for the widget for a particular game). In some cases, such as with "" and "Sportsfriends", the developers used the Humble Store to provide tier rewards during their crowd funding phase using sites like Kickstarter. As with the Bundles, once purchased the buyer has access to all software games from the store at any time. Ben Kuchera of "Penny Arcade Reports" compares the Humble Store as a potential competitor to virtual storefronts like Steam, offering a more personable level of service to developers and customers than these larger systems. In July 2016, Humble Bundle created its Gamepages service that offered developers that are already using the widget dedicated website space to allow them to sell and advertise their game, avoiding the need to secure this website space on their own.


title: Humble Bundle

text: A dedicated Humble Store was launched in November 2013, where single games instead of bundles were put on daily sales, with 10% of the revenues being given to charities including the EFF, American Red Cross, and Child's Play. A new section for eBooks, audiobooks and digital comics launched alongside the games store on May 15, 2014. , the Humble Store has raised over four million dollars for the various charities it supports.


title: Humble Bundle

text: In January 2019, the Humble Store added support for various Nintendo Switch and Nintendo 3DS games. Humble has also partnered with Epic Games to sell redeemable keys for games on the Epic Games Store.


title: Humble Bundle

text: Following the conclusion of the Humble Android Bundle 5 in March 2013, the site announced new weekly sales that feature the same pay-what-you-want for a single title, starting with the game "Bastion". As with the regular bundles, each weekly sale has several tiered payment options. Aside from only lasting one week instead of two, running consecutively with main bundles, and being based on a singular theme (often a particular developer's games), the sales work exactly like the bundles.


title: Humble Bundle

text: Another extension of Humble Bundles, the first Flash Bundle debuted on July 14, 2014. Taking cues from the two week "Humble Daily Bundle" promotion, Humble Flash Bundles are similar to Weekly Sales, but only last for 24 hours and may include repeats of previous bundles and sales.


title: Humble Bundle

text: In October 2015, Humble Bundle launched its Humble Monthly subscription service; those that subscribed would receive a curated set of games at the start of each month, delivered in a similar manner as other Humble products (such as with Steam key redemption or DRM-free copies). Five percent of the subscription fees go to charity. Bowling compared the idea to a book club, allowing them to curate the monthly bundles on themes or complementary ideas. Bowling also stated that this can be a larger incentive towards developers into participating in this program since revenue for games can be better estimated based on the number of subscribers compared to their normal "pay what you want" pricing scheme.


title: Humble Bundle

text: Humble Bundle co-founder John Graham stated that while initial subscription numbers were low due to potential subscribers being unaware of what type of games were offered, that by February 2016, they have reached more than 70,000 subscribers to the service. At this level, Humble Bundle is able to use some of the money to fund the development of new games, "Humble Originals", for those subscribers in future Humble Monthlies; the first such "Humble Original" was "Elephant in the Room" developed by Mighty Rabbit Studios, released with the February 2016 Monthly bundle.


title: Humble Bundle

text: Starting in June 2017, those that maintained their monthly subscription also gained access to the Humble Trove, a library of DRM-free games that will expand over time, alongside the games offered through the Monthly bundles.


title: Humble Bundle

text: Humble transitioned the Monthly subscription service to the Humble Choice in December 2019. While features such as access to the Humble Trove and discounts on the store remain the same, the Choice service offers at least ten games a month, and which Choice subscribers can choose a number to keep, based on their subscription tiers. A premium tier allows subscribers to keep 9 of the games, while the basic tier allows for 3. Existing Monthly subscribers were automatically transitioned to the premium tier (with the ability to keep 10 games), but at the existing Monthly subscription rate which they keep as long as they maintain their subscription. Additionally, Humble added a lower-cost tier that gives access to the Trove but no other free games.


title: Humble Bundle

text: Another change to the Choice plan was made in January 2022, keeping the subscription to a single price that would make available all games offered that month, though the number of games that are offered may change from month to month. Those on the premiere tier further have access to a rotating library of games accessible through a new app for Windows computers. However due to this shift, Humble would no longer be able to support Mac or Linux versions of the Trove games since the launcher would be required to access them. With the change to the Trove, the discounts on the store also updated to a cumulative form, existing subscribers receiving the maximum level.


title: Humble Bundle

text: In February 2017, Humble Bundle announced that it would begin to offer publisher services to developers across multiple platforms, including computer, console, and mobile devices, building upon its existing suite of services. Such games, such as "A Hat in Time", were given a "Presented by Humble Bundle" label. Humble Bundle's lead for the publishing effort, John Polson, said that developers are able to pick and choose a selection of options that Humble Bundle can offer, recognizing that few publishing models are able to meet the vastly different needs of developers. Humble rebranded its publishing division as Humble Games in May 2020.


title: Humble Bundle

text: In June 2020 Humble Bundle announced a Black Game Developer Fund. It aims to provide funding, production and marketing support via Humble Games to Black game developers.


title: Humble Bundle

text: The first promotion was considered to be very successful. Rosen noted that they considered the million-dollar goal as a best-case scenario, but once the sale actually started, "it was immediately clear that we were on to something". Rosen would later attribute part of the success to Ars Technica writer Mike Thompson, stating that he "immediately saw the potential" of the Bundle in an article written for the website just prior to the Bundle's sale period. Brandon Boyer of Boing Boing believed that it provided a model that "seems it could and should be repeated". The move to offer games in a price and manner that consumers were willing to buy was contrasted to larger software publishers that place artificial limitations on their content; Mike Masnick of Techdirt believed the Humble Bundle promotion worked as it "focus[ed] on giving people real reasons to buy, rather than just feeling entitled to define the terms under which they buy and looking for ways to limit those who want to interact with you in a different manner". The source for the promotion's website has been requested of Wolfire by several other groups, according to Rosen; Rosen continues to believe that many similar charitable sales can be seen in the future from the Humble Bundle's success. For future Bundles, Rosen desires to include lesser-known games in contrast to "World of Goo" and "Braid", but has had to already reject some developers' requests to be included in a Bundle, claiming the games' quality may tarnish the Humble Indie Bundle branding. Instead, he believes smaller games with no wide profile and are "legitimately good" would be ideal for inclusion in future Bundles.


title: Humble Bundle

text: As a result of the success of the bundle, other groups have started similar pay-what-you-want plans for other indie games, including IndieGala, Indie Royale and LittleBigBunch.


title: Humble Bundle

text: "PC Gamer" named the Wolfire team as founders of the Humble Indie Bundle as their 2011 community heroes for their support of the indie game development market. "Forbes" listed John Graham in its 2013 "30 Under 30" leaders in the field of games for the success of Humble Bundle, while Rosen was recognized for the same in 2015.


title: Humble Bundle

text: After the end of the Humble eBook Bundle, John Scalzi noted that various factors, such as brand name recognition, a lack of DRM, a focus on charity, the uniqueness of the bundle and its format, and the variety of included authors, all made the Humble eBook Bundle a success. Scalzi notes that while people who participate in Humble Bundles will get less in net profit than they would have without the bundle (due to the variable percentages patrons can donate and publishers taking their cut of proceeds), but in return receive greater volume (the Humble Bundle sold 42,000 copies of eBooks in two weeks, almost as much as the average monthly bestseller). In conclusion, Scalzi lauds the idea of the Humble Bundle, and notes to future contributors that while the bundle is low-margin, it's also low-risk. Novelist Cory Doctorow, who organized both eBook bundles, noted that while no publisher aside from Tor Books would participate in the bundle because of no-DRM stipulations, they still raised around $2 million for books whose circulations were earning their authors little to no money.


title: Humble Bundle

text: Terence Lee of Hitbox Team also mentions that the Humble Bundle was a success for their game "Dustforce", even after the bundle ended. When Humble Bundle first called the team and asked if they could port the game to Linux and bundle it, the game sold about ten copies on Steam daily. The day the Humble Indie Bundle 6 came out with "Dustforce" in it, sales through the Humble Bundle skyrocketed to over 50,000 copies per day. While Hitbox Team only received $178,000 out of the $2 million Humble Bundle made, the increased number of players caused daily sales of the game to jump from less than a dozen to around 50–60 copies per day.


title: Humble Bundle

text: On the other hand, Binding of Isaac and "Super Meat Boy" developer Edmund McMillen noted in a tumblr post that the bundles are "not as successful as many would think." While the Humble Bundles are an excellent way for popular games to get a final boost in sales as well as to help lesser-known games get more attention, statistics have shown that sales dipped more in the years when "Binding of Isaac" and "Super Meat Boy" were in bundles than they were in following years. Ultimately, according to McMillen, Humble Bundles neither hurt nor help in the long run and now seem more of a tradition than anything else.


title: Humble Bundle

text: Despite the ability to get the games at nearly zero cost, Wolfire Games estimate that 25% of the traceable downloads for the first Bundle have come from software piracy by links provided in some forums that bypass the payment screen to access the games; Wolfire further surmises additional piracy occurred through BitTorrent-type peer-to-peer sharing services. Rosen noted they purposely removed much of the DRM associated with games to appeal to those who would otherwise engage in software piracy, through both having the games ship without DRM and by having only limited copy protection on their website. Rosen also stated that for about ten users that emailed Wolfire about being unable to pay for the software, he personally donated on their behalf. Rosen comments that there may be legitimate reasons for those who appear to be pirating the game, including the inability to use the payment methods provided or that they had made a single large donation for multiple copies. Rosen also considered that there are players that would simply forward the download links to "take pleasure in spreading the pirated links to their friends or anonymous buddies for fun". Wolfire Games did take action to stop predatory sites, such as the closely named "wollfire.com", from selling illegal copies of the bundle.


title: Humble Bundle

text: While aware of the presumed software piracy, Rosen says that Wolfire will take no steps to limit it, believing that "making the download experience worse for generous contributors in the name of punishing pirates doesn't really fit with the spirit of the bundle". Rosen noted that by offering the source code of the games as an incentive, they would hope that "the community will help build them up with the same vigor that crackers tear DRM down".


title: Humble Bundle

text: In preparing for the second Humble Indie Bundle sale, John Graham acknowledged that some may still download the game through illegal means, but also said that the organizers of the bundle gave their best effort to make the process of purchasing the games simple, and they also wished to create a social impact with the sales by including contributions to Child's Play and the Electronic Frontier Foundation. An anonymous survey conducted by Wolfire for those who felt it necessary to acquire the second Bundle from other illegitimate sources showed that some preferred the option of using peer-to-peer sharing services like BitTorrent to improve the speed and reliability of the download; as a result, Wolfire added the option to download the games through BitTorrent, hoping to entice more people to acquire the game legitimately.


title: Humble Bundle

text: Several games in the Humble Indie Bundles have been released as open-source software as a result of the Bundles reaching certain sales levels. One such game was Wolfire's own "Lugaru HD", where they released the engine under the GNU General Public License, and also included the various art assets, level designs, and other creative elements under a freely redistributable license for personal use. Their intent was to allow programmers to experiment and improve the game's engine using the associated assets. Wolfire later began selling the title "Lugaru HD" on the Mac App Store for $9.99. A company called iCoder used the open-source resources to recreate the same game for the App Store, charging only $0.99 for their version of "Lugaru". iCoder claims they have the right to recreate and charge for the game under the GNU license, but Jeffery Rosen notes that this did not apply to the art assets. Also, Apple's AppStore terms are not compatible with the GPL license. The iCoder version was taken down from the App Store after about a week since Wolfire notified Apple of the issue, though so far no explanation has been given by Apple. As the iCoder version of the application was popular, being the 60th most downloaded game application prior to its removal, Wolfire offered those who purchased the iCoder version a free copy of their version and codes to unlock the game from within Steam. Rosen notes that the incident may discourage developers from releasing their source in the future.


title: Humble Bundle

text: The Humble Indie Bundle 4 overlapped with a large holiday sale on the Steam software service, which offered numerous prizes by completing some achievements associated with the offered games in Steam, including entries into a raffle to win every game on the Steam service. During this overlap, Humble Bundle found that some users were abusing the system, paying the minimum amount ($0.01) for the Bundle, registering new Steam accounts, and using the newly purchased games to improve their chances for the Steam raffle. Humble Bundle considered this "unfair to legitimate entrants" in the Steam contest, and to stop it, the company altered the sale so that only those who paid more than $1.00 would receive Steam keys for the games.


title: Humble Bundle

text: In November 2013, Humble Bundle, Inc. implemented a system on redemption of bundles that, for Steam games, would not give the user the alphanumeric key but instead automatically redeemed the key within Steam through Steam account linking as a means to avoid abuse of the key system. Despite this, Ed Key, one of the developers from "Proteus" which was featured in Humble Indie Bundle 8, has found by checking his game's key redemption logs that some third-party sites, like 7 Entertainment, have been offering keys to his and other games from other Humble Bundles for profit. The price these sites offer undercut the current price of such games on digital marketplaces and without reciprocating sales back to the developers or charity organizations. Such resales are against both Humble Bundle's and Steam's terms of service, and currently Humble Bundle, Inc. is working with affected developers to help stop this abuse. 7 Entertainment has responded to these issues by changing its own terms of service to the marketplaces that use it to prevent and deal with these key sales.


title: Humble Bundle

text: Alexander Zubov of Kot-in-Action Creative Artel who developed the "Steel Storm" games complained in an interview about the trouble he had getting his games accepted into the Bundles, originally trying to push their game's first episode as a free bonus for the second Bundle, and then trying to get their full game into the third. Zubov recalls that he had heard "nothing back" until they made a "last minute decision" to include "Steel Storm: Burning Retribution" in the Humble Indie Bundle 3. Even then, Zubov further described his dissatisfaction with how payment was handled, saying that they were "offered a tiny-tiny fraction of what HIB3 made, a very small (compared to the profits of HIB3) fixed amount of money" even though, according to Zubov, "when Steel Storm was released as a bonus, their sales jumped up significantly." He also mentioned that despite claims by the organizers that their sales would "sky rocket just because [they] were in the HIB3", their actual amount of sales remained relatively constant. Zubov noted that their inclusion in the third bundle "did get a lot of users who redeemed their copy of "Steel Storm" on Steam and Desura" and that they hoped this would help keep their "current user base, which we gained with HIB3, interested in our upcoming games". He concluded his comments about his experiences by saying that "only time will tell if HIB3 was [an] awesome deal or not. Maybe, maybe not. If it works out as a long term investment, it will be awesome indeed. If not, I will never ever participate in such capacity (as a bonus item for a small fixed payout) in the future HIB bundles. We all do have bills to pay and families to feed, don't we?"


title: Humble Bundle

text: Prior to the sale, THQ had issued public statements of internal financial difficulties; Ben Kuchera of Penny Arcade Reports noted that several of the games' developers at THQ have since been let go and would not see any money from the Humble Bundle sale. Following the bundle, THQ's stock price increased by 30%.


title: Humble Bundle

text: Prior to the Humble Botanicula Debut, "Botanicula" was offered for pre-order through other websites but at full price, leading designers Amanita Design to apologize for the pricing disparity, offering those who pre-ordered a soundtrack, art book, and a copy of "Machinarium."


title: Humble Bundle

text: In the Humble Indie Bundle V, the game "LIMBO" was provided for Linux as a CrossOver build. At the time, this was the first game in any Bundle to have a Wine based Linux version. As the quality and the nativeness of such Linux ports is debated, the inclusion was criticized by some members of the Linux community. Also a petition was started to protest the inclusion of such as "non-native" described games in the Bundles. A native version of LIMBO was finally released in 2014 and was made available to Humble Indie Bundle 5 purchasers.


title: Humble Bundle

text: Although Humble Bundle makes a point of offering games without DRM, the game "Uplink" in Humble Bundle for Android 3 was delivered with DRM copy-protection measures, both in the Android and the PC versions. A representative for Introversion stated on the forums that it was due to some leftover DRM code on the Android version.


title: Humble Bundle

text: Kyle Orland of Ars Technica and Ben Kuchera were critical of the THQ Bundle's inclusion of games limited to Windows and containing DRM. Humble Bundle co-founder John Graham replied to these complaints, stating that the THQ bundle is one of several other experiments for the Humble Bundle project in 2012, and that they are still committed to future bundles featuring smaller and indie games that run on multiple platforms without DRM.


title: Boubacar Kamara

text: Boubacar Bernard Kamara (born 23 November 1999) is a French professional footballer who plays as a defensive midfielder for Premier League club Aston Villa and the France national team.


title: Boubacar Kamara

text: In September 2005, "Bouba", aged 5, entered the Olympique de Marseille Academy where he progressed through all the categories. He eventually became the captain of the U19 team that made its way to the final of the Coupe Gambardella. At the age of 16, he was promoted to Marseille's reserve team, also making his debut with the senior team. As coach of the reserves, Jacques Abardonado made him a regular starter.


title: Boubacar Kamara

text: Kamara made his debut as a professional side on 13 December 2016 against Sochaux in a Coupe de la Ligue match. He started the match and was replaced by Hiroki Sakai in the 82nd minute of a 1–1 (4–3) away loss on penalties. He scored his first professional goal on 5 February 2019, a header in a 1–0 home Ligue 1 victory over Bordeaux.


title: Boubacar Kamara

text: Kamara went onto play 170 times for his boyhood club, under several different managers - being utilised mainly as a defensive midfielder, but also featuring as a right-back, left-back, central midfielder and right-sided midfielder.


title: Boubacar Kamara

text: On 23 May 2022, it was announced that Kamara had signed a five-year contract with English Premier League club Aston Villa ahead of the expiry of his Marseille contract on 1 July. He made his Aston Villa debut on 6 August 2022, in a 2–0 defeat to AFC Bournemouth. On 16 September 2022, during a 1–0 victory over Southampton, Kamara jarred his knee in a tackle with Mohamed Elyounoussi - the subsequent ligament strain ruled Kamara out until November, meaning that he missed the 2022 FIFA World Cup. Kamara returned to the pitch slightly ahead of schedule on 6 November 2022, in a 3–1 victory over Manchester United.


title: Boubacar Kamara

text: Kamara was eligible to play for the national teams of France through birth, and Senegal through his family heritage. He played youth football for France at U17, U18, U19, U20 and U21 levels. Featuring in the 2019 FIFA U-20 World Cup and the 2021 UEFA European Under-21 Championship for France.


title: Boubacar Kamara

text: In 2022, Kamara was contacted directly by Senegal manager Aliou Cissé to convince him to declare for the Senegalese team after their 2021 Africa Cup of Nations victory to fill the space of aging midfielders Idrissa Gueye and Cheikhou Kouyaté.


title: Boubacar Kamara

text: However, despite Cissé stating that there was an "agreement in principle" between the parties, on 19 May 2022, Kamara was selected in the France first team for the first time. Kamara made his debut on 6 June 2022, as a second half substitute in a 1–1 away UEFA Nations League draw against Croatia, thus committing his international future to France.


title: Boubacar Kamara

text: Kamara was born in France to a Senegalese father and a French mother. Kamara has been a supporter of OM since he was a child after going to the Stade Vélodrome with his mother Cathy. He has a son, Leeroy, with Coralie Porrovecchio.


title: CITES

text: CITES (shorter name for the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, also known as the Washington Convention) is a multilateral treaty to protect endangered plants and animals from the threats of international trade. It was drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The convention was opened for signature in 1973 and CITES entered into force on 1 July 1975.


title: CITES

text: Its aim is to ensure that international trade (import/export) in specimens of animals and plants included under CITES, does not threaten the survival of the species in the wild. This is achieved via a system of permits and certificates. CITES affords varying degrees of protection to more than 38,000 species.


title: CITES

text: CITES is one of the largest and oldest conservation and sustainable use agreements in existence. There are three working languages of the Convention (English, French and Spanish) in which all documents are made available. Participation is voluntary and countries that have agreed to be bound by the convention are known as Parties. Although CITES is legally binding on the Parties, it does not take the place of national laws. Rather it provides a framework respected by each Party, which must adopt their own domestic legislation to implement CITES at the national level.


title: CITES

text: Originally, CITES addressed depletion resulting from demand for luxury goods such as furs in Western countries, but with the rising wealth of Asia, particularly in China, the focus changed to products demanded there, particularly those used for luxury goods such as elephant ivory or rhinoceros horn. As of 2022, CITES has expanded to include thousands of species previously considered unremarkable and in no danger of extinction such as manta rays or pangolins.


title: CITES

text: The text of the convention was finalized at a meeting of representatives of 80 countries in Washington, D.C., United States, on 3 March 1973. It was then open for signature until 31 December 1974. It entered into force after the 10th ratification by a signatory country, on 1 July 1975. Countries that signed the Convention become Parties by ratifying, accepting or approving it. By the end of 2003, all signatory countries had become Parties. States that were not signatories may become Parties by acceding to the convention. , the convention has 184 parties, including 183 states and the European Union.


title: CITES

text: The CITES Convention includes provisions and rules for trade with non-Parties. All member states of the United Nations are party to the treaty, with the exception of Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Federated States of Micronesia, Haiti, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, South Sudan, East Timor, Turkmenistan, and Tuvalu. UN observer the Holy See is also not a member. The Faroe Islands, an autonomous region in the Kingdom of Denmark, is also treated as a non-Party to CITES (both the Danish mainland and Greenland are part of CITES).


title: CITES

text: An amendment to the text of the convention, known as the Gaborone Amendment allows regional economic integration organizations (REIO), such as the European Union, to have the status of a member state and to be a Party to the convention. The REIO can vote at CITES meetings with the number of votes representing the number of members in the REIO, but it does not have an additional vote.


title: CITES

text: In accordance with Article XVII, paragraph 3, of the CITES Convention, the Gaborone Amendment entered into force on 29 November 2013, 60 days after 54 (two-thirds) of the 80 States that were party to CITES on 30 April 1983 deposited their instrument of acceptance of the amendment. At that time it entered into force only for those States that had accepted the amendment. The amended text of the convention will apply automatically to any State that becomes a Party after 29 November 2013. For States that became party to the convention before that date and have not accepted the amendment, it will enter into force 60 days after they accept it.


title: CITES

text: CITES works by subjecting international trade in specimens of listed taxa to controls as they move across international borders. CITES specimens can include a wide range of items including the whole animal/plant (whether alive or dead), or a product that contains a part or derivative of the listed taxa such as cosmetics or traditional medicines.


title: CITES

text: Four types of trade are recognised by CITES - import, export, re-export (export of any specimen that has previously been imported) and introduction from the sea (transportation into a state of specimens of any species which were taken in the marine environment not under the jurisdiction of any state). The CITES definition of "trade" does not require a financial transaction to be occurring. All trade in specimens of species covered by CITES must be authorized through a system of permits and certificates prior to the trade taking place. CITES permits and certificates are issued by one or more Management Authorities in charge of administering the CITES system in each country. Management Authorities are advised by one or more Scientific Authorities on the effects of trade of the specimen on the status of CITES-listed species. CITES permits and certificates must be presented to relevant border authorities in each country in order to authorise the trade.


title: CITES

text: Each party must enact their own domestic legislation to bring the provisions of CITES into effect in their territories. Parties may choose to take stricter domestic measures than CITES provides (for example by requiring permits/certificates in cases where they would not normally be needed or by prohibiting trade in some specimens).


title: CITES

text: Over 38,000 species, subspecies and populations are protected under CITES. Each protected taxa or population is included in one of three lists called Appendices. The Appendix that lists a taxa or population reflects the level of the threat posed by international trade and the CITES controls that apply.


title: CITES

text: Taxa may be split-listed meaning that some populations of a species are on one Appendix, while some are on another. The African bush elephant ("Loxodonta africana") is currently split-listed, with all populations except those of Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Zimbabwe listed in Appendix I. Those of Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Zimbabwe are listed in Appendix II. There are also species that have only some populations listed in an Appendix. One example is the pronghorn ("Antilocapra americana"), a ruminant native to North America. Its Mexican population is listed in Appendix I, but its U.S. and Canadian populations are not listed (though certain U.S. populations in Arizona are nonetheless protected under other domestic legislation, in this case the Endangered Species Act).


title: CITES

text: Taxa are proposed for inclusion, amendment or deletion in Appendices I and II at meetings of the Conference of the Parties (CoP), which are held approximately once every three years. Amendments to listing in Appendix III may be made unilaterally by individual parties.


title: CITES

text: Appendix I taxa are those that are threatened with extinction and to which the highest level of CITES protection is afforded. Commercial trade in wild-sourced specimens of these taxa is not permitted and non-commercial trade is strictly controlled by requiring an import permit and export permit to be granted by the relevant Management Authorities in each country before the trade occurs.


title: CITES

text: Notable taxa listed in Appendix I include the red panda ("Ailurus fulgens"), western gorilla ("Gorilla gorilla"), the chimpanzee species ("Pan spp."), tigers ("Panthera tigris" subspecies), Asian elephant ("Elephas maximus"), some populations of African bush elephant ("Loxodonta africana"), and the Monkey puzzle tree ("Araucaria araucana").


title: CITES

text: Appendix II taxa are those that are not necessarily threatened with extinction, but trade must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival. Appendix II taxa may also include species similar in appearance to species already listed in the Appendices. The vast majority of taxa listed under CITES are listed in Appendix II. Any trade in Appendix II taxa standardly requires a CITES export permit or re-export certificate to be granted by the Management Authority of the exporting country before the trade occurs.


title: CITES

text: Examples of taxa listed on Appendix II are the great white shark ("Carcharodon carcharias"), the American black bear ("Ursus americanus"), Hartmann's mountain zebra ("Equus zebra hartmannae"), green iguana ("Iguana iguana"), queen conch ("Strombus gigas"), Emperor scorpion ("Pandinus imperator"), Mertens' water monitor ("Varanus mertensi"), bigleaf mahogany ("Swietenia macrophylla"), Lignum Vitae ("Guaiacum officinale") and all stony corals ("Scleractinia" spp.).


title: CITES

text: Appendix III species are those that are protected in at least one country, and that country has asked other CITES Parties for assistance in controlling the trade.


title: CITES

text: Any trade in Appendix III species standardly requires a CITES export permit (if sourced from the country that listed the species) or a certificate of origin (from any other country) to be granted before the trade occurs.


title: CITES

text: Examples of species listed on Appendix III and the countries that listed them are the two-toed sloth ("Choloepus hoffmanni") by Costa Rica, sitatunga ("Tragelaphus spekii") by Ghana, African civet ("Civettictis civetta") by Botswana, and alligator snapping turtle ("Macrochelys temminckii") by the United States of America.


title: CITES

text: Under Article VII, the Convention allows for certain exceptions to the general trade requirements described above.


title: CITES

text: CITES provides for a special process for specimens that were acquired before the provisions of the Convention applied to that specimen. These are known as "pre-Convention" specimens and must be granted a CITES pre-Convention certificate before the trade occurs. Only specimens legally acquired before the date on which the species concerned was first included in the Appendices qualify for this exemption.


title: CITES

text: CITES provides that the standard permit/certificate requirements for trade in CITES specimens do not generally apply if a specimen is a personal or household effect. However there are a number of situations where permits/certificates for personal or household effects are required and some countries choose to take stricter domestic measures by requiring permits/certificates for some or all personal or household effects.


title: CITES

text: CITES allows trade in specimens to follow special procedures if Management Authorities are satisfied that they are sourced from captive bred animals or artificially propagated plants.


title: CITES

text: In the case of commercial trade of Appendix I taxa, captive bred or artificially propagated specimens may be traded as if they were Appendix II. This reduces the permit requirements from two permits (import/export) to one (export only).


title: CITES

text: In the case of non-commercial trade, specimens may be traded with a certificate of captive breeding/artificial propagation issued by the Management Authority of the state of export in lieu of standard permits.


title: CITES

text: Standard CITES permit and certificates are not required for the non-commercial loan, donation or exchange between scientific or forensic institutions that have been registered by a Management Authority of their State. Consignments containing the specimens must carry a label issued or approved by that Management Authority (in some cases Customs Declaration labels may be used). Specimens that may be included under this provision include museum, herbarium, diagnostic and forensic research specimens. Registered institutions are listed on the CITES website.


title: CITES

text: Amendments to the Convention must be supported by a two-thirds majority who are "present and voting" and can be made during an extraordinary meeting of the COP if one-third of the Parties are interested in such a meeting. The Gaborone Amendment (1983) allows regional economic blocs to accede to the treaty. Trade with non-Party states is allowed, although permits and certificates are recommended to be issued by exporters and sought by importers.


title: CITES

text: Species in the Appendices may be proposed for addition, change of Appendix, or de-listing (i.e., deletion) by any Party, whether or not it is a range State and changes may be made despite objections by range States if there is sufficient (2/3 majority) support for the listing. Species listings are made at the Conference of Parties.


title: CITES

text: Upon acceding to the Convention or within 90 days of a species listing being amended, Parties may make reservations. In these cases, the party is treated as being a state that is not a Party to CITES with respect to trade in the species concerned. Notable reservations include those by Iceland, Japan, and Norway on various baleen whale species and those on Falconiformes by Saudi Arabia.


title: CITES

text: As of 2002, 50% of Parties lacked one or more of the four major CITES requirements - designation of Management and Scientific Authorities; laws prohibiting the trade in violation of CITES; penalties for such trade and laws providing for the confiscation of specimens.


title: CITES

text: Although the Convention itself does not provide for arbitration or dispute in the case of noncompliance, 36 years of CITES in practice has resulted in several strategies to deal with infractions by Parties. The Secretariat, when informed of an infraction by a Party, will notify all other parties. The Secretariat will give the Party time to respond to the allegations and may provide technical assistance to prevent further infractions. Other actions the Convention itself does not provide for but that derive from subsequent COP resolutions may be taken against the offending Party. These include:


title: CITES

text: Bilateral sanctions have been imposed on the basis of national legislation (e.g. the USA used certification under the Pelly Amendment to get Japan to revoke its reservation to hawksbill turtle products in 1991, thus reducing the volume of its exports).


title: CITES

text: Infractions may include negligence with respect to permit issuing, excessive trade, lax enforcement, and failing to produce annual reports (the most common).


title: CITES

text: General limitations about the structure and philosophy of CITES include: by design and intent it focuses on trade at the species level and does not address habitat loss, ecosystem approaches to conservation, or poverty; it seeks to prevent unsustainable use rather than promote sustainable use (which generally conflicts with the Convention on Biological Diversity), although this has been changing (see Nile crocodile, African elephant, South African white rhino case studies in Hutton and Dickinson 2000). It does not explicitly address market demand. In fact, CITES listings have been demonstrated to increase financial speculation in certain markets for high value species. Funding does not provide for increased on-the-ground enforcement (it must apply for bilateral aid for most projects of this nature).


title: CITES

text: There has been increasing willingness within the Parties to allow for trade in products from well-managed populations. For instance, sales of the South African white rhino have generated revenues that helped pay for protection. Listing the species on Appendix I increased the price of rhino horn (which fueled more poaching), but the species survived wherever there was adequate on-the-ground protection. Thus field protection may be the primary mechanism that saved the population, but it is likely that field protection would not have been increased without CITES protection. In another instance, the United States initially stopped exports of bobcat and lynx hides in 1977 when it first implemented CITES for lack of data to support no detriment findings. However, in this Federal Register notice, issued by William Yancey Brown, the U.S. Endangered Species Scientific Authority (ESSA) established a framework of no detriment findings for each state and the Navajo nation and indicated that approval would be forthcoming if the states and Navajo nation provided evidence that their furbearer management programs assured the species would be conserved. Management programs for these species expanded rapidly, including tagging for export, and are currently recognized in program approvals under regulations of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.


title: CITES

text: By design, CITES regulates and monitors trade in the manner of a "negative list" such that trade in all species is permitted and unregulated "unless" the species in question appears on the Appendices or looks very much like one of those taxa. Then and only then, trade is regulated or constrained. Because the remit of the Convention covers millions of species of plants and animals, and tens of thousands of these taxa are potentially of economic value, in practice this negative list approach effectively forces CITES signatories to expend limited resources on just a select few, leaving many species to be traded with neither constraint nor review. For example, recently several bird classified as threatened with extinction appeared in the legal wild bird trade because the CITES process never considered their status. If a "positive list" approach were taken, only species evaluated and approved for the positive list would be permitted in trade, thus lightening the review burden for member states and the Secretariat, and also preventing inadvertent legal trade threats to poorly known species.


title: CITES

text: Specific weaknesses in the text include: it does not stipulate guidelines for the 'non-detriment' finding required of national Scientific Authorities; non-detriment findings require copious amounts of information; the 'household effects' clause is often not rigid enough/specific enough to prevent CITES violations by means of this Article (VII); non-reporting from Parties means Secretariat monitoring is incomplete; and it has no capacity to address domestic trade in listed species.


title: CITES

text: In order to ensure that the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was not violated, the Secretariat of GATT was consulted during the drafting process.


title: CITES

text: During the coronavirus pandemic in 2020 CEO Ivonne Higuero noted that illegal wildlife trade not only helps to destroy habitats, but these habitats create a safety barrier for humans that can prevent pathogens from animals passing themselves on to people.


title: CITES

text: Suggestions for improvement in the operation of CITES include: more regular missions by the Secretariat (not reserved just for high-profile species); improvement of national legislation and enforcement; better reporting by Parties (and the consolidation of information from all sources-NGOs, TRAFFIC, the wildlife trade monitoring network and Parties); more emphasis on enforcement-including a technical committee enforcement officer; the development of CITES Action Plans (akin to Biodiversity Action Plans related to the Convention on Biological Diversity) including: designation of Scientific/Management Authorities and national enforcement strategies; incentives for reporting and timelines for both Action Plans and reporting. CITES would benefit from access to Global Environment Facility (GEF), funds-although this is difficult given the GEFs more ecosystem approach-or other more regular funds. Development of a future mechanism similar to that of the Montreal Protocol (developed nations contribute to a fund for developing nations) could allow more funds for non-Secretariat activities.


title: CITES

text: In the 1990s the annual trade of legal animal products was $160 billion annually. In 2009 the estimated value almost doubled to $300 billion.


title: CITES

text: Additional information about the documented trade can be extracted through queries on the CITES website.


title: CITES

text: The Conference of the Parties (CoP) is held once every three years. The last Conference of the Parties (CoP 18) was held in Geneva, Switzerland, 17–28 August 2019 and the one before it (CoP 17) was held in Johannesburg, South Africa, 2016. The next one (CoP 19) will be in Panama City, Panama, in 2022. The location of the next CoP is chosen at the close of each CoP by a secret ballot vote.


title: CITES

text: The CITES Committees (Animals Committee, Plants Committee and Standing Committee) hold meetings during each year that does not have a CoP, while the Standing committee meets also in years with a CoP. The Committee meetings take place in Geneva, Switzerland (where the Secretariat of the CITES Convention is located), unless another country offers to host the meeting. The Secretariat is administered by UNEP. The Animals and Plants Committees have sometimes held joint meetings. The previous joint meeting was held in March 2012 in Dublin, Ireland, and the latest one was held in Veracruz, Mexico, in May 2014.


title: CITES

text: At the seventeenth Conference of the Parties (CoP 17), Namibia and Zimbabwe introduced proposals to amend their listing of elephant populations in Appendix II. Instead, they wished to establish controlled trade in all elephant specimens, including ivory. They argue that revenue from regulated trade could be used for elephant conservation and rural communities’ development. However, both proposals were opposed by the US and other countries.


title: Bad Lieutenant

text: Bad Lieutenant is a 1992 American neo-noir crime film directed by Abel Ferrara. The film stars Harvey Keitel as the titular "bad lieutenant" as well as Victor Argo and Paul Calderón. The screenplay was co-written by Ferrara with actress-model Zoë Lund, both of whom appear in the film in minor roles. The film was screened in the "Un Certain Regard" section at the 1992 Cannes Film Festival.


title: Bad Lieutenant

text: Since its release, "Bad Lieutenant" has become one of Ferrara's best known and most critically appreciated works, as well as a cult film.


title: Bad Lieutenant

text: After dropping off his two young sons at Catholic school, an unnamed NYPD police lieutenant uses cocaine and drives to the scene of a double homicide in Union Square. The Lieutenant finds a drug dealer and gives him a bag of drugs from a crime scene, smoking crack during the exchange; the dealer promises to give him the money he makes from selling the drugs in a few days. At an apartment, the Lieutenant gets drunk and engages in a threesome with two women. Meanwhile, a nun is raped inside a church by two young hoodlums.


title: Bad Lieutenant

text: The next morning, the Lieutenant learns that he has lost a bet on a National League Championship Series game between the New York Mets and the Los Angeles Dodgers. He tries to win back his money by doubling his wager on the Dodgers in the next game. At another crime scene, the Lieutenant rifles through the car and finds some drugs which he stashes in his suit jacket. However, he is too impaired to secure the drugs, and they fall out onto the street in front of his colleagues. The Lieutenant tries to play it off by instructing them to enter the drugs into evidence.


title: Bad Lieutenant

text: At the hospital, the Lieutenant spies on the nun's examination and learns that she was penetrated with a crucifix. Later that evening, he pulls over two teenage girls who are using their father's car without his knowledge to go to a club. As they have no driving license, the Lieutenant tells one of the girls to bend over and pull up her skirt and the other to simulate oral sex while he masturbates. The following day, he listens in on the nun's confession to her priest, where she says she knows who assaulted her but will not identify them.


title: Bad Lieutenant

text: While drinking vodka and snorting cocaine while driving through Times Square, the Lieutenant listens to the final moments of the Dodgers game and shoots out his car stereo when they lose. Despite being unable to pay the $30,000 wager, he doubles his bet for the next game. Eavesdropping on the nun's confession, he hears her state that she has no anger about what happened and begins cursing at God before breaking down in tears and sobbing that he wants to redeem himself. The Lieutenant drinks in a bar when the Dodgers lose again. After scoring cocaine in a nightclub, he tries to double his bet yet again. His friend refuses to make the wager, insisting that the bookie would kill him.


title: Bad Lieutenant

text: The Lieutenant picks up his $30,000 share from the drug dealer and calls the bookie personally to place his bet. They arrange to meet in front of Madison Square Garden. He then visits a woman and does heroin with her. At the church, he tells the nun that he will exact vengeance upon her attackers, but she repeats that she has forgiven them and leaves. In the resulting emotional breakdown, the Lieutenant sees an apparition of Jesus and tearfully curses him before begging forgiveness for his crimes and sins. The figure is revealed to be a woman holding a golden chalice, which turns out to have been pawned at her husband's shop.


title: Bad Lieutenant

text: With the help of the woman, the Lieutenant tracks the two rapists to a nearby crack den in Spanish Harlem and cuffs them together. He holds them at gunpoint and smokes crack with them as the Mets win the pennant. Instead of taking them to the station, he drives them to the Port Authority Bus Terminal and puts them on a bus with a cigar box containing the $30,000. He demands that they never come back to New York. After he leaves the terminal, he parks on the street in front of Penn Station. Another car drives up beside him, and the driver, presumably the bookie with whom the Lieutenant had arranged to meet, shoots and kills the Lieutenant.


title: Bad Lieutenant

text: There was a lot of rewriting done on the set. Two other characters were cut, and my character modulated and took on more and more. A lot of things had to be changed and improvised. The vampire speech – which is crucial to the Lieutenant – was written two minutes before it was shot. I memorized it and did it in one take. The speech is important because she is acute in knowing the journey the Lieutenant makes. She shoots him up, sends him off, knowing of his passion, she lets him go.


title: Bad Lieutenant

text: Lund avowed in an interview that she "co-directed" several scenes in the film. Lund also claimed that she wrote the screenplay of "Bad Lieutenant" alone and believed that Ferrara did not put much effort in his contributions in the film.


title: Bad Lieutenant

text: According to Jonas Mekas, Lund's ex-boyfriend Edouard de Laurot was reported to have written most of the film's script. David Scott Milton later vouched for this claim. Mekas even claimed he had "scribbles and notes to prove it".


title: Bad Lieutenant

text: Ferrara said in 2012 that he was using drugs during the making of the film: The director of that film needed to be using, the director and the writer—not the actors.


title: Bad Lieutenant

text: The Special Edition DVD from Lion's Gate has a special feature about the pre-, during, and post-production of the film, in which Ferrara explains the screenplay's genesis, its authorship, and its original brevity.


title: Bad Lieutenant

text: Originally rated NC-17 and one of the few films to be rated thus on the basis of depictions of drug use and violence (the only other film being "Comfortably Numb"), the unedited cut's rating was described as being for "sexual violence, strong sexual situations and dialogue, graphic drug use".


title: Bad Lieutenant

text: Blockbuster and Hollywood Video, the largest video rental companies in the United States, had a policy prohibiting the purchase and rental of NC-17 films. An R-rated cut was created specifically so that Blockbuster and the other retailers would rent and purchase out the film. The R-rated cut was described with "drug use, language, violence, and nudity". The scene in which the Lieutenant pulls over two young girls and masturbates in front of them is almost completely absent from the Blockbuster version.


title: Bad Lieutenant

text: The original theatrical version featured the song "Signifying Rapper" by Schoolly D. The song was removed from some editions of the film's home video release, due to the unauthorized use of a re-recorded guitar riff from Led Zeppelin's "Kashmir", which the rapper did not license.


title: Bad Lieutenant

text: On January 29, 1993, the film was banned in Ireland. Sheamus Smith, who headed the Irish Film Censor Board at the time, felt the film had a "demeaning treatment of women". The DVD release was banned for the same reason 10 years later.


title: Bad Lieutenant

text: "Bad Lieutenant" has a 77% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 48 reviews, with an average rating of 7.3/10. The site's critics consensus reads: ""Bad Lieutenant" will challenge less desensitized viewers with its depiction of police corruption, but Harvey Keitel's committed performance makes it hard to turn away." Writing in "The New York Times", Janet Maslin praised Ferrara's talent for making "gleefully down-and-dirty films", continuing, "He has come up with his own brand of supersleaze, in a film that would seem outrageously, unforgivably lurid if it were not also somehow perfectly sincere." Desson Howe for "The Washington Post" called the Lieutenant "a notch nicer than Satan", and he cites Keitel's work as the film's saving grace, "It is only the strength of Keitel's performance that gives his personality human dimension."


title: Bad Lieutenant

text: Mark Kermode has mentioned that the film was praised as "a powerful tale of redemptive Catholicism". Roger Ebert gave the film four stars and stated that "in the Bad Lieutenant, Keitel has given us one of the great screen performances in recent years". Martin Scorsese named this movie as the fifth best movie of the 1990s.


title: Bad Lieutenant

text: A narratively unrelated follow-up, "", was released in 2009, seventeen years after the first film's release. The film was directed by Werner Herzog and stars Nicolas Cage and Eva Mendes. It was described as being "neither a sequel nor a remake". Both films were produced by Edward R. Pressman.


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: The kinetic theory of gases is a simple, historically significant classical model of the thermodynamic behavior of gases, with which many principal concepts of thermodynamics were established. The model describes a gas as a large number of identical submicroscopic particles (atoms or molecules), all of which are in constant, rapid, random motion. Their size is assumed to be much smaller than the average distance between the particles. The particles undergo random elastic collisions between themselves and with the enclosing walls of the container. The basic version of the model describes the ideal gas, and considers no other interactions between the particles.


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: The kinetic theory of gases explains the macroscopic properties of gases, such as volume, pressure, and temperature, as well as transport properties such as viscosity, thermal conductivity and mass diffusivity. Due to the time reversibility of microscopic dynamics (microscopic reversibility), the kinetic theory is also connected to the principle of detailed balance, in terms of the fluctuation-dissipation theorem (for Brownian motion) and the Onsager reciprocal relations.


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: Historically, the kinetic theory of gases was the first explicit exercise of the ideas of statistical mechanics.


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: In about 50 BCE, the Roman philosopher Lucretius proposed that apparently static macroscopic bodies were composed on a small scale of rapidly moving atoms all bouncing off each other. This Epicurean atomistic point of view was rarely considered in the subsequent centuries, when Aristotlean ideas were dominant.


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: In 1738 Daniel Bernoulli published "Hydrodynamica", which laid the basis for the kinetic theory of gases. In this work, Bernoulli posited the argument, that gases consist of great numbers of molecules moving in all directions, that their impact on a surface causes the pressure of the gas, and that their average kinetic energy determines the temperature of the gas. The theory was not immediately accepted, in part because conservation of energy had not yet been established, and it was not obvious to physicists how the collisions between molecules could be perfectly elastic.


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: Other pioneers of the kinetic theory, whose work was also largely neglected by their contemporaries, were Mikhail Lomonosov (1747), Georges-Louis Le Sage (ca. 1780, published 1818), John Herapath (1816) and John James Waterston (1843), which connected their research with the development of mechanical explanations of gravitation. In 1856 August Krönig created a simple gas-kinetic model, which only considered the translational motion of the particles.


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: In 1857 Rudolf Clausius developed a similar, but more sophisticated version of the theory, which included translational and, contrary to Krönig, also rotational and vibrational molecular motions. In this same work he introduced the concept of mean free path of a particle. In 1859, after reading a paper about the diffusion of molecules by Clausius, Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell formulated the Maxwell distribution of molecular velocities, which gave the proportion of molecules having a certain velocity in a specific range. This was the first-ever statistical law in physics. Maxwell also gave the first mechanical argument that molecular collisions entail an equalization of temperatures and hence a tendency towards equilibrium. In his 1873 thirteen page article 'Molecules', Maxwell states: "we are told that an 'atom' is a material point, invested and surrounded by 'potential forces' and that when 'flying molecules' strike against a solid body in constant succession it causes what is called pressure of air and other gases."


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: In 1871, Ludwig Boltzmann generalized Maxwell's achievement and formulated the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. The logarithmic connection between entropy and probability was also first stated by Boltzmann.


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: At the beginning of the 20th century, however, atoms were considered by many physicists to be purely hypothetical constructs, rather than real objects. An important turning point was Albert Einstein's (1905) and Marian Smoluchowski's (1906) papers on Brownian motion, which succeeded in making certain accurate quantitative predictions based on the kinetic theory.


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: Thus, the dynamics of particle motion can be treated classically, and the equations of motion are time-reversible.


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: As a simplifying assumption, the particles are usually assumed to have the same mass as one another; however, the theory can be generalized to a mass distribution, with each mass type contributing to the gas properties independently of one another in agreement with Dalton's Law of partial pressures. Many of the model's predictions are the same whether or not collisions between particles are included, so they are often neglected as a simplifying assumption in derivations (see below).


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: More modern developments relax these assumptions and are based on the Boltzmann equation. These can accurately describe the properties of dense gases, because they include the volume of the particles as well as contributions from intermolecular and intramolecular forces as well as quantized molecular rotations, quantum rotational-vibrational symmetry effects, and electronic excitation.


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: In the kinetic theory of gases, the pressure is assumed to be equal to the force (per unit area) exerted by the atoms hitting and rebounding from the gas container's surface. Consider a gas of a large number "N" of molecules, each of mass "m", enclosed in a cube of volume "V" = "L". When a gas molecule collides with the wall of the container perpendicular to the "x" axis and bounces off in the opposite direction with the same speed (an elastic collision), the change in momentum is given by:


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: where "p" is the momentum, "i" and "f" indicate initial and final momentum (before and after collision), "x" indicates that only the "x" direction is being considered, and formula_2 is the speed of the particle in the "x" direction (which is the same before and after the collision).


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: The total force on the wall due to collisions by molecules impacting the walls with a range of possible values of formula_2 is


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: Since the motion of the particles is random and there is no bias applied in any direction, the average squared speed in each direction is identical:


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: This is an important, non-trivial result of the kinetic theory because it relates pressure, a macroscopic property, to the translational kinetic energy of the molecules, which is a microscopic property.


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: where formula_18 is the Boltzmann constant and formula_19 the absolute temperature defined by the ideal gas law, to obtain


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: The kinetic energy of the system is formula_22 times that of a molecule, namely formula_23. Then the temperature formula_19 takes the form


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: Equations () and () are called the "classical results", which could also be derived from statistical mechanics;


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: is 1/2 times Boltzmann constant or R/2 per mole. This result is related to the equipartition theorem.


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: Thus the kinetic energy per Kelvin of one mole of (monatomic ideal gas) is 3 [R/2] = 3R/2. Thus the kinetic energy per Kelvin can be calculated easily:


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: Although monatomic gases have 3 (translational) degrees of freedom per atom, diatomic gases should have 6 degrees of freedom per molecule (3 translations, two rotations, and one vibration). However, the lighter diatomic gases (such as diatomic oxygen) may act as if they have only 5 due to the strongly quantum-mechanical nature of their vibrations and the large gaps between successive vibrational energy levels. Quantum statistical mechanics is needed to accurately compute these contributions.


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: For an ideal gas in equilibrium, the rate of collisions with the container wall and velocity distribution of particles hitting the container wall can be calculated based on naive kinetic theory, and the results can be used for analyzing effusive flow rates, which is useful in applications such as the gaseous diffusion method for isotope separation.


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: Assume that in the container, the number density (number per unit volume) is formula_27 and that the particles obey Maxwell's velocity distribution:


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: Then for a small area formula_29 on the container wall, a particle with speed formula_30 at angle formula_31 from the normal of the area formula_29, will collide with the area within time interval formula_33, if it is within the distance formula_34 from the area formula_29. Therefore, all the particles with speed formula_30 at angle formula_31 from the normal that can reach area formula_29 within time interval formula_33 are contained in the tilted pipe with a height of formula_40 and a volume of formula_41.


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: The total number of particles that reach area formula_29 within time interval formula_33 also depends on the velocity distribution; All in all, it calculates to be:formula_44


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: Integrating this over all appropriate velocities within the constraint formula_45 yields the number of atomic or molecular collisions with a wall of a container per unit area per unit time:


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: This quantity is also known as the "impingement rate" in vacuum physics. Note that to calculate the average speed formula_47 of the Maxwell's velocity distribution, one has to integrate overformula_48.


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: The momentum transfer to the container wall from particles hitting the area formula_29 with speed formula_30 at angle formula_31 from the normal, in time interval formula_33 is:formula_53Integrating this over all appropriate velocities within the constraint formula_45 yields the pressure (consistent with Ideal gas law):formula_55If this small area formula_56 is punched to become a small hole, the effusive flow rate will be: formula_57


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: To calculate the velocity distribution of particles hitting this small area, we must take into account that all the particles with formula_59 that hit the area formula_29 within the time interval formula_33 are contained in the tilted pipe with a height of formula_40 and a volume of formula_41; Therefore, compared to the Maxwell distribution, the velocity distribution will have an extra factor of formula_64:


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: with the constraint formula_66. The constant formula_67 can be determined by the normalization condition formula_68 to be formula_69, and overall:formula_70


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: where "v" is in m/s, "T" is in kelvins, and "m" is the mass of one molecule of gas. The most probable (or mode) speed formula_74 is 81.6% of the root-mean-square speed formula_75, and the mean (arithmetic mean, or average) speed formula_47 is 92.1% of the rms speed (isotropic distribution of speeds).


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: In kinetic theory of gases, the mean free path is the average distance traveled by a molecule, or a number of molecules per volume, before they make their first collision. Let formula_77 be the collision cross section of one molecule colliding with another. As in the previous section, the number density formula_78 is defined as the number of molecules per (extensive) volume, or formula_79. The collision cross section per volume or collision cross section density is formula_80, and it is related to the mean free path formula_81 byformula_82


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: The kinetic theory of gases deals not only with gases in thermodynamic equilibrium, but also very importantly with gases not in thermodynamic equilibrium. This means using Kinetic Theory to consider what are known as "transport properties", such as viscosity, thermal conductivity and mass diffusivity.


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: In books on elementary kinetic theory one can find results for dilute gas modeling that are used in many fields. Derivation of the kinetic model for shear viscosity usually starts by considering a Couette flow where two parallel plates are separated by a gas layer. The upper plate is moving at a constant velocity to the right due to a force "F". The lower plate is stationary, and an equal and opposite force must therefore be acting on it to keep it at rest. The molecules in the gas layer have a forward velocity component formula_84 which increase uniformly with distance formula_85 above the lower plate. The non-equilibrium flow is superimposed on a Maxwell-Boltzmann equilibrium distribution of molecular motions.


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: Inside a dilute gas in a Couette flow setup, let formula_86 be the forward velocity of the gas at a horizontal flat layer (labeled as formula_87); formula_86 is along the horizontal direction. The number of molecules arriving at the area formula_29 on one side of the gas layer, with speed formula_30 at angle formula_31 from the normal, in time interval formula_33 is


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: These molecules made their last collision at formula_94, where formula_81 is the mean free path. Each molecule will contribute a forward momentum of


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: where plus sign applies to molecules from above, and minus sign below. Note that the forward velocity gradient formula_97 can be considered to be constant over a distance of mean free path.


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: gives the equation for shear viscosity, which is usually denoted formula_102 when it is a dilute gas:


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: and insert the velocity in the viscosity equation above. This gives the well known equation for shear viscosity for dilute gases:


title: Kinetic theory of gases

text: and formula_109 is the molar mass. The equation above presupposes that the gas density is low (i.e. the pressure is low). This implies that the kinetic translational energy dominates over rotational and vibrational molecule energies. The viscosity equation further presupposes that there is only one type of gas molecules, and that the gas molecules are perfect elastic and hard core particles of spherical shape. This assumption of elastic, hard core spherical molecules, like billiard balls, implies that the collision cross section of one molecule can be estimated by