title: Founding of Rome

text: The tale of the founding of Rome is recounted in traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves as the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth. The most familiar of these myths, and perhaps the most famous of all Roman myths, is the story of Romulus and Remus, twins who were suckled by a she-wolf as infants. Another account, set earlier in time, claims that the Roman people are descended from Trojan War hero Aeneas, who escaped to Italy after the war, and whose son, Iulus, was the ancestor of the family of Julius Caesar. The archaeological evidence of human occupation of the area of modern-day Rome dates from about 14,000 years ago.


title: Founding of Rome

text: The national epic of mythical Rome, the "Aeneid" of Virgil, tells the story of how Trojan prince Aeneas came to Italy. The "Aeneid" was written under Augustus, who claimed ancestry through Julius Caesar to Aeneas and his mother Venus. According to the "Aeneid", the survivors from the fallen city of Troy banded together under Aeneas and underwent a series of adventures around the Mediterranean Sea, including a stop at newly founded Carthage under the rule of Queen Dido, eventually reaching the Italian coast. The Trojans were thought to have landed in an area between modern Anzio and Fiumicino, southwest of Rome, probably at Laurentum or, in other versions, at Lavinium, a place named for Lavinia, the daughter of King Latinus. King Latinus agreed that Lavinia marry Aeneas. This started a series of armed conflicts with Turnus over the marriage of Lavinia. Before the arrival of Aeneas, Turnus was betrothed to Lavinia, who was then promised to Aeneas, starting the war. Aeneas won the war and killed Turnus. The Trojans won the right to stay and to assimilate with the local peoples. The young son of Aeneas, Ascanius, also known as Iulus, went on to found Alba Longa and the line of Alban kings who filled the chronological gap between the Trojan saga and the traditional founding of Rome in the 8th century BC.


title: Founding of Rome

text: Toward the end of this line, King Procas was the father of Numitor and Amulius. At Procas' death, Numitor became king of Alba Longa, but Amulius captured him and sent him to prison; he also forced Numitor's daughter Rhea Silvia to become a virgin priestess among the Vestals.


title: Founding of Rome

text: Evander goes on to explain that from that "first time" the god Saturn brings these scattered people laws and bestows upon them the name Latium.


title: Founding of Rome

text: Sallust writes that Aeneas and his men founded the city, then Aborigines came to the city and later other tribes also came to live there.


title: Founding of Rome

text: The myth of Aeneas was of Greek origin and had to be reconciled with the Italian myth of Romulus and Remus. They were purported to be sons of Rhea Silvia and either Mars, the god of war, or the demigod hero Hercules. They were abandoned at birth, in the manner of many mythological heroes, because of a prophecy that they would overthrow their great-uncle Amulius, who had overthrown Silvia's father Numitor. The twins were abandoned on the river Tiber by servants who took pity on the infants, despite their orders. The twins were nurtured by a she-wolf until a shepherd named Faustulus found the boys and took them as his sons. Faustulus and his wife Acca Larentia raised the children. When Remus and Romulus became adults, they killed Amulius and restored Numitor. They decided to establish a city. Each of them took auspices, then quarelled over the result. Romulus and his followers began to establish city walls on his favoured hill, the Palatine. Remus wanted to found the city on the Aventine Hill. In the commonest version, according to Livy, Remus slighted Romulus' wall by leaping over it, and was killed, either by his twin or followers. Thus, Rome began with divisions and a fratricide, a story that was later taken to represent the city's history of internecine political strife and bloodshed.


title: Founding of Rome

text: Strabo writes that there is also an older story, about the founding of Rome, than the previous legends that he had mentioned. The city was an Arcadian colony and was founded by Evander. Strabo also writes that Lucius Coelius Antipater believed that Rome was founded by Greeks.


title: Founding of Rome

text: Hellanicus of Lesbos wrote that Rome was founded by the heroes Aeneas and Odysseus who came together there. Other ancient historians, including Damastes of Sigeum, agreed with him.


title: Founding of Rome

text: Dionysius of Halicarnassus writes that the people who came to the lands that later became the city of Rome were first the Aborigines, who drove the Sicels out of these lands, and were from the Arcadia, then the Pelasgians, who came from Thessaly. Third came those who accompanied Evander into Italy from the city of Pallantium in Arcadia; next the Epeans from Elis and Pheneats from Pheneus, who were part of the army commanded by Heracles which decided to stay there while they were returning from the expedition at the Erytheia, with whom a Trojan element also was commingled. Last of all came Trojans who had escaped with Aeneas from Ilium, Dardanus, and the other Trojan cities. Dionysius mentions that the Trojans were also Greek people who were originally from the Peloponnesus. He also adds that even Romans say that the Pallantium was founded by Greeks from Pallantium of Arcadia, about sixty years before the Trojan War and the leader was Evander.


title: Founding of Rome

text: Later at the sixteenth generation after the Trojan War the Albans united these places into one settlement, surrounding them with a wall and a ditch. The Albans were a mixed nation composed of all the above people. Dionysius adds that it is possible that a barbarian element from among the neighboring people or a remnant of the ancient inhabitants of the place were mixed with the Greek. But all these people, having lost their tribal past came to be called by one common name, Latins, after Latinus, who had been the king of the country. The leaders of the colony were the twin brothers Romulus and Remus.


title: Founding of Rome

text: Dionysius also mention that many other historians say that Aeneas came into Italy from the land of the Molossians with Odysseus and founded the city. And he named the city Rome after a Trojan woman who persuaded the other women to set fire to the ships because they didn't want to weary anymore.


title: Founding of Rome

text: Diodorus Siculus wrote that some historians believe that the Romulus who was the son of the daughter of Aeneas was the founder of Rome.


title: Founding of Rome

text: But he did not believe this, and backed up his disbelief with the fact that there were many kings in the period between Aeneas and Romulus, and the city was founded in the second year of the Seventh Olympiad, and the date of this founding falls after the Trojan War by four hundred and thirty-three years.


title: Founding of Rome

text: Ovid writes that when Evander came from Arcadia to the place where Rome was later built, there were only some trees, a few sheep and some cottages. Evander then taught the natives his gods and sacred rites.


title: Founding of Rome

text: He also mentions, that there are different stories of why it is named Rome. One version is that when Evander with his people came, there was already a small town built and the youths called it in Latin “Valentia” and he called it in Greek “Rome”.


title: Founding of Rome

text: Another version is that after the Trojan war, some Argives came and a captive noble woman named Roma persuaded them to burn their ships. They set up a base, built walls and named the town “Rome” after her.


title: Founding of Rome

text: Plutarch writes that "some say that the Pelasgians" founded the city and that they called it Rome because of "their strength in war". While "others say" that after Troy fell, some of its people came to Italy and a noble woman, who was called Roma, proposed to burn the ships and live there, so they named the city after her.


title: Founding of Rome

text: Eusebius in his Chronicon (Eusebius) describe all the different stories about the founding of Rome from many different authors.


title: Founding of Rome

text: Another story told how Romos, a son of Odysseus and Circe, was the one who founded Rome. Martin P. Nilsson speculates that this older story was becoming a bit embarrassing as Rome became more powerful and tensions with the Greeks grew. Being descendants of the Greeks was no longer preferable, so the Romans settled on the Trojan foundation myth instead. Nilsson further speculates that the name of Romos was changed by the Romans to the native name Romulus, but the name Romos (later changed to the native Remus) was never forgotten by the people, and so these two names came to stand side by side as founders of the city.


title: Founding of Rome

text: Xenagoras writes that Odysseus and Circe had three sons Rhomos (), Anteias () and Ardeias (), who built three cities and called them after their own names (Rome, Anteia and Ardea).


title: Founding of Rome

text: Emperor Julian in his satire called "The Caesars", which describes a contest between the previous Roman emperors with Alexander the Great called in as an extra contestant in the presence of the assembled gods, made Alexander say: "I am aware that you Romans are yourselves descended from the Greeks..."


title: Founding of Rome

text: The ancient Romans were certain of the day Rome was founded: April 21, the day of the festival sacred to Pales, goddess of shepherds, on which date they celebrated the "Par ilia" (or "Palilia"). However, they did not know, or they were uncertain of, the exact year the city had been founded; this is one reason they preferred to date their years by the presiding consuls rather than using the formula A.U.C. or Ab urbe condita. Several dates had been proposed by ancient authorities, and Dionysius of Halicarnassus records these: The Greek historian Timaeus, one of the first to write a history to include the Romans, stated that Rome was founded in the 38th year prior to the first Olympiad, or 814/3 BC; Quintus Fabius Pictor, the first Roman to write the history of his people, in Greek, stated Rome was founded in the first year of the eighth Olympiad, or 748/7 BC; Lucius Cincius Alimentus claimed Rome was founded in the fourth year of the twelfth Olympiad, or 729/8 BC; and Cato the Elder calculated that Rome was founded 432 years after the Trojan War, which Dionysius states was equivalent to the first year of the seventh Olympiad, or 752/1 BC. Dionysius himself provided calculations showing that Rome was founded in 751 BC, starting with the Battle of the Allia, which he dated to the first year of the ninety-eighth Olympiad, 388/7 BC, then added 120 years to reach the date of the first consuls, Junius Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus, 508/7 BC, then added the combined total of the reigns of the Kings of Rome (244 years) to arrive at his own date, 751 BC. Even the official Fasti Capitolini offers its own date, 752 BC.


title: Founding of Rome

text: The most familiar date given for the foundation of Rome, 753 BC, was derived by the Roman antiquarian Titus Pomponius Atticus, and adopted by Marcus Terentius Varro, having become part of what has come to be known as the Varronian chronology. An anecdote in Plutarch where the astrologer Lucius Tarrutius of Firmum provides an argument based on a non-existent eclipse and other erroneous astronomical details that Rome was founded in 753 BC suggests that this had become the most commonly accepted date. Through its use by the third-century writer Censorinus, whose "De Die Natali" was the ultimate influence of Joseph Justus Scaliger's work to establish a scientific basis of ancient chronology, it became familiar.


title: Founding of Rome

text: Discoveries by Andrea Carandini on Rome's Palatine Hill have also yielded evidence of a series of fortification walls on the north slope that can be dated to the middle of the 8th century BC. According to the legend, Romulus ploughed a furrow ("sulcus") around the hill in order to mark the boundary of his new city.


title: Founding of Rome

text: There is no consensus on the etymology of the city's name. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) suggested Greek "" (""), meaning "strength, vigor". A modern theory of etymology holds that the name of the city is of Etruscan origin (and perhaps the city itself, though this cannot be proven), derived from "rumon", "river".


title: Founding of Rome

text: There is archaeological evidence of human occupation of the Rome area from about 14,000 years ago, but the dense layer of much younger debris obscures Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites. Several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age, each hill between the sea and the Capitol was topped by a village (on the Capitol Hill, a village is attested since the end of the 14th century BC).


title: Founding of Rome

text: In any case, the location that became the city of Rome was inhabited by Latin settlers from various regions, farmers and pastoralists, as evidenced by differences in pottery and burial techniques. The historical Latins were originally an Italic tribe who inhabited, from around 1000 BC, the Alban Hills. They later moved down into the valleys, which provided better land for agriculture. The island Isola Tiberina was the site of an important ancient ford. The area around the Tiber was particularly advantageous and offered notable strategic resources: the river was a natural border on one side, and the hills could provide a safe defensive position on the other side. This position would also have enabled the Latins to control the river and the commercial and military traffic on it from the natural observation point at Isola Tiberina. Moreover, road traffic could be controlled, since Rome was at the intersection of the principal roads to the sea coming from Sabinum (in the northeast) and Etruria (to the northwest).


title: Founding of Rome

text: There is a wide consensus that the city developed gradually through the aggregation (synoecism) of several villages around the largest one on the Palatine. This aggregation, signalling the transition from a proto-urban to an urban settlement, was made possible by the increase in agricultural productivity above the subsistence level: in turn, these boosted the development of trade with the Greek colonies of southern Italy (mainly Ischia and Cumae). All these events, which according to the archaeological excavations occurred around the mid 8th century BC, can be considered as the origin of the city.


title: Founding of Rome

text: Recent studies suggest that the Quirinal hill was very important in ancient times, although the first hill to be inhabited seems to have been the Palatine (thus confirming the legend), which is also at the centre of ancient Rome. Its three peaks, the minor hills "Cermalus" or "Germalus", "Palatium", and "Velia", were united with the three peaks of the Esquiline ("Cispius", "Fagutal", and "Oppius"), and then villages on the Caelian Hill and Suburra.


title: Founding of Rome

text: Recent discoveries revealed that the "Germalus" on the northern part of the Palatine was the site of a village (dated to the 9th century BC) with circular or elliptical dwellings. It was protected by a clay wall (perhaps reinforced with wood), and it is likely that this is the particular location on the Palatine hill where Rome was actually founded.


title: Founding of Rome

text: Festivals for the "Septimontium" (literally "of the seven hills") on December 11 were previously considered to be related to the foundation of Rome. However, April 21 is the only date for Rome's foundation upon which all the legends agree, and it has recently been argued that Septimontium celebrated the first federations among Roman hills.


title: Founding of Rome

text: During the Italian Renaissance, a group of humanists affiliated with the Roman Academy formed a sodality to pursue antiquarian interests, celebrating the "birthday of Rome" annually on April 20. In 1468, the Academy was suppressed by Pope Paul II for fomenting "republicanism, paganism, and conspiracy", but the sodality was reinstated about ten years later under Sixtus IV as the "Societas Literatorum S. Victoris in Esquiliis" ("Literary Society of Saint Victor on the Esquiline"). The reformed group placed itself under the new patronage of saints Victor, Fortunatus, and Genesius, "whose feast day was conveniently proven to coincide with the Palilia". Their "Palilia" was organized by Pomponio Leto and featured speeches, a communal meal, and a poetry competition.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: Bernhard Carl "Bert" Trautmann EK OBE BVO (22 October 1923 – 19 July 2013) was a German professional footballer who played as a goalkeeper for Manchester City from 1949 to 1964.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: In August 1933, (aged 9), he joined the Jungvolk, the junior section of the Hitler Youth. Trautmann joined the Luftwaffe early in the Second World War, and then served as a paratrooper. He was initially sent to Occupied Poland, and subsequently fought on the Eastern Front for three years, earning five medals, including an Iron Cross. Later in the war, he was transferred to the Western Front, where he was captured by the British as the war drew to a close. As a volunteer soldier, he was classified a category "C" prisoner by the authorities, meaning he was regarded as a Nazi. One of only 90 of his original 1,000-man regiment to survive the war, he was transferred to a prisoner-of-war camp in Ashton-in-Makerfield, Lancashire. Trautmann refused an offer of repatriation, and following his release in 1948 decided to settle in Lancashire, combining farm work with playing goalkeeper for a local football team, St Helens Town.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: Performances for St Helens gained Trautmann a reputation as an outstanding goalkeeper, resulting in interest from Football League clubs. In October 1949, he signed for Manchester City, a club playing in the country's highest level of football, the First Division. The club's decision to sign a former Axis paratrooper sparked protests, and 20,000 people attended a demonstration. Over time, he gained acceptance through his performances in the City goal, playing in all but five of the club's next 250 matches.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: Named FWA Footballer of the Year for 1956, Trautmann entered football folklore with his performance in the 1956 FA Cup Final. With 17 minutes of the match remaining, Trautmann suffered a serious injury while diving at the feet of Birmingham City's Peter Murphy. Despite his injury, he continued to play, making crucial saves to preserve his team's 3–1 lead. His neck was noticeably crooked as he collected his winner's medal; three days later an X-ray revealed it to be broken.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: Trautmann played for Manchester City until 1964, making 545 appearances. After his playing career, he moved into management, first with lower-division sides in England and Germany, and later as part of a German Football Association development scheme that took him to several countries, including Burma, Tanzania and Pakistan. In 2004, he was appointed an honorary Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for promoting Anglo-German understanding through football. Trautmann died at home near Valencia, Spain, in 2013, aged 89.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: Trautmann was born on 22 October 1923 in Walle, a working class area in west Bremen, living with his father, who worked in a fertiliser factory by the docks, and his mother Frieda. He had a brother, Karl-Heinz, three years his junior, with whom he enjoyed a close relationship. The bleak economic climate of the early 1930s forced the Trautmanns to sell their house and move to an apartment block in the working class area of Gröpelingen, where Bernhard lived until 1941.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: The young Bernhard had a keen interest in sport, playing football, handball and "völkerball" (a form of dodgeball). To this end, he joined the YMCA and football club "Blau und Weiss". He took to playing for the football club with enthusiasm, but the YMCA activities did not interest him to the same extent.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: In August 1933, he joined a new organisation, the Jungvolk, the junior section of the Hitler Youth. The following year, he won several local junior athletics events and was awarded a certificate for athletic excellence signed by Paul von Hindenburg, the President of Germany. At the onset of the Second World War, Trautmann was working as an apprentice motor mechanic.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: Trautmann joined the Luftwaffe as a radio operator in 1941. During training, he showed little aptitude for radio work, and transferred to Spandau to become a "Fallschirmjäger" (paratrooper). He first served in Occupied Poland, although being stationed far behind the front line meant experiencing prolonged bouts of monotony; consequently, Trautmann and the rest of his regiment resorted to sports and practical jokes to pass the time. One such practical joke involving a car backfired on Trautmann, resulting in a staff sergeant burning his arms. Trautmann was court-martialled, and received a three-month prison sentence. At the start of his confinement, Trautmann came down with acute appendicitis, and spent the remainder of his sentence in a military hospital.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: In October 1941, he rejoined the 35th Infantry Division at Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine, where the German advance had halted. Over-winter hit-and-run attacks on Soviet Army supply routes were the unit's main focus and in spring, Trautmann was promoted to "Unteroffizier" (corporal). Gains were made in 1942, but the Soviet counter-offensive hit Trautmann's unit hard, and by the time it was withdrawn from the Eastern Front, only 300 of the original 1,000 men remained. Trautmann won five medals for his actions on the Eastern Front, including an Iron Cross First Class.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: Promoted to "Feldwebel" (sergeant), Trautmann was part of a unit formed from the remnants of several others that had been decimated in the east, and moved to France to guard against an expected Allied invasion of France. In 1945, he was one of the few survivors of the Allied bombing of Kleve, and decided to head home to Bremen. By this point, German soldiers without valid leave papers were being shot as deserters, so Trautmann sought to avoid troops from either side. However, a few days later, he was captured in a barn by two Allied soldiers. Deciding that Trautmann had no useful intelligence to give them, the soldiers marched him out of the barn with his hands raised. Fearing he was about to be executed, Trautmann fled. After evading his captors, he jumped over a fence, only to land at the feet of a British soldier, who greeted him with the words "Hello Fritz, fancy a cup of tea?" Earlier in the war, he had been captured by the Soviets and later the French, but escaped both times.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: He was imprisoned near Ostend, Belgium, then transferred to a transit camp in Essex, where he was interrogated. As a volunteer soldier who had been subject to indoctrination from a young age, he was classified a category "C" prisoner by the authorities, meaning he was regarded as a Nazi. Trautmann, one of only 90 of his original regiment to survive the war, was then transferred to a prisoner-of-war camp at Marbury Hall, near Northwich, Cheshire, and interned with other category "C" prisoners. He was soon downgraded to non-Nazi "B" status, after which he was taken to Fort Crosby in Hightown near Liverpool where he stayed for a short while working on local farms and mixing with the locals; from here he was sent to PoW Camp 50 (now Byrchall High School) in Ashton-in-Makerfield in Lancashire between St Helens and Wigan, where he stayed until 1948.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: Football matches were regularly held at the camp, in which Trautmann played outfield. However, in a match against amateur team Haydock Park, Trautmann was injured while playing centre-half. He swapped positions with goalkeeper Günther Lühr, and from that day forward played as a goalkeeper. During this time he became known as "Bert", as the English were unfamiliar with "Bernd", the abbreviated version of his name.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: With closure of the PoW camp imminent, Trautmann declined an offer of repatriation and stayed in England, working on a farm in Milnthorpe then subsequently working on bomb disposal in Huyton.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: In August 1948, he started playing amateur football for the non-league Liverpool County Combination club St Helens Town, through which he met the club secretary's daughter, Margaret Friar, whom he later married. Over the course of the 1948–49 season, Trautmann's goalkeeping reputation steadily grew and a series of large crowds were attributed to his performances, including a record 9,000 attendance in the final of a local cup competition, the Mahon Cup. The success of that season elevated the club into Division Two of the Lancashire Combination League for the start of 1949–50.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: Performances for St Helens gained Trautmann a reputation as an able goalkeeper, resulting in interest from Football League clubs. As the following season commenced, a number of League clubs showed interest in signing him. The first to offer him a contract was Manchester City, a club playing in the highest level of football in the country, the First Division. On 7 October 1949 Trautmann signed for the club as an amateur and turned professional shortly after. Trautmann became the first sportsman in Britain to wear Adidas, thanks to his friendship with Adolf Dassler.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: Some Manchester City fans were unhappy about signing a former member of the German Army. Season ticket holders threatened a boycott, and various groups in Manchester and around the country bombarded the club with protest letters. In addition to this difficulty, Trautmann was replacing the recently retired Frank Swift, one of the greatest keepers in the club's history. Though privately expressing doubts about the signing, the club captain, Eric Westwood, a Normandy veteran, made a public display of welcoming Trautmann by announcing, "There's no war in this dressing room". Trautmann made his first team debut on 19 November against Bolton Wanderers, and after a competent display in his first home match, protests shrank as fans discovered his talent. Before his first home game, Alexander Altmann, the community rabbi of Manchester, had written a remarkable open letter to the Manchester Evening Chronicle appealing to City fans and the Jewish community to treat Trautmann with respect. He continued to receive abuse from crowds at away matches, which affected his concentration in some early games; in December 1949, he conceded seven goals at Derby County.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: City's match against Fulham in January 1950 was Trautmann's first visit to London. The match received widespread media attention, as most of the British press were based there; several leading sportswriters watched Trautmann in action for the first time. The damage caused to the city by the Luftwaffe meant former paratrooper Trautmann was a target of hatred for the crowd, who yelled "Kraut" and "Nazi". City were struggling in the league, and widely expected to suffer a heavy defeat but a string of saves from Trautmann meant the final score was a narrow 1–0 loss. At the final whistle, Trautmann received a standing ovation, and was applauded off the pitch by both sets of players. The Manchester City team struggled throughout the season, and was relegated to the Second Division.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: Manchester City returned to the top flight at its first attempt, and in the following years Trautmann established himself as one of the best keepers in the league, playing in all but five of his club's next 250 league matches. By 1952, his fame had spread to his home country, leading Schalke 04 to offer Manchester City £1,000 for his services. The offer was refused; the club responded that they thought Trautmann to be worth twenty times more.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: In the mid-1950s, the Manchester City manager Les McDowall introduced a new tactical system using a deep-lying centre-forward, which became known as the Revie Plan after Don Revie who played centre-forward. The system depended on maintaining possession of the ball wherever possible, which required Trautmann to make use of his throwing ability. For goalkeepers of Trautmann's era, it was usual to kick the ball as far as possible downfield after making a save. By contrast, Trautmann, influenced by the Hungarian goalkeeper Gyula Grosics, sought to start attacks by throwing the ball to a wing-half, typically Ken Barnes or John McTavish. The wing-half then passed to Revie to develop the attack.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: Using the Revie Plan, Manchester City reached the 1955 FA Cup Final, in which Trautmann became the first German to play in an FA Cup final. City faced Newcastle United, winners of the cup in 1951 and 1952. Nerves affected the City players, and they went behind to a Jackie Milburn goal after only 45 seconds. Further problems were caused by the loss of Jimmy Meadows to injury after 18 minutes, leaving City with 10 men, a disadvantage that meant Trautmann's ability to start attacks from throws was limited. Though Bobby Johnstone equalised in the first half, they struggled in the second, and after 57 minutes Trautmann was outwitted by Bobby Mitchell, who scored Newcastle's second goal. The match finished as a 3–1 defeat for City, giving Trautmann a runners-up medal.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: Manchester City had a strong season in 1955–56, finishing fourth in the league and reached the FA Cup final against Birmingham City. Trautmann, one of the team's most prominent performers, won the FWA Footballer of the Year Award shortly before the match, the first goalkeeper to win the award. Two days later, Trautmann stepped out onto the Wembley pitch for the match that would gain him worldwide acclaim.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: During the previous final, nerves had contributed to the opposition scoring an early goal, but the City team was more settled on this occasion. Under the influence of Don Revie who was outstanding on the day, City scored an early goal, a left-footed strike by Joe Hayes. Birmingham equalised on 14 minutes. The match remained level until midway through the second half, when Jack Dyson and Bobby Johnstone scored two goals in as many minutes to give Manchester City a 3–1 lead. Birmingham attacked strongly in the next ten minutes. In the 75th minute, Trautmann, diving at an incoming ball, was knocked out in a collision with Birmingham's Peter Murphy in which he was hit in the neck by Murphy's right knee. No substitutes were permitted in those days, so Trautmann, dazed and unsteady on his feet, carried on. For the remaining 15 minutes he defended his net, making a crucial interception to deny Murphy once more. Manchester City held on for the victory, and Trautmann was the hero because of his spectacular saves in the last minutes of the match. Trautmann admitted later that he had spent the last part of the match "in a kind of fog".


title: Bert Trautmann

text: His neck continued to cause him pain, and Prince Philip commented on its crooked state as he gave Trautmann his winner's medal. Trautmann attended that evening's post-match banquet despite being unable to move his head, and went to bed expecting the injury to heal with rest. As the pain did not recede, the following day he went to St George's Hospital, where he was told he merely had a crick in his neck which would go away. Three days later, he got a second opinion from a doctor at Manchester Royal Infirmary. An X-ray revealed he had dislocated five vertebrae, the second of which was cracked in two. The third vertebra had wedged against the second, preventing further damage which could have cost Trautmann his life.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: Trautmann's convalescence took several months, resulting in him missing a large part of the 1956–57 season. Jack Savage deputised during his absence. At the start of December, Trautmann played two reserve matches, but lacked confidence. He was restored to the first team on 15 December for a match against Wolverhampton Wanderers, but conceded three goals. He struggled to regain his form in the remainder of the season, leading to calls from some fans and media for him to retire. Others criticised the club, believing that Trautmann had been forced to play while still not fully recovered from injury.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: The 1957–58 season was an unusual one for Manchester City, who became the only English team to both score and concede 100 goals in a season. Trautmann played in 34 matches, and though he did not play in the 9–2 defeat to West Bromwich Albion, an 8–4 defeat to Leicester City was a record for the most goals conceded by Trautmann in a match in his career, and in the entire season he kept only two clean sheets.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: On 15 April 1964, he ended his career with a testimonial in front of a crowd officially numbered at 47,000, though the true figure was estimated to be closer to 60,000. Trautmann captained a combined Manchester City and Manchester United XI that included Bobby Charlton and Denis Law, against an International XI that included Tom Finney, Stanley Matthews and Jimmy Armfield.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: After leaving City, Trautmann played for Wellington Town, who offered him £50 per match, signing in September 1964 to replace an injured regular keeper. Age had diminished his abilities, but his debut at Hereford United showed he still had the ability to draw crowds. However, he was sent off at Tonbridge for violent conduct in his second match and, in all, ended on the losing side in five of the seven matches he played for Wellington.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: Though recognised as one of the leading goalkeepers of his era, Trautmann never played for his native country. Trautmann met with the German national coach, Sepp Herberger, in 1953, who explained that travel and political implications prevented him from selecting a player who was not readily available, and that he could only consider including Trautmann if he were playing in a German league. Consequently, Trautmann's international isolation prevented him from playing in the 1954 World Cup, in which his countrymen were victorious. Trautmann's only experience of international football came in 1960, when the Football League decided to include non-English players in the Football League representative team for the first time. Trautmann captained the League against the Irish League, and also played against the Italian League.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: After a couple of months pondering his future career plans, Trautmann received a telephone call from the Stockport County chairman, Victor Bernard, who offered him the position of general manager. Stockport was a struggling lower league club with a small budget, and Trautmann's appointment was an attempt to improve its image. Many people in the local area supported one of the two Manchester clubs, so to stimulate interest Trautmann and Bernard decided to move matches to Friday evenings, when neither Manchester club would be playing. This improved revenue, but the team continued to struggle. Trautmann resigned in 1966 following a disagreement with Bernard. From 1967 to 1968, he was the manager of the German team Preußen Münster, taking them to a 13th-place finish in the Regionalliga West, following which he had a short spell at Opel Rüsselsheim.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: The German Football Association then sent Trautmann as a development worker to countries without national football structures. His first posting was in Myanmar (Burma), where he spent two years as the national coach, qualifying for the Olympics in 1972, and winning the President's Cup, a tournament contested by south-east Asian countries, later that year. His work subsequently took him to managing Tanzania, Liberia, Pakistan and North Yemen, until 1988, when he retired and settled in Spain.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: Trautmann excelled at shot-stopping, particularly penalties, saving 60% of those he faced over the course of his career. The Manchester United manager Matt Busby mentioned Trautmann's anticipation in his pre-match team talks: "Don't stop to think where you're going to hit it with Trautmann. Hit it first and think afterwards. If you look up and work it out he will read your thoughts and stop it." Similar sentiments were expressed by the Manchester City forward Neil Young, who recalled that "the only way to beat him with a shot in training was to mis-hit it". As a former handball player, Trautmann was adept at throwing the ball long distances, an attribute he used to start attacking moves, particularly after witnessing the Hungarian goalkeeper Gyula Grosics use such tactics to good effect in Hungary's 6–3 victory over England in 1953.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: Trautmann found it difficult to accept criticism, and allowed only close friends to suggest changes to his game. He occasionally dwelt on mistakes to the detriment of his concentration, a tendency his friend Stan Wilson called "picking at daisies". A short temper also caused occasional problems; he was sent off on more than one occasion.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: Over the course of his career, Trautmann received many plaudits from leading football figures. The Russian goalkeeper Lev Yashin, himself considered one of the greatest goalkeepers of all time, believed that Trautmann and himself were the "only ... two world-class goalkeepers".


title: Bert Trautmann

text: Trautmann's idiosyncratic style of play also had an influence on budding young goalkeepers at the height of his career. The former Arsenal goalkeeper Bob Wilson named Trautmann as his boyhood hero, and Gordon Banks cited him as an influence on his playing style.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: Media outlets have since recognised Trautmann's reputation. ESPN consider Trautmann as one of the greatest FA Cup goalkeepers, with Trautmann representing Manchester City in two consecutive FA Cup finals in 1955 and 1956 while his lunge at Peter Murphy's feet to grasp the ball in the 1956 FA Cup Final is rated as the greatest FA Cup save; a save that broke Trautmann's neck.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: In November 1995, Trautmann returned to Maine Road to open the rebuilt Kippax Stand. However, the stand was gone within a decade: in May 2003 the club moved to the City of Manchester Stadium, Maine Road was closed and its stadium demolished the following year.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: In 1997, Trautmann received the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany. He was appointed an honorary OBE in 2004 for his work in Anglo-German relations, and received the award at the British Embassy in Berlin, making him possibly the only person to have won an OBE and an Iron Cross. The following night, at a concert given by the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra, he met the Queen. "Ah, Herr Trautmann. I remember you", she said. "Have you still got that pain in your neck?"


title: Bert Trautmann

text: In 2005, he was inducted into the National Football Museum's Hall of Fame. He continued to follow Manchester City and visited Manchester to watch them play, with his last visit in April 2010. In 1999, he had also appeared in the BBC "Timewatch" programme episode "The Germans We Kept", recounting the experiences of German prisoners of war who decided to remain in the UK.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: Trautmann married a St Helens woman, Margaret Friar, in 1950, but they divorced in 1972. The couple had three children, John, Mark and Stephen. John, his firstborn son, was killed in a car accident a few months after the FA Cup Final in 1956, aged five. According to Trautmann, his wife's struggle to come to terms with the loss ultimately resulted in the breakup of their marriage. He also had a daughter from a previous relationship, from whom he was estranged for many years. He reunited with his daughter in 1990, and with her mother, Marion Greenhall, in 2001. He married Ursula von der Heyde, a German national, while living in Burma in the 1970s, but divorced in 1982. From 1990, Trautmann lived with his third wife Marlis in a small bungalow on the Spanish coast near Valencia. He later helped found the Trautmann Foundation, which continues his legacy by fostering courage and sportsmanship.


title: Bert Trautmann

text: Trautmann died at home in Spain on 19 July 2013 at the age of 89. He had suffered two heart attacks earlier in the year. The president of the German Football Association, Wolfgang Niersbach, said that Trautmann was "an amazing sportsman and a true gentleman ... a legend". Bob Wilson, a former Arsenal goalkeeper, tweeted, "Amazing man who helped bring our warring countries closer together". Joe Corrigan, a former Manchester City goalkeeper, said Trautmann was "a fantastic man and was one of the greatest goalkeepers of all time".


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Rudolf II (18 July 1552 – 20 January 1612) was Holy Roman Emperor (1576–1612), King of Hungary and Croatia (as Rudolf I, 1572–1608), King of Bohemia (1575–1608/1611) and Archduke of Austria (1576–1608). He was a member of the House of Habsburg.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Rudolf's legacy has traditionally been viewed in three ways: an ineffectual ruler whose mistakes led directly to the Thirty Years' War; a great and influential patron of Northern Mannerist art; and an intellectual devotee of occult arts and learning which helped seed what would be called the Scientific Revolution. Determined to unify Christendom, he initiated the Long Turkish War (1593–1606) with the Ottoman Empire. Exhausted by war, his citizens in Hungary revolted in the Bocskai Uprising, which led to more authority given to his brother Matthias. Under his reign, there was a policy of toleration towards Judaism.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Rudolf was born in Vienna on 18 July 1552. He was the eldest son and successor of Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor, King of Bohemia, and King of Hungary and Croatia; his mother was the Spanish princess Maria, a daughter of Charles V and Isabella of Portugal. He was the elder brother of Matthias who was to succeed him as king of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Rudolf spent eight formative years, from age 11 to 19 (1563–1571), in Spain, at the court of his maternal uncle Philip II, together with his younger brother Ernest, future governor of the Low Countries.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: After his return to Vienna, his father was concerned about Rudolf's aloof and stiff manner, typical of the more conservative Spanish court, rather than the more relaxed and open Austrian court; but his Spanish mother saw in him courtliness and refinement. In the years following his return to Vienna, Rudolf was crowned King of Hungary (1572), King of Bohemia and King of the Romans (1575) when his father was still alive.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: For the rest of his life, Rudolf would remain reserved, secretive, and largely a recluse who did not like to travel or even partake in the daily affairs of state.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: He was more intrigued by occult learning such as astrology and alchemy, which was mainstream in the Renaissance period, and had a wide variety of personal hobbies such as horses, clocks, collecting rarities, and being a patron of the arts. He suffered from periodic bouts of "melancholy" (depression), which was common in the Habsburg line. These became worse with age, and were manifested by a withdrawal from the world and its affairs into his private interests.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Like Elizabeth I of England (who was born 19 years before he was), Rudolf dangled himself as a prize in a string of diplomatic negotiations for marriages, but never in fact married. During his periods of self-imposed isolation, Rudolf reportedly had affairs with his court chamberlain, Wolfgang von Rumpf, and a series of valets. One of these, Philip Lang, ruled him for years and was hated by those seeking favour with the emperor.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: In addition, Rudolf was known to have had a succession of affairs with women, some of whom claimed to have been impregnated by him. He had several illegitimate children by his mistress Catherina Strada. Their eldest son, Don Julius Caesar d'Austria, was likely born between 1584 and 1586 and received an education and opportunities for political and social prominence from his father. Another famous child was (1591-1662), Princess of Cantecroix, mother-in-law of Beatrice de Cusance, later Duchess of Lorraine (as second wife of Charles IV of Lorraine).


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: In 1607, Rudolf sent Julius to live at Český Krumlov in Bohemia (in what is now the Czech Republic), a castle which Rudolf purchased from Peter Vok/Wok von Rosenberg, the last of the House of Rosenberg, after he fell into financial ruin. Julius lived at Český Krumlov when in 1608 he reportedly abused and murdered the daughter of a local barber, who had been living in the castle, and then disfigured her body. Rudolf condemned his son's act and suggested that he should be imprisoned for the rest of his life.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: However, Julius died in 1609 after showing signs of schizophrenia, refusing to bathe, and living in squalor; his death was apparently caused by an ulcer that ruptured.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Many artworks commissioned by Rudolf are unusually erotic. The emperor was the subject of a whispering campaign by his enemies in his family and the Catholic Church in the years before he was deposed. Sexual allegations may well have formed a part of the campaign against him.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Historians have traditionally blamed Rudolf's preoccupation with the arts, occult sciences, and other personal interests as the reason for the political disasters of his reign. More recently historians have re-evaluated this view and see his patronage of the arts and occult sciences as a triumph and key part of the Renaissance, while his political failures are seen as a legitimate attempt to create a unified Christian empire, which was undermined by the realities of religious, political and intellectual disintegrations of the time.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Although raised in his uncle's Catholic court in Spain, Rudolf was tolerant of Protestantism and other religions including Judaism. This tolerant policy by the Empire towards the Jews would see Jewish cultural life flourishing and its population increased under Rudolf's reign.He largely withdrew from Catholic observances, even in death refusing the last sacramental rites. He had little attachment to Protestants either, except as counter-weight to papal policies. He put his primary support behind conciliarists, irenicists and humanists. When the papacy instigated the Counter-Reformation, using agents sent to his court, Rudolf backed those whom he thought were the most neutral in the debate, not taking a side or trying to effect restraint, thus leading to political chaos and threatening to provoke civil war.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: His conflict with the Ottoman Empire was the final cause of his undoing. Unwilling to compromise with the Turks, and stubbornly determined that he could unify all of Christendom with a new Crusade, he started a long and indecisive war with the Turks in 1593. This war lasted till 1606, and was known as the "Long Turkish War".


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: By 1604, his Hungarian subjects were exhausted by the war and revolted, led by Stephen Bocskai (Bocskai uprising). In 1605, Rudolf was forced by his other family members to cede control of Hungarian affairs to his younger brother Archduke Matthias. By 1606, Matthias had forged a difficult peace with the Hungarian rebels (Peace of Vienna) and the Turks (Peace of Zsitvatorok).


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Rudolf was angry with his brother's concessions, which he saw as giving away too much in order to further Matthias' hold on power. So Rudolf prepared to start a new war with the Turks. But Matthias rallied support from the disaffected Hungarians and forced Rudolf to cede the crowns of Hungary, Austria, and Moravia to him. At the same time, Bohemian Protestants demanded greater religious liberty, which Rudolf granted in the "Letter of Majesty" in 1609. Bohemians continued to press for further freedoms, and Rudolf used his army to repress them.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Bohemian Protestants then appealed to Matthias for help; Matthias' army held Rudolf prisoner in his castle in Prague until 1611, when Rudolf ceded the crown of Bohemia, as well, to his brother.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Rudolf died in 1612, nine months after he had been stripped of all effective power by his younger brother, except the empty title of Holy Roman Emperor, to which Matthias was elected five months later. In May 1618 with the event known as the Defenestration of Prague, the Protestant Bohemians, in defence of the rights granted them in the "Letter of Majesty", threw imperial officials out of the window and thus the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) started.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Rudolf moved the Habsburg capital from Vienna to Prague in 1583. Rudolf loved collecting paintings, and was often reported to sit and stare in rapture at a new work for hours on end. He spared no expense in acquiring great past masterworks, such as those of Dürer and Brueghel. He was also patron to some of the best contemporary artists, who mainly produced new works in the Northern Mannerist style, such as Bartholomeus Spranger, Hans von Aachen, Giambologna, Giuseppe Arcimboldo, Aegidius Sadeler, Roelant Savery, Joris Hoefnagel and Adrian de Vries, as well as commissioning works from Italians like Veronese.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Rudolf's collections were the most impressive in the Europe of his day, and the greatest collection of Northern Mannerist art ever assembled. The adjective Rudolfine, as in "Rudolfine Mannerism" is often used in art history to describe the style of the art he patronized.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: His love of collecting went far beyond paintings and sculptures. He commissioned decorative objects of all kinds and in particular mechanical moving devices. Ceremonial swords and musical instruments, clocks, water works, astrolabes, compasses, telescopes and other scientific instruments, were all produced for him by some of the best craftsmen in Europe.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: He patronized natural philosophers such as the botanist Charles de l'Ecluse, and the astronomers Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler both attended his court. Tycho Brahe developed the Rudolphine Tables (finished by Kepler, after Brahe's death), the first comprehensive table of data of the movements of the planets. As mentioned before, Rudolf also attracted some of the best scientific instrument makers of the time, such as Jost Bürgi, Erasmus Habermel and Hans Christoph Schissler. They had direct contact with the court astronomers and, through the financial support of the court, they were economically independent to develop scientific instruments and manufacturing techniques.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: The poet Elizabeth Jane Weston, a writer of Renaissance Latin poetry, was also part of his court and wrote numerous odes to him.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Rudolf kept a menagerie of exotic animals, botanical gardens, and Europe's most extensive "cabinet of curiosities" ("Kunstkammer") incorporating "the three kingdoms of nature and the works of man". It was housed at Prague Castle, where between 1587 and 1605 he built the northern wing to house his growing collections. A lion and a tiger were allowed to roam the castle, documented by the account books which record compensation paid to survivors of attacks, or to family members of victims.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Rudolf was even alleged by one person to have owned the Voynich manuscript, a codex whose author and purpose, as well as the language and script and posited cipher remain unidentified to this day. According to hearsay passed on in a letter written by Johannes Marcus Marci in 1665, Rudolf was said to have acquired the manuscript at some unspecified time for 600 gold ducats. No evidence in support of this single piece of hearsay has ever been discovered. The "Codex Gigas" was also in his possessions.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: As was typical of the time, Rudolf II had a portrait painted in the studio of the renowned Alonso Sánchez Coello. Completed in 1567, the portrait depicted Rudolf II at the age of 15. This painting can be seen at the Lobkowicz Palace in the Rozmberk room.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: By 1597, the collection occupied three rooms of the incomplete northern wing. When building was completed in 1605, the collection was moved to the dedicated "Kunstkammer". "Naturalia" (minerals and gemstones) were arranged in a 37 cabinet display that had three vaulted chambers in front, each about 5.5 metres wide by 3 metres high and 60 metres long, connected to a main chamber 33 metres long. Large uncut gemstones were held in strong boxes.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Rudolf's "Kunstkammer" was not a typical "cabinet of curiosities" – a haphazard collection of unrelated specimens. Rather, the Rudolfine "Kunstkammer" was systematically arranged in an encyclopaedic fashion. In addition, Rudolf II employed his polyglot court physician, Anselmus Boetius de Boodt, to curate the collection. Anselmus was an avid mineral collector and travelled widely on collecting trips to the mining regions of Germany, Bohemia and Silesia, often accompanied by his Bohemian naturalist friend, Thaddaeus Hagecius. Between 1607 and 1611, Anselmus catalogued the "Kunstkammer", and in 1609 he published "Gemmarum et Lapidum", one of the finest mineralogical treatises of the 17th century.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: As was customary at the time, the collection was private, but friends of the Emperor, artists, and professional scholars were allowed to study it. The collection became an invaluable research tool during the flowering of 17th-century European philosophy, the "Age of Reason".


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Rudolf's successors did not appreciate the collection and the "Kunstkammer" gradually fell into disarray. Some 50 years after its establishment, most of the collection was packed into wooden crates and moved to Vienna. The collection remaining at Prague was looted during the last year of the Thirty Years War, by Swedish troops who sacked Prague Castle on 26 July 1648, also taking the best of the paintings, many of which later passed to the Orléans Collection after the death of Christina of Sweden. In 1782, the remainder of the collection was sold piecemeal to private parties by Joseph II. One of the surviving items from the "Kunstkammer" is a "fine chair" looted by the Swedes in 1648 and now owned by the Earl of Radnor at Longford Castle in England; others survive in museums.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Astrology and alchemy were regarded as mainstream scientific fields in Renaissance Prague, and Rudolf was a firm devotee of both. His lifelong quest was to find the philosopher's stone and Rudolf spared no expense in bringing Europe's best alchemists to court, such as Edward Kelley and John Dee. Rudolf even performed his own experiments in a private alchemy laboratory. When Rudolf was a prince, Nostradamus prepared a horoscope which was dedicated to him as 'Prince and King'. In the 1590s, Michael Sendivogius was active at Rudolph's court.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Rudolf gave Prague a mystical reputation that persists in part to this day, with Alchemists' Alley on the grounds of Prague Castle a popular visiting place and tourist attraction.


title: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Rudolf was a patron of the occult sciences, along with this and his practice of tolerance towards Jews; it was during his reign that the legend of the Golem of Prague was established.


title: Olivier Assayas

text: Olivier Assayas (born 25 January 1955) is a French film director, screenwriter and film critic. Assayas is known for his slow-burning period pieces, psychological thrillers, neo-noirs and French comedies. His work has become synonymous with the film movement known as the New French Extremity and has collaborated frequently with Juliette Binoche and Kristen Stewart. The son of filmmaker Jacques Rémy, Assayas began his career as a critic for influential magazine "Cahiers du Cinéma". Here he wrote about the World Cinema and its film auteurs who would later influence his own works. Assayas made several shorts, and then made the leap from writer to screenwriter.


title: Olivier Assayas

text: He made his directorial film debut with "Disorder" in 1986. He continued directing films, with "Cold Water" (1994) becoming a breakthrough film in his career. It would be his first film to be screened at the Cannes Film Festival in the Un Certain Regard section. His follow up film "Irma Vep" (1996) also screened at Cannes, while "Sentimental Destinies" (2000), "Demonlover" (2002), and "Clean" (2004) all officially competed for the Palme d'Or. In 2006, he contributed a short film to the anthology film "Paris, je t'aime" (2006) with fellow directors such as Alexander Payne, Coen Brothers and Alfonso Cuarón. He gained acclaim with his dramas "Summer Hours" (2008), "Clouds of Sils Maria" (2014) and "Personal Shopper" (2016); the latter won him the Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director. He has also directed the comedy "Non-Fiction" (2018) and the spy thriller "Wasp Network" (2019).


title: Olivier Assayas

text: Assayas was born in Paris, France, the son of French director/screenwriter Raymond Assayas, alias Jacques Rémy (1911–1981). His father was of Turkish-Jewish origin who had settled in Italy, while his mother, , was a fashion designer of Protestant Hungarian origin. Assayas started his career in the industry by helping his father. He ghostwrote episodes for TV shows his father was working on when his health failed. In a 2010 interview, Assayas stated that his main political influences when growing up were Guy Debord and George Orwell. Speaking of the 1968 May uprising to overthrow General de Gaulle, Assayas in the same interview stated: "I was defined by the politics of May '68, but for me May '68 was an anti-totalitarian uprising. People seemed to forget that at the occupied Odéon theater, you had crossed flags-black and red, and I was on the side of the black element."


title: Olivier Assayas

text: He made his debut in 1986, after directing some short films and writing for the influential film magazine "Cahiers du cinéma".


title: Olivier Assayas

text: Assayas's film "Cold Water" was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1994 Cannes Film Festival.


title: Olivier Assayas

text: His biggest hit to date has been "Irma Vep", starring Hong Kong star Maggie Cheung, which manages to be a tribute both to French director Louis Feuillade and to Hong Kong cinema.


title: Olivier Assayas

text: While working at "Cahiers du cinéma", Assayas wrote lovingly about European film directors he admires but also about Asian directors. One of his films, "HHH: A Portrait of Hou Hsiao-hsien", is a documentary about Taiwanese filmmaker Hou Hsiao-hsien.


title: Olivier Assayas

text: He married Cheung in 1998. They divorced in 2001, but their relationship remained amicable, and in 2004 Cheung made her film "Clean" with him.


title: Olivier Assayas

text: He met actress-director Mia Hansen-Løve when Hansen-Løve, seventeen at the time, starred in Assayas's 1998 feature "Late August, Early September", but "[they] didn't get together until [she] was 20". They separated in 2017.


title: Olivier Assayas

text: In 2009 and 2010, Assayas signed two petitions in support of director Roman Polanski, who had been detained while traveling to a film festival in relation to his 1977 sexual abuse charges, which the first petition argued would undermine the tradition of film festivals as a place for works to be shown "freely and safely", and that arresting filmmakers traveling to neutral countries could open the door "for actions of which no-one can know the effects."


title: Olivier Assayas

text: He directed and co-wrote the acclaimed 2010 French television miniseries "Carlos", about the life of the terrorist Ilich Ramírez Sánchez. Venezuelan actor Édgar Ramírez won the César Award for Most Promising Actor in 2011 for his performance as Carlos.


title: Olivier Assayas

text: In April 2011, it was announced that he would be a member of the jury for the main competition at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival.


title: Olivier Assayas

text: His 2012 film, "Something in the Air", was selected to compete for the Golden Lion at the 69th Venice International Film Festival. Assayas won the Osella for Best Screenplay at Venice. His 2014 film "Clouds of Sils Maria" was selected to compete for the Palme d'Or in the main competition section at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival. "Sils Maria" won the Louis Delluc Prize and garnered six César Award nominations including Best Film, Best Director, and Best Original Screenplay. The film won a César Award for Best Supporting Actress for American actress Kristen Stewart. In 2016, Assayas won Best Director Award (Cannes Film Festival) for "Personal Shopper", which also starred Kristen Stewart.


title: Olivier Assayas

text: In June 2017, it was announced that Assayas would preside over the 2017 70th anniversary Locarno Film Festival.


title: Olivier Assayas

text: Assayas participated in the 2012 "Sight & Sound" directors' poll, where he listed his ten favorite films as follows: "", "The Gospel According to St. Matthew", "Ludwig", "A Man Escaped", "Mirror", "Napoléon", "Playtime", "The Rules of the Game", "The Tree of Life", and "Van Gogh".


title: Goy

text: In modern Hebrew and Yiddish (, , regular plural , or ) is a term for a gentile, a non-Jew. Through Yiddish, the word has been adopted into English (pluralised as goys or goyim) also to mean gentile, sometimes with a pejorative sense.


title: Goy

text: The Biblical Hebrew word "goy" has been commonly translated into English as "nation", meaning a group of persons of the same ethnic family who speak the same language (rather than the modern meaning of a political unit). "Nation" has been used as the principal translation for "goy" in the Hebrew Bible, from the earliest English language bibles such as the 1611 King James Version and the 1530 Tyndale Bible.


title: Goy

text: The word means "nation" in Biblical Hebrew. In the Torah, and its variants appear 560 times in reference to both the Israelites and the non-Israelite nations.


title: Goy

text: The first recorded usage of "goyim" occurs in and applies to non-Israelite nations. The first mention of "goy" in relation to the Israelites comes in , when God promises Abraham that his descendants will form a ("great nation").


title: Goy

text: One exception is in , where it states that the "King of Goyim" was Tidal. Bible commentaries suggest that the term may refer to Gutium.In all other cases the meaning of is 'nations.'


title: Goy

text: In , the Israelites are referred to as a , a "holy nation". One of the more poetic descriptions of the chosen people in the Hebrew Bible, and popular among Jewish scholars is , or "a unique nation upon the earth!" ( and )


title: Goy

text: The King James Version of the Bible translates the word / as "nation" 374 times, "heathen" 143 times, "Gentile" 30 times (see "Evolution of the Term" below) and "people" 11 times. The New American Standard Bible translation uses the following words: "every nation" (2 times) Gentiles (1) Goiim (1), Harosheth-hagoyim* (3), herds (1), nation (120), nations (425), people (4).


title: Goy

text: While the books of the Hebrew Bible often use to describe the Israelites, the later Jewish writings of the Hellenistic Period (from approximately 300BCE to 30BCE) tended to apply the term to other nations.


title: Goy

text: Goy acquired the meaning of someone who is not Jewish in the first and second century CE. Before that time, academics


title: Goy

text: Adi Ophir and Ishay Rosen-Zvi have argued, no crystallized dichotomy between Jew and non-Jew existed in Judaism. Ophir and Rosen-Zvi state that the early Jewish convert to Christianity, Paul, was key in developing the concept of "goy" to mean non-Jew:


title: Goy

text: The Latin words gentes/gentilis - which also referred to peoples or nations - began to be used to describe non-Jews in parallel with the evolution of the word in Hebrew. Based on the Latin model, the English word "gentile" came to mean non-Jew from the time of the first English-language Bible translations in the 1500s (see Gentile).


title: Goy

text: The twelfth century Jewish scholar Maimonides defines plain "goy" in his Mishneh Torah as a worshipper of idolatry, as he explains, "Whenever we refer to a gentile [goy] without any further description, we mean one who worships false deities". Maimonides saw Christians as idolators (because of concepts like the trinity) but not Muslims who he saw as more strictly monotheistic.


title: Goy

text: Goy can be used in a derogatory manner. The Yiddish lexicographer Leo Rosten in "The New Joys of Yiddish" defines goy as someone who is non-Jewish or someone who is dull, insensitive, or heartless. Goy also occurs in many pejorative Yiddish expressions:


title: Goy

text: Several authors have opined on whether the word is derogatory. Dan Friedman, executive director of "The Forward" in "What 'Goy' Means, And Why I Keep Using It" writes that it can be used as an insult but that the word is not offensive. He compares it to the word "foreigners" which Americans can use dismissively but which isn't a derogatory word. Similarly, Jews for Racial and Economic Justice (JFREJ) has stated that "goy" is "Not an insult, just kinda sounds like it."


title: Goy

text: Rebecca Einstein Schorr argues that the word has an established pejorative overtone. She refers to the observation "the "goyishe" groomsmen were all drunk and bawdy; of course, you’d never see that at a Jewish wedding" and "goyishe kop" where the word is used in a pejorative sense. She admits that the word can have non-pejorative uses, such as "goyishe restaurant" - one that doesn't serve kosher food - but contends that the word is "neutral, at best, and extremely offensive, at worst." Andrew Silow Carroll writes:


title: Goy

text: Nahma Nadich, deputy director of the Jewish Community Relations of Greater Boston writes: "I definitely see goy as a slur — seldom used as a compliment, and never used in the presence of a non-Jew" adding "That's a good litmus test: if you wouldn't use a word in the presence of someone you’re describing, good chance it’s offensive."


title: Goy

text: According to the Southern Poverty Law Center, the term "goy" has been used ironically by white supremacists to refer to themselves to signal a belief in conspiracy theories about Jews. For example, a Hungarian antisemitic motorcycle association refers to themselves as the Goyim riders, and in 2020 one activist tried to rename the far-right group the Proud Boys to the Proud Goys. In a similar vein, in 2017, the far-right American Traditionalist Worker Party created the crowdfunding platform called GoyFundMe, a wordplay on the popular crowdfunding platform GoFundMe.


title: Goy

text: The word also features in the alt-right catchphrase or meme "The Goyim Know, Shut It Down" associated with online forums such as 4chan and 8chan. In this context, the speaker assumes the role of a panicked Jew who reacts to an event that would reveal Jewish manipulations or Jewish deceitfulness. According to the Anti-Defamation League, the meme first appeared in 2013 on 4chan.


title: Drew Goddard

text: Andrew Brion Hogan Goddard (born February 26, 1975) is an American filmmaker. He began his career writing episodes for the television shows "Buffy the Vampire Slayer", "Angel", "Alias", and "Lost". After moving into screenwriting in film, he wrote "Cloverfield" (2008), "World War Z" (2013), and "The Martian" (2015), the latter earning him a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay. In 2011, he made his directorial debut with "The Cabin in the Woods".


title: Drew Goddard

text: In 2015, Goddard created the Netflix series "Daredevil". Soon after, he directed several episodes of "The Good Place" and served as an executive producer for "10 Cloverfield Lane" (2016) and "The Cloverfield Paradox" (2018), the next installments in the "Cloverfield" franchise. His latest project, "Bad Times at the El Royale" (2018), starred an ensemble cast consisting of Jeff Bridges, Cynthia Erivo, Dakota Johnson, Jon Hamm, Cailee Spaeny, Lewis Pullman, and Chris Hemsworth.


title: Drew Goddard

text: Goddard was born in Houston, Texas and was raised in Los Alamos, New Mexico. He is the son of Colleen Mary (Hogan), a teacher, and Dr. Laurence Woodbury Goddard. He attended Los Alamos High School and graduated in 1993. He then enrolled in University of Colorado Boulder and graduated with B.A. in English in 1997.


title: Drew Goddard

text: Goddard started his career as a staff writer for "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" and "Angel", receiving a Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation for the former.


title: Drew Goddard

text: In 2005, he joined J. J. Abrams' Bad Robot team, where he wrote for both "Alias" and "Lost", winning—along with the "Lost" writing staff—the Writers Guild of America (WGA) Award for Best Dramatic Series. In 2006, during its third season, Goddard became the co-executive producer of "Lost".


title: Drew Goddard

text: By February 2007, Goddard wrote his first feature, "Cloverfield", directed by Matt Reeves and produced by J. J. Abrams. "Cloverfield" made $168 million on a $25 million budget. "Empire" named it the fifth best film of 2008, and the film then went on to win the year's Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film.


title: Drew Goddard

text: Goddard's directorial debut, "The Cabin in the Woods", was co-written with Joss Whedon. "The Cabin in the Woods" was featured on Metacritic's best films of 2012 list, in addition to earning a 92% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes. The film would go on to win the year's Saturn Award for Best Horror or Thriller Film, as well as garnering Goddard Saturn's "Filmmaker Showcase Award".


title: Drew Goddard

text: In 2012, Goddard—in addition to J. Michael Straczynski, Matthew Michael Carnahan and "Lost" showrunner Damon Lindelof—rewrote the third act of the screenplay ahead of reshoots for the film "World War Z" starring Brad Pitt and directed by Marc Forster. The film grossed $540 million on a $190 million budget. As a result, in June 2013, Paramount announced that it was moving ahead with a sequel, though it was eventually scrapped.


title: Drew Goddard

text: In December 2013, Marvel officially announced that Goddard would be the executive producer and showrunner for the "Daredevil" television series produced by Marvel Television and broadcast on Netflix in 2015. Sony Pictures also announced that Goddard would write and direct a film based on the Sinister Six, though the project was eventually cancelled. In May 2014, Goddard withdrew from showrunning duties on the "Daredevil" TV series.


title: Drew Goddard

text: In February 2015, after the deal between Marvel and Sony to share the rights to Spider-Man was announced, it was reported that Goddard was in talks with Sony to helm the new Spider-Man reboot film, "", although it was later announced that Jon Watts would be the director. Goddard also executive produced and co-wrote an episode of the miniseries "The Defenders". The series featured a team-up of the Marvel Television superheroes, including Daredevil. It was released on Netflix in August 2017.


title: Drew Goddard

text: Goddard wrote the film adaptation of Andy Weir's debut novel "The Martian", initially planning to direct it himself for 20th Century Fox. He later left the project when offered a chance to direct "Sinister Six", a now-canceled comic book adaptation based on a team of supervillains. "The Martian" was instead directed by Ridley Scott, and received wide critical acclaim. Goddard himself received an Academy Award nomination for Best Adapted Screenplay.


title: Drew Goddard

text: In November 2016, Goddard began writing a spec script for the neo-noir thriller film "Bad Times at the El Royale", which he sold to 20th Century Fox in March 2017, revealing he would also produce and direct. The film features an ensemble cast including Jeff Bridges, Cynthia Erivo, Dakota Johnson, Jon Hamm, Nick Offerman, and Chris Hemsworth. Released to generally positive reviews on October 12, 2018, the film was a box-office flop, grossing $32 million worldwide against a $31.9 million budget.


title: Drew Goddard

text: A film based on the Sinister Six was announced to be in development in December 2013, as part of Sony's plans for their own "The Amazing Spider-Man" shared universe, with Goddard attached to write and potentially direct. Goddard confirmed his intention to direct the film in April 2014. The film was believed to have been canceled by November 2015 when Sony was focusing on its new Spider-Man reboot with Marvel Studios, but producer Amy Pascal stated that the film was "alive" again in December 2018 following the success of "Venom", and that she was waiting for Goddard to be ready to direct it before moving forward with the project, now to be set in the Sony Pictures Universe of Marvel Characters.


title: Drew Goddard

text: In May 2016, Goddard was reported to be writing the screenplay for a film adaptation of the novel "Wraiths Of The Broken Land", with Ridley Scott set to direct. By October 2017 he was also attached to write and produce "Nevermoor: The Trials of Morrigan Crow", a film adaptation of the novel of the same name. In June 2020 he was also announced to be attached to "Project Hail Mary", based on the novel of the same name, with Phil Lord and Christopher Miller set to direct. Also in 2019, his company via Goddard Textiles struck an overall deal with 20th Century Fox Television (now 20th Television).


title: Hellenic Navy

text: The Hellenic Navy (HN; , abbreviated ΠΝ) is the naval force of Greece, part of the Hellenic Armed Forces. The modern Greek navy historically hails from the naval forces of various Aegean Islands, which fought in the Greek War of Independence. During the periods of monarchy (1833–1924 and 1936–1973) it was known as the Royal Hellenic Navy (, , abbreviated ΒΝ).


title: Hellenic Navy

text: The Hellenic Navy is a Green-water navy. The total displacement of the fleet is approximately 150,000 tons and it is the 22nd largest navy in the world by total number of vessels. The HN also operates a number of naval aviation units.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: The motto of the Hellenic Navy is "Μέγα τὸ τῆς θαλάσσης κράτος" from Thucydides' account of Pericles' oration on the eve of the Peloponnesian War. This has been translated as "The rule of the sea is a great matter". The Hellenic Navy's emblem consists of an anchor in front of a crossed Christian cross and trident, with the cross symbolizing Greek Orthodoxy, and the trident symbolizing Poseidon, the god of the sea in Greek mythology. Pericles' words are written across the top of the emblem.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: The history of the Hellenic Navy begins with the birth of modern Greece, and due to the maritime nature of the country, it has always featured prominently in modern Greece's military history.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: At the beginning of the Greek War of Independence, the naval forces of the Greeks consisted primarily of the merchant fleet of the Saronic islanders from Hydra, Spetsai and Poros and also the islanders of Psara and Samos. The fleet was of crucial importance to the success of the revolution. Its goal was to prevent as much as possible the Ottoman Navy from resupplying the isolated Ottoman garrisons and land reinforcements from the Ottoman Empire's Asian provinces.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: Although Greek crews were experienced seamen, the light Greek ships, mostly armed merchantmen, were unable to stand up to the large Ottoman ships of the line in direct combat. So the Greeks conducted the equivalent of modern-day naval special operations, resorting to the use of fireships ( or ), with great success. It was in the use of such ships that courageous seamen like Konstantinos Kanaris won international renown. Under the leadership of capable admirals, most prominently Andreas Miaoulis from Hydra, the Greek fleet achieved early victories, guaranteeing the survival of the revolution in the mainland.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: However, as Greeks became embroiled in civil wars, the Sultan called upon his strongest subject, Muhammad Ali of Egypt, for aid. Plagued by internal strife and financial difficulties in keeping the fleet in constant readiness, the Greeks failed to prevent the capture and destruction of Kasos and Psara in 1824, or the landing of the Egyptian army at Modon. Despite victories at Samos and Gerontas, the Revolution was threatened with collapse until the intervention of the Great Powers in the Battle of Navarino in 1827. There the Egypto-Ottoman fleet was decisively defeated by the combined fleets of the Britain, France and the Russian Empire, effectively securing the independence of Greece.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: When Ioannis Capodistrias became governor of newly liberated Greece in 1828, the Greek fleet consisted of few remaining ships, which had participated in the war for independence. The first minister of "Naval affairs" was Konstantinos Kanaris, and the most powerful ship of the fleet at that time, the frigate "Hellas", had been constructed in the United States in 1825. The Hellenic Navy established its headquarters at the island of Poros and the building of a new series of ships began at the naval base, while old ships were gradually being retired. Furthermore, continuous efforts towards the education of officers were initiated. Young people were initially trained at the military school of Scholi Evelpidon and afterwards they were transferred to the navy, as there was no such thing as a Naval Academy.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: In 1831, Greece descended into anarchy with numerous areas, including Mani and Hydra, in revolt. It was during this revolt that the flagship "Hellas", docked at Poros, was set on fire by Admiral Andreas Miaoulis. Capodistrias was assassinated a few months after.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: When the new King Otto arrived in the Greek capital, Nafplion, in 1832 aboard the British warship HMS "Madagascar", the Greek fleet consisted of one corvette, three brigs, six schooners, two gunboats, two steamboats and a few more small vessels. The first naval school was founded in 1846 on the corvette "Loudovikos" and Leonidas Palaskas was assigned as its director. However, the inefficient training of the officers, coupled with conflict between those who pursued modernization and those who were stalwarts of the traditions of the veterans of the struggle for independence, resulted in a restricted and inefficient navy, which was limited to policing the sea and the pursuit of pirates.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: During the 1850s, the more progressive elements of the navy won out and the fleet was augmented with more ships. In 1855, the first iron propeller-driven ships were ordered from England. These were the steamships ', "Pliksavra", ', and "Sfendoni".


title: Hellenic Navy

text: On October 29, 1863, following an enthronement ceremony in his native Copenhagen and a tour of several of the European capitals, Prince Wilhelm of Denmark arrived aboard the Greek flagship "Hellas", to take up the throne as King George I of Greece. During the 1866 Cretan revolt, the Royal Hellenic Navy ships were in no condition to support it. Such failure led to the government awakening to the problem of naval insufficiency and the adoption of a policy stating that: "The navy, as it represents a necessary weapon for Greece, should only be created for war and aim to victory." Because of this, the fleet was supplied with new and bigger ships, reflecting a number of innovations including the use of iron in shipbuilding industry and the invention of the torpedo; with these advances, the effectiveness and the appearance of the Hellenic Navy changed.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: Meanwhile, after 1878, because of the Russo-Turkish War and the need to expand the Greek navy, a new and larger naval base was established in the area of Faneromeni of Salamis and a few years later it was transferred to the area of Arapis where it remains today. At the same time the Naval Academy was founded and Ilias Kanellopoulos was made Director. A French naval mission, headed by Admiral , introduced a new, advanced naval organization and the methodological training of enlisted personnel through the establishment of a training school in the old building of the naval base in Poros. During the government of Charilaos Trikoupis in 1889, the fleet was further increased with the acquisition of new battleships: "Hydra", "Spetsai", and "Psara" from France. Thus, when Greece went to war in the Greco-Turkish War in 1897, the Hellenic Navy established its dominance in the Aegean Sea. However, it was unable to change the outcome of the war on land, which was a national humiliation.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: In 1907, the Hellenic Navy General Staff () was founded, with then-Captain Pavlos Kountouriotis as its first head. After the war, in 1897, the Ottoman Empire embarked on a program of naval expansion for its fleet and as a response to that, in 1909, the cruiser "Georgios Averof" was bought from Italy. In 1910, a British naval mission arrived, headed by Admiral Lionel Grant Tufnell, in order to recommend improvements in the organization and training of the navy. The mission led to the adoption of the English style of management, organization and training, especially in the area of strategy.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: Shortly before the Balkan Wars, the Navy was composed of a fleet of destroyers and battleships. Its mission was primarily offensive, aiming to capture the Ottoman-held islands of the Eastern Aegean and establish naval supremacy. To that end, its commander-in-chief, Rear Admiral Pavlos Kountouriotis, established a forward base at the Moudros bay at Lemnos, directly opposite the Dardanelles straits. After defeating the two Turkish sallies from the Straits at Elli (December 1912) and Lemnos (January 1913), the Aegean Sea was secured for Greece.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: The Balkan Wars were followed by a rapid escalation in 1914 between Greece and the Ottoman Empire over the status of the islands of the eastern Aegean. Both governments embarked on a naval armaments race, with Greece purchasing the battleships and and the light cruiser as well as ordering two dreadnoughts, and and a number of destroyers. However, with the outbreak of the First World War, construction of the dreadnoughts stopped.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: Initially during the war, Greece followed a course of neutrality, with the Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos favouring the Entente and pro-German King Constantine I advocating neutrality. This dispute eventually led to a deep political conflict, known as the "National Schism". In November 1916, in order to apply pressure on the royal government in Athens, the French confiscated the Greek ships. They continued to operate with French crews, primarily in convoy escort and patrol duties in the Aegean, until Greece entered the war on the side of the Allies in June 1917, at which point they were returned to Greece. Subsequently, the Navy took part in the Allied operations in the Aegean, in the Allied expedition in support of Denikin's White Armies in Ukraine, and in limited operations during the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922 in Asia Minor.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: After Greece's defeat, the 1920s and early 1930s were a politically turbulent period, with the economy in a bad state, so the Navy received no new units, apart from the modernization of four destroyers and the acquisition of six French submarines in 1927 and four Italian destroyers in 1929.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: In 1938, Greece ordered four modern "Greyhound"-class destroyers in British shipyards, making a serious step towards modernization. The outbreak of war in Europe, however, allowed only two to be delivered. Greece entered World War II with a navy consisting of two battleships, one armoured cruiser, one protected cruiser, fourteen destroyers, and six submarines.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: During the Greco-Italian War, the Navy took over convoy escort missions in the Ionian Sea and even embarked on three raids against the Italian supply convoys in the Strait of Otranto, although without success. The most important role was given to the submarines, which although obsolete, sank some Italian cargo ships in the Adriatic, losing one submarine in the process. The Greek submarine force (six boats) was however too small to be able to seriously hinder the supply lines between Italy and Albania (between 28 October 1940 and 30 April 1941, Italian ships made 3,305 voyages across the Otranto straits, carrying 487,089 military personnel, including 22 field divisions, and 584,392 tons of supplies while losing overall only seven merchant ships and one escort ship).


title: Hellenic Navy

text: When Nazi Germany attacked Greece, the RHN suffered heavily at the hands of the Luftwaffe, with 25 ships, including the old battleship, now artillery training ship, "Kilkis" and the hulk of her sister "Lemnos", lost within a few days in April 1941. It was then decided to shift the remaining fleet (one cruiser – the famous – three destroyers and five submarines) to join up with the British Mediterranean Fleet at Alexandria.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: As the war progressed, the number of Hellenic Royal Navy vessels increased after the concession of several destroyers and submarines by the British Royal Navy. The most notable aspects of the Hellenic Royal Navy's participation in World War II include the operations of the destroyer which, until sunk in Leros on September 23, 1943, was the most successful Allied destroyer in the Mediterranean Sea; the participation of two destroyers in Operation Overlord; and the story of the destroyer "Adrias", which while operating close to the coast of Kalymnos in October 1943 hit a mine, resulting in the loss of the vessel's prow, while blowing the two-gun forward turret over the bridge. After some minor repairs at Gümüşlük Bay in Turkey "Adrias" managed to return to Alexandria in a trip, even though all the forepart of the ship, up to the bridge, was missing.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: After World War II, the Royal Hellenic Navy was significantly strengthened by the concession of British and Italian ships. The organisation also changed in line with modern naval doctrines of that era after the entrance into NATO in 1952. At the beginning of the 1950s, US military aid formed the core of the country's armed forces. The Royal Hellenic Navy received the first "Bostwick"-class destroyers which took on the name "Beasts" (Θηρία), while withdrawing the British ones.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: The next significant change was during the early 1970s, when Greece was the first Mediterranean naval force to order missile-equipped fast attack craft (Combattante II) and the Type 209 submarines, whereas US military aid continued in the form of FRAM II type destroyers. In 1979, the Hellenic Navy placed an order in the Netherlands for two modern Standard-class frigates (the ). These were the first acquisitions of new main surface vessels, rather than the use of second-hand ships, in almost four decades.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: The arrivals of "Hydra" class (MEKO 200 HN) and more Standard-class frigates along with the orders for more missile corvettes, "Poseidon"-class (Type 209) submarines and naval helicopters allowed the retirement of the obsolete vessels. Greece also received four s from the US Navy in 1991–1992. All four were decommissioned after only ten years in service, since their electronics and armament eventually became obsolete and they required large crews. The advance continued when Greece ordered Type 214 submarines that feature an air-independent propulsion (AIP) system, Sikorsky S-70B-6/10 Aegean Hawk helicopters and Project 1232.2 "Zubr"-class hovercraft from Russia and Ukraine. Later actions included the modernization of Standard-class frigates with new electronics and radar systems and the modernization of "Glaukos" and "Poseidon"-class submarines with new sonars, electronics and air-independent propulsion engines (programs Neptune I/II).


title: Hellenic Navy

text: The Hellenic Navy maintains a large number of surface vessels and submarines in its inventory. However, the vast majority of warships in active service are in the process of either being replaced by more modern and advanced designs, being refurbished, or being retired. The Navy is awaiting delivery of 3 FDI Belharra frigates from France with an option for 1 more after the Greek Prime Minister announced the purchase from Greece of 4 new multirole heavy frigates in September 2020, that will replace older "Elli" class vessels. Deliberations with other parties, including the United States and Germany, lasted for months after France was eventually awarded the contract. He also announced the immediate upgrade of all 4 "Hydra (Meko-200HN)" class frigates, already in service. Greece has also signed on to a program between Italy and France in making a new multirole heavy corvette, with Spain joining as well. The program, dubbed the European Patrol Corvette, has also been inserted in the EU's so-called Permanent Structured Cooperation. Naviris expected the EU fund to issue a Request for Proposal for projects in 2020, with proposals to then be submitted by industry in 2021, and for decisions on fund allocation to be made the same year. Also, plans for the Hellenic Navy to acquire the Sa'ar 72 Israeli corvette of the new "Themistocles" class came to fruition after an agreement signed in June 2020, with exclusive production in Greece.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: Frigates are the main heavy ships of the Navy, with 70% of the "Hydra" class frigates having an advanced anti-aircraft missile launching system. However, there is no dedicated Anti-aircraft Warfare (AAW) platform in the fleet since the "Charles F. Adams" class destroyers were decommissioned in the late 90s. The oldest ship in the frigate fleet is just over 40 years old (HS "Kountouriotis", commissioned in 1978) while the youngest ship is just over 20 years old (HS "Salamis", commissioned in 1998). None of the ships was equipped with a remote weapon station (RWS) for the purpose of asymmetric warfare and coastal defence and the electronic countermeasures systems (ECM) were absent or obsolete. Raytheon has now installed new electro-optical systems on the ships that were previously not equipped with such sensors. It is certain that "Hydras" will undergo a modernization program but its scale is not yet known. Plan for the "Hydras" is to extend their operational lifespan well into the 2030s. However, the "Elli" class frigates need to be replaced by new designs.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: The acquisition of two, with an option for two more, Naval Group FDI "Belharra" frigates with high-end AAW and deep missile strike (DMS utilising Scalp EG Naval) capabilities from France was put on hold in July 2020, despite an intense interest initially expressed by the Navy. Main reasons for this policy change by the Greek Government, were reported to be the increased cost of almost €3 billion for only 2 units, the exclusion by the French of co-production and the delayed delivery of the first unit, placing it in 2025 at the earliest. Meanwhile, the United States had proposed the acquisition of four Multi-Mission Surface Combatants ("Freedom" class MMSCs), also known as Littoral combat ships, that are already in full production for Saudi Arabia, also tested and in use by the US Navy. The Germans came to the table with the Meko-A200 design, a new and advanced version of the Meko-200HN, that could additionally offer homogeneity to the fleet, especially after the upgrade of the ships already in service.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: On November 6, 2020, the Navy submitted its initial preference for the acquisition of 4 MMSC Littoral Combat Ships developed by Lockheed Martin. These multi-mission frigates were part of a wider package discussed with the US, that also included upgrade of the four "Hydra" frigates, intermediate solution ships, and participation of Hellenic Shipyards in the development of the new American FFG(X) type frigate. The FFG(X) type frigate, now named "Constellation" class, is a multi-mission guided-missile ship, under development for the United States Navy by Fincantieri Marinette Marine. However all other proposals, also including those from the Netherlands, the UK, Spain and Italy, remained on the table pending closest evaluation of the packages offered by all participating companies. The final decision by the Greek Government on the type and country of origin of the new Hellenic ships, was scheduled for 2021.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: Final decision was made in September 28 of 2021 and after many months of deliberations. During his visit to the French capital and his meeting with President Emmanuel Macron, Greek Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis announced the procurement of 3+1 French FDI-HN Frigates and 3+1 Gowind-HN class Corvettes in a €5 billion deal spreading to 2026, with the later class still being configured to meet the Hellenic Navy's needs.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: It is almost certain that two types will replace the "Ellis", in order to maintain a ceiling of at least 10 frigates/corvettes. A floating scenario was the purchase of heavy corvettes to replace a number of old "Ellis". This scenario has become increasingly more possible, after Greece joined Italy and France in the "European Patrol Corvette" (EPC/PESCO) consortium in early 2020 for the construction of a new advanced 3,000 ton corvette, with Spain joining the program as well. New ships, for all involved Navies, are not likely to enter service before 2027 or 2030 at the earliest.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: Greece maintains a mixed fleet of modern and older submarine units. In December 2019, the Hellenic Ministry of Defence resolved a lingering issue, regarding the new Type-214 ("Papanikolis" class) torpedoes. An order for new multipurpose heavyweight SeaHake Mod4 torpedoes, from Atlas Elektronik, was placed. The contract also included the upgrade of older torpedoes and the purchase of new torpedo batteries. The six older and non-modernized Type-209 units ("Poseidon" and "Glavkos" classes) will be gradually retired, without any replacement announced yet. The optimistic scenario is replacement with four additional Type-214s, reaching a ceiling of eight units of this type. By 2030, the recently upgraded Type-209/1500 AIP (HS "Okeanos", former Type-209/1200) will have exceeded 50 years since entering service; therefore it is questionable whether it will still be part of the Greek fleet by that time.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: There were two new "Roussen" class Fast Attack Missile Craft (FAMC) under construction, bringing the number of vessels of this type up to seven; The 6th ship was commissioned operational in July 2020, with the 7th and final ship expected Autumn 2020. This was after a more than ten-year delay due to financial and structural problems faced by Elefsis Shipyard that was contracted to build the ships. There are no changes in the initial design, despite 20 years since the first vessel in the class entered service. The majority of the FAC were built in the late ‘70s. Four of them have been modernised extensively and the new ships have integrated all updates. All older vessels of other types, with the exemption of three "Votsis" class boats which are about to be retired soon with the introduction of the new "Roussens", have replaced their old MM38 and Penguin missile systems with Harpoon launchers. In addition, the boats that had no electro-optical tracking (Mirador) sensors, received new endogenous Miltech TDR-10A and TDR-300 systems.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: The fleet also consists of ten gunboats. With the exception of the four "Machitis" class (Osprey HSY-56A), the rest of the gunboats need modernization and, some of them, replacement. The two "Asheville" class boats are at least 50 years old. The remaining four boats (Osprey-55 and HSY-56) have already received new electro-optical systems. On June 16, 2020, ONEX Neorion Shipyards SA in the Greek island of Syros and Israel Shipyards LTD signed a cooperation agreement for the construction of the "Themistocles" class corvette during Greek PM's visit to Israel. This is a multipurpose warship based on the Israeli Sa'ar 72-class corvette design, at 72 meters length and displacement of around 800 tons. It will be able of speeds above 30 knots with an extended endurance. It can operate a medium size marine helicopter, but also supports unique possibilities of deploying Special Forces units. The agreement was for the construction in Greece of 7 vessels, with an option for 6 more. These will replace an equal number of older gunboats.


title: Hellenic Navy

text: In February 2020, at a special event held at the Hellenic Institute of Naval Technology (HINT), the technical director of the Unit of Submersibles and Hellenic Navy Works of Hellenic Shipyards Co., presented project "Aginor". The project was the development and construction, in collaboration with the Navy, of an advanced Asymmetric Warfare Vessel (AWV) that uses the latest technologies and composite materials. The first vessels have already been added to the Navy’s fleet. They are capable of a number of missions including insertion and extraction of Special Operations Forces, interdiction and coastal patrol, as well as search and rescue (SAR) operations.