title: Paul Kruger

text: Kruger developed a habit of threatening to resign whenever the volksraad did not give him his way. In the 1897 session there was much surprise when the new member Louis Botha reacted to the usual proffered resignation by leaping up and moving to accept it. A constitutional crisis developed after the judiciary under Chief Justice Kotzé abandoned its prior stance of giving volksraad resolutions legal precedence over the constitution. "This decision would have upset the whole country", Kruger recalled, "for a number of rules concerning the goldfields, the franchise and so on depended on resolutions of the volksraad." Chief Justice De Villiers of the Cape mediated, sided with Kruger and upheld the volksraad decrees.


title: Paul Kruger

text: Kruger was never more popular domestically than during the 1897–98 election campaign, and indeed was widely perceived to be jollier than he had been in years. He won his most decisive election victory yet—12,853 votes to Joubert's 2,001 and Schalk Willem Burger's 3,753—and was sworn in as president for the fourth time on 12 May 1898. After a three-hour inauguration address, his longest speech as president, his first act of his fourth term was to sack Kotzé, who was still claiming the right to test legislation in the courts. To Kruger's critics this lent much credence to the notion that he was a tyrant. Milner called Kotzé's dismissal "the end of real justice in the Transvaal" and a step that "threatened all British subjects and interests there".


title: Paul Kruger

text: Kruger's final administration was, Meintjes suggests, the strongest in the history of the republic. He had the former Free State President F W Reitz as State Secretary from June 1898 and Leyds, who set up an office in Brussels, as Envoy Extraordinary in Europe. The post of State Attorney was given to a young lawyer from the Cape called Jan Smuts, for whom Kruger presaged great things. The removal of Leyds to Europe marked the end of Kruger's longstanding policy of giving important government posts to Dutchmen; convinced of Cape Afrikaners' sympathy following the Jameson Raid, he preferred them from this point on.


title: Paul Kruger

text: Anglo-German relations warmed during late 1898, with Berlin disavowing any interest in the Transvaal; this opened the way for Milner and Chamberlain to take a firmer line against Kruger. The so-called "Edgar case" of early 1899, in which a South African Republic Policeman was acquitted of manslaughter after shooting a British subject dead during an attempted arrest, prompted outcry from the British element in the Transvaal and is highlighted by Nathan as "the starting point of the final agitation which led to war".


title: Paul Kruger

text: The South African League, a new uitlander movement, prepared two petitions, each with more than 20,000 signatures, that appealed to Queen Victoria for intervention against the Transvaal government, which they called inefficient, corrupt and oppressive. Other uitlanders produced a counter-petition in which about as many affirmed their satisfaction with Kruger's government. Attempting to address the main point of contention raised by Milner and Chamberlain, Kruger spoke of reducing the residency qualification for foreigners to nine years or perhaps less. In May and June 1899 he and Milner met in Bloemfontein, with Steyn taking on the role of mediator. "You "must" make concessions on the franchise issue", Steyn counselled. "Franchise after a residence of 14 years is in conflict with the first principles of a republican and democratic government. The Free State expects you to concede ... Should you not give in on this issue, you will lose all sympathy and all your friends." Kruger answered that he had already indicated his willingness to lower the franchise and was "prepared to do anything"—"but they must not touch my independence", he said. "They must be reasonable in their demands."


title: Paul Kruger

text: Milner wanted full voting rights after five years' residence, a revised naturalisation oath and increased legislative representation for the new burghers. Kruger offered naturalisation after two years' residence and full franchise after five more (seven years, effectively) along with increased representation and a new oath similar to that of the Free State. The High Commissioner declared his original request an "irreducible minimum" and said he would discuss nothing else until the franchise question was resolved. On 5 June Milner proposed an advisory council of non-burghers to represent the uitlanders, prompting Kruger to cry: "How can strangers rule my state? How is it possible!" When Milner said he did not foresee this council taking on any governing role, Kruger burst into tears, saying "It is our country you want". Milner ended the conference that evening, saying the further meetings Steyn and Kruger wanted were unnecessary.


title: Paul Kruger

text: Back in Pretoria Kruger introduced a draft law to give the mining regions four more seats in each volksraad and fix a seven-year residency period for voting rights. This would not be retroactive, but up to two years' prior residence would be counted towards the seven, and uitlanders already in the country for nine years or more would get the vote immediately. Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr of the Afrikaner Bond persuaded Kruger to make this fully retrospective (to immediately enfranchise all white men in the country seven years or more), but Milner and the South African League deemed this insufficient. After Kruger rejected the British proposal of a joint commission on the franchise law, Smuts and Reitz proposed a five-year retroactive franchise and the extension of a quarter of the volksraad seats to the Witwatersrand region, on the condition that Britain drop any claim to suzerainty. Chamberlain issued an ultimatum in September 1899 in which he insisted on five years without conditions, else the British would "formulate their own proposals for a final settlement".


title: Paul Kruger

text: Kruger resolved that war was inevitable, comparing the Boers' position to that of a man attacked by a lion with only a pocketknife for defence. "Would you be such a coward as not to defend yourself with your pocketknife?" he posited. Aware of the deployment of British troops from elsewhere in the Empire, Kruger and Smuts surmised that from a military standpoint the Boers' only chance was a swift pre-emptive strike. Steyn was anxious that they not be seen as the aggressors and insisted they delay until there was absolutely no hope of peace. He informed Kruger on 9 October that he also now thought war unavoidable; that afternoon the Transvaal government handed the British envoy Conyngham Greene an ultimatum advising that if Britain did not withdraw all troops from the border within 48 hours, a state of war would exist. The British government considered the conditions impossible and informed Kruger of this on 11 October 1899. The start of the Second Boer War was announced in Pretoria that day, at 17:00 local time.


title: Paul Kruger

text: The outbreak of war raised Kruger's international profile even further. In countries antagonistic to Britain he was idolised; Kruger expressed high hopes of German, French or Russian military intervention, despite the repeated despatches from Leyds telling him this was a fantasy. Kruger took no part in the fighting, partly because of his age and poor health—he turned 74 the week war broke out—but perhaps primarily to prevent his being killed or captured. His personal contributions to the military campaign were mostly from his office in Pretoria, where he oversaw the war effort and advised his officers by telegram. The Boer commandos, including four of Kruger's sons, six sons-in-law and 33 of his grandsons, advanced quickly into the Cape and Natal, won a series of victories and by the end of October were besieging Kimberley, Ladysmith and Mafeking. Soon thereafter, following a serious injury to Joubert, Kruger appointed Louis Botha to be acting commandant-general.


title: Paul Kruger

text: The British relief of Kimberley and Ladysmith in February 1900 marked the turning of the war against the Boers. Morale plummeted among the commandos over the following months, with many burghers simply going home; Kruger toured the front in response and asserted that any man who deserted in this time of need should be shot. He had hoped for large numbers of Cape Afrikaners to rally to the republican cause, but only small bands did so, along with a few thousand foreign volunteers (principally Dutchmen, Germans and Scandinavians). When British troops entered Bloemfontein on 13 March 1900 Reitz and others urged Kruger to destroy the gold mines, but he refused on the grounds that this would obstruct rehabilitation after the war. Mafeking was relieved two months later and on 30 May Lord Roberts took Johannesburg. Kruger left Pretoria on 29 May, travelling by train to Machadodorp, and on 2 June the government abandoned the capital. Roberts entered three days later.


title: Paul Kruger

text: With the major towns and the railways under British control, the conventional phase of the war ended; Kruger wired Steyn pondering surrender, but the Free State President insisted they fight "to the bitter end". Kruger found new strength in Steyn and telegrammed all Transvaal officers forbidding the laying down of arms. "Bittereinders" ("bitter-enders") under Botha, Christiaan de Wet and Koos de la Rey took to the veld and waged a guerrilla campaign. British forces under Lord Kitchener applied a scorched earth policy in response, destroying the farmsteads owned by Boer guerillas still active in the field; non-combatants (mostly women and children) were put into what the British dubbed "concentration camps". Kruger moved to Waterval Onder, where his small house became the "Krugerhof", in late June. After Roberts announced the annexation of the South African Republic to the British Empire on 1 September 1900—the Free State had been annexed on 24 May—Kruger proclaimed on 3 September that this was "not recognised" and "declared null and void". It was decided in the following days that to prevent his capture Kruger would leave for Lourenço Marques and there board ship for Europe. Officially he was to tour the continent, and perhaps America too, to raise support for the Boer cause.


title: Paul Kruger

text: Kruger left the Transvaal by rail on 11 September 1900—he wept as the train crossed into Mozambique. He planned to board the first outgoing steamer, the "Herzog" of the German East Africa Line, but was prevented from doing so when, at the behest of the local British Consul, the Portuguese Governor insisted that Kruger stay in port under house arrest. About a month later Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands concluded a deal with Britain to extricate Kruger on a Dutch warship, HNLMS "Gelderland", and convey him through non-British waters to Marseille. Kruger was delighted to hear of this but dismayed that Gezina, still in Pretoria, was not well enough to accompany him. "Gelderland" departed on 20 October 1900.


title: Paul Kruger

text: He received a rapturous welcome in Marseille on 22 November—60,000 people turned out to see him disembark. Accompanied by Leyds, he went on to an exuberant reception in Paris, then continued to Cologne on 1 December. Here the public greeted him with similar excitement, but Kaiser Wilhelm II refused to receive him in Berlin. Having apparently still harboured hopes of German assistance in the war, Kruger was deeply shocked. "The Kaiser has betrayed us", he told Leyds. They went on to the Netherlands, which was strictly neutral and could not assist militarily, but would feel more like home. After another buoyant reception from the general public Kruger was cordially received by Wilhelmina and her family in The Hague, but it soon became clear to Leyds that it embarrassed the Dutch authorities to have them staying in the seat of government. The Kruger party moved to Hilversum in April 1901.


title: Paul Kruger

text: Gezina, with whom Kruger had had 16 children—nine sons, seven daughters (of whom some died young)—had eight sickly grandchildren transferred to her from the concentration camp at Krugersdorp, where their mother had died, in July 1901. Five of the eight children died within nine days, and two weeks later Gezina also died. Meintjes writes that a "strange silence" enveloped Kruger thereafter. By now partially blind and almost totally deaf, he dictated his memoirs to his secretary Hermanus Christiaan "Madie" Bredell and Pieter Grobler during the latter part of 1901, and the following year they were published. Kruger and his entourage relocated in December 1901 to Utrecht, where he took a comfortable villa called "Oranjelust" and was joined by his daughter Elsje Eloff and her family.


title: Paul Kruger

text: Rhodes died in March 1902, bequeathing Groote Schuur to be the official residence for future premiers of a unified South Africa. Kruger quipped to Bredell: "Perhaps I'll be the first." The war formally ended on 31 May 1902 with the signing of the Treaty of Vereeniging; the Boer republics became the Orange River and Transvaal Colonies. Kruger accepted it was all over only when Bredell had the flags of the South African Republic and the Orange Free State removed from outside Oranjelust two weeks later. In reply to condolences from Germany, Kruger would only say: "My grief is beyond expression."


title: Paul Kruger

text: Kruger would not countenance the idea of returning home, partly because of personal reluctance to become a British subject again, and partly because he thought he could better serve his people by remaining in exile. Steyn similarly refused to accept the Boer defeat and joined Kruger in Europe, though he did later return to Southern Africa. Botha, De Wet and De la Rey visited Oranjelust in August 1902 and, according to hearsay, were berated by Kruger for "signing away independence"—rumours of such a scene were widespread enough that the generals issued a statement denying them.


title: Paul Kruger

text: After passing October 1902 to May 1903 at Menton on the French Riviera, Kruger moved back to Hilversum, then returned to Menton in October 1903. In early 1904 he moved to Clarens, a small village in the canton of Vaud in western Switzerland where he spent the rest of his days looking over Lake Geneva and the Alps from his balcony. "He who wishes to create a future must not lose track of the past", he wrote in his final letter, addressed to the people of the Transvaal. "Thus; seek all that is to be found good and fair in the past, shape your ideal accordingly and try to realise that ideal for the future. It is true: much that has been built is now destroyed, damaged, levelled. But with unity of purpose and unity of strength that which has been pulled down can be built again." After contracting pneumonia, Paul Kruger died in Clarens on 14 July 1904 at the age of 78. His Bible lay open on a table beside him.


title: Paul Kruger

text: Kruger's body was initially buried in The Hague, but was soon repatriated with British permission. After ceremonial lying in state, he was accorded a state funeral in Pretoria on 16 December 1904, the "vierkleur" of the South African Republic draped over his coffin, and buried in what is now called the Heroes' Acre in the Church Street Cemetery.


title: Paul Kruger

text: Academic opinion on Kruger is divided. To admirers he was an astute reader of people, events and law who faithfully defended a maligned nation and became a tragic folk hero; to critics he was "an anachronistic throwback", the stubborn, slippery guardian of an unjust cause and an oppressor of black Africans. "More nonsense has been written about him than anybody I know of", writes Meintjes, in whose view the true figure has been obscured by conflicting attempts to sabotage or whitewash his image—"a veritable bog of hostility and sentiment, prejudice and deification", depicting Kruger as anything "from saint to stuffy mendacious savage". Rights and wrongs aside, Meintjes asserts, Kruger is the central figure of Boer history and one of the "most extraordinary" of South Africans.


title: Paul Kruger

text: Following the Union of South Africa under Botha in 1910, Kruger remained "a vital force in South African politics and Afrikaner culture". The government wildlife reserve he had proclaimed in 1898 was expanded and dubbed Kruger National Park in 1926. In 1954, over half a century after its construction by Anton van Wouw, a bronze statue of Kruger in his characteristic Dopper suit and top hat was erected in Church Square, Pretoria; Kruger stands atop a plinth surrounded by four crouching Boers from different time periods. Thirteen years later the South African Mint put his likeness on the Krugerrand, a gold bullion coin still produced and exported in the 21st century. His home in Pretoria and farm at Boekenhoutfontein are provincial heritage sites, the former of which is preserved to appear as in his time.


title: Paul Kruger

text: Kruger gives his name to the town of Krugersdorp, and to many streets and squares in South Africa and other countries, especially the Netherlands and Belgium. This has, on occasion, led to controversy; in 2009 local authorities in St Gallen, Switzerland renamed "Krügerstrasse" "because of racist associations". Clarens, Free State is named after Kruger's last home in Switzerland. During the Second World War Kruger's life story and image were appropriated by propagandists in Nazi Germany, who produced the biographical film "Ohm Krüger" ("Uncle Krüger", 1941) to attack the British, with Emil Jannings in the title role. The underdevelopment of South African administrative law until the late 20th century was, Davenport asserts, the direct result of Kruger's censure and dismissal of Chief Justice Kotzé in 1898 over the question of judicial review.


title: Paul Kruger

text: "Paul Kruger's name and fame he made himself", Leyds said. "It is sometimes said that he was illiterate. This is of course nonsense ... He was certainly not learned, but he had a thorough knowledge of many things." "In the lower spheres of diplomacy Mr Kruger was a master", E B Iwan-Müller asserted. "He was quick in detecting the false moves made by his opponents, and an adept in turning them to his own advantage; but of the large combinations he was hopelessly incapable. To secure a brilliant and conspicuous success today he was ready to squander the prospects of the future, if, indeed, he had the power of forecasting them. He was what I believe soldiers would call a brilliant tactician, but a hopeless strategist." Soon after Kruger's death, Smuts told the British humanitarian campaigner Emily Hobhouse: "He typified the Boer character both in its brighter and darker aspects, and was no doubt the greatest man—both morally and intellectually—whom the Boer race has so far produced. In his iron will and tenacity, his 'never say die' attitude towards fate, his mystic faith in another world, he represented what is best in all of us."


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: The 2019 Royal Rumble was the 32nd annual Royal Rumble professional wrestling pay-per-view and livestreaming event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brand divisions. The event took place on January 27, 2019, at Chase Field in Phoenix, Arizona. During the event, WWE reported there were 48,193 people in attendance.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: Traditionally, the Royal Rumble match winner receives a world championship match at that year's WrestleMania. For the 2019 event, the winners of both the men's and women's matches received a choice of which championship to challenge for at WrestleMania 35. The men could choose to challenge for either Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while the women had the choice between the Raw Women's Championship and the SmackDown Women's Championship.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: In total, ten matches were contested at the event, including three on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event, Raw's Seth Rollins won the men's Royal Rumble match by last eliminating Braun Strowman, also from Raw, while SmackDown's Becky Lynch won the women's Royal Rumble match by lastly eliminating Charlotte Flair, also from SmackDown. In the opening bout, Lynch lost her SmackDown Women's Championship match against Asuka. Other prominent matches included Brock Lesnar retaining Raw's Universal Championship against Finn Bálor, Daniel Bryan defeating AJ Styles to retain SmackDown's WWE Championship, and Ronda Rousey defeating Sasha Banks to retain the Raw Women's Championship. The event also featured the return of Jeff Jarrett, who competed in his first WWE match since No Mercy in October 1999.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: The Royal Rumble is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event, produced every January by WWE since 1988. It is one of the promotion's original four pay-per-views, along with WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, dubbed the "Big Four". It is named after the Royal Rumble match, a modified battle royal in which the participants enter at timed intervals instead of all beginning in the ring at the same time. The 2019 event was the 32nd event in the Royal Rumble chronology and was scheduled to be held on January 27, 2019, at Chase Field in Phoenix, Arizona. It featured wrestlers from the Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brands, with some NXT wrestlers and WWE veterans appearing in both the men's and women's Royal Rumble matches.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: The Royal Rumble match generally features 30 wrestlers and the winner traditionally earns a world championship match at that year's WrestleMania. For 2019, the men and women could choose to challenge for either brand's top championship at WrestleMania 35: the men had their choice between Raw's Universal Championship or SmackDown's WWE Championship, while the women could choose either the Raw Women's Championship or the SmackDown Women's Championship.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: The card consisted of ten matches, including three on the Kickoff pre-show. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters to build tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw, SmackDown, and 205 Live brands, with storylines produced on their weekly television shows, "Monday Night Raw", "SmackDown Live", and the cruiserweight-exclusive "205 Live".


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: At , Fabulous Truth (Carmella and R-Truth) defeated Mahalicia (Alicia Fox and Jinder Mahal) to win the second season of Mixed Match Challenge. Their prize for winning was each getting the #30 spot in their respective Royal Rumble matches at the pay-per-view. In the weeks following TLC, multiple wrestlers were announced for both Rumble matches.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: At Crown Jewel, Brock Lesnar defeated Braun Strowman to regain the then-vacant Universal Championship, thanks in part to then-Acting Raw General Manager Baron Corbin. At TLC, Strowman defeated Corbin in a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match, thus stripping Corbin of his authoritative power and earning a Universal Championship match against Lesnar at the Royal Rumble. On the January 14 episode of "Raw", Corbin confronted Strowman and insulted him, leading to a chase to the parking area where Corbin hid in a limousine. Strowman shattered the glass and broke the door off, only for WWE Chairman Vince McMahon to appear, revealing that was his limo. Mr. McMahon then fined Strowman $100,000. Strowman then argued with Mr. McMahon, who then cancelled his match with Lesnar. An angry Strowman proceeded to flip over the limo. Later that night, John Cena, Drew McIntyre, Corbin, and Finn Bálor expressed their interests in facing Lesnar at the Royal Rumble. Mr. McMahon scheduled a fatal four-way match where the winner would face Lesnar, which Bálor won after defending his spot earlier in the night against Jinder Mahal. Due to this, Bálor was subsequently removed from the Royal Rumble match.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: At TLC, Daniel Bryan defeated AJ Styles to retain the WWE Championship. On the January 1, 2019 episode of "SmackDown", Styles earned another opportunity against Bryan at the Royal Rumble by defeating Randy Orton, Mustafa Ali, Rey Mysterio, and Samoa Joe in a fatal five-way match.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: At TLC, Asuka defeated Becky Lynch and Charlotte Flair in a triple threat Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match to win the SmackDown Women's Championship. Following the event, The McMahon Family (Vince McMahon, Shane McMahon, Stephanie McMahon, and Triple H) decreed that champions would no longer have automatic rematch clauses, ruling Lynch out of a guaranteed rematch. After she, Flair, and Carmella all pleaded their cases for why they deserved a title opportunity on the January 1, 2019 episode of "SmackDown", WWE Chief Operating Officer Triple H scheduled a triple threat match between the three for the following week to determine Asuka's challenger at the Royal Rumble, which was won by Lynch.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: At TLC, Ronda Rousey retained the Raw Women's Championship against Nia Jax. On the January 7, 2019 episode of "Raw", Rousey appeared on Alexa Bliss' interview segment, "A Moment of Bliss", and stated that she wanted to face Sasha Banks next, believing Banks to be a true test of her abilities. Jax interrupted, wanting a rematch against Rousey. Banks then came out and challenged Jax to a match in which the winner would face Rousey for the Raw Women's Championship at the Royal Rumble, which Banks won.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: At Crown Jewel, Shane McMahon won the WWE World Cup, replacing The Miz in the finals, who was deemed unable to compete due to a pre-match brawl. Following this, The Miz began a pursuit to form a tag team with Shane, claiming that they could be the best tag team in the world. Shane finally agreed to the pairing, and on the January 8, 2019 episode of "SmackDown", Miz challenged The Bar (Cesaro and Sheamus) for the SmackDown Tag Team Championship at the Royal Rumble, and The Bar accepted.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: On the TLC Kickoff pre-show, Buddy Murphy retained the WWE Cruiserweight Championship against Cedric Alexander. On the December 26, 2018 episode of "205 Live", General Manager Drake Maverick scheduled Murphy to defend the title at the Royal Rumble in a fatal four-way match with his opponents to be decided in qualifying matches. The following week, Kalisto and Akira Tozawa qualified for the match by defeating Lio Rush and Drew Gulak, respectively. Hideo Itami won the final spot by defeating Alexander. The match was scheduled for the Royal Rumble Kickoff pre-show.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: On the December 25, 2018 episode of "SmackDown", Rusev defeated Shinsuke Nakamura to win the United States Championship. On the January 1, 2019 episode, while Rusev and his wife/manager Lana were celebrating the title win, Nakamura attacked Rusev with Lana also getting hurt in the scuffle. On the January 15 episode, Rusev was scheduled to defend the title against Nakamura on the Royal Rumble Kickoff pre-show.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: In the first match, AOP manager Drake Maverick announced a tag team match between Raw Tag Team Champions Bobby Roode and Chad Gable and the team of Scott Dawson (of The Revival) and Rezar (of AOP), with both The Revival and AOP receiving a Raw Tag Team Championship match if they won. In the end, Roode and Gable performed a moonsault/neckbreaker combo on Dawson to win the match.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: Next, Rusev defended the United States Championship against Shinsuke Nakamura. In the climax, Rusev's wife Lana stood on the ring apron to notify the referee of Nakamura removing the turnbuckle, which led to Nakamura staring her down. As Rusev attacked Nakamura, he accidentally knocked down his wife. Distracted, Nakamura took advantage and attacked Rusev with the "Kinshasa" to win the title for a second time.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: The final match on the pre-show was the fatal four-way match in which Buddy Murphy defended the WWE Cruiserweight Championship against Akira Tozawa, Hideo Itami, and Kalisto. In the climax, Murphy performed "Murphy's Law" on Itami to retain the title.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: The actual pay-per-view opened with Asuka defending the SmackDown Women's Championship against Becky Lynch. The climax saw Asuka counter a "Dis-Arm-Her" from Lynch into an inverted "Asuka Lock", which caused Lynch to submit and allowed Asuka to retain her championship.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: In the second match, The Bar (Cesaro and Sheamus) defended the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The Miz and Shane McMahon. In the end, Sheamus inadvertently performed a "Brogue Kick" on Cesaro, before Miz performed a "Skull-Crushing Finale" on Sheamus. Shane then performed a shooting star press on Cesaro to win the title.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: Next, Ronda Rousey defended the Raw Women's Championship against Sasha Banks. During the match, Rousey attempted a forearm on Banks, who moved out of the way, causing it to crash into the ring post. Banks then focused on further weakening the arm. Later, Banks performed a "suicide dive" on Rousey, who caught her and applied an "armbar" on Banks, who submitted, but since it was outside of the ring, the match continued. In the climax, Banks applied the "Bank Statement". Rousey tried to make it to the bottom rope, but Banks transitioned into a crucifix pin for a nearfall and applied a "Fujiwara armbar". Rousey escaped the submission and followed up with a gutwrench powerbomb and "Piper's Pit" on Banks, giving Rousey her first pinfall victory in the WWE and thus retaining the title.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: The fourth match was the 30-woman Royal Rumble match for a women's championship match at WrestleMania 35. Lacey Evans, making her main roster debut, and Natalya began the match. NXT's Xia Li, Kairi Sane, Candice LeRae, Kacy Catanzaro, and Io Shirai and NXT UK's Rhea Ripley were all surprise entrants at #11, #14, #17, #19, #23 and #24 respectively. Naomi (entrant #16) and Catanzaro both had memorable saves in the match. The match also saw an appearance by Hornswoggle, who aided in the elimination of Zelina Vega. Lana was scheduled to enter the match at number 28 but still suffered from her injury from the pre-show. Afterwards, Nia Jax (entrant #29) attacked Lana, rendering her unable to compete. Jax would go on to eliminate Shirai, Bayley (entrant #27), and Natalya (who lasted the longest in a women's Royal Rumble match at 56 minutes until it was broken by Bianca Belair in 2021). After Carmella entered at #30, Becky Lynch appeared and replaced Lana in the match. In the climax, Lynch (who was outside of the ring, though not eliminated) eliminated Jax, bringing the final two to Lynch and Flair. Jax shoved Lynch off the steps, giving her a (storyline) knee injury. After a short battle between Flair and Lynch, Flair attempted a Big Boot, but Lynch countered and sent Flair over the top rope. Lynch then performed a clothesline on Flair, who rolled out of the ring and was eliminated. As a result, Lynch won the women's Royal Rumble Match.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: After that, Daniel Bryan defended the WWE Championship against AJ Styles. In the climax, a returning Rowan appeared. Bryan then accidentally performed an enzuigiri on the referee. Styles performed a "Styles Clash" on Bryan but Rowan performed a Clawhold Slam on Styles. Bryan then pinned Styles to retain the title.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: In the penultimate match, Brock Lesnar defended the Universal Championship against Finn Bálor. Bálor quickly took to the offense. In the climax, Bálor performed the "Coup de Grâce" on Lesnar for a near-fall. Lesnar then quickly transitioned the pin into a closed guard and applied a kimura lock, forcing Bálor to submit, thus retaining the title. After the match, Lesnar attacked Bálor with three German suplexes and an "F-5".


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: The main event was the 30-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania 35. Elias began the match at number one and was interrupted by WWE Hall of Famer Jeff Jarrett, entering the match at number 2. NXT North American Champion Johnny Gargano, WWE United Kingdom Champion Pete Dunne and Aleister Black were surprise entrants at #6, #18 and #21 respectively. Kofi Kingston (entrant #12) saved himself from elimination two separate times, but was eliminated alongside Xavier Woods (entrant #17) by Drew McIntyre (entrant #16). Bobby Lashley (entrant #26) was quickly eliminated by Seth Rollins (entrant #10) in 11 seconds, and performed a Spinebuster on Rollins through an announce table. As #30 entrant R-Truth made his entrance, he was attacked by Nia Jax, who took his spot and eliminated Mustafa Ali. Jax then received a superkick from Dolph Ziggler, a "619" from Rey Mysterio, and an "RKO" from Randy Orton before being eliminated by Mysterio. Jax became the fourth woman to enter a men's Royal Rumble match, the first person to compete in both the men's and women's Royal Rumble matches in the same night, and the first to score eliminations in both matches. In the end, Rollins and Braun Strowman (entrant #27) battled on the ring apron, which ended when Rollins performed a Stomp on Strowman, who was eliminated. As a result, Rollins won the men's Royal Rumble match.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: The following night on "Raw", Raw Women's Champion Ronda Rousey issued an open challenge that was answered by Bayley. After retaining, women's Royal Rumble match winner Becky Lynch made her entrance and confronted Rousey. After recapping their rivalry that began at Survivor Series, Lynch chose to face Rousey for the Raw Women's Championship at WrestleMania 35.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: Seth Rollins celebrated his Royal Rumble match victory. Triple H then came out and congratulated him, but said that Rollins needed to choose which champion he wanted to face at WrestleMania 35 by the end of the night. Backstage, Braun Strowman, the runner up in the Royal Rumble match, confronted Rollins and told him he "earned it", and to "make the right decision". Later, Rollins confronted Brock Lesnar. After an ensuing brawl, Rollins chose to face Lesnar for the Universal Championship at WrestleMania 35.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: Finn Bálor addressed his loss to Brock Lesnar, but stated that he made Lesnar believe that Bálor could win. Bálor was then confronted by Intercontinental Champion Bobby Lashley and his manager Lio Rush, and Lashley attacked Bálor.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: On the following "SmackDown", Becky Lynch addressed how everything had changed for her since winning the women's Royal Rumble match. Charlotte Flair then came out and congratulated Lynch and stated that although Lynch won, she was never truly in the match in the first place, and that Lynch would not be where she was at if it were not for Flair. An ensuing brawl broke out between Flair and Lynch until referees separated them.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: As compensation for not being able to compete in the men's Royal Rumble match, R-Truth was granted a United States Championship match against new champion Shinsuke Nakamura. Truth defeated Nakamura to win the title, which led to Rusev coming out and declaring that Truth was not worthy of the title. Rusev then challenged Truth for the title, but was also defeated. After the match, Rusev turned heel and, along with Nakamura, attacked Truth.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: Daniel Bryan, along with his new ally Rowan, revealed a new custom WWE Championship belt, made from hemp and wood. He was then interrupted by AJ Styles, which prompted Jeff Hardy, Samoa Joe, Randy Orton, and Mustafa Ali to come out and challenge Bryan for the title. After an ensuing brawl, Triple H announced that Bryan would defend the title against the five at the Elimination Chamber pay-per-view inside the Elimination Chamber.


title: Royal Rumble (2019)

text: (**) - Lana came out as the #28 entrant, but a storyline ankle injury suffered on the pre-show kept her from competing. Becky Lynch was allowed to take her spot.


title: Ken Stott

text: Kenneth Campbell Stott (born 19 October 1954) is a Scottish stage, television and film actor who won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role in 1995 in the play "Broken Glass" at Royal National Theatre. He portrayed the dwarf Balin in "The Hobbit" film trilogy (2012–2014).


title: Ken Stott

text: His most notable roles in UK television include the title character DI John Rebus in the crime fiction-mystery series "Rebus" (2000–2007) and DCI Red Metcalfe in "Messiah" (2001–2005). He played Edward 'Eddie' McKenna in the Scottish BBC miniseries "Takin' Over The Asylum" (1994) co-starring with David Tennant, and Ian Garrett in the 2014 BBC TV mini-series "The Missing" alongside James Nesbitt.


title: Ken Stott

text: Stott was born in Edinburgh. His mother, Antonia (née Sansica), was a Sicilian lecturer whose own father had previously been a priest. His father, David Stott, was a Scottish teacher and educational administrator. Stott was educated at George Heriot's School. For three years in his youth he was a member of a band called Keyhole, members of which later went on to form the Bay City Rollers.


title: Ken Stott

text: After attending Mountview Academy of Theatre Arts in London, Stott began working in the theatre for the Royal Shakespeare Company, but for some years his earnings from acting were minimal and he was forced to support himself by also working as a double glazing salesman. This is echoed in the character he plays in "Takin' Over the Asylum".


title: Ken Stott

text: Stott's early work focused on theatre with a notable leading role in the dramatisation of Dominic Behan's play about the Northern Ireland troubles "The Folk Singer" (Belfast Lyric Theatre), where he also played the part of Judas in the first regional production of "Jesus Christ Superstar" directed by Michael Poynor (1973). Stott appeared in small roles in BBC series such as "Secret Army" (1977), "The Complete Dramatic Works of William Shakespeare" ("King Lear", 1982), and Dennis Potter's "The Singing Detective" (1986). He also featured in an advert for the British COI's "Drinking And Driving Wrecks Lives" campaign, playing a fireman. He eventually began to earn starring roles on television in the 1990s. He created the leading role in "The Prince's Play", a translation and adaptation by Tony Harrison of Victor Hugo's "Le Roi s'amuse", for the National Theatre, London, 1996.


title: Ken Stott

text: His highest-profile television roles have included hospital radio DJ Eddie McKenna in BBC Scotland's "Takin' Over The Asylum" the leading character, DCI Red Metcalfe, in the BBC crime drama series "Messiah" (BBC One, 2001–05); DI Chappell in ITV police drama "The Vice" (1999–2003); as a drunk who fantasises about finding redemption by joining the Salvation Army in "Promoted to Glory" (ITV, 2003); as Adolf Hitler in "Uncle Adolf" (ITV, 2005) and as a fictional Chancellor of the Exchequer in Richard Curtis's "The Girl in the Café" (BBC One, 2005). 2006 saw him take over the title character in detective series "Rebus", a television adaptation of the Ian Rankin novels which had previously starred John Hannah. In 2008 Stott was nominated for a Scottish BAFTA for his performance as comedian Tony Hancock in BBC Four's "Hancock and Joan". He played the father of cookery writer Nigel Slater in the BBC One adaptation of Slater's autobiographical novel "Toast", opposite Helena Bonham Carter and Freddie Highmore. In 2015, Stott played Arthur Birling in Helen Edmundson's BBC TV adaptation of J. B. Priestley's "An Inspector Calls".


title: Ken Stott

text: On the big screen, he has tended to play mostly supporting parts, such as DI McCall in "Shallow Grave" (1994), Ted in "Fever Pitch" (1997), Marius Honorius in "King Arthur" (2004), an Israeli arms merchant in "Charlie Wilson's War" (2007) and Trufflehunter, a badger loyal to Prince Caspian in "" (2008). However, he has had occasional starring roles in the cinema, most notably opposite Billy Connolly and Iain Robertson in "The Debt Collector" (1999) and "Plunkett and Macleane" of the same year. Most recently, he has starred as Balin in the live-action adaptation of "The Hobbit", and played the role to critical acclaim. Stott played a supporting role as Dexter Mayhew's father in "One Day" (2011) starring Anne Hathaway and Jim Sturgess.


title: Ken Stott

text: Stott has continued to act on stage, and in 1997 was nominated for Best Actor at the Laurence Olivier Awards for his role in the Yasmina Reza play "Art" in which had appeared with Albert Finney and Tom Courtenay. In 2008 Stott starred in another West End production of a Reza play, this time "God of Carnage", alongside Tamsin Greig, Janet McTeer and Ralph Fiennes at the Gielgud Theatre. He starred in a revival of Arthur Miller's "A View From The Bridge" at the Duke of York's Theatre in early 2009 and reprised his role of Michael in "God of Carnage" on Broadway (as a replacement for James Gandolfini) at the Bernard B. Jacobs Theatre in New York.


title: Ken Stott

text: He returned to the Duke of York's Theatre in 2016 to play " Sir" (alongside Reece Shearsmith) in Ronald Harwood's "The Dresser", to great critical acclaim.


title: Ken Stott

text: He is a popular choice for voice work, as narrator for series such as "Trawlermen", a documentary following North Sea trawlers, and "Send in the Dogs", following the work of UK Police Officers and their canine partners.


title: Ken Stott

text: Stott has a son, David (born 1985), by his first marriage, which ended in divorce. He married his long-time partner the artist Nina Gehl in 2016. Stott is a supporter of Heart of Midlothian, with an irony in that the character portrayed by him, Ian Rankin's most well known character Inspector John Rebus, is portrayed as a Hibernian supporter in the television show.


title: Lie algebra

text: In mathematics, a Lie algebra (pronounced ) is a vector space formula_1 together with an operation called the Lie bracket, an alternating bilinear map formula_2, that satisfies the Jacobi identity. The Lie bracket of two vectors formula_3 and formula_4 is denoted formula_5. The vector space formula_1 together with this operation is a non-associative algebra, meaning that the Lie bracket is not necessarily associative.


title: Lie algebra

text: Lie algebras are closely related to Lie groups, which are groups that are also smooth manifolds: any Lie group gives rise to a Lie algebra, which is its tangent space at the identity. Conversely, to any finite-dimensional Lie algebra over real or complex numbers, there is a corresponding connected Lie group unique up to finite coverings (Lie's third theorem). This correspondence allows one to study the structure and classification of Lie groups in terms of Lie algebras.


title: Lie algebra

text: In physics, Lie groups appear as symmetry groups of physical systems, and their Lie algebras (tangent vectors near the identity) may be thought of as infinitesimal symmetry motions. Thus Lie algebras and their representations are used extensively in physics, notably in quantum mechanics and particle physics.


title: Lie algebra

text: An elementary example is the space of three dimensional vectors formula_7 with the bracket operation defined by the cross product formula_8 This is skew-symmetric since formula_9, and instead of associativity it satisfies the Jacobi identity:


title: Lie algebra

text: This is the Lie algebra of the Lie group of rotations of space, and each vector formula_11 may be pictured as an infinitesimal rotation around the axis formula_12, with velocity equal to the magnitude of formula_12. The Lie bracket is a measure of the non-commutativity between two rotations: since a rotation commutes with itself, we have the alternating property formula_14.


title: Lie algebra

text: Lie algebras were introduced to study the concept of infinitesimal transformations by Marius Sophus Lie in the 1870s, and independently discovered by Wilhelm Killing in the 1880s. The name "Lie algebra" was given by Hermann Weyl in the 1930s; in older texts, the term "infinitesimal group" is used.


title: Lie algebra

text: A Lie algebra is a vector space formula_15 over some field formula_16 together with a binary operation formula_17 called the Lie bracket satisfying the following axioms:


title: Lie algebra

text: Using bilinearity to expand the Lie bracket formula_35 and using alternativity shows that formula_36 for all elements formula_3, "formula_4" in formula_26, showing that bilinearity and alternativity together imply


title: Lie algebra

text: It is customary to denote a Lie algebra by a lower-case fraktur letter such as formula_45. If a Lie algebra is associated with a Lie group, then the algebra is denoted by the fraktur version of the group: for example the Lie algebra of SU("n") is formula_46.


title: Lie algebra

text: Elements of a Lie algebra formula_26 are said to generate it if the smallest subalgebra containing these elements is formula_26 itself. The "dimension" of a Lie algebra is its dimension as a vector space over "formula_16". The cardinality of a minimal generating set of a Lie algebra is always less than or equal to its dimension.


title: Lie algebra

text: The Lie bracket is not required to be associative, meaning that formula_50 need not equal formula_51. However, it is flexible. Nonetheless, much of the terminology of associative rings and algebras is commonly applied to Lie algebras. A "Lie subalgebra" is a subspace formula_52 which is closed under the Lie bracket. An "ideal" formula_53 is a subalgebra satisfying the stronger condition:


title: Lie algebra

text: As for associative rings, ideals are precisely the kernels of homomorphisms; given a Lie algebra formula_26 and an ideal formula_57 in it, one constructs the "factor algebra" or "quotient algebra" formula_58, and the first isomorphism theorem holds for Lie algebras.


title: Lie algebra

text: Since the Lie bracket is a kind of infinitesimal commutator of the corresponding Lie group, we say that two elements formula_59 "commute" if their bracket vanishes: formula_60.


title: Lie algebra

text: The centralizer subalgebra of a subset formula_61 is the set of elements commuting with "formula_62": that is, formula_63. The centralizer of formula_26 itself is the "center" formula_65. Similarly, for a subspace "S", the normalizer subalgebra of "formula_62" is formula_67. Equivalently, if formula_62 is a Lie subalgebra, formula_69 is the largest subalgebra such that formula_62 is an ideal of formula_69.


title: Lie algebra

text: For formula_72, the commutator of two elements formula_73 and formula_74:formula_75shows formula_76 is a subalgebra, but not an ideal. In fact, every one-dimensional linear subspace of a Lie algebra has an induced abelian Lie algebra structure, which is generally not an ideal. For any simple Lie algebra, all abelian Lie algebras can never be ideals.


title: Lie algebra

text: For two Lie algebras formula_77 and formula_78, their direct sum Lie algebra is the vector space formula_79consisting of all pairs formula_80, with the operation


title: Lie algebra

text: Let formula_26 be a Lie algebra and formula_85 an ideal of formula_26. If the canonical map formula_87 splits (i.e., admits a section), then formula_26 is said to be a semidirect product of formula_85 and formula_90, formula_91. See also semidirect sum of Lie algebras.


title: Lie algebra

text: Levi's theorem says that a finite-dimensional Lie algebra is a semidirect product of its radical and the complementary subalgebra (Levi subalgebra).


title: Lie algebra

text: A "derivation" on the Lie algebra formula_26 (or on any non-associative algebra) is a linear map formula_93 that obeys the Leibniz law, that is,


title: Lie algebra

text: for all formula_59. The "inner derivation" associated to any formula_96 is the adjoint mapping formula_97 defined by formula_98. (This is a derivation as a consequence of the Jacobi identity.) The outer derivations are derivations which do not come from the adjoint representation of the Lie algebra. If formula_26 is semisimple, every derivation is inner.


title: Lie algebra

text: The derivations form a vector space formula_100, which is a Lie subalgebra of formula_101; the bracket is commutator. The inner derivations form a Lie subalgebra of formula_100.


title: Lie algebra

text: For example, given a Lie algebra ideal formula_103 the adjoint representation formula_104 of formula_26 acts as outer derivations on formula_85 since formula_107 for any formula_108 and formula_109. For the Lie algebra formula_110 of upper triangular matrices in formula_111, it has an ideal formula_112 of strictly upper triangular matrices (where the only non-zero elements are above the diagonal of the matrix). For instance, the commutator of elements in formula_113 and formula_114 givesformula_115shows there exist outer derivations from formula_113 in formula_117.


title: Lie algebra

text: Let "V" be a finite-dimensional vector space over a field "F", formula_118 the Lie algebra of linear transformations and formula_119 a Lie subalgebra. Then formula_26 is said to be split if the roots of the characteristic polynomials of all linear transformations in formula_26 are in the base field "F". More generally, a finite-dimensional Lie algebra formula_26 is said to be split if it has a Cartan subalgebra whose image under the adjoint representation formula_123 is a split Lie algebra. A split real form of a complex semisimple Lie algebra (cf. #Real form and complexification) is an example of a split real Lie algebra. See also split Lie algebra for further information.


title: Lie algebra

text: For practical calculations, it is often convenient to choose an explicit vector space basis for the algebra. A common construction for this basis is sketched in the article structure constants.


title: Lie algebra

text: Although the definitions above are sufficient for a conventional understanding of Lie algebras, once this is understood, additional insight can be gained by using notation common to category theory, that is, by defining a Lie algebra in terms of linear maps—that is, morphisms of the category of vector spaces—without considering individual elements. (In this section, the field over which the algebra is defined is supposed to be of characteristic different from two.)


title: Lie algebra

text: For the category-theoretic definition of Lie algebras, two braiding isomorphisms are needed. If is a vector space, the "interchange isomorphism" formula_124 is defined by


title: Lie algebra

text: With this notation, a Lie algebra can be defined as an object formula_131 in the category of vector spaces together with a morphism


title: Lie algebra

text: Any vector space formula_135 endowed with the identically zero Lie bracket becomes a Lie algebra. Such Lie algebras are called abelian, cf. below. Any one-dimensional Lie algebra over a field is abelian, by the alternating property of the Lie bracket.


title: Lie algebra

text: A complex matrix group is a Lie group consisting of matrices, formula_152, where the multiplication of "G" is matrix multiplication. The corresponding Lie algebra formula_1 is the space of matrices which are tangent vectors to "G" inside the linear space formula_154: this consists of derivatives of smooth curves in "G" at the identity: formula_155The Lie bracket of formula_26 is given by the commutator of matrices, formula_147. Given the Lie algebra, one can recover the Lie group as the image of the matrix exponential mapping formula_158 defined by formula_159, which converges for every matrix formula_160: that is, formula_161.


title: Lie algebra

text: for any natural number formula_181 and any formula_182, one sees that the resulting Lie group elements are upper triangular 2×2 matrices with unit lower diagonal:


title: Lie algebra

text: Given a vector space "V", let formula_118 denote the Lie algebra consisting of all linear endomorphisms of "V", with bracket given by formula_147. A "representation" of a Lie algebra formula_26 on "V" is a Lie algebra homomorphism


title: Lie algebra

text: A representation is said to be "faithful" if its kernel is zero. Ado's theorem states that every finite-dimensional Lie algebra has a faithful representation on a finite-dimensional vector space.


title: Lie algebra

text: given by formula_202; it is a representation on the vector space formula_26 called the adjoint representation.


title: Lie algebra

text: One important aspect of the study of Lie algebras (especially semisimple Lie algebras) is the study of their representations. (Indeed, most of the books listed in the references section devote a substantial fraction of their pages to representation theory.) Although Ado's theorem is an important result, the primary goal of representation theory is not to find a faithful representation of a given Lie algebra formula_26. Indeed, in the semisimple case, the adjoint representation is already faithful. Rather the goal is to understand "all" possible representation of formula_26, up to the natural notion of equivalence. In the semisimple case over a field of characteristic zero, Weyl's theorem says that every finite-dimensional representation is a direct sum of irreducible representations (those with no nontrivial invariant subspaces). The irreducible representations, in turn, are classified by a theorem of the highest weight.


title: Lie algebra

text: The representation theory of Lie algebras plays an important role in various parts of theoretical physics. There, one considers operators on the space of states that satisfy certain natural commutation relations. These commutation relations typically come from a symmetry of the problem—specifically, they are the relations of the Lie algebra of the relevant symmetry group. An example would be the angular momentum operators, whose commutation relations are those of the Lie algebra formula_188 of the rotation group SO(3). Typically, the space of states is very far from being irreducible under the pertinent operators, but one can attempt to decompose it into irreducible pieces. In doing so, one needs to know the irreducible representations of the given Lie algebra. In the study of the quantum hydrogen atom, for example, quantum mechanics textbooks give (without calling it that) a classification of the irreducible representations of the Lie algebra formula_188.


title: Lie algebra

text: Lie algebras can be classified to some extent. In particular, this has an application to the classification of Lie groups.


title: Lie algebra

text: Analogously to abelian, nilpotent, and solvable groups, defined in terms of the derived subgroups, one can define abelian, nilpotent, and solvable Lie algebras.


title: Lie algebra

text: A Lie algebra formula_26 is "abelian" if the Lie bracket vanishes, i.e. ["x","y"] = 0, for all "x" and "y" in formula_26. Abelian Lie algebras correspond to commutative (or abelian) connected Lie groups such as vector spaces formula_210 or tori formula_211, and are all of the form formula_212 meaning an "n"-dimensional vector space with the trivial Lie bracket.


title: Lie algebra

text: A more general class of Lie algebras is defined by the vanishing of all commutators of given length. A Lie algebra formula_26 is "nilpotent" if the lower central series


title: Lie algebra

text: Lie rings need not be Lie groups under addition. Any Lie algebra is an example of a Lie ring. Any associative ring can be made into a Lie ring by defining a bracket operator formula_139. Conversely to any Lie algebra there is a corresponding ring, called the universal enveloping algebra.


title: Lie algebra

text: Lie rings are used in the study of finite p-groups through the "Lazard correspondence". The lower central factors of a "p"-group are finite abelian "p"-groups, so modules over Z/"p"Z. The direct sum of the lower central factors is given the structure of a Lie ring by defining the bracket to be the commutator of two coset representatives. The Lie ring structure is enriched with another module homomorphism, the "p"th power map, making the associated Lie ring a so-called restricted Lie ring.


title: Lie algebra

text: Lie rings are also useful in the definition of a p-adic analytic groups and their endomorphisms by studying Lie algebras over rings of integers such as the p-adic integers. The definition of finite groups of Lie type due to Chevalley involves restricting from a Lie algebra over the complex numbers to a Lie algebra over the integers, and then reducing modulo "p" to get a Lie algebra over a finite field.


title: MATADOR

text: The MATADOR ("man-portable, anti-tank, anti-door") is a man-portable, disposable anti-armour and anti-brickwall weapon system developed by Germany, Israel and Singapore. It is an updated version of the German-Singaporean Armbrust design, and operates on the same principles. The development of this weapon began in 2000 and the MATADOR will eventually replace the German-Singaporean Armbrust Light Anti-tank Weapon, which has been in service since the 1980s.


title: MATADOR

text: The MATADOR was developed jointly by the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) and the Defence Science and Technology Agency (DSTA), in collaboration with Rafael Advanced Defense Systems and Dynamit Nobel Defence (DND) joint team.


title: MATADOR

text: The MATADOR is among the lightest in its class. The warhead is effective against both vehicle armour and brick walls. The weapon has little back-blast, making it safe for operation in confined spaces.


title: MATADOR

text: The MATADOR is supposed to be capable of defeating the armour of most known armoured personnel carriers and light tanks in the world. The dual-capability warhead, when acting in the delay mode, creates an opening greater than in diameter in a double brick wall, and acts as an anti-personnel weapon against those behind the wall, offering an unconventional means of entry when fighting in built-up areas.


title: MATADOR

text: The MATADOR's projectile is claimed to be insensitive to wind due to its propulsion system, which results in a highly accurate weapon system.


title: MATADOR

text: The warhead can be used in both high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) and high explosive squash head (HESH) modes against armour, walls, or other fortifications respectively. Modes are selected by adjusting a "probe" (most likely a fuse extender): extending it for HEAT mode and leaving it retracted for HESH mode.


title: MATADOR

text: Similar to the Armbrust, the counter-mass counteracts the recoil of the weapon upon firing. The counter-mass consists of shredded plastic, which is launched out of the rear of the weapon when it is fired. This plastic is rapidly slowed by air resistance, allowing the weapon to be fired safely within an enclosed space. In addition, the positioning of the counter-mass takes into consideration the centre of gravity of the weapon to ensure good balance for better accuracy.


title: MATADOR

text: Variants of the original HEAT/HESH (HH) weapon have been developed by Rafael and Dynamit Nobel Defence, designed primarily for anti-structure use by soldiers operating in dense urban environments.


title: MATADOR

text: The MATADOR saw its first combat deployment in January 2009, by Israel Defence Forces soldiers during Operation Cast Lead in the Gaza Strip. MATADOR-AS was used to breach walls in structures, allowing IDF troops to pass through and attack opponents inside.


title: MATADOR

text: In 2022, Ukrainian forces used MATADORs supplied by Germany against Russian forces during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: MATADOR

text: According to reports from Ukraine, the RGW-90 is capable of penetrating APCs, IFVs, but there is no guarantee that the Matador will easily break through reactive tank's armor.


title: MATADOR

text: "“This summer, the soldiers of the 93rd Brigade fired RGW90 into the forehead of a Russian tank with reactive armor. The tank was not destroyed, but it was stopped, and soldiers who were on the top of the tank got minced,”" the military shared the story of grenade launchers being used.


title: MATADOR

text: In December 2022 one was discharged by Polish police general commandant Jaroslaw Szymczyk inside his office at National Police Headquarters. According to news, 2 floors of the building were damaged.


title: Susie Essman

text: Susan Essman is an American stand-up comedian, actress, writer and television producer, best known for her role as Susie Greene on "Curb Your Enthusiasm", Bobbi Wexler on "Broad City", and the voice of Mittens in "Bolt".


title: Susie Essman

text: Essman was born in The Bronx, New York City, and was raised in the suburb of Mount Vernon. Her father, Leonard Essman, was an internist and clinical oncologist. Her mother, Zora ("née" Pressman), taught Russian at Sarah Lawrence College. She is the great granddaughter of silent film actor and Russian opera impresario Leo Feodoroff. Essman is Jewish; her grandparents emigrated from Russia and Poland. She received her bachelor's degree from SUNY Purchase College.


title: Susie Essman

text: Essman has been traveling and appearing at clubs throughout the country for more than three decades. In 1988, she appeared on HBO with Joy Behar and other rising female comedians on "On Location: Women of the Night II". On January 5, 1989, she was a guest on "The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson". Her first half-hour special premiered on September 20, 1992 on HBO’s One Night Stand. As much of her comedy draws from her ethnic background, she has been featured in such documentaries as, "Heroes of Jewish Comedy" and "A History of Jewish Comedy".


title: Susie Essman

text: Essman made her U.K. standup comedy debut at the Corn Exchange at the Newbury Comedy Festival in July 2007. While in England, she appeared on the British television show "8 Out of 10 Cats".


title: Susie Essman

text: Essman began her acting career with small parts in two 1988 films – "Crocodile Dundee II" and "Punchline" – but is best known for her role as Susie Greene, the wife of Jeff Greene (portrayed by Jeff Garlin), on the HBO comedy series "Curb Your Enthusiasm". Essman told "The New York Times" that, by the show's third season, she could not "walk down the street anymore without people stopping her and begging her to say [her character's catchphrase] 'You fat fuck'". In 2007, "Slate" named Essman's character one of the best on television, and a reason the publication looked forward to the return of the show.


title: Susie Essman

text: She also provided the voice of Helen Higgins on the Comedy Central series "Crank Yankers"; she was an occasional correspondent on the first season of the network's "The Daily Show". She appeared on Comedy Central's Roast of Bob Saget on August 17, 2008 and provided the voice of "Mittens" (the cat) in the 2008 Disney animated film, "Bolt", and later reprised the role in the 2009 short "Super Rhino", released on the film's home media. She also made an appearance on the Regis Philbin version of "Million Dollar Password".


title: Susie Essman

text: Essman's book, "What Would Susie Say: Bullshit Wisdom About Love, Life and Comedy", was published in October 2009 by Simon & Schuster.


title: Susie Essman

text: Essman used to be a pescatarian—"Not a moral thing," she explains, but "aesthetic"; chicken "grosses me out"—and "lives on sushi". She married Jim Harder, a commercial real estate broker, in September 2008. She owns a Shih Tzu named Popeye.


title: Susie Essman

text: Essman is a good friend of Joy Behar, and has appeared on "The View" multiple times. In 2009, Behar hosted an event at the 92Y with Essman as a guest.


title: Failure to Launch

text: Failure to Launch is a 2006 American romantic comedy film directed by Tom Dey, and starring Matthew McConaughey and Sarah Jessica Parker. The film focuses on a 35-year-old man living with his parents who shows no interest in leaving the comfortable life that they, especially his mother, have made for him. It was released on March 10, 2006, and grossed over $128 million.


title: Failure to Launch

text: 35-year-old Tripp still lives with his parents Al and Sue in Baltimore. His best friends Demo and Ace also still live in their parents' homes and seem proud of it. Tripp has many casual girlfriends. When he’s tired of them, he invites them to “his place"—and when they realize he still lives at home, they promptly dump him.


title: Failure to Launch

text: Al and Sue are fascinated when their friends, whose adult son recently left home, reveal they hired an expert to get him to move out. The expert is Paula, who believes that men continue to live at home because they have low self-esteem. Her approach is to establish a relationship with the man to build his confidence, then transfer his attachment from his parents to her.


title: Failure to Launch

text: However, Tripp does not fit her previous profiles, as he has normal social skills, good self-esteem, and a good job he enjoys. After an awkward encounter with his parents, Paula thwarts Tripp's attempt to dump her and has sex with him, while developing real feelings. She and Tripp find themselves in unfamiliar waters and confide in their friends.


title: Failure to Launch

text: Paula's vocation exasperates her roommate Kit, who thinks Paula took the job because a man broke her heart who lived with his parents. She is shocked to learn why Tripp lives at home: His life collapsed when his fiancée suddenly died, and his family has been his solace ever since.


title: Failure to Launch

text: Ace discovers what is going on and blackmails Paula for a date with Kit. Although Kit is more attracted to Demo, she and Ace wind up falling in love. Ace then "outs" Paula to Demo, who then tells all to Tripp. Tripp angrily confronts his parents and breaks up with Paula. Wracked with guilt, Paula refunds Al's and Sue's money. After an awkward confrontation, Tripp forgives his parents, but can't forgive Paula.


title: Failure to Launch

text: Tripp's parents and friends devise a plan to reconcile the two. They tie up and gag him, locking him and Paula together in a room. Paula pours her heart out, and he finally forgives her. The film ends with Al and Sue in their empty nest, happily singing "Hit the Road, Tripp". This fades into the closing credits over the Ray Charles song "Hit the Road, Jack", and we see Tripp and Paula sail away on his newly purchased boat.


title: Failure to Launch

text: In its opening weekend, the film grossed a total of $24.6 million, ranking first in the United States box office results for that weekend. The film grossed a total of around $90 million in the United States box office and made $128,406,887 worldwide.


title: Failure to Launch

text: The film received negative reviews from critics. , the film holds a 23% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 152 reviews with an average rating of 4.6/10. The site's consensus states: "The few comic gags sprinkled throughout the movie fail to spice up this formulaic rom-com." Film critic Richard Roeper stated the film was "completely unbelievable". Some otherwise negative reviews singled out Zooey Deschanel's performance as the film's highlight. Stephanie Zacharek of "Salon" wrote that "Even with a relatively small role, she blows the whole movie to smithereens".


title: Boiler room (business)

text: In business, the term boiler room refers to an outbound call center selling questionable investments by telephone. It usually refers to a room where salespeople work using unfair, dishonest sales tactics, sometimes selling penny stocks or private placements or committing outright stock fraud. A common boiler room tactic is the use of falsified and bolstered information in combination with verified company-released information. The term is pejorative: it is often used to imply high-pressure sales tactics and, sometimes, poor working conditions.


title: Boiler room (business)

text: The classic image of a boiler room is that it has an undisclosed relationship with the companies it promotes, or an undisclosed profit motive for promoting those companies.


title: Boiler room (business)

text: Once the insider investors are in place, a boiler room promotes (by telephone calls to brokerage clients or spam email) these thinly traded stocks (i.e. stocks that are not purchased or sold very often) where there is no actual market. The brokers of the boiler room actually "create" a market by attracting buyers, whose demand for the stock drives up the price; this gives the owners of the company enough volume to sell their shares at a profit, a form of pump and dump operation where the original investors profit at the expense of the investors taken in by the boiler room operation.


title: Boiler room (business)

text: Some traits of a boiler room include presenting only good news about the stock to be sold, and discouraging outside research by customers or brokers working there. The "International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice" states that:


title: Boiler room (business)

text: The term might have originated from the cheap, hastily arranged office space used by such firms, often just a few desks in the basement or utility room of an existing office building, with the "heat" and "pressure" of close quarters, and fast-paced sales tactics analogous to the conditions in a boiler and, in the former case, its surrounding room.


title: Boiler room (business)

text: In the early 1970s (and possibly earlier), "boiler room" was a term used by political parties for a room with many telephones used to call prospective voters.


title: Boiler room (business)

text: In the late 1960s to the 1980s, boiler rooms sold municipal bonds to unsophisticated investors. These boiler rooms were located primarily in the southeastern United States, most notably Memphis, Tennessee and later Little Rock, Arkansas. The operators got the nickname "Bond Daddies." The operators would sell the bonds at inflated prices, substitute different bonds, mislead investors about the risks, or fail to deliver the bonds to the investor.


title: Boiler room (business)

text: In the 1990s, organized crime in New York City became involved in microcap stock fraud using boiler rooms.


title: Boiler room (business)

text: Although many disappeared in the 1990s following the burst of the "dot-com bubble", many boiler rooms still operate across the world. Reductions in telecommunication costs mean that a company can viably operate in one country while calling prospective investors in another. The advantage of such an operation is that a company can operate without fear of prosecution from the investor's native legal system. For example, many boiler rooms contacting prospective investors in the United Kingdom operate from Spanish cities such as Barcelona and Valencia.


title: Boiler room (business)

text: A boiler room operation is well exemplified by the case of Fort Lauderdale-based company First Resource Group LLC, charged by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission with conducting a fraudulent boiler room scheme in 2012. According to the SEC, First Resource (and the company's founder, David H. Stern) used a telephone sales boiler room to make inflated claims and defraud investors while simultaneously manipulating the price of the stocks and making profits for themselves.


title: Boiler room (business)

text: With the advent of the internet and the ability to create web sites easily without any regulatory involvement, as well as the ability to operate from other jurisdictions, boiler rooms have continued to operate into the 21st century. It is easy for scammers to set up a web site in one country, operate from another country and target victims in a third country, hiding their identity and making it difficult to trace them. Financial regulation varies significantly from country to country, and some countries deliberately promote low regulatory environments in order to attract financial business. This makes it easy for boiler rooms to use this to their advantage. Financial regulatory authorities in each country have significant difficulty enforcing rules on scammers in other countries. With low financial literacy by investors or victims (particularly in the increasingly complex ways that global financial markets operate), and without better coordination between financial regulators in different countries, boiler rooms continue to operate.


title: Boiler room (business)

text: The Gold Coast has been described by investigators as the capital of investment fraud in Australia, with numerous boiler room operators selling bogus investment and sports betting schemes to Australian and overseas customers. The Australian Crime Commission estimates Australians had lost at least AU$113 million up to 2012.


title: Boiler room (business)

text: Operators of the scams buy old shelf companies with no complaint history to give the appearance they've been trading legitimately for long periods. When complaints cause reputation problems they close the company and start anew. Virtual offices, fake receptionists and fake testimonials are used, and telemarketers cold call victims with misleading claims of high returns. Victims say the betting and investment software does not work and they lost their money when the companies suddenly closed.


title: Boiler room (business)

text: In 2011, private investigator, Ken Gamble, acting on behalf of groups of victims, provided evidence of millions of dollars' worth of fraud to the Queensland Police Service, but says the fraud squad failed to investigate. In late 2014 it was announced Queensland's Crime and Corruption Commission had taken over investigation of several Gold Coast boiler room scams due to allegations fraudsters were receiving police protection.


title: Boiler room (business)

text: A fictional "boiler room" brokerage firm was dramatized in the 2000 film "Boiler Room", and the play and film "Glengarry Glen Ross" show a similar boiler room operation selling real estate.


title: Boiler room (business)

text: The 2013 film "The Wolf of Wall Street", starring Leonardo DiCaprio, also involves a boiler-room investment business and is based on the memoir of convicted penny stock fraudster Jordan Belfort, whose Stratton Oakmont brokerage house operated as a boiler room. A 2010 episode of the television series "White Collar" depicted fictional conman Neal Caffrey infiltrating a group of corrupt brokers also peddling inflated penny stocks.


title: Boiler room (business)

text: Individuals will be targeted through the use of mediums such as the sucker list which discloses information about those who have fallen victim to scams in the past. Another avenue, and one that is not as accessible due to its shielded nature, is the utilization of shareholder lists. These lists provide information that links the employees of the boiler room businesses to the people most susceptible to fraud.


title: Boiler room (business)

text: The Office for Victims of Crime offers monetary aid to victims of crimes throughout the United States. These funds come directly from the "federal offenders" as well as from private donations and gifts. In addition to this, it "raises awareness about victims' issues, promotes compliance with victims' rights laws, and provides training and technical assistance and publications and products to victim assistance professionals." It also links victims to The United States Department of Justice Victim Notification System, which was developed to maintain victims informed of case activity. Victims may register online to receive notifications regarding their relevant case.


title: Boiler room (business)

text: Impacts of fraudulent boiler room business range from financial loss to decline in mental health and stability. Victims often suffer from stress, anxiety, loss of self-esteem, and depression. This decline in health and financial wealth has reportedly been linked to marriage dissolution as well as thoughts of suicide, and attempts of suicide. Victims also exhibited changes in behavior that included wariness of others and of financial transactions. On the other hand, many victims became more aware of the importance of security and as such took preventative action for the future.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: Prince George's County (often shortened to PG County) is a county located in the U.S. state of Maryland bordering the eastern portion of Washington, D.C. As of the 2020 U.S. census, the population was 967,201, making it the second-most populous county in Maryland, behind Montgomery County. The 2020 census counted an increase of nearly 104,000 in the previous ten years. Its county seat is Upper Marlboro. It is the largest and the second most affluent African American-majority county in the United States, with five of its communities identified in a 2015 top ten list.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: Prince George's County is included in the Washington metropolitan area. The county also hosts many federal governmental facilities, such as Joint Base Andrews and the United States Census Bureau headquarters.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: The official name of the county, as specified in the county's charter, is "Prince George's County, Maryland". The county is named after Prince George of Denmark (1653–1708), the consort of Anne, Queen of Great Britain, and the brother of King Christian V of Denmark and Norway. The county's demonym is Prince Georgian, and its motto is "Semper Eadem" (), a phrase used by Queen Anne. Prince George's County is frequently referred to as "PG" or "PG County", an abbreviation which is the subject of debate, some residents viewing it as a pejorative and others holding neutral feelings toward the term or even preferring the abbreviation over the full name.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: The Cretaceous Era brought dinosaurs to the area that left fossils now preserved in a park in Laurel. The site, which among other finds has yielded fossilized teeth from "Astrodon" and "Priconodon" species, has been called the most prolific in the eastern United States.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: In the mid to late Holocene era, the area was occupied by Paleo-Native Americans and then, later, Native Americans. When the first European settlers arrived, what is now Prince George's County was inhabited by people of the Piscataway Indian Nation. Three branches of the tribe are still living today, two of which are headquartered in Prince George's County.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: Prince George's County was created by the English Council of Maryland in the Province of Maryland in April 1696 from portions of Charles and Calvert counties. The county was divided into six districts referred to as "Hundreds": Mattapany, Petuxant, Collington, Mount Calvert, Piscattoway and New Scotland.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: A portion was detached in 1748 to form Frederick County. Because Frederick County was subsequently divided to form the present Allegany, Garrett, Montgomery, and Washington counties, all of these counties in addition were derived from what had up to 1748 been Prince George's County.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: In 1791, portions of Prince George's County were ceded to form the new District of Columbia (along with portions of Montgomery County, Maryland and parts of Northern Virginia that were later returned to Virginia).


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: During the War of 1812, the British marched through the county by way of Bladensburg to burn the White House. On their return, they kidnapped a prominent doctor, William Beanes. Lawyer Francis Scott Key was asked to negotiate for his release, which resulted in his writing "The Star-Spangled Banner".


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: Prince George's County had the highest population of slaves within the state of Maryland. These enslaved Africans engaged in forced labor on tobacco farms and plantations throughout Prince George's County.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: During the Civil War, hundreds of enslaved Black men in Prince George's County were given freedom in exchange for joining the Union Army and fighting in Colored units against Confederate Forces. When Abraham Lincoln ordered the end of slavery in America, he did not free the slaves in Maryland because he was concerned that slave owning Maryland would revolt and Washington D.C. would then be surrounded by Confederate forces. However John Pendleton Kennedy, a Maryland politician who became an abolitionist after watching a speech by Frederick Douglass, led a referendum campaign to end slavery in the state. In 1864, the citizens of Maryland voted to end slavery. However the state was so divided that the referendum won by only 1,000 votes. Lincoln then ordered the Union Army to enforce the ban in Maryland and all enslaved people in the state were freed.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: After the Civil War, many African Americans attempted to become part of Maryland politics, but were met with violent repression after the fall of Reconstruction.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: In April 1865, John Wilkes Booth made his escape through Prince George's County while en route to Virginia after killing President Abraham Lincoln.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: The proportion of African Americans declined during the first half of the 20th century, but was renewed to over 50% in the early 1990s when the county again became majority African American. The first African American County Executive was Wayne K. Curry, elected in 1994.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: On July 1, 1997, the Prince George's County section of the city of Takoma Park, which straddled the boundary between Prince George's and Montgomery counties, was transferred to Montgomery County. This was done after city residents voted in a referendum to be under the sole jurisdiction of Montgomery County, and subsequent approval by both counties and the Maryland General Assembly. This was the first change in Montgomery/Prince George's County line boundaries since 1968, when the City of Laurel was unified in Prince George's County; additional legislation was proposed in 1990 for a technical correction, though may not have achieved enactment.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: The county's population nearly reached one million residents in the 2020 census. It is the largest and wealthiest Black-majority county in the United States. Hispanic residents grew in number to 21% of the total population.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: The county experienced a dramatic drop in crime, including record drops in violent crime, although in 2021 and 2022, violent crime increased by 30%. From 2020 to mid-2022 over 2,200 residents died of COVID-19, over 19,000 county residents were left with long-term post-COVID symptoms


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which is land and (3.2%) is water.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: Prince George's County lies in the Atlantic coastal plain, and its landscape is characterized by gently rolling hills and valleys. Along its western border with Montgomery County, Adelphi, Calverton and West Laurel rise into the piedmont, exceeding in elevation.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: The Patuxent River forms the county's eastern border with Howard, Anne Arundel, Charles and Calvert counties.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: Terrain, culture, and demographics differ significantly by location within the county. There are five key regions to Prince George's County: North County, Central County, the Rural Tier, the Inner Beltway, and South County. These regions are not formally defined, however, and the terms used to describe each area can vary greatly. In the broadest terms, the county is generally divided into North County and South County with U.S. Route 50 serving as the dividing line.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: Northern Prince George's County includes Laurel, Beltsville, Adelphi, College Park and Greenbelt. This area of the county is anchored by the Capital Beltway and the Baltimore–Washington Parkway. Laurel is experiencing a population boom with the construction of the Inter-County Connector. The key employers in this region are the University of Maryland, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, and NASA-Goddard Space Flight Center. Areas of geographic distinction include Greenbelt Park, a wooded reserve adjacent to the planned environmental community of Greenbelt, and University Park, a collection of historic homes adjacent to the University of Maryland. Riversdale Mansion, along with the historic homes of Berwyn Heights, Mt. Rainier and Hyattsville, along with Langley Park are also located in this area. Lake Artemesia and the surrounding park were constructed during the completion of the Washington Metro Green Line, and it incorporates a stocked fishing lake and serves as the trail-head for an extensive Anacostia Tributary Trails system that runs along the Anacostia River and its tributaries. The south and central tracts of the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center also lie in this part of the county; the north tract lies north of the Patuxent River in Anne Arundel County.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: Central County, located on the eastern outskirts of the Capital Beltway, consists of Mitchellville, Woodmore, Greater Upper Marlboro, Springdale, Largo, and Bowie. According to the 2010 census, it has generally been the fastest growing region of the county. Mitchellville is named for a wealthy African American family, the Mitchells, who owned a large portion of land in this area of the county. Central Avenue, a major exit off the I-95 beltway, running east to west, is one of two main roads in this portion of the county. The other major roadway is Old Crain Highway, which runs north to south along the eastern portion of the county. The Newton White Mansion on the grounds is a popular site for weddings and political events. Bowie State University and Prince George's Community College are in the Central region.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: The inner beltway communities of Capitol Heights, District Heights, Fairmont Heights, Forestville, Suitland, and Seat Pleasant border the neighboring District of Columbia's northeastern and southeastern quadrants. The area has easy access to Metro's blue line, commercial centers, Maryland Route 214, Interstate 95/Interstate 495 (Capital Beltway). Protected bike trails connect residents to the Bladensburg waterfront, Kenilworth parks, and downtown D.C. Fairmont Heights is the second oldest African-American-majority municipality in Prince George's County. The Fairmount Heights Historic District was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2011.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: Bowie is best known as a planned Levittown. William Levitt in the 1960s built traditional homes, as well as California contemporaries along U.S. Route 50, the key highway to the eastern shore and the state capital of Annapolis. Bowie has currently grown to be the largest city in Prince George's County, with more than 50,000 people. It also has a large Caucasian population, compared to much of the county (48% of the population). Housing styles vary from the most contemporary to century-old homes in Bowie's antique district (formerly known as Huntingtown), where the town of Bowie began as a haven for thoroughbred horse racing. Areas of geographic distinction include the Oden Bowie Mansion, Allen Pond, key segments of the Washington, Baltimore and Annapolis Trail, as well as planned parks, lakes and walking trails.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: Prince George's rural tier was designated "in the 2002 General Plan as an area where residential growth would be minimal"; it may be found in the area well beyond the Beltway to the east and south of central county, bounded on the north by U.S. Route 50, the west by the communities Accokeek and Fort Washington, and the east by the Patuxent River. Prince George's origins are in this part of the county. Most of this area contains the unincorporated parishes, villages and lost towns of Prince George's County. Largely under postal designations of "Upper Marlboro" or "Brandywine", in truth the town of Upper Marlboro is more central county in character, though it is the post office location for various rural settlements. (The names of these unincorporated areas are listed below in the towns section of this article). Since 1721 Upper Marlboro has been the county seat of government, with families that trace their lineage back to Prince George's initial land grants and earliest governing officials. Names like Clagett, Sasscer, King James and Queen Anne pepper the streets.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: The rural tier has been the focus of orchestrated efforts by residents and county government to preserve its rural character and environmental integrity. Under the Maryland-National Capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NCPPC), Patuxent River Park is the largest natural preserve and provides public access for birdwatching and viewing the rural tier's natural waterfront vistas. In season, the park's Jug Bay Natural Area and the Patuxent Riverkeeper in Queen Anne both offer canoeing and kayaking rentals on the Patuxent. The county's largest collection of tobacco planter mansions and preserved homes are in the rural tier, some managed by the M-NCPPC. Many rural tier roads have scenic highway preservation status; a fall drive yields exceptional beauty along the Patuxent valley's Leeland Road, Croom Road, Clagett's Landing Rd., Mill Branch Rd., Queen Anne Rd., and Brandywine Rd. Walking access along roads in this area is very limited, because most property along the roads remains in private ownership. However, walking is much more accessible in the widespread M-NCPPC lands and trails and state holdings in the Patuxent valley, such as Merkle Wildlife Sanctuary and Rosaryville State Park, both popular among hikers and mountain bikers.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: South County is a blend of the greenery of the rural tier and the new development of central county. The communities of Clinton, Oxon Hill, Temple Hills and Fort Washington are the largest areas of south county. It is the only portion of Prince George's County to enjoy the Potomac River waterfront, and that geographic distinction has yielded the rise of the National Harbor project: a town center and riverside shopping and living development on the Potomac. The National Harbor, and its associated entertainment (MGM National Harbor) and shopping (Tanger Outlets) districts, have become a major tourist and convention attraction, with significant hotel accommodations, eateries and shopping. Together, these projects were built on land formerly occupied by the Salubria plantation, where a 14-year-old slave girl poisoned her owner, John H. Bayne, and his family in 1831. Water taxi service connects National Harbor to other destinations along the Potomac. Several historic sites, including Jones Point Lighthouse, can be viewed from the harbor front. Piscataway Park in Accokeek preserves many acres of woodland and wetlands along the Potomac River opposite Mount Vernon, Virginia. River Road in Fort Washington also yields great views of the Potomac. Fort Washington Park was a major battery and gives access to the public for tours of the fort, scenic access to the river and other picnic grounds. Oxon Hill Manor offers a working farm and plantation mansion for touring; His Lordship's Kindness is another major historic home. Also, Fort Foote is an old American Civil War fort and tourist destination.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: Prince George's and Montgomery Counties share a bi-county planning and parks agency in the M-NCPPC and a public bi-county water and sewer utility in the Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: Since 1792, the county seat has been Upper Marlboro. Prior to 1792, the county seat was located at Mount Calvert, a 76-acre (308,000 m) estate along the Patuxent River on the edge of what is now in the unincorporated community of Croom. Since 1991, the county has slowly moved government functions from rural Upper Marlboro to the Largo area, closer to the center of population, while proposals to move the actual county seat remain controversial.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: Prince George's County was granted a charter form of government in 1970 with the county executive elected as the head of the executive branch and the county council members as the leadership of the legislative branch. The county is divided into nine councilmanic districts, whose number designations wind roughly from north to south. Two at-large council seats were added in 2018. Prince George's County is part of the Seventh Judicial Circuit of the state of Maryland and holds 23 of the 32 total circuit court judges in the circuit (which includes Calvert, Charles, Prince George's, and St. Mary's counties).


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: Fitch Ratings assigned a 'AAA' bond rating to Prince George's County on August 25, 2011, re-affirming the county's stable financial outlook. Earlier in 2011, the county received 'AAA' status from Standard & Poor's and Moody's. 'AAA' bond ratings are the highest possible bond ratings a jurisdiction can receive.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: As part of the increasingly liberal D.C. suburbs and a nationwide suburban shift towards the Democrats, Prince George's County is a Democratic stronghold, having voted majority-Democratic in every presidential election but four since 1932: Dwight D. Eisenhower's landslide elections in 1952 and 1956, and Richard Nixon's two candidacies in 1968 and 1972. It has not even given over 10% of the vote to the Republican nominee since 2008, and was Joe Biden's second strongest county in the country (and third-best county equivalent after Washington, D.C.) in the 2020 presidential election, only behind Kalawao County, Hawaii, awarding him 89.26% of the vote.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: Prince George's County is serviced by multiple law enforcement agencies. The Prince George's County Police Department is the primary police service for county residents residing in unincorporated areas of the county. In addition, the Prince George's County Sheriff's Office acts as the enforcement arm of the county court, and also shares some patrol responsibility with the county police. County parks are serviced by the Prince George's County Division of the Maryland-National Capital Park Police.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: Besides the county-level services, all but one of the 27 local municipalities maintain police departments that share jurisdiction with the county police services. Furthermore, the Maryland State Police enforces the law on state highways which pass through the county with the exception of Maryland Route 200 where the Maryland Transportation Authority Police is the primary law enforcement agency and the Maryland Department of Natural Resources Police patrol the state parks and navigable waterways located within the county.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: Along with the state and local law enforcement agencies, the federal government also maintains several departments that service citizens of the county such as the US Park Police, US Postal Police, Andrews Air Force Base Security Police, and other federal police located on various federal property within the county.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: In addition, nearly all of the incorporated cities and towns in the county have their own municipal police force. Notable exceptions include the city of College Park.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: Prince George's County hospitals include Bowie Health Center, Doctors Community Hospital in Lanham, Gladys Spellman Specialty Hospital & Nursing Center in Cheverly, Laurel Regional Hospital in Laurel, Southern Maryland Hospital Center in Clinton, University of Maryland Capital Region Medical Center, a state-of-the-art acute care teaching hospital, and Fort Washington Medical Center. Hospice of the Chesapeake has offices in Largo, with a staff that serves patients in their homes, including skilled nursing, senior living and assisted living facilities.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: The Prince George's County Volunteer Firemen's Association was formed in 1922 with several of the first companies organized in the county. The first members of the association were Hyattsville, Cottage City, Mount Rainier, and Brentwood.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: In March 1966, the Prince George's County Government employed the firefighters who had been hired by individual volunteer stations and an organized career department was begun. The career firefighters and paramedics are represented by IAFF 1619. Prince George's County Fire/Rescue Operations consists of 45 Fire/EMS stations.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: Prince George's County became the first jurisdiction in Maryland to implement the 9-1-1 Emergency Reporting System in 1973. Advanced life support services began for citizens of the county in 1977. Firefighters were certified as Cardiac Rescue Technicians and deployed in what was called at the time Mobile Intensive Care Units to fire stations in Brentwood, Silver Hill, and Laurel.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: As of 2007, the Prince George's County Fire/EMS Department operates a combination system staffed by over 800 career firefighters and paramedics, and nearly 1,100 active volunteers.


title: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: County law has, for years, required to seize all pitbulls from their owners if they become aware of them. This is controversial and Animal Control itself objects to this law. It has routinely required them to act when they see such a dog behaving peacefully inside of a private home merely because Animal Control is checking something unrelated.