title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: In 2014, the first "Sasuke"-based team competition was started, pitting five "Sasuke" All-Stars and New Stars representing Japan against five "American Ninja Warrior" stars representing the United States in what was dubbed by some as the inaugural "Sasuke"/"Ninja Warrior" world championship. The first meeting took place at the Mt. Midoriyama reconstruction in Las Vegas and was first broadcast in America on January 13, 2014 on NBC, with a second meeting already scheduled for the original Mt. Midoriyama in Aoba-ku in 2015.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: At the first match in Las Vegas, Team Japan was composed of Shingo Yamamoto, Yuuji Urushihara, Ryo Matachi, Hitoshi Kanno and Kazuma Asa from "Sasuke", while Team USA was composed of Brent Steffensen, Paul Kasemir, James McGrath, Travis Rosen and Brian Arnold from "American Ninja Warrior". The match was composed of four rounds – one on each stage, with each round being a best-of-five of one-on-one races and each competitor running once per stage until the stage outcome was decided. Stage 1 was worth one point, Stage 2 worth two points and Stage 3 worth three, with the tiebreaker being the Final Stage tower. Despite the Japanese boasting superior experience and pedigrees (no Team USA member had completed Stage 3, either in Yokohama or Las Vegas), the Americans pulled off a stunning 6–0 win that included only one Japanese one-on-one race win (Matachi against Arnold on Stage 3.)


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: With the success of "American Ninja Warrior", Esquire Network announced a spin-off to the series called "Team Ninja Warrior" on October 9, 2015. The spin-off consists of 24 teams of three members featuring past and current "ANW" contestants from the first seven seasons and is unique for being a head-to-head event where two teams or competitors run the course at the same time. The series began airing on January 19, 2016 and is hosted by regular "ANW" hosts Akbar Gbaja-Biamila and Matt Iseman with sideline reporter Alex Curry.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: One edition of the format is "College Madness" featuring college teams in a five-week competition, with the second season debuting on November 22, 2016 with Iseman and Gbaja-Biamila as hosts and "ANW" season six contestant Kacy Catanzaro as the sideline reporter.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: In 2018, the network renamed the show to "American Ninja Warrior: Ninja vs. Ninja" with Iseman, Biama, and Curry as hosts and new teams for its third season.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: On May 2, 2018, Universal Kids announced a second spin-off of "Ninja vs. Ninja" called "American Ninja Warrior Junior". The spin-off consists of 192 kids from across America as they compete head to head in three different age brackets: 9-10, 11-12, and 13–14 years old. Each bracket will be mentored by All-Star Ninja Mentors: Drew Dreschel, Barclay Stockett, Kevin Bull, Natalie Duran, Najee Richardson and Meagan Martin. The series began airing on October 13, 2018, with Matt Iseman and Akbar Gbaja-Biamila joined by Olympic gold medalist gymnast Laurie Hernandez as hosts.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The American-edited "Ninja Warrior" episodes are broadcast in the United Kingdom on Challenge. The show has been re-edited to remove the subtitles from the footage of the competitors taking part in the stages, but retain them for contestant interviews. The "Ninja Killer" and "Warrior Wipeout" sections remain, but there is only one advertisement break halfway through the show.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The show was voiced-over by Stuart Hall for its first three series, aired between 2007 and 2008. In the fourth UK series, aired in 2011, Jim North took over as the voice-over. Challenge has now removed Hall's commentary from the first three series, following his imprisonment in June 2013, and re-dubbed them with new commentary by North. As of July 2012, all American edited episodes, covering all tournaments up to "Sasuke" 27, had aired in the UK. A new run of edited episodes airing in March 2016 was produced in the UK for Challenge, covering the "Sasuke Rising" tournaments, once again voiced by North. Another run of brand new edited episodes airing in June 2018 was again produced in the UK for Challenge, covering "Sasuke" tournaments 31–34, also voiced by North.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: It was announced on 22 December 2014 that a UK remake of the format, similar to that of the American version, would be aired on ITV in 2015. The first series began on 11 April 2015. It is produced by ITV Studios subsidiary company, Potato and hosted by Ben Shephard, Rochelle Humes and Chris Kamara. The show includes a recreation of the Mt. Midoriyama course at Manchester Central Convention Complex and produced the first Briton to achieve total victory in Tim Champion in 2019.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: "American Ninja Warrior" and "Swedish Ninja Warrior" are broadcast in Australia on SBS Two. The play-by-play commentary and interviews with participants are subtitled in English, while the introduction, player profiles, and replays have been dubbed by a voice actor.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: On 19 June 2016, Nine Network announced they are creating "Australian Ninja Warrior", an Australian version of the show which will be produced by Endemol Shine and hosted by Rebecca Maddern, Ben Fordham and Freddie Flintoff.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The program can be seen in Bosnia as Nindža Ratnici ("Ninja Warriors") every day from Monday until Friday at 18:20 (UTC+1) on the Hayat TV channel and on Mreža Plus syndicated TV program.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The program is broadcast in Bulgaria on bTV Comedy as Най-добрият нинджа (The Best Ninja) weekends at 16:00 (UTC+2).


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: An unlicensed Chinese edition, 极限勇士 (Sasuke: X Warrior), started on June 9, 2015 on Jiangsu TV. While the show contains courses directly based on "American Ninja Warrior" 6 and follows a similar structure, the version is unofficial and not directly related to "Sasuke". The Chinese edition contains four international competitions, the Chinese team playing head-to-head matches against contestants from Netherlands, United Kingdom, Singapore and the notable contestants from "American Ninja Warrior".


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The program is broadcast in Colombia on Canal Uno on Saturday and Sunday at 3:00 PM, and a version of "American Ninja Warrior" (as "Guerrero Ninja Americano") is broadcast on Canal RCN on Saturday and Sunday at 4:00 PM.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The program can be seen in Croatia on Nova TV as Ninja Ratnici (Ninja Warriors) from Monday to Friday at 09:45 (UTC+1) and 17:15 (UTC+1) narrated by Davor Jurkotić and Mario Lipovšek Battifiaca.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The program is broadcast in the Czech Republic on Prima Cool as Ninja faktor (Ninja Factor). Episodes are 50 minutes long and split in two parts.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The program was aired in Estonia as "Ninjasõdalane" (Ninja Warrior) on the TV6 channel every Saturday and Sunday at 19:00 pm to 20.00 pm. Running time was 30 minutes per episode.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: In 2016, the inaugural season of Ninja Warrior France aired, on TF1, with Midoriyama located in Cannes. The show is titled Ninja Warrior — Le Parcours des Heros. The obstacle course itself is called "Le Chemin des Héros".


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The "Ninja Warrior" version of the program was broadcast in Germany on RTL II and DSF for the first time in 2009/2010. A German version titled "Ninja Warrior Germany" was aired by RTL in July 2016.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The program can be seen in Greece as Sasuke on the Skai TV network every Saturday at 16:00 (UTC+2). The show is voiced-over by Akindynos Gkikas and Kostas Papageorgiou.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The original Japanese version was broadcast in Indonesia for the first time in early 2007–2008. The show is dubbed in Indonesian and is broadcast by TPI (now known as MNCTV).


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: In 2015, an Indonesian version called "Sasuke Ninja Warrior Indonesia" (or "Ninja Warrior Indonesia") was aired on RCTI.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The "Ninja Warrior" version of the program is broadcast in Italy on GXT or on GXT +1. The Italian version includes "Ninja Killer" and "Warrior Wipeout". In October 2016, Italy produced a local version Ninja Warrior Italia transmitted on NOVE and presented by Federico Russo, Carolina Di Domenico, Massimiliano Rosilino and Gabriele Corsi.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The program is broadcast in Latvia on LNT every day from Tuesday to Friday at 13:00 local time (UTC+3 – summer time). Every day on LMK at 20.00 o'clock.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: In 2011, Malaysia did a qualifier for "Sasuke" 27, which Farid Isham won. In 2014, Malaysia organized the "Sasuke" ASEAN Open Cup, a tournament held in Malaysia as a competition of different countries going head to head. Team USA was represented by David Campbell, Brian Kretsch, Ryan Stratis, Mike Bernardo, and Drew Drechsel and won gold. Team Japan was represented by Shingo Yamamoto, Yusuke Morimoto, Kazuma Asa, Hitoshi Kanno, and Kenji Takahashi and won silver. Team Malaysia won bronze with their team captain being Farid Isham. There were three stages and the tournament went for two days. Also, Drew Drechsel got first place in all three stages, giving him a spot in "Sasuke" 30.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The program is broadcast in Mexico on Azteca 7 as "Guerrero Ninja" from Monday to Thursday at 8:30 PM.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The program can be seen in the Middle East as محارب النينجا (Ninja Warriors) on MBC Action every Monday at (20:00 Mecca local time / 17:00 UTC / 12:00 EST). The whole program is dubbed into Arabic.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The program can be seen in Serbia as Nindža Ratnici (Ninja Warriors) every day from Monday until Friday at 19:00 (UTC+1) on B92 (from 13 August 2012), narrated by Igor Brakus and Vladimir Đorđević.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The program was previously seen on Fox TV (now Prva TV), narrated by Ivan Tešanović and Miljan Milićević.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The program broadcast in Singapore is the non-edited version of "Ninja Warrior", with the exception of the subtitles being white instead of yellow. The program will be broadcast on MediaCorp Channel 5 every Wednesday at 20:00 (UTC + 8) and screened two episodes back to back. It was later moved to Thursday at 20:30 (UTC + 8), airing one episode. The show's run ended with the 17th competition of the "Sasuke" series.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The show returned on December 23, 2009, airing Wednesdays at 20:00, showing at various times two episodes, three episodes, or a single episode. The show's run ended with the 24th run.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: Singapore has its own edition of "Sasuke", which aired on August 9, 2012 at 8:10 pm, after the National Day Parade. It started airing August 15, 2012, and has its own winner going to Japan to take on the "Sasuke" course.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: Season 1 was won by 22-year-old SAF's Naval Officer, Isaiah How Jia Jie. He placed 9th in the First Stage but managed to beat 21-year-old NUS student, Jenson Ngoh by 0.1 seconds in the season's 20 meter Rope Climb in the Second Stage to win.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: Season 2 began with a new twist in its first episode: five Singaporean contenders competed with five Malaysians contenders; whichever country scored the first three points would win. Eventually Team Singapore beat Team Malaysia with a score of 3–2. For the competition, a 26-year-old gymnastics trainer edged out the other 12 contenders for the season with the time of 23.9 seconds, just 2.4 seconds shy of beating Isaiah How. He accompanied Isaiah to Japan in supporting him. However, in a twist of events, the production crew brought good luck to Alan Zhang in allowing him to participate.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The series concluded in its 13th and final episode with Isaiah How and Alan Zhang conquering the obstacle course at Mount Midoriyama, Japan. Both crashed out in the fourth obstacle (Jump Hang Kai) and third obstacle (Spinning Bridge) in the 1st Stage, respectively.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The program is broadcast in Romania on Sport.ro as "Ku Ninja In Atak" (When Ninjas Attack). The show is hosted by two color commentators.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The program broadcast in South Africa is the Sony MAX CHANNEL version of "Ninja Warrior", with the "Ninja Killer" and "Warrior Wipeout" sections.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The "Ninja Warrior" version of the program is broadcasting in Turkey on Fox TV narrated by Hayri Hiçler and Hopdedik Ayhan. A Turkish version titled "Ninja Warrior Türkiye" was aired by TV8 (2014–2015).


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: In Ukraine, "Sasuke" is broadcast by channel Mega (the same channel that broadcast "Unbeatable Banzuke"), under the name Япона-мать (Yapona-mat`, Japan-mother).


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The Vietnamese version, Sasuke Việt Nam: Không Giới Hạn (Sasuke Vietnam: Unlimited), started airing season 1 on VTV3 in 2015.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: "Sasuke Vietnam" Season 1 began airing on June 18, 2015. Stage 1 was a split course that shared the first two obstacles (Long Jump, Log Grip), but then split into Stage 1A and Stage 1B. The obstacles on each side were different, and the top 20 fastest times on each side advanced to Stage 2. In Stage 2, common "Sasuke" obstacles (Salmon Ladder, double Warped Wall) appeared, and competitors had 100 seconds to clear this stage. Only eight competitors made it to Stage 3, which featured typical Stage 3 obstacles: Pole Maze, Spinning Bridge, Rumbling Dice, Spider Flip, Cliffhanger, and Pipe Slider. All competitors failed on Stage 3, with Le Van Thuc making it the furthest (failed dismounting onto the platform from the Pipe Slider).


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: "Sasuke Vietnam" Season 2 began airing on May 19, 2016. Stage 1 again included a split course but this year, the first two obstacles were the Quad Steps and Log Grip.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: The show "" airs on ESPN2 and is also produced by for Fuji TV. Many of the competitors from "Sasuke" also compete in the "Viking" competition.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: "Sasuke" executive producer co-created "", a live athletic and comedy-oriented performance featuring several notable "Sasuke" and "Kunoichi" competitors, who have included Ayako Miyake, Naoki Iketani, Sayaka Asami, Terukazu Ishikawa, Kayo Haga, Daisuke Nakata, and Rie Komiya, as well as other Japanese athletes and entertainers. Its popularity in Japan and its growing popularity in the United States has resulted in a long-term run at the Sahara Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: Every January TBS airs the "Pro Sportsman No.1" competition, also produced by Monster9. Several people who have competed on "Sasuke" have participated in this competition.


title: Sasuke (TV series)

text: On Odaiba island, Monster9 has built Muscle Park, an indoor theme park based on events from "Sasuke" and other "Muscle Ranking" related programs. Some well-known "Sasuke" participants, such as Katsumi Yamada, have made live appearances there. "Sasuke" champion Makoto Nagano was honored in a celebration where he participated in the ribbon cutting there. Since April 2007, Monster9 has been airing episodes of "Muscle Channel", a show to promote Muscle Park, the "Muscle Musical", and people and events related to "Sasuke". "Muscle Channel" usually airs on BS-i on Thursdays from 8:00 to 9:53 JST and is hosted by Hiromichi Sato. Past guests include Katsumi Yamada and Shunsuke Nagasaki.


title: Table of handgun and rifle cartridges

text: This is a table of selected pistol/submachine gun and rifle/machine gun cartridges by common name. Data values are the highest found for the cartridge, and might not occur in the same load (e.g. the highest muzzle energy might not be in the same load as the highest muzzle velocity, since the bullet weights can differ between loads).


title: Madhhab

text: A ( ', , "way to act". pl. مَذَاهِب"' , ) is a school of thought within "fiqh" (Islamic jurisprudence).


title: Madhhab

text: The major Sunni Mathhab are Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali. They emerged in the ninth and tenth centuries CE and by the twelfth century almost all jurists aligned themselves with a particular madhhab. These four schools recognize each other's validity and they have interacted in legal debate over the centuries. Rulings of these schools are followed across the Muslim world without exclusive regional restrictions, but they each came to dominate in different parts of the world. For example, the Maliki school is predominant in North and West Africa; the Hanafi school in South and Central Asia; the Shafi'i school in East Africa and Southeast Asia; and the Hanbali school in North and Central Arabia. The first centuries of Islam also witnessed a number of short-lived Sunni madhhabs. The Zahiri school, which is considered to be endangered, continues to exert influence over legal thought. The development of Shia legal schools occurred along the lines of theological differences and resulted in the formation of the Twelver, Zaidi and Ismaili madhhabs, whose differences from Sunni legal schools are roughly of the same order as the differences among Sunni schools. The Ibadi legal school, distinct from Sunni and Shia madhhabs, is predominant in Oman.


title: Madhhab

text: The transformations of Islamic legal institutions in the modern era have had profound implications for the "madhhab" system. With the spread of codified state laws in the Muslim world, the influence of the madhhabs beyond personal ritual practice depends on the status accorded to them within the national legal system. State law codification commonly drew on rulings from multiple madhhabs, and legal professionals trained in modern law schools have largely replaced traditional "ulama" as interpreters of the resulting laws. In the 20th century, many Islamic jurists began to assert their intellectual independence from traditional madhhabs. With the spread of Salafi influence and reformist currents in the 20th century; majority of Sunni "ulema" have asserted independence from being strictly bound by the legal mechanisms of the four schools. Nevertheless, a minority of scholarship continues to uphold post-classical creedal belief in rigorously adhering ("Taqlid") to one of the four schools in all legal details.


title: Madhhab

text: The Amman Message, which was endorsed in 2005 by prominent Islamic scholars around the world, recognized four Sunni schools (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali), two Shia schools (Ja'fari, Zaidi), the Ibadi school and the Zahiri school. The Muslim schools of jurisprudence are located in Pakistan, Iran, Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Nigeria, Egypt, Turkey, Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Russia and China and multiple other countries.


title: Madhhab

text: According to John Burton, "modern research shows" that fiqh was first "regionally organized" with "considerable disagreement and variety of view". In the second century of Islam, schools of fiqh were noted for the loyalty of their jurists to the legal practices of their local communities, whether Mecca, Kufa, Basra, Syria, etc. (Egypt's school in Fustat was a branch of Medina's school of law and followed such practices—up until the end of the 8th century—as basing verdict on one single witness (not two) and the oath of the claimant. Its principal jurist in the second half of the 8th century was al-Layth b. Sa'd.) Al-Shafiʽi wrote that, "every capital of the Muslims is a seat of learning whose people follow the opinion of one of their countrymen in most of his teachings". The "real basis" of legal doctrine in these "ancient schools" was not a body of reports of Muhammad's sayings, doings, silent approval (the ahadith) or even those of his Companions, but the "living tradition" of the school as "expressed in the consensus of the scholars", according to Joseph Schacht.


title: Madhhab

text: It has been asserted that "madhahib" were consolidated in the 9th and 10th centuries as a means of excluding dogmatic theologians, government officials and non-Sunni sects from religious discourse. Historians have differed regarding the times at which the various schools emerged. One interpretation is that Sunni Islam was initially split into four groups: the Hanafites, Malikites, Shafi'ites and Zahirites. Later, the Hanbalites and Jarirites developed two more schools; then various dynasties effected the eventual exclusion of the Jarirites; eventually, the Zahirites were also excluded when the Mamluk Sultanate established a total of four independent judicial positions, thus solidifying the Maliki, Hanafi, Shafi'i and Hanbali schools. During the era of the Islamic Gunpowders, the Ottoman Empire reaffirmed the official status of these four schools as a reaction to Shi'ite Persia.


title: Madhhab

text: Some are of the view that Sunni jurisprudence falls into two groups: "Ahl al-Ra'i" ("people of opinions", emphasizing scholarly judgment and reason) and "Ahl al-Hadith" ("people of traditions", emphasizing strict interpretation of scripture).


title: Madhhab

text: 10th century Shi'ite scholar Ibn al-Nadim named eight groups: Maliki, Hanafi, Shafi'i, Zahiri, Imami Shi'ite, Ahl al-Hadith, Jariri and Kharijite. In the 12th century Jariri and Zahiri schools were absorbed by the Shafi'i and Hanbali schools respectively. Ibn Khaldun defined only three Sunni "madhahib": Hanafi, Zahiri, and one encompassing the Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali schools as existing initially, noting that by the 14th-century historian the Zahiri school had become extinct, only for it to be revived again in parts of the Muslim world by the mid-20th century.


title: Madhhab

text: Historically, the "fiqh" schools were often in political and academic conflict with one another, vying for favor with the ruling government in order to have their representatives appointed to legislative and especially judiciary positions. Geographer and historian Al-Muqaddasi once satirically categorized competing "madhahib" with contrasting personal qualities: Hanafites, highly conscious of being hired for official positions, appeared deft, well-informed, devout and prudent; Malikites, dull and obtuse, confined themselves to observance of prophetic tradition; Shafi'ites were shrewd, impatient, understanding and quick-tempered; Zahirites haughty, irritable, loquacious and well-to-do; Shi'ites, entrenched and intractable in old rancor, enjoyed riches and fame; and Hanbalites, anxious to practice what they preached, were charitable and inspiring. While such descriptions were almost assuredly humorous in nature, ancient differences were less to do with actual doctrinal opinions than with maneuvering for adherents and influence.


title: Madhhab

text: The transformations of Islamic legal institutions in the modern era have had profound implications for the madhhab system. Legal practice in most of the Muslim world has come to be controlled by government policy and state law, so that the influence of the madhhabs beyond personal ritual practice depends on the status accorded to them within the national legal system. State law codification commonly utilized the methods of "takhayyur" (selection of rulings without restriction to a particular madhhab) and "talfiq" (combining parts of different rulings on the same question). Legal professionals trained in modern law schools have largely replaced traditional ulema as interpreters of the resulting laws. Global Islamic movements have at times drawn on different madhhabs and at other times placed greater focus on the scriptural sources rather than classical jurisprudence. The Hanbali school, with its particularly strict adherence to the Quran and hadith, has inspired conservative currents of direct scriptural interpretation by the Salafi and Wahhabi movements. In the 20th century many Islamic jurists began to assert their intellectual independence from traditional schools of jurisprudence. Examples of the latter approach include networks of Indonesian ulema and Islamic scholars residing in Muslim-minority countries, who have advanced liberal interpretations of Islamic law.


title: Madhhab

text: Generally, Sunnis have a single preferred "madhhab" from region to region, but also believe that "ijtihad" must be exercised by the contemporary scholars capable of doing so. Most rely on "taqlid", or acceptance of religious rulings and epistemology from a higher religious authority in deferring meanings of analysis and derivation of legal practices instead of relying on subjective readings.


title: Madhhab

text: Experts and scholars of "fiqh" follow the "usul" (principles) of their own native "madhhab", but they also study the "usul", evidences, and opinions of other "madhahib".


title: Madhhab

text: Sunni schools of jurisprudence are each named after the classical jurist who taught them. The four primary Sunni schools are the Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali rites. The Zahiri school remains in existence but outside of the mainstream, while the Jariri, Laythi, Awza'i, and Thawri schools have become extinct.


title: Madhhab

text: The extant schools share most of their rulings, but differ on the particular practices which they may accept as authentic and the varying weights they give to analogical reason and pure reason.


title: Madhhab

text: The Hanafi school was founded by Abu Hanifa an-Nu‘man. It is followed by Muslims in the Levant, Central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, most of India, Bangladesh, Northern Egypt, Iraq and Turkey and the Balkans and by most of the Muslim communities of Russia and China. There are movements within this school such as Barelvis and Deobandi, which are concentrated in South Asia.


title: Madhhab

text: The Maliki school is based on the jurisprudence of Imam Malik ibn Anas. It has also been called "School of Medina" because the school was based in Medina and their community


title: Madhhab

text: It is followed by Muslims in Nigeria, North Africa, West Africa, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, in parts of Saudi Arabia and in Upper Egypt.


title: Madhhab

text: The Murabitun World Movement follows this school as well. In the past, it was also followed in parts of Europe under Islamic rule, particularly Islamic Spain and the Emirate of Sicily.


title: Madhhab

text: One of today's scholars Hamza Yusuf is a prominent Maliki scholar, who is a student of Murabit al-Hajj from Muritania.


title: Madhhab

text: The Shafi'i school is based upon the jurisprudence of Imam Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi'i. It is followed by Muslims in the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia, Southern Egypt, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Indonesia, Malaysia, Jordan, Palestine, the Philippines, Singapore, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Yemen, Kurdistan, and southern India (such as the Mappilas of Kerala and the Konkani Muslims). It is the official school followed by the governments of Brunei and Malaysia. The Shafi'i school is also large in Iraq and Syria.


title: Madhhab

text: The Hanbali school is based on the jurisprudence of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal who had been a student of Imam al-Shafi.


title: Madhhab

text: It is followed by Muslims in Qatar, most of Saudi Arabia and minority communities in Syria and Iraq. There are movements that are highly influenced by Hanbali fiqh such as Salafism and Wahhabism concentrated in Saudi Arabia.


title: Madhhab

text: The Zahiri school was founded by Dawud al-Zahiri. It is followed by minority communities in Morocco and Pakistan. In the past, it was also followed by the majority of Muslims in Mesopotamia, Portugal, the Balearic Islands, North Africa and parts of Spain.


title: Madhhab

text: Twelver Shia adhere to the Ja'fari theological school associated with Ja'far al-Sadiq. In this school, the time and space bound rulings of early jurists are taken more seriously, and the Ja'fari school uses the intellect instead of analogy when establishing Islamic laws, as opposed to common Sunni practice.


title: Madhhab

text: Ismaili Muslims follow their own school in the form of the "Daim al-Islam", a book on the rulings of Islam. It describes manners and etiquette, including Ibadat in the light of guidance provided by the Ismaili Imams. The book emphasizes what importance Islam has given to manners and etiquette along with the worship of God, citing the traditions of the first four Imams of the Shi'a Ismaili Fatimid school of thought.


title: Madhhab

text: Zaidi Muslims also follow their own school in the form of the teachings of Zayd ibn Ali and Imam Abu Hanifa. In terms of law, the Zaidi school is quite similar to the Hanafi school from Sunni Islam. This is likely due to the general trend of Sunni resemblance within Zaidi beliefs. After the passing of Muhammad, Imam Jafar al-Sadiq, Imam Zayd ibn Ali, Imams Abu Hanifa and Imam Malik ibn Anas worked together in Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina along with over 70 other leading jurists and scholars. Jafar al-Sadiq and Zayd ibn Ali did not themselves write any books. But their views are Hadiths in the books written by Imams Abu Hanifa and Imam Malik ibn Anas. Therefore, the Zaydis to this day and originally the Fatimids, used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as do most Sunnis.


title: Madhhab

text: The Ibadi school of Islam is named after Abd-Allah ibn Ibadh, though he is not necessarily the main figure of the school in the eyes of its adherents. Ibadism is distinct from both Sunni and Shi'ite Islam not only in terms of its jurisprudence, but also its core beliefs.


title: Madhhab

text: The Amman Message was a statement, signed in 2005 in Jordan by nearly 200 prominent Islamic jurists, which served as a "counter-fatwa" against a widespread use of "takfir" (excommunication) by jihadist groups to justify jihad against rulers of Muslim-majority countries. The Amman Message recognized eight legitimate schools of Islamic law and prohibited declarations of apostasy against them.


title: Madhhab

text: The statement also asserted that fatwas can be issued only by properly trained muftis, thereby seeking to delegitimize fatwas issued by militants who lack the requisite qualifications.


title: Dolph Lundgren on screen and stage

text: Dolph Lundgren is a Swedish actor, filmmaker, and martial artist. Lundgren's breakthrough came in 1985, when he starred in "Rocky IV" as the imposing Soviet boxer Ivan Drago. Since then, he has starred in more than 69 films, almost all of them in the action genre.


title: Dolph Lundgren on screen and stage

text: Lundgren received a degree in chemical engineering from the Royal Institute of Technology in the early 1980s and a master's degree in chemical engineering from the University of Sydney in 1982. He holds the rank of 4th "dan" black belt in Kyokushin karate and was European champion in 1980–81. While in Sydney, he became a bodyguard for Jamaican singer Grace Jones and began a relationship with her. He received a Fulbright scholarship to MIT and moved to Boston. Jones convinced him to leave the university and move to New York City to be with her and begin acting, where, after a short stint as a model and bouncer at the Manhattan nightclub The Limelight, Lundgren got a small debut role as a KGB henchman in the James Bond film "A View to a Kill".


title: Dolph Lundgren on screen and stage

text: After appearing in "Rocky IV", Lundgren portrayed He-Man in the 1987 science fantasy film "Masters of the Universe", Lt. Rachenko in "Red Scorpion" (1988) and Frank Castle in the 1989 film "The Punisher". Throughout the 1990s he appeared in films such as "I Come in Peace" (1990), "Cover Up" (1991), "Showdown in Little Tokyo" (1991), "Universal Soldier" film series (1992, 2009, 2012), "Joshua Tree" (1993), "Pentathlon" (1994), "Men of War" (1994), "Johnny Mnemonic" (1995), "" (1995), "Silent Trigger" (1996), "The Peacekeeper" (1997), and "Blackjack" (1998). In 2004 he directed his first film, "The Defender", and subsequently directed "The Mechanik" (2005), "Missionary Man" (2007), "Command Performance" (2009), "Icarus" (2010), "Castle Falls" (2021) and upcoming film "Wanted Man" (2023), also starring in all of them.


title: Dolph Lundgren on screen and stage

text: After a long spell performing in direct-to-video films since 1995, Lundgren returned to Hollywood in 2010 with the role of Gunnar Jensen in "The Expendables", alongside Sylvester Stallone and an all-action star cast. He reprised his role in "The Expendables 2" (2012) and "The Expendables 3" (2014). Also in 2014, he co-starred in "Skin Trade", an action thriller about human trafficking he co-wrote and produced. He reprised his role of Ivan Drago in "Creed II" (2018), and is due to reprise his role as Gunner Jensen in "The Expendables 4". He appears in "" (2017), playing the protagonist's son Gil as an adult, and in "Aquaman" (2018), playing the father of Mera. He also had a recurring role in the fifth season of "Arrow".


title: Diorama

text: A diorama is a replica of a scene, typically a three-dimensional full-size or miniature model, sometimes enclosed in a glass showcase for a museum. Dioramas are often built by hobbyists as part of related hobbies such as military vehicle modeling, miniature figure modeling, or aircraft modeling.


title: Diorama

text: In the United States around 1950 and onward, natural history dioramas in museums became less fashionable, leading to many being removed, dismantled or destroyed.


title: Diorama

text: The word "diorama" originated in 1823 as a type of picture-viewing device, from the French in 1822. The word literally means "through that which is seen", from the Greek di- "through" + orama "that which is seen, a sight". The diorama was invented by Louis Daguerre and Charles Marie Bouton, first exhibited in Paris in July 1822 and at The Diorama, Regent's Park on September 29, 1823. The meaning "small-scale replica of a scene, etc." is from 1902.


title: Diorama

text: Daguerre's and Bouton's diorama consisted of a piece of material painted on both sides. When illuminated from the front, the scene would be shown in one state and by switching to illumination from behind another phase or aspect would be seen. Scenes in daylight changed to moonlight, a train travelling on a track would crash, or an earthquake would be shown in before and after pictures.


title: Diorama

text: The current, popular understanding of the term "diorama" denotes a partially three-dimensional, full-size replica or scale model of a landscape typically showing historical events, nature scenes or cityscapes, for purposes of education or entertainment.


title: Diorama

text: One of the first uses of dioramas in a museum was in Stockholm, Sweden, where the Biological Museum opened in 1893. It had several dioramas, over three floors. They were also implemented by the National Museum Grigore Antipa from Bucharest Romania and constituted a source of inspiration for many important museums in the world (such as the American Museum of Natural History in New York and the Great Oceanographic Museum in Berlin) [reference below].


title: Diorama

text: Miniature dioramas are typically much smaller, and use scale models and landscaping to create historical or fictional scenes. Such a scale model-based diorama is used, for example, in Chicago's Museum of Science and Industry to display railroading. This diorama employs a common model railroading scale of 1:87 (HO scale). Hobbyist dioramas often use scales such as 1:35 or 1:48.


title: Diorama

text: An early, and exceptionally large example was created between 1830 and 1838 by a British Army officer. William Siborne, and represents the Battle of Waterloo at about 7.45 pm, on 18 June 1815. The diorama measures and used around 70,000 model soldiers in its construction. It is now part of the collection of the National Army Museum in London.


title: Diorama

text: Sheperd Paine, a prominent hobbyist, popularized the modern miniature diorama beginning in the 1970s.


title: Diorama

text: Modern museum dioramas may be seen in most major natural-history museums. Typically, these displays use a tilted plane to represent what would otherwise be a level surface, incorporate a painted background of distant objects, and often employ false perspective, carefully modifying the scale of objects placed on the plane to reinforce the illusion through depth perception in which objects of identical real-world size placed farther from the observer appear smaller than those closer. Often the distant painted background or sky will be painted upon a continuous curved surface so that the viewer is not distracted by corners, seams, or edges. All of these techniques are means of presenting a realistic view of a large scene in a compact space. A photograph or single-eye view of such a diorama can be especially convincing, since in this case there is no distraction by the binocular perception of depth.


title: Diorama

text: Miniature dioramas may be used to represent scenes from historic events. A typical example of this type is the dioramas to be seen at Norway's Resistance Museum in Oslo, Norway.


title: Diorama

text: Landscapes built around model railways can also be considered dioramas, even though they often have to compromise scale accuracy for better operating characteristics.


title: Diorama

text: Hobbyists also build dioramas of historical or quasi-historical events using a variety of materials, including plastic models of military vehicles, ships or other equipment, along with scale figures and landscaping.


title: Diorama

text: In the 19th and beginning 20th century, building dioramas of sailing ships had been a popular handcraft of mariners. Building a diorama instead of a normal model had the advantage that in the diorama, the model was protected inside the framework and could easily be stowed below the bunk or behind the sea chest. Nowadays, such antique sailing ship dioramas are valuable collectors' items.


title: Diorama

text: One of the largest dioramas ever created was a model of the entire State of California built for the Panama-Pacific International Exposition of 1915 and that for a long time was installed in San Francisco's Ferry Building.


title: Diorama

text: Dioramas are widely used in the American educational system, mostly in elementary and middle schools. They are often made to represent historical events, ecological biomes, cultural scenes, or to visually depict literature. They are usually made from a shoebox and contain a trompe-l'œil in the background contrasted with two or three-dimensional models in the foreground.


title: Diorama

text: The Diorama was a popular entertainment that originated in Paris in 1822. An alternative to the also popular "Panorama" (panoramic painting), the Diorama was a theatrical experience viewed by an audience in a highly specialized theatre. As many as 350 patrons would file in to view a landscape painting that would change its appearance both subtly and dramatically. Most would stand, though limited seating was provided. The show lasted 10 to 15 minutes, after which time the entire audience (on a massive turntable) would rotate to view a second painting. Later models of the Diorama theater even held a third painting.


title: Diorama

text: The size of the proscenium was wide by high (7.3 meters x 6.4 meters). Each scene was hand-painted on linen, which was made transparent in selected areas. A series of these multi-layered, linen panels were arranged in a deep, truncated tunnel, then illuminated by sunlight re-directed via skylights, screens, shutters, and colored blinds. Depending on the direction and intensity of the skillfully manipulated light, the scene would appear to change. The effect was so subtle and finely rendered that both critics and the public were astounded, believing they were looking at a natural scene.


title: Diorama

text: The inventors and proprietors of the Diorama were Charles-Marie Bouton (1781– 1853), a Troubador painter who also worked at the Panorama under Pierre Prévost, and Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre (1787–1851), formerly a decorator, manufacturer of mirrors, painter of Panoramas, and designer and painter of theatrical stage illusions. Daguerre would later co-invent the daguerreotype, the first widely used method of photography.


title: Diorama

text: A second diorama in Regent's Park in London was opened by an association of British men (having bought Daguerre's tableaux) in 1823, a year after the debut of Daguerre's Paris original. The building was designed by Augustus Charles Pugin. Bouton operated the Regent's Park diorama from 1930 to 1940, when it was taken over by his protégé, the painter Charles-Caïus Renoux.


title: Diorama

text: The Regent's Park diorama was a popular sensation, and spawned immediate imitations. British artists like Clarkson Stanfield and David Roberts produced ever-more elaborate (moving) dioramas through the 1830s; sound effects and even living performers were added. Some "typical diorama effects included moonlit nights, winter snow turning into a summer meadow, rainbows after a storm, illuminated fountains," waterfalls, thunder and lightning, and ringing bells. A diorama painted by Daguerre is currently housed in the church of the French town Bry-sur-Marne, where he lived and died.


title: Diorama

text: Exhibition venues : Paris (Pa.1822-28) : London (Lo.1823-32) : Liverpool (Li.1827-32) : Manchester (Ma.1825-27) : Dublin (Du.1826-28) : Edinburgh (Ed.1828-36)


title: Diorama

text: Until 1968, Britain boasted a large collection of dioramas. These collections were originally housed in the Royal United Services Institute Museum, (formerly the Banqueting House), in Whitehall. When the museum closed, the various exhibits and their 15 known dioramas were distributed to smaller museums throughout England, some ending up in Canada and elsewhere. These dioramas were the brainchild of the wealthy furrier Otto Gottstein (1892–1951) of Leipzig, a Jewish immigrant from Hitler's Germany, who was an avid collector and designer of flat model figures called flats. In 1930, Gottstein's influence is first seen at the Leipzig International Exhibition, along with the dioramas of Hahnemann of Kiel, Biebel of Berlin and Muller of Erfurt, all displaying their own figures, and those commissioned from such as Ludwig Frank in large diorama form. In 1933, Gottstein left Germany, and in 1935 founded the British Model Soldier Society. Gottstein persuaded designer and painter friends in both Germany and France to help in the construction of dioramas depicting notable events in English history. But due to the war, many of the figures arrived in England incomplete. The task of turning Gottstein's ideas into reality fell to his English friends and those friends who had managed to escape from the Continent. Dennis (Denny) C. Stokes, a talented painter and diorama maker in his own right, was responsible for the painting of the backgrounds of all the dioramas, creating a unity seen throughout the whole series. Denny Stokes was given the overall supervision of the fifteen dioramas.


title: Diorama

text: Krunert, Schirmer, Frank, Frauendorf, Maier, Franz Rieche, and Oesterrich were also involved in the manufacture and design of figures for the various dioramas. Krunert (a Viennese), like Gottstein an exile in London, was given the job of engraving for "The Battle of Quebec". "The Death of Wolfe" was found to be inaccurate and had to be redesigned. The names of the vast majority of painters employed by Gottstein are mostly unknown, most lived and worked on the continent, among them Gustave Kenmow, Leopold Rieche, L. Dunekate, M. Alexandre, A. Ochel, Honey Ray, and, perhaps Gottstein's top painter, Vladimir Douchkine (a Russian émigré who lived in Paris). Douchkine was responsible for painting two figures of the Duke of Marlborough on horseback for "‘The Blenheim Diorama’", one of which was used, the other, Gottstein being the true collector, was never released.


title: Diorama

text: Denny Stokes painted all the backgrounds of all the dioramas, Herbert Norris, the Historical Costume Designer, whom Dr. J. F. Lovel-Barnes introduced to Gottstein, was responsible for the costume design of the Ancient Britons, the Normans and Saxons, some of the figures of "The Field of the Cloth of Gold" and the Elizabethan figures for "Queen Elizabeth at Tilbury". Dr. J.F. Lovel-Barnes was responsible for "The Battle of Blenheim", selecting the figures, and arrangement of the scene. Due to World War II, when flat figures became unavailable, Gottstein completed his ideas by using Greenwood and Ball's 20 mm figures. In time, a fifteenth diorama was added, using these 20 mm figures, this diorama representing the D-Day landings. When all the dioramas were completed, they were displayed along one wall in the Royal United Services Institute Museum. When the museum was closed the fifteen dioramas were distributed to various museums and institutions. The greatest number are to be found at the Glenbow Museum, (130-9th Avenue, S. E. Calgary, Alberta, Canada): RE: "The Landing of the Romans under Julius Caesar in 55 BC", "Battle Of Crecy", "The Battle of Blenheim", "The Old Guard at Waterloo" and "The Charge of the Light Brigade at Balaclava".


title: Diorama

text: The state of these dioramas is one of debate; John Garratt ("The World of Model Soldiers") claimed in 1968, that the dioramas "appear to have been partially broken up and individual figures have been sold to collectors". According to the Glenbow Institute (Barry Agnew, curator) "the figures are still in reasonable condition, but the plaster groundwork has suffered considerable deterioration". There are no photographs available of the dioramas. "The Battle of Hastings" diorama was to be found in the Old Town Museum, Hastings, and is still in reasonable condition. It shows the Norman cavalry charging up Senlac Hill toward the Saxon lines.


title: Diorama

text: "The Storming of Acre" is in the Museum of Artillery at the Rotunda, Woolwich. John Garratt, in "Encyclopedia of Model Soldiers", states that "The Field of the Cloth of Gold" was in the possession of the Royal Military School of Music, Kneller Hall; according to the curator, the diorama had not been in his possession since 1980, nor is it listed in their Accession Book, so the whereabouts of this diorama is unknown.


title: Diorama

text: "The Battle of Ulundi" is housed in the Staffordshire Regiment Museum at Whittington near Lichfield in Staffordshire, UK


title: Diorama

text: San Francisco, California artist Frank Wong (born 22 September 1932) created miniature dioramas that depict the San Francisco Chinatown of his youth during the 1930s and 1940s.


title: Diorama

text: In 2004, Wong donated seven miniatures of scenes of Chinatown, titled "The Chinatown Miniatures Collection", to Chinese Historical Society of America (CHSA). The dioramas are on permanent display in CHSA's Main Gallery:


title: Diorama

text: San Francisco filmmaker James Chan is producing and directing a documentary about Wong and the "changing landscape of Chinatown" in San Francisco. The documentary is tentatively titled, "Frank Wong's Chinatown".


title: Diorama

text: Painters of the Romantic era like John Martin and Francis Danby were influenced to create large and highly dramatic pictures by the sensational dioramas and panoramas of their day. In one case, the connection between life and diorama art became intensely circular. On 1 February 1829, John Martin's brother Jonathan, known as "Mad Martin," set fire to the roof of York Minster. Clarkson Stanfield created a diorama re-enactment of the event, which premiered on 20 April of the same year; it employed a "safe fire" via chemical reaction as a special effect. On 27 May, the "safe" fire proved to be less safe than planned: it set a real fire in the painted cloths of the imitation fire, which burned down the theater and all of its dioramas.


title: Diorama

text: Nonetheless, dioramas remained popular in England, Scotland, and Ireland through most of the 19th century, lasting until 1880.


title: Diorama

text: A small scale version of the diorama called the Polyrama Panoptique could display images in the home and was marketed from the 1820s.


title: Diorama

text: Natural history dioramas seek to imitate nature and, since their conception in the late 19th century, aim to "nurture a reverence for nature [with its] beauty and grandeur". They have also been described as a means to visually preserve nature as different environments change due to human involvement. They were extremely popular during the first half of the 20th century, both in the US and UK, later on giving way to television, film, and new perspectives on science.


title: Diorama

text: Like historical dioramas, natural history dioramas are a mix of two- and three-dimensional elements. What sets natural history dioramas apart from other categories is the use of taxidermy in addition to the foreground replicas and painted background. The use of taxidermy means that natural history dioramas derive not only from Daguerre's work, but also from that of taxidermists, who were used to preparing specimens for either science or spectacle. It was only with the dioramas' precursors (and, later on, dioramas) that both these objectives merged. Popular diorama precursors were produced by Charles Willson Peale, an artist with an interest in taxidermy, during the early 19th century. To present his specimens, Peale "painted skies and landscapes on the back of cases displaying his taxidermy specimens". By the late 19th century, the British Museum held an exhibition featuring taxidermy birds set on models of plants.


title: Diorama

text: The first habitat diorama created for a museum was constructed by taxidermist Carl Akeley for the Milwaukee Public Museum in 1889, where it is still held. Akeley set taxidermy muskrats in a three-dimensional re-creation of their wetland habitat with a realistic painted background. With the support of curator Frank M. Chapman, Akeley designed the popular habitat dioramas featured at the American Museum of Natural History. Combining art with science, these exhibitions were intended to educate the public about the growing need for habitat conservation. The modern AMNH Exhibitions Lab is charged with the creation of all dioramas and otherwise immersive environments in the museum.


title: Diorama

text: A predecessor of Akeley, naturalist and taxidermist Martha Maxwell created a famous habitat diorama for the first World's Fair in 1876. The complex diorama featured taxidermied animals in realistic action poses, running water, and live prairie dogs. It is speculated that this display was the first of its kind [outside of a museum]. Maxwell's pioneering diorama work is said to have influenced major figures in taxidermy history who entered the field later, such as Akeley and William Temple Hornaday.


title: Diorama

text: Soon, the concern for accuracy came. Groups of scientists, taxidermists, and artists would go on expeditions to ensure accurate backgrounds and collect specimens, though some would be donated by game hunters. Natural history dioramas reached the peak of their grandeur with the opening of the Akeley Hall of African Mammals in 1936, which featured large animals, such as elephants, surrounded by even larger scenery. Nowadays, various institutions lay different claims to notable dioramas. The Milwaukee Public Museum still displays the world's first diorama, created by Akeley; the American Museum of Natural History, in New York, has what might be the world's largest diorama: a life-size replica of a blue whale; the Biological Museum in Stockholm, Sweden is known for its three dioramas, all created in 1893, and all in original condition; the Powell-Cotton Museum, in Kent, UK, is known for having the world's oldest, unchanged, room-sized diorama, built in 1896.


title: Diorama

text: Preparations for the background begin in the field, where an artist takes photographs and sketches references pieces. Once back at the museum, the artist has to depict the scenery with as much realism as possible. The challenge lies in the fact that the wall used is curved: this allows the background to surround the display without seams joining different panels. At times the wall also curves upward to meet the light above and form a sky. By having a curved wall, whatever the artist paints will be distorted by perspective; it is the artist's job to paint in such a way that minimises this distortion.


title: Diorama

text: The foreground is created to mimic the ground, plants and other accessories to scenery. The ground, hills, rocks, and large trees are created with wood, wire mesh, and plaster. Smaller trees are either used in their entirety or replicated using casts. Grasses and shrubs can be preserved in solution or dried to then be added to the diorama. Ground debris, such as leaf litter, is collected on site and soaked in wallpaper paste for preservation and presentation in the diorama. Water is simulated using glass or plexiglass with ripples carved on the surface. For a diorama to be successful, the foreground and background must merge, so both artists have to work together.


title: Diorama

text: Taxidermy specimens are usually the centrepiece of dioramas. Since they must entertain, as well as educate, specimens are set in lifelike poses, so as to convey a narrative of an animal's life. Smaller animals are usually made with rubber moulds and painted. Larger animals are prepared by first making a clay sculpture of the animal. This sculpture is made over the actual, posed skeleton of the animal, with reference to moulds and measurements taken on the field. A papier-mâché mannequin is prepared from the clay sculpture, and the animal's tanned skin is sewn onto the mannequin. Glass eyes substitute the real ones.


title: Diorama

text: If an animal is large enough, the scaffolding that holds the specimen needs to be incorporated into the foreground design and construction.


title: Diorama

text: Lego dioramas are dioramas that are built from Lego pieces. These dioramas range from small vignettes to large, table-sized displays, and are sometimes constructed in a collaboration of two or more people. Some engage in the building of Lego dioramas.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: The Isle of Dogs is a large peninsula bounded on three sides by a large meander in the River Thames in East London, England, which includes the Cubitt Town, Millwall and Canary Wharf districts. The area was historically part of the Manor, Hamlet, Parish and, for a time, the wider borough of Poplar. The name had no official status until the 1987 creation of the Isle of Dogs Neighbourhood by Tower Hamlets London Borough Council. It has been known locally as simply "the Island" since the 19th century.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: The whole area was once known as Stepney Marsh; Anton van den Wyngaerde's "Panorama of London" dated 1543 depicts and refers to the Isle of Dogs. Records show that ships preparing to carry the English royal household to Calais in 1520 docked at the southern bank of the island. The name "Isle of Dogges" occurs in the "Thamesis Descriptio" of 1588, applied to a small island in the south-western part of the peninsula. The name is next applied to the "Isle of Dogs Farm" (originally known as "Pomfret Manor") shown on a map of 1683. At the same time, the area was variously known as "Isle of Dogs" or the "Blackwell levels". By 1855, it was incorporated within the parish of Poplar under the aegis of the Poplar Board of Works. This was incorporated into the Metropolitan Borough of Poplar on its formation in 1900.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: The first known written mention of the Isle of Dogs is in the ‘Letters & Papers of Henry VIII’. In Volume 3: 1519–1523. 2 October 1520. No. 1009 – ‘Shipping’, there is a list of purchases, which includes:


title: Isle of Dogs

text: The 1898 edition of "Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable" attributes the name: "So called from being the receptacle of the greyhounds of Edward III. Some say it is a corruption of the Isle of Ducks, and that it is so called in ancient records from the number of wild fowl inhabiting the marshes." Other sources discount this, believing these stories to all derive from the antiquarian John Strype, and believe it might come from one of the following:


title: Isle of Dogs

text: Canary Wharf, located in the Isle of Dogs, took its name from sea trade with the Canary Islands, which were named in Latin as "Canariae Insulae" ("Dog Islands").


title: Isle of Dogs

text: Following the building of the Docks (especially the West India Docks and the adjacent City Canal), and with an increasing population, locals increasingly referred to the area as "The Island". This area includes Millwall, Cubitt Town, and Blackwall. The south of the isle opposite Greenwich was once known as "North Greenwich", now applied to the area around the Millennium Dome on the Greenwich Peninsula. Between 1986 and 1992 it enjoyed a brief formal existence, as the name "Isle of Dogs" was applied to one of seven neighbourhoods to which power was devolved from the council. The neighbourhood was later abolished.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: It was the site of the highest concentration of council housing in England but is now best known as the location of the Canary Wharf office complex. One Canada Square, also known as the Canary Wharf Tower, is the second tallest habitable building in Britain at . The peninsula is an area of social extremes, comprising some of the most prosperous and most deprived areas of the country; in 2004, nearby Blackwall was the 81st most deprived ward in England out of over 8,000, while the presence of Canary Wharf gives the area one of the highest average incomes in the UK. Lincoln Plaza was the 2016 winner of the Carbuncle Cup for the year's "worst new building" and "The Times" described it as "mediocre at best, ugly at worst".


title: Isle of Dogs

text: The Isle of Dogs is situated some distance downriver from the City of London. It was originally marsh, being several feet below water at high tide. In the Middle Ages it was made available for human habitation by a process known in the Thames estuary as inning. The reclaimed land was below high water, protected by earthen banks. These banks if not properly kept up were liable to be breached. This happened in 1448, drowning the land for 40 years.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: In 1660 the river started to break through the neck of the peninsula, initiating meander cutoff. This was arrested by human intervention, but it left a 5-acre lake called Poplar Gut, which appears on John Rocque's 1746 Map of London and ten miles around in the extract reproduced in this article.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: One road led across the Marshes to an ancient ferry, at Ferry Road. There was rich grazing on the marsh, and cattle were slaughtered in fields known as the "Killing Fields", south of Poplar High Street.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: The western side of the island was known as "Marsh Wall", and the district became known as "Millwall" with the building of the docks, and from the number of windmills constructed along the top of the flood defence.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: In 1802 the West India Docks began to be developed on the Isle of Dogs. Beginning in 1812 the Poplar and Greenwich Ferry Roads Company installed tolls on the East Ferry Road. These proved to be unpopular and after many years of lobbying the Metropolitan Board of Works bought the company and abolished the tolls in 1885.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: The Docks brought with them many associated industries, such as flour and sugar processing, and also ship building. On 31 January 1858 the largest ship of that time, the SS "Great Eastern" designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, was launched from the yard of Messrs Scott, Russell & Co, of Millwall. The length was too big for the river so the ship had to be launched sideways. Due to the technical difficulties of the launch this was the last big ship to be built on the Island and the industry fell into a decline. However, parts of the launching slipway and plate works have been preserved in situ and may be seen close to Masthouse Terrace Pier.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: The urbanisation of the Isle of Dogs took place in the 19th century following the construction of the West India Docks, which opened in 1802. This heralded the area's most successful period, when it became an important centre for trade. The East India Docks were subsequently opened in 1806, followed by Millwall Dock in 1868. By the 1880s, the casual employment system caused Dock workers to unionise under Ben Tillett and John Burns. This led to a demand for "6d per hour" (2.5p), and an end to casual labour in the docks. After a bitter struggle, the London Dock Strike of 1889 was settled with victory for the strikers, and established a national movement for the unionisation of casual workers.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: The three dock systems were unified in 1909 when the Port of London Authority took control of the docks. With the docks stretching across from East to West with locks at each end, the Isle of Dogs could now almost be described as a genuine island.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: Dock workers settled on the "island" as the docks grew in importance, and by 1901, 21,000 people lived there, largely dependent on the river trade on the Isle as well as in Greenwich and Deptford across the river to the south and west. The Isle of Dogs was connected to the rest of London by the London and Blackwall Railway, opened in 1840 and progressively extended thereafter. In 1902, the ferry to Greenwich was replaced by the construction of the Greenwich foot tunnel, and Island Gardens park was laid out in 1895, providing views across the river. The London and Blackwall Railway closed in 1926. Until the building of the Docklands Light Railway in 1987, the only public transport accessing and exiting the Island consisted of buses using its perimeter roads. These were frequently and substantially delayed by the movement of up to four bridges which allowed ships access to the West India Docks and Millwall Docks. The insular nature of the Island caused its separateness from the rest of London, and its unique nature.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: During World War II, the docks were a key target for the German Luftwaffe and were heavily bombed. A number of local civilians were killed in the bombing and extensive destruction was caused on the ground, with many warehouses being destroyed and much of the dock system being put out of action for an extended period. Unexploded bombs from this period continue to be discovered today. Anti-aircraft batteries were based on Mudchute Farm; their concrete bases remain today.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: After the war, the docks underwent a brief resurgence and were even upgraded in 1967. However, with the advent of containerisation, which the docks could not handle, they became obsolete soon afterwards. The docks closed progressively during the 1970s, with the last – the West India and Millwall docks – closing down in 1980. This left the area in a severely dilapidated state, with large areas being derelict and abandoned.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: The Isle of Dogs' economic problems led to mass unemployment among the former dockyard workers and caused serious social deprivation. Ted Johns, a local community campaigner, and his supporters, in protest at the lack of social provision from the state, made a unilateral declaration of independence for the area from the United Kingdom as the Republic of the Isle of Dogs and set up an 'Island Council' with Johns himself as its elected president, and for a single day in 1970 blocked the two swing-bridges providing the only access to the area by road.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: Successive Labour and Conservative governments proposed a number of action plans during the 1970s but it was not until 1981 that the London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) was established to redevelop the area. The Isle of Dogs became part of an enterprise zone, which covered 1.95 km of land and encompassed the West India, Millwall and East India Docks. New housing, office space and transport infrastructure were built. This included the Docklands Light Railway and later the Jubilee line extension, which eventually brought access to the London Underground to the area for the first time.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: Since its construction in 1987–1991, the area has been dominated by the expanding Canary Wharf development with over of office and retail space having been created; 93,000 now work in Canary Wharf alone.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: The Island achieved notoriety in 1993 when Derek Beackon of the British National Party became a councillor for Millwall ward, in a by-election. This was the culmination of years when race was a prominent issue in local politics, especially with regards to allocation of housing. Labour regained the ward in the full council election of May 1994, and held all three seats until a further by-election in September 2004.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: On 9 February 1996, the IRA detonated a truck bomb near South Quay DLR station on the Isle of Dogs that killed two people and injured more than a hundred others.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: There are four state primary schools located on the Isle of Dogs – Cubitt Town Junior School, Arnhem Wharf, Harbinger School and St Edmunds. There is also an independent primary school, River House Montessori, located near South Quay.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: George Green's School is a secondary school and Specialist Humanities School at the southern tip of the island.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: Canary Wharf College, is a free school on the Island which covers primary, secondary and sixth form education.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: The nearest London Underground station is Canary Wharf on the Jubilee line. Key areas including Regent's Park, The West End, Westminster, South Bank, Millennium Dome and the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park, are all within 20 minutes of Canary Wharf by Tube.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: The DLR runs north–south through the Isle of Dogs. Docklands Light Railway stations are Canary Wharf, Heron Quays, South Quay, Crossharbour, Mudchute and Island Gardens. Key areas including the City of London, Tower Hill and Greenwich are all within 20 minutes of the Isle of Dogs by DLR.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: The Elizabeth line's Canary Wharf station opened in 2022. Situated at the north of the Island, it provides high-frequency, fast connections to the heart of the West End, Paddington Station, Heathrow Airport and Abbey Wood.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: Regular commuter boat services serve both Masthouse Terrace Pier and Canary Wharf Pier on the Isle of Dogs.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: The Thames Clippers provides regular commuter services to Woolwich Arsenal Pier, Greenwich Pier in the east, and the City of London including St. Katherine's Dock, Tower Bridge, , Greater London Authority building, Tate Modern, Blackfriars, as well as the West End of London in the west on the commuter service. There is also a connecting shuttle service to Rotherhithe and the Tate to Tate service from Tate Modern to Tate Britain via London Eye.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: From Summer 2007, the service has been enhanced with express boats from central London to the O2 Arena (former Millennium Dome).


title: Isle of Dogs

text: The Thames Path National Trail runs along the riverside. At the southern end of the Isle of Dogs, the Greenwich foot tunnel provides pedestrian access to Greenwich, across the river.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: National Cycle Network route 1 runs through the foot tunnel (although cycles must not be ridden in the tunnel itself).


title: Isle of Dogs

text: There is also a helipad situated on the west of the Island and next to Ferguson's Wharf, which is privately run by Vanguard.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: The presence of docks, some of a considerable size, has enabled a practice of various watersports, like sailing, kayaking, windsurfing and Standup paddleboarding.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: "The Isle of Dogs" was the title of an early play by Ben Jonson and Thomas Nashe, briefly performed in 1597 and then thoroughly suppressed as slanderous.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: T.S. Eliot's "The Waste Land" contains the lines "The barges wash / Drifting logs / Down Greenwich reach / Past the Isle of Dogs."


title: Isle of Dogs

text: In modern times the Isle of Dogs has provided locations for many blockbuster films, including the opening scenes of the James Bond film "The World Is Not Enough", and more recently "Batman Begins", "The Constant Gardener", "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix", and "Love Actually". The Isle of Dogs featured heavily in the 1980 British film "The Long Good Friday", and the Isle of Dogs is the primary location of the 2007 horror film "28 Weeks Later", where it is the only secure and quarantined area in all of Britain suitable for recivilisation after a virus epidemic kills the population of Britain.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: The video for "2 Minutes to Midnight" by Iron Maiden, features a scene with mercenaries that was filmed in a tenement on the Isle Of Dogs.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: The Isle of Dogs was the setting for the 1986 Channel 4 comedy-drama "Prospects" starring Gary Olsen and Brian Bovell.


title: Isle of Dogs

text: While shooting in East London for his film "Fantastic Mr. Fox", Wes Anderson spotted a road sign directing to the Isle of Dogs. This sparked his imagination, becoming an eponymous source of inspiration for his animated 2018 film "Isle of Dogs".


title: Thomas Andrews

text: Thomas Andrews Jr. (7 February 1873 – 15 April 1912) was a British businessman and shipbuilder. He was managing director and head of the drafting department of the shipbuilding company Harland and Wolff in Belfast, Ireland.


title: Thomas Andrews

text: He was the naval architect in charge of the plans for the ocean liner "Titanic" and perished along with more than 1,500 others when the ship sank during her maiden voyage.


title: Thomas Andrews

text: Thomas Andrews was born on 7 February 1873 at Ardara House, Comber, County Down, in Ireland, to The Rt. Hon. Thomas Andrews, a member of the Privy Council of Ireland, and Eliza Pirrie. Andrews was a Presbyterian of Scottish descent, and like his brother considered himself British.


title: Thomas Andrews

text: His siblings included J. M. Andrews, the future Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, and Sir James Andrews, the future Lord Chief Justice of Northern Ireland. Thomas Andrews lived with his family in Ardara, Comber. In 1884, he began attending the Royal Belfast Academical Institution until 1889 when, at the age of sixteen, he began a premium apprenticeship at Harland and Wolff where his uncle, the Viscount Pirrie, was part owner.


title: Thomas Andrews

text: At Harland and Wolff, Andrews began with three months in the joiners' shop, followed by a month in the cabinetmakers' and then a further two months working on the ships. The last eighteen months of his five-year apprenticeship were spent in the drawing office. He worked during the day and continued his studies in the evening hours. In 1901, boarding at 11 Wellington Place, after working in the many departments of the company, he became the manager of the construction works. That same year, he also became a member of the Institution of Naval Architects. In 1907, he was appointed the managing director and head of the drafting department at Harland and Wolff. By that point, Andrews had earned a reputation as a genius in the field of ship design. During his long years of apprenticeship, study, and work, he had become well-loved in the company and amongst the shipyard's employees. His kindness and generosity was well-documented. He was always willing to acknowledge the hard work of other people, and his wife recalled that he had of himself "the humblest opinion of anyone I ever knew."


title: Thomas Andrews

text: On 24 June 1908, he married Helen Reilly Barbour, daughter of textile industrialist John Doherty Barbour and sister to Sir John Milne Barbour- known as "Milne". Their daughter, Elizabeth Law-Barbour Andrews (known by her initials, "ELBA"), was born on 27 November 1910. The couple lived at Dunallan, 12 Windsor Avenue, Belfast, now numbered 20, and worshipped at First Presbyterian Church on Rosemary Street. It is known that Andrews took Helen to view the RMS "Titanic" one night, shortly before Elizabeth was born.


title: Thomas Andrews

text: In 1907, Andrews began to oversee the plans for three new ocean liners for the White Star Line: the RMS Olympic, the RMS Titanic and the RMS (later HMHS) Britannic. All three ships were designed by Andrews, William Pirrie and general manager Alexander Carlisle to be the largest, safest and most luxurious ships at sea. As he had done for the other ships he had overseen, Andrews familiarised himself with every detail of Olympic, Titanic and Britannic, in order to ensure that they were in optimal working order. Notably, Andrews’s suggestions that the ship have 48 lifeboats (instead of the 20 it ultimately carried) as well as a double hull and watertight bulkheads that went up to B deck, were overruled.


title: Thomas Andrews

text: Andrews headed a group of Harland and Wolff workers called the guarantee group, who went on the maiden voyages of their ships in order to observe ship operations and spot any necessary improvements. "Titanic" was no exception, so Andrews and the rest of his Harland and Wolff group travelled from Belfast to Southampton on "Titanic" for the beginning of her maiden voyage on 10 April 1912. During the voyage, Andrews took notes on various improvements he felt were needed, primarily cosmetic changes to various facilities. However, on 14 April, Andrews remarked to a friend that "Titanic" was "as nearly perfect as human brains can make her."


title: Thomas Andrews

text: On 14 April at 11:40 PM, "Titanic" struck an iceberg on the ship's starboard side. Andrews was in his cabin, planning changes he wanted to make to the ship, and barely noticed the collision. Captain Edward J. Smith had Andrews summoned to help examine the damage. Andrews and Captain Smith discussed the damage to the ship shortly after the collision and toured the damaged section of the ship, receiving several reports of the vessel's damage. Andrews determined that the first five of the ship's sixteen watertight compartments were rapidly flooding, more than the four that the vessel was supposed to withstand. He relayed this information to Captain Smith, adding that in his opinion, the vessel had only about an hour before foundering. He also informed Smith of the severe shortage of lifeboats on board the ship.


title: Thomas Andrews

text: As the evacuation began, Andrews tirelessly searched staterooms telling the passengers to put on lifebelts and go up on deck. Many survivors testified to have met or spotted Andrews several times.


title: Thomas Andrews

text: Fully aware of the short time the ship had left and of the lack of lifeboat space for all passengers and crew, he continued to urge reluctant people into the lifeboats in the hope of filling them with as many people as possible. "Titanic" sank at 2:20 a.m, and Andrews perished along with more than 1,500 others. His body was never recovered.


title: Thomas Andrews

text: Andrews was reportedly last seen by John Stewart, a steward on the ship, after approximately 2:05 a.m. Andrews was standing alone in the 1st-class smoking room with his arms folded, his lifebelt lying on a nearby table. Stewart asked him: "Aren't you going to have a try for it, Mr. Andrews?" Andrews did not answer or move, apparently in a state of shock. Walter Lord suggested that he was staring at a Norman Wilkinson painting over the fire place that depicted the entrance to Plymouth Sound, which "Titanic" had been expected to visit on her return voyage. This led to popular belief that Andrews may have made no attempt to escape and waited in the smoking room for the end.


title: Thomas Andrews

text: Although this has become one of the most famous stories of the "Titanic" disaster – published in a 1912 book ("Thomas Andrews: Shipbuilder" by Shan Bullock) and thereby perpetuated – there is circumstantial evidence to show that Stewart, in fact, left the ship in lifeboat No. 15 at approximately 1:40 a.m., half an hour before his reputed sighting of Andrews. In "Thomas Andrews: Shipbuilder", Bullock wrote that Andrews likely stayed in the smoking room for some time to gather his thoughts, then continued assisting with the evacuation. Bullock even discussed several other very later sightings of Andrews after that moment. Another sighting of Andrews was around 2:00 a.m., where he was seen on the back of the boat deck. The crowd had begun to stir, but some women remained reluctant to leave the ship. To be heard and to draw attention to himself, Andrews waved his arms and called to them in a loud voice. This did not do anything, so he began frantically throwing deck chairs into the ocean for people to use as floatation devices. Bullock also said that Andrews was seen, carrying a lifebelt, possibly the same lifebelt that was lying on the table in the smoking room, heading to the bridge, perhaps in search of Captain Smith. In addition, mess steward Cecil Fitzpatrick claimed to have seen Andrews and Captain Smith together on the bridge just a few minutes before the ship began its final plunge, and that both men jumped overboard just before the bridge was submerged.


title: Thomas Andrews

text: On 19 April 1912, his father received a telegram from his mother's cousin, who had spoken with survivors in New York: "INTERVIEW WITH TITANIC'S OFFICERS. ALL UNANIMOUS THAT ANDREWS DIED A HEROIC DEATH, THINKING ONLY OF OTHER'S SAFETY. EXTEND HEARTFELT SYMPATHY TO ALL."


title: Thomas Andrews

text: Newspaper accounts of the disaster labelled Andrews a hero. Mary Sloan, a stewardess on the ship, whom Andrews persuaded to enter a lifeboat, later wrote in a letter: "Mr. Andrews met his fate like a true hero, realising the great danger, and gave up his life to save the women and children of the "Titanic". They will find it hard to replace him." A short biography was produced within the year by Shan Bullock at the request of Sir Horace Plunkett, a member of Parliament, who felt that Andrews' life was worthy of being memorialised.


title: Thomas Andrews

text: In his home town, Comber, one of the earliest and most substantial memorials for a single victim of the "Titanic" disaster was built. The Thomas Andrews Jr. Memorial Hall was opened in January 1914. The architects were Young and McKenzie with sculpted work by the artist Sophia Rosamond Praeger. The hall is now maintained by the South Eastern Education Board and used by The Andrews Memorial Primary School. An Ulster History Circle blue plaque is located on his house in Windsor Avenue, Belfast.


title: Thomas Andrews

text: Today, the SS "Nomadic" is the sole surviving ship designed by Andrews. Asteroid 245158 Thomasandrews was named in his honour in 2004.


title: Relief

text: Relief is a sculptural method in which the sculpted pieces are bonded to a solid background of the same material. The term "relief" is from the Latin verb "relevo", to raise. To create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that the sculpted material has been raised above the background plane. When a relief is carved into a flat surface of stone (relief sculpture) or wood (relief carving), the field is actually lowered, leaving the unsculpted areas seeming higher. The approach requires a lot of chiselling away of the background, which takes a long time. On the other hand, a relief saves forming the rear of a subject, and is less fragile and more securely fixed than a sculpture in the round, especially one of a standing figure where the ankles are a potential weak point, particularly in stone. In other materials such as metal, clay, plaster stucco, ceramics or papier-mâché the form can be simply added to or raised up from the background. Monumental bronze reliefs are made by casting.


title: Relief

text: There are different degrees of relief depending on the degree of projection of the sculpted form from the field, for which the Italian and French terms are still sometimes used in English. The full range includes high relief ("alto-rilievo", "haut-relief"), where more than 50% of the depth is shown and there may be undercut areas, "mid-relief" ("mezzo-rilievo"), low relief ("basso-rilievo"), or French: "bas-relief" (), and shallow-relief or "rilievo schiacciato", where the plane is only very slightly lower than the sculpted elements. There is also sunk relief, which was mainly restricted to Ancient Egypt (see below). However, the distinction between high relief and low relief is the clearest and most important, and these two are generally the only terms used to discuss most work.


title: Relief

text: The definition of these terms is somewhat variable, and many works combine areas in more than one of them, rarely sliding between them in a single figure; accordingly some writers prefer to avoid all distinctions. The opposite of relief sculpture is counter-relief, intaglio, or "cavo-rilievo," where the form is cut into the field or background rather than rising from it; this is very rare in monumental sculpture. Hyphens may or may not be used in all these terms, though they are rarely seen in "sunk relief" and are usual in "bas-relief" and "counter-relief". Works in the technique are described as "in relief", and, especially in monumental sculpture, the work itself is "a relief".


title: Relief

text: Reliefs are common throughout the world on the walls of buildings and a variety of smaller settings, and a sequence of several panels or sections of relief may represent an extended narrative. Relief is more suitable for depicting complicated subjects with many figures and very active poses, such as battles, than free-standing "sculpture in the round". Most ancient architectural reliefs were originally painted, which helped to define forms in low relief. The subject of reliefs is for convenient reference assumed in this article to be usually figures, but sculpture in relief often depicts decorative geometrical or foliage patterns, as in the arabesques of Islamic art, and may be of any subject.


title: Relief

text: Rock reliefs are those carved into solid rock in the open air (if inside caves, whether natural or man-made, they are more likely to be called "rock-cut"). This type is found in many cultures, in particular those of the Ancient Near East and Buddhist countries. A stele is a single standing stone; many of these carry reliefs.


title: Relief

text: The distinction between high and low relief is somewhat subjective, and the two are very often combined in a single work. In particular, most later "high reliefs" contain sections in low relief, usually in the background. From the Parthenon Frieze onwards, many single figures in large monumental sculpture have heads in high relief, but their lower legs are in low relief. The slightly projecting figures created in this way work well in reliefs that are seen from below, and reflect that the heads of figures are usually of more interest to both artist and viewer than the legs or feet. As unfinished examples from various periods show, raised reliefs, whether high or low, were normally "blocked out" by marking the outline of the figure and reducing the background areas to the new background level, work no doubt performed by apprentices (see gallery).


title: Relief

text: A low relief is a projecting image with a shallow overall depth, for example used on coins, on which all images are in low relief. In the lowest reliefs the relative depth of the elements shown is completely distorted, and if seen from the side the image makes no sense, but from the front the small variations in depth register as a three-dimensional image. Other versions distort depth much less. The term comes from the Italian "basso rilievo" via the French "bas-relief" (), both meaning "low relief". The former is now a very old-fashioned term in English, and the latter is becoming so.


title: Relief

text: It is a technique which requires less work, and is therefore cheaper to produce, as less of the background needs to be removed in a carving, or less modelling is required. In the art of Ancient Egypt, Assyrian palace reliefs, and other ancient Near Eastern and Asian cultures, a consistent very low relief was commonly used for the whole composition. These images would usually be painted after carving, which helped define the forms; today the paint has worn off in the great majority of surviving examples, but minute, invisible remains of paint can usually be discovered through chemical means.


title: Relief

text: The Ishtar Gate of Babylon, now in Berlin, has low reliefs of large animals formed from moulded bricks, glazed in colour. Plaster, which made the technique far easier, was widely used in Egypt and the Near East from antiquity into Islamic times (latterly for architectural decoration, as at the Alhambra), Rome, and Europe from at least the Renaissance, as well as probably elsewhere. However, it needs very good conditions to survive long in unmaintained buildings – Roman decorative plasterwork is mainly known from Pompeii and other sites buried by ash from Mount Vesuvius. Low relief was relatively rare in Western medieval art, but may be found, for example in wooden figures or scenes on the insides of the folding wings of multi-panel altarpieces.


title: Relief

text: The revival of low relief, which was seen as a classical style, begins early in the Renaissance; the Tempio Malatestiano in Rimini, a pioneering classicist building, designed by Leon Battista Alberti around 1450, uses low reliefs by Agostino di Duccio inside and on the external walls. Since the Renaissance plaster has been very widely used for indoor ornamental work such as cornices and ceilings, but in the 16th century it was used for large figures (many also using high relief) at the Chateau of Fontainebleau, which were imitated more crudely elsewhere, for example in the Elizabethan Hardwick Hall.


title: Relief

text: Shallow-relief, in Italian "rilievo stiacciato" or "rilievo schicciato" ("squashed relief"), is a very shallow relief, which merges into engraving in places, and can be hard to read in photographs. It is often used for the background areas of compositions with the main elements in low-relief, but its use over a whole (usually rather small) piece was perfected by the Italian Renaissance sculptor Donatello.


title: Relief

text: In later Western art, until a 20th-century revival, low relief was used mostly for smaller works or combined with higher relief to convey a sense of distance, or to give depth to the composition, especially for scenes with many figures and a landscape or architectural background, in the same way that lighter colours are used for the same purpose in painting. Thus figures in the foreground are sculpted in high-relief, those in the background in low-relief. Low relief may use any medium or technique of sculpture, stone carving and metal casting being most common. Large architectural compositions all in low relief saw a revival in the 20th century, being popular on buildings in Art Deco and related styles, which borrowed from the ancient low reliefs now available in museums. Some sculptors, including Eric Gill, have adopted the "squashed" depth of low relief in works that are actually free-standing.


title: Relief

text: Mid-relief, "half-relief" or "mezzo-rilievo" is somewhat imprecisely defined, and the term is not often used in English, the works usually being described as low relief instead. The typical traditional definition is that only up to half of the subject projects, and no elements are undercut or fully disengaged from the background field. The depth of the elements shown is normally somewhat distorted.


title: Relief

text: Mid-relief is probably the most common type of relief found in the Hindu and Buddhist art of India and Southeast Asia. The low to mid-reliefs of 2nd-century BCE to 6th-century CE Ajanta Caves and 5th to 10th-century Ellora Caves in India are rock reliefs. Most of these reliefs are used to narrate sacred scriptures, such as the 1,460 panels of the 9th-century Borobudur temple in Central Java, Indonesia, narrating the Jataka tales or lives of the Buddha. Other examples are low reliefs narrating the Ramayana Hindu epic in Prambanan temple, also in Java, in Cambodia, the temples of Angkor, with scenes including the Samudra manthan or "Churning the Ocean of Milk" at the 12th-century Angkor Wat, and reliefs of apsaras. At Bayon temple in Angkor Thom there are scenes of daily life in the Khmer Empire.


title: Relief

text: High relief (or "altorilievo", from Italian) is where in general more than half the mass of the sculpted figure projects from the background. Indeed, the most prominent elements of the composition, especially heads and limbs, are often completely undercut, detaching them from the field. The parts of the subject that are seen are normally depicted at their full depth, unlike low relief where the elements seen are "squashed" flatter. High relief thus uses essentially the same style and techniques as free-standing sculpture, and in the case of a single figure gives largely the same view as a person standing directly in front of a free-standing statue would have. All cultures and periods in which large sculptures were created used this technique in monumental sculpture and architecture.


title: Relief

text: Most of the many grand figure reliefs in Ancient Greek sculpture used a very "high" version of high relief, with elements often fully free of the background, and parts of figures crossing over each other to indicate depth. The metopes of the Parthenon have largely lost their fully rounded elements, except for heads, showing the advantages of relief in terms of durability. High relief has remained the dominant form for reliefs with figures in Western sculpture, also being common in Indian temple sculpture. Smaller Greek sculptures such as private tombs, and smaller decorative areas such as friezes on large buildings, more often used low relief.


title: Relief

text: Hellenistic and Roman sarcophagus reliefs were cut with a drill rather than chisels, enabling and encouraging compositions extremely crowded with figures, like the Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus (250–260 CE). These are also seen in the enormous strips of reliefs that wound around Roman triumphal columns. The sarcophagi in particular exerted a huge influence on later Western sculpture. The European Middle Ages tended to use high relief for all purposes in stone, though like Ancient Roman sculpture, their reliefs were typically not as high as in Ancient Greece. Very high relief re-emerged in the Renaissance, and was especially used in wall-mounted funerary art and later on Neoclassical pediments and public monuments.


title: Relief

text: In the Buddhist and Hindu art of India and Southeast Asia, high relief can also be found, although it is not as common as low to mid-reliefs. Famous examples of Indian high reliefs can be found at the Khajuraho temples, with voluptuous, twisting figures that often illustrate the erotic Kamasutra positions. In the 9th-century Prambanan temple, Central Java, high reliefs of Lokapala devatas, the guardians of deities of the directions, are found.


title: Relief

text: The largest high relief sculpture in the world is the Stone Mountain Confederate Memorial in the U.S. state of Georgia, which was cut 42 feet deep into the mountain, and measures 90 feet in height, 190 feet in width, and lies 400 feet above the ground.


title: Relief

text: Sunk or sunken relief is largely restricted to the art of Ancient Egypt where it is very common, becoming after the Amarna period of Ahkenaten the dominant type used, as opposed to low relief. It had been used earlier, but mainly for large reliefs on external walls, and for hieroglyphs and cartouches. The image is made by cutting the relief sculpture itself into a flat surface. In a simpler form the images are usually mostly linear in nature, like hieroglyphs, but in most cases the figure itself is in low relief, but set within a sunken area shaped round the image, so that the relief never rises beyond the original flat surface. In some cases the figures and other elements are in a very low relief that does not rise to the original surface, but others are modeled more fully, with some areas rising to the original surface. This method minimizes the work removing the background, while allowing normal relief modelling.


title: Relief

text: The technique is most successful with strong sunlight to emphasise the outlines and forms by shadow, as no attempt was made to soften the edge of the sunk area, leaving a face at a right-angle to the surface all around it. Some reliefs, especially funerary monuments with heads or busts from ancient Rome and later Western art, leave a "frame" at the original level around the edge of the relief, or place a head in a hemispherical recess in the block (see Roman example in gallery). Though essentially very similar to Egyptian sunk relief, but with a background space at the lower level around the figure, the term would not normally be used of such works.


title: Relief

text: It is also used for carving letters (typically "om mani padme hum") in the mani stones of Tibetan Buddhism.


title: Relief

text: Sunk relief technique is not to be confused with "counter-relief" or intaglio as seen on engraved gem seals—where an image is fully modeled in a "negative" manner. The image goes into the surface, so that when impressed on wax it gives an impression in normal relief. However many engraved gems were carved in cameo or normal relief.


title: Relief

text: A few very late Hellenistic monumental carvings in Egypt use full "negative" modelling as though on a gem seal, perhaps as sculptors trained in the Greek tradition attempted to use traditional Egyptian conventions.


title: Relief

text: Small-scale reliefs have been carved in various materials, notably ivory, wood, and wax. Reliefs are often found in decorative arts such as ceramics and metalwork; these are less often described as "reliefs" than as "in relief". Small bronze reliefs are often in the form of "plaques" or plaquettes, which may be set in furniture or framed, or just kept as they are, a popular form for European collectors, especially in the Renaissance.


title: Relief

text: Various modelling techniques are used, such repoussé ("pushed-back") in metalwork, where a thin metal plate is shaped from behind using various metal or wood punches, producing a relief image. Casting has also been widely used in bronze and other metals. Casting and repoussé are often used in concert in to speed up production and add greater detail to the final relief. In stone, as well as engraved gems, larger hardstone carvings in semi-precious stones have been highly prestigious since ancient times in many Eurasian cultures. Reliefs in wax were produced at least from the Renaissance.


title: Relief

text: Carved ivory reliefs have been used since ancient times, and because the material, though expensive, cannot usually be reused, they have a relatively high survival rate, and for example consular diptychs represent a large proportion of the survivals of portable secular art from Late Antiquity. In the Gothic period the carving of ivory reliefs became a considerable luxury industry in Paris and other centres. As well as small diptychs and triptychs with densely packed religious scenes, usually from the New Testament, secular objects, usually in a lower relief, were also produced.


title: Relief

text: These were often round mirror-cases, combs, handles, and other small items, but included a few larger caskets like the Casket with Scenes of Romances (Walters 71264) in Baltimore, Maryland, in the United States. Originally they were very often painted in bright colours. Reliefs can be impressed by stamps onto clay, or the clay pressed into a mould bearing the design, as was usual with the mass-produced of Ancient Roman pottery. Decorative reliefs in plaster or stucco may be much larger; this form of architectural decoration is found in many styles of interiors in the post-Renaissance West, and in Islamic architecture.


title: Relief

text: Modern artists such as Paul Gauguin, Ernst Barlach, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Pablo Picasso, Henry Moore up to Ewald Matare have created reliefs.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: In biology, the extracellular matrix (ECM), also called intercellular matrix, is a three-dimensional network consisting of extracellular macromolecules and minerals, such as collagen, enzymes, glycoproteins and hydroxyapatite that provide structural and biochemical support to surrounding cells. Because multicellularity evolved independently in different multicellular lineages, the composition of ECM varies between multicellular structures; however, cell adhesion, cell-to-cell communication and differentiation are common functions of the ECM.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: The animal extracellular matrix includes the interstitial matrix and the basement membrane. Interstitial matrix is present between various animal cells (i.e., in the intercellular spaces). Gels of polysaccharides and fibrous proteins fill the interstitial space and act as a compression buffer against the stress placed on the ECM. Basement membranes are sheet-like depositions of ECM on which various epithelial cells rest. Each type of connective tissue in animals has a type of ECM: collagen fibers and bone mineral comprise the ECM of bone tissue; reticular fibers and ground substance comprise the ECM of loose connective tissue; and blood plasma is the ECM of blood.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: The plant ECM includes cell wall components, like cellulose, in addition to more complex signaling molecules. Some single-celled organisms adopt multicellular biofilms in which the cells are embedded in an ECM composed primarily of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS).


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Components of the ECM are produced intracellularly by resident cells and secreted into the ECM via exocytosis. Once secreted, they then aggregate with the existing matrix. The ECM is composed of an interlocking mesh of fibrous proteins and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs).