title: Kemetism

text: The practice of religious ritual and other manifestations of religious life varies from individual associations. Its centrepiece, as in the original Old Egyptian religion, is usually a cult image, most often in the form of a statue or other representation depicting the likeness of the worshipped god. Its role in the cult may be conceptualized differently not only by different currents, but also by different individuals, with no precise boundaries between the different attitudes. In a schematic distinction, it can be said that the most widespread modernist Kemetism today generally attaches a more symbolic meaning to the cult image, understanding it as a means of enabling Kemetists to better focus on God (or divine power) as the proper object of veneration (this concept is not dissimilar to the use of images in Catholicism). Consequently, there is no need to strictly observe a particular ritual procedure. The minority traditionalist current, on the other hand, understands the cult image as a real representation of the divine being in the human world. Therefore, in accordance with ancient Egyptian tradition, it may recommend its preservation in a special sacred container - nau, from which it is to be removed only in the course of a religious ritual, described as precisely as possible and strictly observed, of which the presentation of sacrifices is the most essential part. S in the absence of a binding doctrine, however, individual Kemetists may choose any combination of these aspects.


title: Kemetism

text: Although even in this case the religious reverence shown does not belong directly to the cult image as a physical thing, but to the worshipped god who is present in it in a special way, monotheistic religions raise the objection of idolatry in this context. Kemetism, however, regards it as inappropriate, since there is nothing within its framework that realistically corresponds to this notion. "The Egyptians (in fact) did not experience any marked separation of the psychic from the physical realm... (and therefore) the world of material objects could also be imbued with divine power... These could serve as effective mediums through which spiritual forces manifested themselves on the material plane... In ancient Egypt there was no such thing as idols, because the ancient Egyptian mentality could perceive no such thing. It was not until the Israelites created the idea of idols." In Egypt, as Stephan Quirke notes, any object could become more than a mere physical object by performing a special ceremony: it could "live permanently and thus open the way between this world and the world of the gods. The mummified body in a coffin, the cult image of a god, the statue of a king or a deceased nobleman, were all soulless objects that opening the mouth transformed into living forces, or, more precisely, into receptacles for the invisible and elusive force we call life."


title: Kemetism

text: Followers of Kemetism generally worship a few gods (Maat, Bastet, Anubis, Sekhmet or Thoth, among others), but recognize the existence of every god. This worship generally takes the form of prayer and setting up altars, but there are no set guidelines for worship. Altars are most often constructed using a statue or two-dimensional representation of one or more given deities, as they serve as the focal point of worship. Other additional items include candles, votive offerings, prayer beads, incense burners, and one or more dishes for food offerings.


title: Kemetism

text: The looseness of the Kemetist doctrine (if that word can be used at all) is best captured just by defining the object of Kemetist religious veneration. Although the Egyptian religion was a polytheistic religion (though there are scholarly egyptologys now no longer accepted distinctly minority views that monotheism was always covertly present in the background of the plurality of worshipped gods) and Kemetists do not deny this formal polytheism, it can be interpreted differently by different currents.


title: Kemetism

text: Today, the minority definition of this problem is the traditionalist notion of individual gods as wholly individual beings with a separate cult that enter into the interactive relationships and agencies described in myths and legends. In accordance with the ancient Egyptian concept, any of the gods can be considered as the "supreme" or "most powerful" of the gods, analogically according to the mythological context that is currently referred to within the cult. The notion of a universal single god, if used at all, has a rather abstract meaning and is close in meaning to the philosophical notion of Gender: it is a designation of a particular divine quality forming "the defining feature of a group of beings of the same kind" -gods rather than individually existing beings.


title: Kemetism

text: In addition to this, in contemporary times, one can encounter within Kemeticism the prevalent, but somewhat more distant from the original ancient Egyptian conception, idea of a single universal divine force manifesting itself in various forms, which are the gods themselves, so that they are understood as somewhat separate but nevertheless mere aspects of it. In this case, the Kemetists follow the late antique henotheism as manifested, for example, in the cults of Serapis and Isis (originally the ancient Egyptian Isiss) or in the philosophical outlook in  Neo-Platonism, but like other neopagan movements, undeniably also to the Western experience of  Christian monotheism and its reflection in modern thought starting with the Enlightenment. Another variant of modernist Kemetism is monolatry, but based on the same sources. In these conceptions, leaving aside the external features derived from ancient Egyptian culture and the use of Egyptian mythological context, Kemetism in many respects bears a strong resemblance to, for example, the religion of Wicca; perhaps this is related to the fact that it is developed in areas with a predominantly Anglo-Saxon tradition.


title: Kemetism

text: Given this possible dualistic understanding of the object of religious veneration in Kemeticism, it is ultimately up to the individual to decide whether to focus more on an abstractly conceived divine power in the practice of his or her religion, or whether to prefer the more original worship of individual gods.


title: Kemetism

text: Virtually the only Czech Kemet website Temple of the Land of Kemet notes: ""This does not mean that we deny that there is one universal deity, but we argue that it probably does not exist in the way monotheists imagine it, and that this does not necessarily imply a denial of a plurality of gods. Individual gods and goddesses in their multiplicity share this divinity in the same way that we humans share one universal 'humanity'. The gods ... represent certain types of energies and qualities. The universal 'one god' of the monotheists can hardly be present in a similar way."" The same source elsewhere questions whether it is even possible to make this universal divine power itself an object of religious veneration, thus categorically rejecting any form of not only monotheism but also the aforementioned henotheism or monolatry. Czech Kemeticism would thus place itself in the traditionalist stream of this movement.


title: Kemetism

text: In both basic Kemetist conceptions of god/gods, the sun usually plays a non-negligible role: Regardless of whether it is worshipped as a god by particular Kemetists or not, as in Ancient Egypt is considered to be an analogous image of the divine power as the universal source of every single existence and of all existence in general.


title: Kemetism

text: Another important principle of Kemeticism is "maat"- order'. This concept was one of the cornerstones of (not only) religious thought of the Ancient Egyptians - its observance was supposed to ensure the stability of the world and its orderly running. Its importance is already evident from the fact that even the pharaoh, who was in a certain sense himself understood as a divine (i.e. exempt from the rules of the human world) being, was, from the end of the Old Kingdom at the latest, overridden by this principle; the main task of the ruler was to bear responsibility and to contribute to the observance of the "maat" by all his actions. The epitome of the concept in  Ancient Egyptian religion was the eponymous goddess Maat and its symbol - the ostrich feather.


title: Kemetism

text: The word "maat" itself is difficult to translate due to its complexity and combines concepts such as "truth", "harmony" and "stability" or simply "right action". It represents all that is right and necessary for the right course of things. It is the universal unchanging cosmic order encompassing the world of men and the world of gods and their interconnection as well as their interdependence. The expression of the functioning of the "maat" in the world of the gods is mainly myths and legends, in cosmic sense it is manifested in regular unchangeable and from human point of view eternal natural cycles (especially in solar and lunar cycles -  Therefore, the Egyptian gods Re and Thovt were referred to as Lord Maat'), in the human world in the existence of the state and in the proper functioning of its institutions, in the maintenance of social rules and, at the latest since the time of the New Empire, in personal human morality. As a result, in the Egyptian concept, the respect of rules of all kinds by each individual was merged into one with the support and maintenance of the cosmic order, while their non-observance (especially by the ruler, but not only by him) could lead to its disruption. The collapse of the "maat" would lead to the demise of the world and the victory of chaos (egypt "isfet").


title: Kemetism

text: In this sense, the Kemetic movement refers to the generally prevailing traditional ethical ideas, to the "good manners" or customs in which "maat" in the human world naturally and more or less unquestionably shows itself. There is no explicitly binding text codifying moral norms. Instead, Kemetists are formally non-binding in their interpretation of the concept of "maat" in relation to human conduct, inspired by ancient Egyptian scriptures. The most prominent (though by no means the only) source for understanding "maat" in a more general social sense is the ancient Egyptian Books of Wise Advice for Life. Only chapter 125 of the Books of the Dead, containing the testimony of the deceased before the underworld court, by which he proves his moral purity by listing the deeds he did not commit (the so-called negative confession), is of a somewhat normative nature.


title: Kemetism

text: Since all these ancient texts are exclusively casuistic in nature, even Kemeticism does not (yet) contain any generally formulated theory of moral conduct. The Bohemian Temple of the Land of Kemet rather only marginally notes in this context: "Do not be subject to any extremes and choose the `middle way'" and "do not doubt that if you look after the interests of the gods, they will look after your interests."


title: Kemetism

text: Its concept is quite unlike the traditional Egyptian temple and shows inspiration from the interiors of Western Christianity. The most prominent Kemetic organization is probably the American Society of Kemetic Orthodoxy, founded in the 1980s. It brings together members from various states and, according to its own characterization, attempts to follow the Egyptian traditions as closely as possible and to revive them. Entirely in this spirit, it is headed by an authority (currently Tamara Siuda) using some of the titles and other attributes of ancient pharaohs. She is conceived as the present incarnation of the royal ka), gold embedded in the spirit of Hora, an aspect of divinity embodied in the human form of a spiritual leader of the community.


title: Kemetism

text: On the other hand, it is in this movement that the departure from the traditionalist (i.e. closest to Egyptian religion) conception of god/gods, expressed in the concept of monolatry as official doctrine, is most pronounced.


title: Kemetism

text: Another type of Kemetist organization is the Fellowship of Isis, formed in Ireland. It differs from most others in that, following the model of late antiquity in the henotheistic sense, it focuses on the cult of the goddess Isis, originally Egyptian goddesses Isis, transposed into ancient Greek and Roman settings. Egyptian traditions are therefore heavily modified in him by their Antic interpretation, by religious syncretism, and by modern multiculturalism.


title: Kemetism

text: In the Czech Republic there is only one known society claiming to be a member of the Kemetism, the civic association Per Djoser Achet registered by the Ministry of the Interior. The activities of individual kemetists are evident mainly on the Internet.


title: Kemetism

text: Atonistic Kemeticism (or "Atonian Kemeticism") is a rather specific Kemetic movement, inspired by Atonianism. This form of Egyptian religion existed only during the brief reign of Akhenaten, during whose reign all other Egyptian cults were banned and only Aten was allowed. In antiquity, this religious reform was unsuccessful and ceased shortly after Akhenaten's death. Akhenaten himself remains a controversial figure to this day, and opinions of him range from a rejected heretic and ruler who should never have become a pharaoh to a great reformer and visionary who was not understood in his own time. And it is from this other end of the spectrum that there are those who seek to restore, to reconstruct, the very image of Akhenaten's Egyptian religion and bring this reformist religion of his into the present (see Athonite references).


title: Kemetism

text: Reconstructing Atonism is complicated, however, by the fact that the Egyptians themselves tried to erase this part of their history, and there are almost no remains of Akhetaton outside of Akhenaten. The most important source is the Akhenaten's Hymn to the Sun, as well as inscriptions preserved from the Egyptian Temple of Aten at Akhetaton and from the tombs of the nobles and dignitaries of the Akhetaton court.


title: Carmelo Hayes

text: Christian Brigham (born August 1, 1994) is an American professional wrestler. He is currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the NXT brand under the ring name Carmelo Hayes.


title: Carmelo Hayes

text: Hayes is a former one-time NXT Cruiserweight Champion and a former two-time NXT North American Champion, which he also has the longest combined reign for. Before signing with WWE, he performed on the independent circuit under the ring name Christian Casanova.


title: Carmelo Hayes

text: After being trained by Brian Fury, on April 12, 2014, Brigham made his professional wrestling debut for independent promotion Chaotic Wrestling, losing to Mikey Webb. Over the next few years, he worked for various promotions including Beyond Wrestling, where he won the Pride of New England Tournament for Tomorrow. On March 17, 2016, Brigham won the Chaotic Wrestling New England Championship. On March 16, 2018, Casanova won the Chaotic Wrestling Tag Team Championship alongside Tripilicious. On March 29, 2019, Casanova won the Chaotic Wrestling Heavyweight Championship for the first time, and on August 30, won it a second time, thus making him the Twelfth Triple Crown Champion in Chaotic Wrestling. On December 19, 2020, he won the Vacationland Cup while working for Limitless Wrestling.


title: Carmelo Hayes

text: On February 12, 2021, Brigham signed a contract with WWE and was assigned to the WWE Performance Center. He made his in-ring debut on the June 1 episode of "NXT" under the name Carmelo Hayes, accepting Kushida's open challenge for the NXT Cruiserweight Championship, but was defeated. On the June 22 episode of "NXT", Hayes had his second match, reminiscent of John Cena's "SmackDown" debut in 2002 against Kurt Angle, confronting and then facing Adam Cole in a losing effort. In July, Hayes took part in the 2021 NXT Breakout Tournament, defeating Josh Briggs, Duke Hudson, and Odyssey Jones to win the tournament. On the September 14 episode of "NXT", Hayes and a debuting Trick Williams maliciously attacked Hudson before his match, establishing themselves as a heel duo.


title: Carmelo Hayes

text: On the October 12 episode of "NXT", Hayes successfully cashed in his Breakout Tournament contract on Isaiah "Swerve" Scott to win the NXT North American Championship. He made his first successful title defense on the November 23 episode of "NXT" against Johnny Gargano and Pete Dunne. After the match, Hayes, Tony D'Angelo, Bron Breakker and Grayson Waller brawled with Gargano, Dunne, Tommaso Ciampa and LA Knight, leading to a WarGames match at NXT WarGames on December 5, where Team 2.0. defeated Team Black and Gold. At on January 4, 2022, Hayes defeated NXT Cruiserweight Champion Roderick Strong to unify the North American Championship and the Cruiserweight Championship, which was retired. Hayes was recognized as the final Cruiserweight Champion and continued as North American Champion. He retained the title against Cameron Grimes on February 15 at Vengeance Day and on the March 1 episode of "NXT" against Dunne, where he announced he would be defending the title in a fatal five-way ladder match at Stand & Deliver. At the event on April 2, Grimes won the championship, ending Hayes's reign at 172 days. At Spring Breakin' on May 3, he failed to regain the title from in a triple threat match involving Solo Sikoa.


title: Carmelo Hayes

text: At In Your House on June 4, he defeated Grimes to regain the North American Championship. Hayes went on to retain the title against Tony D'Angelo, Grayson Waller on July 5 at , Giovanni Vinci on August 16 at Heatwave, and Ricochet on September 4 at Worlds Collide. On the September 13 episode of "NXT", Hayes lost the championship to Sikoa, ending his second reign at 101 days. On the October 11 episode of "WWE Main Event", Hayes made his main roster debut, defeating Cedric Alexander. At Halloween Havoc on October 22, he failed to regain the North American Championship in a ladder match. On the November 22 episode of "NXT", Hayes challenged new champion Wes Lee for the title in a losing effort.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: Juventus Stadium, known for sponsorship reasons as the Allianz Stadium since July 2017, sometimes simply known in Italy as the Stadium (), is an all-seater football stadium in the Vallette borough of Turin, Italy, and the home of Juventus F.C. The stadium was built on the site of its former ground, the Stadio delle Alpi in the latter 2000s, and is the first club-owned football modern venue in the country as well as one of only four stadiums accredited with the UEFA Category 4, which have the highest technical level in the confederation's Stadium Infrastructure Regulations, alongside the San Siro, the Stadio Olimpico di Roma and the Stadio Olimpico Grande Torino. It was opened at the start of the 2011–12 season and, with 41,507 spectators, it is the sixth largest football stadium in Italy by seating capacity, as well the first in Piedmont.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: Juventus played the first match in the stadium on 8 September 2011 against the world's oldest professional football club Notts County, in a friendly which ended 1–1; Luca Toni scored the first goal. The first competitive match was against Parma three days later, where Stephan Lichtsteiner scored the stadium's first competitive goal in the 16th minute. Juventus only lost three of their first 100 league matches at the Juventus Stadium.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: The stadium hosted the 2014 UEFA Europa League Final and the 2021 UEFA Nations League Finals. Also, it hosted the 2022 UEFA Women's Champions League Final. In its area there are some other structures related with the club such as the J-Museum, the J-Medical and a concept store, as well as a shopping center.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: Juventus' previous permanent home ground, the Stadio delle Alpi, was completed in 1990 to host matches for the 1990 World Cup. The club's move from their previous ancestral home, the Stadio Comunale, to the Stadio delle Alpi was controversial. The new stadium was built at a great expense, was relatively less accessible, and had poor sightlines due to the athletics track. Despite Juventus being the best-supported team in Italy (with the highest television subscribers and away section attendances), attendance at the Stadio delle Alpi was dismal. Average attendance was only a third of the stadium's 67,000 capacity. The club bought the stadium from the local council in 2002, a decision which was popular with fans. Antonio Giraudo, CEO of the Club between 1994 and 2006, committed the project to the architect Gino Zavanella; the initial project already included features that would be typical of the final version, such as nearly halving the oversized capacity of the Delle Alpi and the elimination of the athletics track.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: Juventus moved out of the unpopular stadium after the 2006 Winter Olympics held on city and began plans to build a more intimate and atmospheric venue. During that period, they played their matches at the newly renovated Stadio Olimpico, which was also unpopular due to its low capacity. In November 2008, the club unveiled plans for a new 41,000-seater stadium on the site of the Stadio delle Alpi. The new stadium, built at a cost of €155 million, features modern executive boxes, among other new developments. The completion of Juventus Stadium made Juventus the only Serie A club to build and own their stadium at the time. Then-club chairman Giovanni Cobolli Gigli described the stadium as "a source of great pride".


title: Juventus Stadium

text: The financing of the project was contributed by the advanced payment from Sportfive for €35 million, a loan of €50 million (later increased to €60 million) from Istituto per il Credito Sportivo, and a land sales to Nordiconad for €20.25 million.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: The construction project aimed to ensure a low environmental impact of the work of the construction site via the use of advanced environmentally sustainable technologies. This stadium is constructed to reduce energy consumption from non-renewable energy sources by reducing waste and optimising the resources available. The stadium can produce the electricity it needs using solar energy captured through photovoltaic panels; it produces warm water which heats rooms, changing rooms, kitchens and the football field through a network of district heating, heats hot water for the dressing rooms and kitchens of restaurants using solar thermal systems. These alternative energy sources are aimed at helping the stadium meet the criteria dictated by the Kyoto protocol by generating multiple results:


title: Juventus Stadium

text: All the concrete from the old Stadio delle Alpi demolition have been separated and reused for the new building; other materials left have been divided into types, to be recycled, resold or reused throughout the new stadium's construction. The reinforced concrete used for the steps has been crushed down and reused as a supporting layer of the soil, with almost of concrete put towards the construction of the new stadium's foundations. Around 6,000 tons of steel, aluminium and copper were recovered, the re-use of which provided savings of more than one million euros. The implementation of this sustainable construction policy has ensured a global savings of approximately €2.3 million.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: Juventus signed an agreement with Sportfive Italia which gave the company "exclusive naming and partial promotional and sponsorship rights for the new stadium". In the agreement, Sportfive was given the rights to the name of the stadium from 2011 to 2023 for €75 million and to market the sky boxes and VIP seats.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: Since 1 July 2017, the Juventus Stadium is known commercially as the Allianz Stadium of Turin until 30 June 2030.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: The opening ceremony of the stadium was held on 8 September 2011, with a friendly match against Notts County, chosen as Juventus' black and white stripes were inspired by County's jersey colours. The game ended 1–1 with goals from Luca Toni and Lee Hughes in the second half. In return, Notts County extended an invitation to Juventus for a return match at Meadow Lane in 2012 to celebrate County's 150th anniversary.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: The stadium includes 3,600 premium seats and 64 sky boxes. Services for the club include reserved entrance to the stadium, luxury armchairs with personal LCD televisions, exclusive restaurants, bars, lounges, finger food at half time and after the game, reserved parking, access to the museum (starting in 2012).


title: Juventus Stadium

text: The Juventus Premium Club is the Juventus corporate hospitality project, aimed at companies who wish to entertain their clients and partners to lunch or dinner at the Juventus stadium before the match.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: In addition, the stadium houses a 34,000-m shopping complex open every day and parking space for 4,000 vehicles. The Juventus Museum is located nearby.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: A 70-minute guided tour of the stadium is offered every day. Guests are taken around to see the dressing rooms, facilities, museum and the pitch. The tours were initiated in November 2011 and the first tour was led by former Juventus player and current board member Pavel Nedvěd. Audio guides are also available to foreign visitors in English, French, German and Spanish.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: On 27 October 2011, Area 12, a shopping centre adjacent to the stadium was opened. It has over 60 shops, two bars, three restaurants and the first Conad store to feature a drive-through service, allowing customers to do their shopping online and collect their pre-packed goods. The new Juventus Store, at 550 square metres, is the biggest sports club shop in the country. It was designed by Giugiaro and architect Alberto Rolla.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: The shopping centre has 2,000 parking spaces, of which 800 are covered, and was provided by San Sisto (sole owner), a company which sees the agreement between Nordiconad from Modena, the Northern Italy Cooperative of Gruppo Conad, Cmb from Carpi and Unieco from Reggio Emilia, two Italian companies in the field of shopping centre building.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: The Juventus Museum, called the J-Museum, was unveiled on 16 May 2012 by club president Andrea Agnelli and museum chairman Paolo Gamberti and opened to the public the following day. A noted feature is the extensive use of technology to provide a different approach to the traditional concept of a museum. The museum is chaired by noted Italian journalist Paolo Garimberti, who was previously a journalist and correspondent for "La Stampa", "La Repubblica" and CNN Italia.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: The museum has been a popular point of interest with visitors to the stadium. Just four months after opening to the public, it has recorded some 40,000 visitors. In November 2012, the museum's management announced a partnership with two popular local attractions, the National Museum of Cinema and "Reggia di Venaria", to offer a discounted ticket package for visitors.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: On 23 March 2016, Juventus introduced its new medical centre, J-Medical, as a result of a collaboration between the club and Santa Clara Group. The medical centre is situated in the stadium's east stand, next to J-Museum. Housed within a 3500 m facility, the centre houses specialist clinics, operating theatres for outpatient surgery and a rehabilitation centre. In addition to providing affordable and efficient healthcare for the local community, the medical centre also serves as the club's in-house clinic for conducting players' medical check-ups.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: On 13 June 2016, Miralem Pjanić completed his medical ahead of a proposed move from Roma. This was the first time that J-Medical had held routine check-ups for prospective Juventus players.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: On 20 March 2012, UEFA announced that the Juventus Stadium would host the 2014 UEFA Europa League Final. This was the first time the city of Turin hosted a final of a UEFA club competition. Sevilla of Spain beat Benfica of Portugal on penalties after a goalless draw.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: On 3 December 2020, UEFA announced that the Juventus Stadium would be one of two venues to host matches of the 2021 UEFA Nations League Finals.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: On 2 March 2020, UEFA announced that the Juventus Stadium would host the 2022 UEFA Women's Champions League Final.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: On 1 June 2010 Juventus acquired a 99-year leasehold on the 270,860 m Continassa area (50 years for some minor parties) from the Turin city council for €1 million with the aim to redevelop over ten years with a series of projects and an investment of at least €60 million. The agreement was initially announced on 15 March 2011 and signed by the end of 2011.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: The project includes, among others, the construction of the future headquarters of the club – which will be built in the Continassa, the club has pledged to construct a Juventus Soccer School (the school football team Juventus) and will also build hotels. On 22 December 2012, the master plan of the whole Continassa area was approved by the city council of Turin.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: On 14 June 2013, a final contract was signed for €11.7 million, which Juventus acquired a 99-year renewable lease hold of 180,000 square metre of area, while the city council retained some area in Continassa. On 22 July 2014 "Piano Esecutivo Convenzionato" proposed by Juventus was approved.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: On 16 October 2015, Juventus officially announced the new project of J-Village. It reformed the previous Continassa Project and continued development in Continassa area. J-Village comprised development of six sites: the JTC (Juventus Training Center), the first-team training facility which would also house the Media Center; the new Juventus Head Office; the J-Hotel; the ISE International School (part of J-College); the Concept Store. A power station and the service infrastructure for the whole area would complete the development. The operational plan was expected for the completion by the end of June 2017. On 17 July 2017, Juventus announced that the new Juventus head office was opened. On 24 August 2019, Juventus announced the opening of the four-star 138-room J-Hotel; Juventus own 40 percent of the hotel, with the other 60 percent belonging to the Lindbergh Hotels group.


title: Juventus Stadium

text: Juventus ceded the development rights of the area to a private equity fund The J-Village Property Fund. The transaction included the ownership over an area of approximately 148,700 square meters and the related planning permission for 34,830 square meters of gross floor area at a total value of €24.1 million. Therefore, Juventus received shares in the J-Village Fund worth €24.1 million and be a Fund shareholder. The J-Village Property Fund was managed by an asset management company Accademia SGR. The Fund's overall investment was above €100 million, entirely covered by various private investors which were handled by Accademia SGR for a total of €53.8 million, and financing granted by UBI Banca (50%) and UniCredit (50%), for a maximum of €64.5 million.


title: Eileen Ryan

text: Eileen Ryan (; October 16, 1927 – October 9, 2022) was an American actress. The wife of actor and director Leo Penn, she was the mother of actors Sean Penn and Chris Penn, and of singer Michael Penn.


title: Eileen Ryan

text: Ryan was born in the Bronx on October 16, 1927. Her father, William, was Italian American and worked as a lawyer and a dentist; her mother, Rose Isabel (née Ryan), was Irish American and employed as a nurse, with her maiden name later chosen by Eileen to be part of her stage name. Ryan studied at New York University, graduating with a bachelor's degree.


title: Eileen Ryan

text: Ryan debuted on Broadway in 1953, in the play "Sing Till Tomorrow". Five years later, she featured in another Broadway production, "Comes a Day". Both plays were ultimately short-lived. She began to reduce her involvement in acting in order to look after her young family, which later relocated to the West Coast. During the 1960s and 1970s, Ryan periodically had roles in television shows, such as "The Twilight Zone", "Bonanza", and others directed by her husband Leo Penn.


title: Eileen Ryan

text: Ryan resumed acting on a more frequent basis in 1986, when she appeared with her sons Sean and Chris in "At Close Range" as the brothers' grandmother. She subsequently featured as the mother of Sean Penn's character in "Judgment in Berlin" (1988), which was directed by her husband. She also starred in "Parenthood" a year later opposite Jason Robards – whose withdrawal from his role in "The Iceman Cometh" over three decades earlier enabled Ryan to meet her future husband – before making an appearance in "The Crossing Guard" (1995), which her son Sean directed. Two years later, she went back to the stage in the play "Remembrance", acting alongside her husband in a production by Sean Penn at the Odyssey Theater. Her final role was in the 2016 film "Rules Don't Apply".


title: Eileen Ryan

text: Ryan married Leo Penn in 1957. They met the year before while she was performing in "The Iceman Cometh" at the Circle in the Square Theatre. At the time, he was an actor and active union member, who was blacklisted from the late 1940s to the late 1950s. They remained married for over 40 years until his death in 1998. Together, they had three children. One of them, Chris, predeceased her in 2006.


title: Solanum

text: Solanum is a large and diverse genus of flowering plants, which include three food crops of high economic importance: the potato, the tomato and the eggplant (aubergine, brinjal). It is the largest genus in the nightshade family Solanaceae, comprising around 1,500 species. It also contains the so-called horse nettles (unrelated to the genus of true nettles, "Urtica"), as well as numerous plants cultivated for their ornamental flowers and fruit.


title: Solanum

text: "Solanum" species show a wide range of growth habits, such as annuals and perennials, vines, subshrubs, shrubs, and small trees. Many formerly independent genera like "Lycopersicon" (the tomatoes) and "Cyphomandra" are now included in "Solanum" as subgenera or sections. Thus, the genus today contains roughly 1,500–2,000 species.


title: Solanum

text: The generic name was first used by Pliny the Elder (AD 23–79) for a plant also known as , most likely "S. nigrum". Its derivation is uncertain, possibly stemming from the Latin word , meaning "sun", referring to its status as a plant of the sun.


title: Solanum

text: The species most commonly called nightshade in North America and Britain is "Solanum dulcamara", also called bittersweet or woody nightshade (so-called because it is a (scandent) shrub). Its foliage and egg-shaped red berries are poisonous, the active principle being solanine, which can cause convulsions and death if taken in large doses. Black nightshade ("Solanum nigrum") is also generally considered poisonous, but its fully-ripened fruit and foliage are cooked and eaten in some areas. Deadly nightshade ("Atropa belladonna") belongs, like "Solanum", to subfamily Solanoideae of the nightshade family, but, unlike that genus, is a member of tribe Hyoscyameae ("Solanum" belongs to tribe Solaneae). The chemistry of "Atropa" species is very different from that of Solanum species and features the very toxic tropane alkaloids, the best-known of which is atropine.


title: Solanum

text: Most parts of the plants, especially the green parts and unripe fruit, are poisonous to humans (although not necessarily to other animals), but many species in the genus bear some edible parts, such as fruits, leaves, or tubers. Three crops in particular have been bred and harvested for consumption by humans for centuries, and are now cultivated on a global scale:


title: Solanum

text: Other species are significant food crops regionally, such as Ethiopian eggplant or gilo ("S. aethiopicum"), naranjilla or lulo ("S. quitoense"), Turkey berry ("S. torvum"), pepino or pepino melon ("S. muricatum"), Tamarillo ("S. betaceum"), wolf apple ("S. lycocarpum"), garden huckleberry ("S. scabrum") and "bush tomatoes" (several Australian species).


title: Solanum

text: Poisonings associated with certain species of "Solanum" are not uncommon and may be fatal. However, several species are locally used in folk medicine, particularly by native people who have long employed them.


title: Solanum

text: "Solanum" species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species (butterflies and moths) – see list of Lepidoptera that feed on "Solanum".


title: Solanum

text: The genus was established by Carl Linnaeus in 1753. Its subdivision has always been problematic, but slowly some sort of consensus is being achieved.


title: Solanum

text: The following list is a provisional lineup of the genus' traditional subdivisions, together with some notable species. Many of the subgenera and sections might not be valid; they are used here provisionally as the phylogeny of this genus is not fully resolved yet and many species have not been reevaluated.


title: Solanum

text: Cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data suggest that the present subdivisions and rankings are largely invalid. Far more subgenera would seem to warrant recognition, with "Leptostemonum" being the only one that can at present be clearly subdivided into sections. Notably, it includes as a major lineage several members of the traditional sections "Cyphomandropsis" and the old genus "Cyphomandra".


title: Solanum

text: A recent study built a densely sampled species-level phylogeny for "Solanum" comprising 60% of all accepted species based on full plastome dataset and nuclear target-capture data. While the taxonomic framework of "Solanum" remained stable, researchers observed gene tree conflicts and discordance between phylogenetic trees generated from the target-capture and plastome datasets. The latter corresponded to regions with short internodal branches, and network analysis and polytomy tests suggested the backbone is composed of three polytomies found at different evolutionary depths. The strongest area of discordance, near the crown node of Solanum, was found to be a hard polytomy. Currently, the most likely explanation for the discordance along the backbone of "Solanum" is due to incomplete lineage sorting (ILS) caused by rapid speciation. Presence of short internal branches is typical of ILS in lineages with large population sizes and high mutation rates. This fits with the biology of "Solanum" in general, which is typically known to contain “weedy”, disturbance-loving pioneer species resilient to change. Many species are known to have large geographical ranges and ecological amplitude. Some of the weedy characteristics found in these species include the ability to improve fitness and defense traits in response to disturbance, as well as having allelopathic properties which allow them to establish themselves to the detriment of native vegetation. If such characteristics were present in ancestral Solanum, they could have promoted rapid speciation across the globe, followed by rapid morphological evolution and speciation within areas. The patterns observed here could possibly be the result of three major rapid speciation “pulses” across the evolutionary history of Solanum. The idea of an ecologically opportunistic ancestor is supported by the tendency of many of the major clades to occupy periodically highly stressed and disturbed habitats, including flooded varzea forests, hyper-arid deserts, and highly disturbed and dynamic open mid-elevation Andean montane habitats, where landslides are among the most common areas where many of the species are found. The idea that well-supported and fully bifurcating phylogenies are a requisite for evolutionary studies is built on the premise that such trees are the accurate way of representing evolution. The shift in systematics from “tree”- to “bush”-like thinking, where polytomies and reticulate patterns of evolution are considered as acceptable or real, comes from the accumulation of studies finding similar unresolvable phylogenetic nodes, despite using different large-scale genomic sampling strategies and various analytical methods. We argue that acknowledging and embracing polytomies and reticulation is crucial if we are to design research programs aimed at understanding the biology of large and rapidly radiating lineages, such as the large and economically important Solanum.


title: Feodor I of Russia

text: Fyodor I Ivanovich () or Feodor I Ioannovich (; 31 May 1557 – 17 January (NS) 1598), also known as Feodor the Bellringer (), reigned as Tsar of Russia from 1584 until his death in 1598.


title: Feodor I of Russia

text: Feodor's mother died when he was three, and he grew up in the shadow of his father, Ivan the Terrible. A pious man of retiring disposition, Feodor took little interest in politics, and the country was effectively administered in his name by Boris Godunov, the brother of his beloved wife Irina. His childless death marked the end of the Rurik dynasty, and spurred Russia's descent into the catastrophic Time of Troubles.


title: Feodor I of Russia

text: In Russian documents, Feodor is sometimes called "blessed" (). He is also listed in the "Great Synaxaristes" of the Orthodox Church, with his feast day on January 7 (OS).


title: Feodor I of Russia

text: Feodor was born in Moscow, the son of Ivan IV (The Terrible) by his first wife Anastasia Romanovna. Although he was the sixth and youngest child of his mother, he grew up with only one older brother, Ivan, because all his other older siblings died before Feodor was one year old. His mother also died by the time Feodor was three years old, and her death greatly affected his father, who had been very attached to his wife. Ivan the Terrible began to earn his sobriquet during the years of Feodor's childhood. He also took a series of other wives, but Feodor's only surviving half-sibling, Dmitry of Uglich, was twenty-five years younger than him.


title: Feodor I of Russia

text: Feodor therefore grew up in the shadow of a terrible father, with no mother to succor him, and only his older brother Ivan for family solidarity. He grew to be sickly of health and diffident of temperament. He was extremely pious by nature, spending hours in prayer and contemplation. He was very fond of visiting churches, and would often cause the bells to be rung according to a special tradition in the Russian Orthodox Church. For this reason, he is known to history as Feodor the Bellringer. In Russian documents, he is sometimes called blessed (). He is also listed in the "Great Synaxaristes" of the Orthodox Church, with his feast day on January 7 (OS). Overall, he was considered a good-natured, simple-minded man who took little interest in politics. By some reports, he may have had either an intellectual disability or a learning disability, but this may have been a misinterpretation of his nature and behavior.


title: Feodor I of Russia

text: In 1580, Feodor married Irina (Alexandra) Feodorovna Godunova (1557 – 26 October/23 November 1603), sister of Ivan's minister, Boris Godunov. Although the marriage was arranged by the Tsar and the couple knew nothing of each other before their wedding day, they went on to have a strong marriage. The lonely Feodor soon grew extremely close to his wife, to a degree that was unusual for that period and milieu. Husband and wife shared a relationship of warmth and trust which was the support of Feodor's life as long as he lived.


title: Feodor I of Russia

text: However, Feodor and Irina's marriage did not immediately produce children, and may not have even been consummated for some years. It was only in 1592, after almost twelve years of marriage, that Tsaritsa Irina gave birth to a daughter, who was named Feodosia after her father. Feodor and his wife doted on their daughter, who however died aged two in 1594. There were no other children from the marriage.


title: Feodor I of Russia

text: In November 1581, Feodor's elder brother Ivan Ivanovich was killed by their father in a fit of rage. His death meant that Feodor became the heir to his father's throne. He had never been considered a candidate for the Russian throne until that moment, and was not a little daunted by the prospect. One year later, in October 1582, his father's latest wife bore a son, Dmitry of Uglich, who was Feodor's only surviving sibling.


title: Feodor I of Russia

text: Ivan the Terrible died in March 1584, and Feodor became Tsar. Two months later, on 31 May 1584, he was crowned Tsar and Autocrat of all Russia at Dormition Cathedral in Moscow.


title: Feodor I of Russia

text: Feodor was only the nominal ruler: his wife's brother and trusted minister Boris Godunov legitimized himself, after Ivan IV's death, as a "de facto" regent for the weak and disabled Feodor. Feodor's failure to sire other children brought an end to the centuries-old central branch of the Rurik dynasty (although many princes of later times are descendants of Rurik as well). Feodor was succeeded as tsar by Godunov. The termination of the dynasty can also be considered to be one of the reasons for the Time of Troubles. He died in Moscow and was buried at Archangel Cathedral, Kremlin.


title: Feodor I of Russia

text: His troubled reign was dramatised by Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy in his verse drama "Tsar Fiodor Ioannovich" (1868).


title: Feodor I of Russia

text: Unlike his father, Feodor had no enthusiasm for maintaining exclusive trading rights with the Kingdom of England. Feodor declared his kingdom open to all foreigners, and dismissed the English ambassador Sir Jerome Bowes, whose pomposity had been tolerated by Feodor's father. Elizabeth I sent a new ambassador, Giles Fletcher, the Elder, to demand of Boris Godunov that he convince the tsar to reconsider. The negotiations failed because Fletcher addressed Feodor with two of his titles omitted. Even after this setback, Elizabeth continued to address Feodor on that topic in half appealing, half reproachful letters. She proposed an alliance between Russia and England, something which she had refused to do when it had been sought by Feodor's father, but he turned her down.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Jay Robert Inslee (; born February 9, 1951) is an American politician, lawyer, and economist who has served as the 23rd governor of Washington since 2013. A member of the Democratic Party, he served as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from 1993 to 1995 and again from 1999 to 2012, and was a candidate for the 2020 Democratic presidential nomination.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Born and raised in Seattle, Inslee graduated from the University of Washington and Willamette University College of Law. He served in the Washington House of Representatives from 1989 to 1993. In 1992, Inslee was elected to represent , based around Central Washington, in the U.S. House of Representatives. Defeated for reelection in 1994, Inslee briefly returned to private legal practice. He made his first run for governor of Washington in 1996, coming in fifth in the blanket primary with 10% of the vote ahead of the general election, which was won by Democrat Gary Locke. Inslee then served as regional director for the United States Department of Health and Human Services under President Bill Clinton.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Inslee returned to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1999, this time for . The new district included Seattle's northern suburbs in King County, Snohomish County, and Kitsap County. He was reelected six times before announcing that he would make another run for the governorship in the 2012 election. He resigned from Congress to focus on his campaign. He defeated Republican Rob McKenna, the state attorney general, 51% to 48%. Inslee was reelected to a second term in 2016, defeating Republican Seattle Port Commissioner Bill Bryant, 54% to 45%. Inslee served as chair of the Democratic Governors Association for the 2018 election cycle.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Inslee was a candidate for the Democratic nomination for president of the United States in the 2020 election, launching his campaign on March 1, 2019. He suspended his campaign on August 21, citing extremely low poll numbers. The next day, Inslee announced his intention to seek a third term as governor in the 2020 election, which he won with 57% of the vote, becoming the first incumbent governor of Washington elected to a third term in more than 40 years.


title: Jay Inslee

text: As governor, Inslee has emphasized climate change, education, criminal justice reform, and drug policy reform. He has garnered national attention for his critiques of President Donald Trump. Inslee joined state attorney general Bob Ferguson and state solicitor general Noah Purcell in suing the Trump administration over Executive Order 13769, which halted travel for 90 days from seven Muslim-majority countries and imposed a total ban on Syrian refugees entering the United States. The case, "Washington v. Trump", led to the order being blocked by the courts, and other executive orders later superseded it.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Upon the resignation of New York governor Andrew Cuomo on August 23, 2021, Inslee became the longest-serving current governor in the United States. Inslee has filed initial paperwork to run for a fourth term in the 2024 election, but has not formally announced a run. Although a few of his predecessors have run, no governor in Washington's history has ever been elected to a fourth term.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Jay Robert Inslee was born February 9, 1951, in Seattle, Washington, the oldest of three sons of Adele A. (née Brown; d. 2007) and Frank E. Inslee (1926–2014). His mother worked as a sales clerk at Sears. His father was a well-known high school counselor and football coach, teaching at Tenino High School, Garfield High School and Chief Sealth High School. Frank Inslee later became the athletic director for Seattle Public Schools. Inslee is a fifth-generation Washingtonian. Inslee describes his family as being of English and Welsh descent.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Inslee attended Seattle's Ingraham High School, where he was an honor-roll student and star athlete, graduating in 1969. He played center on his high school basketball team and was also the starting quarterback on his football team.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Inslee's interest in environmental issues originated at an early age, with his parents leading groups of high school students on trips cleaning Mount Rainier. He met his future wife, Trudi Tindall, at Ingraham during his sophomore year. Graduating at the height of the Vietnam War, Inslee received student deferments from the draft.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Inslee began college at Stanford University, where he initially intended on studying medicine. After a year, he was forced to drop out because he was unable to get a scholarship. He returned home and, living in his parents' basement, attended the University of Washington. He received a Bachelor of Arts with a major in economics in 1973. He then attended Willamette University School of Law, receiving a Juris Doctor in 1976.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Inslee and his wife were married on August 27, 1972, and have three sons: Jack, Connor, and Joseph. After Inslee finished law school, they moved to Selah, a suburb of Yakima. Inslee joined the law firm Peters, Schmalz, Leadon & Fowler, working as a city prosecutor. He practiced in Selah for 10 years. He first became politically active in 1985, while advocating for the construction of a new high school. The experience sparked Inslee's interest in politics, emboldening him to run for political office.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Inslee ran for the Washington House of Representatives in 1988 after incumbent Republican State Representative Jim Lewis left office. His opponent, Lynn Carmichael, was the former mayor of Yakima and considered the front-runner in the race. Inslee also struggled to balance his more progressive ideology with the conservative leanings of Central Washington. His campaign attempted to rectify this by emphasizing his rural upbringing and legal experience supporting local average people, farms and businesses. The Washington State Trial Lawyers Association became Inslee's biggest contributor.


title: Jay Inslee

text: When presented with a potential state budget surplus, Inslee called for a tax cut for the middle class, which Carmichael called irresponsible. Inslee claimed Carmichael had supported a sales tax, which she denied. Inslee was an energetic and active campaigner, benefiting from retail politics.


title: Jay Inslee

text: In the blanket primary, Carmichael ranked first with 43% and Inslee ranked second with 40%. Republican Glen Blomgren ranked third with 17%. In the general election, Inslee defeated Carmichael 52%-48%. In 1990, Inslee was reelected with 62% of the vote against Republican Ted Mellotte.


title: Jay Inslee

text: In the Washington state legislature, Inslee pursued a bill to provide initial funding to build five branch campuses of the Washington State University system. Although the bill failed, his tenacity made an impression on House Speaker Joe King, who said: "He's not afraid to incur the wrath of the speaker or the caucus." Inslee also focused on preventing steroid usage among high school athletes and pushed for a bill requiring all drivers to carry auto insurance. In 1991, he voted for a bill that required the state to devise a cost-effective energy strategy and state agencies and school districts to pursue and maintain energy-efficient operations.


title: Jay Inslee

text: In 1992, six-term incumbent U.S. Representative Sid Morrison chose not to run for reelection representing , instead mounting a campaign for governor. Morrison was a popular moderate Republican incumbent who was considered successful and well-liked in the Democratic-controlled Congress. Despite initially declining to run, Inslee launched a campaign for the open Congressional seat, based in the central-eastern part of the state. His home area of the district, anchored by Yakima, is relatively rural and agriculture-based, while the southeastern part is more focused on research and nuclear waste disposal, anchored by the Tri-Cities. Inslee defeated a favored state senator to win the Democratic primary by 1%. Despite the district's conservative lean, Inslee won the general election in an extremely close race.


title: Jay Inslee

text: He lost his bid for reelection in the Republican Revolution of 1994 in a rematch against his 1992 opponent, Doc Hastings. Inslee attributed his 1994 defeat in large part to his vote for the Federal Assault Weapons Ban.


title: Jay Inslee

text: In Congress, Inslee passed the Yakima River Enhancement Act, a bill long held up in Congress, by brokering a breakthrough with irrigators and wildlife advocates. He also helped to open Japanese markets to American apples and to fund and oversee the nation's biggest nuclear waste site at the Hanford Nuclear Reservation near Richland, Washington.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Inslee ran for governor of Washington in 1996, losing in the blanket primary. Democratic King County Executive and former State Representative Gary Locke ranked first with 24% of the vote. Democratic Mayor of Seattle Norm Rice ranked second with 18%, but did not qualify for the general election. Republican State Senator Ellen Craswell ranked third with 15%, and became the Republican candidate in the general election. Republican State Senator and Senate Majority Leader Dale Foreman ranked fourth with 13%. Inslee ranked fifth with 10%. No other candidate on the ballot received double digits.


title: Jay Inslee

text: After his failed gubernatorial bid, Inslee was appointed regional director for the United States Department of Health and Human Services by then-President Bill Clinton.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Inslee ran again for Congress in 1998, this time in the 1st congressional district against two-term incumbent Rick White. His campaign attracted national attention when he became the first Democratic candidate to air television ads attacking his opponent and the Republican congressional leadership for the Lewinsky scandal. Inslee won with 49.8% of the vote to White's 44.1%; he had an unintentional assist in his successful return by the conservative third-party candidacy of Bruce Craswell, husband of 1996 GOP gubernatorial nominee Ellen Craswell.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Inslee was reelected six times. In 2000, he defeated State Senate Minority Leader Dan McDonald with 54.6% of the vote. In 2002, Inslee defeated former state representative Joe Marine with 55.6% of the vote after the district was made more Democratic by redistricting. He never faced another contest that close, and was reelected three more times with over 60% of the vote.


title: Jay Inslee

text: In July 2003, after Gary Locke announced he would not seek a third term as Washington's governor, Inslee briefly flirted with a gubernatorial bid before deciding to remain in Congress.


title: Jay Inslee

text: During the 2009-10 campaign cycle, Inslee raised $1,140,025. In data compiled for the period 2005 to 2007 and excluding individual contributions of less than $200, 64 percent of Inslee's donations were from outside the state of Washington and 86 percent came from outside his district (compared to 79 percent for the average House member). 43 percent of Inslee's donations came from Washington, D.C., Virginia and Maryland. The largest interests funding Inslee's campaign were pharmaceutical and health-related companies, lawyers and law firms, and high-tech companies.


title: Jay Inslee

text: As a member of the centrist New Democrat Coalition, Inslee accumulated expertise on high-tech issues and vocally supported policies combating climate change.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Inslee was awarded a "Friend of the National Parks" award by the National Parks Conservation Association (NPCA) in 2001 for his support of legislation protecting the integrity and quality of the National Park System.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Inslee was "one of Congress's most ardent advocates of strong action to combat global warming," according to "The New York Times". He was the first public figure to propose an Apollo-like energy program, in an opinion editorial in the "Seattle Post-Intelligencer" on December 19, 2002, and a series of similar pieces in other publications. Inslee co-authored "Apollo's Fire: Igniting America's Clean Energy Economy", in which he argues that through improved federal policies the United States can wean itself off foreign oil and fossil fuel, create millions of green-collar jobs, and stop global warming. He has been a prominent supporter of the Apollo Alliance. Inslee strongly believes the Environmental Protection Agency should remain authorized to regulate greenhouse gas emissions. In a 2011 House hearing on the Energy Tax Prevention Act, he said Republicans have "an allergy to science and scientists" during a discussion of whether the regulation of greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act should remain in place following a controversial court finding on the issue.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Inslee was an outspoken critic of the George W. Bush administration's 2003 invasion of Iraq. On July 31, 2007, he introduced legislation calling for an inquiry to determine whether then United States Attorney General Alberto Gonzales should be impeached. Gonzales eventually resigned.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Still an avid basketball player and fan, Inslee identified as a member of "Hoopaholics", a charity group dedicated to "treatment of old guys addicted to basketball and who can no longer jump", as Inslee has often joked. In October 2009, he played basketball at the White House in a series of games featuring members of Congress on one team and members of the administration, including President Obama, on the other.


title: Jay Inslee

text: In 2011, Inslee voted in favor of authorizing the use of U.S. armed forces in the 2011 Libyan civil war and against limiting the use of funds to support NATO's 2011 military intervention in Libya.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Inslee was once touted as a candidate for United States Secretary of the Interior and for United States Secretary of Energy during the Presidential transition of Barack Obama.


title: Jay Inslee

text: On June 27, 2011, Inslee announced his candidacy for governor of Washington. His campaign focused on job creation, outlining dozens of proposals to increase job growth in clean energy, the aerospace industry, and biotechnology. He also supported a ballot measure to legalize gay marriage, which passed, and opposed tax increases. Though trailing in early polls, he won election with 51% of the vote, a three-point margin over his Republican opponent, state attorney general Rob McKenna.


title: Jay Inslee

text: In December 2015, Inslee announced on Washington's public affairs TV channel TVW that he would run for a second term as governor. He emphasized increased spending on transportation and education as his primary first-term accomplishment, though he had struggled to work with the Republican-controlled Majority Coalition Caucus in the State Senate.


title: Jay Inslee

text: In the general election Inslee faced former Port of Seattle Commissioner Bill Bryant. The primary issues of the campaign were climate change, job creation, minimum wage, and capital gains taxes. Inslee far outraised Bryant, and was reelected in November with 54% of the vote.


title: Jay Inslee

text: On March 1, 2019, Inslee announced he would run for president, but kept open the possibility of running for a third term if his presidential campaign failed. Several potential Democratic gubernatorial candidates, including state Attorney General Bob Ferguson, Commissioner of Public Lands Hilary Franz, and King County Executive Dow Constantine, were all waiting to announce campaigns until Inslee made his decision. As Inslee's presidential campaign failed to gain traction during the summer of 2019, he was pressured to drop out and make his gubernatorial plans clear to the other potential candidates. On August 21, 2019, Inslee dropped out of the presidential campaign and announced the next day he would run for reelection as governor.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Inslee's major opponents in the election were State Senator Phil Fortunato, Republic, Washington police chief Loren Culp, Yakima physician Raul Garcia, activist Tim Eyman and former Bothell mayor Joshua Freed. Inslee finished first in the primary, with 50% of the vote. Culp finished a distant second, with 17%. Inslee and Culp advanced to the general election, which Inslee won with 57% of the vote. His margin of victory was the largest in a gubernatorial election in Washington since Gary Locke's in 2000 and he also became the first Democrat in two decades to win a county in Eastern Washington, winning Whitman County.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Inslee became the first Washington governor elected to a third term since Dan Evans was reelected in 1972.


title: Jay Inslee

text: During the 2013 session, the legislature failed to create a fiscal budget plan during the initial session, and Inslee was forced to call two special sessions to provide time for a budget to be created. The Republican-controlled Senate and Democratic-controlled House each passed its own budget and could not agree on one. Finally, in June 2013, Inslee signed a $33.6 billion budget to which both houses had agreed as a compromise. The budget increased funding for education by $1 billion. It also adjusted property taxes and tax breaks in order to increase state revenue by $1 billion.


title: Jay Inslee

text: On June 13, 2013, Inslee signed an additional estate tax into law. The tax had bipartisan support, and passed the Senate, 30–19.


title: Jay Inslee

text: In December 2013, Inslee was elected to serve as finance chair of the Democratic Governors Association.


title: Jay Inslee

text: In January 2014, Inslee gave a speech commending machinists who voted to renew Boeing's contract with Seattle area union employees, allowing the company to build its Boeing 777x aircraft in Everett. He said the contract would bring Washington to a new industrial plateau and be a turning point for Washington jobs:


title: Jay Inslee

text: These jobs are in the thousands and it is not only on the 777X, the first model of the 777X, but all the subsequent derivative models as well.


title: Jay Inslee

text: The plan was to prevent Boeing from building part of the aircraft in Washington and part of it elsewhere, as they did with the Boeing 787, which was partially constructed in South Carolina.


title: Jay Inslee

text: There have been too many doubts raised about capital punishment, there are too many flaws in this system today. There is too much at stake to accept an imperfect system.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Inslee cited the high cost of pursuing the death penalty, the randomness with which it is sought, and the lack of evidence that it is a deterrent.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Inslee began his second term on January 11, 2017, proposing full funding of state education (in compliance with the McCleary decision) and addressing mental health needs while also raising worker pay. After newly inaugurated President Donald Trump signed an executive order on January 27 banning people from seven Muslim-majority countries from entering the United States, Inslee and Attorney General Bob Ferguson announced their intention to sue Trump, alleging his order was unconstitutional. The civil action, "Washington v. Trump", was filed on January 30 and on February 3 successfully earned a temporary restraining order to forbid federal enforcement of some of the ban's provisions. An appeal and request to stay filed by the federal government was subsequently denied by the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. Inslee and Ferguson declared victory over Trump on February 16, after his administration announced it would revise the travel ban to comply with the court decisions. Inslee garnered national media attention during the lawsuit.


title: Jay Inslee

text: During the 2017 legislative session, the Washington State Legislature failed to pass a state operating budget by the end of its regular session on April 25, so Inslee called for a 30-day special session. The legislature again failed to pass a budget during that session, forcing Inslee to call a third one, beginning June 22. As the state's fiscal year ends on June 30, a partial government shutdown was feared. Conflict over resource allocation between rural areas and urban areas was a major reason for the impasse. The State Senate passed a budget on June 30 and Inslee signed it into law shortly after 11 pm. Its specifics were still being released several hours after it was enacted. Lawmakers critiqued the haste with which the budget was considered and passed, having received the 616-page document only that day. By the end of the third session on July 20, the legislature had still failed to pass a capital budget concerning long-term goals and improvements. This was the third time during Inslee's tenure the state's budget was passed in the last week of the legislative session.


title: Jay Inslee

text: In December 2017 Inslee awarded $6.4 million in grant funding for apprenticeships and career connections to 29,000 youth in 11 communities. He called this initiative Career Connect Washington. It includes a Task Force and several prominent stakeholder groups including Alaska Airlines, Amazon, Boeing, Microsoft, and Kaiser Permanente. Career Connect Washington has established new apprenticeship opportunities, including the Aerospace Joint Apprenticeship Committee's registered Youth Apprenticeship program for high school students.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Inslee served as chair of the Democratic Governors Association for the 2018 election cycle, in which Democrats gained seven net governorships nationwide.


title: Jay Inslee

text: In December 2018, Inslee announced new legislation aimed at reducing the state's carbon emissions over approximately two decades. It would effectively require Washington utilities to end the use of fossil fuels by mid-century, making Washington "adopt a clean fuel standard", "promote electric and low-emission vehicles", and "provide incentives to renovate existing buildings to reduce" emissions.


title: Jay Inslee

text: In January 2019, Inslee said he would provide an expedited process for approximately 3,500 people convicted of small-time cannabis possession to apply for and receive pardons.


title: Jay Inslee

text: In March and April 2020, Inslee ordered significant social distancing measures statewide, including banning large events, a stay-at-home order, and the closing of all schools due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Jay Inslee

text: On June 8, 2020, in the wake of protests over police brutality, a group of protesters established the Capitol Hill Autonomous Zone (also known as the Zone or the CHAZ) in Seattle. The Zone prides itself on offering free food and being free of police. However, it also experienced internal violence and vandalism, including four shootings in ten days. President Donald Trump condemned the Zone, saying that Seattle had been taken over by anarchists, and called on Inslee and the mayor of Seattle to "take back" the neighborhood from protesters. Inslee responded that he was unaware of the Zone's existence, but called on Trump to "stay out of Washington State's business".


title: Jay Inslee

text: In November 2020, Inslee was named a candidate for Secretary of Energy, Secretary of the Interior and the administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency in the Biden Administration.


title: Jay Inslee

text: On April 8, 2021, Inslee signed a bill restoring voting rights to convicted felons after they finish serving their sentences. This made Washington the 20th state to have such laws, and it was primarily sponsored by representative Tarra Simmons, who was formerly incarcerated herself.


title: Jay Inslee

text: On May 4, 2021, Inslee signed a new capital gains tax into law. The tax narrowly passed the Senate, 25–24. It affects certain investments, such as the sale of stocks and bonds, and taxes profits that total $250,000 or more at 7%. It includes many exemptions, including retirement accounts, livestock, timber, and real estate. This was followed by two lawsuits, which were later consolidated into one, led by former state attorney general and Inslee's 2012 gubernatorial opponent Rob McKenna. The lawsuit alleges that the tax is a state income tax in disguise and is unconstitutional due to precedent, with a graduated state income tax being declared unconstitutional in 1933. In September 2021, Grant County superior court judge Brian Huber allowed this lawsuit to proceed.


title: Jay Inslee

text: In August 2021, Inslee mandated vaccinations for state and health care workers by October 18 without a weekly testing alternative.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Following the resignation of Republican Secretary of State Kim Wyman, to take a job in the Biden administration, Inslee was tasked with appointing her replacement. He appointed state senator Steve Hobbs, a Democrat, noting that former Republican governor John Spellman appointed Republican Dan Evans to fill the vacancy created by the death of Democratic U.S. Senator Scoop Jackson in 1983. Hobbs is a moderate who opposed many of Inslee's priorities while in the state senate, including abolishing the death penalty, gun control, reducing carbon emissions, expanding voting rights to parolees, and a state income tax. These positions put him at odds with Inslee and were widely seen as a prime reason for his appointment. The appointment led to the Washington State Democratic Party holding all nine statewide executive offices for the first time since the Great Depression.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Throughout 2018, speculation rose that Inslee might run for president of the United States in the 2020 election. He garnered national attention because of "Washington v. Trump," a lawsuit challenging the Trump Administration's order to ban people from seven Muslim-majority countries from entering the United States. While Inslee was chair of the Democratic Governors Association, Democrats gained seven net governorships in the 2018 gubernatorial elections, further propelling him into the national spotlight and fueling speculation that he would run. Inslee cited climate change as his primary motivation for running, strongly criticizing the Trump Administration's policies.


title: Jay Inslee

text: In January 2019, reports surfaced that Inslee was beginning to form an exploratory committee, the first step in a campaign. Inslee was a dark-horse candidate; initially, he was rarely included in polling for the primary, was not well known outside Washington, and made few trips to early primary states such as Iowa and New Hampshire. But he pointed to former Presidents Jimmy Carter and Bill Clinton, calling them "pretty much unknown governors of small states" and adding, "this is a wide-open field. No one has a lock on this. No one has a total crystal ball as to what the nation wants."


title: Jay Inslee

text: Inslee announced his candidacy for president on March 1, 2019, saying he would focus on combating climate change. His campaign requested a debate focused on climate change. The Democratic National Committee denied the request, but 53 of its voting members wrote an open letter protesting that decision.


title: Jay Inslee

text: Facing poor polling numbers and seeing no path to victory, Inslee announced the suspension of his campaign on "The Rachel Maddow Show" on August 21, 2019, and announced the following day that he would run for a third term as governor in the 2020 election. Inslee endorsed Joe Biden for the presidency on April 22, 2020.


title: Respiratory failure

text: Respiratory failure results from inadequate gas exchange by the respiratory system, meaning that the arterial oxygen, carbon dioxide, or both cannot be kept at normal levels. A drop in the oxygen carried in the blood is known as hypoxemia; a rise in arterial carbon dioxide levels is called hypercapnia. Respiratory failure is classified as either Type 1 or Type 2, based on whether there is a high carbon dioxide level, and can be acute or chronic. In clinical trials, the definition of respiratory failure usually includes increased respiratory rate, abnormal blood gases (hypoxemia, hypercapnia, or both), and evidence of increased work of breathing. Respiratory failure causes an altered mental status due to ischemia in the brain.


title: Respiratory failure

text: The typical partial pressure reference values are oxygen Pa more than 80 mmHg (11 kPa) and carbon dioxide Pa less than 45 mmHg (6.0 kPa).


title: Respiratory failure

text: Type 1 respiratory failure is defined as a low level of oxygen in the blood (hypoxemia) with either a standard (normocapnia) or low (hypocapnia) level of carbon dioxide (PaCO) but not an increased level (hypercapnia). It is typically caused by a ventilation/perfusion (V/Q) mismatch; the volume of air flowing in and out of the lungs is not matched with the flow of blood to the lungs. The fundamental defect in type 1 respiratory failure is a failure of oxygenation characterized by:


title: Respiratory failure

text: Type 2 respiratory failure is caused by inadequate alveolar ventilation; both oxygen and carbon dioxide are affected. Defined as the buildup of carbon dioxide levels (PCO) that has been generated by the body but cannot be eliminated. The underlying causes include:


title: Respiratory failure

text: Type 3 respiratory failure results from lung atelectasis. Because atelectasis occurs so commonly in the perioperative period, this form is also called perioperative respiratory failure. After general anesthesia, decreases in functional residual capacity leads to collapse of dependent lung units.


title: Respiratory failure

text: Type 4 respiratory failure results from hypoperfusion of respiratory muscles as in patients in shock. Patients in shock often experience respiratory distress due to pulmonary edema (e.g., in cardiogenic shock). Lactic acidosis and anemia can also result in type 4 respiratory failure. However, type 1 and 2 are the most widely accepted.


title: Respiratory failure

text: Treatment of the underlying cause is required, if possible. The treatment of acute respiratory failure may involve medication such as bronchodilators (for airways disease), antibiotics (for infections), glucocorticoids (for numerous causes), diuretics (for pulmonary oedema), amongst others. Respiratory failure resulting from an overdose of opioids may be treated with the antidote naloxone. In contrast, most benzodiazepine overdose does not benefit from its antidote, flumazenil. Respiratory therapy/respiratory physiotherapy may be beneficial in some cases of respiratory failure.


title: Respiratory failure

text: Type 1 respiratory failure may require oxygen therapy to achieve adequate oxygen saturation. Lack of oxygen response may indicate other modalities such as heated humidified high-flow therapy, continuous positive airway pressure or (if severe) endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation. .


title: Respiratory failure

text: Type 2 respiratory failure often requires non-invasive ventilation (NIV) unless medical therapy can improve the situation. Mechanical ventilation is sometimes indicated immediately or otherwise if NIV fails. Respiratory stimulants such as doxapram are now rarely used.


title: Respiratory failure

text: There is tentative evidence that in those with respiratory failure identified before arrival in hospital, continuous positive airway pressure can be helpful when started before conveying to hospital.


title: Flag of Hungary

text: The national flag of Hungary () is a horizontal tricolour of red, white and green (red-white-green). In this exact form, it has been the official flag of Hungary since 23 May 1957. The flag's form originates from national republican movements of the 18th and 19th centuries, while its colours are from the Middle Ages. The current Hungarian tricolour flag is the same as the republican movement flag of the United Kingdom (used since 1816) and the colours in that form were already used at least since the coronation of Leopold II in 1790, predating the first use of the Italian Tricolour in 1797.


title: Flag of Hungary

text: The modern flag of Hungary originated from the national freedom movement from before 1848, which culminated in the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. The revolution was not only in opposition against the monarchy but also the Habsburg Empire, as well as to form an independent republic. Accordingly, the Hungarian flag features a tricolour element, which is based upon the French flag, as a reflection of the ideas of the French revolution; while red, white, and green are colours derived from the historical Hungarian coat of arms, which have essentially remained in the same form since the mid-15th century, with exception to some minor differences, and were marshalled from arms that first appeared in the late 12th and early 13th century as arms of the Árpáds, Hungary's founding dynasty. The stripes are horizontal rather than vertical to prevent confusion with the Italian flag despite the banner in that form predating the Italian tricolour by at least 7 years but unlike in Italy, the Italians adopted it as the flag of an Italian state in 1797. According to other data, but no evidence of, the recent form of the Hungarian tricolour had been already used from 1608 at the coronation of Mathias II of Hungary and following coronations.


title: Flag of Hungary

text: Folklore of the romantic period attributed the colours to virtues: red for strength, white for faithfulness and green for hope. Alternatively, red for the blood spilled for the fatherland, white for freedom and green for the land, for the pastures of Hungary. The new constitution, which took effect on 1 January 2012, makes the "ex-post" interpretation mentioned first official (in the semi-official translation: strength ("erő"), fidelity ("hűség") and hope ("remény")).


title: Flag of Hungary

text: As described above, the red, white and green tricolour clearly emerged as a sign of national sovereignty during the 1848–1849 revolution against the Habsburgs. Hungarian volunteers and Émigrés fought for the social movement and wars of Italian unification under the banner for Garibaldi. After the revolution in Hungary was defeated, the tricolour flag was prohibited by the Austrian Emperor. After the Compromise of 1867, however, the tricolour became not only legal, but also the official flag of Hungary. The flag had the so-called "minor arms" (also known as the Kossuth coat of arms) of Hungary with archangels as supporters were used as a badge on the flag. This configuration was used until the end of the Habsburg Empire in 1918.


title: Flag of Hungary

text: After the fall of the Habsburg Empire, the years 1918 to 1920 were highly turbulent, and several hard-to-trace minor changes took place. The red-green-white tricolour stayed the same, but small differences emerged in terms of the badge. A short interlude and exception was the 1919 Hungarian Soviet Republic, which lasted for four-and-a-half months; it used a solid red banner.


title: Flag of Hungary

text: It seems that from 1920 to 1944–1945 the tricolour displayed the "minor arms" of Hungary, but the version without them was also used.


title: Flag of Hungary

text: With the onset of Communist rule in 1949, a new coat of arms featuring a Communist red star was placed on the flag as the badge.


title: Flag of Hungary

text: During the anti-Soviet uprising in 1956, revolutionaries cut out the Hammer and Wheat emblem and used the resulting tricolour with a hole in the middle as the symbol of the revolution. For some months the new government changed the flag to bear the "minor arms" without the crown as the badge again.


title: Flag of Hungary

text: In 1957, after the revolution was defeated by the Soviet Red Army, the new government created a "new" coat of arms, which however was never officially put onto the flag. Therefore, the official flag of Hungary has been a pure red-white-green tricolour since 1957.


title: Flag of Hungary

text: After the fall of communism in 1989 there was no need to change the flag, as like the flags of Poland and Czechoslovakia, it did not bear any communist insignia.


title: Flag of Hungary

text: There was a recommendation of the Committee of Symbols in the 2000s, that the coat of arms should be part of the state flag, while the national flag should remain plain (as is the status quo). This has not been implemented in law, though in case of most state use the arms are legally permitted on the flag (see below).


title: Flag of Hungary

text: The Hungarian Constitution does not explicitly state anything about the width:length ratio of the flag; but, there is a law from 1957 that is in force stating that seagoing merchant vessels shall hoist the red, white and green tricolour in 2:3 ratio.


title: Flag of Hungary

text: By a government decree from 2000, the ratio (which is neither defined in the Constitution nor in 1995 or 2000 legislation) of flags used on government building is 1:2.


title: Controlled-access highway

text: A controlled-access highway is a type of highway that has been designed for high-speed vehicular traffic, with all traffic flow—ingress and egress—regulated. Common English terms are freeway, motorway and expressway. Other similar terms include "throughway" and "parkway". Some of these may be limited-access highways, although this term can also refer to a class of highways with somewhat less isolation from other traffic.


title: Controlled-access highway

text: In countries following the Vienna convention, the motorway qualification implies that walking and parking are forbidden.


title: Controlled-access highway

text: A fully controlled-access highway provides an unhindered flow of traffic, with no traffic signals, intersections or property access. They are free of any at-grade crossings with other roads, railways, or pedestrian paths, which are instead carried by overpasses and underpasses. Entrances and exits to the highway are provided at interchanges by slip roads (ramps), which allow for speed changes between the highway and arterials and collector roads. On the controlled-access highway, opposing directions of travel are generally separated by a median strip or central reservation containing a traffic barrier or grass. Elimination of conflicts with other directions of traffic dramatically improves safety and capacity and speed and traffic flow for everyone and time taken to reach the destination.


title: Controlled-access highway

text: Controlled-access highways evolved during the first half of the 20th century. Italy opened its first "autostrada" in 1924, A8, connecting Milan to Varese. Germany began to build its first controlled-access "autobahn" without speed limits ( on what is now A555, then referred to as a "dual highway") in 1932 between Cologne and Bonn. It then rapidly constructed a nationwide system of such roads. The first North American "freeways" (known as parkways) opened in the New York City area in the 1920s. Britain, heavily influenced by the railways, did not build its first "motorway", the Preston By-pass (M6), until 1958.


title: Controlled-access highway

text: Most technologically advanced nations feature an extensive network of freeways or motorways to provide high-capacity urban travel, or high-speed rural travel, or both. Many have a national-level or even international-level (e.g. European E route) system of route numbering.


title: Controlled-access highway

text: There are several international standards that give some definitions of words such as motorways, but there is no formal definition of the English language words such as "freeway", "motorway", and "expressway", or of the equivalent words in other languages such as , , , , that are accepted worldwide—in most cases these words are defined by local statute or design standards or regional international treaties. Descriptions that are widely used include:


title: Controlled-access highway

text: One green or blue symbol (like ) appears at motorway entry in countries that follow the Vienna Convention. Exits are marked with another symbol: .


title: Controlled-access highway

text: In the European Union, for statistical and safety purposes, some distinction might be made between "motorway" and "expressway". For instance a principal arterial might be considered as:


title: Controlled-access highway

text: Roads serving long distance and mainly interurban movements. Includes motorways (urban or rural) and expressways (road which does not serve properties bordering on it and which is provided with separate carriageways for the two directions of traffic). Principal arterials may cross through urban areas, serving suburban movements. The traffic is characterized by


title: Controlled-access highway

text: high speeds and full or partial access control (interchanges or junctions controlled by traffic lights). Other roads leading to a principal arterial are connected to it through side collector roads. In this view, CARE's definition stands that a motorway is understood as a public road with dual carriageways and at least two lanes each way. All entrances and exits are signposted and all interchanges are grade separated. Central barrier or median present throughout the road. No crossing is permitted, while stopping is permitted only in an emergency. Restricted access to motor vehicles, prohibited to pedestrians, animals, pedal cycles, mopeds, agricultural vehicles. The minimum speed is not lower than and the maximum speed is not higher than (except Germany where no speed limit is defined).


title: Controlled-access highway

text: Motorways are designed to carry heavy traffic at high speed with the lowest possible number of accidents. They are also designed to collect long-distance traffic from other roads, so that conflicts between long-distance traffic and local traffic are avoided. According to the common European definition, a motorway is defined as "a road, specially designed and built for motor traffic, which does not serve properties bordering on it, and which: (a) is provided, except at special points or temporarily, with separate carriageways for the two directions of traffic, separated from each other, either by a dividing strip not intended for traffic, or exceptionally by other means; (b) does not cross at level with any road, railway or tramway track, or footpath; (c) is specially sign-posted as a motorway and is reserved for specific categories of road motor vehicles." Urban motorways are also included in this definition. However, the respective national definitions and the type of roads covered may present slight differences in different EU countries.


title: Controlled-access highway

text: The first version of modern controlled-access highways evolved during the first half of the 20th century. The Long Island Motor Parkway on Long Island, New York, opened in 1908 as a private venture, was the world's first limited-access roadway. It included many modern features, including banked turns, guard rails and reinforced concrete tarmac.


title: Controlled-access highway

text: Modern controlled-access highways originated in the early 1920s in response to the rapidly increasing use of the automobile, the demand for faster movement between cities and as a consequence of improvements in paving processes, techniques and materials. These original high-speed roads were referred to as "dual highways" and, while divided, bore little resemblance to the highways of today.


title: Controlled-access highway

text: The first dual highway opened in Italy in 1924, between Milan and Varese, and now forms parts of the A8 and A9 motorways. This highway, while divided, contained only one lane in each direction and no interchanges. Shortly thereafter, in New York in 1924, the Bronx River Parkway was opened to traffic. The Bronx River Parkway was the first road in North America to utilize a median strip to separate the opposing lanes, to be constructed through a park and where intersecting streets crossed over bridges. The Southern State Parkway opened in 1927, while the Long Island Motor Parkway was closed in 1937 and replaced by the Northern State Parkway (opened 1931) and the contiguous Grand Central Parkway (opened 1936). In Germany, construction of the Bonn-Cologne Autobahn began in 1929 and was opened in 1932 by Konrad Adenauer, then the mayor of Cologne.


title: Controlled-access highway

text: In Canada, the first precursor with semi-controlled access was The Middle Road between Hamilton and Toronto, which featured a median divider between opposing traffic flow, as well as the nation's first cloverleaf interchange. This highway developed into the Queen Elizabeth Way, which featured a cloverleaf and trumpet interchange when it opened in 1937, and until the Second World War, boasted the longest illuminated stretch of roadway built. A decade later, the first section of Highway 401 was opened, based on earlier designs. It has since gone on to become the busiest highway in the world.


title: Controlled-access highway

text: The word "freeway" was first used in February 1930 by Edward M. Bassett. Bassett argued that roads should be classified into three basic types: highways, parkways, and freeways. In Bassett's zoning and property law-based system, abutting property owners have the rights of light, air and access to highways, but not parkways and freeways; the latter two are distinguished in that the purpose of a parkway is recreation, while the purpose of a freeway is movement. Thus, as originally conceived, a freeway is simply a strip of public land devoted to movement to which abutting property owners do not have rights of light, air or access.


title: Controlled-access highway

text: Freeways, by definition, have no at-grade intersections with other roads, railroads or multi-use trails. Therefore, no traffic signals are needed and through traffic on freeways does not normally need to stop at traffic signals. Some countries, such as the United States, allow for limited exceptions: some movable bridges, for instance the Interstate Bridge on Interstate 5 between Oregon and Washington, do require drivers to stop for ship traffic.


title: Controlled-access highway

text: The crossing of freeways by other routes is typically achieved with grade separation either in the form of underpasses or overpasses. In addition to sidewalks (pavements) attached to roads that cross a freeway, specialized pedestrian footbridges or tunnels may also be provided. These structures enable pedestrians and cyclists to cross the freeway at that point without a detour to the nearest road crossing.


title: Controlled-access highway

text: Access to freeways is typically provided only at grade-separated interchanges, though lower-standard right-in/right-out (left-in/left-out in countries that drive on the left) access can be used for direct connections to side roads. In many cases, sophisticated interchanges allow for smooth, uninterrupted transitions between intersecting freeways and busy arterial roads. However, sometimes it is necessary to exit onto a surface road to transfer from one freeway to another. One example in the United States (notorious for the resulting congestion) is the connection from Interstate 70 to the Pennsylvania Turnpike (Interstate 70 and Interstate 76) through the town of Breezewood, Pennsylvania.


title: Controlled-access highway

text: Speed limits are generally higher on freeways and are occasionally nonexistent (as on much of Germany's Autobahn network). Because higher speeds reduce decision time, freeways are usually equipped with a larger number of guide signs than other roads, and the signs themselves are physically larger. Guide signs are often mounted on overpasses or overhead gantries so that drivers can see where each lane goes. Exit numbers are commonly derived from the exit's distance in miles or kilometers from the start of the freeway. In some areas, there are public rest areas or service areas on freeways, as well as emergency phones on the shoulder at regular intervals.


title: Controlled-access highway

text: In the United States, mileposts usually start at the southern or westernmost point on the freeway (either its terminus or the state line). California, Ohio and Nevada use postmile systems in which the markers indicate mileage through the state's individual counties. However, Nevada and Ohio also use the standard milepost system concurrently with their respective postmile systems. California numbers its exits off its freeways according to a milepost system but does not use milepost markers.


title: Controlled-access highway

text: Two-lane freeways, often undivided, are sometimes built when traffic volumes are low or right-of-way is limited; they may be designed for easy conversion to one side of a four-lane freeway. (For example, most of the Bert T. Combs Mountain Parkway in eastern Kentucky is two lanes, but work has begun to make all of it four-lane.) These are often called Super two roads. Several such roads are infamous for a high rate of lethal crashes; an outcome because they were designed for short sight distances (sufficient for freeways without oncoming traffic, but insufficient for the years in service as two-lane road with oncoming traffic). An example of such a "Highway to Hell" was European route E4 from Gävle to Axmartavlan, Sweden. The high rate of crashes with severe personal injuries on that (and similar) roads did not cease until a median crash barrier was installed, transforming the fatal crashes into non-fatal crashes. Otherwise, freeways typically have at least two lanes in each direction; some busy ones can have as many as 16 or more lanes in total.


title: Controlled-access highway

text: In San Diego, California, Interstate 5 has a similar system of express and local lanes for a maximum width of 21 lanes on a segment between Interstate 805 and California State Route 56. In Mississauga, Ontario, Highway 401 uses collector-express lanes for a total of 18 lanes through its intersection with Highway 403/Highway 410 and Highway 427.


title: Controlled-access highway

text: These wide freeways may use separate collector and express lanes to separate through traffic from local traffic, or special high-occupancy vehicle lanes, either as a special restriction on the innermost lane or a separate roadway, to encourage carpooling. These HOV lanes, or roadways open to all traffic, can be reversible lanes, providing more capacity in the direction of heavy traffic, and reversing direction before traffic switches. Sometimes a collector/distributor road, a shorter version of a local lane, shifts weaving between closely spaced interchanges to a separate roadway or altogether eliminates it.


title: Controlled-access highway

text: In some parts of the world, notably parts of the US, frontage roads form an integral part of the freeway system. These parallel surface roads provide a transition between high-speed "through" traffic and local traffic. Frequent slip-ramps provide access between the freeway and the frontage road, which in turn provides direct access to local roads and businesses.


title: Controlled-access highway

text: Except on some two-lane freeways (and very rarely on wider freeways), a median separates the opposite directions of traffic. This strip may be as simple as a grassy area, or may include a crash barrier such as a "Jersey barrier" or an "Ontario Tall Wall" to prevent head-on collisions. On some freeways, the two carriageways are built on different alignments; this may be done to make use of available corridors in a mountainous area or to provide narrower corridors through dense urban areas.


title: Controlled-access highway

text: Control of access relates to a legal status which limits the types of vehicles that can use a highway, as well as a road design that limits the points at which they can access it.