title: Irgun

text: UNSCOP's conclusion was a unanimous decision to end the British mandate, and a majority decision to divide Mandatory Palestine (the land west of the Jordan River) between a Jewish state and an Arab state. During the UN's deliberations regarding the committee's recommendations the Irgun avoided initiating any attacks, so as not to influence the UN negatively on the idea of a Jewish state. On November 29 the UN General Assembly voted in favor of ending the mandate and establishing two states on the land. That very same day the Irgun and the Lehi renewed their attacks on British targets. The next day the local Arabs began attacking the Jewish community, thus beginning the first stage of the 1948 Palestine War. The first attacks on Jews were in Jewish neighborhoods of Jerusalem, in and around Jaffa, and in Bat Yam, Holon, and the Ha'Tikvah neighborhood in Tel Aviv.


title: Irgun

text: In the autumn of 1947, the Irgun had approximately 4,000 members. The goal of the organization at that point was the conquest of the land between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea for the future Jewish state and preventing Arab forces from driving out the Jewish community. The Irgun became almost an overt organization, establishing military bases in Ramat Gan and Petah Tikva. It began recruiting openly, thus significantly increasing in size. During the war the Irgun fought alongside the Lehi and the Haganah in the front against the Arab attacks. At first the Haganah maintained a defensive policy, as it had until then, but after the Convoy of 35 incident it completely abandoned its policy of restraint: "Distinguishing between individuals is no longer possible, for now – it is a war, and even the innocent shall not be absolved."


title: Irgun

text: The Irgun also began carrying out reprisal missions, as it had under David Raziel's command. At the same time though, it published announcements calling on the Arabs to lay down their weapons and maintain a ceasefire:


title: Irgun

text: However, the mutual attacks continued. The Irgun attacked the Arab villages of Tira near Haifa, Yehudiya ('Abassiya) in the center, and Shuafat by Jerusalem. The Irgun also attacked in the Wadi Rushmiya neighborhood in Haifa and Abu Kabir in Jaffa. On December 29 Irgun units arrived by boat to the Jaffa shore and a gunfight between them and Arab gangs ensued. The following day a bomb was thrown from a speeding Irgun car at a group of Arab men waiting to be hired for the day at the Haifa oil refinery, resulting in seven Arabs killed, and dozens injured. In response, some Arab workers attacked Jews in the area, killing 41. This sparked a Haganah response in Balad al-Sheykh, which resulted in the deaths of 60 civilians. The Irgun's goal in the fighting was to move the battles from Jewish populated areas to Arab populated areas. On January 1, 1948, the Irgun attacked again in Jaffa, its men wearing British uniforms; later in the month it attacked in Beit Nabala, a base for many Arab fighters. On 5 January 1948 the Irgun detonated a lorry bomb outside Jaffa's Ottoman built Town Hall, killing 14 and injuring 19. In Jerusalem, two days later, Irgun members in a stolen police van rolled a barrel bomb into a large group of civilians who were waiting for a bus by the Jaffa Gate, killing around sixteen. In the pursuit that followed three of the attackers were killed and two taken prisoner.


title: Irgun

text: On 6 April 1948, the Irgun raided the British Army camp at Pardes Hanna killing six British soldiers and their commanding officer.


title: Irgun

text: The Deir Yassin massacre was carried out in a village west of Jerusalem that had signed a non-belligerency pact with its Jewish neighbors and the Haganah, and repeatedly had barred entry to foreign irregulars. On 9 April approximately 120 Irgun and Lehi members began an operation to capture the village. During the operation, the villagers fiercely resisted the attack, and a battle broke out. In the end, the Irgun and Lehi forces advanced gradually through house-to-house fighting. The village was only taken after the Irgun began systematically dynamiting houses, and after a Palmach unit intervened and employed mortar fire to silence the villagers' sniper positions. The operation resulted in five Jewish fighters dead and 40 injured. Some 100 to 120 villagers were also killed.


title: Irgun

text: There are allegations that Irgun and Lehi forces committed war crimes during and after the capture of the village. These allegations include reports that fleeing individuals and families were fired at, and prisoners of war were killed after their capture. A Haganah report writes:


title: Irgun

text: The Irgun cooperated with the Haganah in the conquest of Haifa. At the regional commander's request, on April 21 the Irgun took over an Arab post above Hadar Ha'Carmel as well as the Arab neighborhood of Wadi Nisnas, adjacent to the Lower City.


title: Irgun

text: The Irgun acted independently in the conquest of Jaffa (part of the proposed Arab State according to the UN Partition Plan). On April 25 Irgun units, about 600 strong, left the Irgun base in Ramat Gan towards Arab Jaffa. Difficult battles ensued, and the Irgun faced resistance from the Arabs as well as the British. Under the command of Amichai "Gidi" Paglin, the Irgun's chief operations officer, the Irgun captured the neighborhood of Manshiya, which threatened the city of Tel Aviv. Afterwards the force continued to the sea, towards the area of the port, and using mortars, shelled the southern neighborhoods.


title: Irgun

text: On May 14, 1948 the establishment of the State of Israel was proclaimed. The declaration of independence was followed by the establishment of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), and the process of absorbing all military organizations into the IDF started. On June 1, an agreement had been signed between Menachem Begin and Yisrael Galili for the absorption of the Irgun into the IDF. One of the clauses stated that the Irgun had to stop smuggling arms. Meanwhile, in France, Irgun representatives purchased a ship, renamed "Altalena" (a pseudonym of Ze'ev Jabotinsky), and weapons. The ship sailed on June 11 and arrived at the Israeli coast on June 20, during the first truce of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. Despite United Nations Security Council Resolution 50 declaring an arms embargo in the region, neither side respected it.


title: Irgun

text: When the ship arrived the Israeli government, headed by Ben-Gurion, was adamant in its demand that the Irgun surrender and hand over all of the weapons. Ben-Gurion said: "We must decide whether to hand over power to Begin or to order him to cease his activities. If he does not do so, we will open fire! Otherwise, we must decide to disperse our own army."


title: Irgun

text: There were two confrontations between the newly formed IDF and the Irgun: when "Altalena" reached Kfar Vitkin in the late afternoon of Sunday, June 20 many Irgun militants, including Begin, waited on the shore. A clash with the Alexandroni Brigade, commanded by Dan Even (Epstein), occurred. Fighting ensued and there were a number of casualties on both sides. The clash ended in a ceasefire and the transfer of the weapons on shore to the local IDF commander, and with the ship, now reinforced with local Irgun members, including Begin, sailing to Tel Aviv, where the Irgun had more supporters.


title: Irgun

text: Many Irgun members, who joined the IDF earlier that month, left their bases and concentrated on the Tel Aviv beach. A confrontation between them and the IDF units started. In response, Ben-Gurion ordered Yigael Yadin (acting Chief of Staff) to concentrate large forces on the Tel Aviv beach and to take the ship by force. Heavy guns were transferred to the area and at four in the afternoon, Ben-Gurion ordered the shelling of the "Altalena". One of the shells hit the ship, which began to burn.


title: Irgun

text: Sixteen Irgun fighters were killed in the confrontation with the army; six were killed in the Kfar Vitkin area and ten on Tel Aviv beach. Three IDF soldiers were killed: two at Kfar Vitkin and one in Tel Aviv.


title: Irgun

text: After the shelling of the "Altalena", more than 200 Irgun fighters were arrested. Most of them were freed several weeks later. The Irgun militants were then fully integrated with the IDF and not kept in separate units.


title: Irgun

text: The initial agreement for the integration of the Irgun into the IDF did not include Jerusalem, where a small remnant of the Irgun called the "Jerusalem Battalion", numbering around 400 fighters, and Lehi, continued to operate independently of the government. Following the assassination of UN Envoy for Peace Folke Bernadotte by Lehi in September 1948, the Israeli government determined to immediately dismantle the underground organizations. An ultimatum was issued to the Irgun to liquidate as an independent organization and integrate into the IDF or be destroyed, and Israeli troops surrounded the Irgun camp in the Katamon Quarter of Jerusalem. The Irgun accepted the ultimatum on September 22, 1948, and shortly afterward the remaining Irgun fighters in Jerusalem began enlisting in the IDF and turning over their arms. At Begin's orders, the Irgun in the diaspora formally disbanded on January 12, 1949, with the Irgun's former Paris headquarters becoming the European bureau of the Herut movement.


title: Irgun

text: In order to increase the popularity of the Irgun organization and ideology, Irgun employed propaganda. This propaganda was mainly aimed at the British, and included the idea of Eretz Israel. According to Irgun , the Jewish state was not only to encompass all of Mandatory Palestine, but also The Emirate of Transjordan.


title: Irgun

text: When the Labour party came into power in Britain in July 1945, Irgun published an announcement entitled, "We shall give the Labour Government a Chance to Keep Its Word." In this publication, Irgun stated, "Before it came to power, this Party undertook to return the Land of Israel to the people of Israel as a free state... Men and parties in opposition or in their struggle with their rivals, have, for twenty-five years, made us many promises and undertaken clear obligations; but, on coming to power, they have gone back on their words." Another publication, which followed a British counter-offensive against Jewish organizations in Palestine, Irgun released a document titled, "Mobilize the Nation!" Irgun used this publication to paint the British regime as hostile to the Jewish people, even comparing the British to the Nazis. In response to what was seen as British aggression, Irgun called for a Hebrew Provisional Government, and a Hebrew Liberation Army.


title: Irgun

text: References to the Irgun as a terrorist organization came from sources including the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry, newspapers and a number of prominent world and Jewish figures.


title: Irgun

text: Leaders within the mainstream Jewish organizations, the Jewish Agency, Haganah and Histadrut, as well as the British authorities, routinely condemned Irgun operations as terrorism and branded it an illegal organization as a result of the group's attacks on civilian targets. However, privately at least the Haganah kept a dialogue with the dissident groups.


title: Irgun

text: Ironically, in early 1947, "the British army in Mandate Palestine banned the use of the term 'terrorist' to refer to the Irgun zvai Leumi ... because it implied that British forces had reason to be terrified."


title: Irgun

text: Irgun attacks prompted a formal declaration from the World Zionist Congress in 1946, which strongly condemned "the shedding of innocent blood as a means of political warfare."


title: Irgun

text: The Israeli government, in September 1948, acting in response to the assassination of Count Folke Bernadotte, outlawed the Irgun and Lehi groups, declaring them terrorist organizations under the Prevention of Terrorism Ordinance.


title: Irgun

text: In 1948, "The New York Times" published a letter signed by a number of prominent Jewish figures including Hannah Arendt, Albert Einstein, Sidney Hook, and Rabbi Jessurun Cardozo, which described Irgun as "a terrorist, right-wing, chauvinist organization in Palestine". The letter went on to state that Irgun and the Stern gang "inaugurated a reign of terror in the Palestine Jewish community. Teachers were beaten up for speaking against them, adults were shot for not letting their children join them. By gangster methods, beatings, window-smashing, and widespread robberies, the terrorists intimidated the population and exacted a heavy tribute."


title: Irgun

text: Soon after World War II, Winston Churchill said "we should never have stopped immigration before the war", but that the Irgun were "the vilest gangsters" and that he would "never forgive the Irgun terrorists."


title: Irgun

text: In 2006, Simon McDonald, the British ambassador in Tel Aviv, and John Jenkins, the Consul-General in Jerusalem, wrote in response to a pro-Irgun commemoration of the King David Hotel bombing: "We do not think that it is right for an act of terrorism, which led to the loss of many lives, to be commemorated." They also called for the removal of plaques at the site which presented as a fact that the deaths were due to the British ignoring warning calls. The plaques, in their original version, read:


title: Irgun

text: McDonald and Jenkins said that no such warning calls were made, adding that even if they had, "this does not absolve those who planted the bomb from responsibility for the deaths."


title: Irgun

text: Bruce Hoffman states: "Unlike many terrorist groups today, the Irgun's strategy was not deliberately to target or wantonly harm civilians." Max Abrahms writes that the Irgun "pioneered the practice of issuing pre-attack warnings to spare civilians", which was later emulated by the African National Congress (ANC) and other groups and proved "effective but not foolproof". In addition, Begin ordered attacks to take place at night and even during Shabbat to reduce the likelihood of civilian casualties. U.S. military intelligence found that "the Irgun Zvai Leumi is waging a general war against the government and at all times took special care not to cause damage or injury to persons". Although the King David Hotel bombing is widely considered a "prima facie" case of Irgun terrorism, Abrahms comments: "But this hotel wasn't a normal hotel. It served as the headquarters for the British Armed Forces in Palestine. By all accounts, the intent wasn't to harm civilians."


title: Irgun

text: "Ha'aretz" columnist and Israeli historian Tom Segev wrote of the Irgun: "In the second half of 1940, a few members of the Irgun Zvai Leumi (National Military Organization) – the anti-British terrorist group sponsored by the Revisionists and known by its acronym Etzel, and to the British simply as the Irgun – made contact with representatives of Fascist Italy, offering to cooperate against the British."


title: Irgun

text: Clare Hollingworth, the "Daily Telegraph" and "The Scotsman" correspondent in Jerusalem during 1948 wrote several outspoken reports after spending several weeks in West Jerusalem:


title: Irgun

text: A US military intelligence report, dated January 1948, described Irgun recruiting tactics amongst Displaced Persons (DP) in the camps across Germany:


title: Irgun

text: Alan Dershowitz wrote in his book "The Case for Israel" that unlike the Haganah, the policy of the Irgun had been to encourage the flight of local Arabs.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: Kaiser Chiefs are an English indie rock band from Leeds who formed in 2000 as Parva, releasing one studio album, "22", in 2003, before renaming and establishing themselves in their current name that same year. Since their formation the band has consisted of lead vocalist Ricky Wilson, guitarist Andrew "Whitey" White, bassist Simon Rix, keyboardist Nick "Peanut" Baines and since 2013 drummer Vijay Mistry, who replaced founding drummer Nick Hodgson following his departure from the band in late 2012.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: Primarily inspired by new wave and punk rock music of the late 1970s and 1980s, the band have released seven original studio albums: "Employment" (2005), "Yours Truly, Angry Mob" (2007), "Off with Their Heads" (2008), "The Future Is Medieval" (2011), "Education, Education, Education & War" (2014), "Stay Together" (2016), and "Duck" (2019), one EP: "Lap of Honour" (2005), one compilation album: "" (2012) and numerous singles, including the number one hit song "Ruby".


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: Their album "Employment" enjoyed critical and commercial success with over three million copies sold. It has won the band three Brit Awards, including the award for Best British Group, a NME award for Best Album, and was shortlisted for the Mercury Prize.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: Their UK hit singles include 2004 and 2005 number 9 hit "I Predict a Riot", 2007 UK number 1 hit "Ruby", which has sold over 461,000 copies, from their platinum album "Yours Truly, Angry Mob" plus a further two Top 20 singles in 2007 with "The Angry Mob" and "Everything Is Average Nowadays". Their singles "Ruby", "I Predict a Riot", "Everyday I Love You Less and Less", "Never Miss a Beat" and "Oh My God" had sold a combined total of 1.1 million up to August 2012.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: When they were around eleven years old, Nick Hodgson, Nick Baines and Simon Rix met in the same class at St. Mary's Catholic High School, Menston, West Yorkshire. After leaving school, Rix and Baines left for university in 1996 whereas Hodgson remained in the Leeds area, meeting both Andrew White and Ricky Wilson. Hodgson, White and Wilson formed the band Runston Parva, its name a deliberate misspelling of a small East Yorkshire hamlet called Ruston Parva. After Runston Parva failed to secure a record deal, the group re-formed as Parva upon the return of Rix and Baines from university. Parva's career went beyond the boundaries of Leeds, and the band was able to obtain both a record and publishing deal. However, after Beggars Banquet closed the Mantra label, Parva were dropped and left desolate and without any direction after the release of an album ("22") and three singles ("Heavy", "Good Bad Right Wrong" and "Hessles").


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: According to manager James Sandom in an interview with HitQuarters, as a dropped band they had become damaged goods, "No one would touch them because they had a history. A lot of people used their history against them." The band decided that they would aim for a longer term record deal and started afresh with new songs and a new name: Kaiser Chiefs. The new name was taken from South African football club Kaizer Chiefs, the first club of ex-Leeds United captain Lucas Radebe.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: Manager James Sandom was tipped off about the band by Drowned in Sound founder Sean Adams, who persuaded him to go and see them live. Sandom said: "I went to see a couple of shows and you were just bombarded by a series of potential hit singles." Soon after Sandom became their manager, Kaiser Chiefs signed to B-Unique Records. Atlantic Records had also made an offer for the band.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: In July 2004, while still relatively unknown inside the UK, Kaiser Chiefs performed their first festival outside the UK at a festival in Moscow. One of the major factors in the band's breakthrough in 2005 was their involvement in the NME Awards Tour at the beginning of the year. Like Coldplay and Franz Ferdinand before them, their position as opening act proved an influential one, attracting a lot of positive media attention.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: The group's debut album "Employment" was released in March 2005, being primarily inspired by new wave and punk rock music of the late 1970s and 1980s. The album was well received by music critics, described as "thrilling from beginning to end" and "quintessentially British, without pretension and most importantly, a whole lot of fun". It reached number two on the UK albums chart, and was certified five times platinum. In 2005, "Employment" was shortlisted for the Mercury Prize, an annual music prize awarded for the best British or Irish album from the previous year. Bookmakers made it favourite to win the award, but they eventually lost out to Antony and the Johnsons. In 2006, "Employment" won the Ivor Novello award for 'Best Album'


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: The first single released from the album was "Oh My God" in 2004, which reached number six on the UK singles chart when it was reissued in February 2005. In 2007, the song was covered by Mark Ronson and Lily Allen for Ronson's album "Version". "I Predict a Riot" soon followed as the album's second release. In 2007, the song was ranked number thirty-six on the "NME" "Greatest Indie Anthems Ever" countdown. The top twenty singles "Everyday I Love You Less and Less" and "Modern Way" followed in late 2005. The band opened and performed several of their singles at the Philadelphia Live Eight concert in 2005. The song "Saturday Night" was featured in a pre-release video for the Xbox 360 gaming console. It was posted on the official Xbox 360 page before its launch.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: In 2006, the band received NME awards for 'Best Album' for Employment and 'Best Dressed' for Ricky Wilson.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: Kaiser Chiefs' second album "Yours Truly, Angry Mob" was released in February 2007. The group recorded the album throughout the September and October 2006 at Hookend Recording Studios in Oxfordshire, England. The group took inspiration from Led Zeppelin and American rock music, and recorded over twenty-two songs.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: "Yours Truly, Angry Mob" reached number one on the UK albums chart and number forty-five on the "Billboard" 200 albums chart. The album went on to be the band's second Million Seller including the UK and European #1 Airplay Hit of 2007 "Ruby".


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: "Ruby", the album's lead single, became Kaiser Chiefs' first UK number one single and received the 2007 'Q Award' for 'Best Video'. "Everything Is Average Nowadays" was released as the album's second single, and reached No. 19 in the UK. The album's third single "The Angry Mob" peaked at number twenty-two in the UK. The fourth single, "Love's Not a Competition (But I'm Winning)", was released on 12 November as a collector's edition 7" only single via their website.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: In December 2007, Kaiser Chiefs played two sold-out shows at Earl's Court in London to a capacity crowd of 30,000.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: On 4 August 2008, the band confirmed the name of their third album as "Off with Their Heads". It was released on 20 October 2008. The first single "Never Miss a Beat" was released on 6 October 2008.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: The band also released a DVD of their live performance at Elland Road from 24 May where they played to a sold out capacity crowd of 40,000 people. The DVD contains the full set from the home of Leeds United as well as highlights from the Kaiser Chiefs performance for the 2007 BBC Electric Proms.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: Kaiser Chiefs set out on a UK tour in October 2008 with Castle Donington band Late of the Pier and The Hair. The tour started at Leeds Academy, a new venue where they were the first headlining band to play. Other dates included Manchester Academy, Southampton Guildhall, Reading Rivermead, Glasgow Barrowlands, Leicester De Montfort Hall and London Forum.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: Kaiser Chiefs headed out on a UK Arena tour between February and March 2009, kicking off in Nottingham and ending in London. The tour visited Sheffield, Birmingham, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, Newcastle, Manchester, Liverpool, Cardiff and Dublin. This was the new album tour to promote "Off with Their Heads". The band featured on several shows over Christmas 2008 including performing "Never Miss a Beat" with Girls Aloud on their TV Special and playing the same song on the Christmas Day edition of "Top of the Pops".


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: On 16 July 2009, they played at Marés Vivas in Vila Nova de Gaia, Portugal as headliners on that day. They, along with Republic of Loose, opened for U2 in Croke Park in Dublin on 25 July 2009. They then opened for Green Day from 27 July to 7 August 2009, and the final shows before their 2-year hiatus were performed at Reading and Leeds Festival 2009.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: Following a hiatus, Kaiser Chiefs announced that they expected to release their fourth studio album in mid-2011. The album was recorded over a period of eighteen months at various locations including drummer Nick Hodgson's self-built east-London studio. The album's producers included Tony Visconti, Ethan Johns and Owen Morris, in addition to Nick Hodgson himself. On 3 June 2011, Kaiser Chiefs launched their new album from their website. Using a create-your-own album technique, fans were able to choose 10 out of 20 songs to create "their album" for £7.50; the band provides streams of roughly one minute to preview each track before selection.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: Many celebrities including, Radio One DJ Chris Moyles, The Guardian Newspaper, and frontman Ricky Wilson, created their own version of the album, donating the £1 reimbursement for each copy sold to the Alzheimer's Society.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: On 27 June 2011, Kaiser Chiefs released an official track listing for the album, featuring 12 of the 20 available tracks and including a previously unheard track 'Kinda Girl You Are' which did not make the initial launch as it was not ready in time. They played two sell out comeback gigs at Falmouth Princess Pavilion. Then followed by appearances at Germany's Hurricane and Southside Festivals in June, Switzerland's Gurten Festival, Pinkpop in The Netherlands, Belgium's Rock Werchter, Portuguese festival Optimus Alive! in July, V Festival in August, Hard Rock Calling in June, the Isle of Wight Festival in June and at Terres Rouges Festival in Luxembourg in September. They also played at Tennants Vital in Bangor, Northern Ireland and in September they played two sold-out home town shows at Kirkstall Abbey in Leeds. They also be played in October in Festa das Latas, Coimbra – Portugal.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: On 6 March 2012 the album was re-released under the title "Start The Revolution Without Me" for the US market. The track list differs significantly from the initial release, including the track "On The Run", which is exclusive to the US album and served as its lead single in early 2012.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: In early 2012, Kaiser Chiefs played a 20 date tour of the United Kingdom, followed by a tour of North America.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: Kaiser Chiefs released their first compilation album, "", in the UK on 4 June 2012. The album features all of the singles released by the band from 2004 to 2012, as well as a new track titled "Listen to Your Head".


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: Drummer Nick Hodgson revealed via his Twitter account on 4 December 2012 that he had left the band to concentrate on other projects. The band later issued a statement on their website confirming this. On 7 February 2013 it was announced that Vijay Mistry from the band Club Smith would be joining the Kaiser Chiefs as their new drummer.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: The band were one of two support bands for Green Day's one-off concert at the Emirates Stadium in London on 1 June 2013 along with All Time Low. The band's UK tour included 13 shows, beginning at Carlisle Sands Centre on 11 February and ending at London's O2 Academy Brixton on 1 March. The run of shows also includes gigs in Glasgow, Dunfermline, Manchester, Bridlington, Newcastle, Preston, Cheltenham, Wolverhampton, Southampton, Margate and Cambridge. They then went on to headline one of the Eden Sessions at the Eden Project, Cornwall. They played a hometown concert at the First Direct Arena in September 2013, being one of the first artists to perform at the new venue.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: The band's fifth studio album, titled "Education, Education, Education & War" was released on 31 March 2014. "Education, Education, Education & War" is the first album featuring the new Kaiser Chiefs drummer, Vijay Mistry, after Nick Hodgson left the group in December 2012. The album was produced by Ben H. Allen III (who has previously worked with Gnarls Barkley, Animal Collective, and Deerhunter), and recorded at The Maze Studio in Atlanta. Three songs were co-written with Fraser T Smith (CeeLo Green, Adele). It was mixed by Michael Brauer (My Morning Jacket, Coldplay) at Electric Lady Studios in New York City in November 2013. On 5 December 2013, Kaiser Chiefs released a song titled "Misery Company" onto their SoundCloud account. The song had previously been performed live during the band's 2013 summer tour. On 3 January 2014, "Bows & Arrows" premiered on "Rolling Stone" magazine's website.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: "Education, Education, Education & War" was toured across Europe and the Americas throughout 2014 and 2015.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: In 2015, they supported the "Foo Fighters" during the South Africa, South America and Ireland legs of their "Sonic Highways World Tour". They also released stand alone single 'Falling Awake' on 27 January 2015 via their YouTube channel.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: "Stay Together", the band's sixth studio album, was released on 7 October 2016. It was co-written and produced by Brian Higgins, whose production company Xenomania has worked with the likes of Girls Aloud and Pet Shop Boys. The album's name is a reference to the song "We Stay Together". The first single from the album, "Parachute", was released on 14 June 2016. The second single, "Hole In My Soul" was released 18 August 2016 and the third and final single, "We Stay Together" was released on 9 December 2016.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: This welcome return to the limelight saw ‘Stay Together’ push new boundaries to "take this nondescript sound and stuff it impressively full of sing-a-long hooks, covering topics including monogamy (We Stay Together) and shagging (Good Clean Fun)" as it marked an entirely new direction for the band, who went for a more dance-oriented sound. While "Education, Education, Education and War" was more focused on politics and the perils of war, the Kaiser Chiefs made the album with a focus on love and relationships. Wilson elaborated further on the stark contrast between this last album and 'Stay Together': "The thing about writing a protest album is it's straightforward. Only an idiot would disagree with you. You're just saying war is bad. But when you start talking about relationships like on this record it's harder because there’s a lot more blurred line. There's no right or wrong."


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: The band performed a string of best of forest shows in the summer of 2016 as part the "Forestry Commission"'s "Forest Live" series. Stay Together was toured across Europe in early 2017.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: The band signed with their original label Polydor Records for their seventh studio album, "Duck", which released on 26 July 2019. For the album the band reunited with Ben H. Allen, the producer who worked on the band's 2014 album "Education, Education, Education & War". The album was preceded by a UK tour in January and February, including concerts at London's O2 Academy Brixton and O2 Academy Birmingham, where several new songs from the album were premiered. The band also played a homecoming show at Elland Road in Leeds on 8 June 2019. Duck was later toured around arenas in the UK and Europe in early 2020.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: The first single from the album, "Record Collection", was released on 23 May 2019, with "People Know How To Love One Another" released as a second single on 6 June 2019. "Golden Oldies" was released as the third single in October 2019.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: The name sparked interest with fans which was the opposite of what the band wanted. According to Wilson, they had always had trouble naming records so went with a random title suggested by White.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: Although the album entered at number three in the UK charts, it rapidly fell out of the list after only two weeks.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: In July 2005 they were chosen to open Bob Geldof's Live 8 festival in Philadelphia; their performance was broadcast by satellite to every Live 8 venue around the world, giving the band massive worldwide exposure.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: In August 2006, the band released a book entitled "A Record of Employment", which along with photos by Peter Hill, documented the band's rise from being unsigned to their triumph at the Brit Awards that year, where the band won awards for 'Best British Band','Best Rock Act' and 'Best New Artist'. Later a DVD entitled "Enjoyment", which documented concerts from the first album era was released, this showed members of the band hypothetically interviewed when 'jaded rock stars'.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: In October 2008, they also appeared on MTV Day, in Greece, along with bands like the (Greek) C-Real, REM and the singer Gabriella Cilmi.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: During an appearance on the Late Show with David Letterman, David Letterman spoke to Nick Hodgson about buying the Kaiser Chiefs drum set after a brief discussion between the pair an undisclosed price was agreed. At the end of the Kaiser Chiefs show at Chicago's House of Blues (19 April 2012) Nick Hodgson announced this was the final show for his drum kit, which was to be sent to David Letterman.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: On 12 August 2012, the band was featured in the closing ceremony of the London 2012 Olympics, playing "Pinball Wizard" by The Who.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: In October 2014, Kaiser Chiefs played at The New Adelphi Club in Hull, East Yorkshire as headline act for the venue's 30th anniversary celebration. A film capturing Kaiser Chiefs performance was made, which was shown at the Adelphi in January 2015 as part of Independent Music Venue Week. In October 2015, the film was screened at the 2015 Tucson Film & Music Festival in Arizona, United States.


title: Kaiser Chiefs

text: The band were the closing act for F1 Live (an event showcasing Formula 1 ahead of the 2017 British Grand Prix) held in Trafalgar Square, London on 12 July 2017, which was also broadcast live on Sky Sports.


title: Magnesium hydroxide

text: Magnesium hydroxide is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula Mg(OH). It occurs in nature as the mineral brucite. It is a white solid with low solubility in water (). Magnesium hydroxide is a common component of antacids, such as milk of magnesia.


title: Magnesium hydroxide

text: Treating the solution of different soluble magnesium salts with alkaline water induces the precipitation of the solid hydroxide Mg(OH):


title: Magnesium hydroxide

text: As is the second most abundant cation present in seawater after , it can be economically extracted directly from seawater by alkalinisation as described here above. On an industrial scale, Mg(OH) is produced by treating seawater with lime (Ca(OH)). A volume of (or 160,000 US gallons) of seawater gives about one ton of Mg(OH). Ca(OH) is far more soluble than Mg(OH) and drastically increases the pH value of seawater from 8.2 to 12.5. The less soluble precipitates because of the common ion effect due to the added by the dissolution of :


title: Magnesium hydroxide

text: Most Mg(OH) that is produced industrially, as well as the small amount that is mined, is converted to fused magnesia (MgO). Magnesia is valuable because it is both a poor electrical conductor and an excellent thermal conductor.


title: Magnesium hydroxide

text: Only a small amount of the magnesium from magnesium hydroxide is usually absorbed by the intestine (unless one is deficient in magnesium). However, magnesium is mainly excreted by the kidneys; so long-term, daily consumption of milk of magnesia by someone suffering from kidney failure could lead in theory to hypermagnesemia. Unabsorbed magnesium is excreted in feces; absorbed magnesium is rapidly excreted in urine.


title: Magnesium hydroxide

text: As an antacid, magnesium hydroxide is dosed at approximately 0.5–1.5g in adults and works by simple neutralization, in which the hydroxide ions from the Mg(OH) combine with acidic H ions (or hydronium ions) produced in the form of hydrochloric acid by parietal cells in the stomach, to produce water.


title: Magnesium hydroxide

text: As a laxative, magnesium hydroxide is dosed at 5-10g, and works in a number of ways. First, Mg is poorly absorbed from the intestinal tract, so it draws water from the surrounding tissue by osmosis. Not only does this increase in water content soften the feces, it also increases the volume of feces in the intestine (intraluminal volume) which naturally stimulates intestinal motility. Furthermore, Mg ions cause the release of cholecystokinin (CCK), which results in intraluminal accumulation of water and electrolytes, and increased intestinal motility. Some sources claim that the hydroxide ions themselves do not play a significant role in the laxative effects of milk of magnesia, as basic solutions (i.e., solutions of hydroxide ions) are not strongly laxative, and non-basic Mg solutions, like MgSO, are equally strong laxatives, mole for mole.


title: Magnesium hydroxide

text: On May 4, 1818, American inventor Koen Burrows received a patent (No. X2952) for magnesium hydroxide. In 1829, Sir James Murray used a "condensed solution of fluid magnesia" preparation of his own design to treat the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, the Marquess of Anglesey, for stomach pain. This was so successful (advertised in Australia and approved by the Royal College of Surgeons in 1838) that he was appointed resident physician to Anglesey and two subsequent Lords Lieutenant, and knighted. His fluid magnesia product was patented two years after his death, in 1873.


title: Magnesium hydroxide

text: The term "milk of magnesia" was first used by Charles Henry Phillips in 1872 for a suspension of magnesium hydroxide formulated at about 8% w/v. It was sold under the brand name "Phillips' Milk of Magnesia" for medicinal usage.


title: Magnesium hydroxide

text: USPTO registrations show that the terms "Milk of Magnesia" and "Phillips' Milk of Magnesia" have both been assigned to Bayer since 1995. In the UK, the non-brand (generic) name of "Milk of Magnesia" and "Phillips' Milk of Magnesia" is "Cream of Magnesia" (Magnesium Hydroxide Mixture, BP).


title: Magnesium hydroxide

text: It is added directly to human food, and is affirmed as generally recognized as safe by the FDA. It is known as E number E528.


title: Magnesium hydroxide

text: Magnesium hydroxide is marketed for medical use as chewable tablets, as capsules, powder, and as liquid suspensions, sometimes flavored. These products are sold as antacids to neutralize stomach acid and relieve indigestion and heartburn. It also is a laxative to alleviate constipation. As a laxative, the osmotic force of the magnesia acts to draw fluids from the body. High doses can lead to diarrhea, and can deplete the body's supply of potassium, sometimes leading to muscle cramps.


title: Magnesium hydroxide

text: Some magnesium hydroxide products sold for antacid use (such as Maalox) are formulated to minimize unwanted laxative effects through the inclusion of aluminum hydroxide, which inhibits the contractions of smooth muscle cells in the gastrointestinal tract, thereby counterbalancing the contractions induced by the osmotic effects of the magnesium hydroxide.


title: Magnesium hydroxide

text: Magnesium hydroxide is also a component of antiperspirant. Magnesium hydroxide is useful against canker sores (aphthous ulcer) when used topically.


title: Magnesium hydroxide

text: Magnesium hydroxide powder is used industrially to neutralize acidic wastewaters. It is also a component of the Biorock method of building artificial reefs. The main advantage of over , is to impose a lower pH better compatible with that of seawater and sea life: pH 10.5 for in place of pH 12.5 with .


title: Magnesium hydroxide

text: Natural magnesium hydroxide (brucite) is used commercially as a fire retardant. Most industrially used magnesium hydroxide is produced synthetically. Like aluminium hydroxide, solid magnesium hydroxide has smoke suppressing and flame retardant properties. This property is attributable to the endothermic decomposition it undergoes at 332 °C (630 °F):


title: Magnesium hydroxide

text: The heat absorbed by the reaction retards the fire by delaying ignition of the associated substance. The water released dilutes combustible gases. Common uses of magnesium hydroxide as a flame retardant include additives to cable insulation, insulation plastics, roofing, and various flame retardant coatings.


title: Magnesium hydroxide

text: Brucite, the mineral form of Mg(OH) commonly found in nature also occurs in the 1:2:1 clay minerals amongst others, in chlorite, in which it occupies the interlayer position normally filled by monovalent and divalent cations such as Na, K, Mg and Ca. As a consequence, chlorite interlayers are cemented by brucite and cannot swell nor shrink.


title: Magnesium hydroxide

text: Brucite, in which some of the Mg cations have been substituted by Al cations, becomes positively charged and constitutes the main basis of layered double hydroxide (LDH). LDH minerals as hydrotalcite are powerful anion sorbents but are relatively rare in nature.


title: Magnesium hydroxide

text: Brucite may also crystallise in cement and concrete in contact with seawater. Indeed, the Mg cation is the second most abundant cation in seawater, just behind Na and before Ca. Because brucite is a swelling mineral, it causes a local volumetric expansion responsible for tensile stress in concrete. This leads to the formation of cracks and fissures in concrete, accelerating its degradation in seawater.


title: Magnesium hydroxide

text: For the same reason, dolomite cannot be used as construction aggregate for making concrete. The reaction of magnesium carbonate with the free alkali hydroxides present in the cement porewater also leads to the formation of expansive brucite.


title: Magnesium hydroxide

text: This reaction, one of the two main alkali–aggregate reaction (AAR) is also known as alkali–carbonate reaction.


title: Dhaakad

text: Dhaakad () is a 2022 Indian Hindi-language action film directed by Razneesh Ghai. It stars Kangana Ranaut, Arjun Rampal, Divya Dutta and Saswata Chatterjee.


title: Dhaakad

text: "Dhaakad" was released theatrically on 20 May 2022. It received mixed reviews from critics, and was a major box office disaster, with most of its shows discontinued from cinemas within one week of release.


title: Dhaakad

text: Agent Agni is an International Task Force (ITF) officer, who is ruthless in her tactics of handling terrorists and criminals. Agni is an orphan, whose parents were killed by an assassin when she was a child. She is then raised by an ITF officer. Agni is sent to Budapest to gather details about a arms trafficking and human trafficking racket. As per the information collected by her, the mastermind of the racket is Rudraveer and his partner, Rohini. Rudraveer is a mysterious character, who operates from Sohagpur Coal Fields near Bhopal, India. Agni is sent to collect information on Rudraveer so that he can be nabbed. Although hesitant at first, as her parents died in India, Agni goes ahead. She does not realize that she is going through with the toughest mission of her career. What happens forms the rest of the plot.


title: Dhaakad

text: "Dhaakad" was announced on 20 October 2020. Kangana shared her various looks from the film. Kangana wrote on Instagram, "She is fierce, feisty and fearless. #AgentAgni is all geared up to set the big screen on fire. In an interview Kangana said, "Dhaakad is not only a benchmark film for my career but will be a turning point for Indian cinema as well. The film is mounted on a large scale, and is one of a kind female-led action film."


title: Dhaakad

text: The actors appearing in the film as Agents, including Ranaut, underwent training in action flick for over three months.


title: Dhaakad

text: Principal photography began on 15 January 2021. It has been shot in Betul, Madhya Pradesh and Budapest. Razneesh Razy Ghai, the director of the film wrote on his Instagram account, "The producers and I were insistent that we hire key members of the team from other film industries. When you want your film to have high-octane action, you have to go above and beyond. For key sequences, we roped in action directors from the United States, South Korea, Canada and South Africa. Hitz international action specialists, as well as Cameron Hilts and Sea-young Oh. The Indian stunt team was on par with our international collaborators." The filming was completed on 8 July 2021.


title: Dhaakad

text: The film's soundtrack is composed by Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy and Dhruv Ghanekar while the lyrics are written by Amitabh Bhattacharya and Ishitta Arun.


title: Dhaakad

text: "Dhaakad" was released theatrically on 20 May 2022 along with Kartik Aaryan starrer "Bhool Bhulaiyaa 2". The film was initially scheduled for a Diwali (November) 2020 release but due to the COVID-19 pandemic the film got postponed. The film was postponed again and a new release date, 8 April 2022, was announced on 18 October 2021.


title: Dhaakad

text: Shalini Langer of "The Indian Express" rated the film 3.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "A slick action film that is also coherent – Kangana Ranaut-Divya Dutta-Arjun Rampal film is an achievement". Rachana Dubey of "The Times Of India" rated the film 3 out of 5 stars and wrote "It would have been great if along with the superb action and terrific visuals, the story, too, could have packed a punch". Sonil Dedhia of "News 18" rated the film 3 out of 5 stars and wrote "Kangana Ranaut's solid performance in 'Dhaakad' combined with high-impact stunt work puts a stamp on her as a formidable female action star". Pooja Biraia Jaiswal of "The Week" rated the film 3 out of 5 stars and wrote "Dhaakad is a popcorn film; an almost-edge-of-the-seat action thriller led by an able cast, spectacular action sequences and meticulous execution". Nandini Ramnath of "Scroll.in" rated the film 2 out of 5 stars and wrote "Dhaakad makes little effort to credibly localise its themes".


title: Dhaakad

text: Bharathi Pradhan of "Lehren" rated the film 1.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "Dhaakad is singularly unimaginative in its presentation and execution". Anna M.M. Vetticad of "Firstpost" rated the film 0.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "Dhaakad is marred by extremely violent scenes, vacuous writing, dull direction and is boring-as-hell". Sukanya Verma of "Rediff" rated the film 2 out of 5 stars and wrote "Kangana Ranaut ticks off all the boxes of the poker-faced spy model in Dhakaad, but the movie needs real rescuing". Swati Chopra of The Quint rated the film 1 out of 5 and wrote, "Dhaakad's stunt choreography and camera work by Tetsua Nahata is impressive and that's what makes the film somewhat bearable." "Bollywood Hungama" called "Dhaakad" a "disastrous flop at the box office". It rated the film 1.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "The Kangana Ranaut starrer DHAAKAD is all style and no substance and fails to deliver entertainment value".


title: Dhaakad

text: "Dhaakad" was a major box office disaster, with most of its shows discontinued from cinemas within one week of release. On its eight day, the film sold only 20 tickets, hence collecting mere ₹4,420, which quickly became a meme material among the netizens.


title: 2022 French Open – Men's singles

text: Rafael Nadal defeated Casper Ruud in the final, 6–3, 6–3, 6–0 to win the men's singles tennis title at the 2022 French Open. It was his record-extending 14th French Open title and record-extending 22nd major title overall. It marked the first time in his career that he won the Australian Open and the French Open in the same calendar year. Nadal also became the third man to defeat four top 10 players en route to a major title since the introduction of ATP rankings in 1973 (after Mats Wilander in the 1982 French Open and Roger Federer in the 2017 Australian Open). Ruud became the first Norwegian man to reach a major quarterfinal, semifinal, and final (surpassing his father Christian), and the first Scandinavian man to do so since Robin Söderling in 2010.


title: 2022 French Open – Men's singles

text: Novak Djokovic was the defending champion, but lost in the quarterfinals to Nadal. Djokovic was attempting to equal Nadal's all-time record of 21 men's singles major titles and become the first man in history to achieve the triple career Grand Slam. Their quarterfinal match was an Open Era record-extending 59th match between two male players.


title: 2022 French Open – Men's singles

text: Djokovic, Daniil Medvedev and Alexander Zverev were in contention for the ATP No. 1 singles ranking. Following Djokovic's quarterfinal loss and Zverev's semifinal retirement, Djokovic retained the No. 1 ranking at the end of the tournament. One week later, on 13 June 2022, when points from the previous year's tournament were dropped, Medvedev reclaimed the top ranking, while Zverev reached into the new career high ranking of world No. 2, ending the Big Three's streak in the top 2 spots since 10 November 2003. Additionally, as Roger Federer did not enter the tournament, he fell outside of the top 50 in the ATP rankings for the first time since 5 June 2000.


title: 2022 French Open – Men's singles

text: Stefanos Tsitsipas' fourth-round loss guaranteed a first-time French Open finalist from the bottom half of the draw, and Ruud became that finalist. Holger Rune became the first Danish man to reach a major singles quarterfinal in the Open Era.


title: 2022 French Open – Men's singles

text: This was the first edition of the French Open to feature a tiebreak (10-point) in the fifth set when the match reached 6 games all. Camilo Ugo Carabelli and Aslan Karatsev became the first players to contest this tiebreak in the main draw in their first-round match. This tournament marked the first time since the 2002 Australian Open that Feliciano López failed to qualify for the main draw of a major, ending his record streak of 79 consecutive major appearances. It was also the final professional tournament for former world No. 5 and 2008 Australian Open runner-up Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, who lost in the first round to Ruud.


title: 2022 French Open – Men's singles

text: The following are the seeded players. Seedings are based on ATP rankings as of 16 May 2022. Rankings and points before are as of 23 May 2022.


title: 2022 French Open – Men's singles

text: Because the 2022 tournament takes place one week earlier than in 2021, points from the 2020 and 2021 tournaments will not be dropped until 13 June 2022, one week after the end of the 2022 tournament. Those points are accordingly not reflected in the table below. Instead of points from the 2020 and 2021 tournaments, players will be dropping either (a) points from tournaments held during the week of 24 May 2021 (Belgrade 2 and Parma) or (b) their 19th best result.


title: 2022 French Open – Men's singles

text: Note that this is a different rankings adjustment system than the one that the WTA is using for the women's tournament.


title: 2022 French Open – Men's singles

text: † This column shows either (a) the player's points from tournaments held during the week of 24 May 2021 (Belgrade 2 and Parma) or (b) his 19th best result (in brackets). Points from the 2020 and 2021 French Open will not be dropped until 13 June 2022, one week after the end of the 2022 tournament, and are accordingly not shown in this table.


title: Love of Kill

text: During one of her bounty hunter missions, Chateau Dankworth comes across Song Ryang-ha, a professional hitman, who begins stalking and brokering her information in exchange for a date. Though reluctant, Chateau complies yet refuses to open up to him. Despite this, Ryang-ha continues to save her when she is under attack and seems to know her past.


title: Love of Kill

text: After Chateau and Ryang-ha both become targeted by Donald Bachman, the two are forced to confront their common past: Chateau is the daughter of the heir to the Nobel family, a lineage of French aristocrats, who becomes targeted by Nelson Nobel, her father's stepbrother. The real Song Ryang-ha was ordered to escort her to safety, but she accidentally inflicts a fatal gunshot wound on him out of fear; meanwhile, the current Ryang-ha, a nameless victim of child trafficking saved by the real Ryang-ha, adopts his name after the latter dies.


title: Love of Kill

text: "Love of Kill" is a manga series written and illustrated by Fe. Fe first published the story on Pixiv under the title in October 2012 and gained over 5.4 million views on the website. Fe followed up with a sequel titled . Within three years of the stories being published, it was picked up for serialization by Media Factory's manga magazine "Monthly Comic Gene" since October 2015 and has been collected in twelve volumes. In November 2022, the series reached its climax, with the series set to end in January 2023.


title: Love of Kill

text: A drama CD adaptation was released as a bonus item bundled with the physical release of the March 2018 issue of "Monthly Comic Gene", released on February 15, 2018.


title: Love of Kill

text: On December 11, 2020, Kadokawa announced that an anime television series adaptation is in production. The series is animated by Platinum Vision and directed by Hideaki Ōba, with Ayumu Hisao handling the series' scripts, Yōko Satō designing the characters, and Kei Yoshikawa composing the music. It aired from January 13 to March 31, 2022, on Tokyo MX and other networks. The opening theme song is "Midnight Dancer" by Toshiki Masuda, while the ending theme song is "Makoto Period" by Aika Kobayashi. Crunchyroll has licensed the series.


title: Love of Kill

text: On January 13, 2022, Crunchyroll announced that the series will receive an English dub, which will premiere on February 23.


title: Saqqara

text: Saqqara (, ), also spelled Sakkara or Saccara in English , is an Egyptian village in Giza Governorate, that contains ancient burial grounds of Egyptian royalty, serving as the necropolis for the ancient Egyptian capital, Memphis. Saqqara contains numerous pyramids, including the Step pyramid of Djoser, sometimes referred to as the Step Tomb, and a number of mastaba tombs. Located some south of modern-day Cairo, Saqqara covers an area of around .


title: Saqqara

text: Saqqara contains the oldest complete stone building complex known in history, the Pyramid of Djoser, built during the Third Dynasty. Another sixteen Egyptian kings built pyramids at Saqqara, which are now in various states of preservation. High officials added private funeral monuments to this necropolis during the entire Pharaonic period. It remained an important complex for non-royal burials and cult ceremonies for more than 3,000 years, well into Ptolemaic and Roman times.


title: Saqqara

text: North of the area known as Saqqara lies Abusir, and south lies Dahshur. The area running from Giza to Dahshur has been used as a necropolis by the inhabitants of Memphis at different times, and it was designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1979.


title: Saqqara

text: Some scholars believe that the name Saqqara is not derived from the ancient Egyptian funerary deity, Sokar, but from a local Berber tribe called Beni Saqqar.


title: Saqqara

text: of nobles can be traced back to the First Dynasty, at the northern side of the Saqqara plateau. During this time, the royal burial ground was at Abydos. The first royal burials at Saqqara, comprising underground galleries, date to the Second Dynasty. The last Second Dynasty king, Khasekhemwy, was buried in his tomb at Abydos, but also built a funerary monument at Saqqara consisting of a large rectangular enclosure, known as Gisr el-Mudir. It probably inspired the monumental enclosure wall around the Step Pyramid complex. Djoser's funerary complex, built by the royal architect Imhotep, further comprises a large number of dummy buildings and a secondary mastaba (the so-called 'Southern Tomb'). French architect and Egyptologist Jean-Philippe Lauer spent the greater part of his life excavating and restoring Djoser's funerary complex.


title: Saqqara

text: Nearly all Fourth Dynasty kings chose a different location for their pyramids. During the second half of the Old Kingdom, under the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties, Saqqara was again the royal burial ground. The Fifth and Sixth Dynasty pyramids are not built wholly of massive stone blocks, but instead with a core consisting of rubble. Consequently, they are less well preserved than the world-famous pyramids built by the Fourth Dynasty kings at Giza. Unas, the last ruler of the Fifth Dynasty, was the first king to adorn the chambers in his pyramid with Pyramid Texts. During the Old Kingdom, it was customary for courtiers to be buried in mastaba tombs close to the pyramid of their king. Thus, clusters of private tombs were formed in Saqqara around the pyramid complexes of Unas and Teti.


title: Saqqara

text: From the Middle Kingdom onward, Memphis was no longer the capital of the country, and kings built their funerary complexes elsewhere. Few private monuments from this period have been found at Saqqara.


title: Saqqara

text: During the New Kingdom, Memphis was an important administrative and military centre, being the capital after the Amaran Period. From the Eighteenth Dynasty onward, many high officials built tombs at Saqqara. While still a general, Horemheb built a large tomb here, although he later was buried as pharaoh in the Valley of the Kings at Thebes. Other important tombs belong to the vizier Aperel, the vizier Neferronpet, the artist Thutmose, and the wet-nurse of Tutankhamun, Maia.


title: Saqqara

text: Many monuments from earlier periods were still standing, but dilapidated by this period. Prince Khaemweset, son of Pharaoh Ramesses II, made repairs to buildings at Saqqara. Among other things, he restored the Pyramid of Unas and added an inscription to its south face to commemorate the restoration. He enlarged the Serapeum, the burial site of the mummified Apis bulls, and was later buried in the catacombs. The Serapeum, containing one undisturbed interment of an Apis bull and the tomb of Khaemweset, were rediscovered by the French Egyptologist Auguste Mariette in 1851.


title: Saqqara

text: During the periods after the New Kingdom, when several cities in the Delta served as capital of Egypt, Saqqara remained in use as a burial ground for nobles. Moreover, the area became an important destination for pilgrims to a number of cult centres. Activities sprang up around the Serapeum, and extensive underground galleries were cut into the rock as burial sites for large numbers of mummified ibises, baboons, cats, dogs, and falcons.


title: Saqqara

text: Saqqara and the surrounding areas of Abusir and Dahshur suffered damage by looters during the 2011 Egyptian protests. Store rooms were broken into, but the monuments were mostly unharmed.


title: Saqqara

text: During routine excavations in 2011 at the dog catacomb in Saqqara necropolis, an excavation team led by Salima Ikram and an international team of researchers led by Paul Nicholson of Cardiff University uncovered almost eight million animal mummies at the burial site next to the sacred temple of Anubis. It is thought that the mummified animals, mostly dogs, were intended to pass on the prayers of their owners to their deities.


title: Saqqara

text: In July 2018, German-Egyptian researchers’ team head by Ramadan Badry Hussein of the University of Tübingen reported the discovery of an extremely rare gilded burial mask that probably dates from the Saite-Persian period in a partly damaged wooden coffin. The last time a similar mask was found was in 1939. The eyes were covered with obsidian, calcite, and black hued gemstone possibly onyx. "The finding of this mask could be called a sensation. Very few masks of precious metal have been preserved to the present day, because the tombs of most Ancient Egyptian dignitaries were looted in ancient times." said Hussein.


title: Saqqara

text: In September 2018, several dozen cache of mummies dating 2,000 years back were found by a team of Polish archaeologists led by Kamil Kuraszkiewicz from the Faculty of Oriental Studies of the University of Warsaw. The Polish-Egyptian expedition works under the auspices of the Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology University of Warsaw. Investigations were carried out for over two decades in the area to the west of the Djoser Pyramid. The most important discoveries include the tomb of vizier Merefnebef with a funerary chapel decorated with multi-colored reliefs, which was uncovered in 1997. as well as the tomb of courtier Nyankhnefertem uncovered in 2003. The expedition also explored two necropoles. Archaeologists revealed several dozen graves of noblemen from the period of the 6th Dynasty, dating to the 24th–21st century BC, and 500 graves of indigent people dating approximately to the 6th century BC – 1st century AD. Most of the bodies were poorly preserved and all organic materials, including the wooden caskets, had decayed. The tombs discovered most recently (in 2018) form part of the younger, so-called Upper Necropolis.


title: Saqqara

text: The research of the Polish-Egyptian expedition also focuses on the interpretation of the so-called Dry Moat, a vast trench hewn around the Djoser Pyramid. The most recent discoveries confirm the hypothesis that the Dry Moat was a model of the pharaoh's journey to the netherworld, a road the deceased ruler had to follow to attain eternal life.


title: Saqqara

text: In November 2018, an Egyptian archaeological mission located seven ancient Egyptian tombs at the ancient necropolis of Saqqara. Three of the tombs were used for cats, some dating back to the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties, while one of four other sarcophagi was unsealed. Among the dozens of cat mummies were 100 wooden and gilded statues of cats and one in bronze dedicated to the cat goddess Bastet, and funerary items dating back to the 12th Dynasty. Another of the seven tombs belongs to Khufu-Imhat, the overseer of buildings in the royal palace.


title: Saqqara

text: Also in November 2018, a collection of rare mummified scarab beetles was unearthed in two sarcophagi, one of which was decorated with paintings of large black beetles.


title: Saqqara

text: Also in November 2018, the Egyptian government announced the discovery at Saqqara of a previously unknown 4,400-year-old tomb. It belongs to Wahtye, a high-ranking priest who served under King Neferirkare Kakai during the Fifth Dynasty, and his wife, four children and mother. The tomb is about 33 feet (10 meters) long by 10 feet (3 meters) wide and has five burial shafts and a basement. It contains more than fifty sculptures, and is painted with scenes of the family, wine and pottery making, musical performances, sailing, hunting, and furniture making.


title: Saqqara

text: On 13 April 2019, an expedition led by a member of the Czech Institute of Egyptology, Mohamed Megahed, discovered a 4,000-year-old tomb near Egypt's Saqqara Necropolis. Archaeologists confirmed that the tomb belonged to an influential person named Khuwy, who lived in Egypt during the 5th Dynasty. "The L-shaped Khuwy tomb starts with a small corridor heading downwards into an antechamber and from there a larger chamber with painted reliefs depicting the tomb owner seated at an offerings table", reported Megahed. Some paintings maintained their brightness over a long time in the tomb. Mainly made of white limestone bricks, the tomb had a tunnel entrance generally typical for pyramids. Archaeologists say that there might be a connection between Khuwy and pharaoh because the mausoleum was found near the pyramid of Egyptian Pharaoh Djedkare Isesi, who ruled during that time.


title: Saqqara

text: In October 2019, a cache of 30 coffins with mummies was discovered, at the time Egypt's largest in more than a century and the first cache to be discovered by a solely Egyptian mission. The coffins were stacked on top of each other and arranged in two rows about three feet below the sandy surface. The first coffin's head was partially exposed in the sand, which led to the cache's discovery. Two of the coffins belonged to children, a rare occurrence in archeology. Mostafa Waziri, secretary general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, explained that one could identify the mummy's gender by the shape of the hands on the coffin, open hands being female and hands balled into fists being male. The colors of the coffin inscriptions---made from limestone, red oak, turquoise, and other natural stones mixed with eggwhites—stayed intact, and the mixture of egg yolk and candle wax spread over the coffins to make them shine was still visible, making this a unique find.


title: Saqqara

text: On April 28, 2020, archeologists announced they had found a 30-foot-deep (9 meter) burial shaft containing five limestone sarcophagi, four wooden coffins with human mummies, and an array of other artifacts. Among them were 365 faience ushabti and a small wooden obelisk about 40 centimeters tall that had been painted with depictions of Horus, Isis and Nepthys.


title: Saqqara

text: In September 2020, a 36-foot (11 meter) deep burial shaft revealed almost 30 sarcophagi that had remained completely sealed since their interment.


title: Saqqara

text: On 3 October 2020, Khalid el-Anany, Egypt's tourism and antiquities minister announced the discovery of at least 59 sealed sarcophagi with mummies more than 2,600 years old. Archaeologists also revealed the 20 statues of Ptah-Soker and a carved 35-centimeter tall bronze statue of god Nefertem.


title: Saqqara

text: On 19 October 2020, the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities announced the discovery of gilded, wooden statues and more than 80 coffins in three burial shafts. Officials believed the coffins contain senior officials and priests from the 26th Dynasty.


title: Saqqara

text: In November 2020, archaeologists unearthed more than 100 delicately painted wooden coffins dating to the 26th Dynasty and 40 statues of the local goddess Ptah Soker. Other artifacts discovered include funeral masks, canopic jars and 1,000 ceramic amulets. “This discovery is very important because it proves that Saqqara was the main burial of the 26th Dynasty,” said Zahi Hawass, an Egyptologist and Egypt's former Minister of State for Antiquities Affairs.


title: Saqqara

text: In January 2021, the tourism and antiquities ministry announced the discovery of more than 50 wooden sarcophagi in 52 burial shafts which date back to the New Kingdom period, each around 30 to 40 feet deep, and a 13 ft-long papyrus that contains texts from Chapter 17 of the "Book of the Dead." The papyrus scroll belonged to a man named Bu-Khaa-Af, whose name is written on it, on his sarcophagus, and on four ushabtis. Excerpts from the Book of the Dead were also painted onto the surface of other coffins. Also found in the shafts were wooden funerary masks, board games, a shrine dedicated to god of the dead Anubis, bird-shaped artifacts and a bronze axe. A limestone stelae dated to the reign of Ramesses II was found in one of the shafts, depicting the overseer of the king's military chariot Kha-Ptah and his wife Mwt-em-wia worshipping Osiris and sitting with six of their children.


title: Saqqara

text: Also in January 2021, a team of archaeologists led by Zahi Hawass found the funerary temple of Naert or Narat and three warehouses made of bricks attached to the southeastern side for storage of temple provisions, offerings and tools. Researchers also revealed that Narat’s name was engraved on a fallen obelisk near the main entrance. Previously unknown to researchers, Naert was a wife of Teti, the first king of the sixth dynasty.


title: Saqqara

text: In November 2021, archeologists from Cairo University discovered several tombs, including that of Batah-M-Woya, chief treasurer during the reign of Ramesses II, and of a military leader named Hor Mohib.


title: Saqqara

text: In March 2022, five 4000-year-old tombs belonging to senior officials from the Old Kingdom and First Intermediary Period were discovered. On 30 May 2022, 250 sarcophagi and 150 statuettes were displayed at Saqqara, dated back to the Late Period more than 2,500 years ago, in addition to a 9-meter-long papyrus scroll which could be a depiction of a chapter of the "Book of the Dead".


title: Saqqara

text: In May 2022, the discovery of the nearly 4,300-year-old tomb of an ancient Egyptian high-ranked person who handled royal, sealed documents of pharaoh was announced. According to University of Warsaw’s Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, the elaborately decorated tomb belonged to a man named Mehtjetju who served as a priest and an inspector of the royal property. Kamil O. Kuraszkiewicz, expedition director stated that Mehtjetju  most likely lived at about the same time, at some point during the reigns of the first three rulers of the Sixth Dynasty: Teti, Userkare and Pepy I.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The Stamp Act 1765, also known as the Duties in American Colonies Act 1765 (5 Geo. III c. 12), was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain which imposed a direct tax on the British colonies in America and required that many printed materials in the colonies be produced on stamped paper from London which included an embossed revenue stamp. Printed materials included legal documents, magazines, playing cards, newspapers, and many other types of paper used throughout the colonies, and it had to be paid in British currency, not in colonial paper money.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The purpose of the tax was to pay for British military troops stationed in the American colonies after the French and Indian War, but the colonists had never feared a French invasion to begin with, and they contended that they had already paid their share of the war expenses. Colonists suggested that it was actually a matter of British patronage to surplus British officers and career soldiers who should be paid by London.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The Stamp Act was very unpopular among colonists. A majority considered it a violation of their rights as Englishmen to be taxed without their consent—consent that only the colonial legislatures could grant. Their slogan was "No taxation without representation". Colonial assemblies sent petitions and protests, and the Stamp Act Congress held in New York City was the first significant joint colonial response to any British measure when it petitioned Parliament and the King.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: One member of the British Parliament argued that the American colonists were no different from the 90-percent of Great Britain who did not own property and thus could not vote, but who were nevertheless "virtually" represented by land-owning electors and representatives who had common interests with them. Daniel Dulany, a Maryland attorney and politician, disputed this assertion in a widely read pamphlet, arguing that the relations between the Americans and the English electors were "a knot too infirm to be relied on" for proper representation, "virtual" or otherwise. Local protest groups established Committees of Correspondence which created a loose coalition from New England to Maryland. Protests and demonstrations increased, often initiated by the Sons of Liberty and occasionally involving hanging of effigies. Very soon, all stamp tax distributors were intimidated into resigning their commissions, and the tax was never effectively collected.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Opposition to the Stamp Act was not limited to the colonies. British merchants and manufacturers pressured Parliament because their exports to the colonies were threatened by boycotts. The Act was repealed on 18 March 1766 as a matter of expedience, but Parliament affirmed its power to legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever" by also passing the Declaratory Act. A series of new taxes and regulations then ensued—likewise opposed by the Americans. The episode played a major role in defining the 27 colonial grievances that were clearly stated within the text of the "Indictment of George III" section of the United States Declaration of Independence, enabling the organized colonial resistance which led to the American Revolution in 1775.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The British victory in the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), known in America as the French and Indian War, had been won only at a great financial cost. During the war, the British national debt nearly doubled, rising from £72,289,673 in 1755 to almost £129,586,789 by 1764. Post-war expenses were expected to remain high because the Bute ministry decided in early 1763 to keep ten thousand British regulars in the American colonies, which would cost about £225,000 per year, equal to £ million today. The primary reason for retaining such a large force was that demobilizing the army would put 1,500 officers out of work, many of whom were well-connected in Parliament. This made it politically prudent to retain a large peacetime establishment, but Britons were averse to maintaining a standing army at home so it was necessary to garrison most of the troops elsewhere.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The outbreak of Pontiac's War in May of 1763 led to the Royal Proclamation of 1763 and the added duty of British soldiers to prevent outbreaks of violence between Native Americans and American colonists. 10,000 British troops were dispatched to the American frontier, with a primary motivation of the move being to provide billets for the officers who were part of the British patronage system. John Adams wrote disparagingly of the deployment, writing that "Revenue is still demanded from America, and appropriated to the maintenance of swarms of officers and pensioners in idleness and luxury".


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: George Grenville became prime minister in April 1763 after the failure of the short-lived Bute Ministry, and he had to find a way to pay for this large peacetime army. Raising taxes in Britain was out of the question, since there had been virulent protests in England against the Bute ministry's 1763 cider tax, with Bute being hanged in effigy. The Grenville ministry, therefore, decided that Parliament would raise this revenue by taxing the American colonists without their consent. This was something new; Parliament had previously passed measures to regulate trade in the colonies, but it had never before directly taxed the colonies to raise revenue.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Politicians in London had always expected American colonists to contribute to the cost of their own defence. So long as a French threat existed, there was little trouble convincing colonial legislatures to provide assistance. Such help was normally provided through the raising of colonial militias, which were funded by taxes raised by colonial legislatures. Also, the legislatures were sometimes willing to help maintain regular British units defending the colonies. So long as this sort of help was forthcoming, there was little reason for the British Parliament to impose its own taxes on the colonists. But after the peace of 1763, colonial militias were quickly stood down. Militia officers were tired of the disdain shown to them by regular British officers, and were frustrated by the near-impossibility of obtaining regular British commissions; they were unwilling to remain in service once the war was over. In any case, they had no military role, as the Indian threat was minimal and there was no foreign threat. Colonial legislators saw no need for the British troops.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The Sugar Act of 1764 was the first tax in Grenville's program to raise a revenue in America, which was a modification of the Molasses Act of 1733. The Molasses Act had imposed a tax of 6 pence per gallon (equal to £ today) on foreign molasses imported into British colonies. The purpose of the Molasses Act was not actually to raise revenue, but instead to make foreign molasses so expensive that it effectively gave a monopoly to molasses imported from the British West Indies. It did not work; colonial merchants avoided the tax by smuggling or, more often, bribing customs officials. The Sugar Act reduced the tax to 3 pence per gallon (equal to £ today) in the hope that the lower rate would increase compliance and thus increase the amount of tax collected. The Act also taxed additional imports and included measures to make the customs service more effective.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: American colonists initially objected to the Sugar Act for economic reasons, but before long they recognized that there were potential constitutional issues involved. The British Constitution guaranteed that taxes could not be levied without the consent of Parliament, but the colonists argued that due to their theoretical Rights as Englishmen, they could not be taxed without their consent, which came in the form of representation in Parliament. The colonists elected no members of Parliament, and so it was seen as a violation of their Rights for Parliament to tax them. There was little time to raise this issue in response to the Sugar Act, but it came to be a major objection to the Stamp Act the following year.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Parliament announced in April 1764 when the Sugar Act was passed that they would also consider a stamp tax in the colonies. Opposition from the colonies was soon forthcoming to this possible tax, but neither members of Parliament nor American agents in Great Britain (such as Benjamin Franklin) anticipated the intensity of the protest that the tax generated.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Stamp acts had been a very successful method of taxation within Great Britain; they generated over £100,000 in tax revenue with very little in collection expenses. By requiring an official stamp on most legal documents, the system was almost self-regulating; a document would be null and void under British law without the required stamp. Imposition of such a tax on the colonies had been considered twice before the Seven Years' War and once again in 1761. Grenville had actually been presented with drafts of colonial stamp acts in September and October 1763, but the proposals lacked the specific knowledge of colonial affairs to adequately describe the documents subject to the stamp. At the time of the passage of the Sugar Act in April 1764, Grenville made it clear that the right to tax the colonies was not in question, and that additional taxes might follow, including a stamp tax.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The Glorious Revolution had established the principle of parliamentary supremacy. Control of colonial trade and manufactures extended this principle across the ocean. This belief had never been tested on the issue of colonial taxation, but the British assumed that the interests of the thirteen colonies were so disparate that a joint colonial action was unlikely to occur against such a tax–an assumption that had its genesis in the failure of the Albany Conference in 1754. By the end of December 1764, the first warnings of serious colonial opposition were provided by pamphlets and petitions from the colonies protesting both the Sugar Act and the proposed stamp tax.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: For Grenville, the first issue was the amount of the tax. Soon after his announcement of the possibility of a tax, he had told American agents that he was not opposed to the Americans suggesting an alternative way of raising the money themselves. However, the only other alternative would be to requisition each colony and allow them to determine how to raise their share. This had never worked before, even during the French and Indian War, and there was no political mechanism in place that would have ensured the success of such cooperation. On 2 February 1765, Grenville met to discuss the tax with Benjamin Franklin, Jared Ingersoll from New Haven, Richard Jackson, agent for Connecticut, and Charles Garth, the agent for South Carolina (Jackson and Garth were also members of Parliament). These colonial representatives had no specific alternative to present; they simply suggested that the determination be left to the colonies. Grenville replied that he wanted to raise the money "by means the most easy and least objectionable to the Colonies". Thomas Whately had drafted the Stamp Act, and he said that the delay in implementation had been "out of Tenderness to the colonies", and that the tax was judged as "the easiest, the most equal and the most certain."


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The debate in Parliament began soon after this meeting. Petitions submitted by the colonies were officially ignored by Parliament. In the debate, Charles Townshend said, "and now will these Americans, children planted by our care, nourished up by our Indulgence until they are grown to a degree of strength and opulence, and protected by our arms, will they grudge to contribute their mite to relieve us from heavy weight of the burden which we lie under?" This led to Colonel Isaac Barré's response:


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Massachusetts Royal Governor William Shirley assured London in 1755 that American independence could easily be defeated by force. He argued:


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The Act was passed by Parliament on 22 March 1765 with an effective date of 1 November 1765. It passed 205–49 in the House of Commons and unanimously in the House of Lords. Historians Edmund and Helen Morgan describe the specifics of the tax:


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The high taxes on lawyers and college students were designed to limit the growth of a professional class in the colonies. The stamps had to be purchased with hard currency, which was scarce, rather than the more plentiful colonial paper currency. To avoid draining currency out of the colonies, the revenues were to be expended in America, especially for supplies and salaries of British Army units who were stationed there.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Two features of the Act involving the courts attracted special attention. The tax on court documents specifically included courts "exercising ecclesiastical jurisdiction." These type of courts did not currently exist in the colonies and no bishops were currently assigned to the colonies, who would preside over the courts. Many colonists or their ancestors had fled England specifically to escape the influence and power of such state-sanctioned religious institutions, and they feared that this was the first step to reinstating the old ways in the colonies. Some Anglicans in the northern colonies were already openly advocating the appointment of such bishops, but they were opposed by both southern Anglicans and the non-Anglicans who made up the majority in the northern colonies.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The Act allowed admiralty courts to have jurisdiction for trying violators, following the example established by the Sugar Act. However, admiralty courts had traditionally been limited to cases involving the high seas. The Sugar Act seemed to fall within this precedent, but the Stamp Act did not, and the colonists saw this as a further attempt to replace their local courts with courts controlled by England.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: As the Act imposed a tax on many different types of paper items, including newspapers, contracts, deeds, wills, claims, indentures and many other types of legal documents, its effect would be felt in many different professions and trades, resulting in wide spread protests from newspapers, citizens, and even attacks on public officials, tax collectors and their offices and homes.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Grenville started appointing Stamp Distributors almost immediately after the Act passed Parliament. Applicants were not hard to come by because of the anticipated income that the positions promised, and he appointed local colonists to the post. Benjamin Franklin even suggested the appointment of John Hughes as the agent for Pennsylvania, indicating that even Franklin was not aware of the turmoil and impact that the tax was going to generate on American-British relations or that these distributors would become the focus of colonial resistance.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Debate in the colonies had actually begun in the spring of 1764 over the Stamp Act when Parliament passed a resolution that contained the assertion, "That, towards further defraying the said Expences, it may be proper to charge certain Stamp Duties in the said Colonies and Plantations." Both the Sugar Act and the proposed Stamp Act were designed principally to raise revenue from the colonists. The Sugar Act, to a large extent, was a continuation of past legislation related primarily to the regulation of trade (termed an external tax), but its stated purpose was entirely new: to collect revenue directly from the colonists for a specific purpose. The novelty of the Stamp Act was that it was the first internal tax (a tax based entirely on activities within the colonies) levied directly on the colonies by Parliament. It was judged by the colonists to be a more dangerous assault on their rights than the Sugar Act was, because of its potential wide application to the colonial economy.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The theoretical issue that soon held center stage was the matter of taxation without representation. Benjamin Franklin had raised this as far back as 1754 at the Albany Congress when he wrote, "That it is suppos'd an undoubted Right of Englishmen not to be taxed but by their own Consent given thro' their Representatives. That the Colonies have no Representatives in Parliament." The counter to this argument was the theory of virtual representation. Thomas Whately enunciated this theory in a pamphlet that readily acknowledged that there could be no taxation without consent, but the facts were that at least 75% of British adult males were not represented in Parliament because of property qualifications or other factors. Members of Parliament were bound to represent the interests of all British citizens and subjects, so colonists were the recipients of virtual representation in Parliament, like those disenfranchised subjects in the British Isles. This theory, however, ignored a crucial difference between the unrepresented in Britain and the colonists. The colonists enjoyed actual representation in their own legislative assemblies, and the issue was whether these legislatures, rather than Parliament, were in fact the sole recipients of the colonists' consent with regard to taxation.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Massachusetts appointed a five-member Committee of Correspondence in June 1764 to coordinate action and exchange information regarding the Sugar Act, and Rhode Island formed a similar committee in October 1764. This attempt at unified action represented a significant step forward in colonial unity and cooperation. The Virginia House of Burgesses sent a protest of the taxes to London in December 1764, arguing that they did not have the specie required to pay the tax. Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Rhode Island, and Connecticut also sent protest to England in 1764. The content of the messages varied, but they all emphasized that taxation of the colonies without colonial assent was a violation of their rights. By the end of 1765, all of the Thirteen Colonies except Georgia and North Carolina had sent some sort of protest passed by colonial legislative assemblies.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The Virginia House of Burgesses reconvened in early May 1765 after news was received of the passage of the Act. By the end of May, it appeared that they would not consider the tax, and many legislators went home, including George Washington. Only 30 out of 116 Burgesses remained, but one of those remaining was Patrick Henry who was attending his first session. Henry led the opposition to the Stamp Act; he proposed his resolutions on 30 May 1765, and they were passed in the form of the Virginia Resolves. The Resolves stated:


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: On 6 June 1765, the Massachusetts Lower House proposed a meeting for the 1st Tuesday of October in New York City:


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: There was no attempt to keep this meeting a secret; Massachusetts promptly notified Richard Jackson of the proposed meeting, their agent in England and a member of Parliament.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: John Adams complained that the London ministry was intentionally trying "to strip us in a great measure of the means of knowledge, by loading the Press, the colleges, and even an Almanack and a News-Paper, with restraints and duties." The press fought back. By 1760 the fledgling American newspaper industry comprised 24 weekly papers in major cities. Benjamin Franklin had created an informal network so that each one routinely reprinted news, editorials, letters and essays from the others, thus helping form a common American voice. All the editors were annoyed at the new stamp tax they would have to pay on each copy. By informing colonists what the other colonies were saying the press became a powerful opposition force to the Stamp Act. Many circumvented it and most equated taxation without representation with despotism and tyranny, thus providing a common vocabulary of protest for the Thirteen Colonies.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The August 1, 1768, issue of the Pennsylvania Chronicle, established by William Goddard, printed on the front page a four-column article of an address made at the State House (Independence Hall) against the Stamp Act, and other excessive tax laws passed without colonial representation in the British Parliament.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The newspapers reported effigy hangings and stamp master resignation speeches. Some newspapers were on the royal payroll and supported the Act, but most of the press was free and vocal. Thus William Bradford, the foremost printer in Philadelphia, became a leader of the Sons of Liberty. He added a skull and crossbones with the words, "the fatal Stamp," to the masthead of his "Pennsylvania Journal and weekly Advertiser".


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Some of the earliest forms of American propaganda appeared in these printings in response to the law. The articles written in colonial newspapers were particularly critical of the act because of the Stamp Act's disproportionate effect on printers. David Ramsay, a patriot and historian from South Carolina, wrote of this phenomenon shortly after the American Revolution:


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Most printers were critical of the Stamp Act, although a few Loyalist voices did exist. Some of the more subtle Loyalist sentiments can be seen in publications such as "The Boston Evening Post", which was run by British sympathizers John and Thomas Fleet. The article detailed a violent protest that occurred in New York in December, 1765, then described the riot's participants as "imperfect" and labeled the group's ideas as "contrary to the general sense of the people." Vindex Patriae denigrated the colonists as foreign vagabonds and ungrateful Scots-Irish subjects determined to "strut and claim an independent property to the dunghill". These Loyalists beliefs can be seen in some of the early newspaper articles about the Stamp Act, but the anti-British writings were more prevalent and seem to have had a more powerful effect.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Many papers assumed a relatively conservative tone before the act went into effect, implying that they might close if it wasn't repealed. However, as time passed and violent demonstrations ensued, the authors became more vitriolic. Several newspaper editors were involved with the Sons of Liberty, such as William Bradford of "The Pennsylvania Journal" and Benjamin Edes of "The Boston Gazette", and they echoed the group's sentiments in their publications. The Stamp Act went into effect that November and many newspapers printed their editions with black borders about the edges and columns, which sometimes included imagery of tombstones and skeletons, emphasizing that their papers were "dead" and would no longer be able to print because of the Stamp Act. However, most of them returned in the upcoming months, defiantly appearing without the stamp of approval that was deemed necessary by the Stamp Act. Printers were greatly relieved when the law was nullified in the following spring, and the repeal asserted their positions as a powerful voice (and compass) for public opinion.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: While the colonial legislatures were acting, the ordinary citizens of the colonies were also voicing their concerns outside of this formal political process. Historian Gary B. Nash wrote:


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Early street protests were most notable in Boston. Andrew Oliver was a distributor of stamps for Massachusetts who was hanged in effigy on 14 August 1765 "from a giant elm tree at the crossing of Essex and Orange Streets in the city's South End." Also hung was a jackboot painted green on the bottom ("a Green-ville sole"), a pun on both Grenville and the Earl of Bute, the two people most blamed by the colonists. Lieutenant Governor Thomas Hutchinson ordered sheriff Stephen Greenleaf to take down the effigy, but he was opposed by a large crowd. All day the crowd detoured merchants on Orange Street to have their goods symbolically stamped under the elm tree, which later became known as the "Liberty Tree". This date became accepted by the members of the Sons of Liberty in Boston as the date of the founding of their organization.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Ebenezer MacIntosh was a veteran of the Seven Years' War and a shoemaker. One night, he led a crowd which cut down the effigy of Andrew Oliver and took it in a funeral procession to the Town House where the legislature met. From there, they went to Oliver's office—which they tore down and symbolically stamped the timbers. Next, they took the effigy to Oliver's home at the foot of Fort Hill, where they beheaded it and then burned it—along with Oliver's stable house and coach and chaise. Greenleaf and Hutchinson were stoned when they tried to stop the mob, which then looted and destroyed the contents of Oliver's house. Oliver asked to be relieved of his duties the next day. This resignation, however, was not enough. Oliver was ultimately forced by MacIntosh to be paraded through the streets and to publicly resign under the Liberty Tree.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: As news spread of the reasons for Andrew Oliver's resignation, violence and threats of aggressive acts increased throughout the colonies, as did organized groups of resistance. Throughout the colonies, members of the middle and upper classes of society formed the foundation for these groups of resistance and soon called themselves the Sons of Liberty. These colonial groups of resistance burned effigies of royal officials, forced Stamp Act collectors to resign, and were able to get businessmen and judges to go about without using the proper stamps demanded by Parliament.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: On 16 August, a mob damaged the home and official papers of William Story, the deputy register of the Vice-Admiralty, who then moved to Marblehead, Massachusetts. Benjamin Hallowell, the comptroller of customs, suffered the almost total loss of his home.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: On 26 August, MacIntosh led an attack on Hutchinson's mansion. The mob evicted the family, destroyed the furniture, tore down the interior walls, emptied the wine cellar, scattered Hutchinson's collection of Massachusetts historical papers, and pulled down the building's cupola. Hutchinson had been in public office for three decades; he estimated his loss at £2,218 (in today's money, at nearly $250,000). Nash concludes that this attack was more than just a reaction to the Stamp Act:


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Governor Francis Bernard offered a £300 reward for information on the leaders of the mob, but no information was forthcoming. MacIntosh and several others were arrested, but were either freed by pressure from the merchants or released by mob action.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: The street demonstrations originated from the efforts of respectable public leaders such as James Otis, who commanded the "Boston Gazette", and Samuel Adams of the "Loyal Nine" of the Boston Caucus, an organization of Boston merchants. They made efforts to control the people below them on the economic and social scale, but they were often unsuccessful in maintaining a delicate balance between mass demonstrations and riots. These men needed the support of the working class, but also had to establish the legitimacy of their actions to have their protests to England taken seriously. At the time of these protests, the Loyal Nine was more of a social club with political interests but, by December 1765, it began issuing statements as the Sons of Liberty.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Rhode Island also experienced street violence. A crowd built a gallows near the Town House in Newport on 27 August, where they carried effigies of three officials appointed as stamp distributors: Augustus Johnson, Dr. Thomas Moffat, and lawyer Martin Howard. The crowd at first was led by merchants William Ellery, Samuel Vernon, and Robert Crook, but they soon lost control. That night, the crowd was led by a poor man named John Weber, and they attacked the houses of Moffat and Howard, where they destroyed walls, fences, art, furniture, and wine. The local Sons of Liberty were publicly opposed to violence, and they refused at first to support Weber when he was arrested. They were persuaded to come to his assistance, however, when retaliation was threatened against their own homes. Weber was released and faded into obscurity.


title: Stamp Act 1765

text: Howard became the only prominent American to publicly support the Stamp Act in his pamphlet "A Colonist's Defence of Taxation" (1765). After the riots, Howard had to leave the colony, but he was rewarded by the Crown with an appointment as Chief Justice of North Carolina at a salary of £1,000.