title: Who Goes There?

text: In January 2020, a new film was announced to be produced by Jason Blum's Blumhouse Productions and released and distributed by Universal Pictures (as a part of the former's first-look deal). The project is based on the "Frozen Hell" version of the story.


title: Who Goes There?

text: Héctor Germán Oesterheld and Alberto Breccia adapted the story as "Tres ojos" (Spanish: "Three Eyes") for their "Sherlock Time" series, published in the Argentine comic book "Hora Cero" (issues 89—104) from May to August 1959. In 1976, the story was also published in comic book form in issue 1 of "Starstream" with script by Arnold Drake and art by Jack Abel.


title: Who Goes There?

text: In 1991, Dark Horse Comics published a two-issue miniseries "The Thing from Another World" written by Chuck Pfarrer and drawn by John Higgins. It was followed in 1992 by a four-issue sequel, "Climate of Fear", written by John Arcudi. Standalone stories "Questionable Research" and "Eternal Vows" were further serialized in 1993-1994.


title: Who Goes There?

text: In 2010, Canadian science fiction writer Peter Watts published a short story titled "The Things" in which the alien entity from "Who Goes There?" is the first-person narrator. The characters and events are the same as those in the 1982 John Carpenter adaptation. In 2011, "The Things" was recorded and released by Escape Pod as an audio podcast.


title: Who Goes There?

text: In 2019, Wildside Press published "Short Things", a collection of short stories inspired by "Who Goes There?" and "The Thing". Edited by John Betancourt, "Short Things" features written contributions by G.D. Falksen ("Appolyon"), Paul Di Filippo ("Thingmaker"), Mark McLaughlin ("The Horror on a Superyacht"), Alan Dean Foster ("Leftovers"), Darrell Schweitzer ("The Interrogator"), Nina Kiriki Hoffman ("Good As Dead"), Kristine Kathryn Rusch ("A Mission at T-Prime"), Chelsea Quinn Yarbro ("The"), Kevin J. Anderson ("Cold Storage"), Pamela Sargent ("Two Wars"), Allen M. Steele ("According to a Reliable Source"), Allan Cole ("The Monster at World's End"), and Betancourt himself ("The Nature of the Beast"). It also contains illustrations by Dan Brereton, Marc Hempel and Mark Wheatley, among others.


title: Who Goes There?

text: The story has been adapted as a radio drama multiple times, including by BBC Radio 4 in their "Chillers" series (24 January 2002), and the "Suspense" radio drama series (2013). The earliest adaptation was for the "Exploring Tomorrow" radio series in 1958 (under the title "The Escape"), hosted by John W. Campbell, Jr. himself; however, no recordings of this episode are known to exist.


title: Who Goes There?

text: "The Thing" (2010 card game) and "" (2017 board game) are both based on the John Carpenter 1982 film. In 2002, Universal Interactive and Konami co-published the video game "The Thing", a third-person shooter and survival horror sequel to the film.


title: Who Goes There?

text: "Who Goes There?", a board game from Certifiable Studios, was released in May 2018, following a Kickstarter campaign, which raised over $612,000 compared to its $54,097 goal. It is available either as a complete game, or as an add-on for those with the first edition game already. In March 2020, Certifiable Studios launched a Kickstarter for a second edition of the game, promising updated mechanics and additional characters.


title: Who Goes There?

text: In December 1936, John W. Campbell himself had published a short story titled "Brain Stealers of Mars" in "Thrilling Wonder Stories", which also features shape-shifting, mind-reading aliens. The earlier story has a humorous tone, but takes a philosophical note as members of another alien race describe living stoically alongside the shapeshifters.


title: Who Goes There?

text: Writer A. E. van Vogt was inspired by "Who Goes There?" to write "Vault of the Beast" (1940), which he submitted to "Astounding Science Fiction". "I read half of it standing there at the news-stand before I bought the issue and finished it," van Vogt later recalled. "That brought me back into the fold with a vengeance. I still regard that as the best story Campbell ever wrote, and the best horror tale in science fiction."


title: Who Goes There?

text: The Thing is one of the aliens featured in "Barlowe's Guide to Extraterrestrials" (1979; second edition 1987). Barlowe's main illustration depicts the Thing halfway through its transformation into a sled dog.


title: Who Goes There?

text: The story is referenced, and embedded within "The Rack of Baal" (1985), a 'choose-your-own-adventure' gamebook written by Mark Smith and Jamie Thomson, about a time-travelling special agent called "The Falcon". A section of the plot plays out on a frozen world occupied by a single mining station crewed by only a few people. One inhabitant is one called 'Sil McReady', who, in a cynical inversion of the original story, actually turns out to be infected with the alien organism.


title: Who Goes There?

text: David Denby of "New York" magazine suggested that "Invasion of the Body Snatchers" (1956) and "Alien" (1979) may have been influenced by Campbell's story.


title: Who Goes There?

text: The 1972 film "Horror Express" is loosely based on the story, with the alien being transferring from a preserved prehistoric corpse to humans while traveling on a train.


title: Who Goes There?

text: The 1993 episode "Ice" of the science fiction TV series "The X-Files" borrows its premise from the storyline.


title: Who Goes There?

text: In the 1995 "" episode , a shapeshifting alien infiltrates the crew of a starship. The episode explores similar themes of paranoia and contains a "blood test" scene. The writers have cited "The Thing from Another World" as inspiration.


title: Who Goes There?

text: The 2013 episode "The Thingy!" of the family action-comedy series "The Aquabats! Super Show!" also borrows the story's premise, albeit in a much more comedic tone.


title: Who Goes There?

text: The fourth episode of the first season of the HBO crime drama "True Detective", first broadcast in 2014, is named after the novella.


title: Who Goes There?

text: The 2020 film "Friend of the World" is influenced by "The Thing" with themes of body horror and isolation. A title on the soundtrack is named after the novella.


title: Who Goes There?

text: In 2006, Dark Horse Comics released a pre-painted snap together model kit of the alien as described in the original short story. It was sculpted and painted by Andrea Von Sholly. The model was unlicensed and was simply titled 'The Space Thing'.


title: Aristocracy (class)

text: The aristocracy is historically associated with "hereditary" or "ruling" social class. In many states, the aristocracy included the upper class of people (aristocrats) with hereditary rank and titles. In some, such as ancient Greece, ancient Rome, or India, aristocratic status came from belonging to a military caste. It has also been common, notably in African societies, for aristocrats to belong to priestly dynasties. Aristocratic status can involve feudal or legal privileges. They are usually below only the monarch of a country or nation in its social hierarchy. In modern European societies, the aristocracy has often coincided with the nobility, a specific class that arose in the Middle Ages, but the term "aristocracy" is sometimes also applied to other elites, and is used as a more generic term when describing earlier and non-European societies. Some revolutions, such as the French Revolution, have been followed by the abolition of the aristocracy.


title: Aristocracy (class)

text: The term aristocracy derives from the Greek ( from () 'excellent' and () 'power'). The royals and the aristocrats or people from noble descent were called "Blue Bloods" in medieval times in English language. In most cases, aristocratic titles were and are hereditary.


title: Aristocracy (class)

text: The term was first used in Athens with reference to young citizens (the men of the ruling class) who led armies at the front line. roughly translates to "rule of the best born". Due to bravery being highly regarded as a virtue in ancient Greece, it was assumed that the armies were being led by "the best". This virtue was called (). Etymologically, as the word developed, it also produced a more political term: (). The term aristocracy is a compound word stemming from the singular of , (), and the Greek word for power, ().


title: Aristocracy (class)

text: From the ancient Greeks, the term passed to the European Middle Ages for a similar "hereditary class" of military leaders, often referred to as the nobility. As in Greece, this was a class of privileged men and women whose familial connections to the regional armies allowed them to present themselves as the most "noble" or "best" of society.


title: Miguel Herrán

text: Miguel Ángel García de la Herrán, best known as Miguel Herrán, is a Spanish actor. He is known for his lead roles in series "Élite" and "Money Heist". In 2016, he won the Goya Award for Best New Actor for his role in the film "Nothing in Return".


title: Miguel Herrán

text: A chance encounter with actor and director Daniel Guzmán in the streets of Malaga led to Herrán auditioning for the role of Darío in the film "Nothing in Return", which he won a Goya award for in 2016.


title: Miguel Herrán

text: In 2017, he was cast as Aníbal Cortés (codename 'Río') in the Antena 3 series "Money Heist", which was later picked up by Netflix. In 2018, he starred as Christian Varela in the Netflix original series "Élite".


title: Mukesh Rishi

text: Mukesh Rishi (born 19 April 1956) is an Indian actor and film producer who works primarily in Hindi and Telugu films. He has also appeared in Malayalam, Kannada, Punjabi, Marathi and Tamil films. He got his first break in Hindi in 1988 and has since, established himself as a leading character actor.


title: Mukesh Rishi

text: Although he started his career in films as a villain, he has diversified into positive roles. He joins a list of non-Telugu speaking actors, such as Amrish Puri, Puneet Issar, Paresh Rawal, Sharat Saxena, Pradeep Rawat, Narendra Jha, Rahul Dev, Mukul Dev, Sonu Sood, Ashutosh Rana, Sachin Khedekar, Boman Irani, and Sayaji Shinde who have successfully established themselves in Telugu movies.


title: Mukesh Rishi

text: Rishi was born in Jammu. After his graduation from Government College, Sector 11, Chandigarh, and working for two years in Mumbai, Rishi went to work in Fiji where he met his wife of Fijian-Indian descent. Her family ran a traditional departmental store. He has a lucrative Investment Portfolio including Warehouse Investements.


title: Mukesh Rishi

text: After marriage, they went to New Zealand, where Mukesh started his career as a model. However, he could hardly find time for modelling due to a busy work schedule and was dissatisfied with his modelling assignments. After seven years, he returned to Mumbai, India and enrolled in Roshan Taneja's acting school.


title: Conrad Bain

text: Conrad Stafford Bain (February 4, 1923 – January 14, 2013) was a Canadian-American comedian and actor. His television credits include a leading role as Phillip Drummond in the sitcom "Diff'rent Strokes", as Dr. Arthur Harmon on "Maude", and as Charlie Ross in "Mr. President" (1987–1988).


title: Conrad Bain

text: Conrad Bain was born in Lethbridge, Alberta, the son of Jean Agnes (née Young) and Stafford Harrison Bain,


title: Conrad Bain

text: who was a wholesaler. He was an identical twin. His twin, Bonard Bain, was also an actor. He studied at the Banff School of Fine Arts before serving in the Canadian Army during World War II. He later studied in New York at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts, graduating in 1948; one of his classmates was comedian Don Rickles. Bain became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1946.


title: Conrad Bain

text: After a stint at the Stratford Festival in Canada, Bain had further success as a stage actor in the 1956 revival of Eugene O'Neill's "The Iceman Cometh". "The New York Times" reviewer noted that his role was "especially well acted." Bain's Broadway theatre credits include "Candide", "Advise and Consent", "An Enemy of the People", "Uncle Vanya", and "On Borrowed Time". Off Broadway, he appeared in the original run of "Steambath". While doing stage work in New York City, Bain also found work on television, appearing in the cult supernatural soap opera "Dark Shadows" as the town innkeeper, Mr. Wells, during seasons 1 and 2. His character was killed off by werewolf Chris Jennings (Don Briscoe).


title: Conrad Bain

text: In the early 1960s, Bain was one of the principal organizers of the Actors Federal Credit Union. In an article in the "Credit Union Times", he recalled that "the effort grew out of the fact that, at least in the world of financial services, actors and other performers got no respect and, more importantly, no access to credit."


title: Conrad Bain

text: In the early 1970s, Bain appeared in New York–based films like "Lovers and Other Strangers" and Woody Allen's "Bananas" before achieving national recognition for his work in television. He is best known for his roles as Dr. Arthur Harmon, Bea Arthur's title character's conservative nemesis, who married her best friend, Vivian, in "Maude" (1972–78). He then starred in "Diff'rent Strokes" (1978–86) as Park Avenue millionaire Phillip Drummond, who adopted two African-American orphaned boys from Harlem, Willis and Arnold, to live with him and his daughter, Kimberly, and housekeeper, Mrs. Garrett. In 1979, he played Phillip Drummond in an episode of "The Facts of Life". In 1996, Bain reprised his role of Phillip Drummond alongside Gary Coleman as Arnold Jackson on the series finale of "The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air".


title: Conrad Bain

text: Bain had two sons and a daughter with Monica Sloan (1923–2009), to whom he wed in 1945; they remained married until her death in 2009. Bain's identical twin brother was actor Bonar Bain (1923–2005), who once played Arnold Harmon, the twin brother of Conrad's "Maude" character, Arthur Harmon.


title: Conrad Bain

text: Bain died from complications following a stroke on January 14, 2013, in Livermore, California, at the age of 89. His body was cremated.


title: Melasma

text: Melasma (also known as chloasma faciei, or the mask of pregnancy when present in pregnant women) is a tan or dark skin discoloration. Melasma is thought to be caused by sun exposure, genetic predisposition, hormone changes, and skin irritation. Although it can affect anyone, it is particularly common in women, especially pregnant women and those who are taking oral or patch contraceptives or hormone replacement therapy medications.


title: Melasma

text: The symptoms of melasma are dark, irregular, well-demarcated, hyperpigmented macules to patches. These patches often develop gradually over time. Melasma does not cause any other symptoms beyond the cosmetic discoloration. Patches can vary in size from 0.5 cm to larger than 10 cm depending on the person. Its location can be categorized as centrofacial, malar, or mandibular. The most common is centrofacial, in which patches appear on the cheeks, nose, upper lip, forehead, and chin. The mandibular category accounts for patches on the bilateral rami, while the malar location accounts for patches only on the nose and cheeks.


title: Melasma

text: Melasma is thought to be the stimulation of melanocytes (cells in the dermal layer, which transfer the pigment melanin to the keratinocytes of skin) when the skin is exposed to ultraviolet light from the sun. Small amounts of sun exposure can make melasma return to the skin after it has faded, which is why people with melasma often get it again and again, particularly in the summer.


title: Melasma

text: Pregnant women often get melasma, or chloasma, known as the mask of pregnancy. Birth-control pills and hormone replacement therapy also can trigger melasma. The discoloration usually disappears spontaneously over a period of several months after giving birth or stopping the oral contraceptives or hormone treatment.


title: Melasma

text: Genetic predisposition is also a major factor in determining whether someone will develop melasma. People with the Fitzpatrick skin type III or greater from African, Asian, or Hispanic descent are at a much higher risk than others. In addition, women with a light brown skin type who are living in regions with intense sun exposure are particularly susceptible to developing this condition.


title: Melasma

text: The incidence of melasma also increases in patients with thyroid disease. It is thought that the overproduction of melanocyte-stimulating hormone brought on by stress can cause outbreaks of this condition. Other rare causes of melasma include allergic reaction to medications and cosmetics.


title: Melasma

text: Melasma suprarenale (Latin - above the kidneys) is a symptom of Addison's disease, particularly when caused by pressure or minor injury to the skin, as discovered by FJJ Schmidt of Rotterdam in 1859.


title: Melasma

text: The severity of facial melasma may be assessed by colorimetry, mexametry, and the melasma area and severity index (MASI) score.


title: Melasma

text: Melasma should be differentiated from freckles, solar lentigo, toxic melanoderma, Riehl's melanosis, post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation, friction melanosis, ochronosis (endogenous and exogenous), cutaneous erythematosus lupus. Additionally, it should not be confused with phytophotodermatosis, pellagra, endogenous phototoxicity, nevus of Ota, "café au lait" macules, seborrheic keratosis, Civatte's poikiloderma, acquired bilateral nevus of ota-like macules (Hori's nevus), periorbital hyperpigmentation, erythrose pigmentaire peribuccale of Brocq, erythromelanosis follicularis faciei, facial acanthosis nigricans, and actinic lichen planus.


title: Melasma

text: Also, cases of drug-induced pigmentation have been reported, caused by amiodarone, or hydroquinone-induced exogenous ochronosis (see ochronosis treatment)


title: Melasma

text: Assessment by a dermatologist can help guide treatment. Treatments to hasten the fading of the discolored patches include:


title: Melasma

text: Evidence-based reviews found that the most effective therapy for melasma includes a combination of topical agents. Triple combination creams formulated with hydroquinone, tretinoin, and a steroid component have shown to be more effective than dual combination therapy or hydroquinone alone. More recently, a systematic review found that oral medications also have a role in melasma treatment, and have been shown to be efficacious with a minimal number and severity of adverse events. Oral medications and dietary supplements employed in the treatment of melasma include tranexamic acid, "Polypodium leucotomos" extract, beta‐carotenoid, melatonin, and procyanidin.


title: Melasma

text: Oral procyanidin combined with vitamins A, C, and E shows promise as safe and effective for epidermal melasma. In an 8-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in 56 Filipino women, treatment was associated with significant improvements in the left and right malar regions, and was safe and well tolerated.


title: Melasma

text: In all of these treatments, the effects are gradual and a strict avoidance of sunlight is required. The use of broad-spectrum sunscreens with physical blockers, such as titanium dioxide and zinc oxide, is preferred, because UV-A, UV-B, and visible lights are all capable of stimulating pigment production.


title: Melasma

text: Many negative side effects can go along with these treatments, and treatments often are unsatisfying overall. Scarring, irritation, lighter patches of skin, and contact dermatitis are all commonly seen. Patients should avoid other precipitants, including hormonal triggers. Cosmetic camouflage can also be used to hide melasma.


title: The Wolf Among Us 2

text: The Wolf Among Us 2 is an upcoming episodic graphic adventure game being developed and published by Telltale Games with assistance of AdHoc Studio, a studio that consists of former Telltale staff. It is a sequel to the 2013 game "The Wolf Among Us," with the title taking place six months following the events of the previous title.


title: The Wolf Among Us 2

text: When "The Wolf Among Us" was completed by July 2014, Telltale Games had thought of doing a second season, but they had already committed to the projects leading to "Tales from the Borderlands", "", and "Game of Thrones". The company was aware of strong interest in a second season through the intervening years, and they were looking for the right time to develop it.


title: The Wolf Among Us 2

text: A second yet-to-be-named season was announced during the July 2017 San Diego Comic Con and was originally set to premiere in 2018 for personal computers, consoles, and mobile devices. Both Adam Harrington and Erin Yvette were to return to voice Bigby Wolf and Snow White, respectively. Stauffer said that Season Two would not resolve the apparent cliffhanger related to Nerissa's connection to Faith; he said that it was meant to be ending similar to a film noir work that made the viewer think about the implications, but never saw this themselves as a cliffhanger. Instead, Season 2 would have continued on with more narrative related to Bigby and Snow White.


title: The Wolf Among Us 2

text: By May 2018, Telltale announced that due to recent internal studio issues, they had to push back the release of the sequel until 2019. In September 2018, Telltale had a majority studio closure due to "insurmountable challenges", cancelling "The Wolf Among Us"s second season among other projects in development.


title: The Wolf Among Us 2

text: Upon Telltale's revival by LCG Entertainment, "The Wolf Among Us" was one of the titles reacquired by LCG, but no announcement was made at that time about the sequel. The company announced "The Wolf Among Us 2" at The Game Awards 2019. The sequel will continue events after the first game, though still remain as a prequel to the comic series. The game is being developed in association with AdHoc Studio, formed by former Telltale Games staff, who will focus on the game's narrative and cinematic elements while Telltale will implement the gameplay and other designs. In addition to returning Telltale staff, Harrington and Yvette will return to voice Bigby and Snow White, and Jared Emerson-Johnson will compose music for the game. The game is being developed on the Unreal Engine 4, and will be released in an episodic approach. This sequel will be worked completely from scratch, using none of the ideas and initial work that had been done under the former Telltale banner before its closure. Unlike the past development cycle approach at the former Telltale where each episode was developed in a standalone fashion, all episodes of "The Wolf Among Us 2" are being developed simultaneously. The game is set to be released in 2023.


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: Mr. India is a 1987 Indian Hindi-language superhero film directed by Shekhar Kapur and produced jointly by Boney Kapoor and Surinder Kapoor under the former's banner, Narsimha Enterprises. Starring Anil Kapoor, Sridevi, and Amrish Puri, the duo Salim–Javed wrote the screenplay and story, marking their last collaboration before their split. It focuses on Arun Verma (Anil Kapoor), a poor street violinist and philanthropist who receives a cloaking device that grants him invisibility. While renting out his house to pay his debts, he meets the journalist Seema Sohni (Sridevi) and falls in love with her.


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: After watching his previous directorial venture "Masoom", a 1983 family drama about children, Boney Kapoor approached Kapur to make another film with similar themes. Principal photography, handled by Baba Azmi, took place in Srinagar, Mumbai, and other locations in India, starting in July 1985, and finished after 350 days. Laxmikant–Pyarelal composed the soundtrack, while Akhtar wrote the lyrics. After filming ended, Waman Bhonsle and Gurudutt Shirali jointly edited it; Peter Pereira completed the special effects.


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: "Mr. India" was released on 25 May 1987. It emerged as a commercial success and became the second highest-grossing film of the year at the Indian box office, where it earned against a budget; it was also an overseas hit in China. It received widespread acclaim from contemporary and modern critics, with most of them appreciating the performances of Anil Kapoor and Sridevi. In 2013, Sridevi was awarded the Special Award at the 58th Filmfare Awards.


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: "Mr. India" was a breakthrough for its director and cast members and became a milestone in Hindi cinema for its rarely filmed superhero genre, which was followed by several Indian films in later years. It was remade in Tamil as "En Rathathin Rathame" (1989) and Kannada as "Jai Karnataka" (1989). A 3D sequel, titled "Mr. India 2", was announced in 2011 but has not entered production.


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: Mogambo is a criminal whose goal is to conquer India. From his hidden island, he monitors all the evil-doings perpetrated by his henchmen. His catchphrase, "Mogambo khush hua" ("Mogambo is pleased") and "Hail Mogambo!", used by his subordinates, shows his complete authority over his minions. On the other hand, Arun is a street violinist and philanthropist who rents a large, old house to take care of ten orphans with the help of his cook named "Calendar". Arun is seldom able to make ends meet and owes many debts, so he decides to rent out the room on the first floor. Seema, his first tenant, is a local journalist who eventually becomes friends with everyone. Arun falls in love with her.


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: He receives a mysterious letter from a family friend, Professor Sinha, which reveals that Arun's late father—who was a renowned scientist—had created a cloaking device that would make its user invisible. It still needed to be patented, and because Arun was the only son, it was his responsibility to complete the protocols and sign the paperwork for it. Arun saw this as an opportunity and immediately hatched a plan to get the device. With the directions in the letter, and accompanied by his ward, Arun enters his father's old laboratory. When the device is activated, it makes the wearer invisible unless red light is focused on the wearer. Arun decides to keep it a secret.


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: After a few months as a tenant, Seema is invited to a lavish party hosted by an acquaintance, and she performs a song under the guise of a famous Hawaiian dancer, who is unable to make it to the party. After the performance, she is nearly killed by criminals who think she is a spy, but Arun comes to her rescue, styling himself as an invisible person and introducing himself to them as "Mr. India". Seema subsequently falls for her rescuer, however, Arun keeps his identity as Mr. India secret for a few more months. One day, Arun uses the device to trick one of Mogambo's henchmen to foil his criminal plans; he reports the incident to his leader.


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: Thereafter, Mogambo has bombs disguised as toys planted in public places. Tina—one of the orphans who stays at Arun's house—finds the traps and takes them, resulting in her death. Arun, Seema, Calendar, and the other orphans are all captured by the Mogambo's henchmen as prime suspects and brought for interrogation before him. Mogambo tortures them so he can reveal Mr. India's identity and the location of the device. Arun eventually admits to this when Mogambo threatens to kill two children; but because Arun has lost the device by accidentally dropping it somewhere during the capture, he cannot become invisible to prove himself. Mogambo sends them into the dungeons temporarily.


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: However, they are able to escape by stealing the keys from a guard. Meanwhile, Mogambo activates four intercontinental ballistic missiles, which are poised to destroy all of India. Arun confronts him, the two fight, and Arun gains the upper hand. But as he is about to stop the missiles, Mogambo warns that everyone present will die if Arun succeeds. Nevertheless, Arun deactivates the launch, and the missiles detonate on the launch pad. Arun, Seema, Calendar, and the children escape; Mogambo's fortress is destroyed, and Mogambo dies.


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: After watching Shekhar Kapur's family film "Masoom" (1983), producer Boney Kapoor approached him to make another film with themes related to children; Kapur immediately accepted the offer and received a salary. Kapur had been a fan of comic books and always wanted to make a superhero film. He had written several comic books that received international acclaim: "Devi", "Snakewoman", "The Warlord", "The Omega Crystal", and "Mantra". Salim–Javed, a duo consisting of Salim Khan and Javed Akhtar, was signed to write the story and screenplay for . Several publications claimed they took inspiration from the science fiction films "Mr. X" (1957) and "Mr. X In Bombay" (1964), but Kapur denied these reports saying that he never found copies of the films. Kapur wrote the dialogue in Hindustani, a mix of Hindi and Urdu. Boney Kapoor co-produced the film alongside his father, Surinder Kapoor, under the Narsimha Enterprises banner.


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: Anil Kapoor and Sridevi were cast as the main protagonists, Amrish Puri as the principal antagonist. Anil Kapoor plays Arun, a poor street violinist and philanthropist who rents a large, old house to help ten orphans. Salim–Javed made the role specifically for Rajesh Khanna, but later they asked Amitabh Bachchan to play it when they found Khanna did not suit the role. Bachchan, however, felt that the concept of an invisible man would overshadow his performance, saying, "The real hero of the film is an invisible character. So why do you need me?". The duo took this as an "insult", and at a Holi festival held a few days later, Akhtar told him that neither he nor Khan would work with him again. In fact, Khan never said that and blamed Akhtar for this misunderstanding. This resulted in their split, making "Mr. India" their final collaboration. In an interview with Rediff.com, Anil Kapoor admitted he added his "own style" to the role so the audience would not realize it "was going to be done" by Bachchan.


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: Sridevi was given the role of Seema, a journalist who becomes a friend and then falls in love with Arun. After watching several of her Tamil-language films from the 1970s, Boney Kapoor cast his future wife in the film and went to Madras (present-day Chennai) to meet her. Kapur said he cast Sridevi solely because she "represented every Indian male's dreams" with "her baby-face" and "luscious body". Having established herself as one of the most popular actresses, she charged the producer to , while her mother Rajeswari Yanger, who often accompanied her, asked for . Kapur actually paid her a higher amount, around . This was the first film Kapur had shot with the actress.


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: Satish Kaushik, who also served as an associate director alongside Raj Kanwar, portrays Calendar, Arun's assistant. When asked by "The Hindu" about his character's name, he explained it originated from his father's (a Delhi-based salesman) dealer who liked to insert the word "calendar" while talking. After hearing the story from his father, Kaushik suggested the idea to Kapur, who liked it immediately. Annu Kapoor features as Gaitonde, Sridevi's newspaper editor; he was paid . Amrish Puri was cast as Mogambo, a character that was inspired by Ibn-e-Safi's "Jasoosi Dunya", following his meeting with Boney Kapoor and Kapur while shooting the 1987 thriller "Loha" in Ooty. It was reported that he received a salary of , making him the highest-paid Indian villain actor of all time. The part was initially offered to Anupam Kher, however, after his screen test, the crew believed he looked "more funny than ferocious". According to Kaushik, Puri was chosen later because of his "menacing" persona. Kapur asked him to imagine he is playing a Shakespearean character to "nine-year-old kid" while portraying Mogambo.


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: Baba Azmi began the principal photography of "Mr. India" on 6 July 1985. In later years, Kapur recalled it as "terrible days" for him and spoke the difficulties he and the film's cast and crew members faced in this period. According to Kapur, "[It] had to be shot slowly because of all the trick photography and technical innovation it entailed." Saroj Khan and Veeru Devgan were the choreographer and action director, respectively, while Bijon Dasgupta finished the production design. A big set was built at the R. K. Studio for Mogambo's sequences. The film's opening scene, featuring a group of governmental officers alighting from heavily armoured vehicles, was shot at the Sophia College for Women in Mumbai.


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: The sequences where Sridevi dresses up as Charlie Chaplin's on-screen character The Tramp took between 30 and 35 days to finish. In an interview in "Filmfare" December 1992 issue, she called the sequences "my all-time favourite" and revealed that the film's crew loved her while she wore the costume. The song "Kate Nahin Kat Te" was shot in Srinagar. Saroj Khan found it to be the "most difficult song" of her career, and said she took fifteen minutes to do the choreography, requiring her to create "sensuous movements". Filming was finished after 350 days and Waman Bhonsle and Gurudutt Shirali edited it. Kapur asked them to cut several repeats of the line, "Mogambo khush hua", as he felt it appeared too often in the film. Akhtar disagreed with him, convincing him that the line would be popular with the audience. Peter Pereira handled the special effects. He used mechanical effects to make Anil Kapoor's character invisible and stop-motion technique for his footprints.


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: The duo Laxmikant–Pyarelal composed the film's soundtrack with lyrics written by Akhtar. The title of the song "Hawa Hawai"—initially "Kahate Hain Mujhko Hawa Hawai" ("They Call Me Hawa Hawai")—originated from an Urdu phrase, ""Bhai kahan hawa hawai ghoom rahe ho?"" ("Brother, how come you are floating about?"). Akhtar used only the words "hawa hawai" because he felt it was "more interesting". Anuradha Paudwal, Alisha Chinai, Kavita Krishnamurthy, Kishore Kumar, and Shabbir Kumar performed the vocals. The song "Hawa Hawai" was originally sung by another singer (sources do not mention who), but Laxmikant–Pyarelal chose Krishnamurthy months later because they believed she was the "perfect" choice.


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: T-Series released the album on 30 October 1986; it became a commercial success. 2.5 million cassettes were sold, according to a 24 July 1987 "The Indian Express" report. M. Rahman of "India Today" wrote it "has started a trend and film-goers will be hearing similar music over and over again in several forthcoming films". In 2018, Scroll.in praised Kapur's ability to "insert grown-up feelings into an otherwise family-friendly film without being tasteless" in "Kate Nahin Kat Te". The song, which Nikhat Kazmi labelled as the "encapsulation of the feminine nonpareil", was parodied in "Rangeela" (1995), "Aiyyaa" (2012), and "Gunday" (2014), and sampled in the song "O Janiya" from "Force 2" (2016). "Hawa Hawai" was referenced in "Salaam Bombay!" (1988), inspired the title of Amole Gupte's 2014 drama film, and was remixed for "Tumhari Sulu" in 2018; Sridevi performed it at the Hope '86 concert in Calcutta (present-day Kolkata).


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: "Mr. India" was one of the most anticipated Indian films of 1987, and journalists expected it to be a breakthrough for Anil Kapoor's acting career. Made on a budget of , a big budget for an Indian film at the time, Sujata Films distributed the film and released it on 25 May 1987. It ran at theatres for over 175 days, becoming a silver jubilee film. The "Hindustan Times" declared it "the talk of the town" in Bombay (present-day Mumbai), while "Sunday" magazine reported Kapur had become one of Bombay's "hottest directors". Trade analysts raved about Sridevi's performance, suggesting the film's title be changed to "Miss India".


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: Several film festivals have screened "Mr. India" since its release. In August 2002, it was shown at the Locarno International Film Festival. On 22 April 2007, the film was selected for the Bollywood by Night section at the Indian Film Festival of Los Angeles. Anil Kapoor attended a special screening for the film at Indiana University on 7 October 2014. Following Sridevi's death, on 23 June 2018, the London Indian Film Festival screened it as a tribute to her. "Mr. India" was released on DVD in all regions as a single-disc pack in NTSC and PAL widescreen formats on 9 August 2007 and 10 February 2009, respectively.


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: A commercial success, it emerged as the second highest-grossing film of the year at the Indian box office, surpassed only by "Hukumat"; the film-trade website Box Office India estimated the total earnings at . "Mr. India" was also an overseas box office hit in China, upon its release there in February 1990.


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: "Mr. India" garnered positive reviews, with most critics praising Anil Kapoor and Sridevi's performances. On 31 May, "The Illustrated Weekly of India" editor Pritish Nandy described it as an "enjoyable potboiler", and opined Sridevi's "joie de vivre" uplifted the film. He praised, "Her sense of spoof: the effortless sensuality that results in collective orgasm at the rise of a single eyebrow, let alone elaborate song sequences in the rain where she flaunts her every single asset, with easy insouciance." On 30 June, "India Today" said that Sridevi "breathes life into every scene that she appears in", adding that she had delivered a "scintillating" performance. In his 31 July review for "The Indian Express", the critic C. D. Aravind praised Anil Kapoor for giving "a reasonably good performance". He also appreciated Sridevi, writing that she was the "perfect choice" for the role of Seema; he felt the film's special effects were "commendable" and "on [a] par with any foreign film". In October 1987, a reviewer from "Sunday" observed she has "given the best performance" of her career, attributing the film's success to the actress. "Bombay: The City Magazine"—in the 1987 issue—commended the film for heralding "a new hero who does the disappearing act to turn the tables on the enemies of the nation".


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: "Mr. India" received favourable reviews in the twenty-first century; several reviewers considered it to be a "balance between novelty, technology and all the ingredients of a typically entertaining potboiler". Saibal Chatterjee summarized, "The comic-strip simplicity of narrative and the infectious exuberance of the storytelling made it extremely easy for the massed to relate to the film." K. K. Rai, writing for "Stardust", found the screenplay to be "fun-filled" and complimented Kapur for directing the film with "spirit". Sukanya Verma wrote, "Shekhar Kapur's 1987 classic is a labour of love, ambition and ingenuity. Under his direction and Salim–Javed's penmanship, it celebrates compassion and human spirit with generous doses of humour, thrills, music and contrivances." She observed the special effects "don't feel dated" and likened it to the computer-generated images from nowadays' films. Planet Bollywood's Shahid Khan felt the director "deftly mixes all the elements of sci-fi, romance and comedy so well. The mixture is so irresistible that the film tempts more than one viewing." "The Indian Express" Shaikh Ayaz noted that the film "features one of Sridevi's most immensely enjoyable performances".


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: In 2013, Sridevi was awarded a Special Award by the Filmfare Awards for her performances in both the film and "Nagina" (1986).


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: "Mr. India" attained cult status in Hindi cinema, and many critics have considered it one of the greatest Indian films of all time. Director and critic Raja Sen claimed the film "remains one of the most watchable of that decade, a groundbreaking piece of work with the power to create a new Bollywood genre". Rediff.com's Suparn Verma said it "belongs to every kid and teenager of the 1980s [...] It was a film that gave us hope, a film that made us believe in something extraordinary existing amongst us." It is dubbed as the first mainstream Bollywood science fiction film, and became a turning point for Kapur. In an article published in "Verve", Karthik Keramalu credited the film for "[opening] the gates to the idea of a superhero" and "[inspiring] a generation of directors". According to Scottish tabloid "Glasgow Times", he has built a reputation as "the Steven Spielberg of India". Kapur has said:


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: Following its success, people asked him to make another film with the same cast of children, and several producers offered him a chance to direct their films. Kapur said, "[...] someone told me I would make a lot of money, I realised it was a fundamental reason not to make a film, as it is the beginning of making a bad film". Kunal Kohli, who had watched the film 200 times as of 2008, elaborated that the film's "spirit and essence is just fantastic" and said he had always wanted to make the same type of film. Prawaal Raman declared it as his "all-time favourite", adding, "That's why while making "Gayab" [(2004)], I never even thought of comparing my film to "Mr. India". It is a classic." The film was remade in Tamil as "En Rathathin Rathame" and Kannada as "Jai Karnataka" (both 1989).


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: "Mr. India" also became a landmark for Anil Kapoor and Sridevi's career, and in 1992, "Sunday" featured the film amongst the latter's "landmark films". The actress Vidya Balan told "The Hindu" that she was impressed by Sridevi's acting, and thought that "[i]f there ever was an encyclopaedia on acting, it would be called Sridevi". In 2003, the "Encyclopaedia of Hindi Cinema" noted, ""Mr. India" is most remembered for the outrageously exaggerated villainy of Mogambo who seems to have been inspired by the combined eccentricities of the [James] Bond villains." "Filmfare", in 2013, named Mogambo the second-most iconic villain in the history of Indian cinema. Puri's dialogue, "Mogambo khush hua", became popular, and he was subsequently offered the same type of roles in later films. His son, Rajeev Puri, revealed that the actor would be asked to speak the dialogue at every award function he attended. He became the highest-paid villain actor at the time. The dialogue was included in several listings, including "Film Companion" "50 Iconic Bollywood Dialogues", "Filmfare" "20 Most Famous Bollywood Dialogue", and NDTV's "10 Killer Lines Made Famous by Bollywood Villains". The actor Sunny Deol's role in "" (2003) and the musician Riz Ahmed's 2018 single (from "The Long Goodbye" album) were modelled and named, respectively, after the character.


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: Several lists have featured the film. In 2005, Rachna Kanwar of "The Times of India" considered it to be one of "25 must-see Bollywood movies", noting, "The audiences were thrilled every time Amrish Puri glared down at them with his fiercely bulbous eyes sporting an atrocious blond wig and garish knee high silver heeled boots. They came back again and again to hear him mouth possibly the most repeated line of Hindi cinema (post 80s) [...]" The film was featured by CNN-IBN on their 2013 list of "100 Greatest Indian Films of All Time". The next year, "Filmfare" included it in their list "100 Filmfare Days". As part of Indian Independence Day's celebration in 2015, the "Hindustan Times" listed it on its "Top 10 Patriotic Bollywood Films" list. The newspaper "Mint" has featured the film in their listings three times: "10 Bollywood Superhero Films" and "Children's Day: 10 Memorable Bollywood Films" in 2016, and "70 Iconic Films of Indian Cinema" in 2017.


title: Mr. India (1987 film)

text: Boney Kapoor announced in 2011 that "Mr. India" will have a 3D sequel, titled "Mr. India 2", and was expected for release in November 2014. While Anil Kapoor and Sridevi would reprise their roles, Salman Khan was cast for the role of Mogambo, marking his third collaboration with the producer after "No Entry" (2005) and "Wanted" (2009). Co-produced the film with Sahara Motion Pictures, Boney Kapoor chose A. R. Rahman as the music director. Made on a budget of , the filming was originally planned to start in 2012, however, as of April 2021, it has not begun production. In June 2018, at the 19th IIFA Awards, Anil Kapoor admitted that Sridevi's death four months before and the absence of Puri (who died in January 2005) affected the production, but he added: "We will try our best to follow their legacies so that we can make them proud that we made good films and they all appreciate what we have done."


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The Lotus Sūtra (; ) is one of the most influential and venerated Buddhist Mahāyāna sūtras. It is the main scripture on which the Tiantai, Tendai, Cheontae, and Nichiren schools of Buddhism were established. It is also influential for other East Asian Buddhist schools, such as Zen. According to the British Buddhologist Paul Williams, "For many Buddhists in East Asia since early times, the "Lotus Sūtra" contains the final teaching of Shakyamuni Buddha—complete and sufficient for salvation." The American Buddhologist Donald S. Lopez Jr. writes that the "Lotus Sūtra" "is arguably the most famous of all Buddhist texts," presenting "a radical re-vision of both the Buddhist path and of the person of the Buddha."


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Two central teachings of the "Lotus Sūtra" have been very influential for Mahāyāna Buddhism. The first is the doctrine of the One Vehicle, which says that all Buddhist paths and practices lead to Buddhahood and so they are all merely "skillful means" of reaching Buddhahood. The second is the idea that the lifespan of the Buddha is immeasurable and that therefore, he did not really pass on into final Nirvana (he only appeared to do so as "upāya"), but is still active teaching the Dharma.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The earliest known Sanskrit title for the sūtra is the "Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra", which can be translated as "the Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma" or "The Discourse on the White Lotus of the True Doctrine." In English, the shortened form "Lotus Sūtra" is more common.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: According to Donald S. Lopez Jr., the "puṇḍarīka" (the white lotus) is "a symbol of particular purity in Indian literature," while the term "saddharma" ("true doctrine") is "used to distinguish the "Lotus Sūtra" from all other previous teachings of the Buddha." The lotus flower imagery is also said to point to the earthly connection of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. The lotus is rooted in the earthly mud and yet flowers above the water in the open air, just like the bodhisattva lives in the world but remains unstained by it.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The Japanese Buddhist priest Nichiren (1222–1282) regarded the title as the summary of the "Lotus Sūtra" teachings. The chanting of the title is the basic religious practice he advocated during his lifetime.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The "Lotus Sūtra" is known for its extensive instruction on skillful means (Sanskrit: "upāyakauśalya" or "upāya", Ch.: "fangbian", Jp.: "hōben"), which refers to how Buddhas teach in many ways adapted to the needs of their disciples. This concept of Buddhist pedagogical strategies is often explained through parables or allegories. In the "Lotus", the many 'skillful' or 'expedient' practices and teachings taught by the Buddha (including the "three vehicles" to awakening) are revealed to all be part of the "One Vehicle" (Skt.: "ekayāna", Ch.:一乘; "yīchéng"), the supreme and all encompassing path that leads to Buddhahood. Moreover, this single vehicle is none other than the myriad skillful means which are its expressions and modes. As the Buddha says in the sutra "seek as you will in all ten directions, there is no other vehicle, apart from the "upāyas" of the buddhas."


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The One Vehicle is associated with the Mahāyāna ("Great Vehicle"), which is a path that rejects the cutting off of rebirth (the individual nirvana or "extinction" of the Buddhist saint) and seeks to heroically remain in the world of suffering to help others attain awakening, all while working towards complete Buddhahood. In the "Lotus Sūtra", the One Vehicle encompasses many different and seemingly contradictory teachings because the Buddha's great compassion and wish to save all beings ("bodhicitta") led him to adapt the teaching to suit many different kinds of people and contexts. As the Buddha states in the "Lotus Sūtra": "Ever since I became a buddha, I have used a variety of causal explanations and a variety of parables to teach and preach, and countless skillful means to lead living beings."


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The "Lotus Sūtra" sees also all other teachings are subservient to, propagated by and in the service of the ultimate truth of the "One Buddha–Vehicle", a goal that is available to all. This can and has been interpreted by some figures in an exclusive and hierarchical sense, as meaning that all other Buddhist teachings are to be dispensed with. However, Reeves and other interpreters understand the one vehicle in a more pluralist and inclusive sense which embraces and reconciles all Buddhist teachings and practices. Some have even applied this universalism to non-Buddhist teachings.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Reeves also notes that the theme of unity and difference also includes other ideas besides the one vehicle. According to Reeves "on more than one occasion, for example, the many worlds of the universe are brought together into a unity." Similarly, though there are said to be many Buddhas, they are all closely connected with Shakyamuni and they all teach the same thing.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Another important teaching of the "Lotus Sūtra" is that all beings can become Buddhas. The sutra sees the awakening of a Buddha as the only and ultimate goal and it boldly claims that "of any who hear the dharma, none shall fail to achieve buddhahood". Numerous figures in the sutra receive predictions of future Buddhahood, including the ultimate Buddhist villain Devadatta. In chapter 10, the Buddha points out that all sorts of people will become Buddhas, including monks, nuns, laypeople, along with numerous non-human beings like nagas. Even those, who practice only simple forms of devotion, such as paying respect to the Buddha, or drawing a picture of the Buddha, are assured of their future Buddhahood.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: According to Gene Reeves, this teaching also encourages this potential for Buddhahood in all beings, even in enemies as well as "to realize our own capacity to be a buddha for someone else." According to Reeves, the story of the little Dragon Girl promotes the idea that women can also become Buddhas just like male monks. Reeves sees this as an inclusive message which "affirms the equality of everyone and seeks to provide an understanding of Buddha-dharma that excludes no one."


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Although the term buddha-nature ("buddhadhatu") is not mentioned in the "Lotus Sūtra", Japanese scholars Hajime Nakamura and Akira Hirakawa suggest that the concept is implicitly present in the text. An Indian commentary (attributed to Vasubandhu), interprets the "Lotus Sūtra" as a teaching of buddha-nature and later East Asian commentaries tended to adopt this view. Chinese commentators pointed to the story of bodhisattva Never Disparaging in chapter 20 as evidence that the Lotus taught buddha-nature implicitly.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Another key concept introduced by the "Lotus Sūtra" is the idea that the Buddha's lifespan is immeasurable and that he is still present in the world. The text states that the Buddha actually achieved Buddhahood innumerable eons ago, but remains in the world to help teach beings the Dharma time and again. The lifespan of the Buddha is said to be incalculable, beyond imagination, "ever enduring, never perishing." The biography and apparent death ("paranirvana", "final nirvana") of Sakyamuni Buddha (i.e. the Buddha Gautama) are portrayed as an illusory manifestation, a skillful means meant to teach others.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The idea that the physical death of a Buddha is the termination of their life is graphically refuted by the appearance of another Buddha, Prabhūtaratna, who has taught the "Lotus" countless aeons ago. The "Lotus Sūtra" indicates that not only can multiple Buddhas exist in the same time and place (which contrasts with earlier Indian views), but that there are countless streams of Buddhas extending throughout all of space and through unquantifiable eons of time. The "Lotus Sūtra" illustrates a sense of timelessness and the inconceivable, often using large numbers and measurements of space and time.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Jacqueline Stone writes that the "Lotus Sūtra" affirms the view that the Buddha constant abides in our present world. As the "Lotus" states in chapter 16, the Buddha remains "constantly dwelling in this Sahā world sphere, preaching the dharma, teaching and converting." According to Stone, the sutra has also been interpreted as promoting the idea that the Buddha's realm ("buddhakṣetra") "is in some sense immanent in the present world, although radically different from our ordinary experience of being free from decay, danger and suffering." In this view, which is very influential in Tiantai and Japanese Buddhism, "this world and the pure land are not, ultimately, separate places but are in fact non dual."


title: Lotus Sutra

text: According to Gene Reeves, the "Lotus Sūtra" also teaches that the Buddha has many embodiments and these are the countless bodhisattva disciples. These bodhisattvas choose to remain in the world to save all beings and to keep the teaching alive. For Reeves "the fantastically long life of the Buddha, in other words, is at least partly a function of and dependent on his being embodied in others."


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The sutra is presented in the form of a drama consisting of several mythological scenes. According to British writer Sangharakshita, the Lotus uses the entire cosmos for its stage, employs a multitude of mythological beings as actors and "speaks almost exclusively in the language of images."


title: Lotus Sutra

text: According to Gene Reeves the first part of the sutra "elucidates a unifying truth of the universe (the One Vehicle of the Wonderful Dharma)", the second part "sheds light on the everlasting personal life of the Buddha (Everlasting Original Buddha); and the third part emphasizes the actual activities of human beings (the bodhisattva way)."


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The following chapter by chapter overview is based on the expanded Chinese version of Kumārajīva, the most widely translated version into other languages. Other versions have different chapter divisions.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: During a gathering at Vulture Peak, Shakyamuni Buddha goes into a state of deep meditative absorption ("samadhi"), the earth shakes in six ways, and he brings forth a ray of light from the tuft of hair in between his eyebrows ("ūrṇākośa") which illuminates thousands of buddha-fields in the east. Maitreya wonders what this means, and the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī states that he has seen this miracle long ago when he was a student of the Buddha Candrasūryapradīpa. He then says that the Buddha is about to expound his ultimate teaching, "The White Lotus of the Good Dharma". In fact, Mañjuśrī says this sutra was taught by other Buddhas innumerable times in the past.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Modern scholars suggest that chapters 2–9 contain the original form of the text. In Chapter 2 the Buddha declares that there ultimately exists only one path, one vehicle, the Buddha vehicle ("buddhayāna"). This concept is set forth in detail in chapters 3–9, using parables, narratives of previous existences and prophecies of awakening.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Shakyamuni explains his use of skillful means to adapt his teachings according to the capacities of his audience. He also says that his ways are inconceivable. Śāriputra asks the Buddha to explain this and five thousand monks leave because they do not want to hear this teaching. The Buddha then reveals that the three vehicles ("yānas") are really just skillful means, and that they are in reality the One Vehicle ("ekayāna"). He says that the ultimate purpose of the Buddhas is to cause sentient beings "to obtain the insight of the Buddha" and "to enter the way into the insight of the Buddha."


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The Buddha also states the various benefits for those who preserve the sutra, and that those who perform even the simplest forms of devotion will eventually reach Buddhahood. The Buddha also states that those who reject and insult the "Lotus Sūtra" (and those who teach it) will be reborn in hell.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The Buddha prophecies that in a future eon ("kalpa") Śāriputra will become a Buddha called Padmaprabha. Śāriputra is happy to have heard this new teaching, but says that some in the assembly are confused. The Buddha responds with the parable of the burning house, in which a father (symbolizing the Buddha) uses the promise of various toy carts to get his children (sentient beings) out of a burning house (symbolizing samsara). Once they are outside, he gives them all one large cart to travel in instead. This symbolizes how the Buddha uses the , as skillful means to liberate all beings – even though there is only one single vehicle to Buddhahood, i.e. the Mahāyāna. The sutra emphasizes that this is not a lie, but a compassionate salvific act.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Four senior disciples including Mahākāśyapa address the Buddha. They tell the parable of the poor son and his rich father (sometimes called the "prodigal son" parable). This man left home and became a beggar for 50 years while his father became incredibly rich. One day the son arrives at the father's estate, but the son does not recognize his father and is afraid of such a powerful man. The father therefore sends low class people to offer him a menial job cleaning trash. For over 20 years, the father gradually leads his son to more important and better jobs, such as being the accountant for all the father's wealth. Then one day he announces his identity and the son is overjoyed. The senior disciples say that they are like the son, because initially they did not have the confidence to accept full Buddhahood, but today they are happy to accept their future Buddhahood.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: This parable says that the Dharma is like a great monsoon rain that nourishes many different kinds of plants in accordance with their needs. The plants represent Śrāvakas, Pratyekabuddhas, and Bodhisattvas, and all beings which receive and respond to the teachings according to their respective capacities. Some versions of the sutra also contain other parables, such as one which compares the Dharma to the light of the Sun and moon, which shine equally on all. Just like that, the Buddha's wisdom shines on everyone equally. Another parable found in some versions says that just like a potter makes different types of pots from the same clay, the Buddha teaches the same One Vehicle in different forms.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The Buddha prophesies the future Buddhahood of Mahākāśyapa, Mahāmaudgalyāyana, Subhūti, and Mahākātyāyana.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The Buddha tells a story about a past Buddha called Mahābhijñājñānābhibhū, who reached awakening after aeons under the Bodhi tree and then taught the four noble truths and dependent origination. At the request of his sixteen sons, he then taught the "Lotus Sūtra" for a hundred thousand eons. His sons proceeded to teach the sutra. The Buddha then says that these sons all became Buddhas and that he is one of these.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The Buddha also teaches a parable about a group of people seeking a great treasure who are tired of their journey and wish to quit. Their guide creates a magical illusory city for them to rest in and then makes it disappear. The Buddha explains that the magic city represents the "Hinayana Nirvana", created merely as a rest stop by the Buddha, and the real treasure and ultimate goal is Buddhahood.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Pūrṇa Maitrāyaṇīputra is declared by the Buddha to be the supreme teacher in his saṅgha and is given a prediction of future Buddhahood (his name will be Dharmaprabhāsa). The Buddha then gives prophecies of future Buddhahood to twelve hundred arhats. The five hundred arhats who had walked out before confess that they were ignorant in the past and attached to the inferior nirvana but now they are overjoyed since they have faith in their future Buddhahood.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The arhats tell the parable of a man who has fallen asleep after drinking and whose friend sews a jewel into his garment. When he wakes up he continues a life of poverty without realizing he is really rich, he only discovers the jewel after meeting his old friend again. The hidden jewel has been interpreted as a symbol of Buddha-nature. Zimmermann noted the similarity with the nine parables in the "Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra" that illustrate how the indwelling Buddha in sentient beings is hidden by negative mental states.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Ānanda, Rāhula, and two thousand bhikṣus aspire to get a prophecy, and the Buddha predicts their future Buddhahood.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Chapters ten to twenty two expound the role of the bodhisattva and the concept of the immeasurable and inconceivable lifespan and omnipresence of the Buddha. The theme of propagating the "Lotus Sūtra" which starts in chapter 10, continues in the remaining chapters.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The Buddha states that whoever hears even just one line from the sūtra will attain Buddhahood. This chapter presents the practices of teaching the sutra which includes accepting, embracing, reading, reciting, copying, explaining, propagating it, and living in accordance with its teachings. The teachers of the Dharma ("dharmabhāṇaka") are praised as the messengers of the Buddha. The Buddha states that they should be honored as if they were Buddhas and that stupas should be built wherever the sutra is taught, recited or written. Someone who does not know the "Lotus" is like digging a well and finding only dry earth, while a bodhisattva that knows the "Lotus" is like striking water. The Buddha also says that he will send emanations to protect the teachers of the sutra.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: A massive jeweled stupa (a stylized Buddhist reliquary burial mound) rises from the earth and floats in the air. Then a voice is heard from within praising the "Lotus Sūtra". The Buddha states that another Buddha resides in the stupa, Prabhūtaratna, who attained awakening through the "Lotus Sūtra" and made a vow to make an appearance to verify the truth of the "Lotus Sūtra" whenever it is preached.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Countless manifestations of Shakyamuni Buddha in the ten directions are now summoned by the Buddha into this world, transforming it into a Pure Land. The Buddha then opens the stupa. Thereafter Prabhūtaratna invites Shakyamuni to sit beside him in the jeweled stupa. This chapter reveals the existence of multiple Buddhas at the same time as well as the idea that Buddhas can live on for countless aeons. According to Donald Lopez "among the doctrinal revelations that this scene intimates is that a buddha does not die after he passes into nirvāna."


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The Buddha tells a story about how in a previous life he was a king who became the slave of a rishi just so he could hear the "Lotus Sūtra". This rishi was none other than Devadatta, who is destined for Buddhahood in the future as the Buddha Devarāja.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: In another story, Mañjuśrī praises the nāga king Sāgara’s daughter and says she can attain Buddhahood. The bodhisattva Prajñākūṭa is skeptical of this, and then the nāga princess appears. Śāriputra says that women cannot attain Buddhahood. The nāga princess makes an offering to the Buddha of a precious jewel and then says she can reach Buddhahood faster than she made that offering. She then turns into a male bodhisattva and becomes a Buddha. Through these stories, the Buddha teaches that everyone can become enlightened – men, women, animals, and even the most sinful murderers.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The Buddha encourages all beings to embrace the teachings of the sutra in all times, even in the most difficult ages to come. The bodhisattvas Bhaiṣajyarāja, Mahāpratibhāna and two hundred thousand others promise to teach the sutra in the future. The Buddha prophecies that the six thousand nuns who are also present, including Mahāprajāpatī and Yaśodharā, will all become Buddhas.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Mañjuśrī asks how a bodhisattva should spread the teaching. The Buddha explains the four qualities they should cultivate to teach the sutra. First, they should be self-controlled and correctly see the characteristics of phenomena and they should stay apart from worldly life. Secondly, they should see the emptiness of phenomena. Thirdly, they should be happy and never criticize and discourage people from enlightenment. Finally, they should have compassion for people and wish to attain Buddhahood so they may help liberate others. Virtues such as patience, gentleness, a calm mind, wisdom and compassion are to be cultivated.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The bodhisattvas from other world systems say they will help the Buddha teach this sutra here, but the Buddha says their help is not needed—he has many bodhisattvas here. Then the ground splits open and countless bodhisattvas spring up from the earth (lead by Viśiṣṭacāritra, Anantacāritra, Viśuddhacāritra, and Supratiṣṭhitacāritra), ready to teach. Maitreya asks who these bodhisattvas are since nobody has heard of them before. The Buddha affirms that he has taught all of these bodhisattvas himself in the remote past after attaining Buddhahood. Maitreya then asks how this is possible, since these bodhisattvas have been training for aeons.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The Buddha (Tathagatha) states that he actually attained Buddhahood countless quintillions of eons ago. He has only appeared to become awakened recently as a skillful means to teach others. The Buddha also says that he only appears to pass into final nirvāṇa, but actually he does not really do so. This is just a expedient teaching so that beings will not become complacent. The Buddha then teaches the Parable of the Excellent Doctor who entices his poisoned sons into taking an antidote by feigning his death. After they hear this they are shocked and take the medicine. The doctor then reveals he is still alive. Because the Buddha uses skillful means in this way, he should not be seen as a liar, but as an intelligent teacher.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The Buddha explains the merit ("punya") or benefits that come from listening to and believing in this teaching on the Buddha's lifespan. He says that this teaching has led countless bodhisattvas, as many as the sands of the Ganges, to various levels of spiritual accomplishment. He also says that there is greater benefit in hearing and believing the "Lotus Sūtra" than practicing the first five perfections for eons. The Buddha states that those who have faith in this teaching will see this world as a pure land filled with bodhisattvas. Those who have faith in the sutra have already made offerings to past Buddhas and they do not need to build stupas or temples. These beings will developed excellent qualities and attain Buddhahood. This chapter also says that Caityas should be built to honor the Buddha.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The Buddha states that the merit generated from rejoicing in this sutra (or in even just a single line from it) is far greater than bringing thousands of beings to arhathood. The merits of listening to the sutra, for even a moment, are extensively praised in this chapter.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The Buddha praises the merits of those who are devoted to the "Lotus Sūtra". He states that their six sense bases ("ayatanas") will become purified and develop the ability to experience the senses of billions of worlds as well as other supernatural powers.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The Buddha tells a story about a previous life when he was a bodhisattva called Sadāparibhūta ("Never-disparaging" or "Never-disrespectful") and how he treated every person he met, good or bad, with respect, always remembering that they will become Buddhas. Never-disparaging experienced much ridicule and condemnation by other monastics and laypersons but he always responded by saying "I do not despise you, for you will become a buddha." He continued to teach this sutra for many lifetimes until he reached Buddhahood.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: This chapter reveals that the sutra contains all of the Buddha's secret spiritual powers. The bodhisattvas who have sprung from the earth (in chapter 15) are entrusted with the task of spreading and propagating it and they promise to do so. Śākyamuni and Prabhūtaratna extend their tongues into the Brahmā realm, emitting numerous rays of light along with countless bodhisattvas. This miracle lasts for a hundred thousand years. Then they clear their throats and snap their fingers, which is heard in all worlds and all worlds shake. All beings in the universe are then given a vision of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas. All Buddhas praise Śākyamuni for teaching the "Lotus". The Buddha says that the merits of teaching the sutra is immeasurable and that any place where it is being taught or copied is a holy place.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The Buddha transmits the "Lotus Sūtra" to all bodhisattvas in his congregation and entrusts them with its safekeeping and its propagation far and wide. The Buddha Prabhūtaratna in his jeweled stupa and the countless manifestations of Shakyamuni Buddha return to their respective buddha-fields. According to Donald Lopez, the "Lotus Sūtra" "appears to end with Chapter Twenty-Two, when the Buddha exhorts his disciples to spread the teaching, after which they return to their abodes...scholars speculate that this was the final chapter of an earlier version of the "Lotus", with the last six chapters being interpolations." This is the final chapter in the Sanskrit versions and the alternative Chinese translation. Shioiri suggests that an earlier version of the sutra ended with this chapter and that chapters 23–28 were inserted later into the Sanskrit version.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The Buddha tells the story of the 'Medicine King' (Bhaiṣajyarāja) bodhisattva, who, in a previous life as the bodhisattva Sarvasattvapriyadarśana, set his body on fire, lighting up many world systems for twelve years, as a supreme offering to a Buddha. This chapter teaches the practice "offering the body", which involves burning a part of one's body (such as toe, finger, or a limb) as an offering. The hearing and chanting of the "Lotus Sūtra" is also said to cure diseases. The Buddha uses nine similes to declare that the "Lotus Sūtra" is the king of all sutras.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Gadgadasvara ('Wonderful Voice'), a bodhisattva from a distant world, visits Vulture Peak to worship the Buddha. Gadgadasvara once made offerings of various kinds of music to the Buddha Meghadundubhisvararāja. His accumulated merits enable him to take on many different forms to propagate the "Lotus Sūtra".


title: Lotus Sutra

text: This chapter is devoted to bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara (Skt. “Lord Who Looks Down”, Ch. "Guanyin," “Regarder of the Cries of the World”), describing him as a compassionate bodhisattva who hears the cries of sentient beings, and rescues those who call upon his name.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Hariti and several bodhisattvas offer sacred "dhāraṇī" (magical formulas) in order to protect those who keep and recite the "Lotus Sūtra".


title: Lotus Sutra

text: A bodhisattva called "Universal Virtue" or "All Good" (Samantabhadra) asks the Buddha how to preserve the sutra in the future. Samantabhadra promises to protect and guard all those who keep this sutra in the future. He says that those who uphold the sutra will be reborn in the Trāyastriṃśa and Tuṣita heavens. He also says that those who uphold this sutra will have many good qualities and should be seen and respected as Buddhas.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: According to Lopez, the "Lotus" "is clearly a work of high literary quality. Its authors are unknown, but they were likely highly educated Buddhist monks, fully at ease among the doctrines and tropes of Buddhism as it existed in India at the time." According to Peter Alan Roberts, the "Lotus Sūtra" may have had its origin among the Mahāsāṃghika school and may have been written in a middle Indic language (a "prakrit") that was subsequently Sanskritized. The idea that the sutra was originally in prakrit remains a contested claim among both secular and religious historians.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The "Lotus Sūtra" was frequently cited in Indian scholarly treatises and compendiums and several authors of the Madhyamaka and the Yogacara school discussed and debated its doctrine of the One Vehicle. According to Jonathan Silk, the influence of the Lotus Sūtra in India may have been limited, but "it is a prominent scripture in East Asian Buddhism." Jacqueline Stone and Stephen F. Teiser meanwhile write that "it is perhaps no exaggeration to say that the "Lotus Sūtra" has been the most influential Buddhist scripture in East Asia." The sutra has most prominence in Tiantai (sometimes called "The Lotus School") and Nichiren Buddhism.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: According to Donald Lopez "the general scholarly consensus is that the "Lotus Sūtra" took shape in four phases". One of the earliest four layer theory of the development of the sutra was Kogaku Fuse's.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Stephen F. Teiser and Jacqueline Stone opines that there is consensus about the stages of composition but not about the dating of these strata. Author Yoisho Tamura argues that the first stage of composition (Chapters 2—9) was completed around 50 CE and expanded by chapters 10–21 around 100 CE. He dates the third stage (Chapters 22—27) around 150 CE.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: According to Lopez, "the number of surviving manuscripts and manuscript fragments of the "Lotus Sūtra" suggests that the text was copied often." The "Lotus Sūtra" is also cited in numerous scholarly treatises and compendiums, including in the Compendium of Sūtras ("Sūtrasamuccaya," which cites four passages from the "Lotus"), in the Compendium of Training ("Śiksāsamuccaya", three passages), in the "Dazhidu lun" (23 citations) and in the Great Compendium of Sūtras ("Mahāsūtrasamuccaya") by the eleventh-century Bengali master Atiśa. It is cited by Indian Buddhists such as Vasubandhu (in his commentary on the "Mahāyānasaṃgraha"), Candrakīrti ("Madhyamakāvatāra-bhāṣya"), Śāntideva, Kamalaśīla and Abhayākaragupta.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: According to Paramārtha (499–569 CE), there were over fifty Indian commentaries on the "Lotus". However, there is now only one surviving Indian commentary (which only survives in Chinese). It is attributed to Vasubandhu (but this has been questioned by scholars). This commentary asserts the superiority of the "Lotus" above all other sutras.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The "Lotus Sūtra"'s doctrine of the One Vehicle was not received equally by all Indian Buddhist traditions. While this doctrine was fully embraced by the Madhyamaka school, the Yogācāra school saw the "Lotus Sūtra" as a provisional text. Thus, for the Indian Yogācāra thinkers, the doctrine of the One Vehicle should not be taken literally, since it is merely provisional ("neyārtha"). According to Donald Lopez "the Yogācāra commentators argue in turn that the declaration that there is but one vehicle is not definitive but provisional, requiring interpretation; it is not to be taken to mean that there are not, in fact, three vehicles. When the Buddha said that the buddha vehicle was the one vehicle, he was exaggerating. What he meant was that it was the supreme vehicle." For Yogācāra scholars, this sutra was taught as an expedient means for the benefit of those persons who have entered the lesser śrāvaka vehicle but have the capacity to embrace the Mahāyāna.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: An Indian version of the "Lotus Sūtra" was translated into Tibetan by Yeshé Dé, and the Indian translator Surendrabodhi during the reign of King Ralpachen (r. 815–38). This version most closely matches the Chinese version of Jñānagupta and Dharmagupta, as well as the Nepalese Sanskrit version.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Three translations of the "Lotus Sūtra" into Chinese are extant. It was first translated into Chinese by 's team in 286 C. E. in Chang'an during the Western Jin Period (265–317 CE). It was initially held that the source text was in Sanskrit, however, the view that the source text was actually in a Prakrit language has gained widespread acceptance.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: This early translation by Dharmarakṣa was superseded by a translation in seven fascicles by Kumārajīva's team in 406 C.E. which became the standard translation in East Asian Buddhism. According to Jean-Noël Robert, Kumārajīva relied heavily on the earlier version. The Sanskrit editions are not widely used outside of academia. Kumārajīva's version is missing the Devadatta chapter which had been present in the Dharmaraksa version.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The third extant version, "The Supplemented Lotus Sūtra of the Wonderful Dharma" (Chinese: "Tiān Pǐn Miào Fǎ Lián Huá Jīng"), in 7 volumes and 27 chapters, is a revised version of Kumārajīva's text, translated by Jñānagupta and Dharmagupta in 601 C. E. This version included elements that were absent in the Kumārajīva text, including the Devadatta chapter, various verses and the concluding part of chapter 25. Later, these elements were added back to the Kumārajīva text.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The Chinese "Lotus Sūtra" has been translated into other Asian languages including Uighur, Tangut, and more recently colloquial Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese, and Korean.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: One of Kumārajīva's great disciples, Daosheng (355–434), wrote the oldest surviving Chinese commentary on the "Lotus Sūtra" (titled the "Fahua jing yishu"). For Daosheng, the central teaching of the sutra is the One Vehicle. According to Lopez, Daosheng divided the sutra into three parts (omitting the Devadatta Chapter): "the first thirteen chapters demonstrate that the cause of the three vehicles becomes the cause of the one vehicle. The next eight chapters demonstrate that the effect of the three vehicles is also the effect of the one vehicle. The final six chapters demonstrate that the followers of the three vehicles are the same as the followers of the one vehicle." Daosheng was also known for promoting the concept of Buddha nature and the idea that even deluded people will attain enlightenment.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Already during the Tang Dynasty, Daoxuan (596–667) was writing that the "Lotus Sūtra" was "the most important sutra in China". Kuiji (632–82), a disciple of Xuanzang, wrote a commentary on the "Lotus". This commentary was translated into Tibetan and survives in the Tibetan Buddhist canon. Numerous other commentators from different Chinese Buddhist traditions wrote commentaries on the "Lotus"". One topic of debate among Chinese commentators to the "Lotus" was the "three carts or four carts" debate which focused on whether the One Vehicle was the same as the bodhisattva vehicle or a different vehicle that transcends the Mahāyāna.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Chinese exegetes also disagreed on whether the Buddha of the "Lotus Sūtra" had an infinite life or a finite life (of immeasurable length) as well as on the issue of whether the ultimate, primordial Buddha of the "Lotus" referred to the Dharma-body ("dharmakaya"), to the reward body ("sambhogakaya"), or to the manifest, physical body ("nirmanakaya").


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Perhaps the most influential Chinese commentator on the "Lotus Sūtra" was Zhiyi (538–597), a patriarch of the Tiantai School, who was said to have experienced awakening while reading the "Lotus Sūtra." Zhiyi was a student of Nanyue Huisi who was the leading authority of his time on the Lotus Sūtra.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Zhiyi adopted Daosheng's division of the sutra into three parts. For Zhiyi, the first fourteen chapters are "the trace teaching" (Ch. "jimen; shakumon" in Japanese) and the second fourteen chapters are the "fundamental" or "original" teaching ("benmen;" Jp. "honmon"). For Zhiyi, the key message of the first part is the One Vehicle, while the key message of the second half (the fundamental teaching of the whole text) is the immeasurable lifespan of the Buddha. According to Lopez, "Zhiyi compares the fundamental teaching with the moon shining in the sky and the trace teaching with a moon reflected in a lake; the first is the source of the second." The Chinese practice of developing systems of doctrinal classifications ("panjiao") was adopted by Zhiyi, which he interpreted through the doctrine of the One Vehicle. For Zhiyi, while other sutras provide different messages for their intended audiences, the "Lotus" is uniquely comprehensive and holistic.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Zhiyi's philosophical synthesis saw the "Lotus Sūtra" as the final teaching of the Buddha and the highest teaching of Buddhism. There are two major commentaries from Zhiyi on the sutra, the "Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sūtra" ("Fahua xuanyi") which explains the main principles of the text and the "Words and Phrases of the Lotus Sutra" (法華文句 "Fahua Wenzhu"), which comments on specific passages. These two works were compiled by Zhiyi's disciple Guanding (561–632). For Zhiyi, the central principle of the "Lotus Sūtra"'s One Vehicle is the "Threefold Truth", a doctrine he developed out of Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka philosophy which posited a twofold truth. For Zhiyi, this was the unifying principle which included all of the teachings of the Buddha's teachings and practices. According to Lopez and Stone, Zhiyi's view of the "Lotus" was an inclusive vision which had a place for every Buddhist sutra, teaching and practice.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Zhiyi also linked the teachings of the "Lotus Sūtra" with the Buddha nature teachings of the "Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra." Zhiyi also interpreted the Buddha of the "Lotus Sūtra" as referring to all three Buddha bodies of the Trikaya. According to Stone and Teiser, for Zhiyi "the dharma body is the truth that is realized; the reward body is the wisdom that realizes it; and the manifest body, a compassionate expression of that wisdom as the human buddha who lived and taught in this world." For Zhiyi, Vairocana (the primordial Buddha) is seen as the "bliss body" ("sambhogakāy"a) of the historical Gautama Buddha. Zhiyi also wrote texts which outlined various spiritual practices that made use of the Lotus Sūtra. For example, chanting the sūtra is an element of one of the "Four samādhis" ("sizhǒng sānmèi") in Zhiyi's magnum opus, the "Mohe Zhiguan". He also composed the "Lotus Samādhi Rite of Repentance" ("Fahua sanmei chanyi") based on the sūtra.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The later Tiantai scholar Zhanran (711–778) wrote sub-commentaries to Zhiyi's works on the "Lotus". Based on his analysis of chapter 5, Zhanran would develop a new theory which held that even insentient beings such as rocks, trees and dust particles, possess buddha-nature. This doctrine would be adopted and developed by Japanese Buddhists like Saichō and Nichiren.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Due to the religious and sacred emphasis on the Buddhist text, some East Asian traditions have compiled the "Lotus Sūtra" together with two other sutras which serve as a prologue and epilogue


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The combination of these three Sutras is often called the "Threefold Lotus Sūtra" or "Three-Part Dharma Flower Sutra" (; Japanese: ).


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The "Lotus Sūtra" has also been an extremely influential text in Japanese Buddhism. One of the oldest Japanese texts is the "Hokke Gisho", a commentary on the "Lotus Sūtra" based on the Chinese commentary by Fayun (467–529 CE). By the 8th century, the sūtra was important enough that the emperor had established a network of nunneries, the so-called "Temples for the Eradication of Sins through the "Lotus"" ("Hokke metsuzai no tera"), in each province, as a way to protect the royal family and the state. There were also various "Lotus Sūtra" rituals that were held throughout Japan, at both temples and aristocratic households. They were believed to help the dead and to grant long life to the living. These rituals are mentioned in "The Tale of Genji." The sūtra was also very influential on Japanese art and some copies of the text are highly elaborate and ornate.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The Tiantai school was brought to Japan by Saichō (767–822), who founded the Japanese Tendai tradition and wrote a commentary to the "Lotus Sūtra", which would remain central to Tendai. Saichō attempted to create a great synthesis of the various Chinese Buddhist traditions in his new Tendai school (including esoteric, Pure Land, Zen and other elements), all which would be united under the Lotus One Vehicle doctrine. Saichō also understood the "Lotus Sūtra" to be a "great direct path" to Buddhahood which could be reached in this very life and in this very body. Saichō taught that the Dragon king's daughter story was evidence for this direct path ("jikidō") to Buddhahod which did not require three incalculable eons.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Like Zhiyi, the Japanese Tendai school (as well as the Nichiren tradition which is influenced by Tendai) divided the "Lotus Sūtra" into two parts, the trace or provisional teachings ("shaku-mon", Chapters 1–14) and the essential teaching ("hon-mon", Chapters 15–22) of the true and original Buddha.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Post-Saichō Tendai leaders like Ennin and Enchin also adopted further teachings from Esoteric Buddhism ("mikkyō)" into their interpretation and practice of the "Lotus". These figures interpreted the "Lotus" as an esoteric text, and the Buddha of the "Lotus Sūtra" became seen as timeless and omnipresent cosmic reality that is immanent in all things. By reciting mantras, performing mudras and using mandalas in esoteric rituals, Tendai monks sought to unite their body, speech and mind with that of the Buddha and attain "Buddhahood in this very body" ("sokushin jōbutsu"). According to Jacqueline Stone, in Tendai esotericism, "the cosmic buddha is identified with the primordially enlightened Sakyamuni of the "Life Span" chapter, and his realm—that is, the entire universe—is conceived in mandalic terms as an ever-present, ongoing "Lotus Sūtra" assembly."


title: Lotus Sutra

text: As a result of this interpretation, all the provisional Buddhas (such as Amida, Dainichi, and Yakushi) were integrated into the Primordial Buddha of immeasurable life from the latter half of the "Lotus Sūtra". These esoteric influences also led to the development of the Tendai concept of original enlightenment ("hongaku hōmon"). According to this theory, Buddhahood is not a distant goal, but is always present as the true inherent nature of all things. Buddhist practice is a way to realize this nature.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Apart from the major Heian period Tendai temples, there also arose groups of independent "Lotus Sūtra" devotees ("jikyōsha") or "Lotus holy ones" ("hokke hijiri"). Many of them were mountain ascetics, or recluses ("tonsei") who disliked the large established temples and saw them as more concerned with worldly gain. They focused instead on practices based on the simple recitation, listening or reading of the "Lotus Sūtra" in solitary places ("bessho"), something which did not require temples and ritual paraphernalia. Hokke hijiri also engaged in esoteric "taimitsu" and Daoist immortality practices. These figures feature prominently in the "Hokke Genki", a collection of "Lotus Sūtra" stories and miracles by the priest Chingen, which sees the hokke hijiri as being superior to aristocrats or traditional monks.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Tendai Buddhism was the dominant form of mainstream Buddhism in Japan for many years and the influential founders of later popular Japanese Buddhist sects including Nichiren, Honen, Shinran and Dogen were trained as Tendai monks.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The Japanese monk Nichiren (1222–1282) founded a new Buddhist school based on his belief that the "Lotus Sūtra" is "the Buddha's ultimate teaching", and that the title is the essence of the sutra, "the seed of Buddhahood". He was originally a Tendai monk, but grew to believe that Tendai had become corrupt and had turned away from the Lotus Sūtra and embraced all sorts of useless practices, such as esoteric Buddhism and Pure Land devotionalism. Nichiren taught that chanting the title of the "Lotus Sūtra" in a phrase called the daimoku ("Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō," "Glory to the Dharma of the "Lotus Sūtra"") – was the only effective Buddhist practice in what he believed was the current degenerate age of Dharma decline (Skt. "saddharmavipralopa", Jp. "mappo"). This was to be recited in front of a gohonzon ("object of veneration"). According to Stone, Nichiren believed that "the immanent Buddha realm is an ever-present reality" which one could access by this practice.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Nichiren held that all other Buddhist sects were gravely mistaken and doomed to Avīci hell because they "slandered the true Dharma" (Skt. "saddharmapratiksepa"; Jp. "hōbō") by seeing other teachings as being above or equal to the "Lotus Sūtra". He also held that the current social and political chaos in Japan was caused by this sinful behavior. He therefore tasked himself and his followers with rescuing as many people as possible by getting them to abandon their heretical forms of Buddhism through direct confrontation ("shakubuku") and converting them to the one vehicle of the "Lotus". He believed that establishing the true Dharma of the "Lotus" in Japan would lead to lasting peace and he identified with the bodhisattva Viśiṣṭacāritra, leader of the bodhisattvas of the earth which appear in chapter 15.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Nichiren thus vehemently attacked the teachings of all other Japanese Buddhist sects in person and in print. This behavior would often lead to the persecution of Nichiren and Nichiren Buddhists. Nichiren saw this persecution as a compassionate act of self-sacrifice, which needed to be endured. He found this ideal in chapters 10–22 as the "third realm" of the Lotus Sutra ("daisan hōmon") which emphasizes the need for a bodhisattva to endure the trials of life in the defiled "sahā" world. For Nichiren, these trials and tribulations were termed "shikidoku" ("reading [the "Lotus Sūtra"] with the body") and they were believed to burn off negative karma. Nichiren Buddhism went through various developments and schisms after the death of Nichiren.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The "Lotus Sūtra" was also a key source for Dōgen (1200–1263), the Japanese founder of Sōtō Zen Buddhism. Dōgen writes in his "Shōbōgenzō" that "compared with this sūtra, all the other sūtras are merely its servants, its relatives, for it alone expounds the truth." According to Taigen Dan Leighton, "While Dogen's writings employ many sources, probably along with his own intuitive meditative awareness, his direct citations of the "Lotus Sūtra" indicate his conscious appropriation of its teachings as a significant source" and that his writing "demonstrates that Dogen himself saw the "Lotus Sūtra", 'expounded by all buddhas in the three times,' as an important source for this self-proclamatory rhetorical style of expounding."


title: Lotus Sutra

text: In his "Shōbōgenzō," Dogen directly discusses the "Lotus Sūtra" in the essay "Hokke-Ten-Hokke", "The Dharma Flower Turns the Dharma Flower". The essay uses a dialogue from the Platform Sutra between Huineng and a monk who has memorized the "Lotus Sūtra" to illustrate the non-dual nature of Dharma practice and sutra study. During his final days, Dogen spent his time reciting and writing the "Lotus Sūtra" in his room which he named "The Lotus Sutra Hermitage". The Soto Zen monk Ryōkan also studied the "Lotus Sūtra" extensively and this sutra was the biggest inspiration for his poetry and calligraphy.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: The Rinzai Zen master Hakuin Ekaku (1687–1768) achieved enlightenment while reading the third chapter of the Lotus Sūtra. Hakuin writes that when he first read the sutra at age sixteen, he was disappointed with it. However, sixteen years later, after experiencing an awakening, he wrote, “One night, after some time, I took up the "Lotus Sūtra". Suddenly I penetrated to the perfect, true, ultimate meaning of the Lotus. The doubts I had held initially were destroyed and I became aware that the understanding I had obtained up to then was greatly in error. Unconsciously I uttered a great cry and burst into tears.”


title: Lotus Sutra

text: According to Shields, modernist Japanese interpretations of the "Lotus Sūtra" begin with the early 20th century nationalist applications of the "Lotus Sūtra" by Chigaku Tanaka, Nissho Honda, Seno'o, and Nisshō Inoue. Japanese new religions began forming in the 19th century and the trend accelerated after World War II. Some of these groups have pushed the study and practice of the "Lotus Sūtra" to a global scale. While noting the importance of several Japanese New Religious Movements to "Lotus Sūtra" scholarship, Lopez focuses on the contributions made by the lay groups Reiyukai and Soka Gakkai and Stone discusses the contributions of the Soka Gakkai and Risshō Kōsei Kai.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: According to Jacqueline Stone, several of these new "Lotus" based groups, such as Risshō Kōsei Kai and Sokka Gakkai, are also known for their social activism, international relief work and peace work. According to Stone, Sokka Gakkai generally follows an exclusivist approach to the "Lotus Sūtra", believing that only Nichiren Buddhism can bring world peace. Meanwhile, Risshō Kōsei Kai follows an ecumenical, and inclusive approach and is known for its interfaith efforts and focus on world peace. According to their co-founder Niwano Nikkyō (1906–1999), ""Lotus Sūtra" is not a proper noun, but the fundamental truth—God, Allah, or the one vehicle—at the heart of all great religions."


title: Lotus Sutra

text: In a similar fashion, Etai Yamada (1900–1999), the 253rd head priest of the Tendai denomination conducted ecumenical dialogues with religious leaders around the world based on his inclusive interpretation of the "Lotus Sūtra", which culminated in a 1987 summit. He also used the "Lotus Sūtra" to move his sect from a "temple Buddhism" perspective to one based on social engagement. Nichiren-inspired Buddhist organizations have shared their interpretations of the "Lotus Sūtra" through publications, academic symposia, and exhibitions.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: According to Lopez, "the most famous and successful of the Japanese new religions", "was Sōka Gakkai." Sōka Gakkai ("The Value Creation Society") was a lay organization founded by the Nichirenists Tsunesaburō Makiguchi (1871–1944) and Toda Jōsei (1900–1958). It became known for its aggressive conversion efforts based on confrontational shakubuku as well as for its emphasis on "this-worldly benefits" ("genze riyaku"), such as good health and financial prosperity which would accrue to those who helped spread the message of the "Lotus". Sōka Gakkai was originally affiliated with Taisekiji, a Nichiren Shōshū temple, but it was excommunicated from Nichiren Shoshu in the 1990s. Sōkka Gakkai no longer teaches the differences between the two gates or "divisions" of the "Lotus Sūtra". Instead, the modern organization teaches that only the sincere recitation of the daimoku is the "Doctrine of Essential Teaching" and that this does not require any clerical priesthood or temples since the true sangha comprises all people "who believe in the Buddha Dharma of Nichiren".


title: Lotus Sutra

text: One of the first mentions of the "Lotus Sūtra" by a westerner can be found in the work of the Catholic missionary Matteo Ricci. In his "The True Doctrine of the Lord of Heaven" ("Tianzhu shiyi"), published in 1603, Ricci mentions the "Lotus Sūtra" and denounces its teaching.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Eugene Burnouf's "Introduction à l'histoire du Buddhisme indien" (1844) marks the start of modern academic scholarship of Buddhism in the West. According to Lopez, this tome "seems to have been originally intended to aid readers in understanding the "Lotus Sūtra"," the translation of which Burnouf had completed in 1839. Burnouf decided to delay the publication of this translation so that he could write an introduction to it, that is, his 1844 "Introduction". Burnouf's French translation of a Nepalese Sanskrit manuscript of the "Lotus Sūtra", titled ""Le Lotus de la bonne loi traduit du Sanscrit accompagné d’un commentaire et de vingt et un mémoires relatifs au Buddhisme"", was published posthumously in 1852.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Burnouf really appreciated the "parables" (Sanskrit: "aupamya", "comparisons", "analogies", more accurately described as allegories) found in the "Lotus", which reminded him of the parables of the New Testament. He would write "I know of nothing so Christian in all of Asia" and saw the "Lotus" as containing a "moral Christianity, full of compassion for all creatures." He also understood the "Lotus Sūtra" (as well as other Mahayana works) to be later, more "developed" texts than the "simple" earlier sutras which contained more historical content and less metaphysical ideas.


title: Lotus Sutra

text: Prior to publication, a chapter from the translation was included in the 1844 journal "The Dial", a publication of the New England transcendentalists, translated from French to English by Elizabeth Palmer Peabody. An English translation of the "Lotus Sūtra" from two Sanskrit manuscripts copied in Nepal around the 11th century was completed by Hendrik Kern in 1884 and published as "Saddharma-Pundarîka, or, the Lotus of the True Law" as part of the Sacred Books of the East project.