title: Sam Wanamaker

text: In 1952, he made his debut as both actor and director in London in Clifford Odets' "Winter Journey". The play, which co-starred Michael Redgrave, was considered "sensational" by critics. He later appeared in other plays, including "The Big Knife", "The Shrike", "The Rainmaker", and "A Hatful of Rain". In 1956 he directed the British premiere of Bertolt Brecht and Kurt Weill's musical play "The Threepenny Opera" (revived in New York in 1954 in a translation by Marc Blitzstein.)


title: Sam Wanamaker

text: In 1957, he was appointed director of the neglected New Shakespeare Theatre in Liverpool. He brought a number of notable productions to the theatre, such as "A View From the Bridge", "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof", "The Rose Tattoo" and "Bus Stop". It was also transformed into a lively arts centre as a result of including other cultural attractions, such as films, lectures, jazz concerts and art exhibits.


title: Sam Wanamaker

text: As a result of all his various activities, Wanamaker became London's "favourite American actor and director", noted "The Guardian". In 1959, he joined the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre company at Stratford-upon-Avon, playing Iago to Paul Robeson's Othello in Tony Richardson's production that year. In the 1960s and 1970s, he produced or directed several works at venues including the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, and directed the Shakespeare Birthday Celebrations in 1974.


title: Sam Wanamaker

text: As a director and actor, he worked in both films and television, with roles in "The Spiral Staircase" (1974), "Private Benjamin" (1980), "" (1987), and "Baby Boom" (1987).


title: Sam Wanamaker

text: In 1968, he produced and directed the pilot episode of the Western TV series "Lancer"; a fictionalized version of this is depicted in the 2019 film "Once Upon a Time in Hollywood", and 2021 novelization with Wanamaker portrayed by Nicholas Hammond in the film.


title: Sam Wanamaker

text: He also directed stage productions, including the world premiere production of Michael Tippett's opera "The Ice Break". In 1980, he directed Giuseppe Verdi's opera "Aida" starring Luciano Pavarotti at San Francisco Opera (now broadcast version released as DVD). He was also featured as the widowed and very ruthless department store owner Simon Berrenger on the short-lived television drama "Berrenger's" in 1985.


title: Sam Wanamaker

text: In 1970 Wanamaker's career took a dramatic turn after he was annoyed that while a number of replicas of the Globe Theatre existed in the United States, the site of the original in London was marked by only a plaque on a nearby brewery. He then made it his goal to restore an exact replica of the Globe to feature plays and a museum.


title: Sam Wanamaker

text: It became Wanamaker's "great obsession" to restore Shakespeare's Globe Theatre at its original location. He secured financial support from philanthropists and fellow lovers of Shakespeare, such as Samuel H. Scripps, to see that it would be created. Wanamaker then founded the Shakespeare Globe Trust, which raised well over ten million dollars.


title: Sam Wanamaker

text: Though, as in the late 16th and 17th centuries, the 20th century Royal family were more or less supportive, British officialdom was far less so, since they wanted to develop the site for new high-rise housing and commercial use. English Heritage, which controlled the site, refused to give Wanamaker the precise dimensions of the original Globe.


title: Sam Wanamaker

text: The Shakespeare project helped Mr. Wanamaker keep his sanity and dignity intact. On his first visit to London in 1949, he had sought traces of the original theatre and was astonished to find only a blackened plaque on an unused brewery. He found this neglect inexplicable, and in 1970 launched the Shakespeare Globe Trust, later obtaining the building site and necessary permissions despite a hostile local council. He siphoned his earnings as actor and director into the project, undismayed by the scepticism of his British colleagues.


title: Sam Wanamaker

text: On the south bank of the River Thames in London, near where the modern recreation of Shakespeare's Globe stands today, is a plaque that reads: "In Thanksgiving for Sam Wanamaker, Actor, Director, Producer, 1919–1993, whose vision rebuilt Shakespeare's Globe Theatre on Bankside in this parish". There is a blue plaque on the river-side wall of the theatre, and the site's Jacobean indoor theatre, opened in January 2014, is named the Sam Wanamaker Playhouse after him.


title: Sam Wanamaker

text: For his work in reconstructing the Globe Theatre, Wanamaker, in July 1993, was made an honorary Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE). He was also honoured with the Benjamin Franklin Medal by the Royal Society of Arts in recognition of his contribution to theatre.


title: Sam Wanamaker

text: When multi-Tony Award-winning British actor Mark Rylance accepted his third Tony on stage in New York City during the televised ceremonies on June 8, 2014, he did so with a note of thanks to Wanamaker.


title: Sam Wanamaker

text: In her 2014 memoir, "I Said Yes to Everything", Lee Grant claimed that during production of the film "Voyage of the Damned" (1976), Wanamaker engaged in an affair with British actress Lynne Frederick, who was twenty-one at the time.


title: Sam Wanamaker

text: Wanamaker died of prostate cancer in London on December 18, 1993, aged 74, prior to the grand opening of the Globe by Queen Elizabeth II on June 12, 1997. He was survived by three daughters, Abby, Zoë, and Jessica.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The history of timekeeping devices dates back to when ancient civilizations first observed astronomical bodies as they moved across the sky. Devices and methods for keeping time have since then improved through a long series of new inventions and ideas. Sundials and water clocks originated from ancient Egypt, and were later used by the Babylonians, the Greeks and the Chinese; medieval Islamic water clocks were unrivalled in their sophistication until the mid-14th century. Incense clocks, which may have been invented in India, were being used in China by the 6th century. The hourglass, one of the few reliable methods of measuring time at sea, was a European invention and does not seem to have been used in China before the mid-16th century.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: In medieval Europe, purely mechanical clocks were developed after the invention of the bell-striking alarm, used to warn a man to toll the monastic bell. The weight-driven mechanical clock, controlled by the action of a verge and foliot, was a synthesis of earlier ideas derived from European and Islamic science, and one of the most important inventions in the history of the timekeeping. The most famous mechanical clock was designed and built by Henry de Vick in 1360—for the next 300 years, all the improvements in timekeeping were essentially developments based on it. The invention of the mainspring in the early 15th century allowed small clocks to be built for the first time.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: From the 17th century, the discovery that clocks could be controlled by harmonic oscillators led to the most productive era in the history of timekeeping. Leonardo da Vinci had produced the earliest known drawings of a pendulum in 14931494, and in 1582 Galileo Galilei had investigated the regular swing of the pendulum, discovering that frequency was only dependent on length. The pendulum clock, designed and built by Dutch polymath Christiaan Huygens in 1656, was so much more accurate than other kinds of mechanical timekeepers that few clocks have survived with their verge and foliot mechanisms intact. Other innovations in timekeeping during this period include inventions for striking clocks, the repeating clock and the deadbeat escapement. Errors in early pendulum clocks were eclipsed by those caused by temperature variation, a problem tackled during the 18th century by the English clockmakers John Harrison and George Graham; only the invention of invar in 1895 eliminated the need for such innovations.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: From the 18th century, a succession of innovations and inventions led to timekeeping devices becoming increasingly accurate. Following the Scilly naval disaster of 1707, after which governments offered a prize to anyone who could discover a way to determine longitude, Harrison built a succession of accurate timepieces. The electric clock, invented in 1840, was used to control the most accurate pendulum clocks until the 1940s, when quartz timers became the basis for the precise measurement of time and frequency. The wristwatch, which had been recognised as a valuable military tool during the Boer War, became a symbol of masculinity and bravado after World War I. During the 20th century the non-magnetic wristwatch, battery-driven watches, the quartz wristwatch, and transistors and plastic parts were all invented. The most accurate timekeeping devices in practical use today are atomic clocks, which can be accurate to within a few billionths of a second per year. They are used to calibrate other clocks and timekeeping instruments.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: Ancient civilizations observed astronomical bodies, often the Sun and Moon, to determine time. According to the historian Eric Bruton, Stonehenge is likely to have been the Stone Age equivalent of an astronomical observatory, used to seasonal and annual events such as equinoxes or solstices. As megalithic civilizations left no recorded history, little is known of their timekeeping methods.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: Mesoamericans modified their usual vigesimal (base-20) counting system when dealing with calendars to produce a 360-day year. The Aboriginal Australians understood the movement of objects in the sky well, and used their knowledge to construct calendars and aid navigation; most Aboriginal cultures had seasons that were well-defined and determined by natural changes throughout the year, including celestial events. Lunar phases were used to mark shorter periods of time; the Yaraldi of South Australia being one of the few people recorded as having a way to measure time during the day, which was divided into seven parts using the position of the Sun.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: All timekeepers before the 13th century relied upon methods that used something that moved continuously. No early method of keeping time changed at a steady rate. Devices and methods for keeping time have improved continuously through a long series of new inventions and ideas.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The first devices used for measuring the position of the Sun were shadow clocks, which later developed into the sundial. Egyptian obelisks, constructed  BC, are among the earliest shadow clocks. The oldest of all known sundials dates back to  BC (during the 19th Dynasty), and was discovered in the Valley of the Kings in 2013. Obelisks could indicate whether it was morning or afternoon, as well as the summer and winter solstices. A kind of shadow clock was developed  BC that was similar in shape to a bent T-square. It measured the passage of time by the shadow cast by its crossbar, and was oriented eastward in the mornings, and turned around at noon, so it could cast its shadow in the opposite direction.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: A sundial is referred to in the Bible, in 2 Kings 20:911, when Hezekiah, king of Judea during the 8th century BC, is recorded as being healed by the prophet Isaiah and asks for a sign that he would recover:


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: A clay tablet from the late Babylonian period describes the lengths of shadows at different times of the year. The Babylonian writer Berossos () is credited by the Greeks with the invention of a hemispherical sundial hollowed out of stone; the path of the shadow was divided into 12 parts to mark the time. Greek sundials evolved to become highly sophisticated—Ptolemy's "Analemma", written in the 2nd century AD, used an early form of trigonometry to derive the position of the sun from data such as the hour of day and the geographical latitude.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The Romans borrowed the idea of the sundial from the Greeks. The military commander Pliny the Elder recorded that the first sundial in Rome arrived in 264 BC, looted from Catania in Sicily; according to him, it gave the incorrect time for a century, until the markings and angle appropriate for Rome's latitude were used.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: According to the German historian of astronomy Ernst Zinner, sundials were developed during the 13th century with scales that showed equal hours. The first based on polar time appeared in Germany ; an alternative theory proposes that a Damascus sundial measuring in polar time can be dated to 1372. European treatises on sundial design appeared .


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: An Egyptian method of determining the time during the night, used from at least 600 BC, was a type of plumb-line called a merkhet. A north–south meridian was created using two merkhets aligned with Polaris, the north pole star. The time was determined by observing particular stars as they crossed the meridian.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The oldest description of a clepsydra, or water clock, is from the tomb inscription of an early 18th Dynasty ( BC) Egyptian court official named Amenemhet, who is identified as its inventor. It is assumed that the object described on the inscription is a bowl with markings to indicate the time. The oldest surviving water clock was found in the tomb of pharaoh Amenhotep III ( 14171379 BC). There are no recognised examples in existence of outflowing water clocks from ancient Mesopotamia, but written references have survived.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The introduction of the water clock to China, perhaps from Mesopotamia, occurred as far back as the 2nd millennium BC, during the Shang Dynasty, and at the latest by the 1st millennium BC. Around 550 AD, Yin Gui was the first in China to write of the overflow or constant-level tank. Around 610, two Sui Dynasty inventors, Geng Xun and Yuwen Kai, created the first balance clepsydra, with standard positions for the steelyard balance. In 721 the mathematician Yi Xing and government official Liang Lingzan regulated the power of the water driving an astronomical clock, dividing the power into unit impulses so that motion of the planets and stars could be duplicated. In 976, the Song dynasty astronomer Zhang Sixun addressed the problem of the water in clepsydrae freezing in cold weather when he replaced the water with liquid mercury. A water-powered astronomical clock tower was built by the polymath Su Song in 1088, which featured the first known endless power-transmitting chain drive.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The Greek philosophers Anaxagoras and Empedocles both referred to water clocks that were used to enforce time limits or measure the passing of time. The Athenian philosopher Plato is supposed to have invented an alarm clock that used lead balls cascading noisily onto a copper platter to wake his students.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: A problem with most clepsydrae was the variation in the flow of water due to the change in fluid pressure, which was addressed from 100 BC when the clock's water container was given a conical shape. They became more sophisticated when innovations such as gongs and moving mechanisms were included. There is evidence that the 1st century BC Tower of the Winds in Athens once had eight sundials, a water clock, and a wind vane. In Greek tradition, clepsydrae were used in court, a practise later adopted by the Ancient Romans.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The first geared clock, invented in the 11th century by the Arab engineer Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi in Islamic Iberia, was a water clock that employed both segmental and epicyclic gearing. Islamic water clocks, which used complex gear trains and included arrays of automata, were unrivalled in their sophistication until the mid-14th century. Liquid-driven mechanisms (using heavy floats and a constant-head system) were developed that enabled water clocks to work at a slower rate.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The 12th-century Jayrun Water Clock at the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus was constructed by Muhammad al-Sa'ati, and was later described by his son Ridwan ibn al-Sa'ati in his "On the Construction of Clocks and their Use" (1203). A sophisticated water-powered astronomical clock was described by Al-Jazari in his treatise on machines, written in 1206. This castle clock was about high, and included a display of the zodiac and the solar and lunar paths, and doors that opened on the hour, to reveal a mannequin. In 1235, a water-powered clock that "announced the appointed hours of prayer and the time both by day and by night" stood in the entrance hall of the Mustansiriya Madrasah in Baghdad.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: Incense clocks were first used in China around the 6th century, mainly for religious purposes, but also for social gatherings or by scholars. Due to their frequent use of Devanagari characters, American sinologist Edward H. Schafer has speculated that incense clocks were invented in India. As incense burns evenly and without a flame, the clocks were safe for indoor use. To mark different hours, differently scented incenses (made from different recipes) were used.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The incense sticks used could be straight or spiralled; the spiralled ones were intended for long periods of use, and often hung from the roofs of homes and temples. Some clocks were designed to drop weights at even intervals,


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: Incense seal clocks had a disk etched with one or more grooves, into which incense was placed. The length of the trail of incense, directly related to the size of the seal, was the primary factor in determining how long the clock would last; to burn 12 hours an incense path of around has been estimated. The gradual introduction of metal disks, most likely beginning during the Song dynasty, allowed craftsmen to more easily create seals of different sizes, design and decorate them more aesthetically, and vary the paths of the grooves, to allow for the changing length of the days in the year. As smaller seals became available, incense seal clocks grew in popularity and were often given as gifts.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: Sophisticated timekeeping astrolabes with geared mechanisms were made in Persia. Examples include those built by the polymath Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī in the 11th century and the astronomer Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al‐Farisi in 1221. A brass and silver astrolabe (which also acts as a calendar) made in Isfahan by al‐Farisi is the earliest surviving machine with its gears still intact. Openings on the back of the astrolabe depict the lunar phases and gives the Moon's age; within a zodiacal scale are two concentric rings that show the relative positions of the Sun and the Moon.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: Muslim astronomers constructed a variety of highly accurate astronomical clocks for use in their mosques and observatories, such as the astrolabic clock by Ibn al-Shatir in the early 14th century.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: One of the earliest references to a candle clock is in a Chinese poem, written in 520 by You Jianfu, who wrote of the graduated candle being a means of determining time at night. Similar candles were used in Japan until the early 10th century.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The invention of the candle clock was attributed by the Anglo-Saxons to Alfred the Great, king of Wessex, who used six candles marked at intervals of , each made from 12 pennyweights of wax, and made to be high and of a uniform thickness.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The 12th century Muslim inventor Al-Jazari described four different designs for a candle clock in his book "The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices" (). His so-called 'scribe' candle clock was invented to mark the passing of 14 hours of equal length: a precisely engineered mechanism caused a candle of specific dimensions to be slowly pushed upwards, which caused an indicator to move along a scale. Every hour a small ball emerged from the beak of a bird.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The hourglass was one of the few reliable methods of measuring time at sea, and it has been speculated that it was used on board ships as far back as the 11th century, when it would have complemented the compass as an aid to navigation. The earliest unambiguous evidence of the use an hourglass appears in the painting "Allegory of Good Government", by the Italian artist Ambrogio Lorenzetti, from 1338.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan used 18 hourglasses on each ship during his circumnavigation of the globe in 1522. Though used in China, the hourglass's history there is unknown, but does not seem to have been used before the mid-16th century, as the hourglass implies the use of glassblowing, then an entirely European and Western art.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: From the 15th century onwards, hourglasses were used in a wide range of applications at sea, in churches, in industry, and in cooking; they were the first dependable, reusable, reasonably accurate, and easily constructed time-measurement devices. The hourglass took on symbolic meanings, such as that of death, temperance, opportunity, and Father Time, usually represented as a bearded, old man.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The English word "clock" first appeared in Middle English as , , or . The origin of the word is not known for certain; it may be a borrowing from French or Dutch, and can perhaps be traced to the post-classical Latin ('bell'). 7th century Irish and 9th century Germanic sources recorded "clock" as meaning 'bell'.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: Judaism, Christianity and Islam all had times set aside for prayer, although Christians alone were expected to attend prayers at specific hours of the day and night—what the historian Jo Ellen Barnett describes as "a rigid adherence to repetitive prayers said many times a day". The bell-striking alarms warned the monk on duty to toll the monastic bell. His alarm was a timer that used a form of escapement to ring a small bell. This mechanism was the forerunner of the escapement device found in the mechanical clock.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The first innovations to improve on the accuracy of the hourglass and the water clock occurred in the 10th century, when attempts were made to slow their rate of flow using friction or the force of gravity. The earliest depiction of a clock powered by a hanging weight is from the Bible of St Louis, an illuminated manuscript that shows a clock being slowed by water acting on a wheel. The illustration seems to show that weight-driven clocks were invented in western Europe. A treatise written by Robertus Anglicus in 1271 shows that medieval craftsmen were attempting to design a purely mechanical clock (i.e. only driven by gravity) during this period. Such clocks were a synthesis of earlier ideas derived from European and Islamic science, such as gearing systems, weight drives, and striking mechanisms.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: In 1250, the artist Villard de Honnecourt illustrated a device that was the step towards the development of the escapement. Another forerunner of the escapement was the , which used an early kind of verge mechanism to operate a knocker that continuously struck a bell. The weight-driven clock was probably a Western European invention, as a picture of a clock shows a weight pulling an axle around, its motion slowed by a system of holes that slowly released water. In 1271, the English astronomer Robertus Anglicus wrote of his contemporaries that they were in the process of developing a form of mechanical clock.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The invention of the verge and foliot escapement in 1275 was one of the most important inventions in both the history of the clock and the history of technology. It was the first type of regulator in horology. A verge, or vertical shaft, is forced to rotate by a weight-driven crown wheel, but is stopped from rotating freely by a foliot. The foliot, which cannot vibrate freely, swings back and forth, which allows a wheel to rotate one tooth at a time. Although the verge and foliot was an advancement on previous timekeepers, it was impossible to avoid fluctuations in the beat caused by changes in the applied forces—the earliest mechanical clocks were regularly reset using a sundial.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: At around the same time as the invention of the escapement, the Florentine poet Dante Alighieri used clock imagery to depict the souls of the blessed in "Paradiso", the third part of the "Divine Comedy", written in the early part of the 14th century. It may be the first known literary description of a mechanical clock. There are references to house clocks from 1314 onwards; by 1325 the development of the mechanical clock can be assumed to have occurred.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: Large mechanical clocks were built that were mounted in towers so as to ring the bell directly. The tower clock of Norwich Cathedral (constructed 1321 1325) is the earliest such large clock known. The clock has not survived. The first clock known to strike regularly on the hour, a clock with a verge and foliot mechanism, is recorded in Milan in 1336. By 1341, clocks driven by weights were familiar enough to be able to be adapted for grain mills, and by 1344 the clock in London's Old St Paul's Cathedral had been replaced by one with an escapement. The foliot was first illustrated by Dondi in 1364, and mentioned by the court historian Jean Froissart in 1369.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The most famous example of a timekeeping device during the medieval period was a clock designed and built by the clockmaker Henry de Vick in 1360, which was said to have varied by up to two hours a day. For the next 300 years, all the improvements in timekeeping were essentially developments based on the principles of de Vick's clock. Between 1348 and 1364, Giovanni Dondi dell'Orologio, the son of Jacopo Dondi, built a complex astrarium in Florence.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: During the 14th century, striking clocks appeared with increasing frequency in public spaces, first in Italy, slightly later in France and England—between 1371 and 1380, public clocks were introduced in over 70 European cites. Salisbury Cathedral clock, dating from about 1386, is one of the oldest working clocks in the world, and may be the oldest; it still has most of its original parts. The Wells Cathedral clock, built in 1392, is unique in that it still has its original medieval face. Above the clock are figures which hit the bells, and a set of jousting knights who revolve around a track every 15 minutes.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The invention of the mainspring in the early 15th century—a device first used in locks and for flintlocks in guns— allowed small clocks to be built for the first time. The need for an escapement mechanism that steadily controlled the release of the stored energy, led to the development of two devices, the stackfreed (which although invented in the 15th century can be documented no earlier than 1535) and the fusee, which first originated from medieval weapons such as the crossbow. There is a fusee in the earliest surviving spring-driven clock, a chamber clock made for Philip the Good in  1430. Leonardo da Vinci, who produced the earliest known drawings of a pendulum in 14931494, illustrated a fusee in  1500, a quarter of a century after the coiled spring first appeared.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: Clock towers in Western Europe in the Middle Ages struck the time. Early clock dials showed hours; a clock with a minutes dial is mentioned in a 1475 manuscript. During the 16th century, timekeepers became more refined and sophisticated, so that by 1577 the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe was able to obtain the first of four clocks that measured in seconds, and in Nuremberg, the clockmaker Peter Henlein was paid for making what is thought to have been the earliest example of a watch, made in 1524. By 1500, the use of the foliot in clocks had begun to decline. The oldest surviving spring-driven clock is a device made by in 1525. The first person to suggest travelling with a clock to determine longitude, in 1530, was the Dutch instrument maker Gemma Frisius. The clock would be set to the local time of a starting point whose longitude was known, and the longitude of any other place could be determined by comparing its local time with the clock time.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The Ottoman engineer Taqi ad-Din described a weight-driven clock with a verge-and-foliot escapement, a striking train of gears, an alarm, and a representation of the moon's phases in his book "The Brightest Stars for the Construction of Mechanical Clocks" (), written around 1556. Jesuit missionaries brought the first European clocks to China as gifts.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The Italian polymath Galileo Galilei is thought to have first realised that the pendulum could be used as an accurate timekeeper after watching the motion of suspended lamps at Pisa Cathedral. In 1582, he investigated the regular swing of the pendulum, and discovered that this was only dependent on its length. Galileo never constructed a clock based on his discovery, but prior to his death he dictated instructions for building a pendulum clock to his son, Vincenzo.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The first accurate timekeepers depended on the phenomenon known as harmonic motion, in which the restoring force acting on an object moved away from its equilibrium position—such as a pendulum or an extended spring—acts to return the object to that position, and causes it to oscillate. Harmonic oscillators can be used as accurate timekeepers as the period of oscillation does not depend on the amplitude of the motion—and so it always takes the same time to complete one oscillation. The period of a harmonic oscillator is completely dependent on the physical characteristics of the oscillating system and not the starting conditions or the amplitude.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The period when clocks were controlled by harmonic oscillators was the most productive era in timekeeping. The first invention of this type was the pendulum clock, which was designed and built by Dutch polymath Christiaan Huygens in 1656. Early versions erred by less than one minute per day, and later ones only by 10 seconds, very accurate for their time. Dials that showed minutes and seconds became common after the increase in accuracy made possible by the pendulum clock. Brahe used clocks with minutes and seconds to observe stellar positions. The pendulum clock outperformed all other kinds of mechanical timekeepers to such an extent that these were usually refitted with a pendulum—a task that could be done without difficulty—so that few verge escapement devices have survived in their original form.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The first pendulum clocks used a verge escapement, which required wide swings of about 100° and so had short, light pendulums. The swing was reduced to around 6° after the invention of the anchor mechanism enabled the use of longer, heavier pendulums with slower beats that had less variation, as they more closely resembled simple harmonic motion, required less power, and caused less friction and wear. The first known anchor escapement clock was built by the English clockmaker William Clement in 1671 for King's College, Cambridge, now in the Science Museum, London. The anchor escapement originated with Hooke, although it has been argued that it was invented by Clement, or the English clockmaker Joseph Knibb.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The Jesuits made major contributions to the development of pendulum clocks in the 17th and 18th centuries, having had an "unusually keen appreciation of the importance of precision". In measuring an accurate one-second pendulum, for example, the Italian astronomer Father Giovanni Battista Riccioli persuaded nine fellow Jesuits "to count nearly 87,000 oscillations in a single day". They served a crucial role in spreading and testing the scientific ideas of the period, and collaborated with Huygens and his contemporaries.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: Huygens first used a clock to calculate the equation of time (the difference between the apparent solar time and the time given by a clock), publishing his results in 1665. The relationship enabled astronomers to use the stars to measure sidereal time, which provided an accurate method for setting clocks. The equation of time was engraved on sundials so that clocks could be set using the sun. In 1720, Joseph Williamson claimed to have invented a clock that showed solar time, fitted with a cam and differential gearing, so that the clock indicated true solar time.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: Other innovations in timekeeping during this period include the invention of the rack and snail striking mechanism for striking clocks by the English mechanician Edward Barlow, the invention by either Barlow or Daniel Quare, a London clock-maker, in 1676 of the repeating clock that chimes the number of hours or minutes, and the deadbeat escapement, invented around 1675 by the astronomer Richard Towneley.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: Paris and Blois were the early centres of clockmaking in France, and French clockmakers such as Julien Le Roy, clockmaker of Versailles, were leaders in case design and ornamental clocks. Le Roy belonged to the fifth generation of a family of clockmakers, and was described by his contemporaries as "the most skillful clockmaker in France, possibly in Europe". He invented a special repeating mechanism which improved the precision of clocks and watches, a face that could be opened to view the inside clockwork, and made or supervised over 3,500 watches during his career of almost five decades, which ended with his death in 1759. The competition and scientific rivalry resulting from his discoveries further encouraged researchers to seek new methods of measuring time more accurately.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: Any inherent errors in early pendulum clocks were smaller than other errors caused by factors such as temperature variation. In 1729 the Yorkshire carpenter and self-taught clockmaker John Harrison invented the gridiron pendulum, which used at least three metals of different lengths and expansion properties, connected so as to maintain the overall length of the pendulum when it is heated or cooled by its surroundings. In 1781 the clockmaker George Graham compensated for temperature variation in an iron pendulum by using a bob made from a glass jar of mercury—a liquid metal at room temperature that expands faster than glass. More accurate versions of this innovation contained the mercury in thinner iron jars to make them more responsive. This type of temperature compensating pendulum was improved still further when the mercury was contained within the rod itself, which allowed the two metals to be thermally coupled more tightly. In 1895, the invention of invar, an alloy made from iron and nickel that expands very little, largely eliminated the need for earlier inventions designed to compensate for the variation in temperature.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: Between 1794 and 1795, in the aftermath of the French Revolution, the French government mandated the use of decimal time, with a day divided into 10 hours of 100 minutes each. A clock in the Palais des Tuileries kept decimal time as late as 1801.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: After the Scilly naval disaster of 1707 where four ships ran aground due to navigational mistakes, the British government offered a prize of £20,000, equivalent to millions of pounds today, for anyone who could determine the longitude to within at a latitude just north of the equator. The position of a ship at sea could be determined to within if a navigator could refer to a clock that lost or gained less than about six seconds per day. Proposals were examined by a newly created Board of Longitude. Among the many people who attempted to claim the prize was the Yorkshire clockmaker Jeremy Thacker, who first used the term "chronometer" in a pamphlet published in 1714. Huygens built the first sea clock, designed to remain horizontal aboard a moving ship, but that stopped working if the ship moved suddenly.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: In 1715, at the age of 22, Harrison had used his carpentry skills to construct a wooden eight-day clock. His clocks had innovations that included the use of wooden parts to remove the need for additional lubrication (and cleaning), rollers to reduce friction, a new kind of escapement, and the use of two different metals to reduce the problem of expansion caused by temperature variation.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: He traveled to London to seek assistance from the Board of Longitude in making a sea clock. He was sent to visit Graham, who assisted Harrison by arranging to finance his work to build a clock. After 30 years, his device, now named "H1" was built and in 1736 it was tested at sea. Harrison then went on to design and make two other sea clocks, "H2" (completed in around 1739) and "H3", both of which were ready by 1755.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: Harrison made two watches, "H4" and "H5". Eric Bruton, in his book "The History of Clocks and Watches", has described H4 as "probably the most remarkable timekeeper ever made". After the completion of its sea trials during the winter of 17611762 it was found that it was three times more accurate than was needed for Harrison to be awarded the Longitude prize.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: In 1815, the prolific English inventor Francis Ronalds produced the forerunner of the electric clock, the electrostatic clock. It was powered with dry piles, a high voltage battery with extremely long life but the disadvantage of its electrical properties varying according to the air temperature and humidity. He experimented with ways of regulating the electricity and his improved devices proved to be more reliable.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: In 1840 the Scottish clock and instrument maker Alexander Bain, first used electricity to sustain the motion of a pendulum clock, and so can be credited with the invention of the electric clock. On January 11, 1841, Bain and the chronometer maker John Barwise took out a patent describing a clock with an electromagnetic pendulum. The English scientist Charles Wheatstone, whom Bain met in London to discuss his ideas for an electric clock, produced his own version of the clock in November 1840, but Bain won a legal battle to establish himself as the inventor.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: In 1857, the French physicist Jules Lissajous showed how an electric current can be used to vibrate a tuning fork indefinitely, and was probably the first to use the invention as a method for accurately measuring frequency. The piezoelectric properties of crystalline quartz were discovered by the French physicist brothers Jacques and Pierre Curie in 1880.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The most accurate pendulum clocks were controlled electrically. The Shortt–Synchronome clock, an electrical driven pendulum clock designed in 1921, was the first clock to be a more accurate timekeeper than the Earth itself.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: A succession of innovations and discoveries led to the invention of the modern quartz timer. The vacuum tube oscillator was invented in 1912. An electrical oscillator was first used to sustain the motion of a tuning fork by the British physicist William Eccles in 1919; his achievement removed much of the damping associated with mechanical devices and maximised the stability of the vibration's frequency.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The first quartz crystal oscillator was built by the American engineer Walter G. Cady in 1921, and in October 1927 the first quartz clock was described by Joseph Horton and Warren Marrison at Bell Telephone Laboratories. The following decades saw the development of quartz clocks as precision time measurement devices in laboratory settings—the bulky and delicate counting electronics, built with vacuum tubes, limited their practical use elsewhere. In 1932, a quartz clock able to measure small weekly variations in the rotation rate of the Earth was developed. Their inherent physical and chemical stability and accuracy has resulted in the subsequent proliferation, and since the 1940s they have formed the basis for precision measurements of time and frequency worldwide.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The first wristwatches were made in the 16th century. Elizabeth I of England had made an inventory in 1572 of the watches she acquired, all of which were considered to be part of her jewellery collection. The first pocketwatches were inaccurate, as their size precluded them from having sufficiently well-made moving parts. Unornamented watches began to appear in 1625.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: Dials that showed minutes and seconds became common after the increase in accuracy made possible by the balance spring (or hairspring). Invented separately in 1675 by Huygens and Hooke, it enabled the oscillations of the balance wheel to have a fixed frequency. The invention resulted in a great advance in the accuracy of the mechanical watch, from around half an hour to within a few minutes per day. Some dispute remains as to whether the balance spring was first invented by Huygens or by Hooke; both scientists claimed to have come up with the idea of the balance spring first. Huygens' design for the balance spring is the type used in virtually all watches up to the present day.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: Thomas Tompion was one of the first clockmakers to recognise the potential of the balance spring and use it successfully in his pocket watches; the improved accuracy enabled watches to perform as well as they are generally used today, as a second hand to be added to the face, a development that occurred during the 1690s. The concentric minute hand was an earlier invention, but a mechanism was devised by Quare that enabled the hands to be actuated together. Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, a Swiss natural philosopher, is credited with the design of the first jewel bearings in watches in 1704.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: Other notable 18th-century English horologists include John Arnold and Thomas Earnshaw, who devoted their careers to constructing high-quality chronometers and so-called 'deck watches', smaller versions of the chronometer that could be kept in a pocket.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: Watches were worn during the Franco-Prussian War (18701871), and by the time of the Boer War (18991902), watches had been recognised as a valuable tool. Early models were essentially standard pocket watches fitted to a leather strap, but, by the early 20th century, manufacturers began producing purpose-built wristwatches. In 1904, Alberto Santos-Dumont, an early aviator, asked his friend the French watchmaker Louis Cartier to design a watch that could be useful during his flights.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: During World War I, wristwatches were used by artillery officers. The so-called trench watch, or 'wristlets' were practical, as they freed up one hand that would normally be used to operate a pocket watch, and became standard equipment. The demands of trench warfare meant that soldiers needed to protect the glass of their watches, and a guard in the form of a hinged cage was sometimes used. The guard was designed to allow the numerals to be read easily, but it obscured the hands—a problem that was solved after the introduction of shatter-resistant Plexiglass in the 1930s. Prior to the advent of its military use, the wristwatch was typically only worn by women, but during World War I they became symbols of masculinity and bravado.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: Fob watches were starting to be replaced at the turn of the 20th century. The Swiss, who were neutral throughout World War I, produced wristwatches for both sides of the conflict. The introduction of the tank influenced the design of the Cartier Tank watch, and the design of watches during the 1920s was influenced by the Art Deco style. The automatic watch, first introduced with limited success in the 18th century, was reintroduced in the 1920s by the English watchmaker John Harwood. After he went bankrupt in 1929, restrictions on automatic watches were lifted and companies such as Rolex were able to produce them. In 1930, Tissot produced the first ever non-magnetic wristwatch.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The first battery-driven watches were developed in the 1950s. High quality watches were produced by firms such as Patek Philippe, an example made in 1933, an example being a Patek Philippe ref. 1518, possibly the most complicated wristwatch ever made in stainless steel, which fetched a world record price in 2016 when it was sold at auction for $11,136,642.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The manual winding Speedmaster Professional or "Moonwatch" was worn during the first United States spacewalk as part of NASA's Gemini 4 mission and was the first watch worn by an astronaut walking on the Moon during the Apollo 11 mission. In 1969, Seiko produced the world's first quartz wristwatch, the Astron.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: During the 1960s, the introduction of watches made using transistors and plastic parts enabled companies to reduce their work force. By the 1970s, many of those firms that maintained more complicated metalworking techniques had gone bankrupt.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: Atomic clocks are the most accurate timekeeping devices in practical use today. Accurate to within a few seconds over many thousands of years, they are used to calibrate other clocks and timekeeping instruments. The U.S. National Bureau of Standards (NBS, now National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)) changed the way it based the time standard of the United States from quartz to atomic clocks in the 1960s.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The idea of using atomic transitions to measure time was first suggested by the British scientist Lord Kelvin in 1879, although it was only in the 1930s with the development of magnetic resonance that there was a practical method for measuring time in this way. A prototype ammonia maser device was built in 1948 at NIST. Although less accurate than existing quartz clocks it served to prove the concept of an atomic clock.


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: The first accurate atomic clock, a caesium standard based on a certain transition of the caesium-133 atom, was built by the English physicist Louis Essen in 1955 at the National Physical Laboratory in London. It was calibrated by the use of the astronomical time scale "ephemeris time" (ET).


title: History of timekeeping devices

text: In 1967 the International System of Units (SI) standardized its unit of time, the second, on the properties of cesium. The SI defined the second as 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation which corresponds to the transition between two electron spin energy levels of the ground state of the Cs atom. The cesium atomic clock maintained by NIST is accurate to 30 billionths of a second per year. Atomic clocks have employed other elements, such as hydrogen and rubidium vapor, offering greater stability (in the case of hydrogen clocks) and smaller size, lower power consumption, and thus lower cost (in the case of rubidium clocks).


title: Bungee jumping

text: Bungee jumping (), also spelled bungy jumping, is an activity that involves a person jumping from a great height while connected to a large elastic cord. The launching pad is usually erected on a tall structure such as a building or crane, a bridge across a deep ravine, or on a natural geographic feature such as a cliff. It is also possible to jump from a type of aircraft that has the ability to hover above the ground, such as a hot-air-balloon or helicopter. The thrill comes from the free-falling and the rebound. When the person jumps, the cord stretches and the jumper flies upwards again as the cord recoils, and continues to oscillate up and down until all the kinetic energy is dissipated.


title: Bungee jumping

text: The land diving (Sa: "") of Pentecost Island in Vanuatu is an ancient ritual in which young men jump from tall wooden platforms with vines tied to their ankles as a test of their courage and passage into manhood. Unlike in modern bungee-jumping, land-divers intentionally hit the ground, but the vines absorb sufficient force to make the impact non-lethal. The land-diving ritual on Pentecost has been claimed as an inspiration by A. J. Hackett, prompting calls from the islanders' representatives for compensation for what they view as the unauthorised appropriation of their cultural property.


title: Bungee jumping

text: A tower high with a system to drop a "car" suspended by a cable of "best rubber" was proposed for the Chicago World Fair, 1892–1893. The car, seating two hundred people, would have been shoved from a platform on the tower and then would have bounced to a stop. The designer engineer suggested that for safety the ground below "be covered with eight feet of feather bedding". The proposal was declined by the Fair's organizers.


title: Bungee jumping

text: The word "bungee" originates from West Country dialect of the English language, meaning "Anything thick and squat", as defined by James Jennings in his book "Observations of Some of the Dialects in The West of England" published 1825. In 1928, the word started to be used for a rubber eraser.


title: Bungee jumping

text: The Oxford English Dictionary records early use of the phrase in 1938 relating to launching of gliders using an elasticated cord, and also as "A long nylon-cased rubber band used for securing luggage".


title: Bungee jumping

text: The first modern bungee jumps were made on 1 April 1979 from the Clifton Suspension Bridge in Bristol, England, by David Kirke and Simon Keeling, members of the Oxford University Dangerous Sports Club, and Geoff Tabin, a professional climber who tied the ropes for the jump. The students had come up with the idea after discussing the "vine jumping" ritual of Vanuatu. The jumpers were arrested shortly after, but continued with jumps in the US from the Golden Gate Bridge and the Royal Gorge Bridge. The last jump was sponsored by and televised on the American programme "That's Incredible", spreading the concept worldwide. By 1982, Kirk and Keelling were jumping from mobile cranes and hot air balloons.


title: Bungee jumping

text: Colorado climbers Mike Munger and Charlie Fowler may have bungee-jumped earlier in Eldorado Springs, CO in 1977. Both were cutting-edge alpinists, preparing for a trip to Monte Fitzroy in Patagonia by simulating long falls onto a springy, nylon climbing rope. They scrambled up to a large tree at the top of the wall, above a severely overhanging climb appropriately named "Diving Board", and tied one end of the rope into the tree. With a piece of flat seat belt webbing around his waist and some homemade leg loops, Mike tied into the other end of the rope and, after no small amount of trepidation, he jumped. He then ascended the rope mechanically to the tree and untied. Then Charlie tied in and jumped. The total fall was about .


title: Bungee jumping

text: Organised commercial bungee jumping began with the New Zealander, A J Hackett, who made his first jump from Auckland's Greenhithe Bridge in 1986. During the following years, Hackett performed a number of jumps from bridges and other structures (including the Eiffel Tower), building public interest in the sport, and opening the world's first permanent commercial bungee site, the Kawarau Bridge Bungy at the Kawarau Gorge Suspension Bridge near Queenstown in the South Island of New Zealand. Hackett remains one of the largest commercial operators, with concerns in several countries.


title: Bungee jumping

text: Several million successful jumps have taken place since 1980. This safety record is attributable to bungee operators rigorously conforming to standards and guidelines governing jumps, such as double checking calculations and fittings for every jump. As with any sport, injuries can still occur (see below), and there have been fatalities. A relatively common mistake in fatality cases is to use a cord that is too long. The cord should be substantially shorter than the height of the jumping platform to allow it room to stretch. When the cord becomes taut and then is stretched, the tension in the cord progressively increases. Initially the tension is less than the jumper's weight and the jumper continues to accelerate downwards. At some point, the tension equals the jumper's weight and the acceleration is temporarily zero. With further stretching, the jumper has an increasing upward acceleration and at some point has zero vertical velocity before recoiling upward. See also Potential energy for a discussion of the spring constant and the force required to distort bungee cords and other spring-like objects.


title: Bungee jumping

text: The Bloukrans River Bridge was the first bridge to be used as a bungee jump launch spot in Africa when Face Adrenalin introduced bungee jumping to the African continent in 1990. Bloukrans Bridge Bungy has been operated commercially by Face Adrenalin since 1997, and is the highest commercial bridge bungy in the world.


title: Bungee jumping

text: In April 2008, a 37-year-old Durban man, Carl Mosca Dionisio, made bungee jumping history when he jumped off a tower attached to a bungee cord made entirely of 18,500 condoms.


title: Bungee jumping

text: The elastic rope first used in bungee jumping, and still used by many commercial operators, is factory-produced braided shock cord. This special bungee cord consists of many latex strands enclosed in a tough outer cover. The outer cover may be applied when the latex is pre-stressed, so that the cord's resistance to extension is already significant at the cord's natural length. This gives a harder, sharper bounce. The braided cover also provides significant durability benefits. Other operators, including A. J. Hackett and most southern-hemisphere operators, use unbraided cords with exposed latex strands. These give a softer, longer bounce and can be home-produced.


title: Bungee jumping

text: Accidents where participants became detached led many commercial operators to use a body harness, if only as a backup for an ankle attachment. Body harnesses generally derive from climbing equipment rather than parachute equipment.


title: Bungee jumping

text: In August 2005, AJ Hackett added a SkyJump to the Macau Tower, making it the world's highest jump at . The SkyJump did not qualify as the world's highest "bungee" as it is not strictly speaking a bungee jump, but instead what is referred to as a 'Decelerator-Descent' jump, using a steel cable and decelerator system, rather than an elastic rope. On 17 December 2006, the Macau Tower started operating a proper bungee jump, which became the "Highest Commercial Bungee Jump in the World" according to the Guinness Book of Records. The Macau Tower Bungy has a "Guide cable" system that limits swing (the jump is very close to the structure of the tower itself) but does not have any effect on the speed of descent, so this still qualifies the jump for the World Record.


title: Bungee jumping

text: Kushma Bungee Jump is the world's second-highest bungee jump with a height of . It is located in the gorge of Kaligandaki River and world-first natural canyon bungee jump. Another commercial bungee jump currently in operation is just smaller, at . This jump, made without guide ropes, is from the top of the Verzasca Dam near Locarno, Switzerland. It appears in the opening scene of the James Bond film "GoldenEye". The Bloukrans Bridge Bungy in South Africa and the Verzasca Dam jumps are pure freefall swinging bungee from a single cord.


title: Bungee jumping

text: Guinness only records jumps from fixed objects to guarantee the accuracy of the measurement. John Kockleman however recorded a bungee jump from a hot air balloon in California in 1989. In 1991 Andrew Salisbury jumped from from a helicopter over Cancun for a television program and with Reebok sponsorship. The full stretch was recorded at . He landed safely under parachute.


title: Bungee jumping

text: One commercial jump higher than all others is at the Royal Gorge Bridge in Colorado. The height of the platform is . However, this jump is rarely available, as part of the Royal Gorge Go Fast Games—first in 2005, then again in 2007. Previous to this the record was held in West Virginia, USA, by New Zealander Chris Allum, who bungee jumped from the New River Gorge Bridge on "Bridge Day" 1992 to set a world's record for the longest bungee jump from a fixed structure.


title: Bungee jumping

text: In "Catapult" (Reverse Bungee or Bungee Rocket), the jumper starts on the ground. The jumper is secured and the cord is stretched, then released and shooting the jumper up into the air. This is often achieved using either a crane or a hoist attached to a (semi-)perma structure. This simplifies the action of stretching the cord and later lowering the participant to the ground.


title: Bungee jumping

text: "Bungy Trampoline" uses elements from bungy and trampolining. The participant begins on a trampoline and is fitted into a body harness, which is attached via bungy cords to two high poles on either side of the trampoline. As they begin to jump, the bungy cords are tightened, allowing a higher jump than could normally be made from a trampoline alone.


title: Bungee jumping

text: "Bungee Running" involves no jumping as such. It merely consists of, as the name suggests, running along a track (often inflatable) with a bungee cord attached. One often has a velcro-backed marker that marks how far the runner got before the bungee cord pulled back. This activity can often be found at fairs and carnivals and is often most popular with children.


title: Bungee jumping

text: Bungee jumping off a ramp. Two rubber cords – the "bungees" – are tied around the participant's waist to a harness. Those bungee cords are linked to steel cables along which they can slide due to stainless pulleys. The participants bicycle, sled or ski before jumping.


title: Bungee jumping

text: SCAD diving (Suspended Catch Air Device) is similar to bungee jumping in that the participant is dropped from a height, but in this variation there is no cord; instead the participant free-falls into a net. Untrained SCAD divers use a special free fall harness to ensure the correct falling position. Free-style SCAD divers do not use harnesses. The landing into the huge airtube framed net is extremely soft and forgiving. The SCAD was invented by MONTIC Hamburg, Germany in 1997.


title: Bungee jumping

text: Bungee jumping injuries may be divided into those that occur after jumping secondary to equipment mishap or tragic accident, and those that occur regardless of safety measures.


title: Bungee jumping

text: In the first instance, injury can happen if the safety harness fails, the cord length is miscalculated, or the cord is not properly connected to the jump platform. In 1986, a man died during rehearsals for a bungee jumping stunt on a BBC television programme, because the cord sprang loose from a carabiner clip.


title: Bungee jumping

text: Injuries that occur despite safety measures generally relate to the abrupt rise in upper body intravascular pressure during bungee cord recoil. Eyesight damage is the most frequently reported complication. Impaired eyesight secondary to retinal haemorrhage may be transient or take several weeks to resolve. In one case, a 26-year-old woman's eyesight was still impaired after 7 months. Whiplash injuries may occur as the jumper is jolted on the bungee cord and in at least one case, this has led to quadriplegia secondary to a broken neck. Very serious injury can also occur if the jumper's neck or body gets entangled in the cord. More recently, carotid artery dissection leading to a type of stroke after bungee jumping has also been described.


title: Bungee jumping

text: In the film "GoldenEye", James Bond makes a jump over the edge of a dam in Russia (in reality the dam is in Switzerland: Verzasca Dam, and the jump was genuine, not an animated special effect). The jump in the dam later makes an appearance as a Roadblock task in the 14th season of the reality competition series "The Amazing Race".


title: Bungee jumping

text: A fictional proto-bungee jump is a plot point in the Michael Chabon novel "The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay".


title: Bungee jumping

text: In the film "Selena", in which Jennifer Lopez plays Selena Quintanilla-Perez, her character is shown bungee jumping at a carnival. This actual event took place shortly before Selena's murder on 31 March 1995.


title: Bungee jumping

text: In Valiant (comics) #171 (January 8, 1966), the two boys from Worrag island in "The Wild Wonders" in a circus story, jump from high up and seem ready to crash to their deaths, but are stopped by elasticated ropes tied to an ankle of each one.


title: Bungee jumping

text: In the video game "Aero the Acro-Bat", Aero will perform bungee jumping to obtain items like keys to open gates in a level.


title: Murder (2004 film)

text: Murder is a 2004 Indian Hindi erotic romantic thriller film, directed by Anurag Basu and produced by Mukesh Bhatt. It is the first installment in the "Murder film series". It stars Emraan Hashmi, Ashmit Patel and Mallika Sherawat and is set in Bangkok, Thailand. This film is based on the 2002 American film "Unfaithful", which itself was inspired by the French film "The Unfaithful Wife" (1969).


title: Murder (2004 film)

text: "Murder" released on 2 April 2004 and, despite receiving mixed reviews from critics, managed to become a highly successful venture at the box office, earning a "super hit" status from Box Office India. The film was a huge breakthrough for its lead actors, particularly Hashmi and Sherawat. It received an A certificate from the Indian Censor Board for its erotic subject and scenes. The film was remade in Kannada as "Ganda Hendathi" (2006).


title: Murder (2004 film)

text: It had a cult following fan base upon release, and began a film series which continued with "Murder 2" in 2011 and "Murder 3" in 2013.


title: Murder (2004 film)

text: Simran Sehgal (Mallika Sherawat) is a young woman married to Sudhir (Ashmit Patel), a workaholic who was previously married to Simran's elder now deceased sister, Sonia. Simran only married Sudhir in order to give motherly love to Sudhir and Sonia's son. She leads an unhappy, lonely and passionless married life. After accidentally meeting her former flame, Sunny (Emraan Hashmi), she decides to engage in an affair with him. The affair starts to consume her life and Simran finds herself constantly lying to her husband and neglecting her motherly duties. After some time, she decides to end the relationship, but to her surprise, she finds that Sunny has also been simultaneously seeing another woman named Radhika. She regrets her unfaithful act and tries to cut all ties with Sunny.


title: Murder (2004 film)

text: Meanwhile, Sudhir has started to have doubts about his wife, and hires a detective to trace Simran's whereabouts. The detective is able to provide Sudhir with pictures of Sunny and Simran having sex and sleeping together. He tells Sudhir that Sunny is a serial womanizer with many former girlfriends.


title: Murder (2004 film)

text: The next day, Sunny suddenly goes missing. The police come to Sudhir and Simran's house and inquire about him, on a report registered by his girlfriend Radhika. Simran comes across the photographs of her and Sunny amongst Sudhir's things, and realizes that he may have something to do with Sunny's disappearance. Sudhir reveals that he went to Sunny's apartment to confront him about the affair, and the two men began to argue. The situation escalated, and Sudhir fatally beat Sunny and buried him in a panic. Realizing her fault and role in the situation, Simran supports Sudhir and takes the blame for killing Sunny. This develops and strengthens their love and faith in each other. Simran is arrested by the police and pleads guilty, while at the same time, Sudhir claims that it is he who killed Sunny, which confuses the police. Moreover, the body is missing from the burial spot.


title: Murder (2004 film)

text: In a sudden change of events, Sunny is shown to be alive. It is revealed that the entire situation, from initiating the affair to goading Sudhir into a fight was planned in advance by Sunny, with the help of Radhika. Sunny hoped to have Sudhir imprisoned so that he could continue his affair with Simran. Sunny isolates Simran and chases her into a jungle, where Sudhir arrives and the two begin to fight. Sudhir manages to beat him, and Sunny leaves as he sees the couple together, seemingly realizing their love for each other. However, Sunny then runs up behind Sudhir with a rake but is then shot in the back by a police officer, who arrives just in time. Finally safe, Sudhir and Simran reunite and take care of their son together.


title: Murder (2004 film)

text: "Murder" received mixed reviews from film critics in India. Taran Adarsh of "Bollywood Hungama" rated it 3 out of 5 and called it an "engrossing entertainer". Anupama Chopra in her review for "India Today" called Sherawat "the hero of the film" but criticized the screenplay. At the box office, it opened well and grossed over 247.5 million. The film was elevated to "super hit" verdict by "Box Office India" after its second weekend. It was also the ninth highest-grossing film of the year 2004.


title: Murder (2004 film)

text: The music was composed by Anu Malik. Lyrics were penned by Sayeed Quadri and Rahat Indori. According to the Indian trade website Box Office India, with around 22,00,000 units sold, this film's soundtrack album was the year's fourth highest-selling. The song 'Jana Tere Pyaar' is not portrayed in the film.


title: Murder (2004 film)

text: The song "Jaana Tere Pyaar" is a reported copy of the Bengali song "Firiye Dao" by Miles, a pop band from Bangladesh. Miles later sued the filmmakers, which resulted in the song being removed from the film's original soundtrack. The Bangladeshi band also sought compensation for 'hurting its business interests'. However, due to challenges in terms of uncertainty about the outcome, lack of information and lack of initiative from the relevant authorities on either side, compensation has not () been yet awarded.


title: Murder (2004 film)

text: Although the filmmakers denied all the accusations and said that they have bought the copyrights of the songs 'Kaho Na Kaho' and 'Jana Tere Pyaar' from Pakistani singer Amir Jamal whose album titled 'Kaho Na Kaho - A Fusion of Arabic and Urdu' was released in 2002, Amir Jamal took permission from Egyptian singer Amr Diab, to use his Arabic song Tamally Maak's a portion of lyrics to be reused in the Kaho Na Kaho song.


title: Murder (2004 film)

text: A sequel titled "Murder 2" was released on 8 July 2011 with Emraan Hashmi and Jacqueline Fernandez in the lead roles, which was loosely based on


title: Murder (2004 film)

text: the 2008 Korean film "The Chaser" (film). Commercially, the sequel surpassed the collections of "Murder", becoming a blockbuster. After the success of the first two instalments, the producers released a third instalment, "Murder 3", on 15 February 2013. The film, which was an official remake of Spanish film "The Hidden Face", starred Randeep Hooda, Aditi Rao Hydari and Sara Loren in the lead roles. However, unlike the earlier parts, it only performed moderately well at the box office. A fourth film is in development with Hashmi returning, after not appearing in the third film.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The University of New South Wales (UNSW), also known as UNSW Sydney, is a public research university based in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. It is one of the founding members of Group of Eight, a coalition of Australian research-intensive universities.


title: University of New South Wales

text: Established in 1949, UNSW is a research university, ranked 44th in the world in the 2021 "QS World University Rankings" and 67th in the world in the 2021 "Times Higher Education World University Rankings". It is one of the members of Universitas 21, a global network of research universities. It has international exchange and research partnerships with over 200 universities around the world.


title: University of New South Wales

text: According to the 2021 QS World University Rankings by Subject, UNSW is ranked top 20 in the world for Law, Accounting and Finance, and 1st in Australia for Mathematics, Engineering and Technology. UNSW is also one of the leading Australian universities in Medicine, where the median ATAR (Australian university entrance examination results) of its medical school students is higher than any other Australian undergraduate medical school.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The university comprises seven faculties, through which it offers bachelor's, master's and doctoral degrees. The main campus is in the Sydney suburb of Kensington, from the Sydney central business district (CBD). The creative arts faculty, UNSW Art & Design, is located in Paddington, and subcampuses are located in the Sydney CBD as well as several other suburbs, including Randwick and Coogee. Research stations are located throughout the state of New South Wales.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The university's second largest campus, known as "UNSW Canberra at ADFA" (formerly known as "UNSW at ADFA"), abbreviated to "UNSW Canberra", is situated in Canberra, in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). ADFA is the military academy of the Australian Defence Force, and UNSW Canberra is the only national academic institution with a defence focus.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The origins of the university can be traced to the Sydney Mechanics' School of Arts established in 1833 and the Sydney Technical College established in 1878. These institutions were established to meet the growing demand for capabilities in new technologies as the New South Wales economy shifted from its pastoral base to industries fueled by the industrial age.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The idea of founding the university originated from the crisis demands of World War II, during which the nation's attention was drawn to the critical role that science and technology played in transforming an agricultural society into a modern and industrial one. The post-war Labor government of New South Wales recognised the increasing need to have a university specialised in training high-quality engineers and technology-related professionals in numbers beyond that of the capacity and characteristics of the existing University of Sydney. This led to the proposal to establish the Institute of Technology, submitted by the then-New South Wales Minister for Education Bob Heffron, accepted on 9 July 1946.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The university, originally named the "New South Wales University of Technology", gained its statutory status through the enactment of the "New South Wales University of Technology Act 1949 (NSW)" by the Parliament of New South Wales in Sydney in 1949.


title: University of New South Wales

text: In March 1948, classes commenced with a first intake of 46 students pursuing programs including civil engineering, mechanical engineering, mining engineering, and electrical engineering. At that time, the thesis programs were innovative. Each course embodied a specified and substantial period of practical training in the relevant industry. It was also unprecedented for tertiary institutions at that time to include compulsory instruction in humanities.


title: University of New South Wales

text: Initially, the university operated from the inner Sydney Technical College city campus in Ultimo as a separate institution from the college. However, in 1951, the Parliament of New South Wales passed the "New South Wales University of Technology (Construction) Act 1951 (NSW)" to provide funding and allow buildings to be erected at the Kensington site where the university is now located.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The lower campus area of the Kensington campus was vested in the university in two lots, in December 1952 and June 1954. The upper campus area was vested in the university in November 1959.


title: University of New South Wales

text: In 1958, the university's name was changed to the "University of New South Wales" reflecting a transformation from a technology-based institution to a generalist university. In 1960, the faculties of arts and medicine were established, with the faculty of law coming into being in 1971.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The university's first director was Arthur Denning (1949–1952), who made important contributions to founding the university. In 1953, he was replaced by Philip Baxter, who continued as vice-chancellor when this position's title was changed in 1955. Baxter's dynamic, if authoritarian, management was central to the university's first 20 years. His visionary, but at times controversial, energies saw the university grow from a handful to 15,000 students by 1968. The new vice-chancellor, Rupert Myers (1969–1981), brought consolidation and an urbane management style to a period of expanding student numbers, demand for change in university style, and challenges of student unrest.


title: University of New South Wales

text: In 1962, the academic book publishing company University of New South Wales Press was launched. Now an ACNC not-for-profit entity, it has three divisions: NewSouth Publishing (the publishing arm of the company), NewSouth Books (the sales, marketing and distribution part of the company), and the UNSW Bookshop, situated at the Kensington campus.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The stabilising techniques of the 1980s managed by the vice-chancellor, Michael Birt (1981–1992), provided a firm base for the energetic corporatism and campus enhancements pursued by the subsequent vice-chancellor, John Niland (1992–2002). The 1990s had the addition of fine arts to the university. The university established colleges in Newcastle (1951) and Wollongong (1961), which eventually became the University of Newcastle and the University of Wollongong in 1965 and 1975, respectively.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The former St George Institute of Education (part of the short-lived Sydney College of Advanced Education) amalgamated with the university from 1 January 1990, resulting in the formation of a School of Teacher Education at the former SGIE campus at Oatley. A School of Sports and Leisure Studies and a School of Arts and Music Education were also subsequently based at St George. The campus was closed in 1999.


title: University of New South Wales

text: In 2010, the Lowy Cancer Research Centre, Australia's first facility to bring together researchers in childhood and adult cancer, costing $127 million, opened.


title: University of New South Wales

text: In 2003, the university was invited by Singapore's Economic Development Board to consider opening a campus there. Following a 2004 decision to proceed, the first phase of a planned $200 m campus opened in 2007. Students and staff were sent home and the campus closed after one semester following substantial financial losses.


title: University of New South Wales

text: In 2008, it collaborated with two other universities in forming The Centre for Social Impact. In 2019, the university moved to a trimester timetable as part of UNSW's 2025 Strategy. Under the trimester timetable, the study load changed from offering four subjects per 13-week semester, to three subjects per 10-week term. The change to trimesters has been widely criticised by staff and students as a money-making move, with little consideration as to the well-being of students.


title: University of New South Wales

text: In 2012, UNSW Press celebrated its 50th anniversary and launched the UNSW Bragg Prize for Science Writing. The annual Best Australian Science Writing anthology contains the winning and shortlisted entries among a collection of the year's best writing from Australian authors, journalists and scientists and is published annually in the NewSouth imprint under a different editorship. The UNSW Press Bragg Student Prize celebrates excellence in science writing by Australian high school students and is supported by the Copyright Agency Cultural Fund and UNSW Science.


title: University of New South Wales

text: In the 2019 Student Experience Survey, the University of New South Wales recorded the lowest student satisfaction rating out of all Australian universities, with an overall satisfaction rating of 62.9, which was lower than the overall national average of 78.4. UNSW's low student satisfaction numbers for 2019 was attributed to the university's switch to a trimester system. In the 2021 Student Experience Survey, the University of New South Wales recorded the lowest student satisfaction rating out of all New South Wales universities, and the second lowest nationwide behind the University of Melbourne, with an overall satisfaction rating of 66.9, which was lower than the overall national average of 73.


title: University of New South Wales

text: On 15 July 2020, the university announced 493 job cuts and a 25 percent reduction in management due to the effects of COVID-19 and a $370 million budget shortfall.


title: University of New South Wales

text: In May 2022, UNSW announced the university had received a $4.7 million in funding in order to pursue health prevention research. The funding aims to fund research on infectious diseases, drug and alcohol use and primary health care. Announced as part of NSW Health’s Prevention Research Support Program (PRSP), the research is designed to support NWS research organisations conducting prevention and early intervention research.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The lion and the four stars of the Southern Cross on the St George's Cross have reference to the State of New South Wales which established the university; the open book with "scientia" ("knowledge") across its pages is a reminder of its purpose. The placement of "scientia" on the book was inspired by its appearance on the arms of Imperial College London formed in 1907. Beneath the shield are the Latin words within a scroll: ""Corde Manu et Mente"" ("heart, hand and mind"), which when combined with "scientia" forms the Latin motto of the university: "Scientia Corde Manu et Mente" or 'Knowledge by heart, hand and mind'. Following the rules of English heraldry, the motto does not form part of the original grant of arms from 1952, and consequently does not require the formal alteration of the original grant by the College of Arms. The original motto of the University from 1952, however was "Scientia Manu et Mente" ("Knowledge by hand and mind"), which used the earlier motto of the Sydney Technical College ("Manu et Mente" or 'by hand and mind') from which the university developed. In 2021, the motto was changed with approval from the College of Arms to its current form to reflect the university's brand concept of ‘collective difference’.


title: University of New South Wales

text: An update of the design and colours of the arms was undertaken in 1970, which provided a more contemporary design, yet retained all the arms' heraldic associations. In 1994, the university title was added to the UNSW arms, as was the abbreviation "UNSW", to create the UNSW symbol that is used for everyday and marketing purposes. In late 2013, the university launched a new change to the business name used in all branding and marketing as "UNSW Australia". In January 2017, this was changed again to "UNSW Sydney", with the ADFA Canberra campus changed to "UNSW Canberra". The official name of the university, which requires an amending act of Parliament to the University of New South Wales Act 1989 to alter, is unchanged.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The ceremonial mace of the university is made of stainless steel with silver facings and a shaft of eumung timber. On the head are mounted four silver shields, two engraved with the arms of the State of New South Wales and two with the original-design arms of the university. A silver Waratah, NSW's floral emblem, surmounts the head. The mace was donated to the university by BHP and was presented by the company's chairman, Colin Syme, on 6 December 1962. A former NSW Government Architect, Cobden Parkes, was appointed as the first official mace-bearer.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The main UNSW campus, where most faculties are situated, is located on a site in Kensington, Sydney. UNSW Art & Design is located in the inner suburb of Paddington.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The main UNSW campus in Kensington is divided geographically into two areas: upper campus and lower campus, which were vested to the university in three separate lots. These two are separated mainly by an elevation rise between the quadrangle and the Scientia building. Roughly 15 minutes are needed to walk from one end to the other.


title: University of New South Wales

text: UNSW Canberra at ADFA (formerly known as UNSW at ADFA), abbreviated to UNSW Canberra, is situated in Canberra. Its students are from the military academy known as ADFA, who are in training for the Australian Defence Force, and as such has an integrated defence focus, with particular strengths in defence-related, security and engineering research.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The university also has additional campuses and field stations in Randwick, Coogee, Botany, Dee Why, Cowan, Manly Vale, Fowlers Gap, Port Macquarie, Wagga Wagga, Albury, Coffs Harbour, Griffith, and Bankstown Airport.


title: University of New South Wales

text: A number of theatre and music venues are at the university, many of which are available for hire to the general public. The UNSW Fitness and Aquatic Centre provides health and fitness facilities and services to both students and the general public.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The university is governed by the university council, which is responsible for acting on the university's behalf to promote its objectives and interests. The council comprises 15 members, including the chancellor, vice-chancellor, president of the academic board, two members appointed by the minister for education, five members appointed by the council, three members elected by university staff and two student-elected members.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The principal academic body is the academic board, which receives advice on academic matters from the faculties, college (Australian Defence Force Academy), and the boards of studies. It is responsible for academic policy setting, academic strategy via its eight standing committees, approval and delivery of programs, and academic standards. The board comprises 59 members, including the vice-chancellor, members of the executive team, deans and faculty presiding members, members elected from the academic staff, and six from the student body. The board advises the vice-chancellor and council on matters relating to teaching, scholarship and research and takes decisions on delegation from the council.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The chief executive officer of the university is the president and vice-chancellor, currently Attila Brungs. The deputy vice-chancellors and pro-vice-chancellors form part of an executive team that are responsible for academic operations, research policy, research management, quality assurance and external relations, including philanthropy and advancement.


title: University of New South Wales

text: Each of the faculties has its respective board, which are responsible for the teaching and examining of subjects within their scope.


title: University of New South Wales

text: In the 2023 QS World University Rankings, UNSW is ranked 45th globally (4th in Australia and 2nd in New South Wales) and ranked 28th in the world for research impact and quality (Citations per Faculty). In addition, UNSW is ranked 13th in the world for Civil and Structural Engineering (1st in Australia), 20th in the world for Accounting and Finance (1st in Australia), 14th in the world for Law (2nd in Australia), and 23rd in the world for Engineering and Technology (1st in Australia), According to the 2022 QS World University Rankings by Subject.


title: University of New South Wales

text: In the 2022 SCImago Institutions Rankings UNSW is ranked 56th in the world overall and 47th in the world for research: In its subject ranking for the same year, UNSW is ranked 11th in the world for Business, Management and Accounting, 11th in the world for Law and 33rd in the world for Economics, Econometrics and Finance etc.


title: University of New South Wales

text: In the 2023 U.S. News & World Report Best Global University Ranking UNSW is ranked 37th Best University in the world and 45th globally in Economics and Business.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2022 placed UNSW 70th in the world, and 46th in the world (1st in Australia) for Engineering, 55th in the world for Business and Economics (4th in Australia), and 24th in the world (2nd in Australia) for Law according to the 2022 Times Higher Education World University Rankings by subject.


title: University of New South Wales

text: In the 2022 Academic Ranking of World Universities, UNSW is ranked 64th in the world, 4th in Australia and 2nd in New South Wales. Also in 2022, UNSW had more subjects ranked in the Academic Ranking of World Universities than any other Australian university, with 21 subjects in the top 50 and 2 subjects in the top 10 in the world and ranked in more subjects than any other university in the world.UNSW had 10 subjects ranked first in Australia, including Water Resources (10th in the world), Civil Engineering (20th in the world), Library and Information Science (12th in the world), Remote Sensing (17th in the world), and Finance (29th in the world).


title: University of New South Wales

text: In the 2022 University Ranking by Academic Performance Field Rankings, UNSW is ranked 10th in the world for Commerce, Management, Tourism and Services and 18th globally for Business. In the 2022 Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities, UNSW is ranked 44th globally and is also ranked 41st in the world in the Economics and Business category. According to the 2022 World University Rankings by the European Commission, UNSW is ranked 31st in the world for Research and also ranked 5th in Australia across Teaching, Research, Knowledge Transfer, International Orientation and Regional Engagement.


title: University of New South Wales

text: In the 2021 Korea University Business School Worldwide Business Research Rankings UNSW is ranked 1st worldwide for Finance, 11th in the world for Accounting and 27th globally for Management. In the 2021 CFAR Rankings by Olin Business School at Washington University in St. Louis, UNSW is ranked 16th in the world for Finance and 9th in the world for Business by Total Outcome/Output Indicator of Research Excellence. In the 2022 Australian Financial Review Best Business School rankings of Australian Universities, UNSW is ranked 1st in Australia among 37 Universities listed. According to the "Survey of Commercialisation Outcomes from Public Research (SCOPR) Summary Report for 2021," UNSW is ranked 1st nationally for the greatest number of startups and new spin-out companies with 14% of the national total companies established in Australia for that year.


title: University of New South Wales

text: In 2017, UNSW enrolled the highest number of Australia's top 500 high school students academically.UNSW has produced more millionaires than any other Australian university, according to the Spear's Wealth Management Survey in 2016.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The Australian "Good Universities Guide 2014" scored UNSW 5-star ratings across 10 categories, more than any other Australian university. Monash University ranked second with seven five stars, followed by ANU, Melbourne University and the University of Western Australia with six each.


title: University of New South Wales

text: Engineers Australia ranked UNSW as having the highest number of graduates in "Australia's Top 100 Influential Engineers 2013" list at 23%, followed by Monash University at 8%, the University of Western Australia, University of Sydney and the University of Queensland at 7%.


title: University of New South Wales

text: Entry to a particular undergraduate degree program generally requires a certain Australian Tertiary Admission Rank, which varies by course. Some programs also take into account, in addition to a particular ATAR mark, performance in specialised tests, such as the Undergraduate Medicine and Health Sciences Admission Test for medicine and the Law Admission Test for law.


title: University of New South Wales

text: In 2019, UNSW had the most first preferences for high school students in the state of New South Wales.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The university offers a bonus points scheme, "HSC Plus", which awards up to a maximum of 5 points for performance in year 12 Australian Senior Secondary Certificate courses relevant to UNSW undergraduate degrees. The scheme does not apply to actuarial studies, law, medicine or psychology.


title: University of New South Wales

text: UNSW offers several scholarships and support programs to high achieving students. The Co-op program is a scholarship and industry engagement program awarded to students across many programs in the built environment, engineering, science and the Australian School of Business. Students usually enter the program after an application and interview while in their final year of high school. The university also offers Scientia Scholarships to a number of commencing students who performed exceptionally in the Higher School Certificate, which provide funding of $10,000 per year for the duration of the student's program.


title: University of New South Wales

text: UNSW also offers a mature age entry scheme, the University Preparation Program for students age 20 or older, that can provide the requirements for entry into UNSW or other universities.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The university has a number of residential accommodation options, including Philip Baxter College, Basser College, Goldstein College, Fig Tree Hall, Colombo House, UNSW Hall, New College and New College Village, Warrane College; International House; Shalom College, and Creston College, and UNSW Village.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The university has overseas exchange programs with over 250 overseas partner institutions. These include Princeton University, McGill University, Penn State University, University of Pennsylvania (inc. Wharton), Duke University, Johns Hopkins University, Brown University, Columbia University (summer law students only), University of California Berkeley, University of California Santa Cruz (inc. Baskin), UCLA, University of Michigan (inc. Ross), New York University (inc. Stern), University of Virginia, Mississippi State University, Cornell University, University of Connecticut, Alfred University, University of Texas at Austin (inc. McCombs), Maastricht University, University of Padua, University College London (law students only), University of Nottingham, Imperial College London, London School of Economics and ETH Zurich.


title: University of New South Wales

text: "Arc @ UNSW Limited" is the student organisation at the University of New South Wales (UNSW) and is a not-for-profit public company.


title: University of New South Wales

text: In 2005, the Federal Parliament passed legislation making membership of student unions voluntary for the first time. This policy, known as voluntary student unionism (VSU), threatened the funding model behind the four UNSW student organisations with compulsory membership provisions. A report commissioned by the university administration recommended that three of those organisations – the Student Guild of Undergraduates and Postgraduates, the University of New South Wales Union and the College of Fine Arts Students' Association – merge into a single student organisation, a structure in use at the University of Melbourne.


title: University of New South Wales

text: Arc was established on 15 August 2006 and launched early the following year, taking over the functions of three existing student organisations, the UNSW Student Guild, UNSW Union, and COFA Students' Association.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The organisation supports the activities of student clubs, student volunteer programs such as orientation week, student publications, two student galleries (Kudos Gallery and AD Space), and houses an elected student representative council. Arc operates the Roundhouse entertainment venue, the Graduation & Gift Store on UNSW's main campus in Kensington, and until recently, The Whitehouse bar and café which shut down permanently on 23 April 2021. Arc also operates a student support service, providing legal and academic advocacy. Arc@UNSW exists independently from UNSW.


title: University of New South Wales

text: The student organisation is a major service provider on campus, running a number of retail outlets, student media such as "Tharunka" and an entertainment venue, the Roundhouse. The Arc Student Representative Council represents students to the university and nationally and fights for their rights. Arc also provides support and funding to university clubs and societies and runs student volunteer programs such as Orientation Week.


title: University of New South Wales

text: In 2007, the University of New South Wales Sports Association and UNSW Lifestyle Centre merged to become UNSW Sport and Recreation then later absorbed into Arc @ UNSW to become Arc Sport. It runs the external sporting facilities and services and supports the 30 UNSW affiliated sporting clubs that compete both at home and abroad.


title: University of New South Wales

text: "Blitz" is a student publication, published online by Arc @ UNSW, based at the University of New South Wales. "Blitz" under this name first appeared in session 2, 1988, but a similar "what's on" style publication had been issued by the then University Union since the early 1970s. Initially it consisted of a simple sheet or two of paper, but it evolved into a magazine style format in session two 1994 when a former editor from another student publication on campus, "Tharunka", was hired to found a weekly "what's on" magazine. "Blitz" sometimes pays casual contributors for submitted articles and photographs, and employs a student online editor, a student designer, a student TV producer and a student radio producer.


title: University of New South Wales

text: "Blitz" typically covers the goings-on around campus and conducts interviews and publishes stories relating to current student activities. It widely publicises Arc services and activities on campus. Due to its non-partisan policy, it does not cover political issues, with the exception of voluntary student unionism. However, in 2004 an edition of "Blitz" was withdrawn by the student union because it contained a guide to rolling a joint. The editor Janet Duncan claimed there had been censorship of her editorial in the following issue. Arc @ UNSW announced that the organisation would continue to publish the magazine after the introduction of voluntary student unionism in 2007.


title: University of New South Wales

text: "Tharunka," meaning "message stick" in the language of the Aboriginal people local to the area, is a student newspaper originally published by the UNSW Students Union from 1953 until 1992, when that body was replaced by the University of New South Wales Student Guild. The Guild published "Tharunka" from 1993 until 2006 and the successor student organisation, Arc @ UNSW Limited, continued the publication of "Tharunka" from 2007.


title: University of New South Wales

text: "Tharunka" is managed by a small editorial team and actively solicits contributions from the UNSW student body. Including staff wages, the publication's budget is under $50,000 per year.


title: University of New South Wales

text: UNSW engages with primary and secondary education, administering several national and international academic competitions for school age children. These include:


title: University of New South Wales

text: Educational Assessment Australia (EAA) is a not-for-profit organisation previously owned by the University of New South Wales. It was acquired by Janison Education Group on 31 May 2020. It is a national and international educational assessment organisation specialising in large-scale assessment programs including the International Competitions and Assessments for Schools (ICAS) in Australia, New Zealand, Asia, India, South Africa and the Pacific region. EAA also provides scanning, data analysis and reporting services to commercial and educational institutions.