title: Second Persian invasion of Greece

text: In the two major land battles of the invasion, the Allies clearly adjusted their tactics to nullify the Persian advantage in numbers and cavalry, by occupying the pass at Thermopylae, and by staying on high ground at Plataea. At Thermopylae, until the path outflanking the Allied position was revealed, the Persians signally failed to adjust their tactics to the situation, although the position was well chosen to limit the Persian options. At Plataea, the harassing of the Allied positions by cavalry was a successful tactic, forcing the precipitous (and nearly disastrous) retreat; however, Mardonius then brought about a general melee between the infantry, which resulted in the Persian defeat. The events at Mycale reveal a similar story; Persian infantry committing themselves to a melee with hoplites, with disastrous results. It has been suggested that there is little evidence of complex tactics in the Greco-Persian wars. However, as simple as the Greek tactics were, they played to their strengths; the Persians however, may have seriously underestimated the strength of the hoplite, and their failure to adapt to facing the Allied infantry contributed to the eventual Persian defeat.


title: Second Persian invasion of Greece

text: At the beginning of the invasion, it is clear that the Persians held most advantages. Regardless of its actual size, it is clear that the Persians had brought an overwhelming number of troops and ships to Greece. The Persians had a unified command system, and everyone was answerable to the king. They had a hugely efficient bureaucracy, which allowed them to undertake remarkable feats of planning. The Persian generals had significant experience of warfare over the 80 years in which the Persian empire had been established. Furthermore, the Persians excelled in the use of intelligence and diplomacy in warfare, as shown by their (nearly successful) attempts to divide-and-conquer the Greeks. The Greeks, by comparison, were fragmented, with only 30 or so city-states actively opposing the Persian invasion; even those were prone to quarrel with each other. They had little experience of large-scale warfare, being largely restricted to small-scale local warfare, and their commanders were chosen primarily on the basis of the political and social standing, rather than because of any experience or expertise. As Lazenby therefore asks: ""So why did the Persians fail?""


title: Second Persian invasion of Greece

text: The Persian strategy for 480 BC was probably to simply progress through Greece in overwhelming force. The cities in any territory that the army passed through would be forced to submit or risk destruction; and indeed this happened with the Thessalian, Locrian and Phocian cities who initially resisted the Persians but then were forced to submit as the Persians advanced. Conversely, the Allied strategy was probably to try and stop the Persian advance as far north as possible, and thus prevent the submission of as many potential Allies as possible. Beyond this, the Allies seem to have realised that given the Persians' overwhelming numbers, they had little chance in open battle, and thus they opted to try to defend geographical bottle-necks, where the Persian numbers would count for less. The whole Allied campaign for 480 BC can be seen in this context. Initially they attempted to defend the Tempe pass to prevent the loss of Thessaly. After they realised that they could not defend this position, they chose the next-most northerly position, the Thermopylae/Artemisium axis. The Allied performance at Thermopylae was initially effective; however, the failure to properly guard the path that outflanked Thermopylae undermined their strategy, and led to defeat. At Artemisium the fleet also scored some successes, but withdrew due to the losses they had sustained, and since the defeat of Thermopylae made the position irrelevant. Thus far, the Persian strategy had succeeded, while the Allied strategy, though not a disaster, had failed.


title: Second Persian invasion of Greece

text: The defence of the Isthmus of Corinth by the Allies changed the nature of the war. The Persians did not attempt to attack the isthmus by land, realising they probably could not breach it. This essentially reduced the conflict to a naval one. Themistocles now proposed what was in hindsight the strategic masterstroke in the Allied campaign; to lure the Persian fleet to battle in the straits of Salamis. However, as successful as this was, there was no need for the Persians to fight at Salamis to win the war; it has been suggested that the Persians were either overconfident or overeager to finish the campaign. Thus, the Allied victory at Salamis must at least partially be ascribed to a Persian strategic blunder. After Salamis, the Persian strategy changed. Mardonius sought to exploit dissensions between the Allies in order to fracture the alliance. In particular, he sought to win over the Athenians, which would leave the Allied fleet unable to oppose Persian landings on the Peloponnesus. Although Herodotus tells us that Mardonius was keen to fight a decisive battle, his actions in the run-up to Plataea are not particularly consistent with this. He seems to have been willing to accept battle on his terms, but he waited either for the Allies to attack, or for the alliance to collapse ignominiously. The Allied strategy for 479 BC was something of a mess; the Peloponnesians only agreed to march north in order to save the alliance, and it appears that the Allied leadership had little idea how to force a battle that they could win. It was the botched attempt to retreat from Plataea that finally delivered the Allies battle on their terms. Mardonius may have been overeager for victory; there was no need to attack the Allies, and by doing so he played to the main Allied tactical strength, combat in the melee. The Allied victory at Plataea can also therefore be seen as partially the result of a Persian mistake.


title: Second Persian invasion of Greece

text: Thus, the Persian failure may be seen partly as a result of two strategic mistakes that handed the Allies tactical advantages, and resulted in decisive defeats for the Persians. The Allied success is often seen as the result of ""free men fighting for their freedom"". This may have played a part, and certainly the Greeks seem to have interpreted their victory in those terms. One crucial factor in the Allied success was that, having formed an alliance, however fractious, they remained true to it, despite the odds. There appear to have been many occasions when the alliance seemed in doubt, but ultimately it withstood; and while this alone did not defeat the Persians, it meant that even after the occupation of most of Greece, the Allies were not themselves defeated. This is exemplified by the remarkable fact that the citizens of Athens, Thespiae and Plataea chose to carry on fighting from exile rather than submit to the Persians. Ultimately, the Allies succeeded because they avoided catastrophic defeats, stuck to their alliance, took advantage of Persian mistakes, and because in the hoplite they possessed an advantage (perhaps their only real advantage at the start of the conflict), which, at Plataea, allowed them to destroy the Persian invasion force.


title: Second Persian invasion of Greece

text: The second Persian invasion of Greece was an event of major significance in European history. A large number of historians hold that, had Greece been conquered, the Ancient Greek culture that lies at the basis of Western civilization would have never developed (and by extension Western civilization itself). While this may be an exaggeration, it is clear that even at the time the Greeks understood that something very significant had happened.


title: Second Persian invasion of Greece

text: Militarily, there was not much in the way of tactical or strategic innovation during the Persian invasion, one commentator suggesting it was something of "a soldier's war" (i.e., it was the soldiers rather than generals that won the war). Thermopylae is often used as a good example of the use of terrain as a force multiplier, while Themistocles's ruse before Salamis is a good example of the use of deception in warfare. The major lesson of the invasion, reaffirming the events at the Battle of Marathon, was the superiority of the hoplite in close-quarters fighting over the more-lightly armed Persian infantry. Taking on this lesson, the Persian empire would later, after the Peloponnesian War, start recruiting and relying on Greek mercenaries.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: Michael Barratt (born 4 March 1948), known professionally as Shakin' Stevens, is a Welsh singer and songwriter. He was the UK's biggest-selling singles artist of the 1980s.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: His recording and performing career began in the late 1960s, although it was not until 1980 that his commercial success began. His most successful songs were nostalgia hits, evoking the sound of 1950s rock and roll and pop.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: In the UK alone, Stevens has charted 33 Top 40 hit singles including four chart-topping hits "This Ole House", "Green Door", "Oh Julie", and "Merry Christmas Everyone". Aside from "Merry Christmas Everyone" remaining popular during the Christmas season, his last Top 40 single was "Trouble" in 2005.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: Michael Barratt, who would later adopt the stage name "Shakin' Stevens", was the youngest of 11 children born to Jack and May Barratt. His father was a First World War veteran who by 1948 was working in the building trade, having previously worked as a coal miner. The oldest of his siblings was born in the mid-1920s, and by the time of his birth some of Michael Barratt's oldest siblings had already married and started families of their own. Jack Barratt died in 1972 at the age of 75. May Barratt died in 1984 at the age of 83.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: He grew up in Ely, Cardiff, and as a teenager, in the mid-1960s he formed his first amateur rock and roll band with school friends and became its vocalist and frontman. Originally named the Olympics, then the Cossacks, the short-lived band finally renamed as the Denims and performed gigs in the local Cardiff and South Wales area. In the late 1960s, Stevens was associated with the Young Communist League (YCL), the youth wing of the Communist Party of Great Britain through playing at YCL events. At the time the YCL was associated with several leading music industry figures, including Pete Townshend. However, Stevens has stated that this was because the individual in charge of booking the band’s gigs was also a member of the organisation.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: In the late 1960s his official occupation was a milkman, and he lived in a flat which formed part of an office block in inner-city Cardiff. The office block was demolished several years later.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: Having worked as an upholsterer and milkman, Barratt performed at weekends in clubs and pubs. Having previously followed them as a fan and then as an occasional guest vocalist, Barratt joined the existing Penarth-based the Backbeats – originally formed in 1958 – as lead singer. He was spotted by South Wales impresario Paul "Legs" Barrett, who proposed repackaging the band as a 1950s-influenced rock 'n' roll outfit under a new name. Michael Barratt agreed to choose a stage name, and so borrowing from old school friend Steven Vanderwalker, he chose Shakin' Stevens.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: Fronting the newly named Shakin' Stevens and the Sunsets, an early break for the band presented itself when they were given a support slot for the Rolling Stones in December 1969. Despite landing a recording contract with Parlophone Records the following year and releasing a Dave Edmunds-produced album, the optimistically and prematurely titled "A Legend", the group found success hard to come by, at least in their native Great Britain, though they had several hit singles in other countries and released three albums on the Dutch Pink Elephant label. The band toured Germany, Belgium, France and the Netherlands in-between UK dates.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: Because they only achieved minor sales, many of the Sunsets' records with Stevens have become collectors' items in the years following his commercial breakthrough; for example a copy of their single "Honey Don't" released in Sweden on CBS Records in 1973 sold for over £340 in 2013. The Sunsets continue to perform, and still tour annually in the UK, Europe and Australia, fronted in recent years by Shaky's nephew, Levi Barratt.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: In 1977, after seven years of constant touring and recording, "Shaky", as he was also being called by this time, had been spotted during a London Sunsets gig by Jack Good who personally invited him to attend a London audition for his planned new West End musical "Elvis!" Three actors were to portray Elvis's life during the course of the show and Shaky landed one of the lead roles, playing Elvis in his prime, charting his army and film star years, with young actor Tim Whitnall covering the earlier formative years and veteran 1960s singer P.J. Proby taking over the part for Elvis's 'Las Vegas' years.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: The rest of the Sunsets waited in South Wales, doing occasional performances with drummer Robert 'Rockin Louis' Llewellyn taking the frontman duties, but fully expecting Stevens to return to the band and recommence touring after the show's planned short six-month run. However, the expectations were overtaken by subsequent events. The media-wise Jack Good made sure that both the audition process and the early months of the show were widely and regularly covered by the British daily press and TV shows.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: During the "Elvis!" show's successful and then twice-extended two-year run Shaky made regular TV appearances, firstly on Good's revived British ITV show "Oh Boy!" and later on his follow-up 30-week-long series "Let's Rock" that was syndicated in 32 countries, including the United States. This led to his first major chart success with a reworking of the Buck Owens song "Hot Dog", which Owens would re-record using the arrangement created by pedal steel guitar player B.J. Cole.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: In late 1979, Stevens signed what was to be his most successful management deal with Freya Miller, who immediately advised Stevens to sever his association with the Sunsets and continue developing a more lucrative solo career. Under Miller's hand, in 1981, Stevens scored his first UK chart-topping number 1 with "This Ole House" and would follow up with 10 more songs reaching the top five, including three number 1 hits with "Green Door", "Oh Julie" and "Merry Christmas Everyone", while "You Drive Me Crazy" and "A Love Worth Waiting For" reached number 2 in 1981 and 1984 respectively. His 1984 hit "Teardrops", which reached No. 5 in the UK, featured Hank Marvin on guitar, and since then, Stevens has often featured famous musicians such as Albert Lee, Roger Taylor and Bonnie Tyler on his recordings.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: Chart successes also included his album "Shaky" reaching number 1 on the UK Albums Chart. In the mid-1980s, Stevens re-united with former producer Dave Edmunds to record an album "Lipstick, Powder and Paint", and the Christmas smash "Merry Christmas Everyone", which was a number 1 hit in 1985. Its original planned release was put back by a year to avoid clashing with the runaway success of Band Aid's charity single "Do They Know It's Christmas?", to which he did not contribute, having been out of the country touring at the time of recording.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: In a "Record Collector" magazine feature, writer Kris Griffiths wrote: "This was Shaky at the very zenith of his powers and, perhaps, the breaking-point of marketing overload from which there is only decline. Such concentrated commercial success and ubiquity came with a price."


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: Despite Stevens's chart domination over the previous few years, he was not invited to perform at Live Aid on 13 July 1985. The hits continued but chart placings declined throughout the later 1980s and early 1990s. However, Stevens was one of the celebrities to appear in an advertising campaign for Heineken in the late-1980s. The slogan "refreshes the parts other beers cannot reach" was confirmed in the advert as he stops shakin' after consuming the product.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: In the 1990s, Stevens took a lengthy break from recording and was stung by a court ruling that related to unpaid royalties from the "Legend" album, which had been re-released to some commercial success, requiring a substantial payout to former band members of the Sunsets. In 1999, Stevens returned to performing live and undertook tours all that year and the following year.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: Stevens was charged in January 2002 with driving while over the alcohol limit and was banned from driving for two years. He was also fined £400. In 2004, he had a further platinum CD-DVD album in Denmark and a gold album in South Africa.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: In 2005, Stevens returned once again to the charts in the United Kingdom with his greatest hits album "The Collection", which reached the UK top 5. That year, he also appeared in the video to Tony Christie and Peter Kay's No. 1 hit single "Is This the Way to Amarillo", alongside many other UK stars, including: Ronnie Corbett, Jim Bowen and Michael Parkinson. Stevens was the winner on the reality television show, "Hit Me Baby One More Time". This was quickly followed by a re-release of his cover and his own biggest hit sung in the show, "Trouble" (covering Pink's version)/"This Ole House", which reached No. 20 on the UK Singles Chart in June 2005, his 33rd Top 40 hit in the United Kingdom.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: In April 2008, it was announced that Shakin' Stevens would be performing at 2008's Glastonbury Festival as the opening act on the Pyramid stage on Saturday 28 June, opening the day at 11 am to a capacity crowd.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: Chris Evans featured a special "Shaky Week" on his Radio 2 show during early March 2008 to celebrate Stevens's 60th birthday and later in 2008, Stevens embarked on a string of major concerts in the UK and Europe that started at Lulworth Castle on 4 July. On 24 August 2008, Stevens performed at a major concert in Poland featuring many European pop stars of the 1980s, including Kim Wilde and Limahl. The concert formed a part of the Sopot International Song Festival 2008 and was presented live on the Polish television channel TVN. Stevens followed his European tour with a short tour of Ireland and an appearance at London's O2 Arena, supported by a 10-piece band.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: In July 2010, Stevens was rushed to hospital after collapsing at his home in Windsor, reportedly from exhaustion brought on by the stress of working on a new album. It was later revealed that Stevens had suffered a heart attack, which caused him to be hospitalised for two months, after strenuous work gardening at his home.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: Stevens fully recovered and, in 2011, he embarked on the early part of his 30th Anniversary Tour, followed by a further 26 dates in the second leg later in the year, backed by a 10-piece band. In 2013 Stevens participated in the family history programme "Coming Home" and discovered information about the effects of the First World War on his family.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: Stevens appeared live on Radio X on 17 December 2015, on "The Chris Moyles Show" to promote his new Christmas Single "Echoes of a Merry Christmas" with proceeds going to the Salvation Army UK. The original version of the song re-entered the chart in the Top 40.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: On 16 September 2016, Stevens released his 12th studio album, "Echoes of Our Times". The album was recorded at Berry Hill Studios, produced by Stevens and John David, who also engineered. He then, in 2017, proceeded on a 33-date tour of the UK entitled: The Echoes of Our Time tour, and on Twitter #Echoes.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: He performed a concert in Sri Lanka in October 2018, his first show in Asia. That same year, he announced he would be embarking on a new tour of the UK and Europe in early 2019.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: A 19x CD anthology 'bookpack' "Fire In The Blood" was released in November 2020 accompanied by a smaller 54-track 3x CD /26-track 2x LP collection "Singled Out". The career-spanning collection was described by Stevens as “the biggest project of my career.”


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: Stevens married Carole Dunn in October 1967, and they divorced in 2009 after 42 years of marriage. They had three children together: two sons, Jason and Dean, and a daughter, Paula. After their divorce, Stevens later began a relationship with his manager Sue Davies and he credits her with saving his life when he suffered a heart attack in July 2010.


title: Shakin' Stevens

text: Stevens lives in Marlow, Buckinghamshire. He is a lifelong supporter of Welsh football team Cardiff City.


title: Mammary gland

text: A mammary gland is an exocrine gland in humans and other mammals that produces milk to feed young offspring. Mammals get their name from the Latin word "mamma", "breast". The mammary glands are arranged in organs such as the breasts in primates (for example, humans and chimpanzees), the udder in ruminants (for example, cows, goats, sheep, and deer), and the dugs of other animals (for example, dogs and cats). Lactorrhea, the occasional production of milk by the glands, can occur in any mammal, but in most mammals, lactation, the production of enough milk for nursing, occurs only in phenotypic females who have gestated in recent months or years. It is directed by hormonal guidance from sex steroids. In a few mammalian species, male lactation can occur. With humans, male lactation can occur only under specific circumstances.


title: Mammary gland

text: Mammals are divided into 3 groups: prototherians, metatherians, and eutherians. In the case of prototherians, both males and females have functional mammary glands, but their mammary glands are without nipples. These mammary glands are modified sebaceous glands. Concerning metatherians and eutherians, only females have functional mammary glands. Their mammary glands can be termed as breasts or udders. In the case of breasts, each mammary gland has its own nipple (e.g., human mammary glands). In the case of udders, pairs of mammary glands comprise a single mass, with more than one nipple (or teat) hanging from it. For instance, cows and buffalo each have one udder with four teats, whereas sheep and goats each have two teats protruding from the udder. These mammary glands are modified sweat glands.


title: Mammary gland

text: The basic components of a mature mammary gland are the "alveoli" (hollow cavities, a few millimeters large), which are lined with milk-secreting cuboidal cells and surrounded by myoepithelial cells. These alveoli join to form groups known as "lobules". Each lobule has a "lactiferous duct" that drains into openings in the nipple. The myoepithelial cells contract under the stimulation of oxytocin, excreting the milk secreted by alveolar units into the lobule lumen toward the nipple. As the infant begins to suck, the oxytocin-mediated "let down reflex" ensues, and the mother's milk is secreted — not sucked — from the gland into the baby's mouth.


title: Mammary gland

text: All the milk-secreting tissue leading to a single lactiferous duct is collectively called a "simple mammary gland"; in a "complex mammary gland", all the simple mammary glands serve one nipple. Humans normally have two complex mammary glands, one in each breast, and each complex mammary gland consists of 10–20 simple glands. The opening of each simple gland on the surface of the nipple is called a "pore." The presence of more than two nipples is known as polythelia and the presence of more than two complex mammary glands as polymastia.


title: Mammary gland

text: Maintaining the correct polarized morphology of the lactiferous duct tree requires another essential component – mammary epithelial cells extracellular matrix (ECM) which, together with adipocytes, fibroblast, inflammatory cells, and others, constitute mammary stroma. Mammary epithelial ECM mainly contains myoepithelial basement membrane and the connective tissue. They not only help to support mammary basic structure, but also serve as a communicating bridge between mammary epithelia and their local and global environment throughout this organ's development.


title: Mammary gland

text: A mammary gland is a specific type of apocrine gland specialized for manufacture of colostrum when giving birth. Mammary glands can be identified as apocrine because they exhibit striking "decapitation" secretion. Many sources assert that mammary glands are modified sweat glands. Some authors dispute that and argue instead that they are sebaceous glands.


title: Mammary gland

text: Mammary glands develop during different growth cycles. They exist in both sexes during the embryonic stage, forming only a rudimentary duct tree at birth. In this stage, mammary gland development depends on systemic (and maternal) hormones, but is also under the (local) regulation of paracrine communication between neighboring epithelial and mesenchymal cells by parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP). This locally secreted factor gives rise to a series of outside-in and inside-out positive feedback between these two types of cells, so that mammary bud epithelial cells can proliferate and sprout down into the mesenchymal layer until they reach the fat pad to begin the first round of branching. At the same time, the embryonic mesenchymal cells around the epithelial bud receive secreting factors activated by PTHrP, such as BMP4. These mesenchymal cells can transform into a dense, mammary-specific mesenchyme, which later develop into connective tissue with fibrous threads, forming blood vessels and the lymph system. A basement membrane, mainly containing laminin and collagen, formed afterward by differentiated myoepithelial cells, keeps the polarity of this primary duct tree. These components of the extracellular matrix are strong determinants of duct morphogenesis.


title: Mammary gland

text: Estrogen and growth hormone (GH) are essential for the ductal component of mammary gland development, and act synergistically to mediate it. Neither estrogen nor GH are capable of inducing ductal development without the other. The role of GH in ductal development has been found to be mostly mediated by its induction of the secretion of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), which occurs both systemically (mainly originating from the liver) and locally in the mammary fat pad through activation of the growth hormone receptor (GHR). However, GH itself also acts independently of IGF-1 to stimulate ductal development by upregulating estrogen receptor (ER) expression in mammary gland tissue, which is a downstream effect of mammary gland GHR activation. In any case, unlike IGF-1, GH itself is not essential for mammary gland development, and IGF-1 in conjunction with estrogen can induce normal mammary gland development without the presence of GH. In addition to IGF-1, other paracrine growth factors such as epidermal growth factor (EGF), transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), amphiregulin, fibroblast growth factor (FGF), and hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) are involved in breast development as mediators downstream to sex hormones and GH/IGF-1.


title: Mammary gland

text: During embryonic development, IGF-1 levels are low, and gradually increase from birth to puberty. At puberty, the levels of GH and IGF-1 reach their highest levels in life and estrogen begins to be secreted in high amounts in females, which is when ductal development mostly takes place. Under the influence of estrogen, stromal and fat tissue surrounding the ductal system in the mammary glands also grows. After puberty, GH and IGF-1 levels progressively decrease, which limits further development until pregnancy, if it occurs. During pregnancy, progesterone and prolactin are essential for mediating lobuloalveolar development in estrogen-primed mammary gland tissue, which occurs in preparation of lactation and nursing.


title: Mammary gland

text: Androgens such as testosterone inhibit estrogen-mediated mammary gland development (e.g., by reducing local ER expression) through activation of androgen receptors expressed in mammary gland tissue, and in conjunction with relatively low estrogen levels, are the cause of the lack of developed mammary glands in males.


title: Mammary gland

text: Mammary gland development is characterized by the unique process by which the epithelium invades the stroma. The development of the mammary gland occurs mainly after birth. During puberty, tubule formation is coupled with branching morphogenesis which establishes the basic arboreal network of ducts emanating from the nipple.


title: Mammary gland

text: Developmentally, mammary gland epithelium is constantly produced and maintained by rare epithelial cells, dubbed as mammary progenitors which are ultimately thought to be derived from tissue-resident stem cells.


title: Mammary gland

text: Embryonic mammary gland development can be divided into a series of specific stages. Initially, the formation of the milk lines that run between the fore and hind limbs bilaterally on each side of the midline occurs around embryonic day 10.5 (E10.5). The second stage occurs at E11.5 when placode formation begins along the mammary milk line. This will eventually give rise to the nipple. Lastly, the third stage occurs at E12.5 and involves the invagination of cells within the placode into the mesenchyme, leading to a mammary anlage (biology).


title: Mammary gland

text: The primitive (stem) cells are detected in embryo and their numbers increase steadily during development


title: Mammary gland

text: Postnatally, the mammary ducts elongate into the mammary fat pad. Then, starting around four weeks of age, mammary ductal growth increases significantly with the ducts invading towards the lymph node. Terminal end buds, the highly proliferative structures found at the tips of the invading ducts, expand and increase greatly during this stage. This developmental period is characterized by the emergence of the terminal end buds and lasts until an age of about 7–8 weeks.


title: Mammary gland

text: By the pubertal stage, the mammary ducts have invaded to the end of the mammary fat pad. At this point, the terminal end buds become less proliferative and decrease in size. Side branches form from the primary ducts and begin to fill the mammary fat pad. Ductal development decreases with the arrival of sexual maturity and undergoes estrous cycles (proestrus, estrus, metestrus, and diestrus). As a result of estrous cycling, the mammary gland undergoes dynamic changes where cells proliferate and then regress in an ordered fashion.


title: Mammary gland

text: During pregnancy, the ductal systems undergo rapid proliferation and form alveolar structures within the branches to be used for milk production. After delivery, lactation occurs within the mammary gland; lactation involves the secretion of milk by the luminal cells in the alveoli. Contraction of the myoepithelial cells surrounding the alveoli will cause the milk to be ejected through the ducts and into the nipple for the nursing infant. Upon weaning of the infant, lactation stops and the mammary gland turns in on itself, a process called "involution". This process involves the controlled collapse of mammary epithelial cells where cells begin apoptosis in a controlled manner, reverting the mammary gland back to a pubertal state.


title: Mammary gland

text: During postmenopause, due to much lower levels of estrogen, and due to lower levels of GH and IGF-1, which decrease with age, mammary gland tissue atrophies and the mammary glands become smaller.


title: Mammary gland

text: Lactiferous duct development occurs in females in response to circulating hormones. First development is frequently seen during pre- and postnatal stages, and later during puberty. Estrogen promotes branching differentiation, whereas in males testosterone inhibits it. A mature duct tree reaching the limit of the fat pad of the mammary gland comes into being by bifurcation of duct terminal end buds (TEB), secondary branches sprouting from primary ducts and proper duct lumen formation. These processes are tightly modulated by components of mammary epithelial ECM interacting with systemic hormones and local secreting factors. However, for each mechanism the epithelial cells' "niche" can be delicately unique with different membrane receptor profiles and basement membrane thickness from specific branching area to area, so as to regulate cell growth or differentiation sub-locally. Important players include beta-1 integrin, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), laminin-1/5, collagen-IV, matrix metalloproteinase (MMPs), heparan sulfate proteoglycans, and others. Elevated circulating level of growth hormone and estrogen get to multipotent cap cells on TEB tips through a thin, leaky layer of basement membrane. These hormones promote specific gene expression. Hence cap cells can differentiate into myoepithelial and luminal (duct) epithelial cells, and the increased amount of activated MMPs can degrade surrounding ECM helping duct buds to reach further in the fat pads. On the other hand, basement membrane along the mature mammary ducts is thicker, with strong adhesion to epithelial cells via binding to integrin and non-integrin receptors. When side branches develop, it is a much more "pushing-forward" working process including extending through myoepithelial cells, degrading basement membrane and then invading into a periductal layer of fibrous stromal tissue. Degraded basement membrane fragments (laminin-5) roles to lead the way of mammary epithelial cells migration. Whereas, laminin-1 interacts with non-integrin receptor dystroglycan negatively regulates this side branching process in case of cancer. These complex "Yin-yang" balancing crosstalks between mammary ECM and epithelial cells "instruct" healthy mammary gland development until adult.


title: Mammary gland

text: There is preliminary evidence that soybean intake mildly stimulates the breast glands in pre- and postmenopausal women.


title: Mammary gland

text: Secretory alveoli develop mainly in pregnancy, when rising levels of prolactin, estrogen, and progesterone cause further branching, together with an increase in adipose tissue and a richer blood flow. In gestation, serum progesterone remains at a stably high concentration so signaling through its receptor is continuously activated. As one of the transcribed genes, Wnts secreted from mammary epithelial cells act paracrinely to induce more neighboring cells' branching. When the lactiferous duct tree is almost ready, "leaves" alveoli are differentiated from luminal epithelial cells and added at the end of each branch. In late pregnancy and for the first few days after giving birth, colostrum is secreted. Milk secretion (lactation) begins a few days later due to reduction in circulating progesterone and the presence of another important hormone prolactin, which mediates further alveologenesis, milk protein production, and regulates osmotic balance and tight junction function. Laminin and collagen in myoepithelial basement membrane interacting with beta-1 integrin on epithelial surface again, is essential in this process. Their binding ensures correct placement of prolactin receptors on the basal lateral side of alveoli cells and directional secretion of milk into lactiferous ducts. Suckling of the baby causes release of the hormone oxytocin, which stimulates contraction of the myoepithelial cells. In this combined control from ECM and systemic hormones, milk secretion can be reciprocally amplified so as to provide enough nutrition for the baby.


title: Mammary gland

text: During weaning, decreased prolactin, missing mechanical stimulation (baby suckling), and changes in osmotic balance caused by milk stasis and leaking of tight junctions cause cessation of milk production. It is the (passive) process of a child or animal ceasing to be dependent on the mother for nourishment. In some species there is complete or partial involution of alveolar structures after weaning, in humans there is only partial involution and the level of involution in humans appears to be highly individual. The glands in the breast do secrete fluid also in nonlactating women. In some other species (such as cows), all alveoli and secretory duct structures collapse by programmed cell death (apoptosis) and autophagy for lack of growth promoting factors either from the ECM or circulating hormones. At the same time, apoptosis of blood capillary endothelial cells speeds up the regression of lactation ductal beds. Shrinkage of the mammary duct tree and ECM remodeling by various proteinase is under the control of somatostatin and other growth inhibiting hormones and local factors. This major structural change leads loose fat tissue to fill the empty space afterward. But a functional lactiferous duct tree can be formed again when a female is pregnant again.


title: Mammary gland

text: Tumorigenesis in mammary glands can be induced biochemically by abnormal expression level of circulating hormones or local ECM components, or from a mechanical change in the tension of mammary stroma. Under either of the two circumstances, mammary epithelial cells would grow out of control and eventually result in cancer. Almost all instances of breast cancer originate in the lobules or ducts of the mammary glands.


title: Mammary gland

text: The breasts of female humans vary from most other mammals that tend to have less conspicuous mammary glands. The number and positioning of mammary glands varies widely in different mammals. The protruding teats and accompanying glands can be located anywhere along the two milk lines. In general most mammals develop mammary glands in pairs along these lines, with a number approximating the number of young typically birthed at a time. The number of teats varies from 2 (in most primates) to 18 (in pigs). The Virginia opossum has 13, one of the few mammals with an odd number. The following table lists the number and position of teats and glands found in a range of mammals:


title: Mammary gland

text: Male mammals typically have rudimentary mammary glands and nipples, with a few exceptions: male mice do not have nipples, male marsupials do not have mammary glands, and male horses lack nipples and mammary glands. The male Dayak fruit bat has lactating mammary glands. Male lactation occurs infrequently in some species.


title: Mammary gland

text: Mammary glands are true protein factories, and several labs have constructed transgenic animals, mainly goats and cows, to produce proteins for pharmaceutical use. Complex glycoproteins such as monoclonal antibodies or antithrombin cannot be produced by genetically engineered bacteria, and the production in live mammals is much cheaper than the use of mammalian cell cultures.


title: Mammary gland

text: There are many theories on how mammary glands evolved. For example, it is thought that the mammary gland is a transformed sweat gland, more closely related to apocrine sweat glands. Because mammary glands do not fossilize well, supporting such theories with fossil evidence is difficult. Many of the current theories are based on comparisons between lines of living mammals—monotremes, marsupials, and eutherians. One theory proposes that mammary glands evolved from glands that were used to keep the eggs of early mammals moist and free from infection (monotremes still lay eggs). Other theories suggest that early secretions were used directly by hatched young, or that the secretions were used by young to help them orient to their mothers.


title: Mammary gland

text: Lactation is thought to have developed long before the evolution of the mammary gland and mammals; see evolution of lactation.


title: Complex analysis

text: Complex analysis, traditionally known as the theory of functions of a complex variable, is the branch of mathematical analysis that investigates functions of complex numbers. It is helpful in many branches of mathematics, including algebraic geometry, number theory, analytic combinatorics, applied mathematics; as well as in physics, including the branches of hydrodynamics, thermodynamics, and particularly quantum mechanics. By extension, use of complex analysis also has applications in engineering fields such as nuclear, aerospace, mechanical and electrical engineering.


title: Complex analysis

text: As a differentiable function of a complex variable is equal to its Taylor series (that is, it is analytic), complex analysis is particularly concerned with analytic functions of a complex variable (that is, holomorphic functions).


title: Complex analysis

text: Complex analysis is one of the classical branches in mathematics, with roots in the 18th century and just prior. Important mathematicians associated with complex numbers include Euler, Gauss, Riemann, Cauchy, Weierstrass, and many more in the 20th century. Complex analysis, in particular the theory of conformal mappings, has many physical applications and is also used throughout analytic number theory. In modern times, it has become very popular through a new boost from complex dynamics and the pictures of fractals produced by iterating holomorphic functions. Another important application of complex analysis is in string theory which examines conformal invariants in quantum field theory.


title: Complex analysis

text: A complex function is a function from complex numbers to complex numbers. In other words, it is a function that has a subset of the complex numbers as a domain and the complex numbers as a codomain. Complex functions are generally supposed to have a domain that contains a nonempty open subset of the complex plane.


title: Complex analysis

text: For any complex function, the values formula_1 from the domain and their images formula_2 in the range may be separated into real and imaginary parts:


title: Complex analysis

text: i.e., into two real-valued functions (formula_8, formula_9) of two real variables (formula_10, formula_11).


title: Complex analysis

text: Similarly, any complex-valued function on an arbitrary set can be considered as an ordered pair of two real-valued functions: or, alternatively, as a vector-valued function from into formula_12


title: Complex analysis

text: Some properties of complex-valued functions (such as continuity) are nothing more than the corresponding properties of vector valued functions of two real variables. Other concepts of complex analysis, such as differentiability, are direct generalizations of the similar concepts for real functions, but may have very different properties. In particular, every differentiable complex function is analytic (see next section), and two differentiable functions that are equal in a neighborhood of a point are equal on the intersection of their domain (if the domains are connected). The latter property is the basis of the principle of analytic continuation which allows extending every real analytic function in a unique way for getting a complex analytic function whose domain is the whole complex plane with a finite number of curve arcs removed. Many basic and special complex functions are defined in this way, including the complex exponential function, complex logarithm functions, and trigonometric functions.


title: Complex analysis

text: Complex functions that are differentiable at every point of an open subset formula_13 of the complex plane are said to be "holomorphic on" In the context of complex analysis, the derivative of formula_14 at formula_15 is defined to be


title: Complex analysis

text: Superficially, this definition is formally analogous to that of the derivative of a real function. However, complex derivatives and differentiable functions behave in significantly different ways compared to their real counterparts. In particular, for this limit to exist, the value of the difference quotient must approach the same complex number, regardless of the manner in which we approach formula_15 in the complex plane. Consequently, complex differentiability has much stronger implications than real differentiability. For instance, holomorphic functions are infinitely differentiable, whereas the existence of the "n"th derivative need not imply the existence of the ("n" + 1)th derivative for real functions. Furthermore, all holomorphic functions satisfy the stronger condition of analyticity, meaning that the function is, at every point in its domain, locally given by a convergent power series. In essence, this means that functions holomorphic on formula_13 can be approximated arbitrarily well by polynomials in some neighborhood of every point in formula_13. This stands in sharp contrast to differentiable real functions; there are infinitely differentiable real functions that are "nowhere" analytic; see .


title: Complex analysis

text: Most elementary functions, including the exponential function, the trigonometric functions, and all polynomial functions, extended appropriately to complex arguments as functions are holomorphic over the entire complex plane, making them "entire" "functions", while rational functions formula_20, where "p" and "q" are polynomials, are holomorphic on domains that exclude points where "q" is zero. Such functions that are holomorphic everywhere except a set of isolated points are known as "meromorphic functions". On the other hand, the functions and formula_21 are not holomorphic anywhere on the complex plane, as can be shown by their failure to satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann conditions (see below).


title: Complex analysis

text: An important property of holomorphic functions is the relationship between the partial derivatives of their real and imaginary components, known as the Cauchy–Riemann conditions. If formula_5, defined by where is holomorphic on a region then for all formula_23,


title: Complex analysis

text: In terms of the real and imaginary parts of the function, "u" and "v", this is equivalent to the pair of equations formula_25 and formula_26, where the subscripts indicate partial differentiation. However, the Cauchy–Riemann conditions do not characterize holomorphic functions, without additional continuity conditions (see Looman–Menchoff theorem).


title: Complex analysis

text: Holomorphic functions exhibit some remarkable features. For instance, Picard's theorem asserts that the range of an entire function can take only three possible forms: or formula_27 for some In other words, if two distinct complex numbers formula_1 and formula_29 are not in the range of an entire function then formula_14 is a constant function. Moreover, a holomorphic function on a connected open set is determined by its restriction to any nonempty open subset.


title: Complex analysis

text: One of the central tools in complex analysis is the line integral. The line integral around a closed path of a function that is holomorphic everywhere inside the area bounded by the closed path is always zero, as is stated by the Cauchy integral theorem. The values of such a holomorphic function inside a disk can be computed by a path integral on the disk's boundary (as shown in Cauchy's integral formula). Path integrals in the complex plane are often used to determine complicated real integrals, and here the theory of residues among others is applicable (see methods of contour integration). A "pole" (or isolated singularity) of a function is a point where the function's value becomes unbounded, or "blows up". If a function has such a pole, then one can compute the function's residue there, which can be used to compute path integrals involving the function; this is the content of the powerful residue theorem. The remarkable behavior of holomorphic functions near essential singularities is described by Picard's theorem. Functions that have only poles but no essential singularities are called meromorphic. Laurent series are the complex-valued equivalent to Taylor series, but can be used to study the behavior of functions near singularities through infinite sums of more well understood functions, such as polynomials.


title: Complex analysis

text: A bounded function that is holomorphic in the entire complex plane must be constant; this is Liouville's theorem. It can be used to provide a natural and short proof for the fundamental theorem of algebra which states that the field of complex numbers is algebraically closed.


title: Complex analysis

text: If a function is holomorphic throughout a connected domain then its values are fully determined by its values on any smaller subdomain. The function on the larger domain is said to be analytically continued from its values on the smaller domain. This allows the extension of the definition of functions, such as the Riemann zeta function, which are initially defined in terms of infinite sums that converge only on limited domains to almost the entire complex plane. Sometimes, as in the case of the natural logarithm, it is impossible to analytically continue a holomorphic function to a non-simply connected domain in the complex plane but it is possible to extend it to a holomorphic function on a closely related surface known as a Riemann surface.


title: Complex analysis

text: All this refers to complex analysis in one variable. There is also a very rich theory of complex analysis in more than one complex dimension in which the analytic properties such as power series expansion carry over whereas most of the geometric properties of holomorphic functions in one complex dimension (such as conformality) do not carry over. The Riemann mapping theorem about the conformal relationship of certain domains in the complex plane, which may be the most important result in the one-dimensional theory, fails dramatically in higher dimensions.


title: Meg Whitman

text: Margaret Cushing Whitman (born August 4, 1956) is the US ambassador to Kenya, an American business executive and former gubernatorial candidate for California. She is a board member of Procter & Gamble and General Motors. Whitman was previously president and CEO of Hewlett Packard Enterprise. She was also the CEO of Quibi from its foundation in August 2018 until its closure in December 2020. Whitman was a senior member of Mitt Romney's presidential campaigns in both 2008 and 2012 and ran for governor of California as a Republican in 2010, but supported Hillary Clinton in the 2016 general election and Joe Biden in the 2020 general election.


title: Meg Whitman

text: Whitman was an executive in The Walt Disney Company, where she was vice president of Strategic Planning throughout the 1980s. In the 1990s, she was an executive for DreamWorks, Procter & Gamble, and Hasbro. Whitman was president and CEO of eBay from 1998 to 2008. During Whitman's 10 years with the company, she oversaw its expansion from 30 employees and $4 million in annual revenue, to more than 15,000 employees and $8 billion in annual revenue. In 2014, Whitman was named 20th in "Forbes" List of the 100 Most Powerful Women in the World.


title: Meg Whitman

text: In 2008, Whitman was cited by "The New York Times" as among the women most likely to become the first female president of the United States. She ran for Governor of California in 2010. She won the Republican primary. The fifth-wealthiest woman in California with a net worth of $1.3 billion in 2010, she spent the second most of her own money on the race than any other political candidate spent on a single election in American history, spending $144 million of her own fortune and $178.5 million in total, including money from donors, a record surpassed only by Michael Bloomberg in the 2020 presidential election. Whitman was defeated by Democratic former Governor Jerry Brown in the 2010 California gubernatorial election by 54% to 41%.


title: Meg Whitman

text: In December 2021, Whitman was nominated by President Joe Biden to serve as the United States Ambassador to Kenya.


title: Meg Whitman

text: Whitman was born in Cold Spring Harbor, New York, the daughter of Margaret Cushing (née Goodhue) and Hendricks Hallett Whitman, Jr. Her patrilineal great-great-great-grandfather, Elnathan Whitman, was a member of the Nova Scotia House of Assembly. Through her father, Whitman is also a great-great-granddaughter of U.S. Senator Charles B. Farwell, of Illinois. On her mother's side, she is a great-granddaughter of historian and jurist Munroe Smith and a great-great-granddaughter of General Henry S. Huidekoper. Her paternal grandmother, born Adelaide Chatfield-Taylor, was the daughter of writer Hobart Chatfield-Taylor and his wife, Rose Farwell Chatfield-Taylor, and the sister of economist Wayne Chatfield-Taylor.


title: Meg Whitman

text: Whitman attended Cold Spring Harbor High School in Cold Spring Harbor, New York, graduating after three years in 1974. In her memoirs, she says she was in the top 10 of her class. She wanted to be a doctor, so she studied math and science at Princeton University. However, after spending a summer selling advertisements for the magazine "Business Today", she changed over to the study of economics. She graduated with an A.B. in economics with honors from Princeton University in 1977 after completing an 83-page-long senior thesis titled "The Marketing of American Consumer Products in Western Europe." Whitman then obtained an M.B.A. from Harvard Business School in 1979.


title: Meg Whitman

text: Whitman is married to Griffith Harsh IV, Chair of Neurosurgery at the University of California, Davis, previously at Stanford University Medical Center. They have two sons. She has lived in Atherton, California, since March 1998. Whitman College, a residential college completed in 2007 at Princeton University, was named for Meg Whitman following her $30 million donation.


title: Meg Whitman

text: Whitman began her career in 1979 as a brand manager at Procter & Gamble in Cincinnati, Ohio. Whitman later moved on to work as a consultant at Bain & Company. She rose through the ranks to achieve the position of senior vice president.


title: Meg Whitman

text: Whitman became vice president of strategic planning at the Walt Disney Company in 1989. Two years later, she joined the Stride Rite Corporation before becoming president and CEO of Florists' Transworld Delivery in 1995.


title: Meg Whitman

text: As Hasbro's Playskool Division general manager, starting in January 1997, she oversaw global management and marketing of two children's brands, Playskool and Mr. Potato Head. She also imported the UK's children's television show Teletubbies into the U.S.


title: Meg Whitman

text: Whitman joined eBay in March 1998, when it had 30 employees and revenues of approximately $4 million. Despite initially not wanting to take on the role, during her time as CEO, through 2008, the company grew to approximately 15,000 employees and $8 billion in annual revenue. Originally, when Whitman had joined eBay, she found the website as a simple black and white webpage with courier font. On her first day, the site crashed for eight hours. She believed the site to be confusing and began by building a new executive team. Whitman organized the company by splitting it into twenty-three business categories. She then assigned executives to each, including some 35,000 subcategories. In 2002, soon after its initial public offering, PayPal became a wholly owned subsidiary of eBay valued at $1.5 billion. In 2004, Whitman made several key changes in her management team. Jeff Jordan took over PayPal, Matt Bannick took control of international operations and Bill Cobb was placed in control of U.S. operations, which has the colorful U.S. logo, while each international site has unique branding.


title: Meg Whitman

text: Whitman picked John J. Donahoe for eBay in March 2005 as president of eBay Marketplaces, responsible for all elements of eBay's global ecommerce businesses.


title: Meg Whitman

text: During Whitman's tenure as CEO, eBay completed the purchase of Skype for $4.1B in cash and stock in September 2005. eBay later admitted that it had overpaid and, in 2009, eBay sold Skype to a group of investors led by Silver Lake Partners at a valuation of $2.75B. In 2011, after the first papers were filed for a possible IPO, Microsoft purchased Skype for US$8.5B.


title: Meg Whitman

text: In June 2007, while preparing for an interview with Reuters, Whitman allegedly shoved her subordinate, communications employee Young Mi Kim. Of the incident, Whitman related, "In any high-pressure working environment, tensions can surface." Kim also stated, "Yes, we had an unfortunate incident, but we resolved it in a way that speaks well for her and for eBay." The matter was resolved after a $200,000 settlement.


title: Meg Whitman

text: Whitman resigned as CEO of eBay in November 2007, but remained on the board and served as an advisor to new CEO John Donahoe until late 2008. She was inducted into the U.S. Business Hall of Fame in 2008. "I've said for some time that 10 years is roughly the right time to stay at the helm at a company like ours", she said in an interview with the "San Francisco Chronicle", adding that "it's time for new leadership, a new perspective and a new vision."


title: Meg Whitman

text: Whitman has received numerous awards and accolades for her work at eBay. On more than one occasion, she was named among the top five most powerful women by "Fortune" magazine. "Harvard Business Review" named her the eighth-best-performing CEO of the past decade and the "Financial Times" named her as one of the 50 faces that shaped the decade.


title: Meg Whitman

text: In January 2011, Whitman joined Hewlett-Packard's (HP) board of directors. She was named CEO on September 22, 2011. As well as renewing focus on HP's Research & Development division, Whitman's major decision during her first year as CEO was to retain and recommit the firm to the PC business that her predecessor announced he was considering discarding.


title: Meg Whitman

text: In 2012, Whitman announced that HP would write down $8.8 billion of the value of Autonomy, the British software company it had purchased the previous year. The announcement eventually led to a civil case in the UK in 2019 at which Whitman testified to having not carried out "proper calculations of the write-down."


title: Meg Whitman

text: In May 2013, Bloomberg L.P. named Whitman "Most Underachieving CEO" – along with Apple's CEO Tim Cook (ranked 12th) and IBM's Virginia Rometty (ranked 10th) – whose stocks had all turned in the worst numbers relative to the broader market since the beginning of each CEO's tenure. HP's stock led the list by underperforming by 30.7 percentage points since Whitman took the job.


title: Meg Whitman

text: On July 26, 2017, Whitman stepped down as chair of HP Inc.'s board of directors, while remaining as CEO of Hewlett Packard Enterprise (HPE). Whitman fought off further rumours around her position at HPE, where she was quoted by "The New York Times" "So let me make this as clear as I can. I am fully committed to HPE and plan to remain the company's C.E.O. We have a lot of work still to do at HPE and I am not going anywhere"


title: Meg Whitman

text: On November 21, 2017 it was announced Whitman was stepping down as the CEO of HPE, effective February 1, 2018, with HPE president Antonio Neri taking over as CEO.


title: Meg Whitman

text: Whitman was CEO of Quibi, a short-form media content app designed for smartphones. In September 2020, just 5 months after its launch, Quibi was considering sale or acquisition with a valuation of $500 million, despite its $1.75 billion initial investment, having failed to meet subscriber targets. Coverage and analysis has blamed this failure on the concept itself, and failures of leadership from Meg Whitman due to her lack of “experience in the industry of the company she is running.” The failure of the app was predicted by many in the Silicon Valley tech ecosystem, with one critic, Rob Enderle listing this as the most recent in Whitman's “repetitive failures” due to her “inability to take responsibility for mistakes, an inability to support subordinates, a focus on shifting blame, and a lack of subject matter expertise.”


title: Meg Whitman

text: Whitman also served on the board of directors of the eBay Foundation, Summit Public Schools, Procter & Gamble and DreamWorks SKG, until early 2009. She was appointed to the board of Goldman Sachs in October 2001 and then resigned in December 2002, amidst controversy that she had received shares in several public offerings managed by Goldman Sachs, although she denied any wrongdoing. (see Ties to Goldman Sachs for further detail). In March 2011, she was appointed a part-time special adviser at venture capital firm Kleiner Perkins.


title: Meg Whitman

text: She has also joined the boards of Zipcar and Teach For America, and re-joined the board of Procter & Gamble. Whitman has also been a member of the board at Survey Monkey.


title: Meg Whitman

text: In 2018, Meg Whitman invested in and joined the board of the eSports organization Immortals Gaming Club.


title: Meg Whitman

text: In November 2019, Meg Whitman purchased a minority stake in FC Cincinnati. Whitman will serve as the club's Alternate Governor on the MLS Board of Governors.


title: Meg Whitman

text: On December 8, 2021, President Joe Biden nominated Whitman to serve as United States ambassador to Kenya. Hearings on her nomination were held before the Senate's Foreign Relations Committee on May 24, 2022. The committee favorably reported her nomination on June 9, 2022. On July 14, 2022, her nomination was confirmed in the Senate by voice vote. She presented her credentials to President Uhuru Kenyatta on August 5, 2022.


title: Meg Whitman

text: Whitman founded a charitable foundation with husband Harsh on December 21, 2006, by donating to it 300,000 shares of eBay stock worth $9.4 million. By the end of its first year of operation, the Griffith R. Harsh IV and Margaret C Whitman Charitable Foundation had $46 million in assets and has disbursed $125,000 to charitable causes. Most of the money disbursed went to the Environmental Defense Fund.


title: Meg Whitman

text: In 2010, Warren Buffett asked Whitman to join the Giving Pledge in which billionaires would commit to donating half of their money to charity, and Whitman declined. In 2011, the foundation donated $2.5 million to Summit Public Schools, which operates several charter schools in the San Jose area.


title: Meg Whitman

text: Whitman was a supporter of the Mitt Romney 2008 presidential campaign and was a member of his national finance team. She was also listed as finance co-chair of Romney's exploratory committee. After Romney stepped out of the race and endorsed John McCain, Whitman joined McCain's presidential campaign as a national co-chair. McCain mentioned Whitman as a possible secretary of the treasury during the second presidential debate in 2008, but lost the election to Barack Obama.


title: Meg Whitman

text: During the 2012 Republican primaries, Whitman endorsed Mitt Romney, who praised her. Whitman's name was mentioned as a possible cabinet member in a Romney administration before he lost to Obama.


title: Meg Whitman

text: During the 2016 Republican primaries, Whitman was finance co-chair of the Chris Christie 2016 presidential campaign. After Christie withdrew from the race and subsequently endorsed Donald Trump, Whitman criticized it as "an astonishing display of political opportunism" and called on other Christie donors to reject Trump, whom she compared to Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini. In August, Whitman endorsed the Hillary Clinton 2016 presidential campaign, stating that to vote for Trump "out of party loyalty alone would be to endorse a candidacy that I believe has exploited anger, grievance, xenophobia and racial division". Acknowledging policy differences with Clinton, Whitman nonetheless praised her "temperament, global experience and commitment to America's bedrock national values". She called on all Republicans "to put country first before party" and added that she would support the campaign financially.


title: Meg Whitman

text: Whitman spoke at the 2020 Democratic National Convention in support of the party's presidential nominee Joe Biden.


title: Meg Whitman

text: On February 10, 2009, Whitman announced she would run for governor of California in the 2010 election. On June 8, 2010, Whitman won the Republican primary, becoming the first female to run on the Republican ticket and the third female overall to run for Governor of California after Dianne Feinstein in 1990 and Kathleen Brown in 1994. Her campaign was largely self-funded. She ultimately lost to Jerry Brown.


title: Meg Whitman

text: According to final reports, Whitman spent $144 million from her own personal funds. As of 2010, this was more than any other self-funded political candidate in U.S. history.


title: Meg Whitman

text: In June 2010, Whitman released a political ad, "A Lifetime in Politics A Legacy of Failure", which seemingly contained one image of the FAIL Blog website, making it appear in the ad as if Jerry Brown had been the subject of one of the website's namesake "fails". Ben Huh, founder of the Cheezburger Network, of which failblog.org is a part, demanded an apology and the removal of the video, stating that the image was faked, and that the website is non-partisan and has never endorsed a particular political candidate or party.


title: Meg Whitman

text: On November 2, 2010, at 11:35 pm, Whitman conceded the election to her opponent, Jerry Brown, stating "We've come up a little short."


title: Meg Whitman

text: In 2010, "The Sacramento Bee" reported that Whitman did not vote for 28 years, after reviewing her voting records in California. Whitman has described her voting record as "inexcusable", apologized for it, and stated that she is happy to discuss the matter. Whitman answered questions about her record in September, replying, "And I think the reason for many years, I wasn't as engaged in the political process and should have been."


title: Meg Whitman

text: In September 2010, Nicky Diaz Santillan revealed that she was employed in the Whitman household as a housekeeper and nanny from 2000 to 2009 despite her status as an illegal worker. Whitman's campaign released documents which she says Santillan provided prior to her employment including a driver's license, social security ID, and application. Santillan says Whitman knew she was undocumented, producing a 2003 letter from the Social Security Administration stating that her Social Security number did not match her name. Whitman initially stated that they "never received those letters", however, after a hand-written note on the document was shown, believed to be from Whitman's husband, they acknowledged they may have received it, but forgot. Santillan's attorney, Gloria Allred, states that Santillan was fired for the sake of the campaign. Whitman's campaign maintains that this is a political attack, stating that Allred is a Jerry Brown supporter. Brown, Allred and Santillan all deny this. Crystal Williams, Director of the American Immigration Lawyers Association stated "Not only is accepting the documents all the law required [Whitman] to do, but there's a counterbalancing anti-discrimination law that keeps her from probing further or demanding different documents." Others disagree; Immigration lawyer Greg Siskind states Whitman was the employer, and the documents by law needed to be signed by her but were not, nor did they have a social security number on them; the "Fort Worth Star-Telegram" noted that Whitman "hired her, paid her and had direct contact with her for nine years", so should have known her legal status. The "Los Angeles Times" noted that Latino voters were more likely interested that Whitman treated Santillan "like a piece of garbage" when the maid asked for help finding an immigration attorney, and Whitman allegedly stated "you don't know me and I don't know you".


title: Meg Whitman

text: Goldman Sachs, whose executives donated $100,000 to the Whitman campaign, manages a part of Whitman's fortune. As CEO of eBay, Whitman earned approximately $1.78 million resulting from a practice known as spinning whereby executives who did business with Goldman Sachs could reap profits by getting early deals before the public on hot IPOs offered by the bank. Whitman later resigned from the Goldman Sachs board after some expressed concern over her receiving shares from Goldman Sachs. In commenting on Whitman's resignation from the Goldman Sachs board, eBay spokesman Henry Gomez told "The Wall Street Journal" at the time that, "If we wanted to use Goldman's services, she doesn't want there to be even the slightest perception of any conflict. She's doing this because she thinks quite highly of the firm." While Whitman was on Goldman Sachs' board, she served on the compensation committee, which approved multimillion-dollar bonus packages for then-CEO Henry Paulson and his top aides. Public domain documents reveal that Whitman has a multimillion-dollar stake in 21 investment funds managed by Goldman Sachs. Given Goldman Sachs' major investments in California state finances, all these ties to Goldman Sachs led to considerable controversy during the gubernatorial campaign. In response, Whitman vowed to eliminate any potential conflicts of interest, and publicly stated that she would immediately sell her Goldman Sachs stock and put her Goldman Sachs-managed investments in a blind trust if elected governor.


title: Meg Whitman

text: While running for governor, Whitman emphasized three major areas: job creation, reduced state government spending, and reform of the state's K-12 educational system. She argued that it is best to start only a few things and finish them, instead of starting a lot of things and finishing few of them.


title: Meg Whitman

text: Whitman said that if elected, on her first day she would have suspended AB 32, the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006, for a year to study its potential economic implications. AB 32 requires the state to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 30 percent by 2020. At the state Republican Convention in March 2010, Whitman described California Republican Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger's climate change bill as a "job-killer". Whitman opposed Proposition 23, which would delay the global warming law AB 32 until California's unemployment falls to 5.5 percent and stays there for a year, stating that the proposition did not reasonably balance the need to protect jobs with the need to preserve environment.


title: Meg Whitman

text: On water issues, Whitman opposed further restrictions on water supply in the Central Valley, and she suggested that President Obama should overturn a federal judge's ruling under provisions in the Endangered Species Act which reduced water supplies another 5% to 7%.


title: Meg Whitman

text: Whitman said that Arizona's approach to illegal immigration with Arizona SB 1070 is wrong and that there are better ways to solve the problem. She said that, if she had lived in California in 1994, she would have voted against Proposition 187 concerning illegal immigrants. In an op-ed during her gubernatorial campaign, Whitman wrote, "Clearly, when examining our positions on immigration, there is very little over which Jerry Brown and I disagree".


title: Meg Whitman

text: She stated that illegal immigrant students should be prohibited from attending state-funded institutions of higher education. Currently, California state law permits this. In 2009, Whitman called for "a path to legalization" of illegal immigrants. In a 2010 interview on television station KTLA, Whitman said, "I want to hold employers accountable for hiring only documented workers."


title: Meg Whitman

text: During the 2010 California gubernatorial election, Whitman supported California's Proposition 8, which reversed "In re Marriage Cases" and defined marriage as a union between one man and one woman in the state. Whitman also criticized Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and Attorney General Jerry Brown for not defending Proposition 8 in the federal judicial system. However, on February 26, 2013, Whitman confirmed that she had reversed that opinion. Whitman stated, "At the time, I believed the people of California had weighed in on this question and that overturning the will of the people was the wrong approach," and "The facts and arguments presented during the legal process since then have had a profound impact on my thinking." Whitman also believes that gay and lesbian couples should be permitted to adopt children. Whitman supports abortion rights.


title: Meg Whitman

text: Whitman has said that the legalization of marijuana is not what any law enforcement person would suggest for any reason and that "this is the worst idea [she has] ever seen."


title: Meg Whitman

text: Whitman does not support the California High-Speed Rail project. In a 2010 letter to the "Sacramento Bee" Whitman's spokeswoman Sarah Pompei said, "Meg believes the state cannot afford the costs associated with high-speed rail due to our current fiscal crisis." Her opponent Jerry Brown was in favor of the project.


title: Meg Whitman

text: Whitman has made monetary donations to various candidates and political action committees (PAC). While these have gone to both Republicans and Democrats, the donations are weighted to Republicans. Though Whitman has contributed to a few Democrats, including Senator Barbara Boxer; donating $4,000 to her campaign and serving on the "Friends of Boxer" committee in 2004, she donated more than $225,000 during the same period to Republicans, eBay's PAC and to Americans for a Republican Majority, the PAC of former Congressman Tom DeLay.


title: Meg Whitman

text: In 2017, Whitman was the Commencement speaker for Carnegie Mellon University and was awarded an honorary doctorate degree.


title: Neapolitan ice cream

text: Neapolitan ice cream (in Ireland and the U.K., sometimes colloquially mispronounced as Napoleon ice cream), also sometimes called Harlequin ice cream, is a type of ice cream composed of three separate flavors (vanilla, chocolate, and strawberry) arranged side by side in the same container, usually without any packaging in between.


title: Neapolitan ice cream

text: Neapolitan ice cream was named in the late 19th century as a reflection of its presumed origins in the cuisine of the Italian city of Naples, and the many Neapolitan immigrants who brought their expertise in frozen desserts with them to the United States. Spumone was introduced to the United States in the 1860s as Neapolitan-style ice cream. Early recipes used a variety of flavors; however, the number of three molded together was a common denominator, to resemble the Italian flag (cf. insalata tricolore). More than likely, chocolate, vanilla, and strawberry became the standard because they were the most popular flavors in the United States at the time of introduction.


title: Neapolitan ice cream

text: It is the first type of ice cream to combine three flavors. The first recorded recipe was created by head chef of the royal Prussian household Louis Ferdinand Jungius in 1839, who dedicated the recipe to Fürst Pückler.


title: Neapolitan ice cream

text: In Australia, there is a popular cake known as Neapolitan cake or marble cake, made with the same three colours of Neapolitan ice cream swirled through in a marble pattern, usually topped with pink icing.


title: Chloe Lukasiak

text: Chloe Elizabeth Lukasiak (born May 25, 2001) is an American actress, dancer and reality television personality. She gained recognition as a child for being an original cast member of Lifetime's reality television series "Dance Moms" during Season 1 through Season 4, where she quickly became a fan favorite. She later returned in the latter half of season 7.


title: Chloe Lukasiak

text: Lukasiak has since transitioned from dancing to acting. Her film roles include Gwen Murphy in " (2016)", Alexandra "Lexi" Smith in "Loophole" (2017), Savanah Stocker in "A Cowgirl's Story (2017)," Mallory in "F.R.E.D.I" (2018), Jasmine Joel in "Next Level (2019)," Ashley in "Beautiful Scars" (2020) and Devin Dupree in "Camp Arrowhead" (2020). Her social media presence includes over 14 million followers across multiple platforms, including "Instagram" where she has over 7 million followers.


title: Chloe Lukasiak

text: Lukasiak was born on May 25, 2001 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania to Christina "Christi" (née Zook) and Marc Lukasiak. She has a younger sister, Clara. The family resides in Mars, Pennsylvania. She is of Polish, Scottish, German, and Italian descent.


title: Chloe Lukasiak

text: Lukasiak began dance classes at the Abby Lee Dance Company at age two. At first, she did "the basics" such as jazz and ballet. But as she got older she started to do more styles and has trained in everything except ballroom. From the ages of five to thirteen, Lukasiak competed throughout the United States as part of the Abby Lee Dance Company, winning numerous titles at the regional, state, and national levels. Lukasiak competed on "Dance Moms" in many dance genres: lyrical, contemporary, musical theatre, ballet, jazz, hip-hop, acro, Spanish, and Bollywood.


title: Chloe Lukasiak

text: In 2011, Lukasiak and her mother, alongside Abby Lee Dance Company owner Abby Lee Miller, other young dancers, and their mothers, were cast on Lifetime's "Dance Moms". Together they made up Miller's Junior Elite Competition Team.


title: Chloe Lukasiak

text: After the Los Angeles national competition in July 2014 (filmed for an episode aired October 7, 2014), Lukasiak's mother decided that the environment of the TV show along with her own negative relationship with Miller was detrimental to her daughter and they decided to leave ALDC. The finale episode of Season 4 was their last appearance on "Dance Moms" as part of the main cast partially because of Miller being unappreciative about the fact that Lukasiak was the highest scoring ALDC soloist at Nationals, beating teammates Kendall Vertes and Kamryn Beck. After the end of Season 4, Lukasiak left ALDC for good and switched to Studio 19 Dance Complex. Lukasiak's competition team from Studio 19 went on to win nationals in July 2015.


title: Chloe Lukasiak

text: In high demand now that she was free of the ALDC, Lukasiak was invited to be a demonstrator and assistant for Blake McGrath in the VIP Dance Events convention (Calgary, Oct. 2014). Lukasiak has also posted many professionally-filmed dance videos on her "YouTube" channel as a series called Team Chloe Dance Project. She won "Choice Dancer" at the 2015 Teen Choice Awards and the "Dancers Choice Award" for "Favorite Dancer 17 & Under" at the 2015 Industry Dance Awards. She was once again nominated for the "Choice Dancer" award at the 2016 & 2017 Teen Choice Awards. She was nominated for a Shorty Award in the category of 'Best in Dance' but lost to Misty Copeland. Lukasiak joined the Triple Threat Talent Tour as a guest performer and assistant for several dance conventions in 2015/2016. In 2016, Lukasiak collaborated with Playtex Sport and starred in their "Ready, Set, Play On!" campaign commercial as a dancer. That same year, Lukasiak partnered with "Ownzones" to launch her own dance web series called "Chloe on Pointe".


title: Chloe Lukasiak

text: On January 27, 2017, Lukasiak announced that she would return to guest-star on "Dance Moms" for the Season 7 finale and Season 7B. Lukasiak first joined Murrieta Dance Project, but then left to form The Irreplaceables with Nia Sioux, Kendall Vertes, Kalani Hilliker, and Camryn Bridges. Lukasiak signed with Lifetime in April 2017 to star in her own web series called "Chloe Does It". In 2017, Lukasiak filmed an anti-bullying dance video for Seventeen Magazine. In December 2017, Lukasiak began touring with Kalani Hilliker and Kendall Vertes on "The Irreplaceables Tour".


title: Chloe Lukasiak

text: In 2019, Lukasiak took part in the Tate McRae "Tear Myself Apart" Dance Contest, placing in the top 5 out of over 100 participants.


title: Chloe Lukasiak

text: In 2011, Lukasiak started her acting career with an acting lesson from Howard Fine for her role in LUX's (daughter of actor Ted Danson) music video for "It's Like Summer". Then, in 2012, Lukasiak auditioned for the role of "Young Deb" on the "Lifetime" show "Drop Dead Diva", but lost the role to fellow "Dance Moms" cast member, Maddie Ziegler. Lukasiak also auditioned for the role of "Annie" in the 2012 "Broadway" musical "Annie", but lost the part to Actresses Lilla Crawford and Sadie Sink. Lukasiak later auditioned in 2013 for the role of "Maddy" in the 2015 film "Spare Parts", but lost the role to Actress Aubrey Miller. Lukasiak's debut acting role was as Gwen Murphy in the 2016 Lifetime TV movie "". In an interview released on June 15, 2016, Lukasiak said she was grateful to "Dance Moms" because it showed her how much she loves acting and that she has a passion for it. She was later cast as Savanah Stocker in "A Cowgirl's Story" alongside former "Bridge to Terabithia" star Bailee Madison. Lukasiak has since been cast as the lead role in the science-fiction/inspirational thriller called "Loophole", and supporting roles in the family-friendly movies "Camp Arrowhead", "Next Level", and "F.R.E.D.I." In 2016, Lukasiak played a character named Flynn Harrington for episodes in a TV series called "Welcome To My World," however, the series never made it to air. Lukasiak appeared in a commercial for the tv show "Superstore" in 2016 as a store employee. Lukasiak has also provided her acting talents in the 2020 short film "Beautiful Scars" as a Co-Lead with two other actors and a character for a story called "Limelight" in an Interactive app called YarnTexts. In February 2020, Lukasiak appeared as a Werewolf in a promotional short for the "Disney Channel" original movie, "Zombies 2". On April 22, 2021, Lukasiak acted in the Earth Day comedy skit "Earth Day! The Musical" with Bill Nye, Justin Bieber, Zac Efron and other celebrities on Facebook Watch.


title: Chloe Lukasiak

text: Lukasiak began modeling for fashion lines "Glitzy Girl", "Oxyjen", "Tutu DuMonde" and "Sally Miller" in 2012-13. Lukasiak then became a spokesmodel for "Just For Kix", an American dancewear company, in October 2014. With the company's partnership, she created an anti-bullying campaign called #NobodyisYOU. She was featured in several videos relating to the cause alongside dancers such as Averee Jade. Following her leave from "Dance Moms" in 2014, she modeled for various clothing brands including "90 Degrees by Reflex", "Good hYOUman", "Boy Meets Girl", and "BCBG Max Azria" (runway). In 2016, Lukasiak became the new face of StyleHaul. Lukasiak has also modeled for many magazines including "The Hollywood Reporter", "In Touch Weekly", "Nationalist", "Inside Dance", "LVLten", "LowCountry Parent", "Cliche", "NKD", "Pulse Spikes", "Dream", "YSBNow", "Afterglow", "Popstar", "Girls' Life", "Prune, Dance Track" and "A Book Of".


title: Chloe Lukasiak

text: In 2015, Lukasiak appeared in a commercial for the fast food chain, Sonic. In 2017, Lukasiak began working on a fashion line in collaboration with Dazzine. That same year, after Dazzine unexpectedly folded, she curated the Rocking Ballerina shoe/fashion line with JustFab. and a Christmas fashion line through the same company. Lukasiak also hosted the miniseries Wicked Weekly that year, which was 16 episodes that aired on Disney Channel leading up to the release of the 2017 "Disney Channel original film", Descendants 2. In 2018, Lukasiak became an ambassador for JustFab and released videos featuring monthly shoe picks from the brand. During NY Fashion Week in February 2018, Lukasiak became a "Gelwick Girl," being styled by Andrew Gelwicks for her book tour and fashion shows at New York Fashion Week. Lukasiak started partnering with Maybelline in 2019 and appeared in an ad for their product Snapscara alongside Skai Jackson, Summer McKeen, Jordyn Jones and Roxette Arisa. Later that year, Lukasiak collabed with Victoria's Secret PINK and Awesomeness TV to host a miniseries titled 'GRL PWR', which is about women's goals and life in college. In 2022, Lukasiak collaborated with Evry Jewels for a jewelry line that launched on January 15.


title: Chloe Lukasiak

text: Lukasiak has appeared in numerous music videos, as during the filming of Dance Moms she appeared in videos for artists Brooke Hyland and LUX (daughter of actor Ted Danson). Also during the filming of Dance Moms, Lukasiak created a fan made music video for Katy Perry's Last Friday Night with Maddie Ziegler using the app Video Star; the video has over 10 million views on YouTube. In 2015, she appeared as the lead for Jess Godwin's song "Fool Me Once", Solveig Romero's "Turn It Up" and Bianca Ryan's "Alice", as well as "Wrapped Up For Christmas" by Forever in Your Mind. In 2016, Lukasiak appeared in AJ Lehrman's music video for his new single "Tongue" and a video for transgender vocalist Ali J for her cover of "Piece By Piece" by Kelly Clarkson, which was featured on CNN. Lukasiak had a supporting role in her former "Dance Moms" costar Nia Sioux's music video for her song "Dance (Just Rock)" in 2017. Lukasiak most recently appeared in a music video in 2019 for Barbie called "We're Taking Over."


title: Chloe Lukasiak

text: During her second year of high school Lukasiak took a creative writing class. After that she began writing short stories and poems and decided to pursue a career in writing. She contributed a piece detailing her experience with overcoming bullying in the 2016 "Pulse Spikes" book "Ignite!". Lukasiak signed with Bloomsbury Publishing in 2017 and the next year released her debut book "Girl on Pointe: Chloe's Guide to Taking On The World". Lukasiak also wrote, prepared and gave a speech at the 2017 UN International Day of Peace at the United Nations Headquarters in New York City, New York.


title: Chloe Lukasiak

text: In 2018, Lukasiak teamed up with Girls' Life Magazine to launch Chloe's Book Club. In 2020, the partnership ended and the book club became Bestie Book Club. In February 2021, Lukasiak re-launched the book club under her own leadership rather than under a partnership. On November 18, 2021, it was announced that Lukasiak partnered up with Literati for her book club now titled "Let's Escape".


title: Chloe Lukasiak

text: In May 2020, Lukasiak created an Instagram account dedicated to sharing things that she has written with her fans and has announced her intention to write a fantasy book series. In April 2021, Lukasiak announced that she had written a piece of Rosie Day's upcoming book "Instructions for a Teenage Armageddon: 30 Kick-Ass Women On How To Take Over The World". The book was released on October 14, 2021.


title: Chloe Lukasiak

text: Lukasiak has expressed publicly that she is Liberal and showed support for US President Joe Biden during the 2020 Presidential Election. On social media, Lukasiak has come out in support of immigrants, LGBTQ youth, mental health support, anti-drug pledges, animal rights, preventing school shootings, kindness, Black Lives Matter, women's rights and awareness of eating disorders.


title: Chloe Lukasiak

text: In 2015, Lukasiak was diagnosed with silent sinus syndrome, and had surgery to correct the condition.


title: Chloe Lukasiak

text: In an interview, Lukasiak said she practices dancing four days a week except when she is traveling. She stopped competing in dance competitions in 2016 due to her growing list of commitments. Outside of dance, Lukasiak makes time for friends including her former ALDC teammates Paige Hyland, Nia Frazier, and Brooke Hyland.


title: Chloe Lukasiak

text: In 2019, Lukasiak was accepted into Pepperdine University, where she is studying creative writing, and is on track to graduate in the Fall of 2023. In April 2020, Lukasiak revealed that she had been battling three types of eating disorders for the past few years by posting a poem that she had written about it on her Instagram account. Lukasiak elaborated more about her experience with her eating disorders in a YouTube video on her official YouTube channel.


title: Chloe Lukasiak

text: On October 7, 2021, Lukasiak publicly confirmed her relationship with skater and influencer Brooklinn "Brook" Khoury. The two have been dating since November 2020.


title: High Renaissance

text: In art history, the High Renaissance was a short period of the most exceptional artistic production in the Italian states, particularly Rome, capital of the Papal States, and in Florence, during the Italian Renaissance. Most art historians state that the High Renaissance started around 1495 or 1500 and ended in 1520 with the death of Raphael, although some say the High Renaissance ended about 1525, or in 1527 with the Sack of Rome by the army of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, or about 1530 (see next section for specific art historians' positions). The best-known exponents of painting, sculpture and architecture of the High Renaissance include Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, and Bramante. In recent years, the use of the term has been frequently criticized by some academic art historians for oversimplifying artistic developments, ignoring historical context, and focusing only on a few iconic works.


title: High Renaissance

text: The term "High Renaissance" was first used by Jacob Burckhardt in German ("Hochrenaissance") in 1855 and has its origins in the "High Style" of painting and sculpture of the time period around the early 16th century described by Johann Joachim Winckelmann in 1764. Extending the general rubric of Renaissance culture, the visual arts of the High Renaissance were marked by a renewed emphasis upon the classical tradition, the expansion of networks of patronage, and a gradual attenuation of figural forms into the style later termed Mannerism.


title: High Renaissance

text: Alexander Raunch in "The Art of the High Renaissance and Mannerism in Rome and Central Italy", 2007, states the High Renaissance began in 1490, while Marilyn Stokstad in "Art History", 2008, states it began in the 1490s. Frederick Hartt states that Leonardo's "The Last Supper", the painting of which began in 1495 and concluded in 1498, makes a complete break with the Early Renaissance and created the world in which Michelangelo and Raphael worked, while Christoph Luitpold Frommel, in his 2012 article "Bramante and the Origins of the High Renaissance," states "The Last Supper" is the first High Renaissance work but adds that the peak period of the High Renaissance was actually 1505 to 1513. David Piper in "The Illustrated History of Art", 1991, also cites "The Last Supper" writing the work announced the High Renaissance and was one of the most influential paintings of the High Renaissance, but contradictorily states that the High Renaissance began just after 1500. Burchkardt stated the High Renaissance started at the close of the 15th century, while Franz Kugler, who wrote the first "modern" survey text, "Handbook of Art History" in 1841, and Hugh Honour and John Fleming in "The Visual Arts: A History", 2009, state the High Renaissance started at the beginning of the 16th century. Another seminal work of art which was created in the 1495–1500 timeframe was Michelangelo's "Pietà," housed in St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City, which was executed in 1498–99.


title: High Renaissance

text: In contrast to most of the other art historians, Manfred Wurdram, in "Masterpieces of Western Art", 2007, actually states that the dawn of the High Renaissance was heralded by Leonardo's "Adoration of the Magi" of 1481, for which only the underpainting was completed.


title: High Renaissance

text: As far as the end of the High Renaissance is concerned Hartt, Frommel, Piper, Wundrum, and Winkelman all state that the High Renaissance ended in 1520 with the death of Raphael. Honour and Fleming stated the High Renaissance was the first quarter of the 16th century meaning it would have ended in 1525. By contrast, Luigi Lanzi, in his "History of Italian Painting", 1795–96, stated it ended with the Sack of Rome in 1527, when several artists were killed and many other dispersed from Rome, and Stokstad agrees. Raunch asserts that 1530 has been considered to be the end of the High Renaissance. Hartt adds that 1520 to 1530 was a transition period between the High Renaissance and Mannerism. Traditionally, the end of the High Renaissance in Florence is seen as marked by the end of the Republic of Florence and the beginning of the Duchy of Florence in 1532.


title: High Renaissance

text: High Renaissance style in architecture conventionally begins with Donato Bramante, whose Tempietto at S. Pietro in Montorio at Rome was begun in 1510. The Tempietto, signifies a full-scale revival of ancient Roman commemorative architecture. David Watkin writes that the Tempietto, like Raphael's works in the Vatican (1509–11), "is an attempt at reconciling Christian and humanist ideals".


title: High Renaissance

text: The High Renaissance of painting was the culmination of the varied means of expression and various advances in painting technique, such as linear perspective, the realistic depiction of both physical and psychological features, and the manipulation of light and darkness, including tone contrast, sfumato (softening the transition between colours) and chiaroscuro (contrast between light and dark), in a single unifying style which expressed total compositional order, balance and harmony. In particular, the individual parts of the painting had a complex but balanced and well-knit relationship to the whole.


title: High Renaissance

text: Painting of the High Renaissance is considered to be the absolute zenith of western painting and achieved the balancing and reconciliation, in harmony, of contradictory and seemingly mutually exclusive artistic positions, such as real versus ideal, movement versus rest, freedom versus law, space versus plane, and line versus colour. The High Renaissance was traditionally viewed as a great explosion of creative genius, following a model of art history first proposed by the Florentine Giorgio Vasari.


title: High Renaissance

text: The paintings in the Vatican by Michelangelo and Raphael are said by some scholars such as Stephen Freedberg to represent the culmination of High Renaissance style in painting, because of the ambitious scale of these works, coupled with the complexity of their composition, closely observed human figures, and pointed iconographic and decorative references to classical antiquity, can be viewed as emblematic of the High Renaissance.


title: High Renaissance

text: Even relatively minor painters of the period, such as Fra Bartolomeo and Mariotto Albertinelli, produced works that are still lauded for the harmony of their design and their technique. The elongated proportions and exaggerated poses in the late works of Michelangelo, Andrea del Sarto and Correggio prefigure so-called Mannerism, as the style of the later Renaissance is referred to in art history.


title: High Renaissance

text: The serene mood and luminous colours of paintings by Giorgione and early Titian exemplify High Renaissance style as practiced in Venice. Other recognizable pieces of this period include Leonardo da Vinci's "Mona Lisa" and Raphael's "The School of Athens". Raphael's fresco, set beneath an arch, is a virtuoso work of perspective, composition and "disegno".


title: High Renaissance

text: In more recent years, art historians have characterised the High Renaissance as a movement as opposed to a period, one amongst several different experimental attitudes towards art in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth century. This movement is variously characterised as conservative, as reflecting new attitudes towards beauty, a deliberate process of synthesising eclectic models, linked to fashions in literary culture, and reflecting new preoccupations with interpretation and meaning .


title: High Renaissance

text: High Renaissance sculpture, as exemplified by Michelangelo's "Pietà" and the iconic "David", is characterized by an "ideal" balance between stillness and movement. High Renaissance sculpture was normally commissioned by the public and the state, this becoming more popular for sculpture is an expensive art form. Sculpture was often used to decorate or embellish architecture, normally within courtyards where others were able to study and admire the commissioned art work. Wealthy individuals like cardinals, rulers, and bankers were the more likely private patrons along with very wealthy families; Pope Julius II also patronized many artists. During the High Renaissance there was the development of small scale statuettes for private patrons, the creation of busts and tombs also developing. The subject matter related to sculpture was mostly religious but also with a significant strand of classical individuals in the form of tomb sculpture and paintings as well as ceilings of cathedrals.


title: Ramesses I

text: Menpehtyre Ramesses I (or Ramses) was the founding pharaoh of ancient Egypt's 19th Dynasty. The dates for his short reign are not completely known but the time-line of late 1292–1290 BC is frequently cited as well as 1295–1294 BC. While Ramesses I was the founder of the 19th Dynasty, his brief reign mainly serves to mark the transition between the reign of Horemheb, who had stabilized Egypt in the late 18th Dynasty, and the rule of the powerful pharaohs of his own dynasty, in particular his son Seti I, and grandson Ramesses II.


title: Ramesses I

text: Originally called Pa-ra-mes-su, Ramesses I was of non-royal birth, being born into a noble military family from the Nile Delta region, perhaps near the former Hyksos capital of Avaris. He was a son of a troop commander called Seti. His uncle Khaemwaset, an army officer, married Tamwadjesy, the matron of Tutankhamun's Harem of Amun, who was a relative of Huy, the viceroy of Kush, an important state post. This shows the high status of Ramesses' family. Ramesses I found favor with Horemheb, the last pharaoh of the tumultuous Eighteenth Dynasty, who appointed the former as his vizier. Ramesses also served as the High Priest of Set – as such, he would have played an important role in the restoration of the old religion following the Amarna heresy of a generation earlier, under Akhenaten.