title: Košice

text: Following the Velvet Divorce and creation of the Slovak Republic, Košice became the second-largest city in the country and became a seat of a constitutional court. Since 1995, it has been the seat of the Archdiocese of Košice.


title: Košice

text: After 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Košice, as a regional metropolitan area, became a major hub for administration, transfer and housing of refugees fleeing from Ukraine.


title: Košice

text: Košice lies at an altitude of above sea level and covers an area of . It is located in eastern Slovakia, about from the Hungarian, from the Ukrainian, and from the Polish borders. It is about east of Slovakia's capital Bratislava and a chain of villages connects it to Prešov which is about to the north.


title: Košice

text: Košice is on the Hornád River in the Košice Basin, at the easternmost reaches of the Slovak Ore Mountains. More precisely, it is a subdivision of the Čierna hora mountains in the northwest and Volovské vrchy mountains in the southwest. The basin is met on the east by the Slanské vrchy mountains.


title: Košice

text: Košice has a humid continental climate (Köppen: "Dfb"), as the city lies in the north temperate zone. The city has four distinct seasons with long, warm summers with cool nights and long, cold, and snowy winters. Precipitation varies little throughout the year with abundance precipitation that falls during summer and only few during winter. The coldest month is January, with an average temperature of , and the hottest month is July, with an average temperature of .


title: Košice

text: Košice has a population of 228,249 (mid year, 2021). According to the 2011 census, 73.8% of its inhabitants were Slovaks, 2.65% Hungarians, 2% Romani, 0.65% Czechs, 0.68% Rusyns, 0.3% Ukrainians, and 0.13% Germans. 19% of Košice's population did not declare their ethnic affiliation in the 2011 census.


title: Košice

text: The religious makeup was 45% Roman Catholics, 16.6% people with no religious affiliation, 6.12% Greek Catholics, and 2.33% Lutherans, 2% Calvinists and 0.11% Jews.


title: Košice

text: According to the researchers the town had a German majority until the mid-16th century, and by 1650, 72.5% of the population may have been Hungarians, 13.2% was German, 14.3% was Slovak or of uncertain origin. The Ottoman Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi mentioned that the city was inhabited by "Hungarians, Germans, Upper Hungarians" in 1661 when the city was under the suzerainty of Ottoman Empire and under Turkish control.


title: Košice

text: The linguistic makeup of the town's population underwent historical changes that alternated between the growth of the ratio of those who claimed Hungarian and those who claimed Slovak as their language. With a population of 28,884 in 1891, just under half (49.9%) of the inhabitants of Košice declared Hungarian, then the official language, as their main means of communication, 33.6% Slovak, and 13.5% German; 72.2% were Roman Catholics, 11.4% Jews, 7.3% Lutherans, 6.7% Greek Catholics, and 4.3% Calvinists. The results of that census are questioned by some historians by a disputed claim that they were manipulated, to increase the percentage of the Magyars during a period of Magyarization.


title: Košice

text: By the 1910 census, which is sometimes accused of being manipulated by the ruling Hungarian bureaucracy, 75.4% of the 44,211 inhabitants claimed Hungarian, 14.8% Slovak, 7.2% German and 1.8% Polish. The Jews were split among other groups by the 1910 census, as only the most frequently-used language, not ethnicity, was registered. The population around 1910 was multidenominational and multiethnic, and the differences in the level of education mirror the stratification of society. The town's linguistic balance began to shift towards Slovak after World War I by Slovakization in the newly established Czechoslovakia.


title: Košice

text: According to the 1930 census, the city had 70,111, with 230 Gypsies (today Roma), 42 245 Czechoslovaks (today Czechs and Slovaks), 11 504 Hungarians, 3 354 Germans, 44 Poles, 14 Romanians, 801 Ruthenians, 27 Serbocroatians (today Serbs and Croatians) and 5 733 Jews.


title: Košice

text: As a consequence of the First and Second Vienna Awards, Košice was ceded to Hungary. During the German occupation of Hungary towards the end of World War II, approximately 10,000 Jews were deported by the Arrow Cross Party and the Nazis and killed in Auschwitz. The ethnic makeup of the town was dramatically changed by the persecution of the town's large Hungarian majority, population exchanges between Hungary and Slovakia and Slovakization and by mass migration of Slovaks into newly built communist-block-microdistricts, which increased the population of Košice four times by 1989 and made it the fastest growing city in Czechoslovakia.


title: Košice

text: There are several theatres in Košice. The Košice State Theater was founded in 1945 (then under the name of the East Slovak National Theater). It consists of three ensembles: drama, opera, and ballet. Other theatres include the Marionette Theatre and the Old Town Theatre ("Staromestské divadlo"). The presence of Hungarian and Roma minorities makes it also host the Hungarian "Thália" theatre and the professional Roma theatre "Romathan".


title: Košice

text: Košice is the home of the State Philharmonic Košice ("Štátna filharmónia Košice"), established in 1968 as the second professional symphonic orchestra in Slovakia. It organizes festivals such as the Košice Music Spring Festival, the International Organ Music Festival, and the Festival of Contemporary art.


title: Košice

text: Some of the museums and galleries based in the city include the East Slovak Museum ("Vychodoslovenské múzeum"), originally established in 1872 under the name of the Upper Hungarian Museum. The Slovak Technical Museum ("Slovenské technické múzeum") with a planetarium, established in 1947, is the only museum in the technical category in Slovakia that specializes in the history and traditions of science and technology. The East Slovak Gallery ("Východoslovenská galéria") was established in 1951 as the first regional gallery with the aim to document artistic life in present-day eastern Slovakia.


title: Košice

text: In 2008 Košice won the competition among Slovak cities to hold the prestigious title European Capital of Culture 2013. Project Interface aims at the transformation of Košice from a centre of heavy industry to a postindustrial city with creative potential and new cultural infrastructure. Project authors bring Košice a concept of the creative economy – merging of economy and industry with arts, where transformed urban space encourages development of certain fields of creative industry (design, media, architecture, music and film production, IT technologies, creative tourism). The artistic and cultural program stems from a conception of sustained maintainable activities with long-lasting effects on cultural life in Košice and its region. The main project venues are:


title: Košice

text: The first and the oldest international festival of local TV broadcasters (founded in 1995) – The Golden Beggar, takes place every year in June in Košice.


title: Košice

text: The oldest evening newspaper is the Košický večer. The daily paper in Košice is Korzár. Recently, the daily paper (Košice: Today) came into existence.


title: Košice

text: TV stations based in Košice: TV Naša, TV Region and public TV broadcaster RTVS Televízne štúdio Košice.


title: Košice

text: Radio stations based in Košice: Rádio Košice, Dobré rádio, Rádio Kiss, Rádio Šport, and the public broadcaster RTVS Rádio Regina Košice


title: Košice

text: Košice is the economic hub of eastern Slovakia. It accounts for about 9% of the Slovak gross domestic product. The steel mill, U.S. Steel Košice with 13,500 employees, is the largest employer in the city and the largest private employer in the country. The second-largest employer in the east of the country is Deutsche Telekom IT Solutions Slovakia. It was established and has been based in Košice since 2006. Deutsche Telekom IT Solutions Slovakia had 4,545 employees in Košice in Q4 of 2020, which makes it the second-largest shared service center in Slovakia and one of the top fifteen largest employers in Slovakia. As part of the growing ICT field, Košice IT Valley association was established in 2007 as a joint initiative of educational institutions, government and leading IT companies. In 2012 it was transformed into the cluster. In 2018 the cluster was for the second time certified for “Cluster Management Excellence Label GOLD” as the first in central Europe and is one of three certified clusters in the area of information and communication technologies. Other major sectors include mechanical engineering, food industry, services, and trade. GDP per capita in 2001 was €4,004, which was below Slovakia's average of €4,400. The unemployment rate was 8.32% in November 2015, which was below the country's average 10.77% at that time.


title: Košice

text: The city centre, and most historical monuments, are located in or around the Main Street ("Hlavná ulica") and the town has the largest number of protected historical monuments in Slovakia.


title: Košice

text: The most dominant historical monument of the city is Slovakia's largest church, the 14th century Gothic Cathedral of St. Elizabeth; it is the easternmost cathedral of western-style Gothic architecture in Central Europe, and is the cathedral of the Archdiocese of Košice. In addition to St. Elizabeth, there is the 14th century St. Michael Chapel, the St. Urban Tower, and the Neo-baroque State Theater in the center of town.


title: Košice

text: The Executioner's Bastion and the Mill Bastion are the remains of the city's previous fortification system. The Church of the Virgin Mary's Birth is the cathedral for the Greek Catholic Eparchy of Košice. Other monuments and buildings of cultural and historical interest are; the old Town Hall, the Old University, the Captain's Palace, Liberation Square, as well as a number of galleries (the East Slovak Gallery) and museums (the East Slovak Museum). There is a Municipal Park located between the historical city centre and the main railway station. The city also has a zoo located northwest of the city, within the borough of Kavečany.


title: Košice

text: Košice is the seat of the Košice Region, and since 2002 it is the seat of the autonomous Košice Self-governing Region. Additionally, it is the seat of the Slovak Constitutional Court. The city hosts a regional branch of the National Bank of Slovakia ("Národná banka Slovenska") and consulates of Belgium, Greece, Hungary, Russia, Spain and Turkey.


title: Košice

text: The local government is composed of a mayor (), a city council ("mestské zastupiteľstvo"), a city board ("mestská rada"), city commissions ("Komisie mestského zastupiteľstva"), and a city magistrate's office ("magistrát"). The directly elected mayor is the head and chief executive of the city. The term of office is four years. The previous mayor, František Knapík, was nominated in 2006 by a coalition of four political parties KDH, SMK, and SDKÚ-DS. In 2010 he finished his term of office. The present mayor is Ing. Jaroslav Polaček. He was inaugurated on 10 December 2018.


title: Košice

text: Administratively, the city of Košice is divided into four districts: Košice I (covering the center and northern parts), Košice II (covering the southwest), Košice III (east), and Košice IV (south) and further into 22 boroughs (wards):


title: Košice

text: Košice is the second university town in Slovakia, after Bratislava. The Technical University of Košice is its largest university, with 16,015 students, including 867 doctoral students. A second major university is the Pavol Jozef Šafárik University, with 7,403 students, including 527 doctoral students. Other universities and colleges include the University of Veterinary Medicine in Košice (1,381 students) and the private Security Management College in Košice (1,168 students). Additionally, the University of Economics in Bratislava, the Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, and the Catholic University in Ružomberok each have a branch based in the city.


title: Košice

text: There are 38 public elementary schools, six private elementary schools, three religious elementary schools, and one International Baccalaureate (IB) Primary Years Programme (PYP) candidate international school. Overall, they enroll 20,158 pupils. The city's system of secondary education (some middle schools and all high schools) consists of 20 gymnasia with 7,692 students, 24 specialized high schools with 8,812 students, and 13 vocational schools with 6,616 students.


title: Košice

text: Kosice International School (KEIS) is the first international primary school in Eastern Slovakia. It will be an International Baccalaureate (IB) Primary Years Programme (PYP) international school. Opening in September 2020.


title: Košice

text: Public transport in Košice is managed by "Dopravný podnik mesta Košice" ("Public Transport Company of the City of Košice"). The municipal mass transit system is the oldest one in present-day Slovakia, with the first horse-car line beginning operation in 1891 (electrified in 1914). Today, the city's public transportation system is composed of buses (in use since the 1950s), trams, and trolleybuses (since 1993).


title: Košice

text: Košice railway station is a rail hub of eastern Slovakia. The city is connected by rail to Prague, Bratislava, Prešov, Čierna nad Tisou, Humenné, Miskolc (Hungary), and Zvolen. There is a broad gauge track from Ukraine, leading to the steel mill southwest of the city. The D1 motorway connects the city to Prešov, and more motorways and roads are planned around the city.


title: Košice

text: Košice International Airport is located south of the city. Regular direct flights from the airport are available to London Luton and Stansted (from April 2020), Vienna, Warsaw, Düsseldorf and Prague. Regular flights are provided by Czech Airlines, Austrian Airlines, Eurowings, LOT Polish Airlines and Wizz Air and in code-share by KLM-Air France and Lufthansa. At its peak in the year 2008, it served 590,919 passengers, but the number has since declined.


title: Košice

text: The Košice Peace Marathon (founded in 1924) is the oldest annual marathon in Europe and the third oldest in the entire world, after the Boston Marathon and the Yonkers Marathon. It is run in the historic part of the city and is organized every year on the first Sunday of October.


title: Košice

text: Ice hockey club HC Košice is one of the most successful Slovak hockey clubs. It plays in Slovakia's highest league, the Extraliga, and has won eight titles in 1995, 1996, 1999, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2014, and 2015; and two titles (1986 and 1988) in the former Czechoslovak Extraliga. Since 2006, their home is the Steel Aréna which has a capacity of 8,343 spectators. Košice was once home to football club MFK Košice until it folded due to bankruptcy. It was the first club from Slovakia reach the group stages of the UEFA Champions League and won the domestic league twice (1998 and 1999). Another football club FC Košice is currently in the second league, with a new home stadium known as the Košická futbalová Arena (KFA).


title: Košice

text: Košice became the 2016 European City of Sport by the European Capitals of Sports Association (ACES Europe). The sporting events in 2016 included "the International Peace Marathon, several urban runs, a swimming relay contest, the Košice-Tatry- Košice cycling race, the dancesport world championships, the Basketball Euroleague, Volleyball World League and Water Polo World League".


title: Košice

text: 2. Kinselbaum, Stanislav J. (2006). "The A to Z of Slovakia." A to Z Guide Series, No. 236. Toronto, Canada: The Scarecrow Press.


title: Internal energy

text: The internal energy of a thermodynamic system is the total energy contained within it. It is the energy necessary to create or prepare the system in its given internal state, and includes the contributions of potential energy and internal kinetic energy. It keeps account of the gains and losses of energy of the system that are due to changes in its internal state. It does not include the kinetic energy of motion of the system as a whole, or any external energies from surrounding force fields. The internal energy of an isolated system is constant, which is expressed as the law of conservation of energy, a foundation of the first law of thermodynamics. The internal energy is an extensive property.


title: Internal energy

text: The internal energy cannot be measured directly and knowledge of all its components is rarely interesting, such as the static rest mass energy of its constituent matter. Thermodynamics is chiefly concerned only with "changes" in the internal energy, not with its absolute value. Instead, it is customary to define a reference state, and measure any changes in a thermodynamic process from this state. The processes that change the internal energy are transfers of matter, or of energy as heat, or by thermodynamic work. These processes are measured by changes in the system's properties, such as temperature, entropy, volume, and molar constitution. When transfer of matter is prevented by impermeable containing walls, the system is said to be closed. If the containing walls pass neither matter nor energy, the system is said to be isolated and its internal energy cannot change.


title: Internal energy

text: The internal energy depends only on the state of the system and not on the particular choice from many possible processes by which energy may pass to or from the system. It is a thermodynamic potential. Microscopically, the internal energy can be analyzed in terms of the kinetic energy of microscopic motion of the system's particles from translations, rotations, and vibrations, and of the potential energy associated with microscopic forces, including chemical bonds.


title: Internal energy

text: The unit of energy in the International System of Units (SI) is the joule (J). The internal energy relative to the mass with unit J/kg is the "specific internal energy". The corresponding quantity relative to the amount of substance with unit J/mol is the "molar internal energy".


title: Internal energy

text: The internal energy of a system depends on its entropy S, its volume V and its number of massive particles: . It expresses the thermodynamics of a system in the "energy representation". As a function of state, its arguments are exclusively extensive variables of state. Alongside the internal energy, the other cardinal function of state of a thermodynamic system is its entropy, as a function, , of the same list of extensive variables of state, except that the entropy, , is replaced in the list by the internal energy, . It expresses the "entropy representation".


title: Internal energy

text: Each cardinal function is a monotonic function of each of its "natural" or "canonical" variables. Each provides its "characteristic" or "fundamental" equation, for example , that by itself contains all thermodynamic information about the system. The fundamental equations for the two cardinal functions can in principle be interconverted by solving, for example, for , to get .


title: Internal energy

text: In contrast, Legendre transforms are necessary to derive fundamental equations for other thermodynamic potentials and Massieu functions. The entropy as a function only of extensive state variables is the one and only "cardinal function" of state for the generation of Massieu functions. It is not itself customarily designated a 'Massieu function', though rationally it might be thought of as such, corresponding to the term 'thermodynamic potential', which includes the internal energy.


title: Internal energy

text: For real and practical systems, explicit expressions of the fundamental equations are almost always unavailable, but the functional relations exist in principle. Formal, in principle, manipulations of them are valuable for the understanding of thermodynamics.


title: Internal energy

text: The internal energy formula_1 of a given state of the system is determined relative to that of a standard state of the system, by adding up the macroscopic transfers of energy that accompany a change of state from the reference state to the given state:


title: Internal energy

text: where formula_3 denotes the difference between the internal energy of the given state and that of the reference state,


title: Internal energy

text: and the formula_4 are the various energies transferred to the system in the steps from the reference state to the given state.


title: Internal energy

text: It is the energy needed to create the given state of the system from the reference state. From a non-relativistic microscopic point of view, it may be divided into microscopic potential energy, formula_5, and microscopic kinetic energy, formula_6, components:


title: Internal energy

text: The microscopic kinetic energy of a system arises as the sum of the motions of all the system's particles with respect to the center-of-mass frame, whether it be the motion of atoms, molecules, atomic nuclei, electrons, or other particles. The microscopic potential energy algebraic summative components are those of the chemical and nuclear particle bonds, and the physical force fields within the system, such as due to internal induced electric or magnetic dipole moment, as well as the energy of deformation of solids (stress-strain). Usually, the split into microscopic kinetic and potential energies is outside the scope of macroscopic thermodynamics.


title: Internal energy

text: Internal energy does not include the energy due to motion or location of a system as a whole. That is to say, it excludes any kinetic or potential energy the body may have because of its motion or location in external gravitational, electrostatic, or electromagnetic fields. It does, however, include the contribution of such a field to the energy due to the coupling of the internal degrees of freedom of the object with the field. In such a case, the field is included in the thermodynamic description of the object in the form of an additional external parameter.


title: Internal energy

text: For practical considerations in thermodynamics or engineering, it is rarely necessary, convenient, nor even possible, to consider all energies belonging to the total intrinsic energy of a sample system, such as the energy given by the equivalence of mass. Typically, descriptions only include components relevant to the system under study. Indeed, in most systems under consideration, especially through thermodynamics, it is impossible to calculate the total internal energy. Therefore, a convenient null reference point may be chosen for the internal energy.


title: Internal energy

text: The internal energy is an extensive property: it depends on the size of the system, or on the amount of substance it contains.


title: Internal energy

text: At any temperature greater than absolute zero, microscopic potential energy and kinetic energy are constantly converted into one another, but the sum remains constant in an isolated system (cf. table). In the classical picture of thermodynamics, kinetic energy vanishes at zero temperature and the internal energy is purely potential energy. However, quantum mechanics has demonstrated that even at zero temperature particles maintain a residual energy of motion, the zero point energy. A system at absolute zero is merely in its quantum-mechanical ground state, the lowest energy state available. At absolute zero a system of given composition has attained its minimum attainable entropy.


title: Internal energy

text: The microscopic kinetic energy portion of the internal energy gives rise to the temperature of the system. Statistical mechanics relates the pseudo-random kinetic energy of individual particles to the mean kinetic energy of the entire ensemble of particles comprising a system. Furthermore, it relates the mean microscopic kinetic energy to the macroscopically observed empirical property that is expressed as temperature of the system. While temperature is an intensive measure, this energy expresses the concept as an extensive property of the system, often referred to as the "thermal energy", The scaling property between temperature and thermal energy is the entropy change of the system.


title: Internal energy

text: Statistical mechanics considers any system to be statistically distributed across an ensemble of formula_8 microstates. In a system that is in thermodynamic contact equilibrium with a heat reservoir, each microstate has an energy formula_4 and is associated with a probability formula_10. The internal energy is the mean value of the system's total energy, i.e., the sum of all microstate energies, each weighted by its probability of occurrence:


title: Internal energy

text: For a closed system, with matter transfer excluded, the changes in internal energy are due to heat transfer formula_13 and due to thermodynamic work formula_14 done "by" the system on its surroundings. Accordingly, the internal energy change formula_3 for a process may be written


title: Internal energy

text: When a closed system receives energy as heat, this energy increases the internal energy. It is distributed between microscopic kinetic and microscopic potential energies. In general, thermodynamics does not trace this distribution. In an ideal gas all of the extra energy results in a temperature increase, as it is stored solely as microscopic kinetic energy; such heating is said to be "sensible".


title: Internal energy

text: A second kind of mechanism of change in the internal energy of a closed system changed is in its doing of work on its surroundings. Such work may be simply mechanical, as when the system expands to drive a piston, or, for example, when the system changes its electric polarization so as to drive a change in the electric field in the surroundings.


title: Internal energy

text: If the system is not closed, the third mechanism that can increase the internal energy is transfer of matter into the system. This increase, formula_17 cannot be split into heat and work components. If the system is so set up physically that heat transfer and work that it does are by pathways separate from and independent of matter transfer, then the transfers of energy add to change the internal energy:


title: Internal energy

text: If a system undergoes certain phase transformations while being heated, such as melting and vaporization, it may be observed that the temperature of the system does not change until the entire sample has completed the transformation. The energy introduced into the system while the temperature does not change is called "latent energy" or latent heat, in contrast to sensible heat, which is associated with temperature change.


title: Internal energy

text: Thermodynamics often uses the concept of the ideal gas for teaching purposes, and as an approximation for working systems. The ideal gas consists of particles considered as point objects that interact only by elastic collisions and fill a volume such that their mean free path between collisions is much larger than their diameter. Such systems approximate monatomic gases such as helium and other noble gases. For an ideal gas the kinetic energy consists only of the translational energy of the individual atoms. Monatomic particles do not possess rotational or vibrational degrees of freedom, and are not electronically excited to higher energies except at very high temperatures.


title: Internal energy

text: Therefore, the internal energy of an ideal gas depends solely on its temperature (and the number of gas particles): formula_19. It is not dependent on other thermodynamic quantities such as pressure or density.


title: Internal energy

text: The internal energy of an ideal gas is proportional to its mass (number of moles) formula_20 and to its temperature formula_21


title: Internal energy

text: where formula_23 is the molar heat capacity (at constant volume) of the gas. formula_23 is constant for an ideal gas. The internal energy of any gas (ideal or not) may be written as a function of the three extensive properties formula_25, formula_26, formula_20 (entropy, volume, mass). In case of the ideal gas it is in the following way


title: Internal energy

text: where formula_29 is an arbitrary positive constant and where formula_30 is the universal gas constant. It is easily seen that formula_1 is a linearly homogeneous function of the three variables (that is, it is "extensive" in these variables), and that it is weakly convex. Knowing temperature and pressure to be the derivatives


title: Internal energy

text: The above summation of all components of change in internal energy assumes that a positive energy denotes heat added to the system or the negative of work done by the system on its surroundings.


title: Internal energy

text: This relationship may be expressed in infinitesimal terms using the differentials of each term, though only the internal energy is an exact differential. For a closed system, with transfers only as heat and work, the change in the internal energy is


title: Internal energy

text: expressing the first law of thermodynamics. It may be expressed in terms of other thermodynamic parameters. Each term is composed of an intensive variable (a generalized force) and its conjugate infinitesimal extensive variable (a generalized displacement).


title: Internal energy

text: For example, the mechanical work done by the system may be related to the pressure formula_36 and volume change formula_37. The pressure is the intensive generalized force, while the volume change is the extensive generalized displacement:


title: Internal energy

text: This defines the direction of work, formula_14, to be energy transfer from the working system to the surroundings, indicated by a positive term. Taking the direction of heat transfer formula_13 to be into the working fluid and assuming a reversible process, the heat is


title: Internal energy

text: In case of an ideal gas, we can derive that formula_45, i.e. the internal energy of an ideal gas can be written as a function that depends only on the temperature.


title: Internal energy

text: The partial derivative of formula_25 with respect to formula_26 can be evaluated if the equation of state is known. From the fundamental thermodynamic relation, it follows that the differential of the Helmholtz free energy formula_63 is given by


title: Internal energy

text: The symmetry of second derivatives of formula_63 with respect to formula_21 and formula_26 yields the Maxwell relation:


title: Internal energy

text: When considering fluids or solids, an expression in terms of the temperature and pressure is usually more useful:


title: Internal energy

text: where it is assumed that the heat capacity at constant pressure is related to the heat capacity at constant volume according to


title: Internal energy

text: The partial derivative of the pressure with respect to temperature at constant volume can be expressed in terms of the coefficient of thermal expansion


title: Internal energy

text: The internal pressure is defined as a partial derivative of the internal energy with respect to the volume at constant temperature:


title: Internal energy

text: In addition to including the entropy formula_25 and volume formula_26 terms in the internal energy, a system is often described also in terms of the number of particles or chemical species it contains:


title: Internal energy

text: where formula_77 are the molar amounts of constituents of type formula_78 in the system. The internal energy is an extensive function of the extensive variables formula_25, formula_26, and the amounts formula_77, the internal energy may be written as a linearly homogeneous function of first degree:


title: Internal energy

text: where formula_83 is a factor describing the growth of the system. The differential internal energy may be written as


title: Internal energy

text: which shows (or defines) temperature formula_21 to be the partial derivative of formula_1 with respect to entropy formula_25 and pressure formula_36 to be the negative of the similar derivative with respect to volume formula_26,


title: Internal energy

text: and where the coefficients formula_92 are the chemical potentials for the components of type formula_93 in the system. The chemical potentials are defined as the partial derivatives of the internal energy with respect to the variations in composition:


title: Internal energy

text: As conjugate variables to the composition formula_95, the chemical potentials are intensive properties, intrinsically characteristic of the qualitative nature of the system, and not proportional to its extent. Under conditions of constant formula_21 and formula_36, because of the extensive nature of formula_1 and its independent variables, using Euler's homogeneous function theorem, the differential formula_99 may be integrated and yields an expression for the internal energy:


title: Internal energy

text: that arises from changing the composition of the system at constant temperature and pressure. For a single component system, the chemical potential equals the Gibbs energy per amount of substance, i.e. particles or moles according to the original definition of the unit for formula_95.


title: Internal energy

text: For an elastic medium the mechanical energy term of the internal energy is expressed in terms of the stress formula_103 and strain formula_104 involved in elastic processes. In Einstein notation for tensors, with summation over repeated indices, for unit volume, the infinitesimal statement is


title: Internal energy

text: Elastic deformations, such as sound, passing through a body, or other forms of macroscopic internal agitation or turbulent motion create states when the system is not in thermodynamic equilibrium. While such energies of motion continue, they contribute to the total energy of the system; thermodynamic internal energy pertains only when such motions have ceased.


title: Internal energy

text: James Joule studied the relationship between heat, work, and temperature. He observed that friction in a liquid, such as caused by its agitation with work by a paddle wheel, caused an increase in its temperature, which he described as producing a "quantity of heat". Expressed in modern units, he found that c. 4186 joules of energy were needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree Celsius.


title: Rudy Youngblood

text: Born in Belton, Texas, Rudy Youngblood grew up with two younger sisters. They were supported by their mother, who Rudy identifies as being of Comanche descent. Rudy has stated that his biological father was of Yaqui background. His adoptive father was of Cree descent. Going up, Rudy went by Rudy Gonzales, using his stepfather's surname.


title: Rudy Youngblood

text: David A. Yeagley told the "L.A. Times", "He has no Indian blood in him that anyone can validate." At the time, Youngblood's website stated, "Rudy is from the Tahchawwickah Comanche family, his father is the late Preston Tahchawwickah. He is adopted Cree." Comanche Nation spokeswoman Jolene Schonchin states that Youngblood "is not on our tribal rolls, but he does have Comanche blood" through his father Preston Tahchawwickah. Other members of Preston Tahchawwickah's family questioned that. Dawn Tahchawwickah, daughter of Preston Tahchawwickah, stated that Youngblood was "only a family friend" and "He is nothing to my father," while other children of Preston have said Youngblood is their brother. Youngblood told the "L.A. Times" that, "Preston Tahchawwickah was not his biological father but his ceremonially adoptive father" and that it was his mother who had Comanche ancestry.


title: Rudy Youngblood

text: At the age of ten, he started working at construction jobs and learned skills and stories from the men. He has learned carpentry, brick laying, and other skills. He went to local schools and was competitive in boxing and track athletics while attending Belton High School. He frequently went to movies and became a fan of film. Upon graduation, he was offered scholarships to major colleges in both art and track and field, but he chose Native dance instead. He has performed with the American Indian Dance Theatre.


title: Rudy Youngblood

text: Going to a general casting call, Youngblood was selected by the director Mel Gibson to play the leading role of Jaguar Paw in the epic film "Apocalypto" (2006), in which he also performed his own stunts. He learned the Yucatec Maya language in order to appear as a tribesman in the film, in which all dialogue was in Maya. For his work in the film, he won the Best Actor award at the 15th annual First Americans in the Arts awards.


title: Rudy Youngblood

text: Youngblood has participated in HIV activism, engaging in AIDS walks and visiting HIV-positive children in hospitals — in particular to draw attention to the rate of HIV infection in the Native community. Having seen a family member die of AIDS-related complications, he felt it important to "give back and make a difference" and has spoken out about the importance of education in combating ignorance around HIV/AIDS, alcoholism, drug abuse and child abuse. Having grown up looking after his sisters as a result of his mother's struggles with alcoholism, he regained a close relationship with her subsequently.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: Grigory Yevseyevich Zinoviev (born Hirsch Apfelbaum, – 25 August 1936), known also under the name Ovsei-Gershon Aronovich Radomyslsky (), was a Soviet revolutionary and politician. He was an Old Bolshevik and a close associate of Vladimir Lenin. During the 1920s, Zinoviev was one of the most influential figures in the Soviet leadership and the chairman of the Communist International.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: Born in Ukraine to a Jewish family, Zinoviev began revolutionary activities by joining the underground Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) in 1901. In 1903 the RSDLP split between the Menshevik faction led by Julius Martov and the Bolsheviks led by Vladimir Lenin. Zinoviev joined Lenin's faction and in doing so he became one of the original Bolsheviks. As a Bolshevik, Zinoviev engaged in revolutionary activities both in Russia and abroad and became known for his fierce loyalty to Lenin.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: In 1917 the Bolsheviks seized power following the October Revolution and established their own government, the RSFSR. Bolshevik seizure of power ultimately led to a civil war within Russia. Communist parties across Europe, galvanized by WWI and the October Revolution attempted to seize power in their respective countries. Demands for supplies and aid goaded Lenin into creating the Communist International in 1919, to distribute aid to these fledgling communist movements. The Communist International lead by Zinoviev, both aided existing communist parties and attempted to create new ones.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: His efforts to mobilize communist revolution abroad ended in failure as communist movements abroad failed to seize power. Zinoviev's leading role in these efforts vilified him in the international eye. His reputation as a subversive led to a political scandal in the United Kingdom. Prior to the 1924 Parliamentary election, Zinoviev allegedly authored a letter that claimed the Soviet Union was using the Labour Party to erode British democracy and initiate a communist revolution in the UK. Labour politicians at the time claimed the letter was a forgery, a claim historians would later confirm to be true. Nevertheless, 1924 saw the Conservative Party secure one of the largest electoral successes in the twentieth century.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: During Lenin's final illness in 1923–24, Zinoviev allied with fellow Old Bolsheviks Lev Kamenev and Joseph Stalin against Leon Trotsky. The men created a successful triumvirate which denied Trotsky the ability to succeed Lenin and began his downfall. Stalin with the help of Kamenev and Zinoviev removed Trotsky as war minister in 1925, and would be forced into exile in 1929. Trotsky's defeat marked the end of the coalition between Stalin and Zinoviev. By the mid 1920s, Stalin and Zinoviev entered a feud and Zinoviev was expelled from the party in 1925. The two men then reconciled and Zinoviev was reinstated in the party. The tumultuous relationship between Stalin and Zinoviev would continue throughout the 1920s and Zinoviev would be expelled from the party three times (in 1927, 1932 and 1934).


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: Zinoviev's ideological disagreements and a troubled relationship with Stalin led him to form a partnership with Leon Trotsky and Lev Kamenev. Following the assassination of Sergei Kirov in 1934, a Soviet investigation concluded that Zinoviev was involved in the assassination and plotted to overthrow Stalin. Zinoviev was arrested and put on trial in 1936 as a chief defendant in the trial of the Trotskyite-Zinovievite Terrorist Center, more commonly called the Trial of the Sixteen. He was tried alongside Lev Kamenev; both were found guilty and sentenced to death. On August 25, 1936 Grigory Zinoviev was executed by the NKVD. The Trial of the Sixteen marked an important turning point in Soviet history as it signaled the beginning of the Great Purge.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: Grigory Zinoviev was born in Yelizavetgrad, Russian Empire (now Kropyvnytskyi, Ukraine), to Jewish dairy farmers, who educated him at home. His name at birth was Ovsei-Gershon Aronovich Radomyslsky (Russian: Овсей-Гершен Аронович Радомысльски), and he was the oldest son born to Aron and Reizy Radomyslsky. Between 1924 and 1934 the city was known as Zinovyevsk ( ). Grigory Zinoviev was also known in early life under the name Hirsh Apfelbaum. He later adopted several designations, such as Shatski, Grigoriev, Grigori and Zinoviev, by the two last of which he is most frequently called. He studied philosophy, literature and history. He became interested in politics and joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) in 1901. He was a member of its Bolshevik faction from the time of its creation in 1903. Between 1903 and the fall of the Russian Empire in February 1917, he was a leading Bolshevik and one of Vladimir Lenin's closest associates, working both within Russia and abroad as circumstances permitted. He was elected to the RSDLP's Central Committee in 1907 and sided with Lenin in 1908 when the Bolshevik faction split into Lenin's supporters and Alexander Bogdanov's followers. Zinoviev remained Lenin's constant aide-de-camp and representative in various socialist organizations until 1917.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: Zinoviev spent the first three years of World War I in Switzerland. After the Russian monarchy was overthrown during the February Revolution, he returned to Russia in April 1917 in a sealed train with Lenin and other revolutionaries opposed to the war. He remained a part of the Bolshevik leadership throughout most of that year and spent time with Lenin after being forced into hiding in the period following the July Days. However, Zinoviev and Lenin soon had a falling out over Zinoviev's opposition to Lenin's call for an open rebellion against the Provisional Government. On 10 October 1917 (Julian calendar), he and Lev Kamenev were the only two Central Committee members to vote against an armed revolt. Their publication of an open letter opposing the use of force enraged Lenin, who demanded their expulsion from the party.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: On 29 October 1917 (Julian calendar), immediately after the Bolshevik seizure of power during the October Revolution, the executive committee of the national railroad labour union, Vikzhel, threatened a national strike unless the Bolsheviks shared power with other socialist parties and dropped Lenin and Leon Trotsky from the government. Zinoviev, Kamenev, and their allies in the Bolshevik Central Committee argued that the Bolsheviks had no choice but to start negotiations since a railroad strike would cripple their government's ability to fight the forces that were still loyal to the overthrown Provisional Government. Although Zinoviev and Kamenev briefly had the support of a Central Committee majority and negotiations were started, a quick collapse of the anti-Bolshevik forces outside Petrograd allowed Lenin and Trotsky to convince the Central Committee to abandon the negotiating process. In response, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Alexei Rykov, Vladimir Milyutin, and Victor Nogin resigned from the Central Committee on 4 November 1917 (Julian calendar). The following day, Lenin wrote a proclamation calling Zinoviev and Kamenev "deserters". He never forgot this conflict, eventually making an ambiguous reference to their "October episode" in his Testament.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: Zinoviev soon returned to the fold and was once again elected to the Central Committee at the VII Party Congress on 8 March 1918. He was put in charge of the Petrograd (Saint Petersburg before 1914, Leningrad 1924–91) city and regional government.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: Sometime in 1918, while Ukraine was under German occupation, the rabbis of Odessa ceremonially anathematized (pronounced "herem" against) Trotsky, Zinoviev, and other Bolshevik leaders of Jewish descent in the synagogue.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: Shortly after the assassination of Petrograd Cheka leader Moisei Uritsky in August 1918 and the commencement of the five year Red Terror period of political repression and mass killings, Zinoviev said:


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: He became a non-voting member of the ruling Politburo when it was created after the VIII Congress on 25 March 1919. He also became the Chairman of the Executive Committee of the Comintern when it was created in March 1919. It was in this capacity he presided over the Congress of the Peoples of the East in Baku in September 1920 and gave his famous four-hour speech in German at the Halle congress of the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany in October 1920.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: Zinoviev was responsible for Petrograd's defence during two periods of intense clashes with White forces in 1919. Trotsky, who was in overall charge of the Red Army during the Russian Civil War, thought little of Zinoviev's leadership, which aggravated their strained relationship.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: In early 1921, when the Communist Party was split into several factions, and policy disagreements were threatening the unity of the Party, Zinoviev supported Lenin's faction. As a result, Zinoviev was made a full member of the Politburo after the Xth Party Congress on 16 March 1921, while members of other factions, such as Nikolai Krestinsky, were dropped from the Politburo and the Secretariat.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: Zinoviev was one of the most influential figures in the Soviet leadership during Lenin's final illness in 1922–23 and immediately after his death in January 1924. He delivered the Central Committee's reports to the XIIth and XIIIth Party Congresses in 1923 and 1924, respectively, something that Lenin had previously done. He was also considered one of the Communist Party's leading theoreticians. One of the main functions of the Comintern was Bolshevization, whereby the proletarian revolution was postponed, and an emphasis was put on unconditional support for the Kremlin's foreign policy. The Comintern closely supervised many national parties, and reorganized them along Soviet lines, with a healthy dose of Soviet political rhetoric as well.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: During Lenin's final illness, Zinoviev, his close associate Kamenev and Joseph Stalin formed a ruling 'triumvirate' (or 'troika') in the Communist Party, playing a key role in marginalization of Leon Trotsky. The triumvirate carefully managed the intra-party debate and delegate-selection process in autumn 1923, during the run-up to the XIIIth Party Conference, and secured the vast majority of the seats. The Conference, held in January 1924 just before Lenin's death, denounced Trotsky and Trotskyism. Some of Trotsky's supporters suffered demotion or reassignment in the wake of his defeat, and Zinoviev's power and influence seemed at its zenith. However, as subsequent events showed, his real power base was limited to the Petrograd/Leningrad Party organization, while the rest of the Communist Party apparatus came increasingly under Stalin's control.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: After Trotsky's defeat at the XIIIth Conference, tensions between Zinoviev and Kamenev, on the one hand, and Stalin on the other became more pronounced and threatened to end their alliance. Nevertheless, Zinoviev and Kamenev helped Stalin retain his position as General Secretary of the Central Committee at the XIIIth Party Congress in May–June 1924 during the first Lenin's Testament controversy.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: After a brief lull in the summer of 1924, Trotsky published "Lessons of October", an extensive summary of the events of 1917. In the article, Trotsky described Zinoviev's and Kamenev's opposition to the Bolshevik seizure of power in 1917, something that the two would have preferred left unmentioned. This started a new round of intra-party struggle, with Zinoviev and Kamenev once again allied with Stalin against Trotsky. They and their supporters accused Trotsky of various mistakes and worse during the Russian Civil War. They damaged his military reputation so much that he was forced to resign as People's Commissar of Army and Fleet Affairs and Chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council in January 1925. Zinoviev demanded Trotsky's expulsion from the Communist Party, but Stalin refused to go along at that time and skillfully played the role of a moderate.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: With Trotsky finally on the sidelines, the Zinoviev-Kamenev-Stalin triumvirate began to crumble early in 1925. The two sides spent most of the year lining up support behind the scenes. Stalin struck an alliance with a Communist Party theoretician and "Pravda" editor Nikolai Bukharin and Soviet prime minister Alexei Rykov. Zinoviev and Kamenev allied with Lenin's widow, Nadezhda Krupskaya, and Grigory Sokolnikov, the Soviet Commissar of Finance and a non-voting Politburo member. The struggle became open at the September 1925 meeting of the Central Committee and came to a head at the XIVth Party Congress in December 1925. With only the Leningrad delegation behind them, Zinoviev and Kamenev found themselves in a tiny minority and were soundly defeated. Zinoviev was re-elected to the Politburo, but his ally Kamenev was demoted from a full member to a non-voting member and Sokolnikov was dropped altogether, while Stalin had more of his allies elected to the Politburo. Within weeks of the Congress, Stalin wrested control of the Leningrad party organization and government from Zinoviev and had him dismissed from all regional posts, leaving only the Comintern as a possible power base for Zinoviev.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: During a lull in the intra-party fighting in the spring of 1926, Zinoviev, Kamenev and their supporters gravitated closer to Trotsky's supporters and the two groups soon formed an alliance, which also incorporated some smaller opposition groups within the Communist Party. The alliance became known as the United Opposition. In May 1926, Stalin, weighing his options in a letter to Vyacheslav Molotov, directed his supporters to concentrate their attacks on Zinoviev since the latter was intimately familiar with Stalin's methods from their time together in the triumvirate. Following Stalin's orders, his supporters accused Zinoviev of using the Comintern apparatus in support of factional activities (the Lashevich Affair) and Zinoviev was dismissed from the Politburo after a tumultuous Central Committee meeting in July 1926. Soon thereafter the office of the Comintern Chairman was abolished and Zinoviev lost his last important post.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: Zinoviev remained in opposition to Stalin throughout 1926 and 1927, resulting in his expulsion from the Central Committee in October 1927. When the United Opposition tried to organize independent demonstrations commemorating the 10th anniversary of the October revolution in November 1927, the demonstrators were dispersed by force and Zinoviev and Trotsky were expelled from the Communist Party on 12 November. Their leading supporters, from Kamenev down, were expelled in December 1927 by the XVth Party Congress, which paved the way for mass expulsions of rank and file oppositionists as well as internal exile of opposition leaders in early 1928.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: While Trotsky remained firm in his opposition to Stalin after his expulsion from the Party and subsequent exile, Zinoviev and Kamenev capitulated almost immediately and called on their supporters to follow suit. They wrote open letters acknowledging their mistakes and were readmitted to the Communist Party after a six-month cooling off period. They never regained their Central Committee seats, but they were given mid-level positions within the Soviet bureaucracy. Bukharin, then at the beginning of his short and ill-fated struggle with Stalin, courted Kamenev and, indirectly, Zinoviev during the summer of 1928. This was soon reported to Stalin and used against Bukharin as proof of his factionalism.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: After once more admitting their supposed mistakes, they were readmitted to the Party in December 1933. They were forced to make self-flagellating speeches at the XVIIth Party Congress in January 1934, with Stalin parading his erstwhile political opponents, now defeated and outwardly contrite.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: After the murder of Sergei Kirov on 1 December 1934 (which served as one of the triggers for the Great Purge of the Soviet Communist Party), Zinoviev, Kamenev and their closest associates were once again expelled from the party and arrested in December 1934. They were tried in January 1935 and forced to admit "moral complicity" in Kirov's assassination. Zinoviev was sentenced to 10 years in prison and his supporters to various prison terms.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: In August 1936, after months of rehearsals in secret police prisons, Zinoviev, Kamenev and 14 others, mostly Old Bolsheviks, were put on trial again. This time, the charges included forming a terrorist organization that supposedly killed Kirov and tried to kill Stalin and other leaders of the Soviet government. This Trial of the Sixteen (or the trial of the "Trotskyite-Zinovievite Terrorist Center") was the first Moscow Show Trial and set the stage for subsequent show trials where Old Bolsheviks confessed to increasingly elaborate and egregious crimes, including espionage, poisoning and sabotage. Zinoviev and the other defendants were found guilty on 24 August 1936.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: Before the trial, Zinoviev and Kamenev had agreed to plead guilty to the false charges on the condition that they not be executed, a condition that Stalin accepted, stating "that goes without saying". A few hours after their conviction, Stalin ordered their execution that night. Shortly after midnight, on the morning of 25 August, Zinoviev and Kamenev were executed by firing squad.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: Accounts of Zinoviev's execution vary, with some having him beg and plead for his life, prompting the stoic Kamenev to tell Zinoviev to "quiet down and die with dignity". Zinoviev allegedly struggled against the guards escorting him so fiercely that instead of taking him to the appointed execution room, he was simply dragged into a nearby cell and shot there.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: The execution of Zinoviev, Kamenev and their associates was a sensational news event in the USSR and around the world, paving the way for the mass arrests and executions of the Great Purge of 1937–1938. In 1988, during perestroika, Zinoviev and his co-defendants were formally rehabilitated by the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union.


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: Zinoviev was the alleged author of the "Zinoviev Letter" which caused a sensation in the United Kingdom when published on 25 October 1924, four days before a general election. The letter called on British Communists to prepare for revolution. This document is now generally accepted to have been a fabrication, validating the declaration that Zinoviev made in a letter dated 27 October 1924:


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: "The letter of 15th September, 1924, which has been attributed to me, is from the first to the last word, a forgery. Let us take the heading. The organisation of which I am the president never describes itself officially as the "Executive Committee of the Third Communist International"; the official name is "Executive Committee of the Communist International". Equally incorrect is the signature, "The Chairman of the Presidium". The forger has shown himself to be very stupid in his choice of the date. On the 15th of September, 1924, I was taking a holiday in Kislovodsk, and, therefore, could not have signed any official letter...


title: Grigory Zinoviev

text: It is not difficult to understand why some of the leaders of the Liberal-Conservative bloc had recourse to such methods as the forging of documents. Apparently they seriously thought they would be able, at the last minute before the elections, to create confusion in the ranks of those electors who sincerely sympathise with the Treaty between England and the Soviet Union. It is much more difficult to understand why the English Foreign Office, which is still under the control of the Prime Minister, MacDonald, did not refrain from making use of such a white-guardist forgery."


title: Lana Lang

text: Lana Lang is a fictional supporting character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. She has appeared in other media adaptations of Superman, typically as a teenager. These portrayals include the "Adventures of Superboy" television series in which Stacy Haiduk played her, and the WB/CW television series "Smallville" played by Kristin Kreuk. In "Superman: The Movie", Lana was played by Diane Sherry. In the 1983 film "Superman III", she was played by Annette O'Toole, who would later portray Martha Kent on "Smallville". Emmanuelle Chriqui portrays the character in the television series "Superman & Lois".


title: Lana Lang

text: Created by writer Bill Finger and artist John Sikela, the character first appears in "Superboy" #10 (September/October 1950). Across decades of Superman comics and adaptations into other media, Lana has most consistently been depicted as Superman's teenage romantic interest growing up in Smallville; as an adult, she is a friend of Superman in his civilian identity as Clark Kent.


title: Lana Lang

text: Lana is one of many "Superman" characters with the alliterative initials "LL", the most notable other examples being Superman's primary love interest Lois Lane and archnemesis, Lex Luthor. In the Silver Age, she regularly appeared in comic books depicting the adventures of Superman's teenaged self, Superboy, and also appeared as an adult in numerous Superman titles, vying with Lois Lane for his attention. In modern revisions of DC Comics continuity, she and Clark are shown to have remained friends since their teenage years. The story varies across different revisions of Superman's origin story. For example, in "", Lana becomes privy to Clark's unusual abilities at an early age and becomes his earliest confidant outside of his parents and the futuristic Legion of Super-Heroes.


title: Lana Lang

text: In the original Superboy stories, Lana was the girl who lived next door to the Kent family in Smallville, and was a romantic interest of Superboy. In the Silver Age stories, Lana often behaved like a younger version of Lois Lane, spending much of her time trying to prove that Superboy and Clark Kent were one and the same.


title: Lana Lang

text: At one point, Lana once rescued an insect-like alien trapped by a fallen tree in Smallville. In gratitude, the alien gave her a "bio-genetic" ring which allowed Lana to gain insect (and insect-like, such as arachnids) characteristics. Lana created a yellow honeybee-like costume and mask, and took the name "Insect Queen", under which identity Lana had several adventures.


title: Lana Lang

text: Lana also had various adventures with Superboy, and several with the futuristic superhero team the Legion of Super-Heroes. Also appearing in some Silver Age stories was Lana's uncle, Professor Potter, an eccentric inventor.


title: Lana Lang

text: After Clark and Lana graduated from high school, Lana went to college, and eventually became a television reporter for Metropolis TV station WMET-TV. As an adult, Lana became a rival to Lois Lane for Superman's affection in various 1960s stories, often appearing in the Lois Lane comics series "Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane".


title: Lana Lang

text: During the 1970s and early 1980s, Lana became an anchorwoman for WGBS-TV's evening news in Metropolis, as a co-anchor to Clark Kent. Her attraction to Superman during this time had also died off, leaving Superman to Lois Lane. Lana later became romantically linked to the alien super-hero Vartox. Eventually, she and Clark Kent became romantically involved in stories prior to the "Crisis on Infinite Earths".


title: Lana Lang

text: In the early 1980s, with the use of the multiverse system DC had in place, Lana Lang was also shown in several stories to have had an Earth-Two counterpart (Earth-Two at the time the home of the Justice Society of America and DC's Golden Age versions of its characters, versus its mainstream universe of "Earth-One"). The Earth-Two Lana Lang was introduced in "Superman Family" #203. In this story, Lana Lang joins the "Daily Star" as a television critic. On Earth-Two Lana's father left Smallville and moved to Metropolis as a young man, so Clark did not know Lana in his youth.


title: Lana Lang

text: Later, she became an Insect Queen like her Earth-One counterpart; in this case, Lana had received a mystic amulet from her archaeologist father, amulet having been created to allow a Pharaoh to control and divert the locust hordes that threatened ancient Egypt. However, the sound of approaching insect wings was set to energize the charm associated with the amulet; by unfortunate coincidence, the sound of Superman's super-speed flying was similar enough to activate the spell. Lana was thus compelled to create a Chitinous golden-brown costume (woven by silkworms under her control) and adopt a villainous alter ego, the Insect Queen. After an initial clash with Superman, the Insect Queen fell under the mental influence of Superman's enemy, the Ultra-Humanite, who kept her under the spell's compulsion and prevented her from reverting to normal. Earth-Two's Superman was able to locate an antidote to the spell, which Lois Lane used to remove the compulsion ("Superman Family" #213), letting Lana break free of Ultra's influence and making her able to use the amulet's power at her own discretion. The Earth-2 Insect Queen would later use her abilities to aid Superman in times of need. This version of Lana Lang was retconned out of existence after the events of "Crisis on Infinite Earths".


title: Lana Lang

text: After the 1985-1986 miniseries "Crisis on Infinite Earths" was written, various aspects of Lana's history were retconned, starting with comics writer John Byrne's miniseries "The Man of Steel", which was designed to rewrite Superman's origin from scratch. In the post-Crisis version of events, Lana was a childhood friend of Clark, with a certain degree of romantic tension in the air as Lana had long pined after Clark, who had loved her only platonically in return.


title: Lana Lang

text: After they graduated from high school Clark took Lana on a private walk, saying that he had to tell her something important, which Lana honestly expected to be a marriage proposal. He then divulged to her that he had superpowers, displayed by flying her around the world, before explaining that he felt he had to leave Smallville to help humanity as a whole. Kissing her goodbye "like a brother", Lana was left in considerable shock, not only over the revelation of Clark's superpowers, but also over the final realization that he held no reciprocal romantic feelings towards her, leaving Lana heartbroken and alone. When Lana finally aired her grievance with him years later ("The Man of Steel" #6), Clark felt very badly over how he had hurt her.


title: Lana Lang

text: When Clark appeared in public as Superman some years later, the lonely and depressed Lana deduced his true identity and became something of a stalker, to the extent that Lex Luthor noticed the frequency with which she appeared in the vicinity of the hero and actually had her tortured in an attempt to gain whatever inside knowledge of Superman she might have. Lana bravely kept Clark's identity a secret and upon his rescuing her their relationship became more healthy once again, albeit still at a distance. A long-term conspiracy of the Oan-created androids, the Manhunters, from whose control Lana and the rest of Smallville's children born around the same time as her were eventually freed, proved to be the cause of this stalking. Unlike the pre-Crisis Earth-One continuity, Lana did not go on to have a journalistic career or compete with Lois for Superman's affections, nor play a significant role in Clark's life in Metropolis.


title: Lana Lang

text: Lana's relationship with Clark is again altered in 2003's "" limited series by Mark Waid, which again revises Superman's origins. This storyline, which takes some inspiration from the TV show "Smallville" (such as the appearance of Ma and Pa Kent), also shows Clark and Lana to have had a mutual romantic relationship during their youth. At the start of the storyline, Lana has already left Smallville prior to Clark's return from his world journey. Upon his arrival home, Clark is told that Lana left some time prior and no one has heard from her since. Following this storyline, there is never again any mention of her history regarding Clark or Superman.


title: Lana Lang

text: Lana's "Birthright" history has been yet again re-made following the events of the "Infinite Crisis", which has revived Clark's pre-"Crisis" Superboy alter-ego. In this new history, Lana's two obnoxious brothers, whom she lacked in previous versions, often interrupted her romantic relationship with Clark. The full extent of her history and her connection to Superboy/Clark has not been fully disclosed. Again, her previous history has not been mentioned since this revision.


title: Lana Lang

text: Years later, the post-"Crisis" Lana eventually married Pete Ross. The two settled into a quiet life in Smallville, where they had a son they named after their mutual friend, Clark. They picked this name for their son after Lana asked Clark to save his life when a car accident caused him to be born eight weeks premature. Although the attack of the Brainiac-controlled Doomsday interrupted Clark's efforts to take the baby to receive care, Brainiac's subsequent attempts to use the baby's DNA to create a new body for himself brought the baby to full term. Pete began a career in politics that got him elected to the Senate. In 2000, Senator Ross became Lex Luthor's vice presidential running mate in Luthor's bid to become President, and after the two won, Lana moved to Washington, D.C. Eventually, Luthor was forced from his office, and Pete Ross became President (and Lana the First Lady). As she and Pete began to drift apart, Lana began to subtly attempt to regain Clark's affections, much to the anger of his (now) wife Lois Lane. Pete and Lana briefly reunited after Superman saved them from a murder attempt by the villainous Ruin.


title: Lana Lang

text: In "Superman" #654, Perry White reported that Lana had become CEO of Lexcorp following the ousting of founder Lex Luthor. In Superman/Batman #49, it is revealed that she sold Kryptonite to the government to prevent Lexcorp from going under and had caches of Kryptonite placed all over the planet, as a last-ditch defense if Superman should ever go rogue. When Superman and Batman come to remove the Kryptonite, Lana refuses to hand it over and pushes a button which turns the caches into "dirty bombs" which spread Kryptonite molecules through the entire planet, forcing all Kryptonians to vacate. However, Toyman uses special nanobots to remove all of the Kryptonite molecules, undoing the damage. Superman meets with Lana again, with Lana telling him she was left with no choice. Superman responds by telling her that, while he does sometimes wonder what things would have been like if he had married her rather than Lois, there is a reason he is with Lois instead of her: Lois would never have pushed the button. After Superman flies off, someone is shown watching Lana crying on a screen, saying to her "you did perfect". In Superman/Batman #63 suggests that this was Gorilla Grodd, when Batman mentions that "Grodd finally finished what he started when he controlled Lana all those years ago". However, this scenario is later revealed to be a simulation created in the Batcomputer.


title: Lana Lang

text: She later tries to help Superman, facing the time-traveling strongman Atlas, by sending the Luthor Squad. This act activates a dormant program inside the Lexcorp mainframes, an holographic version of Luthor. The holographic copy of Luthor informs Lana that by helping Superman she has violated the Lexcorp standard contract of employment ("very, very fine print"), that forbids Lexcorp employees to use Lexcorp resources for helping Kryptonians, under the penalty of termination. Lana is given five minutes to leave the building, or they will shoot her to death.


title: Lana Lang

text: In 2008, a new "Supergirl" writer Sterling Gates told Newsarama about Lana Lang: "We're integrating Supergirl's book more into the Superman universe, and that includes having a supporting cast that overlaps with that world. I'm very interested in tying her back in to Metropolis and making sure that her world is a part of the Superman universe. Cat Grant will be a regular supporting cast member, as will Lana Lang".


title: Lana Lang

text: Lana takes it upon herself to reach out to Supergirl. She offers her advice and friendship. Around the same time, Perry White has been actively pursuing Lana to take over the Business section of the "Daily Planet", a position which Lana was afraid to accept, following her bad experience with Lexcorp. Eventually, Lana and Supergirl decide together that Lana will accept the position, and that Supergirl will take on the secret identity of Linda Lang, niece of Lana Lang. Lana now lives in Metropolis with Supergirl, and is working as the editor of the Business section of the "Daily Planet".


title: Lana Lang

text: She briefly returns to Smallville to attend Jonathan Kent's funeral. However, unable to muster enough resolve to patch up things with Clark, Lana leaves before giving him her condolences.


title: Lana Lang

text: While attending a student journalism award ceremony with Jimmy Olsen and Cat Grant, Lana suddenly collapses, with blood pouring out her nose.; She receives a call from her doctor telling her that he has "bad news" for her. After Lana has another collapse, she is taken to the hospital and brought into surgery. She apparently dies on the operating table, but black insect-like creatures later encase her body in a cocoon, which then starts to crack open. A gigantic cocoon-like structure soon engulfs the hospital, and an army of giant insects takes hostage a number of workers as well as the Science Police and the Guardian. Supergirl is soon captured and awakens bound and gagged at the feet of Lana, whom the Insect Queen now possesses. The Queen reveals to Supergirl that during her last encounter with Lana, she injected her with a portion of her DNA and has been slowly taking control of her body for the past year, with the ultimate goal of capturing a Kryptonian to use as a template for an army of hybrid insects. Supergirl breaks free and is able to expel the Queen from Lana's body with help from Kryptonian technology, and Lana returns to her normal state. While Lana is recovering, Supergirl visits her. Supergirl tells Lana she can no longer be a part of her family because of her lies about her condition. Lana and "Linda" have since reconciled and are currently living in the Hammersmith tower building in Metropolis.


title: Lana Lang

text: In September 2011, DC Comics rebooted their continuity. In this new timeline, Lana is a childhood friend of Clark and has been privy to Clark's unusual abilities from an early age. They also share mutual romantic feelings for each other during their youth, and they would have gone to the Senior Prom together if that had not been the night that Clark's parents died. Lana eventually leaves Clark behind in Smallville to make her own mark on the world, but not before reassuring him that she will always love him. In the present day continuity, Lana works as an electrical engineer on various projects around the world. It is hinted that adult Clark still harbors romantic feelings for Lana.


title: Lana Lang

text: In "", Lang was among the countless refugees who escaped Darkseid and his Parademon army's destruction of their home world and relocated to Prime Earth. Ending up working in the Cadmus Island sub-basement under King Faraday, Lana was able to conceal her meta-human biology from everyone, except Cole Cash. Lana and Cole eventually escaped the island together but were then forced to visit the Earth Registration Authority, where it was reported that Cole Cash had died nine years prior, forcing him to re-register under the legal name "Cole Lang" - Lana's husband and an Earth-2 native. Shortly afterwards, Lana adopted Susan Lang, formerly Fifty Sue, a super-powered little girl she had met on Cadmus island.


title: Lana Lang

text: In 2016, DC Comics started a company-wide crossover event titled Rebirth. A pre-Flashpoint Clark Kent discovered Lana under a memorial for Superman, where she revealed that she had made a promise to move Clark's remains next to his family's in Smallville, Kansas. The Pre-Flashpoint Clark had her take him to the Fortress of Solitude to see if he could revive Superman as he had assumed but realized that he couldn't. He then took Lana to Smallville and helped her to re-bury Superman's remains.


title: Lana Lang

text: It is subsequently revealed that, apparently due to their presence at the death of the New 52 Clark Kent, Lana and Lois have acquired powers, each calling themselves 'Superwoman', with Lois demonstrating Superman's traditional powers while Lana manifests a form similar to the more recent 'Superman Red', able to absorb and generate multiple forms of energy. Although Lana initially plans to operate in secret, after Lois is killed, she begins taking on a more active role as Superwoman. She continues to function as Superwoman but is ultimately de-powered and returns to normal life.


title: Lana Lang

text: In Frank Miller's classic miniseries "", Lana is an overweight, middle-aged woman, and "The Daily Planet"'s managing editor. Over the course of the story, she becomes Batman's most outspoken supporter, appearing in a series of TV debates in which she and others argue over his methods and influence.


title: Lana Lang

text: In the first volume of "" Lana has become immortal, gained metahuman abilities, and lived hundreds of years into the future, due to her constant exposure to magics and biochemicals. She has joined Superman in space as his wife, after searching for him for centuries and agrees to work with him and Batman to police the far, wild corners of known space.


title: Lana Lang

text: In "", Lana is a doctor at a research facility dedicated to studying metahumans in the belief that they are alien invaders, although she secretly helps smuggle various heroes out of the facility to hide with the Kents (who in this reality never found Kal-El's ship).


title: Lana Lang

text: In the seventh installment of the DC Multiverse-spanning series, Multiversity: Mastermen, Lana appears as Lena in the story, on an alternate Earth where Kal-L's rocket landed in Sudetenland, in Nazi Germany's pre-war empire in 1938. Reverse-engineering Kal-L's spacecraft enables the Nazis to achieve world domination and win the Second World War. On this Earth the United States falls in April 1956. Sixty years later, Lena is Overman's consort, but their relationship is cold and loveless. She is concerned and angered about the loss of her acquired youth and chides him for mourning Overgirl, dismissing her as a mere clone, and is nervous about Freedom Fighters' terrorism. She was attending a performance of 'The Ring Trilogy' in New Bayreuth, when New Reichman's Eagle's Nest space station impacted and destroyed Metropolis, killing millions. In the New 52 DC Multiverse it is Earth 10.


title: Lana Lang

text: In "" by Mark Millar, Lana is re-imagined as Lana Lazarenko. Lana grew up in Soviet Ukraine along with the young Superman after his escape vessel landed there while he was an infant. She becomes a tour guide in a Superman museum and occasionally accompanies Superman to public events in the sixties. This continuity is now known as Earth-30 in the current New 52 DC Multiverse. Lana Lazarenko's ultimate fate is uncertain, as she does not appear in the final segment of that graphic novel, set in 2001.


title: Lana Lang

text: The character of Lana Lang has been analyzed as a portrayal of women in American comics. Her depiction in comics is seen in contrast to Lois Lane, in that "everything that woman are thought to be that the plot does not allow Lois spills over into Lana's character. Thus, the exaggeratedly feminine nature of Lana's speech and appearance- her form-fitting, sometimes revealing outfits for example- stands in contrast to Lois' sportier clothes and straightforward speech."


title: Michael Trucco

text: Edward Michael Trucco (born June 22, 1970) is an American actor known for his role as Samuel Anders on the reimagined "Battlestar Galactica" and his recurring role as Nick Petteruti in "How I Met Your Mother". He also appeared on the 2017–2018 Netflix series "Disjointed", as Tae Kwon Douglas, a local martial arts instructor who was anti-drug.


title: Michael Trucco

text: A native of San Mateo, California, Trucco attended Junipero Serra High School where he played football and wrestled. He is the son of a police officer, and was once interested in becoming one himself until college, when he was attracted to theatrical performance. He took a theatre course for non-majors while he was studying Criminal Justice, but he did so well that he was asked to consider changing majors. He changed majors and completed his bachelor's degree in Theatre Arts at Santa Clara University. He has Italian and Norwegian ancestry.


title: Michael Trucco

text: Trucco became active in television in the late 1990s with appearances in episodes of "Touched by an Angel", "Silk Stalkings", "Beverly Hills, 90210", Sabrina The Teenage Witch", ", and "" among others. He continued appearing in shows of similar genres like "", "Heartbeart", "Strong Medicine", "", and others into the 2000s. He played Cooper Lee in six episodes of "One Tree Hill" from 2005 to 2006.


title: Michael Trucco

text: In 2002, Trucco starred in "". In 2005, he joined the drama "Battlestar Galactica" in the role of Samuel Anders. In 2008, he guest-starred on NBC's "" and "The Big Bang Theory". In 2010, he guest-starred on ABC's series "Castle" as Detective Tom Demming. In 2010, Trucco was cast as a series regular in the USA Network series "Fairly Legal".


title: Michael Trucco

text: Trucco guest-starred in a season 6 episode of "How I Met Your Mother" in 2011, and had a recurring role in the show's eighth season. He played the recurring character Nate Ryan in the second season of "Revenge".


title: Michael Trucco

text: On Sunday, December 2, 2007, Trucco was involved in a car accident with a friend who was driving a Ferrari 360 on the Pacific Coast Highway in Malibu, California. The vehicle flipped on an embankment, landing upside-down, impacting Trucco's side of the car. Trucco was badly injured in the accident, fracturing four of his vertebrae, whereas his friend walked away uninjured. He has stated that he initially lost feeling in his arms. He was eventually able to get out of the vehicle after regaining feeling in his hands and used his cell phone to call for emergency help. He was airlifted to UCLA Medical Center for further care. On December 10, 2007 he was released from the hospitals care. Doctors said he was extremely lucky, suffering almost the same injury as Christopher Reeve.


title: Godhra train burning

text: The Godhra train burning occurred on the morning of 27 February 2002, in which 59 Hindu pilgrims and "karsevaks" returning from Ayodhya were killed in a fire inside the Sabarmati Express train near the Godhra railway station in the Indian state of Gujarat. The commission set up by the Government of Gujarat to investigate the train burning spent 6 years going over the details of the case, and concluded that the fire was arson committed by a Muslim mob of 1,000 to 2,000 people. A commission appointed by the central government, whose appointment was later held to be unconstitutional, stated that the fire had been an accident. A court convicted a group of 31 Muslim individuals for the incident and the conspiracy for the crime.


title: Godhra train burning

text: The conviction was later upheld by the Gujarat High Court. The causes of the fire are frequently disputed. The event is widely perceived as the trigger for the Gujarat riots that followed, which resulted in widespread loss of life, destruction of property and homelessness. Estimates of casualties range from the official figures of 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus, to upwards of 2,000 casualties.


title: Godhra train burning

text: In February 2002, thousands of devotees of Rama (known as "Ramsevaks" or "Kar Sevaks") had gone from Gujarat to Ayodhya at the behest of the Vishva Hindu Parishad to take part in a ceremony called the "Purnahuti Maha Yagna". On 25 February, 1,700 people, a mix of pilgrims and "karsevaks" boarded the Sabarmati Express which was bound for Ahmedabad. On 27 February 2002, the train made its scheduled stop at Godhra about four hours late, at 7:43 am. As the train started leaving the platform, someone pulled the emergency brake and the train stopped near the signal point. The driver of the train later stated that the chain had been pulled multiple times, judging by the instruments in his cabin.


title: Godhra train burning

text: Then, according to one narrative, the train was attacked by a mob of around 2,000 people. After some stone-pelting, four coaches of the train were set alight, trapping many people inside. 59 people including 27 women and 10 children were burnt to death, and 48 others were injured. According to J Mahapatra, additional director general of the Gujarat police, "miscreants had kept the petrol-soaked rags ready for use much before the train had arrived at Godhra". In September 2008 the Nanavati-Mehta Commission submitted the part of its report covering the Godhra train burning incident (Part I) in which it had concluded that burning of the S-6 coach of Sabarmati Express near Godhra railway station was a "planned conspiracy".


title: Godhra train burning

text: However the actual cause of the fire is disputed. In 2003, The Concerned Citizens Tribunal (CCT) concluded that the fire had been an accident. Several other independent commentators have also concluded that the fire itself was almost certainly an accident, saying that the initial cause of the conflagration has never been conclusively determined. Historian Ainslie Thomas Embree stated that the official story of the attack on the train (that it was organized and carried out by people under orders from Pakistan) was entirely baseless. Scholar Martha Nussbaum has also challenged this narrative, stating that several inquiries have found that the conflagration was the result of an accident rather than a planned conspiracy.


title: Godhra train burning

text: A study conducted by the Gujarat Forensic Science Laboratory report states that the fire was due to the inflammable liquid emptied by the attackers into the coach. Furthermore, the fire got initiated from inside as a result there were very less burn marks on the outside of the coach below the windows.


title: Godhra train burning

text: On 6 March 2002 the Gujarat government set up a commission of inquiry to investigate the incident and submit a report, the chairman and sole member of which was retired Gujarat High Court judge K G Shah. However, Shah's alleged closeness to Narendra Modi generated fierce criticism from the victims, human rights organisations, and political parties, and led to a demand for the appointment of a Supreme Court judge to the commission. As a result, the government reconstituted the commission into a two-member committee, appointing retired Supreme Court judge G T Nanavati to lead the commission, which thus became known as the "Nanavati-Shah Commission". Shah died in March 2008, just a few months prior to the committee submitting its first report, and the Gujarat High Court then appointed retired judge Akshay Kumar Mehta to the committee on 6 April 2008. The commission, during its six-year probe, examined more than 40,000 documents and the testimonies of more than 1,000 witnesses. The initial term of the committee was three months long; however, it received 22 extensions, till June 2014, to submit its final report.


title: Godhra train burning

text: In September 2008, the commission submitted the "Part I" of the report dealing with the Godhra incident, in which it supported the theory originally propounded by the Gujarat police. Maulvi Husain Haji Ibrahim Umarji, a cleric in Godhra, and a dismissed Central Reserve Police Force officer named Nanumiyan were presented as the "masterminds" behind the operation. The evidence marshalled by the committee in favour of this conclusion was a statement made by Jabir Binyamin Behra, a criminal in custody at the time, although he later denied giving any such statement. In addition, the alleged acquisition of 140 litres of petrol hours before the arrival of the train and the storage of the petrol at the guest house of Razzak Kurkur, accused of being a key conspirator, and forensic evidence showing that fuel was poured on the train coach before it burnt, was presented by the committee. The report concluded that the train was attacked by thousands of Muslims from the Signal Falia area.


title: Godhra train burning

text: The Communist Party of India (Marxist) and the Indian National Congress objected to the exoneration of the Gujarat government by the commission citing the timing of the report (with general elections months away) as evidence of unfairness. Congress spokesperson Veerappa Moily commented at the strange absolvement of the Gujarat government for complacency for the carnage before the commission's second and final report had been brought out. The CPI(M) said that the report reinforced communal prejudices. The commission has been heavily criticised by academics such as Christophe Jaffrelot for obstructing the course of justice, supporting the conspiracy theory too quickly, and for allegedly ignoring evidence of governmental complicity in the incident.


title: Godhra train burning

text: On 17 May 2004, with the victory of the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) in the Indian general election, Lalu Prasad Yadav was appointed railway minister. In September 2004, two and half years after the train burning, Yadav appointed former Supreme Court Justice Umesh Chandra Banerjee to investigate the incident. In January 2005 Banerjee presented his interim report, which tentatively ascribed the fire as an "accidental fire," after ruling out other theories. He cited a forensic report stating that the injuries on the victims were only compatible with an "internal fire." The report was also critical of the railways' handling of the evidence relevant to the case.


title: Godhra train burning

text: Banerjee's findings were challenged in the Gujarat High Court by Neelkanth Tulsidas Bhatia, who was injured in the incident. In October 2006, the court quashed the conclusions of Banerjee and ruled that the investigation was "unconstitutional, illegal and null and void", declared its formation to be a "colourable exercise of power with mala fide intentions", and its argument of accidental fire "opposed to the prima facie accepted facts on record." The High Court also directed that the report should not be tabled in the Parliament.


title: Godhra train burning

text: The BJP, which was then in opposition in the union parliament, dismissed the report as an attempt to gain an advantage in the Bihar elections which were to be held soon. It welcomed the High Court judgement, saying that it was a setback for the Congress. Lalu Prasad Yadav, then the minister for railways, cited the report as proof that the Narendra Modi government had organized the riots that followed, and called it an exposure of the BJP.


title: Godhra train burning

text: By 28 February 2002, 51 people had been arrested for the incident on charges of arson, rioting and looting. One of the alleged organisers of the attack was arrested in West Bengal. West Bengal's Chief Secretary, Sourin Roy, said the detainee was a commander of the Muslim radical group Harkat-ul Jehad-e-Islami, who was allegedly attempting to enter Bangladesh. On 17 March 2002, chief suspect Haji Bilal, a local town councillor and a Congress worker, was captured by an anti-terrorist squad in Godhra. The FIR had alleged that a 1540-strong mob attacked the Sabarmati Express on 27 February, minutes after the delayed train left the Godhra station on the day of the incident. The president of Godhra municipality, Mohammed Hussain Kalota, was arrested in March. Others arrested included corporators Abdul Razak and Shiraj Abdul Jamesha. Bilal was also alleged to have a connection with gang leader Latif and was reported to have visited Karachi in Pakistan several times.


title: Godhra train burning

text: The charge-sheet filed by the SIT before first class railway magistrate P. K. Joshi, which ran to more than 500 pages, stated that 59 people were killed in the S-6 coach of Sabarmati Express when a mob of around 1540 unidentified people attacked it near Godhra railway station. The 68 people accused in the charge-sheet included 57 accused of stoning and torching the train. The charge-sheet also stated that a mob attacked the police, prevented the fire brigade from approaching the burning train, and stormed the train for a second time. 11 others were charged with being part of this mob. Initially, 107 people were charged, five of whom died while the case was still pending in court. Eight others were juveniles, who were tried by a separate court. As many as 253 witnesses were examined during the trial and over items of 1500 documentary evidences were presented to the court. On 24 July 2015, the prime accused in the Godhra case, Hussain Suleman Mohammad, was arrested by the Godhra crime branch from Jhabua district of Madhya Pradesh. On 18 May 2016, a heretofore missing `conspirator' of the event, Farooq Bhana, was Arrested from Mumbai by Gujarat Anti-Terrorist Squad (ATS). On 30 January 2018, Yakub Pataliya (63) was arrested from Godhra by a team of B Division police in the town after they received a tip-off that he was spotted in a locality.


title: Godhra train burning

text: On 3 March 2002, The Prevention of Terrorism Ordinance was invoked against all the accused which was later suspended due to pressure from the Central government. On 9 March 2002, Police added Criminal Conspiracy to the charges. In May 2003, the first charge sheet was filed against 54 accused, but they were not charged under the Prevention of Terrorism Act (POTA became an Act as it was cleared by Parliament). In February 2003, the POTA was re-invoked against all the accused after the BJP retained control of the Gujarat legislature in the 2002 assembly elections.


title: Godhra train burning

text: In November 2003, the Supreme Court of India put a stay on the trial. In 2004, the POTA was repealed after the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) came to power, prompting it to review the invocation of the POTA against the accused. In May 2005, the POTA review commission decided not to charge the accused under POTA. This was later unsuccessfully challenged by a relative of the victim before the Gujarat High Court and later on appeal before Supreme Court. In September 2008, the Nanavati Commission submitted its report on the incident. In 2009, after accepting the report of the Special Investigation Team (SIT) appointed by it, the court appointed a special fast-track court to try the case along with 5 other fast track courts established to try the post-incident riots. The bench hearing the case also said that public prosecutors should be appointed in consultation with the SIT chairman. It ordered that the SIT would be the nodal agency for deciding about witness protection and also asked that it file supplementary charge sheets and that it may cancel the bail of the accused. More than 100 people were arrested in relation to the incident. The court was set up inside the Sabarmati Central Jail, where almost all of the accused were confined. The hearing began in May 2009. Additional Sessions Judge P R Patel was designated to hear the case.


title: Godhra train burning

text: In May 2010, Supreme Court restrained the trial courts from pronouncing judgement in nine sensitive riot cases, including Godhra train incident. The trial was completed in September 2010; however, the verdict could not be delivered because of the Supreme Court stay. The stay was lifted in January 2011 and the judge announced that he shall pronounce the judgement on 22 February 2011.


title: Godhra train burning

text: In February 2011, the trial court convicted 31 people and acquitted 63 others, saying the incident was a planned conspiracy. The convictions were based on the murder and conspiracy provisions of Sections 302 and 120B of the Indian Penal Code respectively and under Sections 149, 307, 323, 324, 325, 326, 332, 395, 397, and 436 of the Code and some sections of the Railway Act and Police Act. The death penalty was awarded to 11 convicts; those believed to have been present at a meeting held the night before the incident where the conspiracy was formed, and those who, according to the court, had actually entered the coach and poured petrol before setting it afire. Twenty others were sentenced to life imprisonment.


title: Godhra train burning

text: Maulvi Saeed Umarji, who was believed by the SIT to be the prime conspirator, was acquitted along with 62 other accused for lack of evidence. The convicted filed appeals in the Gujarat High Court. The state government also challenged the trial court's decision to acquit 61 persons in the High Court and sought death sentences for 20 convicts awarded life imprisonment in the case.


title: Godhra train burning

text: In October 2017, accepting prosecution's contention that there was a conspiracy behind the incident, the Gujarat High Court commuted the death sentence of 11 convicts to life imprisonment, while upholding the earlier life sentence of 20 others. Thus, all the 31 accused who were convicted earlier in 2011 by the SIT court were given life imprisonment. while, 63 others who were acquitted in 2011 by trial court, were re-acquitted by high court, including the alleged mastermind. The court asked the state government and railways to pay 10 lakh compensation to the families of each of the 59 victims.


title: Godhra train burning

text: BJP spokesperson Shahnawaz Hussain stated, "The theory propagated by the (central) government and some NGOs (Non-Governmental Organization) has been proved wrong..." Law Minister Veerappa Moily (a Congress Party member) said it was premature to comment and that the courts will take their own course. R. K. Raghavan, who was the head of the Special Investigating Team, said he was satisfied with the verdict. BJP spokesperson, Ravi Shankar Prasad said the verdict had exposed the nefarious designs of the UPA government which tried to cover up the entire episode.


title: Present perfect

text: The present perfect is a grammatical combination of the present tense and perfect aspect that is used to express a past event that has present consequences. The term is used particularly in the context of English grammar to refer to forms like "I have finished". The forms are "present" because they use the present tense of the auxiliary verb "have", and "perfect" because they use that auxiliary in combination with the past participle of the main verb. (Other perfect constructions also exist, such as the past perfect: "I had eaten.")


title: Present perfect

text: Analogous forms are found in some other languages, and they may also be described as present perfect; they often have other names such as the German "Perfekt", the French "passé composé" and the Italian "passato prossimo". They may also have different ranges of usage: in all three of the languages just mentioned, the forms in question serve as a general past tense, at least for completed actions.


title: Present perfect

text: In English, completed actions in many contexts are referred to using the simple past verb form rather than the present perfect. English also has a present perfect continuous (or present perfect progressive) form, which combines present tense with both perfect aspect and continuous (progressive) aspect: "I have been eating". The action is not necessarily complete; and the same is true of certain uses of the basic present perfect when the verb expresses a state or a habitual action: "I have lived here for five years."


title: Present perfect

text: In modern English, the auxiliary verb used to form the present perfect is always "to have". A typical present perfect clause thus consists of the subject, the auxiliary "have/has", and the past participle (third form) of main verb. Examples:


title: Present perfect

text: Early Modern English used both "to have" and "to be" as perfect auxiliaries. The usage differs in that "to have" expressed emphasis in the process of the action that was completed, whereas "to be" put the emphasis in the final state after the action is completed. Examples of the second can be found in older texts: