title: Cardiology

text: The cardiac examination (also called the "precordial exam"), is performed as part of a physical examination, or when a patient presents with chest pain suggestive of a cardiovascular pathology. It would typically be modified depending on the indication and integrated with other examinations especially the respiratory examination.


title: Cardiology

text: Like all medical examinations, the cardiac examination follows the standard structure of inspection, palpation and auscultation.


title: Cardiology

text: Cardiology is concerned with the normal functionality of the heart and the deviation from a healthy heart.


title: Cardiology

text: Many disorders involve the heart itself but some are outside of the heart and in the vascular system.


title: Cardiology

text: Collectively, the two together are termed the cardiovascular system and diseases of one part tend to affect the other.


title: Cardiology

text: Coronary artery disease, also known as "ischemic heart disease", is a group of diseases that includes: stable angina, unstable angina, myocardial infarction, and is one of the causes of sudden cardiac death. It is within the group of cardiovascular diseases of which it is the most common type. A common symptom is chest pain or discomfort which may travel into the shoulder, arm, back, neck, or jaw. Occasionally it may feel like heartburn. Usually symptoms occur with exercise or emotional stress, last less than a few minutes, and get better with rest. Shortness of breath may also occur and sometimes no symptoms are present. The first sign is occasionally a heart attack. Other complications include heart failure or an irregular heartbeat.


title: Cardiology

text: Risk factors include: high blood pressure, smoking, diabetes, lack of exercise, obesity, high blood cholesterol, poor diet, and excessive alcohol, among others. Other risks include depression. The underlying mechanism involves atherosclerosis of the arteries of the heart. A number of tests may help with diagnoses including: electrocardiogram, cardiac stress testing, coronary computed tomographic angiography, and coronary angiogram, among others.


title: Cardiology

text: Prevention is by eating a healthy diet, regular exercise, maintaining a healthy weight and not smoking. Sometimes medication for diabetes, high cholesterol, or high blood pressure are also used. There is limited evidence for screening people who are at low risk and do not have symptoms. Treatment involves the same measures as prevention. Additional medications such as antiplatelets including aspirin, beta blockers, or nitroglycerin may be recommended. Procedures such as percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or coronary artery bypass surgery (CABG) may be used in severe disease. In those with stable CAD it is unclear if PCI or CABG in addition to the other treatments improve life expectancy or decreases heart attack risk.


title: Cardiology

text: In 2013 CAD was the most common cause of death globally, resulting in 8.14 million deaths (16.8%) up from 5.74 million deaths (12%) in 1990. The risk of death from CAD for a given age has decreased between 1980 and 2010 especially in developed countries. The number of cases of CAD for a given age has also decreased between 1990 and 2010. In the U.S. in 2010 about 20% of those over 65 had CAD, while it was present in 7% of those 45 to 64, and 1.3% of those 18 to 45. Rates are higher among men than women of a given age.


title: Cardiology

text: Heart failure or formally cardiomyopathy, is the impaired function of the heart and there are numerous causes and forms of heart failure.


title: Cardiology

text: Cardiac arrhythmia, also known as "cardiac dysrhythmia" or "irregular heartbeat", is a group of conditions in which the heartbeat is too fast, too slow, or irregular in its rhythm. A heart rate that is too fast – above 100 beats per minute in adults – is called tachycardia and a heart rate that is too slow – below 60 beats per minute – is called bradycardia. Many types of arrhythmia have no symptoms. When symptoms are present these may include palpitations or feeling a pause between heartbeats. More seriously there may be lightheadedness, passing out, shortness of breath, or chest pain. While most types of arrhythmia are not serious, some predispose a person to complications such as stroke or heart failure. Others may result in cardiac arrest.


title: Cardiology

text: There are four main types of arrhythmia: extra beats, supraventricular tachycardias, ventricular arrhythmias, and bradyarrhythmias. Extra beats include premature atrial contractions, premature ventricular contractions, and premature junctional contractions. Supraventricular tachycardias include atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, and paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia. Ventricular arrhythmias include ventricular fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia. Arrhythmias are due to problems with the electrical conduction system of the heart. Arrhythmias may occur in children; however, the normal range for the heart rate is different and depends on age. A number of tests can help with diagnosis including an electrocardiogram and Holter monitor.


title: Cardiology

text: Most arrhythmias can be effectively treated. Treatments may include medications, medical procedures such as a pacemaker, and surgery. Medications for a fast heart rate may include beta blockers or agents that attempt to restore a normal heart rhythm such as procainamide. This later group may have more significant side effects especially if taken for a long period of time. Pacemakers are often used for slow heart rates. Those with an irregular heartbeat are often treated with blood thinners to reduce the risk of complications. Those who have severe symptoms from an arrhythmia may receive urgent treatment with a jolt of electricity in the form of cardioversion or defibrillation.


title: Cardiology

text: Arrhythmia affects millions of people. In Europe and North America, as of 2014, atrial fibrillation affects about 2% to 3% of the population. Atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter resulted in 112,000 deaths in 2013, up from 29,000 in 1990. Sudden cardiac death is the cause of about half of deaths due to cardiovascular disease or about 15% of all deaths globally. About 80% of sudden cardiac death is the result of ventricular arrhythmias. Arrhythmias may occur at any age but are more common among older people.


title: Cardiology

text: Cardiac arrest is a sudden stop in effective blood flow due to the failure of the heart to contract effectively. Symptoms include loss of consciousness and abnormal or absent breathing. Some people may have chest pain, shortness of breath, or nausea before this occurs. If not treated within minutes, death usually occurs.


title: Cardiology

text: The most common cause of cardiac arrest is coronary artery disease. Less common causes include major blood loss, lack of oxygen, very low potassium, heart failure, and intense physical exercise. A number of inherited disorders may also increase the risk including long QT syndrome. The initial heart rhythm is most often ventricular fibrillation. The diagnosis is confirmed by finding no pulse. While a cardiac arrest may be caused by heart attack or heart failure these are not the same.


title: Cardiology

text: Prevention includes not smoking, physical activity, and maintaining a healthy weight. Treatment for cardiac arrest is immediate cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and, if a shockable rhythm is present, defibrillation. Among those who survive targeted temperature management may improve outcomes. An implantable cardiac defibrillator may be placed to reduce the chance of death from recurrence.


title: Cardiology

text: In the United States, cardiac arrest outside of hospital occurs in about 13 per 10,000 people per year (326,000 cases). In hospital cardiac arrest occurs in an additional 209,000 Cardiac arrest becomes more common with age. It affects males more often than females. The percentage of people who survive with treatment is about 8%. Many who survive have significant disability. Many U.S. television shows, however, have portrayed unrealistically high survival rates of 67%.


title: Cardiology

text: Hypertension, also known as "high blood pressure", is a long term medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated. High blood pressure usually does not cause symptoms. Long term high blood pressure, however, is a major risk factor for coronary artery disease, stroke, heart failure, peripheral vascular disease, vision loss, and chronic kidney disease.


title: Cardiology

text: Lifestyle factors can increase the risk of hypertension. These include excess salt in the diet, excess body weight, smoking, and alcohol consumption. Hypertension can also be caused by other diseases, or occur as a side-effect of drugs.


title: Cardiology

text: Blood pressure is expressed by two measurements, the systolic and diastolic pressures, which are the maximum and minimum pressures, respectively. Normal blood pressure when at rest is within the range of 100–140 millimeters mercury (mmHg) systolic and 60–90 mmHg diastolic. High blood pressure is present if the resting blood pressure is persistently at or above 140/90 mmHg for most adults. Different numbers apply to children. When diagnosing high blood pressure, ambulatory blood pressure monitoring over a 24-hour period appears to be more accurate than "in-office" blood pressure measurement at a physician's office or other blood pressure screening location.


title: Cardiology

text: Lifestyle changes and medications can lower blood pressure and decrease the risk of health complications. Lifestyle changes include weight loss, decreased salt intake, physical exercise, and a healthy diet. If changes in lifestyle are insufficient, blood pressure medications may be used. A regimen of up to three medications effectively controls blood pressure in 90% of people. The treatment of moderate to severe high arterial blood pressure (defined as >160/100 mmHg) with medication is associated with an improved life expectancy and reduced morbidity. The effect of treatment for blood pressure between 140/90 mmHg and 160/100 mmHg is less clear, with some studies finding benefits while others do not. High blood pressure affects between 16% and 37% of the population globally. In 2010, hypertension was believed to have been a factor in 18% (9.4 million) deaths.


title: Cardiology

text: Essential hypertension is the form of hypertension that by definition has no identifiable cause. It is the most common type of hypertension, affecting 95% of hypertensive patients, it tends to be familial and is likely to be the consequence of an interaction between environmental and genetic factors. Prevalence of essential hypertension increases with age, and individuals with relatively high blood pressure at younger ages are at increased risk for the subsequent development of hypertension.


title: Cardiology

text: Secondary hypertension is a type of hypertension which is caused by an identifiable underlying secondary cause. It is much less common than essential hypertension, affecting only 5% of hypertensive patients. It has many different causes including endocrine diseases, kidney diseases, and tumors. It also can be a side effect of many medications.


title: Cardiology

text: Complications of hypertension are clinical outcomes that result from persistent elevation of blood pressure. Hypertension is a risk factor for all clinical manifestations of atherosclerosis since it is a risk factor for atherosclerosis itself. It is an independent predisposing factor for heart failure, coronary artery disease, stroke, renal disease, and peripheral arterial disease. It is the most important risk factor for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, in industrialized countries.


title: Cardiology

text: A congenital heart defect, also known as a "congenital heart anomaly" or "congenital heart disease", is a problem in the structure of the heart that is present at birth. Signs and symptoms depend on the specific type of problem. Symptoms can vary from none to life-threatening. When present they may include rapid breathing, bluish skin, poor weight gain, and feeling tired. It does not cause chest pain. Most congenital heart problems do not occur with other diseases. Complications that can result from heart defects include heart failure.


title: Cardiology

text: The cause of a congenital heart defect is often unknown. Certain cases may be due to infections during pregnancy such as rubella, use of certain medications or drugs such as alcohol or tobacco, parents being closely related, or poor nutritional status or obesity in the mother. Having a parent with a congenital heart defect is also a risk factor. A number of genetic conditions are associated with heart defects including Down syndrome, Turner syndrome, and Marfan syndrome. Congenital heart defects are divided into two main groups: cyanotic heart defects and non-cyanotic heart defects, depending on whether the child has the potential to turn bluish in color. The problems may involve the interior walls of the heart, the heart valves, or the large blood vessels that lead to and from the heart.


title: Cardiology

text: Congenital heart defects are partly preventable through rubella vaccination, the adding of iodine to salt, and the adding of folic acid to certain food products. Some defects do not need treatment. Other may be effectively treated with catheter based procedures or heart surgery. Occasionally a number of operations may be needed. Occasionally heart transplantation is required. With appropriate treatment outcomes, even with complex problems, are generally good.


title: Cardiology

text: Heart defects are the most common birth defect. In 2013 they were present in 34.3 million people globally. They affect between 4 and 75 per 1,000 live births depending upon how they are diagnosed. About 6 to 19 per 1,000 cause a moderate to severe degree of problems. Congenital heart defects are the leading cause of birth defect-related deaths. In 2013 they resulted in 323,000 deaths down from 366,000 deaths in 1990.


title: Cardiology

text: Tetralogy of Fallot is the most common congenital heart disease arising in 1–3 cases per 1,000 births. The cause of this defect is a ventricular septal defect (VSD) and an overriding aorta. These two defects combined causes deoxygenated blood to bypass the lungs and going right back into the circulatory system. The modified Blalock-Taussig shunt is usually used to fix the circulation. This procedure is done by placing a graft between the subclavian artery and the ipsilateral pulmonary artery to restore the correct blood flow.


title: Cardiology

text: Pulmonary atresia happens in 7–8 per 100,000 births and is characterized by the aorta branching out of the right ventricle. This causes the deoxygenated blood to bypass the lungs and enter the circulatory system. Surgeries can fix this by redirecting the aorta and fixing the right ventricle and pulmonary artery connection.


title: Cardiology

text: There are two types of pulmonary atresia, classified by whether or not the baby also has a ventricular septal defect.


title: Cardiology

text: Double outlet right ventricle (DORV) is when both great arteries, the pulmonary artery and the aorta, are connected to the right ventricle. There is usually a VSD in different particular places depending on the variations of DORV, typically 50% are subaortic and 30%. The surgeries that can be done to fix this defect can vary due to the different physiology and blood flow in the defected heart. One way it can be cured is by a VSD closure and placing conduits to restart the blood flow between the left ventricle and the aorta and between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery. Another way is systemic-to-pulmonary artery shunt in cases associated with pulmonary stenosis. Also, a balloon atrial septostomy can be done to relieve hypoxemia caused by DORV with the Taussig-Bing anomaly while surgical correction is awaited.


title: Cardiology

text: There are two different types of transposition of the great arteries, Dextro-transposition of the great arteries and Levo-transposition of the great arteries, depending on where the chambers and vessels connect. Dextro-transposition happens in about 1 in 4,000 newborns and is when the right ventricle pumps blood into the aorta and deoxygenated blood enters the bloodstream. The temporary procedure is to create an atrial septal defect. A permanent fix is more complicated and involves redirecting the pulmonary return to the right atrium and the systemic return to the left atrium, which is known as the Senning procedure. The Rastelli procedure can also be done by rerouting the left ventricular outflow, dividing the pulmonary trunk, and placing a conduit in between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk. Levo-transposition happens in about 1 in 13,000 newborns and is characterized by the left ventricle pumping blood into the lungs and the right ventricle pumping the blood into the aorta. This may not produce problems at the beginning, but will eventually due to the different pressures each ventricle uses to pump blood. Switching the left ventricle to be the systemic ventricle and the right ventricle to pump blood into the pulmonary artery can repair levo-transposition.


title: Cardiology

text: Persistent truncus arteriosus is when the truncus arteriosus fails to split into the aorta and pulmonary trunk. This occurs in about 1 in 11,000 live births and allows both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood into the body. The repair consists of a VSD closure and the Rastelli procedure.


title: Cardiology

text: Ebstein's anomaly is characterized by a right atrium that is significantly enlarged and a heart that is shaped like a box. This is very rare and happens in less than 1% of congenital heart disease cases. The surgical repair varies depending on the severity of the disease.


title: Cardiology

text: Pediatric cardiology is a sub-specialty of pediatrics. To become a pediatric cardiologist in the U.S., one must complete a three-year residency in pediatrics, followed by a three-year fellowship in pediatric cardiology. Per doximity, pediatric cardiologists make an average of $303,917 in the U.S.


title: Cardiology

text: Diagnostic tests in cardiology are the methods of identifying heart conditions associated with healthy vs. unhealthy, pathologic heart function. The starting point is obtaining a medical history, followed by Auscultation. Then blood tests, electrophysiological procedures, and cardiac imaging can be ordered for further analysis. Electrophysiological procedures include electrocardiogram, cardiac monitoring, cardiac stress testing, and the electrophysiology study.


title: Cardiology

text: Cardiology is known for randomized controlled trials that guide clinical treatment of cardiac diseases. While dozens are published every year, there are landmark trials that shift treatment significantly. Trials often have an acronym of the trial name, and this acronym is used to reference the trial and its results. Some of these landmark trials include:


title: GN-z11

text: GN-z11 is a high-redshift galaxy found in the constellation Ursa Major. It is one of the farthest known galaxies from Earth ever discovered. The 2015 discovery was published in a 2016 paper headed by Pascal Oesch and Gabriel Brammer (Cosmic Dawn Center). Up until the discovery of HD1 in 2022, GN-z11 was the oldest and most distant known galaxy yet identified in the observable universe, having a spectroscopic redshift of , which corresponds to a proper distance of approximately .


title: GN-z11

text: The object's name is derived from its location in the GOODS-North field of galaxies and its high cosmological redshift number . It is observed as it existed 13.4 billion years ago, just 400 million years after the Big Bang; as a result, its distance is sometimes inappropriately reported as 13.4 billion light-years, its light-travel distance measurement.


title: GN-z11

text: The galaxy has such a high redshift that its angular diameter distance is actually less than that of some galaxies with lower redshift. This means that the ratio of its angular size to its size in light-years is greater.


title: GN-z11

text: The galaxy was identified by a team studying data from the Hubble Space Telescope's Cosmic Assembly Near-infrared Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey (CANDELS) and Spitzer Space Telescope's Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey-North (GOODS-North). The research team used Hubble's Wide Field Camera 3 to measure the distance to GN-z11 spectroscopically, measuring the redshift caused by the expansion of the universe. The findings, which were announced in March 2016, revealed the galaxy to be farther away than originally thought, at the distance limit of what the Hubble Telescope can observe. GN-z11 is around 150 million years older than the previous record-holder EGSY8p7, and is observed (shortly after but) "very close to the end of the so-called Dark Ages of the universe", and (during but) "near the very beginning" of the reionization era.


title: GN-z11

text: Compared with the Milky Way galaxy, GN-z11 is of the size, has 1% of the mass, and is forming new stars approximately twenty times as fast. With a stellar age estimated at 40 million years, it appears the galaxy formed its stars relatively rapidly. The fact that a galaxy so massive existed so soon after the first stars started to form is a challenge to some current theoretical models of the formation of galaxies.


title: Wheat beer

text: Wheat beer is a top-fermented beer which is brewed with a large proportion of wheat relative to the amount of malted barley. The two main varieties are German "Weizenbier" and Belgian "witbier"; other types include Lambic (made with wild yeast), Berliner Weisse (a cloudy, sour beer), and Gose (a sour, salty beer).


title: Wheat beer

text: Weißbier (German – "white beer") uses at least 50% wheat to barley malt to make a light coloured top-fermenting beer. Witbier (Dutch – "white beer") uses flavorings such as coriander and orange peel. Belgian white beers are often made with raw unmalted wheat.


title: Wheat beer

text: German Weißbier and Belgian witbier are termed "white beers" because "wheat" has the same etymological root as "white" in most West Germanic languages (including English).


title: Wheat beer

text: Other wheat beer styles, such as Berliner Weiße, Gose, and Lambic, are made with a significant proportion of wheat.


title: Wheat beer

text: Weizenbier or Hefeweizen, in the southern parts of Bavaria usually called Weißbier (literally "white beer", referring to the pale air-dried malt, as opposed to "brown beer" made from dark malt dried over a hot kiln), is a beer, traditionally from Bavaria, in which a significant proportion of malted barley is replaced with malted wheat. By law, Weißbiers brewed in Germany must use a "top-fermenting" yeast. Specialized strains of yeast are used which produce overtones of banana and clove as by-products of fermentation. Historically, Bavarian Weißbier was either brewed with a large share of wheat malt (which was a ducal privilege in Bavaria) or from air-dried pale barley malt only (which was a common drink amongst poor people). It is well known throughout Germany, though better known as Weizen ("Wheat") outside Bavaria. The terms "Hefeweizen" ("yeast wheat") or Hefeweißbier refer to wheat beer in its traditional, unfiltered form. The term "Kristallweizen" (crystal wheat), or "Kristallweißbier" (crystal white beer), refers to a wheat beer that is filtered to remove the yeast and wheat proteins which contribute to its cloudy appearance.


title: Wheat beer

text: The Hefeweizen style is particularly noted for its low hop bitterness (about 15 IBUs) and relatively high carbonation (approaching four volumes), considered important to balance the beer's relatively malty sweetness. Another balancing flavor note unique to Hefeweizen beer is its phenolic character; its signature phenol is 4-vinyl guaiacol, a metabolite of ferulic acid, the result of fermentation by top-fermenting yeast appropriate for the style. "Hefeweizen"'s phenolic character has been described as "clove" and "medicinal" ("Band-aid") but also smoky. Other more typical but less assertive flavour notes produced by Weißbier yeast include "banana" (amyl acetate), "bubble gum", and sometimes "vanilla" (vanillin).


title: Wheat beer

text: Weißbier is available in a number of other forms, including Dunkelweizen (dark wheat) and Weizenstarkbier (strong wheat beer), commonly referred to as Weizenbock. The dark wheat varieties are made with darker, more highly kilned malts (both wheat and barley). Weizenbocks typically have a much higher alcohol content than their lighter cousins.


title: Wheat beer

text: The four largest brands in Germany are Erdinger, Paulaner, Franziskaner, and Maisel. Other renowned brands are Augustiner, Weihenstephaner, Schneider (a bronze-coloured specialty), and Andechser. Regional brands in Bavaria are Hopf, Unertl, Ayinger, Schweiger and Plank. Aventinus is an example of Weizen Doppelbock, stronger and darker version of Weizenbock, made by the G. Schneider & Sohn brewery in Kelheim.


title: Wheat beer

text: British brewers producing cask-conditioned varieties include Oakleaf Eichenblatt Bitte, Hoskins White Dolphin, Fyfe Weiss Squad and Oakham White Dwarf.


title: Wheat beer

text: Witbier, white beer, "bière blanche", or simply "witte" is a barley/wheat, top-fermented beer brewed mainly in Belgium and the Netherlands. It gets its name due to suspended yeast and wheat proteins, which cause the beer to look hazy, or white, when cold. Today, along with hops it usually contains a blend of spices, such as coriander, orange, and bitter orange.


title: Wheat beer

text: As early as the 16th and 17th century, the white beers of Hoegaarden and Leuven were renowned. Along with barley malt and unmalted barley it contained some oats, though apart from hops no other spices were used. The barley was usually not kilned but left to dry on attics where the wind was allowed to blow past it, in order to obtain a light colour.


title: Wheat beer

text: The style was revived by Pierre Celis at the Hoegaarden Brewery in Belgium and the Celis Brewery in the United States and is traditionally made with up to 50% raw wheat rather than wheat malt. It probably was Celis who started adding the various spices. The beers have a somewhat sour taste due to the presence of lactic acid or acetic acid, much more pronounced in the past than today. Also, the suspended yeast in the beer causes some continuing fermentation in the bottle.


title: Wheat beer

text: A minor variety of wheat beer is represented by Berliner Weiße (Berlin White), which is low in alcohol (2.5% to 3% ABV) and intentionally tart. Sweetened syrups of lemon, raspberry, or woodruff herb are often added before drinking.


title: Wheat beer

text: Leipziger Gose is similar to Berliner Weiße, but slightly stronger at around 4% ABV. Its ingredients include coriander and salt, which are unusual for German beers.


title: Wheat beer

text: Belgian lambic is also made with wheat and barley, but differs from nearly all beers in the use of wild yeast for spontaneous fermentation.


title: Wheat beer

text: A variation on the barley wine style involves adding a large quantity of wheat to the mash bill, resulting in what is referred to as wheat wine. This style originated in the United States in the 1980s.


title: Wheat beer

text: Wheat beers vary in name according to where they are brewed and small variations in the recipe. Among those used are:


title: Wheat beer

text: Bavarian-style wheat beer is usually served in , vase-shaped glasses. In Belgium, witbier is usually served in a 250-ml glass; each brewery (Hoegaarden, Dentergems, etc.) has its own shape of glass. Berliner Weiße is often served in a schooner.


title: Wheat beer

text: Kristallweizen (especially in Austria) and American styles of wheat beer are sometimes served with a slice of lemon or orange in the glass. This is not traditional in Bavaria, and is generally frowned upon there. The modern American custom appears to have originated in Portland, Oregon, in the mid-1980s, where the Dublin Pub served Widmer Brothers Brewery's Weizenbier with a slice of lemon, to accentuate the citrus flavor of the Cascade hops.


title: Wheat beer

text: In northern Bavaria, a grain of rice commonly is added to Kristallweizen, which causes a gentle bubbling effect and results in a longer-lasting foam. A common item on pub menus in Bavaria is cola-weizen, which is a mix of cola and Weizenbier. Another mixture popular during the summer is a radler variant with a 50–50 mix of Weißbier with lemonade called "Russ", which is the German term for Russian.


title: Wheat beer

text: Weißbiers feature fermentation by-products such as esters (which lend fruity flavors and aromas), especially isoamyl acetate, reminiscent of bananas, and the phenolic compound guaiacol, a metabolite of ferulic acid, which smells and tastes like cloves. Other phenolics sometimes found in Weißbiers evoke medicinal or smoky sensations. The bittering level of most Weißbiers is close to 15 international bitterness units, a very low level. Hop flavor and aroma are typically low.


title: Wheat beer

text: The ester and phenolic aspects are produced by the special type of yeast, rather than the high fraction of wheat in the grain bill.


title: Wheat beer

text: The carbonation level can range from 5.5 g/L (about 2.7 volumes; slightly higher than that of most other German beers) to 7 g/L, or more. This produces a generous stand of foam, especially with the high protein content of wheat malt.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: Generation IV reactors (Gen IV) are six nuclear reactor designs recognized by the Generation IV International Forum. The designs target improved safety, sustainability, efficiency, and cost.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: The most developed Gen IV reactor design is the sodium fast reactor. It has received the greatest share of funding that supports demonstration facilities, as well as two commercial reactors in Russia. One of these has been in commercial operation since 1981. Its principal Gen IV features relates its sustainable closed fuel cycle. Moir and Teller consider the molten-salt reactor, a less developed technology, as potentially having the greatest inherent safety of the six models.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: The very-high-temperature reactor designs operate at much higher temperatures than prior generations. This allows for high temperature electrolysis or for sulfur–iodine cycle for the efficient production of hydrogen and the synthesis of carbon-neutral fuels.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: The first commercial plants are not expected before 2040–2050, although the World Nuclear Association in 2015 suggested that some might enter commercial operation before 2030.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: The majority of reactors in operation around the world are second generation reactor systems, as the majority of the first generation systems have been retired. Only a few Generation III reactors were in operation as of December 2022. Generation V reactors are purely theoretical and are not yet considered feasible.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: The Generation IV International Forum (GIF) was initiated in January 2000 by the Office of Nuclear Energy of the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) "as a co-operative international endeavour seeking to develop the research necessary to test the feasibility and performance of fourth generation nuclear systems, and to make them available for industrial deployment by 2030." It was established in 2001.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: As of 2021, active members include: Australia, Canada, China, the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), France, Japan, Russia, South Africa, South Korea, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States. The non-active members are Argentina and Brazil.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: The 36th GIF meeting in Brussels was held in November 2013. A brief overview of the reactor designs and activities by each forum member has been made available. An update of the technology roadmap which details R&D objectives for the next decade was published in January 2014.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: The GIF Forum introduced timelines for each of the six systems. Research and development divide into three phases:


title: Generation IV reactor

text: In 2000, GIF stated, "After the performance phase is complete for each system, at least six years and several US$ billion will be required for detailed design and construction of a demonstration system." In the Roadmap update of 2013, the performance and demonstration phases were considerably shifted to later dates, while no targets for the commercialisation phases are set. According to the GIF, "It will take at least two or three decades before the deployment of commercial Gen IV systems."


title: Generation IV reactor

text: Many reactor types were considered initially; the list was then refined to focus on the most promising technologies. Three systems are nominally thermal reactors and four are fast reactors. The Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR) potentially can provide high quality process heat. Fast reactors offer the possibility of burning actinides to further reduce waste and can breed more fuel than they consume. These systems offer significant advances in sustainability, safety and reliability, economics, proliferation resistance (depending on perspective) and physical protection.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: A thermal reactor is a nuclear reactor that uses slow or thermal neutrons. A neutron moderator is used to slow the neutrons emitted by fission to make them more likely to be captured by the fuel.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: A high temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR) typically operates at temperatures two or three times those of conventional reactors. It is graphite-moderated and typically uses helium cooling. It offers lower power density. The concept originated in the 1940s and has only begun to mature.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: HTGR runs on TRi-structural ISOtropic (TRISO) particle fuel. It is made of individual particles Instead of rods. TRISO consists of uranium, carbon, and oxygen sealed in three layers of carbon or ceramics materials to stabilize the eventual waste products.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: These particles are formed into stable cylindrical pellets or billiard-ball-sized spheres called "pebbles." It is more resistant to neutrons, corrosion, oxidation, and high temperatures than conventional fuels. These pebbles do not melt in the reactor, which can run at higher temperatures. The fuel gradually proceeds through the reactor. Spent pebbles exit the bottom of the reactor while fresh pebbles replace them at the top.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: The Chinese government began construction of a demonstration HTR-PM 200-MW high temperature pebble bed reactor in 2012 as a successor to its HTR-10.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: The very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR) uses a graphite-moderated core with a once-through uranium fuel cycle, using helium or molten salt. This reactor design envisions an outlet temperature of 1,000°C. The reactor core can be either a prismatic-block or a pebble bed reactor design. The high temperatures enable applications such as process heat or hydrogen production via the thermochemical sulfur-iodine cycle process.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: In 2012, as part of its next generation nuclear plant competition, Idaho National Laboratory approved a design similar to Areva's prismatic block Antares reactor to be deployed as a prototype by 2021.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: In January 2016, X-energy was awarded a five-year $53 million partnership by the United States Department of Energy to advance their reactor development. The Xe-100 is a PBMR that will generate 200-MWt and approximately 76-MWe. The standard Xe-100 four-pack plant generates approximately 300-MWe and will sit on as few as 13 acres.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: A molten salt reactor (MSR) is a type of reactor where the primary coolant or the fuel itself is a molten salt mixture. It operates at high temperature and low pressure.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: Molten salt can be used for thermal, epithermal and fast reactors. Since 2005 the focus has been on fast spectrum MSRs (MSFR).


title: Generation IV reactor

text: Other designs include integral molten salt reactors (e.g. IMSR) and molten chloride salt fast reactors (MCSFR).


title: Generation IV reactor

text: Early thermal spectrum concepts and many current ones rely on uranium tetrafluoride (UF) or thorium tetrafluoride (ThF), dissolved in molten fluoride salt. The fluid reaches criticality by flowing into a core with a graphite moderator. The fuel may be dispersed in a graphite matrix. These designs are more accurately termed an epithermal reactor than a thermal reactor due to the higher average speed of the neutrons that cause the fission events.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: MCSFR does away with the graphite moderator. They achieve criticality using a sufficient volume of salt and fissile material. They can consume much more of the fuel and leave only short-lived waste.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: Most MSR designs are derived from the 1960s Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE). Variants include the conceptual "Dual fluid reactor" that uses lead as a cooling medium with molten salt fuel, commonly a metal chloride, e.g. plutonium(III) chloride, to aid in greater closed-fuel cycle capabilities. Other notable approaches include the Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) concept, which encases the molten salt in the well-established fuel rods of conventional reactors. This latter design was found to be the most competitive by consultancy firm Energy Process Development in 2015.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: Another design under development is TerraPower's Molten Chloride Fast Reactor. This concept mixes the liquid natural uranium and molten chloride coolant in the reactor core, reaching very high temperatures at atmospheric pressure.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: Another notable feature of the MSR is the possibility of a thermal spectrum nuclear waste-burner. Conventionally only fast spectrum reactors have been considered viable for utilization or reduction of the spent nuclear fuel. Thermal waste-burning was achieved by replacing a fraction of the uranium in the spent nuclear fuel with thorium. The net production rate of transuranic elements (e.g. plutonium and americium) is below the consumption rate, thus reducing the nuclear storage problem, without the nuclear proliferation concerns and other technical issues associated with a fast reactor.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: The supercritical water reactor (SCWR) is a reduced moderation water reactor concept. Because the average speed of the fission-causing neutrons within the fuel is faster than thermal neutrons, it is more accurately termed an epithermal reactor than a thermal reactor. It uses supercritical water as the working fluid. SCWRs are basically light water reactors (LWR) operating at higher pressure and temperatures with a direct, once-through heat exchange cycle. As commonly envisioned, it would operate on a direct cycle, much like a boiling water reactor (BWR). Since it uses supercritical water (not to be confused with critical mass) as the working fluid, it would have only one water phase. This makes the heat exchange method more similar to a pressurized water reactor (PWR). It could operate at much higher temperatures than both current PWRs and BWRs.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: Supercritical water-cooled reactors (SCWRs) offer high thermal efficiency (i.e., about 45% vs. about 33% efficiency for current LWRs) and considerable simplification.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: The mission of the SCWR is generation of low-cost electricity. It is built upon two proven technologies, LWRs, the most commonly deployed power generating reactors, and superheated fossil fuel fired boilers, also in wide use. 32 organizations in 13 countries are investigating the concept.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: SCWRs share the steam explosion and radioactive steam release hazards of BWRs and LWRs as well as the need for extremely expensive heavy duty pressure vessels, pipes, valves, and pumps. These shared problems are inherently more severe for SCWRs due to their higher temperatures.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: One SCWR design under development is the VVER-1700/393 (VVER-SCWR or VVER-SKD) – a Russian SCWR with double-inlet-core and a breeding ratio of 0.95.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: A fast reactor directly uses fission neutrons without moderation. Fast reactors can be configured to "burn", or fission, all actinides, and given enough time, therefore drastically reduce the actinides fraction in spent nuclear fuel produced by the present world fleet of thermal neutron light water reactors, thus closing the fuel cycle. Alternatively, if configured differently, they can breed more actinide fuel than they consume.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: The gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR) features a fast-neutron spectrum and closed fuel cycle. The reactor is helium-cooled. Its outlet temperature is 850 °C. It moves the very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR) to a more sustainable fuel cycle. It uses a direct Brayton cycle gas turbine for high thermal efficiency. Several fuel forms are under consideration: composite ceramic fuel, advanced fuel particles, or ceramic-clad actinide compounds. Core configurations involve pin- or plate-based fuel assemblies or prismatic blocks.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: The European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative provided funding for three Generation IV reactor systems:


title: Generation IV reactor

text: The two largest experimental sodium cooled fast reactors are in Russia, the BN-600 and the BN-800 (880 MWe gross). These NPPs are being used to provide operating experience and technological solutions that will be applied to the construction of the BN-1200 (OKBM Afrikantov first Gen IV reactor). The largest ever operated was the French Superphenix reactor at over 1200 MW, successfully operating before decommissioning in 1996. In India, the Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) reached criticality in October 1985. In September 2002, fuel burn up efficiency in the FBTR for the first time reached the 100,000 megawatt-days per metric ton uranium (MWd/MTU) mark. This is considered an important milestone in Indian breeder reactor technology. Using that experience, the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor, a 500 MWe Sodium cooled fast reactor is being built at a cost of INR 5,677 crores (~US$900 million). After numerous delays, the government reported in March 2020 that the reactor might be operational in December 2021. The PFBR was to be followed by six more Commercial Fast Breeder Reactors (CFBRs) of 600 MW each.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: The Gen IV SFR is a project that builds on the oxide fueled fast breeder reactor and the metal fueled integral fast reactor. Its goals are to increase the efficiency of uranium usage by breeding plutonium and eliminating transuranic isotopes. The reactor design uses an unmoderated core running on fast neutrons, designed to allow any transuranic isotope to be consumed (and in some cases used as fuel). SFR fuel expands when the reactor overheats, automatically slowing down the chain reaction, making it passively safe.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: One SFR reactor concept is cooled by liquid sodium and fueled by a metallic alloy of uranium and plutonium or spent nuclear fuel, the "nuclear waste" of light water reactors. The SFR fuel is contained in steel cladding. Liquid sodium fills the space between the clad elements that make up the fuel assembly. One of the design challenges is the risks of handling sodium, which reacts explosively if it comes into contact with water. The use of liquid metal instead of water as coolant allows the system to work at atmospheric pressure, reducing the risk of leakage.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: The European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative funded three Generation IV reactor systems. Advanced Sodium Technical Reactor for Industrial Demonstration (ASTRID) was a sodium-cooled fast reactor, that was cancelled in August 2019.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: Numerous progenitors of the Gen IV SFR exist, such as the 400 MWe Fast Flux Test Facility operated for ten years at Hanford.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: The 20 MW EBR II operated for over thirty years at Idaho National Laboratory, and was shut down in 1994.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: GE Hitachi's PRISM reactor is a modernized and commercial implementation of the Integral Fast Reactor (IFR), developed by Argonne National Laboratory between 1984 and 1994. The primary purpose of PRISM is burning up spent nuclear fuel from other reactors, rather than breeding new fuel. The design reduces the half lives of the fissionable elements present in spent nuclear fuel while generating electricity largely as a byproduct.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: The lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR) features a fast-neutron-spectrum lead or lead/bismuth eutectic (LBE) coolant with a closed fuel cycle. Proposals include a small 50 to 150 MW that features a long refueling interval, a modular system rated at 300 to 400 MW, and a large monolithic plant at 1,200 MW. The fuel is metal or nitride-based containing fertile uranium and transuranics. The reactor is cooled by natural convection with a reactor outlet coolant temperature of 550-800 °C. The higher temperature enables the production of hydrogen by thermochemical processes.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: The European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative is funding a 100 MW LFR, an accelerator-driven sub-critical reactor called MYRRHA. It is to be built in Belgium with construction expected by 2036. A reduced-power model called Guinevere was started up at Mol in March 2009 and became operational in 2012.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: Two other lead-cooled fast reactors under development are the SVBR-100, a modular 100 MW lead-bismuth cooled fast neutron reactor concept designed by OKB Gidropress in Russia and the BREST-OD-300 (Lead-cooled fast reactor) 300 MW, to be developed after the SVBR-100, it will dispense with the fertile blanket around the core and will supersede the sodium cooled BN-600 reactor design, to purportedly give enhanced proliferation resistance. Preparatory construction work commenced in May 2020.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: The GEN IV Forum reframes the reactor safety paradigm from accepting that nuclear accidents can occur and should be mastered to eliminating the possibility of an accident. Active and passive safety systems would be at least as effective as those of Generation III systems and render the most severe accidents physically impossible.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: Nuclear reactors do not emit CO during operation, although mining and construction typically produce CO emissions. A 2012 review analyzed life cycle (LCA) emissions from nuclear power stated that "the collective LCA literature indicates that life cycle GHG [greenhouse gas] emissions from nuclear power are only a fraction of traditional fossil sources and comparable to renewable technologies." Although the paper primarily dealt with data from Generation II reactors, and did not analyze Generation III reactors, it stated about Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs): "The limited literature that evaluates this potential future technology reports median life cycle GHG emissions... similar to or lower than LWRs [Gen II light water reactors] and purports to consume little or no uranium ore."


title: Generation IV reactor

text: A specific risk of the SFR is related to using metallic sodium as a coolant. In case of a breach, sodium explosively reacts with water. Argon is used to prevent sodium oxidation. Argon can displace oxygen in the air and can pose hypoxia concerns for workers. This was a factor at the loop type Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor Monju at Tsuruga, Japan. Using lead or molten salt coolants mitigates this problem as they are less reactive and have a high freezing temperature and ambient pressure. Lead has much higher viscosity, much higher density, lower heat capacity, and more radioactive neutron activation products than sodium.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: Multiple proof of concept Gen IV designs have been built. For example, the reactors at Fort St. Vrain Generating Station and HTR-10 are similar to the proposed Gen IV VHTR designs, and the pool type EBR-II, Phénix, BN-600 and BN-800 reactor are similar to the proposed pool type Gen IV SFR designs.


title: Generation IV reactor

text: Nuclear engineer David Lochbaum cautions, "the problem with new reactors and accidents is twofold: scenarios arise that are impossible to plan for in simulations; and humans make mistakes". As one director of a U.S. research laboratory put it, "fabrication, construction, operation, and maintenance of new reactors will face a steep learning curve: advanced technologies will have a heightened risk of accidents and mistakes. The technology may be proven, but people are not".


title: Eric Decker

text: Eric Thomas Decker (born March 15, 1987) is a former American football wide receiver who played in the National Football League (NFL) for eight seasons. He played college football and college baseball at the University of Minnesota, and was drafted by the Denver Broncos in the third round of the 2010 NFL Draft. After four seasons with the Broncos, Decker played for the New York Jets for three years, then the Tennessee Titans for one season.


title: Eric Decker

text: Decker attended Rocori High School in Cold Spring, Minnesota. He was present in school when the Rocori High School shooting took place, hiding in a cupboard with other students until they were rescued by police officers. Decker was a three-sport athlete in football, basketball, and baseball. In each sport he was awarded all-conference, all-area and all-section honors. Additionally, Decker was named the football team MVP two years in a row. During his prep football career, he had 2,156 receiving yards and 28 touchdowns.


title: Eric Decker

text: Decker attended the University of Minnesota. He made his collegiate debut against Kent State and had a single reception for a 39-yard touchdown from quarterback Bryan Cupito. On September 23, in a game at Purdue, he completed a 22-yard pass. As a freshman, Decker finished with 378 receiving yards and three touchdowns.


title: Eric Decker

text: As a sophomore, Decker's role with the offense expanded. After recorded four receptions for 49 receiving yards in a season-opening loss to Bowling Green, he had seven receptions for 128 receiving yards and two receiving touchdowns against Miami (OH). In the following game, he had 12 receptions for 165 receiving yards and one receiving touchdown in a loss to FAU. On October 20, he threw a 20-yard touchdown pass to Ralph Spry in a loss to North Dakota State. He finished with 909 receiving yards and nine touchdowns. In a season where the Golden Gophers finished with a 1–11 record, Decker led the team in receptions and receiving yards, and tie for the lead in receiving touchdowns with Ernie Wheelwright.


title: Eric Decker

text: Decker started his junior season with 10 receptions for 89 receiving yards and a touchdown against Northern Illinois. In the following game against Bowling Green, he had six receptions for 86 receiving yards and one receiving touchdown to go along with a 12-yard touchdown rush. In next week's game against Montana State, he had nine receptions for 157 receiving yards and one receiving touchdown. In the following game, he had seven receptions for 122 receiving yards and one receiving touchdown against FAU to cap a 4–0 start for the Golden Gophers. After the following week's game against Ohio State where Minnesota suffered their first setback of the season, Decker had 13 receptions for 190 receiving yards against Indiana. Minnesota qualified for the Insight Bowl against Kansas, where Decker recorded eight receptions for 149 receiving yards and a receiving touchdown in the 42–21 loss. Decker finished his junior season in 2008 with 84 catches for 1,074 yards and seven touchdowns. He led the 7–6 Golden Gophers in receptions, receiving yards, and receiving touchdowns.


title: Eric Decker

text: In early spring 2009, Decker met with Thomas Goudy, a wide-out coach in St. Louis, Missouri. Goudy helped Decker with his ball-holding technique. Decker spent three weeks in his training camp before starting the summer conditioning camp. Decker began the season with the consistent play that had been a hallmark of his Gophers' career. Through three games, Decker was sixth in the nation in receiving yards, with 183 yards against Syracuse, 113 yards against Air Force, and 119 yards and two touchdowns against California. "Sports Illustrated" columnist Stewart Mandel declared Decker the third-best wide receiver in college football, behind Oklahoma State's Dez Bryant and Georgia's A. J. Green. After the California game, Decker had eight receptions for 84 yards and two receiving touchdowns against Northwestern, and in the following game, had eight receptions for 140 yards and a touchdown against Wisconsin. On October 27, 2009, it was announced that Decker would miss the rest of the season after suffering a sprained foot against Ohio State. As a senior, Decker finished with 758 receiving yards and five touchdowns.


title: Eric Decker

text: Decker played outfield for the Minnesota baseball team. He was selected in the 39th round of the 2008 Major League Baseball Draft by the Milwaukee Brewers and the 27th round of the 2009 Major League Baseball Draft by the Minnesota Twins.


title: Eric Decker

text: Decker’s senior season was cut short due to surgery he underwent to repair torn ligaments in his left foot. As a result, he was unable to participate in both the NFL combine and Minnesota’s pro day workout. He scored a 43 on the Wonderlic test at the combine, the top score for the group of prospects who took the test in Indianapolis.


title: Eric Decker

text: Decker was drafted by the Denver Broncos in the third round with the 87th overall pick in the 2010 NFL Draft. He signed a four-year contract through 2013 worth $2,522,000. Due to foot surgery, Decker sat out during Broncos rookie mini-camp and OTA's. Broncos head coach Josh McDaniels said he hoped he'd be ready by the season's opener, “At this point we're going to err on the side of being real careful and not put them in a situation where (it’s) the last day of minicamp on June 13th and all of a sudden we have a foot injury," said McDaniels. "Hopefully, everybody will be ready by August.”


title: Eric Decker

text: On July 27, 2010, the Broncos signed Decker to a four-year contract. In the preseason, Decker led all NFL rookies in receptions, but due to the Broncos' depth at receiver, Decker did not see much action in the offense until late in the regular season. He did contribute on special teams, however, recording seven special teams tackles while returning 17 kickoffs for 429 yards giving him 25.2 yards per return average.


title: Eric Decker

text: Toward the end of the season, the Broncos started to mix Decker into the offense more, after fellow rookie Demaryius Thomas went down with an injury. Decker finished his rookie season with six receptions for 106 yards and a touchdown.


title: Eric Decker

text: Decker's role in Denver's offense expanded in 2011. During a Week 1 "Monday Night Football" matchup at home against the Oakland Raiders, Decker returned a fourth quarter punt for a 90-yard touchdown, but the Broncos lost 23–20. In Week 2, making his first professional start, Decker caught five passes for 113 yards and two touchdowns, the second on a 52-yard catch in the fourth quarter as Denver recorded their first win of the 2011 season, 24–22 over the Cincinnati Bengals. On September 25, in Denver's Week 3 17–14 loss to the Tennessee Titans, Decker had a career-high seven catches for 48 yards. Over the next four weeks, Decker continued his steady play by hauling in 18 passes for 192 yards and four touchdowns. On November 13, in a Week 10 divisional road game at Arrowhead Stadium against the division-rival Kansas City Chiefs, starting quarterback Tim Tebow attempted a pair of deep passes for Decker, the first almost being hauled in off a deflection and the other being knocked down by the defender, but in the fourth quarter, with Denver hanging on to a slim 10–7 lead, Tebow hit Decker on a go route deep for a 56-yard touchdown catch, Decker's only catch of the game and only Tebow's second completion, as the Broncos won 17–10 to move into a second-place tie in the AFC West with the San Diego Chargers and Chiefs. In the first round of the playoffs against the Pittsburgh Steelers, Decker was taken out of the game due to injury.


title: Eric Decker

text: Heading into the 2012 regular season, Decker seemed primed to have a productive year with veteran quarterback Peyton Manning running Denver's offense. On May 12, Broncos' offensive coordinator Mike McCoy noted that Decker and fellow receiver Demaryius Thomas were "like two little kids in a candy shop right now," when asked about the receivers eagerness to work with Manning. In April, Decker attended a Colorado Rockies' baseball game with Manning and began workouts with him prior to training camp.


title: Eric Decker

text: Decker had a breakout season in 2012. In Week 3 against the Houston Texans, he had eight receptions for 136 yards. From Week 4 to Week 9, he recorded seven receiving touchdowns over a span of five games. In Week 15 against the Baltimore Ravens, he finished with eight receptions for 133 yards and a touchdown. In Weeks 16–17, he recorded back-to-back games with two receiving touchdowns against the Cleveland Browns and Kansas City Chiefs. Decker finished the 2012 season with 85 catches for 1,064 yards and 13 touchdowns. He finished ranked 20th in the league in terms of yards for wide receivers and the 13 touchdowns was the second most among wide receivers in 2012. In the Broncos' Divisional Round game against the Baltimore Ravens, he had six receptions for 84 receiving yards in the 38–35 2OT loss.


title: Eric Decker

text: In the 2013 season, Decker contributed to Peyton Manning's historical passing season. In Week 3, against the Oakland Raiders, Decker finished with eight receptions for 133 yards and a touchdown. In Week 7, against the Indianapolis Colts, he finished with eight receptions for 150 yards and a touchdown. In Week 13, Decker had a career day against the Kansas City Chiefs with eight catches for 174 yards and team record tying four touchdowns, earning him the AFC Offensive Player of the Week award. He followed up that performance with eight receptions for 117 yards and a touchdown against the Tennessee Titans. In Week 16, against the Houston Texans, he finished with 10 receptions for 131 yards and two touchdowns. Overall, Decker finished the 2013 season with 87 receptions for 1,288 yards, both career highs, and 11 touchdowns. In the Divisional Round, against the San Diego Chargers, he had two receptions for 32 yards in the 24–17 victory. In the AFC Championship against the New England Patriots, he had five receptions for 73 yards in the 26–16 victory. The Broncos reached Super Bowl XLVIII, but lost 43–8 to the Seattle Seahawks. Decker was held to one reception for six yards in the Super Bowl due to tight coverage by the Seahawks' defensive backs.


title: Eric Decker

text: On March 12, 2014, Decker signed a five-year, $36.25 million contract with the New York Jets. In his Jets' debut, he had five receptions for 74 yards in the 19–14 victory over the Oakland Raiders. In Week 17, Decker was targeted 11 times in the season-finale 37–24 victory against the Miami Dolphins and came up with a tying career-high 10 receptions for a career-high 221 yards and a touchdown. In Week 15, against the Tennessee Titans, he had seven receptions for 100 yards in the 16–11 victory. In the 2014 season, he had 74 receptions for 962 receiving yards scored and five receiving touchdowns.


title: Eric Decker

text: Decker started the season with a receiving touchdown in each of his first four games from Weeks 1–6. From Weeks 8–10, he had three straight games with a receiving touchdown. In Week 13, against the New York Giants, he had season-highs with eight receptions for 101 receiving yards in the 23–20 victory. From Weeks 14–17, he had four straight games with a receiving touchdown. In his most productive season with the Jets, Decker caught 80 passes for 1,027 yards and 12 touchdowns.


title: Eric Decker

text: On September 16, Decker was fined $9,115 for a late hit he made on cornerback Josh Shaw on opening day against the Cincinnati Bengals. On October 12, the Jets placed Decker on injured reserve due to a shoulder injury. In three games in the 2016 season, he finished with nine receptions for 194 yards and two touchdowns.


title: Eric Decker

text: On June 6, 2017, the Jets informed Decker that he would be either traded or released by the end of that week, effectively cutting ties with him. On June 12, 2017, Decker was officially released by the Jets.


title: Eric Decker

text: In the season opener against the Oakland Raiders, Decker had three receptions for 10 yards in his Titans debut. The Titans lost by a score of 26–16. During Week 2, he had three receptions for 32 yards, a kickoff return for 22 yards, and recovered an onside kick in a 37–16 road victory over the Jacksonville Jaguars. During Week 9, Decker caught his only touchdown of the regular season on an 11-yard pass from Marcus Mariota in a 23–20 victory over the Baltimore Ravens.


title: Eric Decker

text: In the postseason, Decker caught the game-winning touchdown from Mariota in the against the Kansas City Chiefs to win on the road 22–21. In the against the New England Patriots, he finished with six receptions for 85 yards in the 35–14 road loss.


title: Eric Decker

text: On August 2, 2018, Decker signed a one-year deal with the New England Patriots. With the move, Decker reunited with Josh McDaniels, the Patriots offensive coordinator and former head coach of the Denver Broncos.


title: Eric Decker

text: On June 22, 2013, Decker married country singer Jessie James. They have three children: a daughter born in March 2014, a son born in September 2015, and a second son born in March 2018. In 2017, Eric Decker and his wife Jessie spoke out against athletes kneeling during the national anthem to raise awareness around issues of racial inequality and police brutality.


title: Felix Leiter

text: Felix Leiter is a fictional character created by Ian Fleming in the "James Bond" books, films and other media. The character is an operative for the CIA and Bond's friend. After losing a leg and his hand to a shark attack, Leiter joined the Pinkerton Detective Agency. The name "Felix" comes from the middle name of Fleming's friend Ivar Bryce, while the name "Leiter" was the surname of Fleming's friend Marion Oates Leiter Charles, the then wife of Thomas Leiter.


title: Felix Leiter

text: Leiter also appeared in novels by continuation authors, as well as ten films and one television episode, "Casino Royale", where the character became a British agent, Clarence Leiter, played by Michael Pate. In the Eon Productions series of films, Leiter has been portrayed by Jack Lord, Cec Linder, Rik Van Nutter, Norman Burton, David Hedison, John Terry and Jeffrey Wright; in the independent production "Never Say Never Again", the part was played by Bernie Casey. Leiter has also appeared in the video game "007 Legends".


title: Felix Leiter

text: Felix Leiter, James Bond's CIA ally and friend, played a part in six of the Fleming novels; he is introduced in "Casino Royale" as being thin, tall, about 35 years old and a former U.S. Marine who was working with the Joint Intelligence Staff of NATO. Kerstin Jütting describes Leiter as "a cool and quiet no-nonsense character who knows 007's strengths and weaknesses well". Physically, Fleming describes Leiter in "Casino Royale": "a mop of straw-coloured hair lent his face a boyish look which closer examination contradicted".


title: Felix Leiter

text: Leiter is Bond's saviour in "Casino Royale", providing him with 32 million francs when Bond has been cleaned out by SMERSH paymaster Le Chiffre, calling it "Marshall Aid". Media historian James Chapman notes that Bond's relationship with Leiter represented the Special Relationship between Britain and America, although the American Leiter is in the subordinate position to the British Bond. Academic Jeremy Black agrees, although points out that the Bond and Leiter relationship suggested "a far smoother working of the Anglo-American alliance than was in fact the case." Academic and writer Kingsley Amis, in his exploration of Bond in "The James Bond Dossier", considered that this view of Leiter was partly because of Fleming's writing, noting that "Leiter, such a nonentity as a piece of characterization ... he, the American, takes orders from Bond, the Britisher, and that Bond is constantly doing better than he". Bond scholars Bennett and Woollacott note that although the two men share adventures, it is Bond who leads, not Leiter. Leiter's role is to "suppl[y] Bond with technical support and hardware, add ... muscle where needed and money".


title: Felix Leiter

text: Fleming's second novel, "Live and Let Die", reveals that in his early twenties, Leiter wrote a few pieces on Dixieland jazz for the "New York Amsterdam News". He is kidnapped by the novel's villain, Mr. Big, who feeds him to a great white shark. Bond scholar John Griswold notes that in the original draft of the story, Fleming killed Leiter off in the shark attack; when Naomi Burton, Fleming's US agent with Curtis Brown, protested about the death of the character, Fleming relented and Leiter lived, albeit missing an arm and half a leg. Espionage scholar Rupert Allason, writing as Nigel West, noted that Leiter's involvement in a domestic U.S. matter was a breach of the CIA's charter, as laid out in the National Security Act of 1947.


title: Felix Leiter

text: After the shark attack, Leiter returned in "Diamonds Are Forever" with a hook for his missing hand and a prosthetic leg; as he had lost his gun hand, he was no longer with the CIA, but employed as a private detective by Pinkerton Detective Agency, although he was on the reserve of the CIA and was recalled for "Goldfinger", "Thunderball" and "The Man with the Golden Gun". Fleming had flown to the US in August 1954 to research the background to "Diamonds Are Forever"; his friend Ernest Cuneo introduced him to a rich socialite, William Woodward Jr., who drove a Studillac—a Studebaker with a powerful Cadillac engine. According to Bond scholar Henry Chancellor, "the speed and comfort of it impressed Ian, and he shamelessly appropriated this car" for Leiter to drive in the novel.


title: Felix Leiter

text: For the post-Fleming continuation Bond authors, Leiter has also appeared on a periodic basis. After John Gardner took over writing the James Bond novel series, Leiter made an occasional appearance and the novel "For Special Services" introduces his daughter, Cedar Leiter, who is also a CIA officer (and briefly Bond's romantic conquest). Raymond Benson also included Leiter's character in some of his novels, including "The Facts of Death" and "Doubleshot". The 2008 Sebastian Faulks novel "Devil May Care" and the 2011 novel "Carte Blanche" by Jeffery Deaver both contain the character.


title: Felix Leiter

text: The first screen interpretation of the Leiter character was in the 1954 CBS one-hour television adventure "Casino Royale", broadcast as part of the dramatic anthology series "Climax Mystery Theater", which ran between October 1954 and June 1958. For the American audience the Bond character from "Casino Royale" was re-cast as an American agent—"Card Sense" Jimmy Bond, played by Barry Nelson—described as working for "Combined Intelligence", supported by the British agent, Clarence Leiter; "thus was the Anglo-American relationship depicted in the book reversed for American consumption", according to Jeremy Black. Leiter, who was an agent for Station S, was a combination of the novel's Felix Leiter and René Mathis and was played by the Australian actor Michael Pate.


title: Felix Leiter

text: Jack Lord was the first Felix Leiter, appointed into the role for the first Bond film, "Dr. No". Eon Productions started filming the series out of the order written by Fleming (Fleming had started with "Casino Royale", with "Dr. No" being the sixth novel). Leiter was not present in the Fleming novel, but the writers added the character to the film. Bond scholars Smith and Lavington consider Leiter to offer negligible help to Bond, largely because there is no role for him in the novel, a point with which continuation Bond author Raymond Benson agrees, noting that he is "extraneous to the dramatic action". Jeremy Black agrees, although points out that the inclusion of Leiter was a sign of American influence in the Caribbean.


title: Felix Leiter

text: Lord played Leiter in a "swaggering" fashion, according to Smith and Lavington, and they considered him "excellent, an effective American version of James Bond." Bond scholars Pfeiffer and Worrall agree, stating that Lord's was "one of the most satisfying portrayals of Leiter".


title: Felix Leiter

text: When the role of Leiter was brought back for the third Bond film, "Goldfinger", in 1964, Lord was again approached to play Leiter; according to screenwriter Richard Maibaum, Lord demanded co-star billing with Connery, a bigger role and more money to reprise the role. The producers instead decided to recast the role, initially with Austin Willis. At the last minute, Cec Linder switched roles with Willis, who was recast as one of Auric Goldfinger's opponents in a card game. Linder was the only actor actually on location in Miami. Raymond Benson considers that Linder was "miscast" as Leiter because he looked too old: "he looks like Bond's uncle rather than his best friend."


title: Felix Leiter

text: The fourth film in the Eon series, "Thunderball", was the third to portray Leiter and the producers chose a third actor to play the role, Rik Van Nutter. Van Nutter was married to Swedish actress Anita Ekberg at the time and the couple had dined with Albert and Dana Broccoli after Ekberg had appeared in the Eon-produced "Call Me Bwana". Van Nutter was subsequently offered the Leiter role without an audition, although he did have screen tests with some of the Bond girls.


title: Felix Leiter

text: According to Pfeiffer and Worrall, Leiter had a more proactive role in "Thunderball" and Van Nutter was "an inspired choice for the role". Smith and Lavington agree and consider that Van Nutter's "relaxed and charming performance works well." Benson also concurs, but complains that although Van Nutter is a piece of successful casting, "the script ... does not give the character any real depth".


title: Felix Leiter

text: For the 1971 instalment, "Diamonds Are Forever", Eon chose Norman Burton. Burton's Leiter was more amusing and more exasperated than the previous incarnations of the role.


title: Felix Leiter

text: Raymond Benson again considers that the Leiter role was miscast and considered Burton to be "overweight and too old for the role". Smith and Lavington describe him as "an elderly, portly man in a government-issue suit ... anonymous, orthodox". Pfeiffer and Worrall agree, thinking that Burton was "the least likely incarnation" of Leiter.


title: Felix Leiter

text: In 1973 the Bond franchise introduced a new main lead, Roger Moore, who played Bond for the next 12 years in seven films. David Hedison, an old friend of Moore's, was cast as Leiter in "Live and Let Die". Pfeiffer and Worrall consider that this friendship comes through, with "genuine chemistry" between the two actors. Raymond Benson thought Hedison miscast, but acknowledged that "he's the best Leiter next to Rik Van Nutter."


title: Felix Leiter

text: Hedison returned to play Leiter 16 years later in "Licence to Kill" and after another actor had also been in the role. Hedison did not expect to return to the role, saying "I was sure that ... ["Live and Let Die"] would be my first – and last" and Glen was reluctant to cast the 61-year-old actor for the physically demanding role, which even included a parachuting scene. Hedison was the only actor to play Leiter in multiple films until Jeffrey Wright appeared in "Casino Royale", "Quantum of Solace" and "No Time to Die"


title: Felix Leiter

text: Leiter, now working with the DEA, is central to the plot of "Licence to Kill". He and Bond work together to capture the drug lord Franz Sanchez on the way to Leiter's wedding, at which Bond serves as best man. After Sanchez escapes, he orders his men to rape and murder Della and torture Leiter by lowering him into a tank containing a great white shark — an event transferred from the original plot of "Live and Let Die". Bond finds Leiter maimed but alive, and seeks revenge on Sanchez, paving the way for the rest of the film's plot. At the film's end, Leiter is shown recovering in the hospital.


title: Felix Leiter

text: Following Hedison's first outing in 1973 in "Live and Let Die", the Leiter role did not appear again until the 1987 film "The Living Daylights", by which time Bond was being played by Timothy Dalton; the role was taken up by John Terry.


title: Felix Leiter

text: Smith and Lavington consider that, although the scene between Bond and Leiter sees warmth in the relationship between them, "it is too fleeting to have any impact". Pfeiffer and Worrall agree on the briefness of Leiter's role in the film, although they consider that Terry has "virtually no chemistry with Dalton".


title: Felix Leiter

text: "Casino Royale" rebooted the series, which allowed Leiter to re-appear; he and Bond meet for the first time in the film. This version of the character is revealed to be from Milwaukee. As in the novel, he goes undercover to a high-stakes card game with Bond and Le Chiffre, but quickly loses his money, so he stakes Bond so the latter can bankrupt Le Chiffre.


title: Felix Leiter

text: He appeared again in "Quantum of Solace", in which he reluctantly helps his corrupt superior Gregg Beam pursue Bond at the behest of Quantum leader Dominic Greene; he redeems himself, however, by helping Bond locate Greene and foil his plan to steal Bolivia's water rights. At the end of the film, M mentions that Beam has been fired and Leiter has replaced him. Early script drafts for "Quantum of Solace" gave Wright a larger role, but his screen time was restricted by on-set rewrites.


title: Felix Leiter

text: Bond mentions Leiter in "Spectre" as a friend he has called upon for help in hiding the widow of a SPECTRE agent whom the terrorist group is trying to assassinate.


title: Felix Leiter

text: The character (as portrayed by Wright) makes his final appearance in "No Time to Die", in which he asks the retired Bond's help in finding a missing MI6 scientist who was kidnapped by terrorist Lyutsifer Safin's men. Bond agrees, but he and Leiter are betrayed by Leiter's CIA colleague Logan Ash, a double agent working for Safin. Ash shoots and mortally wounds Leiter, who dies in Bond's arms. Later on in the film, Bond avenges Leiter by killing Ash.


title: Felix Leiter

text: In 1983 Kevin McClory, one of the original writers of the novel "Thunderball", produced "Never Say Never Again", a re-make of the 1965 film "Thunderball". McClory's rights to the film were held separate to those of Eon Productions, although he had been the producer for the first "Thunderball" adaptation. The film marked the return of Sean Connery to the Bond role; he spoke with Bernie Casey, saying that as the Leiter role was never remembered by audiences, casting a Black actor as Leiter might make the character more memorable. Smith and Lavington consider Casey to be "the most compelling Felix Leiter since Jack Lord", although again there was little in the script for him to do.


title: Felix Leiter

text: In the 2012 game "007 Legends", Canadian-American actor Demetri Goritsas provided his likeness and voice for the character of Leiter.


title: Felix Leiter

text: Felix Leiter has made several appearances in multiple comic strips as well as comic books as a supporting character aiding Bond on joint assignments, some of them being adaptations of the novels and the films, while others maintaining original storylines. He briefly makes an appearance in "Permission to Die" (1989), later returning in "A Silent Armageddon" (1992), playing a rather large role in "The Quasimodo Gambit" (1995), a brief comeback in "" (2016), and at the latest, in "" (2017).


title: Felix Leiter

text: In January 2017, Dynamite Comics published the first issue of a miniseries starring Felix, written by James Robinson and illustrated by Aaron Campbell, simply titled, "Felix Leiter".


title: Felix Leiter

text: In "The New York Times", Thomas Vinciguerra has referred to Leiter as James Bond's "sidekick" and documented that his evolving character has paralleled Bond's fortunes as both a cinematic icon and a hero of the Cold War and its aftermath.


title: Helen Shapiro

text: Helen Kate Shapiro (born 28 September 1946) is a British pop and jazz singer and actress. While still a teenager in the early 1960s, she was one of Britain's most successful female singers. With a voice described by AllMusic as possessing "the maturity and sensibilities of someone far beyond their teen years", Shapiro recorded two 1961 UK chart toppers, "You Don't Know" and "Walkin' Back to Happiness", when she was just fourteen years old.


title: Helen Shapiro

text: Shapiro first achieved prominence in 1961 when her debut single, "Don't Treat Me Like a Child", reached No. 3 on the UK Singles Chart. After the two million-sellers, her success continued in 1962 with further hits including "Tell Me What He Said" and film appearances in "Play It Cool" and "It's Trad, Dad!". In 1963, Shapiro toured with the Beatles as her supporting act. Since the 1970s, she has branched out as a performer in musical theatre and jazz; she appeared in the West End and toured extensively with the British jazz trumpeter Humphrey Lyttelton and his band.


title: Helen Shapiro

text: Shapiro was born at Bethnal Green Hospital in the East End district of Bethnal Green, London. Her early childhood was spent in a Clapton council flat in the London Borough of Hackney, where she attended Northwold Primary School and Clapton Park Comprehensive School until Christmas 1961. She is the granddaughter of Russian-Jewish immigrants; her parents, who were piece-workers in the garment industry, attended Lea Bridge Road Synagogue. The family moved from Clapton to the Victoria Park area of Hackney, on the Parkside Estate, when she was nine. "It was, and remains, a beautiful place," she said in a 2006 interview.


title: Helen Shapiro

text: Although too poor to own a record player, Shapiro's parents encouraged music in their home (she had to borrow a neighbour's player to hear her first single). Shapiro played banjolele as a child and occasionally sang with her brother Ron in the skiffle group of his youth club. She had a deep timbre to her voice, unusual in a girl not yet in her teens; school friends nicknamed her "Foghorn".


title: Helen Shapiro

text: At the age of ten, Shapiro was a singer with "Susie and the Hula Hoops" (together with her cousin, 1960s singer Susan Singer), a school band which included Marc Bolan (then using his real name of Mark Feld) as guitarist. At 13, she started singing lessons at The Maurice Burman School of Modern Pop Singing, based in London's Baker Street, after the school produced singing star Alma Cogan. "I had always wanted to be a singer. I had no desire to slavishly follow Alma's style, but chose the school merely because of Alma's success", she said in a 1962 interview. Burman's connections included John Schroeder, a young songwriter and A&R man at EMI's Columbia Records, who recorded a demo of Shapiro singing "Birth of the Blues" and, motivated by her singing, signed her to the label.


title: Helen Shapiro

text: In February 1961, aged fourteen, Shapiro released her first single, "Don't Treat Me Like a Child". The song was recorded at EMI Recording Studios, Abbey Road with a nine-piece band under the direction of Martin Slavin. After Helen's appearance on the ITV music programme "Thank Your Lucky Stars", the record took off and reached No. 3 in the UK Singles Chart in May 1961. According to AllMusic, Shapiro's rich and mature voice made her "an extraordinary new phenomenon on the British pop scene." Her next single, the ballad "You Don't Know", topped the chart in August. The follow-up, "Walkin' Back to Happiness", was written by John Schroeder and Mike Hawker and featured backing orchestrations by Norrie Paramor. The single quickly reached the top of the chart with far greater sales than her last in October 1961, by which time Shapiro had turned 15. She had initially been reluctant to record the song as she considered it old-fashioned and corny. Both of Shapiro's No. 1 singles sold over a million copies, earning her two gold discs. Her mature voice made her an overnight sensation, as well as the youngest female chart topper in the UK.


title: Helen Shapiro

text: Shapiro's next single release, "Tell Me What He Said", peaked at No. 2, achieving her first four single releases in the top three of the UK Singles Chart. Her success led to film roles; she appeared as herself in the Billy Fury film "Play It Cool" and played the lead female role in Richard Lester's "It's Trad, Dad!".Her final UK Top Ten hit single was with the ballad "Little Miss Lonely", which peaked at No. 8 for two weeks in 1962. Before she was sixteen years old, Shapiro had been voted Britain's "Top Female Singer".


title: Helen Shapiro

text: The Beatles' first national tour of Britain, in the late winter and early spring of 1963, was as one of her supporting acts. During the course of the tour, John Lennon and Paul McCartney wrote the song "Misery" for her; but Shapiro's producer, Norrie Paramor, turned it down, and she did not record the composition. In 1995, during an episode of "This Is Your Life" highlighting her life and career, Shapiro revealed, "It was actually turned down on my behalf before I ever heard it, actually. I never got to hear it or give an opinion. It's a shame, really." Shapiro lip-synched her then-current single, "Look Who It Is", on the British television programme "Ready Steady Go!" with three of the Beatles (John Lennon, Ringo Starr and George Harrison).


title: Helen Shapiro

text: On 31 December 1969, Shapiro appeared in the BBC-ZDF co-production, "Pop Go The Sixties", singing "Walkin' Back to Happiness".


title: Helen Shapiro

text: By the time she was in her late teens, Shapiro's career as a pop singer was on the wane. With the new wave of beat music and newer female singers such as Dusty Springfield, Cilla Black, Sandie Shaw and Lulu, Shapiro appeared old-fashioned and emblematic of the pre-Beatles era of the 1950s. As her pop career declined, Shapiro turned to cabaret appearances, touring the workingmen's clubs of the north-east of England. Her final cabaret show took place at Peterlee's Senate Club on 6 May 1972, where she announced she was giving up touring as she was "travel-weary" and had had enough of "living out of a suitcase". Later, after a change of mind, she branched out as a performer in musical theatre and jazz, one of her musical interests.


title: Helen Shapiro

text: Shapiro played the role of Nancy in Lionel Bart's musical "Oliver!" in London's West End and appeared in a British television soap opera, "Albion Market", where she played one of the main characters until it was taken off air in August 1986. Shapiro also played the part of Sally Bowles in "Cabaret" and starred in "Seesaw" to great critical acclaim.


title: Helen Shapiro

text: Between 1984 and 2001, she toured extensively with the British jazz trumpeter Humphrey Lyttelton and his band, whilst still performing her own jazz and pop concerts. Her one-woman show, "Simply Shapiro", ran from 1999 to the end of 2002.


title: Helen Shapiro

text: Her autobiography, published in 1993, is titled "Walking Back to Happiness". She appeared as a guest on BBC Radio 4's "The Reunion" in August 2012. In March 2013 she appeared on BBC Radio 3's "Good Morning Sunday".


title: Helen Shapiro

text: Since 2015, she has played in a trio called Hebron with Chrissy Rodgers and Simon Elman. They are promoted via Shapiro's ministry umbrella, Manna Music.


title: Helen Shapiro

text: In 1982, Shapiro met John Judd (real name John Williams), an actor with numerous roles in British television and cinema. They were married on 31 August 1988.


title: Helen Shapiro

text: In the "Rock Notes" sketch on "Monty Python's Contractual Obligation Album", Eric Idle jokingly refers to "Helen Shapiro" as the last of many names with which a particular rock band reinvents itself after every break-up: "That last name, their favourite, had to be dropped following an injunction, and they split up again."


title: Adam Buxton

text: Adam Offord Buxton (born 7 June 1969) is an English actor, comedian, podcaster and writer. With the filmmaker Joe Cornish, he is part of the comedy duo Adam and Joe. They presented the Channel 4 television series "The Adam and Joe Show" (1996–2001) and the BBC Radio 6 Music series "Adam and Joe" (2007–2009, 2011).


title: Adam Buxton

text: Buxton has produced music videos, including several collaborations with the band Radiohead. In 2015, he launched "The Adam Buxton Podcast", in which he interviews comedians, authors, musicians, and celebrities. He has appeared on panel shows including "Would I Lie To You?", "Never Mind the Buzzcocks," and "8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown".


title: Adam Buxton

text: Buxton was born on 7 June 1969 in Shepherd's Bush, London, and spent some of his childhood in Wales. His father was the travel writer and wine critic Nigel Buxton, who later appeared on "The Adam and Joe Show" as "Baaad Dad". Adam's mother, Valerie (née Birrell), was Chilean.


title: Adam Buxton

text: Buxton was educated at Windlesham House School in Pulborough, West Sussex, then Westminster School, London. At Westminster, he befriended his future comedy partner Joe Cornish and the future documentarian Louis Theroux. He attended the University of Warwick for two terms before dropping out to study sculpture at Cheltenham College of Art.


title: Adam Buxton

text: Buxton's first television appearance was in an episode of Channel 4's "Takeover TV". In 1995, he hosted the show itself. Buxton and Joe Cornish formed the comedy duo Adam and Joe, and with the production company World of Wonder created "The Adam and Joe Show" for Channel 4. It ran for four series from 1996 to 2001. In 1999, "The Adam and Joe Book", a spin-off book written by Buxton and Cornish, was published. Buxton and Cornish presented radio shows on Xfm and later BBC Radio 6 Music, which won a Silver Sony Award for Best Entertainment Programme in 2012.


title: Adam Buxton

text: Buxton co-wrote and acted in the Channel 4 mini-series "The Last Chancers", broadcast in December 2004. In 2005, he performed character-driven comedy at the 2005 Edinburgh Festival, with a show entitled "I, Pavel", for which he grew a large beard.


title: Adam Buxton

text: Buxton appeared as a future version of himself in the BBC Two comedy series "Time Trumpet", which began a six-part series in August 2006. In 2007, he portrayed journalist Tim Messenger in Edgar Wright's film "Hot Fuzz". He has also appeared in the film "Stardust", covering for Noel Fielding, who was ill at the time of production. Buxton appeared in the BBC Three comedy sketch show "Rush Hour", which premièred on 19 March 2007.


title: Adam Buxton

text: Buxton has collaborated on several occasions with the band Radiohead. He assisted with a 2007 webcast from their studio, co-directed the videos for their 2008 singles "Jigsaw Falling into Place" and "Nude", and created a video vignette for their 2016 album "A Moon Shaped Pool." In January 2010, he appeared in the BBC comedy "The Persuasionists". He also featured in the 2007 film "Son of Rambow" as a teacher. Buxton released a number of videos on YouTube, and was commissioned to produce a pilot programme for the BBC based around work of this kind. This was broadcast as "MeeBOX" on BBC Three in June 2008, but a full series was not commissioned. He guest-starred in the 2011 film "The External World" by David O'Reilly.


title: Adam Buxton

text: In July 2012, Buxton appeared in a TV version of his tour "Bug" on Sky Atlantic, "Adam Buxton's BUG". He started performing the show in 2007, and has continued to tour the "Bug" show as well as hosting it regularly at the BFI in London. He is the narrator of some books available on the "Ladybird Classic Me Books" iPad app, including "Goldilocks and the Three Bears" and "Three Little Pigs". He has since narrated several other titles on the "Me Books" app such as "The Great Explorer", "The Brave Beast" and "The Lonely Beast" by children's illustrator and author Chris Judge. He also appeared in the "Doctor Who" audio drama "The One Doctor" by Big Finish Productions.


title: Adam Buxton

text: Buxton has made appearances on "Have I Got News for You", "Never Mind the Buzzcocks", "The IT Crowd", "Don't Watch That, Watch This" and "Look Around You" among others. He was also a panellist with Jonathan Ross for the "Big Fat Quiz of the '80s". Buxton has guest starred in several episodes of the comedy gameshow mash-up "8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown" featuring in "Dictionary Corner". In 2015 Buxton became the voice of Messy for children's TV animation "Messy Goes to Okido", which aired on 7 September 2015 on CBeebies. In 2017 Buxton made regular cameo appearances as "Jarhead" in the revamped version of "The Crystal Maze". He appeared in the video game "Lego City Undercover" for Nintendo's Wii U and the Illumination film "Sing 2".


title: Adam Buxton

text: Buxton released the audiobook version of his autobiography, "Ramble Book", in April 2020, published by HarperCollins. He provided voice acting roles for the Cartoon Network pilot "Beetle + Bean".


title: Adam Buxton

text: Since September 2015, Buxton has produced "The Adam Buxton Podcast", in which he interviews cultural figures including comedians, writers and musicians. The first series went out weekly in 2015 before a Christmas episode with Joe Cornish, in the style of their BBC Radio 6 show. Guests have included Louis Theroux, Joe Cornish and Charlie Brooker, as well as other public figures such as Jon Ronson, Caitlin Moran, Michael Palin and Brian Eno. It won Best Online Comedy Talk Show at the Online Radio Awards, Podcast Champion at the British Podcast Awards and the Internet Award from Chortle.


title: Economy of Argentina

text: The economy of Argentina is the second-largest national economy in South America, behind Brazil. Argentina is a developing country with a highly literate population, an export-oriented agricultural sector, and a diversified industrial base.


title: Economy of Argentina

text: Argentina benefits from rich natural resources. Argentina's economic performance has historically been very uneven, with high economic growth alternating with severe recessions, particularly since the late twentieth century. Income maldistribution and poverty have increased since this period. Early in the twentieth century, Argentina had one of the ten highest per capita GDP levels globally. It was on par with Canada and Australia, and had surpassed both France and Italy.


title: Economy of Argentina

text: Argentina's currency declined by about 50% in 2018 to more than 38 Argentine pesos per U.S. Dollar. As of that year, it is under a stand-by program from the International Monetary Fund. In 2019, the currency fell further by 25%. In 2020, it fell by 90%, in 2021, 68%, and a further 52% in 2022 (until July 20th).


title: Economy of Argentina

text: Argentina is considered an emerging market by the FTSE Global Equity Index (2018), and one of the G-20 major economies. In 2021, MCSI re-classified Argentina as a standalone market due to prolonged severe capital controls.


title: Economy of Argentina

text: Before the 1880s, Argentina was a relatively isolated backwater, dependent on the salted meat, wool, leather, and hide industries for both the more significant part of its foreign exchange and the generation of domestic income and profits. The Argentine economy began to experience swift growth after 1880 through the export of livestock and grain raw materials, and British and French investment, marking the beginning of a fifty-year era of significant economic expansion and mass European immigration.


title: Economy of Argentina

text: From 1880 to 1905, this expansion resulted in a 7.5-fold growth in GDP during its most vigorous period, averaging about 8% annually. One important measure of development, GDP per capita, rose from 35% of the United States average to about 80% during that period. Growth then slowed considerably, such that by 1941 Argentina's real per capita GDP was roughly half that of the U.S. Even so, from 1890 to 1950, the country's per capita income was similar to that of Western Europe; although income in Argentina remained considerably less evenly distributed. According to a study by Baten and Pelger and Twrdek (2009), where the authors compare anthropometric values, i.e., height with real wages, Argentina's GDP increased for the decades after 1870. Before 1910 however, the heights have been left unaffected. This, in turn, suggests that the increase in the population's welfare did not occur during the income expansion of the given period.


title: Economy of Argentina

text: The Great Depression caused Argentine GDP to fall by a fourth between 1929 and 1932. Having recovered its lost ground by the late 1930s partly through import substitution, the economy continued to grow modestly during World War II (contrary to the recession caused by the previous world war). The war led to reduced availability of imports and higher prices for Argentine exports that combined to create a US$1.6 billion cumulative surplus, a third of which was blocked as inconvertible deposits in the Bank of England by the Roca–Runciman Treaty. Benefiting from innovative self-financing and government loans alike, value-added in manufacturing nevertheless surpassed that of agriculture for the first time in 1943, employed over 1 million by 1947, and allowed the need for imported consumer goods to decline from 40% of the total to 10% by 1950.


title: Economy of Argentina

text: The populist administration of Juan Perón nationalized the Central Bank, railways, and other strategic industries and services from 1945 to 1955. The subsequent enactment of developmentalism after 1958, though partial, was followed by a good fifteen years. Inflation first became a chronic problem during this period (it averaged 26% annually from 1944 to 1974); but though it did not become fully "developed," from 1932 to 1974, Argentina's economy grew almost fivefold (or 3.8% in annual terms) while its population only doubled. While unremarkable, this expansion was well-distributed and so resulted in several noteworthy changes in Argentine society —most notably the development of the largest proportional middle class (40% of the population by the 1960s) in Latin America as well as the region's highest-paid, most unionized working class.


title: Economy of Argentina

text: However, the economy declined during the military dictatorship from 1976 to 1983 and for some time afterward. The dictatorship's chief economist, José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz, advanced a corrupt, anti-labor policy of financial liberalization that increased the debt burden and interrupted industrial development and upward social mobility. Over 400,000 companies of all sizes went bankrupt by 1982, and neoliberal economic policies prevailing from 1983 through 2001 failed to reverse the situation.


title: Economy of Argentina

text: Record foreign debt interest payments, tax evasion, and capital flight resulted in a balance of payments crisis that plagued Argentina with severe stagflation from 1975 to 1990, including a bout of hyperinflation in 1989 and 1990. Attempting to remedy this situation, economist Domingo Cavallo pegged the peso to the U.S. dollar in 1991 and limited the money supply's growth. His team then embarked on a path of trade liberalization, deregulation, and privatization. Inflation dropped to single digits, and GDP grew by one third in four years.


title: Economy of Argentina

text: External economic shocks and a dependency on volatile short-term capital and debt to maintain the overvalued fixed exchange rate diluted benefits, causing erratic economic growth from 1995 and the eventual collapse in 2001. That year and the next, the economy suffered its sharpest decline since 1930; by 2002, Argentina had defaulted on its debt. Its GDP had declined by nearly 20% in four years, unemployment reached 25%, and the peso had depreciated 70% after being devalued and floated.


title: Economy of Argentina

text: Argentina's socio-economic situation has since been steadily improving. Expansionary policies and raw materials exports triggered a rebound in GDP from 2003 onward. This trend has been primarily maintained, creating over five million jobs and encouraging domestic consumption and fixed investment. Social programs were strengthened, and a number of important firms privatized during the 1990s were renationalized beginning in 2003. These include the postal service, ASA (the water utility serving Buenos Aires), Pension funds (transferred to ANSES), Aerolíneas Argentinas, the energy firm YPF, and the railways.


title: Economy of Argentina

text: The economy nearly doubled from 2002 to 2011, growing an average of 7.1% annually and around 9% for five consecutive years between 2003 and 2007. Real wages rose by around 72% from their low point in 2003 to 2013. The global recession did affect the economy in 2009, with growth slowing to nearly zero; but high economic growth then resumed, and GDP expanded by around 9% in both 2010 and 2011. Foreign exchange controls, austerity measures, persistent inflation, and downturns in Brazil, Europe, and other important trade partners, contributed to slower growth beginning in 2012, however. Growth averaged just 1.3% from 2012 to 2014, and rose to 2.4% in 2015.