title: American marten

text: A snowy habitat in many parts of the range of the American marten provides thermal protection and opportunities for foraging and resting. American marten may travel extensively under the snowpack. Subnivean travel routes of >33 feet (10 m) on the Upper Peninsula of Michigan.


title: American marten

text: American marten are well adapted to snow. On the Kenai Peninsula, individuals navigated through deep snow regardless of depth, with tracks rarely sinking >2 inches (5 cm) into the snowpack. Snowfall patterns may affect distribution, with the presence of American marten linked to deep snow areas.


title: American marten

text: Where deep snow accumulates, American marten prefer cover types that prevent snow from packing hard and have structures near the ground that provide access to subnivean sites. While American marten select habitats with deep snow, they may concentrate activity in patches with relatively shallow snow.


title: American marten

text: American marten reach sexual maturity by 1 year of age, but effective breeding may not occur before 2 years of age. In captivity, 15-year-old females bred successfully. In the wild, 12-year-old females were reproductive.


title: American marten

text: Adult American marten are generally solitary except during the breeding season. They are polygamous, and females may have multiple periods of heat. Females enter estrus in July or August, with courtship lasting about 15 days. Embryonic implantation is delayed until late winter, with active gestation lasting approximately two months. Females give birth in late March or April to a litter ranging from 1 to 5 kits. Annual reproductive output is low according to predictions based on body size. Fecundity varies by age and year and may be related to food abundance.


title: American marten

text: Females use dens to give birth and to shelter kits. Dens are classified as either natal dens, where parturition takes place, or maternal dens, where females move their kits after birth. American marten females use a variety of structures for natal and maternal denning, including the branches, cavities or broken tops of live trees, snags, stumps, logs, woody debris piles, rock piles, and red squirrel ("Tamiasciurus hudsonicus") nests or middens. Females prepare a natal den by lining a cavity with grass, moss, and leaves. They frequently move kits to new maternal dens once kits are 7–13 weeks old. Most females spend more than 50% of their time attending dens in both pre-weaning and weaning periods, with less time spent at dens as kits aged. Paternal care has not been documented.


title: American marten

text: Weaning occurs at 42 days. Young emerge from dens at about 50 days but may be moved by their mother before this. In northwestern Maine, kits were active but poorly coordinated at 7 to 8 weeks, gaining coordination by 12 to 15 weeks. Young reach adult body weight around 3 months.


title: American marten

text: Kits generally stay in the company of their mother through the end of their first summer, and most disperse in the fall. The timing of juvenile dispersal is not consistent throughout American marten's distribution, ranging from early August to October. In south-central Yukon, young-of-the-year dispersed from mid-July to mid-September, coinciding with the onset of female estrus. Observations from Yukon suggest that juveniles may disperse in early spring.


title: American marten

text: American marten are opportunistic predators, influenced by local and seasonal abundance and availability of potential prey. They require about 80 cal/day while at rest, the equivalent of about 3 voles ("Microtus", "Myodes", and "Phenacomys" spp.). Voles dominate diets throughout the American marten's geographic range, though larger prey—particularly snowshoe hares—may be important, particularly in winter. Red-backed voles ("Myodes" spp.) are generally taken in proportion to their availability, while meadow voles ("Microtus"' spp.) are taken in excess of their availability in most areas. Deer mice ("Peromyscus maniculatus") and shrews ("Soricidae") are generally eaten less than expected, but may be important food items in areas lacking alternative prey species.


title: American marten

text: American marten diet may shift seasonally or annually. Generally, diet is more diverse in summer than winter, with summer diets containing more fruit, vegetation, and insects. Diet is generally more diverse in with the American marten's distribution compared to Pacific marten's, though there is high diversity in the Pacific states. American marten exhibit the least diet diversity in the subarctic, though diversity may also be low in areas where the diet is dominated by large prey species (e.g., snowshoe hares or red squirrels).


title: American marten

text: American marten may be important seed dispersers; seeds generally pass through the animal intact, and seeds are likely germinable. One study from Chichagof Island, southeast Alaska, found that Alaska blueberry ("Vaccinium alaskensis") and oval leaf huckleberry ("V. ovalifolium") seeds had higher germination rates after passing through the gut of American marten compared to seeds that dropped from the parent plant. Analyses of American marten movement and seed passage rates suggested that American marten could disperse seeds long distances: 54% of the distances analyzed were >0.3-mile (0.5 km).


title: American marten

text: American marten in captivity may live for 15 years. The oldest individual documented in the wild was 14.5 years old. Survival rates vary by geographic region, exposure to trapping, habitat quality, and age. In an unharvested population in northeastern Oregon, the probability of survival of American marten ≥9 months old was 0.55 for 1 year, 0.37 for 2 years, 0.22 for 3 years, and 0.15 for 4 years. The mean annual probability of survival was 0.63 for 4 years. In a harvested population in east-central Alaska, annual adult survival rates ranged from 0.51 to 0.83 over 3 years of study. Juvenile survival rates were lower, ranging from 0.26 to 0.50. In Newfoundland, annual adult survival was 0.83. Survival of juveniles from October to April was 0.76 in a protected population, but 0.51 in areas open to snaring and trapping. In western Quebec, natural mortality rates were higher in clear-cut areas than in unlogged areas.


title: American marten

text: American marten are vulnerable to predation from raptors and other carnivores. The threat of predation may be an important factor shaping American marten habitat preferences, a hypothesis inferred from their avoidance of open areas and behavioral observations of the European pine marten ("Martes martes"). Specific predators vary by geographic region. In Newfoundland, red foxes ("Vulpes vulpes") were the most frequent predator, though coyote ("Canis latrans") and other American marten were also responsible for some deaths. In deciduous forests in northeastern British Columbia, most predation was attributed to raptors. Throughout the distribution of American marten, other predators include the great horned owl ("Bubo virginianus"), bald eagle ("Haliaeetus leucocephalus"), golden eagle ("Aquila chrysaetos"), bobcat ("Lynx rufus") Canada lynx ("L. canadensis"), mountain lion ("Puma concolor"), fisher ("Pekania pennanti"), wolverine ("Gulo gulo"), grizzly bear ("Ursus arctos horribilis"), American black bear ("U. americanus"), and grey wolf ("C. lupus").


title: American marten

text: The fur of the American marten is shiny and luxuriant, resembling that of the closely related sable ("Martes zibellina"). At the turn of the twentieth century, the American marten population was depleted due to the fur trade. The Hudson's Bay Company traded in pelts from this species among others. Numerous protection measures and reintroduction efforts have allowed the population to increase, but deforestation is still a problem for the marten in much of its habitat. American marten are trapped for their fur in all but a few states and provinces where they occur. The highest annual take in North America was 272,000 animals in 1820.


title: American marten

text: Trapping is a major source of American marten mortality in some populations and may account for up to 90% of all deaths in some areas. Overharvesting has contributed to local extirpations. Trapping may impact population density, sex ratios and age structure. Juveniles are more vulnerable to trapping than adults, and males are more vulnerable than females. American marten are particularly vulnerable to trapping mortality in industrial forests.


title: American marten

text: Other sources of mortality include drowning, starvation, exposure, choking, and infections associated with injury. During live trapping, high mortality may occur if individuals become wet in cold weather.


title: American marten

text: American marten host several internal and external parasites, including helminths, fleas (Siphonaptera), and ticks (Ixodida). American marten in central Ontario carried both toxoplasmosis and Aleutian disease, but neither affliction was suspected to cause significant mortality. High American marten mortality in Newfoundland was caused by encephalitis.


title: Ollie Watkins

text: Oliver George Arthur Watkins (born 30 December 1995) is an English professional footballer who plays as a forward for club Aston Villa and the England national team.


title: Ollie Watkins

text: Watkins is a product of the Exeter City academy and made his breakthrough at the club, winning the EFL Young Player of the Year award, before departing in 2017 for Brentford. He had a successful three-year spell at the club, culminating in being the joint top-scorer in the 2019–20 Championship and being named Championship Player of the Year in 2020. He signed for Aston Villa in September 2020.


title: Ollie Watkins

text: Oliver George Arthur Watkins was born on 30 December 1995 in Newton Abbot, Devon. He grew up in Newton Abbot and attended South Dartmoor Community College. Watkins is a boyhood Arsenal fan.


title: Ollie Watkins

text: Watkins joined Exeter City's academy at U11 level, having previously failed a trial with the club at the age of 9 in 2003. He rose through the youth ranks to sign a scholarship deal in 2012 and off the back of scoring 30 goals for the U18 team in its 2013–14 Football League Youth Alliance South West Conference-winning season, he signed a two-year professional contract in April 2014. Watkins won his maiden first-team call up when he was named as a substitute for the final League Two match of the 2013–14 season versus Hartlepool United and he made his senior debut when he replaced Aaron Dawson after 77 minutes of the 2–0 victory. Watkins was frequently named as a substitute by Paul Tisdale during the first three months of the 2014–15 season, but despite scoring his first senior goal (a late consolation in a 3–1 Football League Trophy second round defeat to Coventry City on 7 October 2014), he made just three appearances before departing on loan to Weston-super-Mare for the remainder of the campaign in December 2014.


title: Ollie Watkins

text: On 8 December 2014, Watkins and Exeter City teammate Matt Jay joined Conference South club Weston-super-Mare on one-month loan deals. Through repeated extensions of the loan, Watkins would remain with the Seagulls until the end of the 2014–15 season. He featured regularly for the team, scoring 10 goals in 25 appearances before returning to St James Park at the end of the season.


title: Ollie Watkins

text: After failing to be named in a first-team squad during the opening two months of the 2015–16 season, Watkins broke onto the substitutes' bench in October 2015 and made his first appearance of the season late in the month. He made his first start for Exeter City in a 2–1 Devon derby victory over Plymouth Argyle on 6 December and scored his first goal of the season with the Grecians' second in a 2–0 FA Cup second round victory over Port Vale in the following match. By March 2016, Watkins had broken into the starting lineup. He had a fantastic month in March, scoring four goals in six appearances to win the Football League Young Player of the Month and PFA Fans' Player of the Month awards. His goalscoring run extended into mid-April and finished with 8 goals in 10 appearances. Two of the goals came in the return Devon derby with Plymouth Argyle, in which his late brace sealed a 2–1 comeback victory and the second goal was subsequently voted as the club's Goal of the Season. Watkins finished the 2015–16 season with 10 goals in 22 appearances.


title: Ollie Watkins

text: Watkins' performances in the final two months of the 2015–16 season saw him enter 2016–17 as an established member of the first-team squad. He had an eventful season, making 52 appearances, scoring six goals and contributing 13 assists, though the campaign ended on a sour note with the Grecians' 2–1 defeat to Blackpool in the 2017 League Two play-off Final at Wembley Stadium. Watkins scored the first hat-trick of his career in a 4–1 win over Newport County on 31 December 2016 and his two goals and five assists in January 2017 saw him win the League Two Player of the Month award. On 9 April he was award the EFL Young Player of the Year award for his performances during the season.


title: Ollie Watkins

text: On 18 July 2017, Watkins joined Championship club Brentford on a four-year contract, with an option for a further year, for an undisclosed fee, reported to be £1.8 million. He scored his first competitive goal for the club in their 3–1 EFL Cup first round extra time victory over AFC Wimbledon on 8 August 2017.


title: Ollie Watkins

text: Watkins scored his first hat-trick for the club in the Championship against Barnsley in a 3–1 win on 29 September 2019. Watkins made 50 appearances and scored 26 goals in all competitions during the 2019–20 season, which ended with defeat in the 2020 Championship play-off Final.


title: Ollie Watkins

text: On 9 September 2020, Watkins joined Premier League team Aston Villa on a five-year contract, for a then club-record £28 million fee, which could rise to £33 million. In joining Aston Villa, Watkins was reunited with manager Dean Smith who had originally signed him for Brentford. On 15 September 2020, Watkins made his Aston Villa debut, scoring in a 3–1 away win in the EFL Cup against Burton Albion. He went on to make his Premier League debut on 21 September 2020, in a 1–0 home win against Sheffield United.


title: Ollie Watkins

text: On 4 October 2020, Watkins scored his first Premier League goals, scoring through a left footed strike, a right footed strike and a header for a perfect hat-trick in a 7–2 home victory over champions Liverpool. It was Liverpool's heaviest defeat in 57 years and was the first time in Premier League history that a reigning champion had conceded 7 goals in a single match. On 10 April 2021, Watkins scored against Liverpool again, becoming the first player since Andrey Arshavin in the 2008–09 season to score as many as four goals against Liverpool in a single Premier League season. With 14 goals, he became Aston Villa's top scorer of the 2020–21 season.


title: Ollie Watkins

text: On 18 March 2021, Watkins was named in Gareth Southgate's England squad for 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification matches against San Marino, Albania and Poland. On 25 March 2021, Watkins made his England debut as a second-half substitute in a 5–0 victory over San Marino at Wembley. He subsequently scored his first England goal with his first shot on target in an England shirt.


title: Ollie Watkins

text: Watkins was named in the provisional England squad for UEFA Euro 2020 in May 2021. However, he was not selected in the final 26-man squad for the tournament.


title: Ollie Watkins

text: Watkins made his first start for England on 29 March 2022 at Wembley in a friendly against the Ivory Coast, scoring the opening goal in the 30th minute of the 3–0 win.


title: Ollie Watkins

text: Watkins has described himself as "a number 10" and named Thierry Henry as his sporting idol, stating in 2017 that "I try to base my game on his, by driving at defenders and looking to make something happen when I get the ball". He is also adept as a winger. He was adapted into a more traditional centre forward during the 2019–20 season at Brentford.


title: Remington ACR

text: The Adaptive Combat Rifle (ACR) is a modular assault rifle designed by Magpul Industries of Austin, Texas, and known initially as the Masada.


title: Remington ACR

text: In late January 2008, Bushmaster Firearms International entered into a licensing agreement with Magpul whereby Bushmaster would take over production, future development, and sales of the Masada. It was then known as the Bushmaster ACR. However, Remington Arms is contracted to manufacture the rifle for the US military and US law enforcement agencies, in which it is known as the Remington ACR.


title: Remington ACR

text: Hence, Remington Arms is responsible for the selective fire version of the ACR, while Bushmaster Firearms International is responsible for the semi-automatic only version.


title: Remington ACR

text: The Remington ACR was one of the weapons displayed to U.S. Army officials during an invitation-only Industry Day on November 13, 2008. The goal of the Industry Day was to review current carbine technology prior to writing formal requirements for a future replacement for the M4 Carbine. It was also part of the Individual Carbine competition to replace the M4.


title: Remington ACR

text: The original Magpul Masada's design represented a combination of several recent assault rifle designs, incorporating what was considered by its designers to be the best features of each in a single, lightweight, modular rifle. Design features from the Armalite AR-18 (short-stroke gas system), the FN SCAR (upper receiver, charging handle location), the Heckler & Koch G36 and XM8 (wide use of polymer components), and the M16/AR-15 (trigger pack, barrel, fire control group) were present. Some claim that the bolt-catch/release was inspired by, or copied from, the Robinson Armament XCR (which was developed as direct competition to the FN SCAR during the SOCOM SCAR program). The rifle also included several features developed by Magpul, such as a quick-change barrel/trunnion system, adjustable gas regulator, non-reciprocating charging handle, and storage compartments located in the stock and grip. Just prior to the deal with Bushmaster, Magpul made additional changes to their design, the most obvious of these was the relocation of the ambidextrous operating handle to a forward position (somewhat similar to the Heckler & Koch G3 and MP5 series of weapons). The weapon's calibre could easily be changed by replacing the bolt head, magazine, and barrel.


title: Remington ACR

text: The rifle was originally named after the Siege of Masada. Magpul company literature about the rifle states that "Magpul Industries is not Jewish owned or Israeli backed, however Magpul has always found the story of the Masada as a bold example of defiance". When production rights were signed with Bushmaster, the Masada name was dropped from the product.


title: Remington ACR

text: In January 2008, the design of the Magpul Masada was licensed to Bushmaster Firearms International and the production version of the Masada became known as the Bushmaster ACR.


title: Remington ACR

text: The rifle was initially developed over a period of five months and was planned to replace the M16 completely independent of government funding. Prototypes were displayed at the 2007 SHOT Show in Orlando, Florida. Originally scheduled for release in the second quarter of 2008, Bushmaster announced on May 16, 2008, that the consumer release would be delayed until the first quarter of 2009, owing to a focus on military projects. On November 18, 2008, Bushmaster released a statement saying, "The ACR is being redesigned to be a superior offering to compete for the next generation US Army infantry carbine and subcompact weapon requirement and will be available to select customers in 2009".


title: Remington ACR

text: Bushmaster Firearms, with the help of Remington Arms, (a sister company in the Freedom Group, Inc. portfolio that includes Bushmaster, Remington, Marlin, and DPMS Panther Arms brands) have also made extensive design changes based on extensive environmental and functional testing specifically to meet the emerging requirements of the US military in both the carbine and subcompact weapon versions of the ACR family. They made sure that the ACR will be capable to endure certain conditions such as exposure to sand, dirt, mud, and water.


title: Remington ACR

text: The initial ACR design was offered in the Army's Individual Carbine competition. In late 2011, Remington unveiled an improved version specifically for the competition. Improvements included a magnesium lower receiver, A2-style pistol grip, collapsible but non-foldable stock, carbine length gas system, a new barrel nut (which eliminates the quick change barrel), and a folding charging handle. These changes made the weapon 1.8 lbs (.8 kg) lighter. The Individual Carbine competition was cancelled before a winning weapon was chosen.


title: Remington ACR

text: Remington also unveiled a sub-compact variant called the ACR-C Personal Defense Weapon (PDW). This version retains the features of the Individual Carbine variant, except that the folding stock was kept and the barrel was shortened to 9.5 inches. With the stock folded, it is only 19.5 inches long. Remington has replaced this variant with the ACR-PDW.


title: Remington ACR

text: In January 2014, Bushmaster unveiled a designated marksman rifle version of the ACR. It includes the Magpul PRS adjustable stock, a longer full profile 416 stainless steel melonite coated barrel (that retains the carbine-length gas system) with 1:7 inch rifling twist, and a Geissele enhanced trigger. The DMR ACR weighs and has an MSRP of $2,799.


title: Remington ACR

text: The ACR was stated to be available in the second quarter of 2010 for military, government, and commercial customers. It was available in greater quantity (tens of thousands) in the commercial marketplace in 2010. According to an official press release from Bushmaster, the rifle had a suggested retail price between $2,685–$3,061.00, twice as much as early price quotes of "around $1500". The revelation caused public outcry and dismay of the rifle from a large portion of the firearms community and potential civilian end-users. Semi-automatic versions are available to the commercial market from Bushmaster, and selective fire versions are available for military and law enforcement under the Remington name. As of April 2010, civilian market rifles were available for sale.


title: Remington ACR

text: On October 15, 2010, Bushmaster issued a recall of all ACR rifles, instructing users to "Please immediately discontinue the use of your ACR rifle" along with instructions to contact customer support for an RMA. Bushmaster stated that the recall was issued due to "a possible firearms performance issue that may develop with a small number of ACR rifles" and goes on to state that "Bushmaster discovered a design flaw which could result in multiple rounds firing continuously when the trigger is pulled". Bushmaster has stated that it will cover all of the costs associated with repairs to recalled rifles.


title: Remington ACR

text: The Remington ACR is a gas operated, selective fire weapon with a modular design. It has several features of other recent designs, such as the M16 and FN SCAR. The key idea of the ACR's modular system, is that it will provide a wide variety of configurations within a matter of minutes. It is only available for the military and law enforcement market in 5.56×45mm NATO and 6.8mm Remington SPC. It can change calibres from 5.56 mm to 6.8 mm in minutes at the user level by changing the bolt head, barrel, and magazine.


title: Remington ACR

text: All of the rifle's parts can be easily stripped for cleaning and all of its controls are fully ambidextrous. A three position (safe, semi-auto and full auto) fire selector lever is located over the pistol grip. A charging handle can be installed on either side of the receiver and does not reciprocate when the weapon is fired. Magazine release button is also ambidextrous. Spent case ejection port is located on the right side of the receiver, however it has a case deflector, which propels the cases away from left-handed shooters.


title: Remington ACR

text: The rifle can also be configured for handguard, stock type and trigger unit setup. Among the options for the ACR are various stocks including a fixed adjustable (in terms of length of pull and cheek weld), folding adjustable (folding and six-position telescoping), and sniper stock based on the Magpul PRS stock. The Remington's handguard model has a five-sided aluminium handguard that can be user configured with MIL-STD-1913 rail elements, while the Bushmaster's model is polymer with heat guards and attachable aluminium tri-rail.


title: Remington ACR

text: The magazine conceived for the 5.56×45mm NATO version of the rifle is called the Magpul PMag, a high-impact, 30-round, polymer magazine claimed by Magpul to be significantly more resistant to wear, shock, and harsh environments than other counterparts on the market. The PMag is STANAG 4179-compatible, as it will readily fit any STANAG magazine firearm, including the M16 rifle family.


title: Remington ACR

text: The rifle is available with four barrel lengths and can be easily converted from a standard rifle (with a 16.5 inch barrel) into a carbine (with a 14.5 inch barrel), into a compact rifle (with a 10.5 inch barrel), or into a designated marksman rifle (with an 18-inch barrel) without any tools. Barrel lengths of the two calibres are exactly the same. The Barrels are hammer-forged and hardened with a nitriding process rather than having chrome plated bores as some other rifles.


title: Remington ACR

text: The Bushmaster ACR is a gas operated, semi-automatic rifle of modular design. It utilises an aluminium alloy upper receiver, with polymer pistol grip, trigger, and magazine housing (lower receiver) unit which is attached to the upper receiver using cross-pins. It is available for the civilian market in 5.56×45mm NATO, 6.8mm Remington SPC and other aftermarket calibre conversions are also available.


title: Remington ACR

text: The trigger/manual safety unit is made as a single removable item, and mostly utilises AR-15 compatible parts. The rifle features a quick-detachable barrel, with its own short-stroke gas piston attached. To remove the barrel (for change, inspection, or maintenance), the operator has to remove the polymer handguards, then swing down the wire lever which is located below the barrel, and then turning the barrel to unlock and pull it forward and out of the receiver. All barrels are free-floated within the handguard to achieve consistent accuracy. The barrel is like an AR-15 barrel with a resized gas port and a thin profile for the piston support. The bolt group also is made as a single unit, with captive return spring and rotary multi-lug bolt which locks directly to the barrel breech.


title: Remington ACR

text: The standard magazine housing, which is suited to accept AR-15 type magazines, has ambidextrous magazine release buttons. The ambidextrous bolt stop release button is located at the front of the trigger guard. Safety lever is also ambidextrous, and charging handle can be installed on either side of the rifle. It can be equipped with various Magpul-made buttstocks, fixed or side-folding, and adjustable for length of pull (some also with adjustable cheek rest). It can be fitted with removable iron sights and/or with any optical- or night vision- sights, all depending on the user's preference or with the configuration of the rifle. It also has an integral Picatinny rail on the top of the receiver and additional accessory rails can be installed on the forend according to user preferences. The Bushmaster's handguard model is polymer with heat guards and attachable aluminium tri-rail, while the Remington's model has a five-sided aluminium handguard that can be user configured with MIL-STD-1913 rail elements.


title: Remington ACR

text: As of 2020, the ACR is no longer in production due to Bushmaster's shuttering after parent company Remington declared bankruptcy.


title: Remington ACR

text: The Remington ACR is a selective fire modular rifle that is only available for the military and law enforcement market in 5.56×45mm NATO. (Other calibres have been mentioned, although Remington has yet to deliver any).


title: Remington ACR

text: The Bushmaster ACR is a modular semi-automatic rifle that is available for the civilian market in 5.56×45mm NATO, 6.8mm Remington SPC, .450 Bushmaster and .300 AAC Blackout. (Other aftermarket calibre conversions and barrel lengths are also available).


title: King Fahd International Airport

text: King Fahd International Airport (; KFIA) , also known as Dammam International Airport or simply Dammam Airport or King Fahd Airport, is the international airport serving Dammam, Saudi Arabia. The airport is located 31 kilometres (19 miles) northwest of downtown Dammam and is named after the former King of Saudi Arabia, Fahd ibn Abdulaziz (1921–2005). The airport serves the entire Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia and is one of the three primary international airports in the kingdom. King Fahd International is also the largest airport in the world by area, with the area of the airport property being an approximate 776 square kilometres (300 square miles), even though the airport building itself is just .


title: King Fahd International Airport

text: Formerly a US airbase used primarily during the Gulf War, the airport has been overseeing commercial operations since 28 November 1999 and has since expanded to provide connections to 43 destinations. Before King Fahd International, the primary airport serving the region was the much busier Dhahran International Airport, which has since been converted for military use and is now designated the King Abdulaziz Air Base. Since July 1, 2017, the airport has been operated and managed by the Dammam Airports Company (DACO). Commercial transport was only halted once throughout the history of the airport, when on March 21, 2020, the Saudi Press Agency (SPA) announced the suspension of all domestic and international travel both within and to and from the kingdom. Domestic operations were reinitiated on May 31, while international flights were still suspended until further notice, as of September 2020.


title: King Fahd International Airport

text: The third largest airport in the kingdom by passenger volume, more than 10 million passengers use King Fahd International each year, and 37 airlines operate flights in and out of the airport. The airport serves as a hub to Saudia and Flynas. It previously served as a hub to the now defunct Sama airline. In addition to these airlines, Saudi Aramco Aviation, the airline operated by Saudi Aramco, the state-owned oil giant, uses it to transport employees in and out of strategic locations such as Yanbu, Tanajib and Shaybah, also flies out of the airport.


title: King Fahd International Airport

text: The airport is served by two runways; both 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) long, and consists of three terminal buildings: the Passenger Terminal serves mainstream passengers, the Aramco Terminal is used by Aramco employees to board Saudi Aramco Aviation flights and the Royal Terminal is reserved for use by the Saudi royal family. The busiest route operated between Dammam and another city is to and from Dubai, with 70 weekly flights.


title: King Fahd International Airport

text: The airport is named for King Fahd (), under whose reign it was constructed and inaugurated. Design of the airport building began in 1976. The site master plan was created by architecture firm Yamasaki & Associates and Boeing and completed in 1977, with construction beginning in 1983. The basic infrastructure of the airport was complete by the end of 1990, which allowed the U.S-led coalition forces to use the airport during the Gulf War in early 1991 for the storage of military aircraft, including 144 A-10 Thunderbolt IIs, among other aircraft such as the AH-64 Apaches and CH-47 Chinooks of the 101st Airborne Division, before operations were transferred to the Ahmad al-Jaber Air Base in Kuwait.


title: King Fahd International Airport

text: The General Authority of Civil Aviation of Saudi Arabia inaugurated the King Fahd International Airport and opened it to commercial traffic on 28 November 1999, and all airlines transferred their operations from the Dhahran International Airport, which had been in use until then. Dhahran International has since been converted for military usage and was designated the King Abdulaziz Air Base.


title: King Fahd International Airport

text: As part of the Saudi Vision 2030 and the National Transformation Program, King Fahd International was corporatized in July 2017 under the Dammam Airports Company (DACO), which operates and maintains the airport. In an effort to mitigate the spread of COVID-19, all domestic and international flights were suspended until further notice on 21 March 2020. Following strict curfews and lowering in case numbers, domestic flights were allowed to operate once again on May 31. International flights are still suspended as of September 2020.


title: King Fahd International Airport

text: The airport is classified as Code E by the ICAO which means aircraft such as the Boeing 747-400 and A340-600 could be easily accommodated. It is practically possible for an A380 to use the airport, but this is not recommended as in order to accommodate such aircraft, an airport is required to be Code F; only the runways at Dammam Airport meet Code F requirements; the taxiways and gates do not.


title: King Fahd International Airport

text: The six-story main terminal building has a total area of . Approximately were built in the first phase, in addition to 11 fixed passenger boarding bridges serving 15 gates. The original design included 31 fixed boarding bridges. The departure terminal is equipped with several customer counters of which 66 were allocated to Saudia (now shared with flynas), 44 to foreign airlines, and the rest for customs and immigration.


title: King Fahd International Airport

text: King Fahd International Airport was the first Saudi airport to adopt duty-free stores. In addition to the spaces allocated to duty-free stores, the airport has a separate area for shops specializing in the sale of gifts and all passenger-related goods. This area includes restaurants, cafeterias, and banks, and is located on the arrivals level. The distinction is largely meaningless, however, as the Kingdom has no sales or import duties on any products.


title: King Fahd International Airport

text: The private airline operated by Saudi Aramco, Saudi Aramco Aviation, operates out of the Aramco Terminal, providing connections to its employees to faraway company locations such as in Yanbu, Tanajib, Shaybah and Haradh, in addition to some remote pump stations, using their own fleet of Boeing 737s and Embraer ERJ-170LRs.


title: King Fahd International Airport

text: The Royal Terminal is reserved for the royal family of Saudi Arabia, government personnel, and official guests. It covers an area of and has four bridges linking the terminal to aircraft. It is luxuriously furnished and decorated, and includes extensively landscaped exteriors and grounds. Despite its specialized purpose, the terminal is rarely used by the royal family, who generally prefer to utilize a similar special terminal at King Abdulaziz Air Base.


title: King Fahd International Airport

text: The airport has two parallel runways with a length of each: 16L/34R and 16R/34L, in addition to taxiways parallel to the runways and a cross taxiway to connect the two runways. The two runways are separated by . The east runway is generally used by Saudi Aramco while commercial airlines use the west one. A third parallel runway is under construction.


title: King Fahd International Airport

text: The terminal can only be accessed via Route 605, a secondary expressway linking the cities of Khobar and Dammam in the south, and Qatif in the north; to the airport. Route 6466, a minor road and spur of Highway 40, links the highway to Route 605 and the airport. SAPTCO offers bus connections from Khobar and Dammam to the airport. Taxis are available at fixed prices to every major city and town in the kingdom, with private companies such as Careem, a subsidiary of Uber, providing similar services.


title: King Fahd International Airport

text: The total area of the parking complex is , distributed among three covered floors, with a maximum capacity of 4,930 cars. Two open parking areas are available beside the rentals to accommodate additional cars.


title: King Fahd International Airport

text: The Airport Mosque was built on the roof of the car park and in the middle of a landscaped area of 46,200 m (497,292 ft²). The architecture of the mosque is an amalgamation of modern architecture with traditional Islamic architectural elements. The mosque can accommodate up to 2,000 worshippers and access to it can be easily gained from the passenger terminal through two enclosed, air-conditioned bridges equipped with moving belts, in addition to a third open bridge.


title: King Fahd International Airport

text: The airport has its own plant nursery with a total area of ; which encompasses three greenhouses and of green fields. The nursery supplies the airport gardens and planted areas with trees and plants. The control tower stands high. The height allows visibility of all operational parts of the airport.


title: Francis Marion

text: Brigadier-General Francis Marion ( 1732 – February 27, 1795), also known as the Swamp Fox, was an American military officer, planter and politician who served during the French and Indian War and the Revolutionary War. During the American Revolution, Marion supported the Patriot cause and enlisted in the Continental Army, fighting against British forces in the Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War from 1780 to 1781.


title: Francis Marion

text: Though he never commanded a field army or served as a commander in a major engagement, Marion's use of irregular warfare against the British has led him to be considered one of the fathers of guerrilla and maneuver warfare, and his tactics form a part of the modern-day military doctrine of the U.S. Army's 75th Ranger Regiment.


title: Francis Marion

text: Francis Marion was born in Berkeley County, South Carolina . His father Gabriel Marion was a Huguenot who emigrated to the Thirteen Colonies from France at some point prior to 1700 due to the Edict of Fontainebleau and became a slaveowning planter. Marion was born on his family's plantation, and at approximately the age of 15, he was hired on a merchant ship bound for the West Indies which sank on his first voyage; the crew escaped on a lifeboat but had to spend one week at sea before reaching land. In the years that followed, Marion managed the family's plantation, including overseeing the activities of the family's slaves.


title: Francis Marion

text: Marion began his military career shortly before his 25th birthday. On January 1, 1757, Francis and his brother, Job, were recruited by Captain John Postell to serve in the South Carolina Militia during the French and Indian War. Marion also saw service during the Anglo-Cherokee War.


title: Francis Marion

text: During the American Revolution, Marion supported the Patriot cause and on June 21, 1775 he enlisted in the Continental Army's 2nd South Carolina Regiment (commanded by William Moultrie) at the rank of captain. Marion served with Moultrie in the defense of Fort Sullivan from a Royal Navy attack on June 28, 1776. In September 1776, the Continental Congress commissioned Marion as a lieutenant-colonel. In the autumn of 1779, he took part in the siege of Savannah, a failed Franco-American attempt to capture the capital of Georgia which had been previously occupied by British forces.


title: Francis Marion

text: A British force led by Sir Henry Clinton entered South Carolina in the early spring of 1780 and laid siege to Charleston. Marion was not captured with the rest of the city's garrison when Charleston capitulated on May 12, 1780, as he had broken an ankle in an accident and had left the city to recuperate. Clinton led part of the force that had captured Charleston back to New York, but a significant number stayed for operations under Lord Cornwallis in the Carolinas. After the loss of Charleston, the defeats suffered by Isaac Huger's men at the Battle of Monck's Corner and Abraham Buford's troops at the Battle of Waxhaws (near the North Carolina border, in what is now Lancaster County), Marion organized a small military unit, which at first consisted of between 20 and 70 men and was the only force then opposing the British in the region. At this point, Marion was still hobbling on his slowly healing ankle.


title: Francis Marion

text: Marion joined Major-General Horatio Gates on July 27 just before the Battle of Camden, but Gates had formed a low opinion of Marion. Gates sent Marion towards the interior to gather intelligence on the British forces opposing them. He thus missed the battle, which resulted in a British victory. Marion showed himself to be a singularly able leader of irregular militiamen and ruthless in his terrorizing of Loyalists. Unlike the Continental Army, Marion's Men, as they were known, served without pay, supplied their own horses, arms and often their food. Marion's Men operated from a base camp on Snow's Island in Florence County.


title: Francis Marion

text: Marion rarely committed his men to frontal warfare but repeatedly bewildered larger bodies of Loyalists or British regulars with quick surprise attacks and equally sudden withdrawal from the field. After their capture of Charleston, the British garrisoned South Carolina with help from local Loyalists, except for Williamsburg, which they were never able to hold. The British made one attempt to garrison Williamsburg at the colonial village of Hilltown but were driven out by Marion at the Battle of Black Mingo.


title: Francis Marion

text: A state-erected information sign at Marion's gravesite on the former Belle Isle Plantation shows that he was engaged in twelve major battles and skirmishes in a two-year period: Black Mingo Creek on September 28, 1780; Tearcoat Swamp on October 25, 1780; Georgetown (four attacks) between October 1780 and May 1781; Fort Watson on April 23, 1781; Fort Motte on May 12, 1781; Quinby Bridge on July 17, 1781; Parker's Ferry on August 13, 1781; Eutaw Springs on September 8, 1781; and Wadboo Plantation on August 29, 1782. Cornwallis observed, "Colonel Marion had so wrought the minds of the people, partly by the terror of his threats and cruelty of his punishments, and partly by the promise of plunder, that there was scarcely an inhabitant between the Santee and the Pee Dee that was not in arms against us."


title: Francis Marion

text: The British made repeated efforts to neutralize Marion's force, but Marion's intelligence gathering was excellent and that of the British was poor, due to the overwhelming Patriot presence in the Williamsburg area. Colonel Banastre Tarleton was sent to capture or kill Marion in November 1780. After pursuing Marion's troops for over 26 miles through a swamp, Tarleton supposedly said "as for this old fox, the Devil himself could not catch him." Based on this tale, Marion's supporters began to call him "the Swamp Fox".


title: Francis Marion

text: Once Marion had shown his ability at guerrilla warfare, making himself a serious nuisance to the British, Governor John Rutledge commissioned him as a brigadier-general of state troops. Marion fought against freed slaves working or fighting alongside the British. He received an order from Rutledge to execute all Black people suspected of carrying provisions or gathering intelligence for the British "agreeable to the laws of this State".


title: Francis Marion

text: When Major-General Nathanael Greene took command in the South, Marion and Lieutenant-Colonel Henry Lee III were ordered in January 1781, to attack Georgetown but were unsuccessful. In April they took Fort Watson and in May they captured Fort Motte. Thereby they succeeded in breaking communications between British outposts in the Carolinas. On August 31, Marion rescued a small American force trapped by 500 British soldiers, under the leadership of Major C. Fraser. For this action he received the thanks of the Continental Congress. Marion commanded the right wing under General Greene at the Battle of Eutaw Springs.


title: Francis Marion

text: In January 1782, he was elected to the South Carolina General Assembly at Jacksonborough and left his troops to take up his seat. During his absence, Marion's men grew disheartened, particularly after a British sortie from Charleston, and there was reportedly a conspiracy to turn him over to the British. But in June of that year, he put down a Loyalist rebellion on the banks of the Pee Dee River. In August, Marion left his unit and returned to his slave plantation, Pond Bluff. In 1782, the British Parliament suspended offensive operations in America, and in December 1782, the British withdrew their garrison from Charleston. The Treaty of Paris brought the war to an end.


title: Francis Marion

text: After Marion returned to Pond Bluff, he discovered it had been destroyed during the war. Of the roughly 200 slaves who had been enslaved on it before the war, most of them fled the plantation, with some joining the British as Clinton had issued the Philipsburg Proclamation offering Patriot slaves freedom. Marion's slaves who had joined the British were evacuated from Charleston at the end of the war and at least one settled in Nova Scotia. Meanwhile, ten of his field slaves had moved to Belle Isle, a plantation owned Marion's brother Gabriel, during the war. Four house slaves had also moved Gabriel's plantation, all of whom had been singled out for favorable treatment in Marion's prewar will: overseer June and his wife, Chloe; their daughter Phoebe (sister of Buddy, Marion's enslaved manservant); and her daughter Peggy.


title: Francis Marion

text: These slaves, together with the ten field hands, went back with him to Pond Bluff. After the war, Marion borrowed money to purchase more slaves for his plantation. At the age of 54, Marion married his 49-year old cousin, Mary Esther Videau. Marion served several terms in the South Carolina State Senate. In 1784, in recognition of his services, he was made commander of Fort Johnson, a sinecure with an annual salary of $500. He died on his plantation in 1795, at the age of 63, and was buried at Belle Isle Plantation Cemetery in Berkeley County, South Carolina.


title: Francis Marion

text: The public memory of Marion has been shaped in large part by the first biography about him, "The Life of General Francis Marion", written by Mason Locke Weems and based on the memoirs of South Carolinian soldier Peter Horry. "The New York Times" has described Weems as one of the "early hagiographers" of American literature "who elevated the Swamp Fox, Francis Marion, into the American pantheon." Weems is known for having invented the apocryphal "cherry tree" anecdote about George Washington, and "Marion's life received similar embellishment", as Amy Crawford wrote in "Smithsonian" magazine in 2007. In the 1835 novel "Horse-Shoe Robinson" by John P. Kennedy, a historical romance set against the background of the Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War, Marion appears and interacts with the fictional characters. In the book, he is depicted as decisive, enterprising, and valiant.


title: Francis Marion

text: Hans Conried portrayed Marion in an episode of the "Cavalcade of America" television series, "The Swamp Fox", which was broadcast on October 25, 1955. Walt Disney Productions produced "The Swamp Fox", an eight-episode mini-series about Marion that aired from 1959 to 1961. It starred Leslie Nielsen as Marion, and Nielsen was also one of the singers of the theme song. The series depicted Mary Videau (who in the series has no familial relationship with Marion) secretly acting as an informant for Marion on British movements and Marion's nephew Gabriel Marion being killed by Loyalists, causing Marion to seek revenge on those responsible.


title: Francis Marion

text: Marion was one of the influences for the main character of Benjamin Martin (Mel Gibson) in the 2000 movie "The Patriot", which, according to Crawford, "exaggerated the Swamp Fox legend for a whole new generation." The contrast between the film's depiction of Marion "as a family man and hero who single-handedly defeats countless hostile Brits" and the real-life Marion was one of the "egregious oversights" that "Time" magazine cited when listing "The Patriot" as number one of its "Top 10 historically misleading films" in 2011. In the film, Martin describes violence that he committed in the French and Indian War. Around the time of the film's release, comments in the British press challenged the American notion of Marion as a hero. In the "Evening Standard", the British author Neil Norman called him "a thoroughly unpleasant dude who was, basically, a terrorist."


title: Francis Marion

text: Concurrently, the British historian Christopher Hibbert described Marion as "very active in the persecution of the Cherokee Indians and not at all the sort of chap who should be celebrated as a hero. The truth is that people like Marion committed atrocities as bad, if not worse, than those perpetrated by the British." According to "The Guardian", "it seems that Marion was slaughtering Indians for fun and regularly raping his female slaves". According to John Oller's 2016 biography, "The Swamp Fox: How Francis Marion Saved the American Revolution", the allegation about Marion raping slaves is untrue. Marion enjoyed generally good relations with his slaves, including Peggy, the mixed-raced daughter of a Native American man and an African American woman. In an early will created when he was single, Marion freed Peggy and endowed her education, contrary to South Carolina law at the time, which made it a crime to teach slaves to write. Oller writes that there is no proof, either, that Marion personally committed any atrocities during the Anglo-Cherokee War, at least as a matter of choice, although he participated in some by order of his commander James Grant.


title: Francis Marion

text: In a commentary published in the "National Review", the conservative talk radio host Michael Graham rejected criticisms like Hibbert's as an attempt to rewrite history:


title: Francis Marion

text: English historian Hugh Bicheno compared Marion's behavior with British officers during the war, including Tarleton and Major James Wemyss. Referring to Marion, Tarleton and Wemyss, Bicheno wrote that "they all tortured prisoners, hanged fence-sitters, abused parole and flags of truce, and shot their own men when they failed to live up to the harsh standards they set." According to Crawford, the biographies by historians William Gilmore Simms ("The Life of Francis Marion") and Hugh Rankin can be regarded as generally accurate. The introduction to the 2007 edition of Simms's book (originally published in 1844) was written by Sean Busick, a professor of American history at Athens State University in Alabama, who says that based on the facts, "Marion deserves to be remembered as one of the heroes of the War for Independence." Crawford commented:


title: Francis Marion

text: Numerous locations in the US are named after Francis Marion, including the Francis Marion National Forest near Charleston, South Carolina. The city of Marion, Iowa holds an annual Swamp Fox Festival. Marion County, South Carolina, and its county seat, the City of Marion, are named for Marion. The city features a statue of General Marion in the town square, and has a museum which includes many artifacts related to Francis Marion; the Marion High School mascot is the Swamp Fox. Francis Marion University is located nearby in Florence County, South Carolina. The Swamp Fox is a wooden roller coaster located in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina. In Washington, D.C., Marion Park is one of the four large parks in the Capitol Hill Parks constellation. The park is bounded by 4th & 6th Streets and at the intersection of E Street and South Carolina Avenue in southeast Washington, D.C.


title: Francis Marion

text: The Francis Marion Hotel is a historic hotel in downtown Charleston, South Carolina. Within the hotel is a restaurant called the Swamp Fox. The municipalities of Marion in Alabama, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Mississippi, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Virginia, and Marion Center, Pennsylvania are named for Francis Marion. Marion County, Indiana (of which the city of Indianapolis is a part), is named for the general, as are Marion Counties in Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Iowa, Illinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Missouri, Mississippi, Ohio, Oregon, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and West Virginia, and more than 30 townships in nine states. The Military Junior College Marion Military Institute in Marion, Alabama has an organization called Swamp Fox which is attributed to Francis Marion. The marionberry is named after the county in Oregon and so derives its name from him.


title: Francis Marion

text: The 169th Fighter Wing of the South Carolina Air National Guard, located about 12 miles east of Columbia in Eastover, South Carolina, boasts the title "Home of the Swamp Fox" and has an image of the face of a fox painted on the body of their F-16 Fighter Jets. The South Carolina State Guard, the successor to the South Carolina Militia, charters the Swamp Fox Explorer Post 1670 through the national division of Exploring (Learning for Life) for youth 14 to 20 years of age. In 1850, the painter William Ranney (1813–1857) produced "Marion Crossing the Pee Dee", based on events following the battle of Camden in the American Revolution. The picture, displayed at the Amon Carter Museum, depicts Marion sitting on a horse and talking with a subordinate on the back row of a small boat, Marion being second from the left. In 1994, Marion was posthumously inducted into the U.S. Army Ranger Hall of Fame.


title: Francis Marion

text: In 2006, the United States House of Representatives approved a monument to Francis Marion, to be built in Washington, D.C., sometime in 2007–08. The bill died in the Senate and was reintroduced in January 2007. The Brigadier General Francis Marion Memorial Act of 2007 passed the House of Representatives in March 2007, and the Senate in April 2008. The bill was packaged into the omnibus Consolidated Natural Resources Act of 2008, which passed both houses and was enacted in May 2008. Although a site at Marion Park was selected, it was not built before authorization expired in 2018. Some local residents opposed a monument to a slaveowner. The U.S. Navy was home to the USS "Francis Marion", a "Paul Revere"-class attack transport. The ship served as the flag for COMPHIBGRU 2 (Commander Amphibious Group 2). For many years, Submarine Squadron Four at the Charleston Naval Base called itself the Swamp Fox Squadron.


title: Bessemer process

text: The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass production of steel from molten pig iron before the development of the open hearth furnace. The key principle is removal of impurities from the iron by oxidation with air being blown through the molten iron. The oxidation also raises the temperature of the iron mass and keeps it molten.


title: Bessemer process

text: Related decarburizing with air processes had been used outside Europe for hundreds of years, but not on an industrial scale. One such process (similar to puddling) was known in the 11th century in East Asia, where the scholar Shen Kuo of that era described its use in the Chinese iron and steel industry. In the 17th century, accounts by European travelers detailed its possible use by the Japanese.


title: Bessemer process

text: The modern process is named after its inventor, the Englishman Henry Bessemer, who took out a patent on the process in 1856. The process was said to be independently discovered in 1851 by the American inventor William Kelly though the claim is controversial.


title: Bessemer process

text: The process using a basic refractory lining is known as the "basic Bessemer process" or Gilchrist–Thomas process after the English discoverers Percy Gilchrist and Sidney Gilchrist Thomas.


title: Bessemer process

text: A system akin to the Bessemer process has existed since the 11th century in East Asia. Economic historian Robert Hartwell writes that the Chinese of the Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE) innovated a "partial decarbonization" method of repeated forging of cast iron under a cold blast. Sinologist Joseph Needham and historian of metallurgy Theodore A. Wertime have described the method as a predecessor to the Bessemer process of making steel. This process was first described by the prolific scholar and polymath government official Shen Kuo (1031–1095) in 1075, when he visited Cizhou. Hartwell states that perhaps the earliest center where this was practiced was the great iron-production district along the Henan–Hebei border during the 11th century.


title: Bessemer process

text: In the 15th century, the finery process, another process which shares the air-blowing principle with the Bessemer process, was developed in Europe. In 1740, Benjamin Huntsman developed the crucible technique for steel manufacture, at his workshop in the district of Handsworth in Sheffield. This process had an enormous impact on the quantity and quality of steel production, but it was unrelated to the Bessemer-type process employing decarburization.


title: Bessemer process

text: The Japanese may have made use of a Bessemer-type process, which was observed by European travellers in the 17th century. The adventurer Johan Albrecht de Mandelslo describes the process in a book published in English in 1669. He writes, "They have, among others, particular invention for the melting of iron, without the using of fire, casting it into a tun done about on the inside without about half a foot of earth, where they keep it with continual blowing, take it out by ladles full, to give it what form they please." According to historian Donald Wagner, Mandelslo did not personally visit Japan, so his description of the process is likely derived from accounts of other Europeans who had traveled to Japan. Wagner believes that the Japanese process may have been similar to the Bessemer process, but cautions that alternative explanations are also plausible.


title: Bessemer process

text: In the early to mid-1850s, the American inventor William Kelly experimented with a method similar to the Bessemer process. Wagner


title: Bessemer process

text: writes that Kelly may have been inspired by techniques introduced by Chinese ironworkers hired by Kelly in 1854. The claim that both Kelly and Bessemer invented the same process remains controversial. When Bessemer's patent for the process was reported by "Scientific American", Kelly responded by writing a letter to the magazine. In the letter, Kelly states that he had previously experimented with the process and claimed that Bessemer knew of Kelly's discovery. He wrote that "I have reason to believe my discovery was known in England three or four years ago, as a number of English puddlers visited this place to see my new process. Several of them have since returned to England and may have spoken of my invention there." It is suggested Kelly's process was less developed and less successful than Bessemer's process.


title: Bessemer process

text: Sir Henry Bessemer described the origin of his invention in his autobiography written in 1890. During the outbreak of the Crimean War, many English industrialists and inventors became interested in military technology. According to Bessemer, his invention was inspired by a conversation with Napoleon III in 1854 pertaining to the steel required for better artillery. Bessemer claimed that it "was the spark which kindled one of the greatest revolutions that the present century had to record, for during my solitary ride in a cab that night from Vincennes to Paris, I made up my mind to try what I could to improve the quality of iron in the manufacture of guns." At the time, steel was used to make only small items like cutlery and tools, but was too expensive for cannons. Starting in January 1855, he began working on a way to produce steel in the massive quantities required for artillery and by October he filed his first patent related to the Bessemer process. He patented the method a year later in 1856.


title: Bessemer process

text: Bessemer licensed the patent for his process to four ironmasters, for a total of £27,000, but the licensees failed to produce the quality of steel he had promised—it was "rotten hot and rotten cold", according to his friend, William Clay—and he later bought them back for £32,500. His plan had been to offer the licenses to one company in each of several geographic areas, at a royalty price per ton that included a lower rate on a proportion of their output in order to encourage production, but not so large a proportion that they might decide to reduce their selling prices. By this method he hoped to cause the new process to gain in standing and market share.


title: Bessemer process

text: He realised that the technical problem was due to impurities in the iron and concluded that the solution lay in knowing when to turn off the flow of air in his process so that the impurities were burned off but just the right amount of carbon remained. However, despite spending tens of thousands of pounds on experiments, he could not find the answer. Certain grades of steel are sensitive to the 78% nitrogen which was part of the air blast passing through the steel.


title: Bessemer process

text: The solution was first discovered by English metallurgist Robert Forester Mushet, who had carried out thousands of experiments in the Forest of Dean. His method was to first burn off, as far as possible, "all" the impurities and carbon, then reintroduce carbon and manganese by adding an exact amount of spiegeleisen, an alloy of iron and manganese with trace amounts of carbon and silicon. This had the effect of improving the quality of the finished product, increasing its malleability—its ability to withstand rolling and forging at high temperatures and making it more suitable for a vast array of uses. Mushet's patent ultimately lapsed due to Mushet's inability to pay the patent fees and was acquired by Bessemer. Bessemer earned over 5 million dollars in royalties from the patents.


title: Bessemer process

text: The first company to license the process was the Manchester firm of W & J Galloway, and they did so before Bessemer announced it at Cheltenham in 1856. They are not included in his list of the four to whom he refunded the license fees. However, they subsequently rescinded their license in 1858 in return for the opportunity to invest in a partnership with Bessemer and others. This partnership began to manufacture steel in Sheffield from 1858, initially using imported charcoal pig iron from Sweden. This was the first commercial production.


title: Bessemer process

text: A 20% share in the Bessemer patent was also purchased for use in Sweden and Norway by Swedish trader and Consul Göran Fredrik Göransson during a visit to London in 1857. During the first half of 1858, Göransson, together with a small group of engineers, experimented with the Bessemer process at Edsken near Hofors, Sweden before he finally succeeded. Later in 1858 he again met with Henry Bessemer in London, managed to convince him of his success with the process, and negotiated the right to sell his steel in England. Production continued in Edsken, but it was far too small for the industrial-scale production needed. In 1862 Göransson built a new factory for his Högbo Iron and Steel Works company on the shore of Lake Storsjön, where the town of Sandviken was founded. The company was renamed Sandviken's Ironworks, continued to grow and eventually became Sandvik in the 1970s.


title: Bessemer process

text: Alexander Lyman Holley contributed significantly to the success of Bessemer steel in the United States. His "A Treatise on Ordnance and Armor" is an important work on contemporary weapons manufacturing and steel-making practices. In 1862, he visited Bessemer's Sheffield works, and became interested in licensing the process for use in the US. Upon returning to the US, Holley met with two iron producers from Troy, New York, John F. Winslow and John Augustus Griswold, who asked him to return to the United Kingdom and negotiate with the Bank of England on their behalf. Holley secured a license for Griswold and Winslow to use Bessemer's patented processes and returned to the United States in late 1863.


title: Bessemer process

text: The trio began setting up a mill in Troy, New York in 1865. The factory contained a number of Holley's innovations that greatly improved productivity over Bessemer's factory in Sheffield, and the owners gave a successful public exhibition in 1867. The Troy factory attracted the attention of the Pennsylvania Railroad, which wanted to use the new process to manufacture steel rail. It funded Holley's second mill as part of its Pennsylvania Steel subsidiary. Between 1866 and 1877, the partners were able to license a total of 11 Bessemer steel mills.


title: Bessemer process

text: One of the investors they attracted was Andrew Carnegie, who saw great promise in the new steel technology after a visit to Bessemer in 1872, and saw it as a useful adjunct to his existing businesses, the Keystone Bridge Company and the Union Iron Works. Holley built the new steel mill for Carnegie, and continued to improve and refine the process. The new mill, known as the Edgar Thomson Steel Works, opened in 1875, and started the growth of the United States as a major world steel producer. Using the Bessemer process, Carnegie Steel was able to reduce the costs of steel railroad rails from $100 per ton to $50 per ton between 1873 and 1875. The price of steel continued to fall until Carnegie was selling rails for $18 per ton by the 1890s. Prior to the opening of Carnegie's Thomson Works, steel output in the United States totaled around 157,000 tons per year. By 1910, American companies were producing 26 million tons of steel annually.


title: Bessemer process

text: William Walker Scranton, manager and owner of the Lackawanna Iron & Coal Company in Scranton, Pennsylvania, had also investigated the process in Europe. He built a mill in 1876 using the Bessemer process for steel rails and quadrupled his production.


title: Bessemer process

text: Bessemer steel was used in the United States primarily for railroad rails. During the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge, a major dispute arose over whether crucible steel should be used instead of the cheaper Bessemer steel. In 1877, Abram Hewitt wrote a letter urging against the use of Bessemer steel in the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge. Bids had been submitted for both crucible steel and Bessemer steel; John A. Roebling's Sons submitted the lowest bid for Bessemer steel, but at Hewitt's direction, the contract was awarded to J. Lloyd Haigh Co.


title: Bessemer process

text: Using the Bessemer process, it took between 10 and 20 minutes to convert three to five tons of iron into steel — it would previously take at least a full day of heating, stirring and reheating to achieve this.


title: Bessemer process

text: The blowing of air through the molten pig iron introduces oxygen into the melt which results in oxidation, removing impurities found in the pig iron, such as silicon, manganese, and carbon in the form of oxides. These oxides either escape as gas or form a solid slag. The refractory lining of the converter also plays a role in the conversion — clay linings may be used when there is little phosphorus in the raw material, and Bessemer himself used ganister sandstone – this is known as the "acid Bessemer" process. When the phosphorus content is high, dolomite, or sometimes magnesite, linings are required in the basic Bessemer limestone process, see below. In order to produce steel with desired properties, additives such as spiegeleisen (a ferromanganese alloy), can be added to the molten steel once the impurities have been removed.


title: Bessemer process

text: When the required steel had been formed, it was poured into ladles and then transferred into moulds while the lighter slag was left behind. The conversion process, called the "blow", was completed in approximately 20 minutes. During this period, the progress of the oxidation of the impurities was judged by the appearance of the flame issuing from the mouth of the converter. The modern use of photoelectric methods of recording the characteristics of the flame greatly aided the blower in controlling final product quality. After the blow, the liquid metal was recarburized to the desired point and other alloying materials were added, depending on the desired product.


title: Bessemer process

text: A Bessemer converter could treat a "heat" (batch of hot metal) of 5 to 30 tons at a time. They were usually operated in pairs, one being blown while another was being filled or tapped.


title: Bessemer process

text: By the early 19th century the puddling process was widespread. Until technological advances made it possible to work at higher heats, slag impurities could not be removed entirely, but the reverberatory furnace made it possible to heat iron without placing it directly in the fire, offering some degree of protection from the impurity of the fuel source. Thus, with the advent of this technology, coal began to replace charcoal fuel. The Bessemer process allowed steel to be produced without fuel, using the impurities of the iron to create the necessary heat. This drastically reduced the costs of steel production, but raw materials with the required characteristics could be difficult to find.


title: Bessemer process

text: High-quality steel was made by the reverse process of adding carbon to carbon-free wrought iron, usually imported from Sweden. The manufacturing process, called the cementation process, consisted of heating bars of wrought iron together with charcoal for periods of up to a week in a long stone box. This produced blister steel. The blister steel was put in a crucible with wrought iron and melted, producing crucible steel. Up to 3 tons of expensive coke was burnt for each ton of steel produced. Such steel when rolled into bars was sold at £50 to £60 (approximately £3,390 to £4,070 in 2008) a long ton. The most difficult and work-intensive part of the process, however, was the production of wrought iron done in finery forges in Sweden.


title: Bessemer process

text: This process was refined in the 18th century with the introduction of Benjamin Huntsman's crucible steel-making techniques, which added an additional three hours firing time and required additional large quantities of coke. In making crucible steel, the blister steel bars were broken into pieces and melted in small crucibles, each containing 20 kg or so. This produced higher quality crucible steel but increased the cost. The Bessemer process reduced the time needed to make steel of this quality to about half an hour while requiring only the coke needed initially to melt the pig iron. The earliest Bessemer converters produced steel for £7 a long ton, although it initially sold for around £40 a ton.


title: Bessemer process

text: Sidney Gilchrist Thomas, a Londoner with a Welsh father, was an industrial chemist who decided to tackle the problem of phosphorus in iron, which resulted in the production of low grade steel. Believing that he had discovered a solution, he contacted his cousin, Percy Gilchrist, who was a chemist at the Blaenavon Ironworks. The manager at the time, Edward Martin, offered Sidney equipment for large-scale testing and helped him draw up a patent that was taken out in May 1878. Sidney Gilchrist Thomas's invention consisted of using dolomite or sometimes limestone linings for the Bessemer converter rather than clay, and it became known as the 'basic' Bessemer rather than the 'acid' Bessemer process. An additional advantage was that the processes formed more slag in the converter, and this could be recovered and used very profitably as a phosphate fertilizer.


title: Bessemer process

text: In 1898, "Scientific American" published an article called "Bessemer Steel and its Effect on the World" explaining the significant economic effects of the increased supply in cheap steel. They noted that the expansion of railroads into previously sparsely inhabited regions of the country had led to settlement in those regions, and had made the trade of certain goods profitable, which had previously been too costly to transport.


title: Bessemer process

text: The Bessemer process revolutionized steel manufacture by decreasing its cost, from £40 per long ton to £6–7 per long ton, along with greatly increasing the scale and speed of production of this vital raw material. The process also decreased the labor requirements for steel-making. Before it was introduced, steel was far too expensive to make bridges or the framework for buildings and thus wrought iron had been used throughout the Industrial Revolution. After the introduction of the Bessemer process, steel and wrought iron became similarly priced, and some users, primarily railroads, turned to steel. Quality problems, such as brittleness caused by nitrogen in the blowing air, prevented Bessemer steel from being used for many structural applications. Open-hearth steel was suitable for structural applications.


title: Bessemer process

text: Steel greatly improved the productivity of railroads. Steel rails lasted ten times longer than iron rails. Steel rails, which became heavier as prices fell, could carry heavier locomotives, which could pull longer trains. Steel rail cars were longer and were able to increase the freight to car weight from 1:1 to 2:1.


title: Bessemer process

text: As early as 1895 in the UK it was being noted that the heyday of the Bessemer process was over and that the open hearth method predominated. The "Iron and Coal Trades Review" said that it was "in a semi-moribund condition. Year after year, it has not only ceased to make progress, but it has absolutely declined." It has been suggested, both at that time and more recently, that the cause of this was the lack of trained personnel and investment in technology rather than anything intrinsic to the process itself. For example, one of the major causes of the decline of the giant ironmaking company Bolckow Vaughan of Middlesbrough was its failure to upgrade its technology. The basic process, the Thomas-Gilchrist process, remained in use longer, especially in Continental Europe, where iron ores were of high phosphorus content and the open-hearth process was not able to remove all phosphorus; almost all inexpensive construction steel in Germany was produced with this method in the 1950s and 1960s. It was eventually superseded by basic oxygen steelmaking.


title: Bessemer process

text: In the U.S., commercial steel production using this method stopped in 1968. It was replaced by processes such as the basic oxygen (Linz–Donawitz) process, which offered better control of final chemistry. The Bessemer process was so fast (10–20 minutes for a heat) that it allowed little time for chemical analysis or adjustment of the alloying elements in the steel. Bessemer converters did not remove phosphorus efficiently from the molten steel; as low-phosphorus ores became more expensive, conversion costs increased. The process permitted only limited amount of scrap steel to be charged, further increasing costs, especially when scrap was inexpensive. Use of electric arc furnace technology competed favourably with the Bessemer process resulting in its obsolescence.


title: Bessemer process

text: Basic oxygen steelmaking is essentially an improved version of the Bessemer process (decarburization by blowing oxygen as gas into the heat rather than burning the excess carbon away by adding oxygen carrying substances into the heat). The advantages of pure oxygen blast over air blast were known to Henry Bessemer, but 19th-century technology was not advanced enough to allow for the production of the large quantities of pure oxygen necessary to make it economical.


title: Polyphenol

text: Polyphenols () are a large family of naturally occurring organic compounds characterized by multiples of phenol units. They are abundant in plants and structurally diverse. Polyphenols include flavonoids, tannic acid, and ellagitannin, some of which have been used historically as dyes and for tanning garments.


title: Polyphenol

text: The name derives from the Ancient Greek word ("polus", meaning "many, much") and the word phenol which refers to a chemical structure formed by attaching to an aromatic benzenoid (phenyl) ring to a hydroxyl (-OH) group as is found in alcohols (hence the "-ol" suffix). The term polyphenol has been in use at least since 1894.


title: Polyphenol

text: The term polyphenol is not well-defined, but is generally agreed that they are natural products "having a polyphenol structure (i.e., several hydroxyl groups on aromatic rings)" including four principal classes: "phenolic acids, flavonoids, stilbenes, and lignans".


title: Polyphenol

text: The White–Bate-Smith–Swain–Haslam (WBSSH) definition characterized structural characteristics common to plant phenolics used in tanning (i.e., the tannins).


title: Polyphenol

text: According to Stéphane Quideau, the term "polyphenol" refers to compounds derived from the shikimate/phenylpropanoid and/or the polyketide pathway, featuring more than one phenolic unit and deprived of nitrogen-based functions.


title: Polyphenol

text: Ellagic acid, a molecule at the core of naturally occurring phenolic compounds of varying sizes, is itself not a polyphenol by the WBSSH definition, but is by the Quideau definition. The raspberry ellagitannin, on the other hand, with its 14 gallic acid moieties (most in ellagic acid-type components), and more than 40 phenolic hydroxyl groups, meets the criteria of both definitions of a polyphenol. Other examples of compounds that fall under both the WBSSH and Quideau definitions include the black tea theaflavin-3-gallate shown below, and the hydrolyzable tannin, tannic acid.


title: Polyphenol

text: Polyphenols are often larger molecules (macromolecules). Their upper molecular weight limit is about 800 daltons, which allows for the possibility to rapidly diffuse across cell membranes so that they can reach intracellular sites of action or remain as pigments once the cell senesces. Hence, many larger polyphenols are biosynthesized "in-situ" from smaller polyphenols to non-hydrolyzable tannins and remain undiscovered in the plant matrix. Most polyphenols contain repeating phenolic moieties of pyrocatechol, resorcinol, pyrogallol, and phloroglucinol connected by esters (hydrolyzable tannins) or more stable C-C bonds (nonhydrolyzable condensed tannins). Proanthocyanidins are mostly polymeric units of catechin and epicatechin.


title: Polyphenol

text: Polyphenols often have functional groups beyond hydroxyl groups. Ether ester linkages are common, as are carboxylic acids.


title: Polyphenol

text: The analysis techniques are those of phytochemistry: extraction, isolation, structural elucidation, then quantification.


title: Polyphenol

text: Extraction of polyphenols can be performed using a solvent like water, hot water, methanol, methanol/formic acid, methanol/water/acetic or formic acid. Liquid–liquid extraction can be also performed or countercurrent chromatography. Solid phase extraction can also be made on C18 sorbent cartridges. Other techniques are ultrasonic extraction, heat reflux extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, critical carbon dioxide, high-pressure liquid extraction or use of ethanol in an immersion extractor. The extraction conditions (temperature, extraction time, ratio of solvent to raw material, particle size of the sample, solvent type, and solvent concentrations) for different raw materials and extraction methods have to be optimized.


title: Polyphenol

text: Mainly found in the fruit skins and seeds, high levels of polyphenols may reflect only the "measured extractable" polyphenol (EPP) content of a fruit which may also contain non-extractable polyphenols. Black tea contains high amounts of polyphenol and makes up for 20% of its weight.


title: Polyphenol

text: Concentration can be made by ultrafiltration. Purification can be achieved by preparative chromatography.


title: Polyphenol

text: Phosphomolybdic acid is used as a reagent for staining phenolics in thin layer chromatography. Polyphenols can be studied by spectroscopy, especially in the ultraviolet domain, by fractionation or paper chromatography. They can also be analysed by chemical characterisation.


title: Polyphenol

text: Instrumental chemistry analyses include separation by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and especially by reversed-phase liquid chromatography (RPLC), can be coupled to mass spectrometry. Purified compounds can be identified by the means of nuclear magnetic resonance.


title: Polyphenol

text: The DMACA reagent is an histological dye specific to polyphenols used in microscopy analyses. The autofluorescence of polyphenols can also be used, especially for localisation of lignin and suberin. Where fluorescence of the molecules themselves is insufficient for visualization by light microscopy, DPBA (diphenylboric acid 2-aminoethyl ester, also referred to as Naturstoff reagent A) has traditionally been used, at least in plant science, to enhance the fluorescence signal.


title: Polyphenol

text: Polyphenolic content in vitro can be quantified by volumetric titration. An oxidizing agent, permanganate, is used to oxidize known concentrations of a standard tannin solution, producing a standard curve. The tannin content of the unknown is then expressed as equivalents of the appropriate hydrolyzable or condensed tannin.


title: Polyphenol

text: Some methods for quantification of total polyphenol content in vitro are based on colorimetric measurements. Some tests are relatively specific to polyphenols (for instance the Porter's assay). Total phenols (or antioxidant effect) can be measured using the Folin-Ciocalteu reaction. Results are typically expressed as gallic acid equivalents. Polyphenols are seldom evaluated by antibody technologies.


title: Polyphenol

text: Other tests measure the antioxidant capacity of a fraction. Some make use of the ABTS radical cation which is reactive towards most antioxidants including phenolics, thiols and vitamin C. During this reaction, the blue ABTS radical cation is converted back to its colorless neutral form. The reaction may be monitored spectrophotometrically. This assay is often referred to as the Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) assay. The reactivity of the various antioxidants tested are compared to that of Trolox, which is a vitamin E analog.


title: Polyphenol

text: Other antioxidant capacity assays which use Trolox as a standard include the diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH), oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) assays or inhibition of copper-catalyzed "in vitro" human low-density lipoprotein oxidation.


title: Polyphenol

text: Quantitation results produced by the mean of diode array detector–coupled HPLC are generally given as relative rather than absolute values as there is a lack of commercially available standards for all polyphenolic molecules.


title: Polyphenol

text: Some polyphenols are traditionally used as dyes. For instance, in the Indian subcontinent, the pomegranate peel, high in tannins and other polyphenols, or its juice, is employed in the dyeing of non-synthetic fabrics.


title: Polyphenol

text: Polyphenols, especially tannins, were used traditionally for tanning leather and today also as precursors in green chemistry notably to produce plastics or resins by polymerisation with or without the use of formaldehyde or adhesives for particleboards. The aims are generally to make use of plant residues from grape, olive (called pomaces) or pecan shells left after processing.


title: Polyphenol

text: The most abundant polyphenols are the condensed tannins, found in virtually all families of plants. Larger polyphenols are often concentrated in leaf tissue, the epidermis, bark layers, flowers and fruits but also play important roles in the decomposition of forest litter, and nutrient cycles in forest ecology. Absolute concentrations of total phenols in plant tissues differ widely depending on the literature source, type of polyphenols and assay; they are in the range of 1–25% total natural phenols and polyphenols, calculated with reference to the dry green leaf mass.


title: Polyphenol

text: Flax and "Myriophyllum spicatum" (a submerged aquatic plant) secrete polyphenols that are involved in allelopathic interactions.


title: Polyphenol

text: Polyphenols are also found in animals. In arthropods, such as insects, and crustaceans polyphenols play a role in epicuticle hardening (sclerotization). The hardening of the cuticle is due to the presence of a polyphenol oxidase. In crustaceans, there is a second oxidase activity leading to cuticle pigmentation. There is apparently no polyphenol tanning occurring in arachnids cuticle.


title: Polyphenol

text: Polyphenols incorporate smaller parts and building blocks from simpler natural phenols, which originate from the phenylpropanoid pathway for the phenolic acids or the shikimic acid pathway for gallotannins and analogs. Flavonoids and caffeic acid derivatives are biosynthesized from phenylalanine and malonyl-CoA. Complex gallotannins develop through the "in-vitro" oxidation of 1,2,3,4,6-pentagalloylglucose or dimerization processes resulting in hydrolyzable tannins. For anthocyanidins, precursors of the condensed tannin biosynthesis, dihydroflavonol reductase and leucoanthocyanidin reductase (LAR) are crucial enzymes with subsequent addition of catechin and epicatechin moieties for larger, non-hydrolyzable tannins.


title: Polyphenol

text: The glycosylated form develops from glucosyltransferase activity and increases the solubility of polyphenols.


title: Polyphenol

text: Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) is an enzyme that catalyses the oxidation of o-diphenols to produce o-quinones. It is the rapid polymerisation of o-quinones to produce black, brown or red polyphenolic pigments that causes fruit browning. In insects, PPO is involved in cuticle hardening.


title: Polyphenol

text: Polyphenols comprise up to 0.2–0.3% fresh weight for many fruits. Consuming common servings of wine, chocolate, legumes or tea may also contribute to about one gram of intake per day. According to a 2005 review on polyphenols:


title: Polyphenol

text: The most important food sources are commodities widely consumed in large quantities such as fruit and vegetables, green tea, black tea, red wine, coffee, chocolate, olives, and extra virgin olive oil. Herbs and spices, nuts and algae are also potentially significant for supplying certain polyphenols. Some polyphenols are specific to particular food (flavanones in citrus fruit, isoflavones in soya, phloridzin in apples); whereas others, such as quercetin, are found in all plant products such as fruit, vegetables, cereals, leguminous plants, tea, and wine.


title: Polyphenol

text: Some polyphenols are considered antinutrients – compounds that interfere with the absorption of essential nutrients – especially iron and other metal ions, which may bind to digestive enzymes and other proteins, particularly in ruminants.


title: Polyphenol

text: In a comparison of cooking methods, phenolic and carotenoid levels in vegetables were retained better by steaming compared to frying. Polyphenols in wine, beer and various nonalcoholic juice beverages can be removed using finings, substances that are usually added at or near the completion of the processing of brewing.


title: Polyphenol

text: With respect to food and beverages, the cause of astringency is not fully understood, but it is measured chemically as the ability of a substance to precipitate proteins.


title: Polyphenol

text: A review published in 2005 found that astringency increases and bitterness decreases with the mean degree of polymerization. For water-soluble polyphenols, molecular weights between 500 and 3000 were reported to be required for protein precipitation. However, smaller molecules might still have astringent qualities likely due to the formation of unprecipitated complexes with proteins or cross-linking of proteins with simple phenols that have 1,2-dihydroxy or 1,2,3-trihydroxy groups. Flavonoid configurations can also cause significant differences in sensory properties, e.g. epicatechin is more bitter and astringent than its chiral isomer catechin. In contrast, hydroxycinnamic acids do not have astringent qualities, but are bitter.


title: Polyphenol

text: Polyphenols are a large, diverse group of compounds, making it difficult to determine their biological effects. They are not considered nutrients, as they are not used for growth, survival or reproduction, nor do they provide dietary energy. Therefore, they do not have recommended daily intake levels, as exist for Vitamins, minerals, and fiber in the European Union, United Kingdom, and United States. In the US, the Food and Drug Administration issued guidance to manufacturers that polyphenols cannot be mentioned on food labels as antioxidant nutrients unless physiological evidence exists to verify such a qualification and a Dietary Reference Intake value has been established, characteristics which have not been determined for polyphenols. In the European Union, two health claims were authorized between 2012 and 2015: 1) flavanols in cocoa solids at doses exceeding 200 mg per day may contribute to maintenance of vascular elasticity and normal blood flow; 2) olive oil polyphenols (5 mg of hydroxytyrosol and its derivatives (e.g. oleuropein complex and tyrosol) may "contribute to the protection of blood lipids from oxidative damage", if consumed daily.


title: Polyphenol

text: As of 2022, clinical trials that assessed the effect of polyphenols on health biomarkers are limited, with results difficult to interpret due to the wide variation of intake values for both individual polyphenols and total polyphenols.


title: Polyphenol

text: Polyphenols were once considered as antioxidants, but this concept is obsolete. Most polyphenols are metabolized by catechol-O-methyltransferase, and therefore do not have the chemical structure allowing antioxidant activity in vivo; they may exert biological activity as signaling molecules. Some polyphenols are considered to be bioactive compounds for which development of dietary recommendations was under consideration in 2017.


title: Polyphenol

text: In the 1930s, polyphenols were considered as a factor in capillary permeability (then called "vitamin P"), followed by various studies through the 21st century of a possible effect on cardiovascular diseases. For most polyphenols, there is no evidence for an effect on cardiovascular regulation, although there are some reviews showing a minor effect of consuming polyphenols, such as chlorogenic acid or flavan-3-ols, on blood pressure.


title: Polyphenol

text: Isoflavones, which are structurally related to 17β-Estradiol, are classified as phytoestrogens. There is little scientific evidence that consuming isoflavones has an effect on health or disease. A risk assessment by the European Food Safety Authority found no cause for concern when isoflavones are consumed in a normal diet.


title: Polyphenol

text: Phlebotonics of heterogeneous composition, consisting partly of citrus peel extracts (flavonoids, such as hesperidin) and synthetic compounds, are used to treat chronic venous insufficiency and hemorrhoids. Some are non-prescription dietary supplements, such as Diosmin, while one other – Vasculera (Diosmiplex) – is a prescription medical food intended for treating venous disorders. Their mechanism of action is undefined, and clinical evidence of benefit for using phlebotonics to treat venous diseases is limited.


title: Polyphenol

text: Polyphenols are extensively metabolized by the gut microbiota and are investigated as a potential metabolic factor in function of the gut microbiota.


title: Polyphenol

text: Adverse effects of polyphenol intake range from mild (e.g., gastrointestinal tract symptoms) to severe (e.g., hemolytic anemia or hepatotoxicity). In 1988, hemolytic anemia following polyphenol consumption was documented, resulting in the withdrawal of a catechin-containing drug.


title: Polyphenol

text: Metabolism of polyphenols can result in flavonoid-drug interactions, such as in grapefruit–drug interactions, which involves inhibition of the liver enzyme, CYP3A4, likely by grapefruit furanocoumarins, a class of polyphenol. The European Food Safety Authority established upper limits for some polyphenol-containing supplements and additives, such as green tea extract or curcumin. For most polyphenols found in the diet, an adverse affect beyond nutrient-drug interactions is unlikely.


title: Claire Skinner

text: Claire Skinner (born 1965) is an English actress, known in the United Kingdom for her television career, particularly playing Sue Brockman from the BBC television series "Outnumbered".


title: Claire Skinner

text: Claire Skinner was born and brought up in Hemel Hempstead, the youngest daughter of a shopkeeper and an Irish-born secretary, and was shy as a child. Her dream was to be an actress and she immersed herself in her ambition. She acted, neglecting school work at Cavendish School, and "barely scraped through [her] A-levels". She went on to study at the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art and then joined the Royal Shakespeare Company.


title: Claire Skinner

text: Her first role was in "Hanky Park", by Walter Greenwood at the Oldham Repertory Theatre, which she describes as a "really traditional start". She is best known as Clare on the British television comedy "Life Begins" and as Lucinda, the sous chef in the first series of "Chef!" alongside Lenny Henry. From 2007 to 2014, she portrayed Sue Brockman in the sitcom "Outnumbered". For many years, she has preferred theatre to screen roles because she has been disappointed with her TV projects ("apart from Mike Leigh's stuff"), "not just when you see the final thing, but also because it hasn't taken off."


title: Claire Skinner

text: Skinner has worked with directors including Mike Leigh – in "Life Is Sweet", and "Naked" – Trevor Nunn, Tim Burton and Sam Mendes, but according to her, Alan Ayckbourn "was a great influence for me as he pushed me so hard, but every director you work with has a big influence in some way, they really push you."


title: Claire Skinner

text: She has made appearances in TV shows such as "Lark Rise to Candleford" where for two episodes she played Mrs Macey. She appeared in the 2011 "Doctor Who" Christmas special "The Doctor, the Widow and the Wardrobe".


title: Claire Skinner

text: In 2019, she played Sheila in "A Day in the Death of Joe Egg", which ran in Trafalgar Studios in the West End from September to November.


title: Claire Skinner

text: She has two sons with director Charles Palmer; William John (born 1999) and Thomas Henry (born 2002). Their marriage ended in 2016. She is in a relationship with "Outnumbered" co-star Hugh Dennis.


title: Technoblade

text: Alexander (June 1, 1999 – June 2022), known online as Technoblade, was an American YouTuber known for his "Minecraft" videos, livestreams, and involvement in the Dream SMP. Technoblade registered his main channel on YouTube in 2013. His content focused on "Minecraft" gameplay, particularly on the minigame server Hypixel. After rising to popularity in 2019 for his performances in player versus player events, Technoblade was invited to the Dream SMP "Minecraft" server in 2020, further increasing his following. He is widely regarded by the game's community as one of the best "Minecraft" players.


title: Technoblade

text: Technoblade died of metastatic sarcoma in June 2022, which prompted widespread reactions across both the "Minecraft" and YouTube communities. , his main YouTube channel has more than 15 million subscribers.


title: Technoblade

text: Technoblade first registered and began uploading on his main YouTube channel on October 28, 2013. Its content focused mainly on the video game "Minecraft", particularly gameplay on the minigame server Hypixel. In a video from 2017, Technoblade beat "Minecraft" on hardcore mode using a racing wheel controller. In another series of videos, beginning with "The Great Potato War", he tried to produce the highest amount of potatoes in the Hypixel gamemode Skyblock competing against a rival.


title: Technoblade

text: Technoblade rose in popularity in 2019, following multiple wins in Keemstar's "Minecraft Monday" tournaments in which he defeated multiple prominent content creators in combat. Technoblade also regularly participated in the "Minecraft Championship" (MCC) tournaments with other YouTubers and won two of them. According to Cale Michael of "Dot Esports," he was widely regarded as among the best "Minecraft" content creators, especially in player versus player (PVP) events.


title: Technoblade

text: Technoblade became a member of the Dream SMP in 2020, a "Minecraft" server hosted by the YouTuber Dream which features numerous popular "Minecraft" YouTubers. He began frequently creating content and livestreams on the server. Technoblade had a friendly rivalry with Dream, and they were both generally regarded as among the best "Minecraft" players. In September 2021, Technoblade raised over $300,000 for the Sarcoma Foundation of America through a charity livestream, passing the $250,000 goal within two hours.


title: Technoblade

text: Around the time of his death in June 2022, Technoblade's channel had reached 10.8 million subscribers. In August 2022, it posthumously reached fifteen million subscribers.


title: Technoblade

text: Born on June 1, 1999, Technoblade resided in San Francisco, California. He was known to have had ADHD. In a 2018 video, he revealed he had begun attending college as an English major, but dropped out to play "Minecraft" full-time.