title: Politics of France

text: In addition, each minister has a private office, which is composed of members whose nomination is politically determined, called the "cabinet". Cabinets are quite important and employ numbers of highly qualified staff to follow all administrative and political affairs. They are powerful, and have been sometimes considered as a parallel administration, especially (but not only) in all matters that are politically sensitive. Each "cabinet" is led by a chief-of-staff entitled "directeur de cabinet".


title: Politics of France

text: The state also has distributive services spread throughout French territory, often reflecting divisions into "régions" or "départements". The prefect, the representative of the national government in each "région" or "département", supervises the activities of the distributive services in his or her jurisdiction. Generally, the services of a certain administration in a "région" or "département" are managed by a high-level civil servant, often called director, but not always; for instance, the services of the "Trésor public" (Treasury) in each "département" are headed by a treasurer-paymaster general, appointed by the President of the Republic. In the last several decades, the departmental "conseil général" (see "Local Government" below) has taken on new responsibilities and plays an important role in administrating government services at the local level.


title: Politics of France

text: The government also maintains public establishments. These have a relative administrative and financial autonomy, to accomplish a defined mission. They are attached to one or more supervising authorities. These are classified into several categories:


title: Politics of France

text: Note that in administrations and public establishments of an administrative character operate under public law, while establishments of an industrial and commercial character operate mostly under private law. In consequence, in the former, permanent personnel are civil servants, while normally in the latter, they are contract employees.


title: Politics of France

text: In addition, the government owns and controls all, or the majority, of shares of some companies, like "Electricité de France", "SNCF" or "Areva".


title: Politics of France

text: Social security organizations, though established by statute and controlled and supervised by the state, are not operated nor directly controlled by the national government. Instead, they are managed by the "social partners" ("partenaires sociaux") – unions of employers such as the MEDEF and unions of employees. Their budget is separate from the national budget.


title: Politics of France

text: A Shadow Cabinet is sometimes formed by the opposition parties in the National Assembly, though this is uncommon.


title: Politics of France

text: The Parliament of France, making up the legislative branch, consists of two houses: the National Assembly and the Senate; the National Assembly is the pre-eminent body.


title: Politics of France

text: Parliament meets for one nine-month session each year: under special circumstances the President can call an additional session. Although parliamentary powers have diminished from those existing under the Fourth Republic, the National Assembly can still cause a government to fall if an absolute majority of the total Assembly membership votes to censure. It happened once under the 5th Republic: in 1962 when the parliamentary majority of the time voted a motion of censure against the government of George Pompidou.


title: Politics of France

text: The government has a strong influence in shaping the agenda of Parliament. The government also can link its term to a legislative text which it proposes, and unless a motion of censure is introduced (within 24 hours after the proposal) and passed (within 48 hours of introductionthus full procedures last at most 72 hours), the text is considered adopted without a vote.


title: Politics of France

text: Members of Parliament enjoy parliamentary immunity. Both assemblies have committees that write reports on a variety of topics. If necessary, they can establish parliamentary enquiry commissions with broad investigative power.


title: Politics of France

text: The National Assembly is the principal legislative body. Its 577 deputies are directly elected for five-year terms in local majority votes, and all seats are voted on in each election.


title: Politics of France

text: The National Assembly may force the resignation of the government by voting a motion of censure. For this reason, the Prime Minister and their government are necessarily from the dominant party or coalition in the assembly. In the case of a president and assembly from opposing parties, this leads to the situation known as "cohabitation". While motions of censure are periodically proposed by the opposition following government actions that it deems highly inappropriate, they are purely rhetorical; party discipline ensures that, throughout a parliamentary term, the government is never overthrown by the Assembly.


title: Politics of France

text: Senators are chosen by an electoral college of about 165,000 local elected officials for six-year terms, and half of the Senate is renewed every three years. Before the law of 30 July 2004, senators were elected for nine years, renewed by thirds every three years. There are currently 348 senators: 326 represent the metropolitan and overseas "départements", 10 the other dependencies and 12 the French established abroad.


title: Politics of France

text: The Senate's legislative powers are limited; on most matters of legislation, the National Assembly has the last word in the event of a disagreement between the two houses.


title: Politics of France

text: Since the beginning of the Fifth Republic, the Senate has almost always had a right-wing majority. This is mostly due to the over-representation of small villages compared to big cities. This, and the indirect mode of election, prompted socialist Lionel Jospin, who was Prime Minister at the time, to declare the Senate an "anomaly".


title: Politics of France

text: Statute legislation may be proposed by the government (council of ministers), or by members of Parliament. In the first case, it is a "projet de loi"; in the latter case, a "proposition de loi".


title: Politics of France

text: All "projets de loi" must undergo compulsory advisory review by the "Conseil d'État" before being submitted to parliament. Since 2009, the bill submitted to Parliament must also come with a study of the possible impact of the law: other possible options, interactions with European law, economical, social, financial and environmental consequences.


title: Politics of France

text: "Projets de loi" start in the house of the government's choice (except in some narrow cases). "Propositions de loi" start in the house where they originated. After the house has amended and voted on the text, it is sent to the other house, which can also amend it. If the houses do not choose to adopt the text in identical terms, it is sent before a commission made of equal numbers of members of both houses, which tries to harmonize the text. If it does not manage to do so, the National Assembly can vote the text and have the final say on it (except for laws related to the organization of the Senate).


title: Politics of France

text: The law is then sent to the President of France for signature. At this point, the President of France, the speaker of either house or a delegation of 60 deputies or 60 senators can ask for the text to undergo constitutional review before being put into force; it is then sent before the Constitutional Council. The President can also, only once per law and with the countersigning of the Prime Minister, send the law back to parliament for another review. Otherwise, the President must sign the law. After being countersigned by the Prime Minister and the concerned ministers, it is then sent to the "Journal Officiel" for publication.


title: Politics of France

text: Financing Acts ("lois de finances") and the Social Security Financing Acts ("lois de financement de la sécurité sociale") are special Acts of Parliament voted and approved through specific procedures.


title: Politics of France

text: Because of the importance of allowing government and social security organizations to proceed with the payment of their suppliers, employees, and recipients, without risk of a being stopped by parliamentary discord, these bills are specially constrained. In the past, parliamentarians would often add unrelated amendments ("cavaliers budgétaires") to the finance bills, to get such amendments passed – because of the reduced time in which the budget is examined. However, these are nowadays considered unconstitutional. If Parliament cannot agree on a budget within some specified reasonable bounds, the government is entitled to adopt a budget through ordinances: this threat prevents parliamentarians from threatening to bankrupt the executive.


title: Politics of France

text: The way the Finance Bill is organized, and the way the government has to execute the budget, were deeply reformed in 2001 by the "Loi organique n°2001-692 du 1er août 2001 relative aux lois de finances", generally known as the LOLF. Because of the major changes involved, the application of the law was gradual, and the first budget to be fully passed under LOLF will be the 2006 budget, passed in late 2005.


title: Politics of France

text: The LOLF divides expenses according to identifiable "missions" (which can be subdivided into sub-missions etc.). The performance of the administration and public bodies will be evaluated with respect to these missions.


title: Politics of France

text: The budget of the national government was forecast to be 290 billion Euro in 2011. This includes neither Social Security, nor the budgets of local governments.


title: Politics of France

text: It has long been customary for Parliament members to hold, in addition to the office of deputy or senator, another local office such as city mayor, hence titles like "Deputy and Mayor" ("député-maire") and "Senator and Mayor" ("sénateur-maire"). This is known as the "cumul" of electoral offices. Proponents of the "cumul" allege that having local responsibilities ensures that members of parliament stay in contact with the reality of their constituency; also, they are said to be able to defend the interest of their city etc. better by having a seat in parliament.


title: Politics of France

text: In recent years, the "cumul" has been increasingly criticized. Critics contend that lawmakers that also have some local mandate cannot be assiduous to both tasks; for instance, they may neglect their duties to attend parliamentary sittings and commission in order to attend to tasks in their constituency. The premise that holders of dual office can defend the interest of their city etc. in the National Parliament is criticized in that national lawmakers should have the national interest in their mind, not the advancement of the projects of the particular city they are from. Finally, this criticism is part of a wider criticism of the political class as a cozy, closed world in which the same people make a long career from multiple positions.


title: Politics of France

text: As a consequence, laws that restrict the possibilities of having multiple mandates have been enacted.


title: Politics of France

text: The Economic and Social Council is a consultative assembly. It does not play a role in the adoption of statutes and regulations, but advises the lawmaking bodies on questions of social and economic policies.


title: Politics of France

text: The executive may refer any question or proposal of social or economic importance to the Economic and Social Council.


title: Politics of France

text: The Economic and Social Council publishes reports, which are sent to the Prime Minister, the National Assembly and the Senate. They are published in the "Journal Official".


title: Politics of France

text: French law provides for a separate judicial branch with an independent judiciary which does not answer to or is directly controlled by the other two branches of government. France has a civil law legal system, the basis of which is codified law; however, case law plays a significant role in the determination of the courts. The most distinctive feature of the French judicial system is that it is divided into judicial and administrative streams.


title: Politics of France

text: The judicial stream of courts adjudicates civil and criminal cases. The judicial court stream consists of inferior courts, intermediate appellate courts, and the French Court of Cassation, the supreme court.


title: Politics of France

text: Judges are government employees but are granted special statutory protection from the executive. Judges have security of tenure and may not be promoted (or demoted) without their consent. Their careers are overseen by the Judicial Council of France.


title: Politics of France

text: The public prosecutors, on the other hand, take orders from the Minister of Justice. In the past, this has bred suspicion of undue political pressure to dismiss suits or claims against government officials charged with corruption, and the status of public prosecutors and their ties to government are frequently topics of debate.


title: Politics of France

text: Trial by jury is available only for severe criminal cases, which are the jurisdiction of the Courts of Assizes. A full Court is made up of a 3-judge panel and a petty jury of 9 jurors (vs. 12 jurors on appeal), who, together, render verdicts, and if a conviction is handed down, also determine a sentence. Jurors are selected at random from eligible voters.


title: Politics of France

text: In most other courts, judges are professional, except that the criminal court for minors is composed of one professional and two lay judges. Also, several specialty courts of original jurisdiction are sat by judges who are elected into office. For instance, labor tribunals are staffed with an equal number of magistrates from employers' unions and employees' unions. The same applies to land estate tribunals.


title: Politics of France

text: Pre-trial proceedings are inquisitorial by nature, but open court proceedings are adversarial. The burden of proof in criminal proceedings is on the prosecution, and the accused is constitutionally presumed innocent until proven guilty.


title: Politics of France

text: Courts of administrative law adjudicate on claims and suits against government offices and agencies. The administrative stream is made up of administrative courts, courts of administrative appeal, and the Council of State as the court of last resort.


title: Politics of France

text: The Council of State hears cases against executive branch decisions and has the power to quash or set aside executive-issued statutory instruments such as orders and regulations when they violate constitutional law, enacted legislation, or codified law.


title: Politics of France

text: Court proceedings mostly involve written hearings and are inquisitorial, with judges having the parties submit written testimony or arguments.


title: Politics of France

text: Any jurisdictional dispute between the judicial and administrative streams are settled by a special court called "Tribunal des conflits", or "Court of Jurisdictional Dispute", composed of an equal number of Supreme Court justices and councillors of State.


title: Politics of France

text: Neither judicial nor administrative courts are empowered to rule on the constitutionality of acts of Parliament. While technically not part of the judicial branch, the Constitutional Council examines legislation and decides whether or not it violates the Constitution. This applies, prior to their enactment, to all forms of organic laws, but only by referral from the French President, President of the Senate, President of the National Assembly, the Prime Minister, or any of the 60 senators or 60 assembly members of the other types of laws or treaties. After their enactment, laws can all be reviewed by referral from the highest administrative court, the Conseil d'Etat, or by the highest judicial court, the Cour de Cassation. The Constitutional Council may declare acts to be unconstitutional, even if they contradict the principles of the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (cited in the Preamble of the Constitution).


title: Politics of France

text: Council members to the Constitutional Council are appointed for nine years (three every three years); three are appointed by the President, three by the President of the National Assembly, and three by the President of the Senate. The former presidents are also members for life of the Constitutional Council.


title: Politics of France

text: France's main Court of Audit ("Cour des Comptes") and regional audit courts audit government finances, public institutions (including other courts), and public entities. The court publishes an annual report and can refer criminal matters to public prosecutors. It can also directly fine public accountants for mishandling funds, and refer civil servants who misused funds to the Court of Financial and Budgetary Discipline.


title: Politics of France

text: The main and regional audit courts do not judge the accountants of private organizations. However, in some circumstances, they may audit their accounting, especially when an organization has been awarded a government contract over a public utility or a service requiring the permanent use of the public domain or if an organization is a bidder on a government contract. The Court is often solicitated by various state agencies, parliamentary commissions, and public regulators, but it can also petitioned to act by any French citizen or organization operating in France.


title: Politics of France

text: The Court's finances are overseen by financial commissions of the two Houses of the French Parliament which also set the Court's working budget in the annual Act of finances.


title: Politics of France

text: In 1973 the position of "médiateur de la République" (the Republic's ombudsman) was created. The ombudsman is charged with solving, without the need to a recourse before the courts, the disagreements between citizens and the administrations and other entities charged with a mission of a public service; proposing reforms to the Government and the administrations to further these goals; and actively participating in the international promotion of human rights.


title: Politics of France

text: The ombudsman is appointed for a period of 6 years by the President of the Republic in the Council of Ministers. He cannot be removed from office and is protected for his official actions by an immunity similar to parliamentary immunity. He does not receive or accept orders from any authority. The current ombudsman is Jean-Paul Delevoye.


title: Politics of France

text: France uses a civil law system; that is, law arises primarily from written statutes; judges are not to make law, but merely to interpret it (though the amount of judge interpretation in certain areas makes it equivalent to case law).


title: Politics of France

text: Many fundamental principles of French Law were laid in the Napoleonic Codes. Basic principles of the rule of law were laid in the Napoleonic Code: laws can only address the future and not the past (ex post facto laws are prohibited); to be applicable, laws must have been officially published (see "Journal Officiel").


title: Politics of France

text: In agreement with the principles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, the general rule is that of freedom, and law should only prohibit actions detrimental to society. As Guy Canivet, first president of the Court of Cassation, said about what should be the rule in French law:


title: Politics of France

text: That is, law may lay out prohibitions only if they are needed, and if the inconveniences caused by this restriction do not exceed the inconveniences that the prohibition is supposed to remedy.


title: Politics of France

text: France does not recognize religious law, nor does it recognize religious beliefs as a motivation for the enactment of prohibitions. As a consequence, France has long had neither blasphemy laws nor sodomy laws (the latter being abolished in 1789).


title: Politics of France

text: French law differentiates between legislative acts ("loi"), generally passed by the legislative branch, and regulations ("règlement", instituted by "décrets"), issued by the Prime Minister. There also exist secondary regulation called "arrêtés", issued by ministers, subordinates acting in their names, or local authorities; these may only be taken in areas of competency and within the scope delineated by primary legislation. There are also more and more regulations issued by independent agencies, especially relating to economic matters.


title: Politics of France

text: Finance Acts shall determine the resources and obligations of the State in the manner and with the reservations specified in an institutional Act.


title: Politics of France

text: Social Security Finance Acts shall determine the general conditions for the financial balance of Social Security and, in light of their revenue forecasts, shall determine expenditure targets in the manner and with the reservations specified in an institutional Act.


title: Politics of France

text: Other areas are matters of regulation. This separation between law and regulation is enforced by the "Conseil constitutionnel": the government can, with the agreement of the "Conseil constitutionnel", modify by decrees the laws that infringe on the domain of regulations. At the same, the "Conseil d'État" nullifies decrees that infringe on the domain of the law.


title: Politics of France

text: When courts have to deal with incoherent texts, they apply a certain hierarchy: a text higher in the hierarchy will overrule a lower text. The general rule is that the Constitution is superior to laws which are superior to regulations. However, with the intervention of European law and international treaties, and the quasi-case law of the administrative courts, the hierarchy may become somewhat unclear. The following hierarchy of norms should thus be taken with due caution:


title: Politics of France

text: Traditionally, decision-making in France is highly centralized, with each of France's departments headed by a prefect appointed by the central government, in addition to the "conseil général", a locally elected council. However, in 1982, the national government passed legislation to decentralize authority by giving a wide range of administrative and fiscal powers to local elected officials. In March 1986, regional councils were directly elected for the first time, and the process of decentralization has continued, albeit at a slow pace. In March 2003, a constitutional revision has changed very significantly the legal framework towards a more decentralized system and has increased the powers of local governments. Albeit France is still one of the most centralized major countries in Europe and the world.


title: Politics of France

text: Administrative units with a local government in Metropolitan France (that is, the parts of France lying in Europe) consist of:


title: Politics of France

text: The "conseil général" is an institution created in 1790 by the French Revolution in each of the newly created departments (they were suppressed by the Vichy government from 1942 to 1944). A "conseiller général" (departmental councillor) must be at least 21 years old and either live or pay taxes in the locality they are elected from. (Sociologist Jean Viard noted ["Le Monde", 22 Feb 2006] that half of all "conseillers généraux" were still "fils de paysans", i.e. sons of peasants, suggesting France's deep rural roots). Though the central government can theoretically dissolve a "conseil général" (in case of a dysfunctional "conseil"), this has happened only once in the Fifth Republic.


title: Politics of France

text: The "conseil général" discusses and passes laws on matters that concern the department; it is administratively responsible for departmental employees and land, manages subsidized housing, public transportation, and school subsidies, and contributes to public facilities. It is not allowed to express "political wishes." The "conseil général" meets at least three times a year and elects its president for a term of 3 years, who presides over its "permanent commission," usually consisting of 5-10 other departmental councillors elected from among their number. The "conseil général" has accrued new powers in the course of the political decentralization that has occurred past in France during the past thirty years. There are in all more than 4,000 "conseillers généraux" in France.


title: Politics of France

text: Different levels of administration have different duties, and shared responsibility is common; for instance, in the field of education, "communes" run public elementary schools, while "départements" run public junior high schools and "régions" run public high schools, but only for the building and upkeep of buildings; curricula and teaching personnel are supplied by the national Ministry of Education.


title: Politics of France

text: The 3 main cities, Paris, Lyon and Marseille have a special statute. Paris is at the same time a "commune" and a "département" with an institution, the "Conseil de Paris", that is elected at the same time as the other "conseil municipaux", but that operates also as a "conseil général". The 3 cities are also divided into "arrondissement" each having its "conseil d'arrondissement" and its mayor.


title: Politics of France

text: All inhabited French territory is represented in both houses of Parliament and votes for the presidential election.


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: The third law of thermodynamics states, regarding the properties of closed systems in thermodynamic equilibrium: This constant value cannot depend on any other parameters characterizing the closed system, such as pressure or applied magnetic field. At absolute zero (zero kelvins) the system must be in a state with the minimum possible energy. Entropy is related to the number of accessible microstates, and there is typically one unique state (called the ground state) with minimum energy. In such a case, the entropy at absolute zero will be exactly zero. If the system does not have a well-defined order (if its order is glassy, for example), then there may remain some finite entropy as the system is brought to very low temperatures, either because the system becomes locked into a configuration with non-minimal energy or because the minimum energy state is non-unique. The constant value is called the residual entropy of the system. The entropy is essentially a state-function meaning the inherent value of different atoms, molecules, and other configurations of particles including subatomic or atomic material is defined by entropy, which can be discovered near 0 K.


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: The Nernst–Simon statement of the third law of thermodynamics concerns thermodynamic processes at a fixed, low temperature: Here a condensed system refers to liquids and solids.


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: There also exists a formulation of the third law which approaches the subject by postulating a specific energy behavior:


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: The third law was developed by chemist Walther Nernst during the years 1906–12, and is therefore often referred to as Nernst's theorem or Nernst's postulate. The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system at absolute zero is a well-defined constant. This is because a system at zero temperature exists in its ground state, so that its entropy is determined only by the degeneracy of the ground state.


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: In 1912 Nernst stated the law thus: "It is impossible for any procedure to lead to the isotherm in a finite number of steps."


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: An alternative version of the third law of thermodynamics as stated by Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall in 1923:


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: This version states not only formula_1 will reach zero at 0 K, but formula_2 itself will also reach zero as long as the crystal has a ground state with only one configuration. Some crystals form defects which cause a residual entropy. This residual entropy disappears when the kinetic barriers to transitioning to one ground state are overcome.


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: With the development of statistical mechanics, the third law of thermodynamics (like the other laws) changed from a "fundamental" law (justified by experiments) to a "derived" law (derived from even more basic laws). The basic law from which it is primarily derived is the statistical-mechanics definition of entropy for a large system:


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: where formula_2 is entropy, formula_5 is the Boltzmann constant, and formula_6 is the number of microstates consistent with the macroscopic configuration. The counting of states is from the reference state of absolute zero, which corresponds to the entropy of formula_7.


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: In simple terms, the third law states that the entropy of a perfect crystal of a pure substance approaches zero as the temperature approaches zero. The alignment of a perfect crystal leaves no ambiguity as to the location and orientation of each part of the crystal. As the energy of the crystal is reduced, the vibrations of the individual atoms are reduced to nothing, and the crystal becomes the same everywhere.


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: The third law provides an absolute reference point for the determination of entropy at any other temperature. The entropy of a closed system, determined relative to this zero point, is then the "absolute" entropy of that system. Mathematically, the absolute entropy of any system at zero temperature is the natural log of the number of ground states times the Boltzmann constant .


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: The entropy of a "perfect" crystal lattice as defined by Nernst's theorem is zero provided that its ground state is unique, because . If the system is composed of one-billion atoms, all alike, and lie within the matrix of a perfect crystal, the number of combinations of one-billion identical things taken one-billion at a time is . Hence:


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: The difference is zero, hence the initial entropy can be any selected value so long as all other such calculations include that as the initial entropy. As a result, the initial entropy value of zero is selected is used for convenience.


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: Suppose a system consisting of a crystal lattice with volume of identical atoms at , and an incoming photon of wavelength and energy .


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: Let's assume the crystal lattice absorbs the incoming photon. There is a unique atom in the lattice that interacts and absorbs this photon. So after absorption, there is possible microstates accessible by the system, each of the microstates corresponding to one excited atom, and the other atoms remaining at ground state.


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: The entropy, energy, and temperature of the closed system rises and can be calculated. The entropy change is:


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: We assume and . The energy change of the system as a result of absorbing the single photon whose energy is :


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: This can be interpreted as the average temperature of the system over the range from formula_18. A single atom was assumed to absorb the photon but the temperature and entropy change characterizes the entire system.


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: An example of a system which does not have a unique ground state is one whose net spin is a half-integer, for which time-reversal symmetry gives two degenerate ground states. For such systems, the entropy at zero temperature is at least (which is negligible on a macroscopic scale). Some crystalline systems exhibit geometrical frustration, where the structure of the crystal lattice prevents the emergence of a unique ground state. Ground-state helium (unless under pressure) remains liquid.


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: In addition, glasses and solid solutions retain large entropy at 0 K, because they are large collections of nearly degenerate states, in which they become trapped out of equilibrium. Another example of a solid with many nearly-degenerate ground states, trapped out of equilibrium, is ice Ih, which has "proton disorder".


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: For the entropy at absolute zero to be zero, the magnetic moments of a perfectly ordered crystal must themselves be perfectly ordered; from an entropic perspective, this can be considered to be part of the definition of a "perfect crystal". Only ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, and diamagnetic materials can satisfy this condition. However, ferromagnetic materials do not, in fact, have zero entropy at zero temperature, because the spins of the unpaired electrons are all aligned and this gives a ground-state spin degeneracy. Materials that remain paramagnetic at 0 K, by contrast, may have many nearly-degenerate ground states (for example, in a spin glass), or may retain dynamic disorder (a quantum spin liquid).


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: The reason that cannot be reached according to the third law is explained as follows: Suppose that the temperature of a substance can be reduced in an isentropic process by changing the parameter "X" from "X" to "X". One can think of a multistage nuclear demagnetization setup where a magnetic field is switched on and off in a controlled way. If there were an entropy difference at absolute zero, could be reached in a finite number of steps. However, at "T" = 0 there is no entropy difference so an infinite number of steps would be needed. The process is illustrated in Fig. 1.


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: A non-quantitative description of his third law that Nernst gave at the very beginning was simply that the specific heat can always be made zero by cooling the material down far enough. A modern, quantitative analysis follows.


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: Supposed that the heat capacity of a sample in the low temperature region has the form of a power law asymptotically as , and we wish to find which values of are compatible with the third law. We have


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: By the discussion of third law (above), this integral must be bounded as , which is only possible if . So the heat capacity must go to zero at absolute zero


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: if it has the form of a power law. The same argument shows that it cannot be bounded below by a positive constant, even if we drop the power-law assumption.


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: On the other hand, the molar specific heat at constant volume of a monatomic classical ideal gas, such as helium at room temperature, is given by with the molar ideal gas constant. But clearly a constant heat capacity does not satisfy Eq. (). That is, a gas with a constant heat capacity all the way to absolute zero violates the third law of thermodynamics. We can verify this more fundamentally by substituting in Eq. (), which yields


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: The conflict is resolved as follows: At a certain temperature the quantum nature of matter starts to dominate the behavior. Fermi particles follow Fermi–Dirac statistics and Bose particles follow Bose–Einstein statistics. In both cases the heat capacity at low temperatures is no longer temperature independent, even for ideal gases. For Fermi gases


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: The specific heats given by Eq. () and () both satisfy Eq. (). Indeed, they are power laws with "α"=1 and "α"=3/2 respectively.


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: Even within a purely classical setting, the density of a classical ideal gas at fixed particle number becomes arbitrarily high as goes to zero, so the interparticle spacing goes to zero. The assumption of non-interacting particles presumably breaks down when they are sufficiently close together, so the value of gets modified away from its ideal constant value.


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: The only liquids near absolute zero are He and He. Their heat of evaporation has a limiting value given by


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: with "L" and "C" constant. If we consider a container, partly filled with liquid and partly gas, the entropy of the liquid–gas mixture is


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: where "S"("T") is the entropy of the liquid and is the gas fraction. Clearly the entropy change during the liquid–gas transition ( from 0 to 1) diverges in the limit of "T"→0. This violates Eq.(). Nature solves this paradox as follows: at temperatures below about 50 mK the vapor pressure is so low that the gas density is lower than the best vacuum in the universe. In other words: below 50 mK there is simply no gas above the liquid.


title: Third law of thermodynamics

text: The melting curves of He and He both extend down to absolute zero at finite pressure. At the melting pressure, liquid and solid are in equilibrium. The third law demands that the entropies of the solid and liquid are equal at . As a result, the latent heat of melting is zero and the slope of the melting curve extrapolates to zero as a result of the Clausius–Clapeyron equation.


title: Juice

text: Juice is a drink made from the extraction or pressing of the natural liquid contained in fruit and vegetables. It can also refer to liquids that are flavored with concentrate or other biological food sources, such as meat or seafood, such as clam juice. Juice is commonly consumed as a beverage or used as an ingredient or flavoring in foods or other beverages, as for smoothies. Juice emerged as a popular beverage choice after the development of pasteurization methods enabled its preservation without using fermentation (which is used in wine production). The largest fruit juice consumers are New Zealand (nearly a cup, or 8 ounces, each day) and Colombia (more than three quarters of a cup each day). Fruit juice consumption on average increases with a country's income level.


title: Juice

text: The word "juice" comes from Old French in about 1300; it developed from the Old French words ""jus, juis, jouis"", which mean "liquid obtained by boiling herbs". The "Old French "jus" "juice, sap, liquid" (13c.)...[came] from Latin "ius" [which means] "broth, sauce, juice, soup," from PIE root *"yeue"- "to blend, mix food" (cognates: Sanskrit "yus"- "broth," Greek "zyme" "a leaven", Old Church Slavonic "jucha" "broth, soup," ""ukha"", "fish soup")." The use of the word "juice" to mean "the watery part of fruits or vegetables" was first recorded in the early 14th century. Since the 19th century, the term "juice" has also been used in a figurative sense (e.g., to mean alcohol or electricity). Today, ""au jus"" refers to meat served along with its own juice, commonly as a gravy.


title: Juice

text: Juice is prepared by mechanically squeezing or macerating (sometimes referred to as cold pressing) fruit or vegetable flesh without the application of heat or solvents. For example, orange juice is the liquid extract of the fruit of the orange tree, and tomato juice is the liquid that results from pressing the fruit of the tomato plant. Juice may be prepared in the home from fresh fruit and vegetables using a variety of hand or electric juicers. Many commercial juices are filtered to remove fiber or pulp, but high-pulp fresh orange juice is a popular beverage. Additives are put in some juices, such as sugar and artificial flavours (in some fruit juice-based beverages) or savoury seasonings (e.g., in Clamato or Caesar tomato juice drinks). Common methods for preservation and processing of fruit juices include canning, pasteurization, concentrating, freezing, evaporation and spray drying.


title: Juice

text: After the fruits are picked and washed, the juice is extracted by one of two automated methods. In the first method, two metal cups with sharp metal tubes on the bottom cup come together, removing the peel and forcing the flesh of the fruit through the metal tube. The juice of the fruit, then escapes through small holes in the tube. The peels can then be used further, and are washed to remove oils, which are reclaimed later for usage. The second method requires the fruits to be cut in half before being subjected to reamers, which extract the juice.


title: Juice

text: After the juice is filtered, it may be concentrated in evaporators, which reduce the size of juice by a factor of 5, making it easier to transport and increasing its expiration date. Juices are concentrated by heating under a vacuum to remove water, and then cooling to around 13 degrees Celsius. About two thirds of the water in a juice is removed. The juice is later reconstituted, a process in which the concentrate is mixed with water and other factors to return any lost flavor from the concentrating process. Juices can also be sold in a concentrated state, in which the consumer adds water to the concentrated juice as preparation.


title: Juice

text: Juices are then pasteurized and filled into containers, often while still hot. If the juice is poured into a container while hot, it is cooled as quickly as possible. Packages that cannot stand heat require sterile conditions for filling. Chemicals such as hydrogen peroxide can be used to sterilize containers. Plants can make anywhere from 1 to 20 tonnes a day.


title: Juice

text: High-intensity pulsed electric fields are being used as an alternative to heat pasteurization in fruit juices. Heat treatments sometimes fail to make a quality, microbiological stable product. However, it was found that processing with high-intensity pulsed electric fields (PEF) can be applied to fruit juices to provide a shelf-stable and safe product. In addition, it was found that pulsed electric fields provide a fresh-like product with high nutritional value. Pulsed electric field processing is a type of nonthermal method for food preservation.


title: Juice

text: Pulsed electric fields use short pulses of electricity to inactivate microbes. In addition, the use of PEF results in minimal detrimental effects on the quality of the food. PEFs kill microorganisms and provide better maintenance of the original colour, flavour, and nutritional value of the food as compared to heat treatments. This method of preservation works by placing two electrodes between liquid juices, then applying high-voltage pulses for microseconds to milliseconds. The high voltage pulses are of intensity in the range of 10 to 80 kV/cm.


title: Juice

text: Processing time of the juice is calculated by multiplying the number of pulses with the effective pulse duration. The high voltage of the pulses produce an electric field that results in inactivation of microbes that may be present in the juice. The PEF temperatures are below the temperatures used in thermal processing. After the high-voltage treatment, the juice is aseptically packaged and refrigerated. Juice is also able to transfer electricity due to the presence of several ions from the processing. When the electric field is applied to the juice, electric currents are then able to flow into the liquid juice and transferred around due to the charged molecules in the juice. Therefore, pulsed electric fields are able to inactivate microorganisms, extend shelf life, and reduce enzymatic activity of the juice while maintaining similar quality as the original, fresh pressed juice.


title: Juice

text: In the United Kingdom, the name or names of the fruit followed by "juice" can only legally be used to describe a product which is 100% fruit juice, as required by the Fruit Juices and Fruit Nectars (England) Regulations and the Fruit Juices and Fruit Nectars (Scotland) Regulations 2003. However, a juice made by reconstituting concentrate can be called juice. A product described as fruit "nectar" must contain at least 25% to 50% juice, depending on the fruit. A juice or nectar including concentrate must state that it does. The term "juice drink" is not defined in the Regulations and can be used to describe any drink which includes juice, whatever the amount. Comparable rules apply in all EU member states in their respective languages.


title: Juice

text: In the US, "fruit juice" can only legally be used to describe a product which is 100% fruit juice. A blend of fruit juice(s) with other ingredients, such as high-fructose corn syrup, is called a "juice cocktail" or "juice drink". According to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the term "nectar" is generally accepted in the US and in international trade for a diluted juice to denote a beverage that contains fruit juice or puree, water, and artificial sweeteners. "No added sugar" is commonly printed on labels of juice containers, but the products may contain large amounts of naturally occurring sugars; however, sugar content is listed with other carbohydrates on labels in many countries.


title: Juice

text: Depending on trends and regulations, beverages listed as "100% juice" may actually contain unlisted additives. For example, most orange juice contains added ethyl butyrate (to enhance flavor), vitamin C (as ascorbic acid), and water (if from concentrate). When fruit juice is too sour, acidic, or rich to consume, it may be diluted with water and sugar to create an "-ade" (such as lemonade, limeade, cherryade, and orangeade). The 'ade' suffix may also refer to any sweetened, fruit-flavored drink, whether or not it actually contains any juice.


title: Juice

text: Juices are often consumed for their perceived health benefits. For example, orange juice with natural or added vitamin C, folic acid, and potassium. Juice provides nutrients such as carotenoids, polyphenols and vitamin  C that offer health benefits.


title: Juice

text: High consumption of fruit juice with added sugar may be linked to weight gain, but not all studies have shown this effect. If 100% from fruit, juice can help meet daily intake recommendations for some nutrients.


title: Juice

text: Research suggests that 100% fruit juice is not associated with increased risk of diabetes. A 2018 review concluded that 100% fruit juice increases the risk of tooth decay in children but there is "no conclusive evidence that consumption of 100% fruit juice has adverse health effects."


title: Juice

text: Although preliminary research indicated that cranberry (juice or capsules) may decrease the number of urinary tract infections in women with frequent infections, a more substantial Cochrane review concluded that there is insufficient evidence to indicate that cranberry juice consumption has any effect on urinary tract infections. Long-term tolerance is also an issue with gastrointestinal upset occurring in more than 30% of people.


title: Juice

text: The American Academy of Pediatrics as of 2017 says that fruit juice should not be given to children under age one due to the lack of nutritional benefit. For children ages one to six, intake of fruit juice should be limited to less than per day (about a half to three-quarters of a cup) due to its high sugar and low fiber content compared to fruit. Overconsumption of fruit juices may reduce nutrient intake compared to eating whole fruits, and may produce diarrhea, gas, abdominal pain, bloating, or tooth decay.


title: Juice

text: Overconsumption of fruits and fruit juice may contribute to dental decay and cavities via the effect of fruit acids on tooth enamel. Longitudinal prospective cohort studies showed a significantly increased risk of type 2 diabetes when juices with added sugars were consumed compared to eating whole fruits. A 2014 review found that higher intake of sugar-sweetened fruit juice was significantly associated with risk of type 2 diabetes.


title: Juice

text: Overconsumption of fruit juice with added sugars has also been linked to childhood obesity. The "American Journal of Public Health" proposed that the Healthy Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010 in the United States eliminate 100% fruit juices and substitute instead with whole fruits.


title: Juice

text: The largest fruit juice consumers are New Zealand (nearly a cup, or 8 ounces, each day) and Colombia (more than three quarters of a cup each day). Fruit juice consumption on average increased with country income level.


title: Juice

text: In 2007, a report stated that fruit juice consumption overall in Europe, Australia, New Zealand and the US has increased in recent years.


title: Juice

text: In 2015, people in the United States consumed approximately 6.6 US gallons of juices per capita with more than half of preschool-age children being regular drinkers.


title: Juice

text: A juice bar is an establishment that primarily serves prepared juice beverages such as freshly squeezed or extracted fruit juices, juice blends, fruit smoothies (a thick fruit drink, often iced), or other juices such as fresh wheatgrass juice. Sometimes other solid ingredients or nutritional supplements may be added as boosters, such as fresh bananas, nuts or nut butter, bodybuilding supplements, soy protein powder or others such as whey or hemp protein powders, wheat germ, or spirulina or chlorella. Also if less juice is used with these same ingredients drinks called health shakes may be produced.


title: Juice

text: Juice bars share some of the characteristics of a coffeehouse, a soda fountain, a café, and a snack bar, such as providing blended drinks and food, such as sandwiches. Juice bars may be standalone businesses in cities or located at gyms, along commuter areas, near lunchtime areas, at beaches, and at tourist attractions. In Mexico, juice bars have become more popular in the 2000s. Mexican juice bars often also sell healthy beverages and snacks.


title: Juice

text: Groups of grape pits dated to 8000 BCE show early evidence of juice production; although it is thought that the grapes may have been alternatively used to produce wine. One of the first regularly produced juices was lemonade, appearing in 16th-century Italy, as an import, after its conception in the Middle East. Orange juice originated in the 17th century. In the 18th century, James Lind linked citrus fruits to the prevention of scurvy, which, a century later, led to the implementation of the Merchant Shipping Act of 1867, requiring all ocean-bound British ships to carry citrus-based juice on board.


title: Juice

text: In 1869, a dentist by the name of Thomas B. Welch developed a pasteurization method that allowed for the storage of juice, without the juice fermenting into alcohol. His method involved filtering squeezed grape juice into bottles, sealing them with cork and wax, and then placing them in boiling water. This method kills the yeast responsible for fermentation. He then sold his new product as "Dr Welch's Unfermented Wine". In the late 18th-century United States, circulation of foreign fruit juices were heavily regulated by tariffs. The McKinley Tariff Act of 1890 increased import taxes from 38 to 49.5 percent, and set taxes on fruit juices based on the alcohol content of the drink. Juices with 18% or less alcohol were taxed 60 cents per gallon, while anything above 18% was taxed US$2.50 per proof gallon.


title: Juice

text: The use of the word "juice" to mean "liquor" (alcohol) is from 1828. The use of the term "juice" to mean "electricity" dates from 1896. As a verb, the word "juice" was first recorded as meaning "to enliven" in 1964. The adjective "juiced" is recorded as meaning "drunk" in 1946 and in 2003 "enhanced or as if enhanced by steroids". The adjective "juicy" has meant "succulent" since the 15th century (e.g., a juicy roast beef). The figurative meaning "wealthy, full of some desired quality" dates from the 1620s (e.g., a pirate calling a heavily laden ship he aims to plunder a "juicy catch"). The meaning "lively, suggestive, racy, sensational" (e.g., a juicy scandal) is from 1883.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: The Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkish: "Halkların Demokratik Partisi", acronymized as HDP; Kurdish: "Partiya Demokratîk a Gelan"), or Democratic Party of the Peoples, is a pro-minority political party in Turkey. Generally left-wing, the party places a strong emphasis on participatory and radical democracy, feminism, LGBT rights, minority rights, youth rights and egalitarianism. It is an associate member of the Party of European Socialists (PES) a consultative member of the Socialist International and a party within the Progressive Alliance (PA).


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: Aspiring to fundamentally challenge the existing Turkish–Kurdish divide and other existing parameters in Turkish politics, the HDP was founded in 2012 as the political wing of the Peoples' Democratic Congress, a union of numerous left-wing movements that had previously fielded candidates as independents to bypass the 10% election threshold. The HDP is in an alliance with the Kurdish Democratic Regions Party (DBP), often described as the HDP's fraternal party. From 2013 to 2015, the politicians of the DBP participated in peace negotiations between the Turkish government and the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK).


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: The party operates a co-presidential system of leadership, with one chairman and one chairwoman. In the 2014 presidential election, the party put forward its chairman, Selahattin Demirtaş, who won 9.77% of the vote. Despite concerns that it could fall short of the 10% election threshold, the party put forward party-lists instead of running independent candidates in the subsequent June 2015 general election. Exceeding expectations, it polled at 13.12%, becoming the third largest parliamentary group. The party briefly participated in the interim election government formed by AKP Prime Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu on 28 August 2015, with HDP MPs Ali Haydar Konca and Müslüm Doğan becoming the Minister of European Union Affairs and the Minister of Development respectively. The party governs the municipalities in which they have won the elections in a Co-Mayorship constituted by a woman and a man


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: Witnessing the 2016 Turkish coup attempt and pointing out previous repression of democratic forces by martial powers, the HDP strongly opposed the coup. The HDP was first ignored and left out of the post-coup national truce while the Turkish purges targeted alleged members of the Gülen movement. From September 2016, the Turkish judiciary started to submit HDP elected officials to anti-terrorism accusations. Several HDP parliamentarians have been imprisoned in November 2016 including the party co-chairs Selahattin Demirtaş, and Figen Yüksekdağ, widely disturbing the HDP's ability to communicate and be active on the political scene. In December 2020 HDP co-deputy head for local governments, Salim Kaplan said that "since 2016, 20,000 of our members have been taken into custody and more than 10,000 of our members and executives have been sent to jail." and 48 municipalities have been seized by the government. The ruling AKP accuses the HDP of having direct links with the PKK and was in March 2021, defending itself against prohibition, until the case was dropped.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: The HDP first participated in the 2014 local elections, where it ran in most provinces in western Turkey while the DBP ran in the Kurdish south-east. The two parties combined gained 6.2% of the total votes but HDP failed to win any municipalities. The 21 MPs from the Peace and Democracy Party, the predecessor of the DBP, joined the HDP on 28 August 2014. For the June 2015 general election, the HDP took the decision to field candidates as a party despite the danger of potentially falling below the 10% threshold. Even though most of the politicians from HDP are secular left-wing Kurds, the candidate list included devout Muslims, socialists, Alevis, Armenians, Syriac Christians, Azerbaijanis, Circassians, Lazi, Romanis and LGBT activists. Of the 550 candidates, 268 were women. In 2015, Barış Sulu was the first openly gay parliamentary candidate in Turkey as a candidate of the HDP. Support for the HDP among Alevis rose from 7% to 16% between June 2015 and June 2018.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: The People's Democratic Party originates from the Peoples' Democratic Congress ("Halkların Demokratik Kongresi", HDK), a platform composed of various groups including left wing parties Revolutionary Socialist Workers' Party (DSIP), Labour Party (EMEP), Socialist Party of the Oppressed (ESP), Socialist Democracy Party (SDP), Socialist Party of Refoundation, the Greens and the Left Party of the Future, the Peace and Democracy Party (BDP), some far-left factions, feminist groups, LGBT groups, trade unions and ethnic initiatives representing Alevis, Armenians, and Pomaks. In the 2011 general election, the HDK fielded 61 independent candidates in order to bypass the 10% parliamentary threshold under the 'Labour, Democracy and Freedom Block'. 36 members were elected, though the election of Hatip Dicle was later annulled by the Supreme Electoral Council and this number subsequently fell to 35.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: Fatma Gök, one of the HDP's founding chairpersons, described the HDK as a means of providing political hope to citizens and also as a way of intervening in the Turkish political system. The HDK operated by organising conferences and congresses, establishing the HDP as a means of fulfilling their political goals and establishing a means of having political influence.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: The formal application of the HDK for political party status was delivered to the Ministry of the Interior on 15 October 2012. One of the party's chairpersons, Yavuz Önen, claimed that the party would be the political wing of the HDK and not a replacement for it.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: The HDP was described by its founding chairpersons as a party that aims to eliminate the exploitation of labour and to fundamentally re-establish a democracy in which honourable and humanitarian individuals can live together as equal citizens. It was further described as a party aiming to bring about fundamental change to the existing Capitalist system though uniting a wide range of left-wing opposition movements. Gök claimed that any political movement with similar aims to the HDK that had not merged with the party was more than welcome to do so. However, Önen claimed that the HDP would be entering elections as an individual party and not as part of a wider electoral alliance, adding that the party is itself formed of a wide coalition of political forces in the first place.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: Concerns were raised that the inclusion of the Kurdish nationalist HDK member Peace and Democracy Party (BDP) in the HDP would raise allegations that the HDP was also a mainly Kurdish orientated party. However, Önen claimed that the HDP's key goal was to establish a different perspective of viewing the Turkish political scene and moving away from the existing 'Kurdish versus Turkish' dichotomy that had become institutionally entrenched within Turkish political perceptions. Three outstanding parliamentarians of the BDP, Sebahat Tuncel, Sırrı Süreyya Önder, and Ertuğrul Kürkçü abdicated in October 2013 to join the HDP. Levent Tüzel, former Labour Party chairman and independent member of parliament also joined the three to form a caucus. In April 2014, 24 more parliamentarians from the BDP joined the HDP, which following formed a parliamentary group.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: The Labour Party (EMEP) had been a member of the Peoples' Democratic Congress and had participated in the establishment of the HDP in 2012. However, the EMEP released a statement on 17 June 2014, announcing a split with the HDP. The split was attributed to the restructuring of the Kurdish nationalist Peace and Democracy Party into a local-only party under the new name Democratic Regions Party (DBP), while the BDP's parliamentary caucus would be integrated into the HDP. This would, in turn, require the HDP's constitution to be altered in order to ensure greater compliance and conformity with the ideology of the BDP. This caused the EMEP to formally announce their secession from the HDP, but stated that they would continue their participation with the HDK. Despite the split, the Labour Party endorsed the HDP presidential candidate Selahattin Demirtaş for the 2014 presidential election and also announced that they would not be running in the June 2015 general election.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: The HDP is seen as the Turkish variant of the Greek SYRIZA and the Spanish Podemos parties, similar in their anti-capitalist stance. The founding co-chairs of the HDP, Yavuz Önen and Fatma Gök, both emphasized the HDP's fundamental principle of rejecting capitalism and "labour exploitation" for the benefit of all Turkish citizens regardless of race, gender or religion. The party in this sense is therefore secular, though has refrained from endorsing the secularism enshrined in the principles of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. The HDP has also called for a new constitution that enshrines minority rights for Kurds, Alevis and other minorities.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: Kurdish peoples living in Turkey have long been a persecuted minority, or forcibly assimilated. This has led them to support leftist and parties which defended Kurdish cultural rights. This began with the People's Labor Party (HEP) and continued with the Freedom and Equality Party (ÖZEP) in June 1992, the Freedom and Democracy Party (ÖZDEP) in October 1992, the Democracy Party (DEP) in 1993, the People's Democracy Party (HADEP) in 1994, the Democratic People's Party (DEHAP) in 1997, the Democratic Society Party (DTP) in 2005, the Peace and Democracy Party (BDP) in 2008 and finally the Democratic Regions Party (DBP) in 2014. Most of these parties were closed down for allegedly violating the constitution. While the HDP is also affiliated with the Peace and Democracy Party and the Democratic Regions Party, it aims to establish a new perspective that overcomes the traditional Turkish versus Kurdish divide. The HDP instead aims to collectively represent people of all ethnic or religious backgrounds and to safeguard their civil liberties by bringing about direct democracy and an end to capitalist exploitation. The party has long advocated the establishment of local 'people's parliaments' to increase democratic representation and decentralisation of power. Much of the party's attempts to unite citizens throughout Turkey is through the opposition to the governing conservative Justice and Development Party (AKP), which the HDP has accused of being authoritarian, exploitative and discriminatory against religious minorities. The HDP's foreign policy also involves opening the border to Armenia which has been closed since 1993 due to Turkey support of Azerbaijan during the first Nagorno-Karabakh War. The HDP is the only major political party in Turkey that does not support Armenian genocide denial and urges Turkey to set up a truth commission and take responsibility regarding their role in World War I. The parties women branch criticized that the decision to withdraw from the Istanbul Convention which protects the rights of women, was taken by a single man.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: During a conference in Selahattin Demirtaş's presidential election campaign, the HDP had caused controversy by not displaying any Turkish flags. In response, Demirtaş had maintained that the HDP respected the flag, stating that the flag represented all citizens of Turkey. The party addresses a wide spectrum of voters, having had candidates of different gender and social, national and religious background. A high proportion of women, as well as Alevi, Armenian, Yazidi, and Assyrian candidates mixed with Turkish left-wing politician candidates played a major role towards the success in the parliamentary elections of June 2015.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: On December 17, 2016, at around 21:30 (UTC+3) four masked people attacked the Peoples' Democratic Party (HDP) office in the Beylikdüzü district of Istanbul, which is located at a shopping mall. The attackers managed to overcome the security personnel and started a fire which caused the explosions of the two gas tubes inside the building. One police officer and a security guard sustained minor injuries. That same night, shots were fired by unidentified assailants at the HDP headquarters in Darıca, Kocaeli Province. Attacks on other HDP offices across the country were also reported, including İzmir, Çanakkale, Hatay, Ankara, and Erzincan.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: The HDP maintained talks with Abdullah Öcalan through which Öcalan gave a message to the congress stating that "We have never considered our movement apart from Turkey's revolutionary and socialist movements. We have always regarded ourselves as an integral part of this outcome" and "we have to consider the HDP as an integral part of the historical democratic dialogue and negotiation process. If socialism and an open democracy succeed in Turkey, it will be closely related to this democratic negotiation process." Öcalan's niece Dilek Öcalan was and nephew Ömer Öcalan is a member of parliament. The relationship between the HDP and the PKK has been put forward by the governing Justice and Development Party (AKP) as a reason why it would be better for the HDP to not gain representation in Parliament, though government journalists alleged that this would result in greater violence by the PKK and attempts to establish a separate parliament in Diyarbakır. In contrast, HDP politicians also accused the AKP of scaremongering when they claimed that their affiliation to the PKK made them unfit for parliamentary representation. PKK militants have also been accused of raiding local shops and cafes in the south-east of Turkey and demanding votes for the HDP, with one civilian being wounded when a group of PKK youth militants raided a cafe in Silvan. Selahattin Demirtaş has denied having an 'organic relationship' with the PKK and claimed that the allegations of PKK militants demanding votes for the HDP from voters was untrue.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: According to the pro-government daily "Daily Sabah", the HDP members have long been accused of voicing their support for the Kurdistan Workers' Party and glorifying terrorism committed by the organization. Selahattin Demirtas, whose older brother is a member of the Kurdistan Workers' Party, has been accused by pro-Turkish government newspaper Daily Sabah of supporting the PKK's leader Abdullah Öcalan in a 2016 speech in Nowruz. Members of the party have been also accused of providing financial support to the PKK and attending the funeral of killed rebels. On 15 June 2016, the HDP was criticized after its members attended the funeral of Eylem Yaşa, a suicide bomber who had killed police officers and civilians, and injured 51 others in Istanbul. In July 2018, a prosecutor initiated an investigation into the attendance of Feleknas Uca and Mehmet Rüştü Tiryaki to a funeral ceremony of a member of the People's Defence Forces (HPG), the armed wing of the PKK in their electoral district Batman. In November 2016 the party Co-Chairs MPs Selahattin Demirtaş and Figen Yüksekdağ as well as the HDP MPs Nursel Aydogan, Idris Baluken, Leyla Birlik, Ferhat Encü, Selma Irmak, Abdullah Zeydan, Nihat Akdoğan and Gülser Yildirim have been arrested.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: From September 2016 and forward the Turkish judiciary started submitting HDP supporters, staff and elected officials to anti-terrorism accusations. On the 20 May 2016 the Turkish Parliament voted in favor to enabling the lifting of MPs immunity, following which 54 of the 59 HDP MPs were prosecuted on terrorism-related charges. As of June 2017, more than 10 HDP representatives were under arrest, widely disturbing the HDP's ability to communicate and remain active in the political scene. On June 5, the Turkish interior ministry announced that 130 people who are outside the country while being suspected of militant links will lose their citizenship unless they return to Turkey within three months and meet government standards. Three of the suspects are HDP leaders: Faysal Sarıyıldız, Tuğba Hezer Öztürk, and . In March 2018 it was reported that 11'000 HDP members have been detained, of which more than 3000 have been arrested. Also in the days the local elections of March 2019 dozens of candidates for municipal councils were arrested over terror charges. The Council of Europe reported, that after the elections were held, six elected mayors as well as dozens of elected members of the municipal council were not allowed to assume their posts for having been dismissed during the state of emergency following the attempted coup d'état in 2016. The HDP appealed to the court that they should be allowed to assume, but the constitutional court denied the request. The HDP reported that after the municipal elections in 2014, more than 90 elected mayors of the HDP ally Democratic Regions Party (DBP) have been dismissed and dozens of them have been arrested as well. In 2016, the Interior Ministry filed a criminal complaint about four HDP members, including former deputy Mülkiye Birtane, for making terror propaganda.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: On 1 March 2018, the HDP's deputy Dilek Öcalan, the niece of Abdullah Öcalan, the founding leader of the PKK, was sentenced to two years and six months in prison for making terror propaganda. Two months later, the membership of two deputies, Osman Baydemir and Selma Irmak, were revoked after they were convicted and sentenced on criminal charges related to the PKK. In the same month, the former deputy Aysel Tuğluk was sentenced to ten years in prison for being a member of a terror organization (PKK).


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: In August 2018, a former deputy Leyla Birlik fled to Greece where she reportedly sought asylum. According to the Turkish sources, she had been arrested in November 2016 for making terror propaganda and released pending trial, but she had left the country despite her travelling ban.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: On 11 August 2018, one of the deputies of the party, Mahmud Togrul, was sentenced to two-and-a-half years in prison for making terror propaganda. Two months later, the former lawmaker Sırrı Süreyya Önder was sentenced to 3 years and 6 months in jail for spreading terror propaganda.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: In September 2020, the Turkish Government ordered the detention of the current Mayor of Kars Ayhan Bilgen, together with other prominent HDP figures like the former MPs Ayla Akat Ata or Sırri Süreyya Önder due to their support of the Kobani protests in 2014 which were held in support of the Kurdish population besieged in Kobani by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). By October 2020, Duvar reported that only six out of the sixty-five elected mayors of the HDP were still acting as mayors. The other mayors were replaced by state imposed trustees of the Turkish Ministry of the Interior. In June 2020, Leyla Güven and Musa Farisogullari were stripped of their parliamentarian immunity and arrested. Two of their MPs had to defend themselves from having attended a Democracy March in protest of the dismissal of Farisoğullari and Güven in the midst of the spark of the COVID-19 pandemic. Since February 2021, several parliamentarians are faced with investigations into the lifting of their parliamentarian immunity due to the parties involvement in the protests during the Siege of Kobani in October 2014. Ömer Faruk Gergerlioğlu was stripped of his parliamentary membership on 17 March 2021 due a conviction for spreading "terror propaganda" in a tweet of 2016 supporting eventual peace negotiations with the PKK. On the same day the state prosecutor of the Supreme Court of Appeals Bekir Şahin filed a lawsuit demanding the closure of the HDP at the Constitutional Court of Turkey due to the parties alleged organizational links with the PKK. He also called for a five-year ban from politics for 687 HDP politicians. Amongst the politicians who are to be banned from politics figure all former party leaders including Selahattin Demirtaş and Figen Yüksekdağ and dozens of former and current members of parliament.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: The Turkish Justice and Development Party (AKP) government began a peace process with the PKK in 2013, consisting of a withdrawal of militants from Turkish soil and negotiations towards the normalisation following nearly 30 years of armed conflict between Kurdish rebels and the Turkish Armed Forces. As a strong advocate of minority rights, the HDP was involved in negotiations with both the government and also the imprisoned PKK leader Abdullah Öcalan on İmralı Island.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: Despite being a left-wing party, the HDP has been accused of negotiating with the conservative orientated right-wing Justice and Development Party (AKP) behind closed doors on issues mainly surrounding the Solution process to the Kurdish separatist militants. Critics of the government and the HDP alleged that such talks could lead to a potential coalition between the AKP and HDP in the event that the HDP enters parliament and the AKP does not win a majority. Such a coalition could potentially deliver Kurdish nationalist demands to the south-east of Turkey while the HDP support the AKP's long-time policy of introducing a presidential system in place of the existing parliamentary system. In March, AKP Deputy Prime Minister Bülent Arınç claimed that the HDP would be their partners in the solution process and expressed his wish to work in harmony, though also accused some HDP MPs of not working towards lasting peace with sincerity. In contrast, government minister Bekir Bozdağ accused the HDP of being part of an 'international project' intending to destabilise the government of Turkey. Relations seemed to sour in early April, where the HDP accused the AKP of staging a pre-planned attack against PKK members in the province of Ağrı aimed at gathering more votes in the upcoming general election. In response, Deputy Prime Minister Yalçın Akdoğan accused Selahattin Demirtaş of acting like a PKK spokesman. In February 2015, HDP chairwoman Figen Yüksekdağ claimed that a joint statement regarding the solution process could be made with the AKP. Delegations from the AKP and the HDP formally met in the Prime Minister's office in Dolmabahçe Palace in April 2015. After a raid on the HDP office in Esenyurt, Istanbul in January 2021, Interior Minister Süleyman Soylu shared a video flashing images of Abdullah Öcalan, criticizing the European Court of Human Rights for their verdicts. The HDP responded that the same images are already used by the HDP themselves since over six months in their press releases. The Presidential spokesperson Fahrettin Altun equated the HDP with the PKK.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: The peace process was nearly disbanded after pro-Kurdish protests and riots broke out in south-eastern Turkey protesting the lack of government intervention against the advance of ISIL militants on the city of Kobanî in Syria, just south of the Turkish border. The HDP openly supported the protests, while calling for non-violence. Protestors were met with tear gas and water cannon, leading to more than 40 deaths. Prime Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu heavily criticised the HDP for calling for more protests and responded by drafting a heavily controversial domestic security bill and calling for the HDP to prove itself to be a peaceful political party. Nevertheless, the solution process continued despite the riots, with ISIL being completely ejected from Kobanî by April 2015. HDP MP Altan Tan later claimed that his party had miscalculated the consequences of calling for more protests, although his statements were met with opposition from the confederalist KCK organisation.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: The HDP operates a co-presidential system, whereby the party is chaired by one chairman and one chairwoman, elected during party congresses. Since its establishment in 2012, the party has had a total of ten leaders, five men and five women. The current leaders were elected at the 4th Congress of the Peoples' Democratic Party on the 23 February 2020.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: The following is a list of the current and previous chairpersons of the HDP, showing the names, birth and death dates where applicable and also the start and end dates of their leadership.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: In the Extraordinary HDP congress held on 22 June 2014, the outgoing chairperson Ertuğrul Kürkçü was by an amendment in the HDP Bylaw awarded the status of the Honorary President. Kürkçü is the first co-president to serve in that capacity.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: The party has held several ordinary congresses throughout different cities, mostly focussing on provinces in south-eastern Turkey. So far, the party has had two nationwide extraordinary congresses, held in 2013 and 2014, where elections were held to select the chairpersons of the party.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: The party's 1st extraordinary congress was held in the Ahmet Taner Kışlalı Stadium in Ankara on 27 October 2013. The HDP Executive Board and the Congressional Preparation Council both recommended Ertuğrul Kürkçü and Sebahat Tuncel for the positions of chairman and chairwoman respectively, after which both formally assumed their positions. The congress focussed mainly in voicing support for the Gezi Park protests. A message from the imprisoned PKK leader Abdullah Öcalan, emphasizing the party's support for a decentralization of power and for the establishment of localized 'people's parliaments', was also read out. 105 sitting and 25 reserve members were elected to the Party Council.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: The party's 2nd extraordinary congress was again held in the Ahmet Taner Kışlalı Stadium on 22 June 2014. 156 delegates were eligible to cast votes to elect the new chairman and chairwoman. Since a majority could not be secured in the first two rounds of voting, the leadership election proceeded into a third round where Selahattin Demirtaş was elected as the chairman and Figen Yüksekdağ was elected as the chairwoman of the party. Speeches by the elected leaders mainly centred on the corruption within the Turkish government and also opposition to the established political system. 100 sitting and 50 reserve members for the Party Council were elected. Outgoing chairpersons Ertuğrul Kürkçü and Sebahat Tuncel were declared Honorary Presidents of the party.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: In the HDPs 3rd Extraordinary Congress on 20 May 2017, Serpil Kemalbay was elected as the new chairwoman while Selahattin Demirtaş was confirmed as its chairman. The party's previous female party leader, Figen Yüksekdağ, had been imprisoned in November 2016, and the Turkish Parliament revoked her parliamentary membership on the 21 February 2017 and on the 9 March 2017 the Supreme Court of Appeal ruled she was no longer a member of the HDP.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: Formed in 2012, the HDP has since contested two local, two presidential and three general election. A summary of the results and number of candidates elected is shown below.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: At the 2014 municipal elections, HDP ran parallel to BDP, with the BDP running in Turkey's Kurdish-dominated southeast while the HDP competed in the rest of the country except Mersin Province and Konya Province where BDP launched its own candidates.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: After the local elections, the two parties were re-organised in a joint structure. On 28 April 2014, the entire parliamentary caucus of BDP joined HDP, whereas BDP (itself re-organised as the Democratic Regions Party by July) was assigned exclusively to representatives on the local administration level.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: Selahattin Demirtaş was announced as the HDP's candidate for the Presidency on 30 June. In a campaign dominated by the Solution process with Kurdish rebels, he claimed on 5 August in Van that the government of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan had not done enough to bring forward promised legislation, and that the process would collapse immediately if the AKP did not do more to bring lasting peace in the southeast.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: On 15 July, Demirtaş outlined his road-map for his presidency should he win the election. In a speech lasting just under an hour, he proposed that the Presidency of Religious Affairs (Diyanet) should be disbanded, that compulsory religion lessons in schools should be removed and that Cemevis (the Alevi houses of worship) should receive national recognition. He also proposed the introduction of "People's Parliaments" "(Cumhur meclisleri)", which would also incorporate Youth Parliaments to increase representation of young citizens. Pushing for a new constitution, Demirtaş outlined the need to end the non-representation of different cultures, languages, races and beliefs without delay to ensure national stability. Also in his speech, he praised the Gezi Park protests and displayed photos of himself during the events. He continued to direct applause to the mother of the murdered teenager Berkin Elvan, who died 269 days after being hit by a tear gas canister during the protests and falling into a coma. On the issue of the lack of Turkish flags within the hall in which he was delivering his speech, Demirtaş stated that the Turkish flag represented all citizens of Turkey. His slogan is ""Bir Cumhurbaşkanı Düşün" (Imagine a President...)", which is followed by several different phrases, such as ""Bir Cumhurbaşkanı Düşünün Ayrımcılık yapmıyor. Birleştiriyor, barıştırıyor." (Imagine a President who doesn't Discriminate, who Unites and makes Peace)" or ""Bir Cumhurbaşkanı Düşünün Herkese Demokrat" (Imagine a President who is Democratic to Everybody)." Most of the votes that were cast for Demirtaş were from the Kurdish south-east.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: Emboldened by the 9.77% of the vote won by HDP co-leader Selahattin Demirtaş in the 2014 presidential election the HDP contested the election by fielding party candidates rather than independent candidates. This was controversial since the HDP's votes would be lost in the event that the HDP failed to win above 10% of the vote. There was speculation as to whether the AKP forced Öcalan to pressure the HDP to contest the election as a party in order to boost their own number of MPs. The party charged a ₺2,000 application fee for prospective male candidates, a ₺1,000 fee for female and young candidates under the age of 27 and no fee was collected from disabled applicants. Applications for candidacy were received between 16 February and 2 March.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: According to a private poll conducted by the HDP in January 2015, the party needed to gather around 600,000 more supporters by the general election in order to surpass the election threshold of 10% and win 72 MPs. Polling organisations such as Metropoll, however, predicted that the party would win around 55 MPs if they won more than 10%. HDP candidates hoped that the victory of the left-wing SYRIZA in the January 2015 Greek legislative election in January would result in a boost in popularity.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: In order to maximise their votes, the party's co-leader Figen Yüksekdağ announced that the HDP would begin negotiations with the United June Movement, a socialist intellectual and political platform that includes left-wing parties such as the Freedom and Solidarity Party (ÖDP) and the Labour Party (EMEP). Negotiations between parties began taking place in early 2015, with the intention of forming a broad alliance rather than a strict political coalition. Although Yüksekdağ ruled out negotiating with the CHP since they were 'closed to dialogue' and Demirtaş was opposed to negotiations, CHP deputy leader Sezgin Tanrıkulu said that the CHP was open for talks and that the two parties had until 7 April to come to an agreement.


title: Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)

text: HDP rallied more than expected and gained 13.12% of the total votes cast (6,280,302 out of 46,774,793), breaking the 10% threshold, the minimum set for any Turkish political party to have its representatives sit in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey (TBMM), and securing 81 seats. The HDP carried victories in 14 out of 85 electoral districts in Turkey: Ardahan, Kars, Iğdır, Ağrı Province, Muş, Bitlis, Van, Turkey, Hakkâri, Şırnak, Siirt, Batman, Mardin, Diyarbakır and Tunceli. These electoral districts are mostly Kurdish-majority provinces. In this election, however, the HDP departed from its traditional Kurdish issues-focused role and embraced other minority ethnic and religious groups in Turkey, women's issues, LGBT and left-wing activists and political groups under its wing, promoting its appeal to a national level and drawing a wider pool of support from all over Turkey. This resulted the HDP to be not only the 4th largest political party in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey but also a formidable force in gaining the Turkish overseas votes, ranking 2nd after the AKP with 20.41% and carrying Japan, Ukraine, Greece, Poland, Italy, Switzerland, Sweden, Finland, Canada and the U.K. The HDP also derailed the AKP from being the majority party, forming a single-party government and reaching 330 seats in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the necessary number to enact a referendum necessary to change the constitution so that Turkey would abandon its traditional parliamentary government and instead adopt an American-style executive presidency government. This is hailed by Turkey's opposition parties and their supporters as the biggest contribution the HDP made to the Republic of Turkey.


title: Domain-specific language

text: A domain-specific language (DSL) is a computer language specialized to a particular application domain. This is in contrast to a general-purpose language (GPL), which is broadly applicable across domains. There are a wide variety of DSLs, ranging from widely used languages for common domains, such as HTML for web pages, down to languages used by only one or a few pieces of software, such as MUSH soft code. DSLs can be further subdivided by the kind of language, and include domain-specific "markup" languages, domain-specific "modeling" languages (more generally, specification languages), and domain-specific "programming" languages. Special-purpose computer languages have always existed in the computer age, but the term "domain-specific language" has become more popular due to the rise of domain-specific modeling. Simpler DSLs, particularly ones used by a single application, are sometimes informally called mini-languages.


title: Domain-specific language

text: The line between general-purpose languages and domain-specific languages is not always sharp, as a language may have specialized features for a particular domain but be applicable more broadly, or conversely may in principle be capable of broad application but in practice used primarily for a specific domain. For example, Perl was originally developed as a text-processing and glue language, for the same domain as AWK and shell scripts, but was mostly used as a general-purpose programming language later on. By contrast, PostScript is a Turing-complete language, and in principle can be used for any task, but in practice is narrowly used as a page description language.


title: Domain-specific language

text: The design and use of appropriate DSLs is a key part of domain engineering, by using a language suitable to the domain at hand – this may consist of using an existing DSL or GPL, or developing a new DSL. Language-oriented programming considers the creation of special-purpose languages for expressing problems as standard part of the problem-solving process. Creating a domain-specific language (with software to support it), rather than reusing an existing language, can be worthwhile if the language allows a particular type of problem or solution to be expressed more clearly than an existing language would allow and the type of problem in question reappears sufficiently often. Pragmatically, a DSL may be specialized to a particular problem domain, a particular problem representation technique, a particular solution technique, or other aspects of a domain.


title: Domain-specific language

text: A domain-specific language is created specifically to solve problems in a particular domain and is not intended to be able to solve problems outside of it (although that may be technically possible). In contrast, general-purpose languages are created to solve problems in many domains. The domain can also be a business area. Some examples of business areas include:


title: Domain-specific language

text: A domain-specific language is somewhere between a tiny programming language and a scripting language, and is often used in a way analogous to a programming library. The boundaries between these concepts are quite blurry, much like the boundary between scripting languages and general-purpose languages.


title: Domain-specific language

text: Domain-specific languages are languages (or often, declared syntaxes or grammars) with very specific goals in design and implementation. A domain-specific language can be one of a visual diagramming language, such as those created by the Generic Eclipse Modeling System, programmatic abstractions, such as the Eclipse Modeling Framework, or textual languages. For instance, the command line utility grep has a regular expression syntax which matches patterns in lines of text. The sed utility defines a syntax for matching and replacing regular expressions. Often, these tiny languages can be used together inside a shell to perform more complex programming tasks.


title: Domain-specific language

text: The line between domain-specific languages and scripting languages is somewhat blurred, but domain-specific languages often lack low-level functions for filesystem access, interprocess control, and other functions that characterize full-featured programming languages, scripting or otherwise. Many domain-specific languages do not compile to byte-code or executable code, but to various kinds of media objects: GraphViz exports to PostScript, GIF, JPEG, etc., where Csound compiles to audio files, and a ray-tracing domain-specific language like POV compiles to graphics files. A computer language like SQL presents an interesting case: it can be deemed a domain-specific language because it is specific to a specific domain (in SQL's case, accessing and managing relational databases), and is often called from another application, but SQL has more keywords and functions than many scripting languages, and is often thought of as a language in its own right, perhaps because of the prevalence of database manipulation in programming and the amount of mastery required to be an expert in the language.


title: Domain-specific language

text: Further blurring this line, many domain-specific languages have exposed APIs, and can be accessed from other programming languages without breaking the flow of execution or calling a separate process, and can thus operate as programming libraries.


title: Domain-specific language

text: Some domain-specific languages expand over time to include full-featured programming tools, which further complicates the question of whether a language is domain-specific or not. A good example is the functional language XSLT, specifically designed for transforming one XML graph into another, which has been extended since its inception to allow (particularly in its 2.0 version) for various forms of filesystem interaction, string and date manipulation, and data typing.


title: Domain-specific language

text: In model-driven engineering, many examples of domain-specific languages may be found like OCL, a language for decorating models with assertions or QVT, a domain-specific transformation language. However, languages like UML are typically general-purpose modeling languages.


title: Domain-specific language

text: To summarize, an analogy might be useful: a Very Little Language is like a knife, which can be used in thousands of different ways, from cutting food to cutting down trees. A domain-specific language is like an electric drill: it is a powerful tool with a wide variety of uses, but a specific context, namely, putting holes in things. A General Purpose Language is a complete workbench, with a variety of tools intended for performing a variety of tasks. Domain-specific languages should be used by programmers who, looking at their current workbench, realize they need a better drill and find that a particular domain-specific language provides exactly that.


title: Domain-specific language

text: DSLs implemented via an independent interpreter or compiler are known as "External Domain Specific Languages". Well known examples include LaTeX or AWK. A separate category known as "Embedded (or Internal) Domain Specific Languages" are typically implemented within a host language as a library and tend to be limited to the syntax of the host language, though this depends on host language capabilities.


title: Domain-specific language

text: Many domain-specific languages can be used in more than one way. DSL code embedded in a host language may have special syntax support, such as regexes in sed, AWK, Perl or JavaScript, or may be passed as strings.


title: Domain-specific language

text: Adopting a domain-specific language approach to software engineering involves both risks and opportunities. The well-designed domain-specific language manages to find the proper balance between these.


title: Domain-specific language

text: Domain-specific languages have important design goals that contrast with those of general-purpose languages:


title: Domain-specific language

text: General purpose programming languages rarely support such idioms, but domain-specific languages can describe them, e.g.:


title: Domain-specific language

text: Examples of domain-specific languages include HTML, Logo for pencil-like drawing, Verilog and VHDL hardware description languages, MATLAB and GNU Octave for matrix programming, Mathematica, Maple and Maxima for symbolic mathematics, Specification and Description Language for reactive and distributed systems, spreadsheet formulas and macros, SQL for relational database queries, YACC grammars for creating parsers, regular expressions for specifying lexers, the Generic Eclipse Modeling System for creating diagramming languages, Csound for sound and music synthesis, and the input languages of GraphViz and GrGen, software packages used for graph layout and graph rewriting, Hashicorp Configuration Language used for Terraform and other Hashicorp tools, Puppet also has its own configuration language.


title: Domain-specific language

text: The GML scripting language used by GameMaker Studio is a domain-specific language targeted at novice programmers to easily be able to learn programming. While the language serves as a blend of multiple languages including Delphi, C++, and BASIC, there is a lack of structures, data types, and other features of a full-fledged programming language. Many of the built-in functions are sandboxed for the purpose of easy portability. The language primarily serves to make it easy for anyone to pick up the language and develop a game.


title: Domain-specific language

text: ColdFusion's associated scripting language is another example of a domain-specific language for data-driven websites.


title: Domain-specific language

text: This scripting language is used to weave together languages and services such as Java, .NET, C++, SMS, email, email servers, http, ftp, exchange, directory services, and file systems for use in websites.


title: Domain-specific language

text: The ColdFusion Markup Language (CFML) includes a set of tags that can be used in ColdFusion pages to interact with data


title: Domain-specific language

text: The Erlang Open Telecom Platform was originally designed for use inside Ericsson as a domain-specific language. The language itself offers a platform of libraries to create finite state machines, generic servers and event managers that quickly allow an engineer to deploy applications, or support libraries, that have been shown in industry benchmarks to outperform other languages intended for a mixed set of domains, such as C and C++. The language is now officially open source and can be downloaded from their website.


title: Domain-specific language

text: FilterMeister is a programming environment, with a programming language that is based on C, for the specific purpose of creating Photoshop-compatible image processing filter plug-ins; FilterMeister runs as a Photoshop plug-in itself and it can load and execute scripts or compile and export them as independent plug-ins.


title: Domain-specific language

text: Although the FilterMeister language reproduces a significant portion of the C language and function library, it contains only those features which can be used within the context of Photoshop plug-ins and adds a number of specific features only useful in this specific domain.


title: Domain-specific language

text: The "Template" feature of MediaWiki is an embedded domain-specific language whose fundamental purpose is to support the creation of page templates and the transclusion (inclusion by reference) of MediaWiki pages into other MediaWiki pages.


title: Domain-specific language

text: There has been much interest in domain-specific languages to improve the productivity and quality of software engineering. Domain-specific language could possibly provide a robust set of tools for efficient software engineering. Such tools are beginning to make their way into the development of critical software systems.