title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: During the live tapings, and prior to the show, there was an audience warm-up, during which the audience watched a montage of highlights from the show, and staff writer Brian McCann greeted the audience (this task was formerly undertaken by head writer Mike Sweeney). McCann delivered a few jokes, told the audience what to expect, and finally introduced the band and then O'Brien. O'Brien then thanked the audience for coming, meeting as many audience members as he could. He would often then do a musical number with the band to pump up the audience ("Burning Love" was one standard). After the show was finished taping, O'Brien sang the "End of the Show Song", which never aired on Late Night, although in February 2009, a short video of it was posted on Late Night Underground. The End of the Show Song finally did reach air on January 21, 2010, his penultimate show as Tonight Show host. It also was aired on the March 29, 2012 episode of Conan. The tradition of singing The End of the Show Song has continued, un-aired as usual, on "Conan".


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: "Late Night" began broadcasting in 1080i ATSC on April 26, 2005, with a downscaled letterboxed NTSC simulcast (unlike "The Tonight Show", whose NTSC simulcast is fullscreen). O'Brien celebrated the conversion to the widescreen HDTV format with jokes throughout the week.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: On December 6, 2005 "Late Night with Conan O'Brien" segments began selling on the iTunes Store. Most segments were priced at $1.99, as were most episodes of other shows, with "special" best-ofs and other longer segments priced at $9.99. In December, 2007 NBC stopped selling all its television shows on iTunes, but the network returned it to iTunes in September 2008 after NBC and Apple worked out a new agreement. The show was offered free at Hulu.com and the NBC website but has been unavailable on the Internet since the 2010 "Tonight Show" conflict. However, in May 2018, O'Brien and his current network, TBS, announced they would partner with NBC to make his entire "Late Night" archives available online, marking the 25th anniversary of O'Brien's late night debut.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: Remote pieces shot on location were a recurring staple on "Late Night", but occasionally, entire episodes were shot on location, usually during sweeps months. The first vacation for the show was a week-long stint of shows in Los Angeles the week of November 9–12, 1999. This was the only location week for the show while Andy Richter was with the show, and the only time the show's theme was altered for the week, with a more surf-style version of the show's normal theme (though the Toronto shows ended the normal theme with a piece of "O Canada"). The show was broadcast from NBC's L.A. studios (NBC Studios Burbank) and an L.A.-themed set was built, very similar in layout to the New York set.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: From February 10–13, 2004, "Late Night" broadcast from the Elgin Theatre in Toronto, Canada. The guests for these episodes were all Canadians (with the exception of Adam Sandler), and included such stars as Jim Carrey and Mike Myers. As the show was taped at a theater, unlike the trip to L.A., the set built was not like the show's standard set.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: From May 9–12, 2006, the show made a similar venture to the Chicago Theatre in Chicago, Illinois, taking cues from their previous trip to Toronto. Between April 30 – May 4, 2007, the show originated from the Orpheum Theatre in San Francisco.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: In a sketch called "Conan O'Brien Hates My Homeland", Conan mocked every nation in the world to see which ones he gets letters from. An announcer on the Finnish entertainment channel SubTV, which airs the show a couple of days after it is aired in the US, asked people to defend Finland before Conan got to insult it, and the viewers in Finland began sending mail before the bit had even gotten to the letter F. Conan responded by assuming the Finnish "just couldn't wait" to be insulted and officially insulted Finland in the segment. An overwhelming number of postcards were supposedly received, which apparently "forced" Conan to give Finland a formal apology. Conan then went as far as to have the flag of Finland shown in the background during a speech and slandered the Finns' "hated" neighbor Sweden with a sign saying "Sweden Sucks!" printed over the flag of Sweden. It would seem that this chain of events led to elevated ratings in Finland and subsequently also sparked a special relationship with the viewers in Finland. Later when Conan was talking to audience members before the show, a group of fans visiting from Finland commented that he resembled their female president Tarja Halonen. Conan mentioned the resemblance on his show, even showing pictures of Halonen next to himself. When he discovered that Halonen was up for reelection he began making satirical commercials in support of Halonen and vowed to travel to Finland to meet her if she won re-election. When she did indeed win re-election in January 2006, Conan traveled to Finland and met with her. One episode, broadcast on March 10, 2006, was compiled mainly of footage from O'Brien's trip to Finland. In the episode, Conan greeted fans at the airport, participated in a Sami cultural ceremony, appeared on a Finnish talk show, and attempted to visit a fan who had written to him. The episode was not strictly taped as a live episode there, however, but was prefaced by an introduction by O'Brien taped in New York. The Finland episode came as the culmination of a long-running joke on the show.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: Aside from location shows, the show also did special one-shots in its early years. In 1995, one episode of the show was taped aboard a New York City ferry in New York Harbor. Dubbed "The Show on a Boat" by the showtunes-style song-and-dance number performed by a trio of "sailors" at the start of the show, O'Brien, Richter, the band and guests were all crammed onto the deck of the ferry. The show was taped at its normal afternoon time, while it was still light out.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: A more unexpected shoot occurred on October 10, 1996, when a five-alarm fire in Rockefeller Plaza rendered the 6A studios out of commission for the remainder of that week. The fire occurred on early Thursday morning, which left O'Brien's staff precious little time to assemble a show elsewhere. Pressed for time as 12:35 approached, O'Brien taped the show outside, after dark, despite the cold weather, on a makeshift set with the Prometheus statue and 30 Rock serving as a backdrop.The East L.A. rock band Los Lobos performed in the blustery wind a song from their newest album, "Colossal Head" . Furthering the unfortunate nature of the evening's circumstances was the final guest, Julie Scardina, who brought along wild animals, including birds that Conan explained had to be kept tied up, as they could not be freed outside. Earlier in the show, O'Brien and Richter walked into Brookstone (located in the lobby of Rockefeller Center), camera crew in tow, and bought a massaging leather recliner for the first guest, Samuel L. Jackson. The second of the two "fire shows", on Friday night, was taped in the "Today Show" studio, which was not affected by the fire.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: During the Northeast Blackout of 2003, O'Brien and the staff taped a short 10-minute introduction explaining that the episode they had planned would not be taking place due to the blackout. Studio 6A was powered by a generator and lit by battery-powered floodlights. A standby show was aired in-progress after the intro. One of the scheduled guests that night, The Dandy Warhols, commandeered the studio's green room, where they stayed until they performed on the show the next night.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: A lot of high-concept gimmick episodes were done in the early years of the show, such as a 1994 episode literally done in a giant hole, a 1995 show done entirely on a boat of the circle line or "Time Travel Week", four episodes from early 1996, where Conan and Andy (and the rest of the crew) "time-traveled" to a different point in time each night. Times and locations included The Civil War, Ancient Greece, The future, and The early '80s (featuring a cameo by David Letterman in the cold open, who occupied Conan's studio in 1983, cruelly brushing off Conan and Andy's attempt at explaining their presence in Letterman's dressing room by saying, "Why don't you two fellas go find a nice, warm place to screw yourselves? Security!").


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: In 1997, a special episode was taped in which the studio audience was composed solely of grade-school age children, primarily 5–10 years of age. Conan interacted with the children, encouraging them to laugh and cheer to keep away the boredom monster.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: The February 19, 1998 episode was aired against coverage of the 1998 Winter Olympics on CBS, and therefore, Conan assumed no one was watching, and they could do anything. He and Andy took to performing increasingly outrageous acts, such as Conan revealing a Hanson T-shirt under his shirt and tie, and confessing his hatred for the NBC screen bug, going as far as to kill it with a can of Raid. He and Andy also smoked on the air (with a cutaway showing a mother finding her two kids imitating Conan), Max Weinberg confessed to killing Bruce Springsteen's previous drummer, as well as a number of other people he didn't like (even showing a map of where he buried them), Al Roker walked into the studio and confessed he never liked the weather, and Conan asked a female audience member to have consensual sex with him, which the woman vehemently refused. The event became known as "Nobody's Watching".


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: The October 18, 2002 episode was re-shot entirely in clay animation nearly seven months after its first airing, including the opening credits and commercial bumpers. The episode's originally broadcast soundtrack was retained while the visuals were reproduced to mirror the original footage in a small-scale reproduction of the studio 6A.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: On October 31, 2006, a similarly conceptualized Halloween episode was created from an episode which originally aired in May and featured Larry King, among other guests. Using a process the show called "Skelevision", all the visuals were re-shot with a Halloween motif, with human skeletons adorned with the clothing and accessories of the humans. This re-shoot was shot using the actual studio, and the puppeteers moved the skeletons with wires and cables while being visually obscured by green screen technology. Once again, the opening and bumpers were altered, this time including a model of a hearse winding through a foggy landscape and cemetery, and the voice of Bill Hader as Vincent Price in place of Joel Godard.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: The October 5, 2005 episode of "Late Night" was devoted entirely to the band U2, marking the first time in the show's then 13-year run that it had devoted an entire show to a single guest. Jim Pitt, the talent executive in charge of booking acts for the show, remarked that in his 12 years of working for "Late Night", U2 and Johnny Cash were the "dream artists" he'd tried, but never succeeded in getting. The band performed three songs, two more than the customary one song, then had a lengthy interview with Conan.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: After two months of being off-air, the first show to air during the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike on January 2, 2008 featured a small musical segment at the beginning of the show detailing O'Brien's newly grown beard in a show of support for the striking writers. At the beginning of the January 28 episode, it was revealed that Conan had shaved his beard, which was followed with a similar musical segment.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: Several times during the episodes produced during the writer's strike, O'Brien would kill time by spinning his wedding ring on his desk, which he previously only did during rehearsals. His personal best was 41 seconds, achieved during an un-aired rehearsal. After several unsuccessful on-air attempts to break his record, during the show originally broadcast on February 9, 2008, O'Brien broke his record for endurance ring spinning, setting a time of 51 seconds by coating his wedding ring with Vaseline and spinning it on a Teflon surface. The feat was accomplished with the help of MIT physics professor Peter Fisher. These episodes are considered by most fans to be the "magnum opus" of O'Brien's television career, considering the spontaneity of each episode. The strike also gave rise to associate producer Jordan Schlansky's repeated appearances on the show as an embellished version of himself.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: Early on in the later half of the 2007–2008 Writer's Guild strike, Conan O'Brien accused his show of being the sole cause of presidential candidate Mike Huckabee's status in the polls, due to his use of the "Walker, Texas Ranger" Lever while Chuck Norris was coincidentally sponsoring Huckabee. Stephen Colbert made the claim that because of "the Colbert bump," he was responsible for Huckabee's current success in the 2008 presidential race. O'Brien claimed that he was responsible for Colbert's success because he had made mention of him on his show. In response, Jon Stewart, host of "The Daily Show", claimed that he was responsible for the success of O'Brien, and in turn the success of Huckabee and Colbert. This resulted in a three-part comedic battle among the three hosts, with all three appearing on each other's shows. The feud ended on "Late Night" with an all-out mock brawl between the three talk-show hosts.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: In 1996, a third anniversary episode was taped, though it aired in the regular 12:35/11:35 late night time slot. The show was composed of clips of the best of the first three years, and featured cameos from many former guests, including Janeane Garofalo, Scott Thompson, Tony Randall and George Wendt. Typical of O'Brien's style of comedy, he introduced his first guest (Wendt) by listing his notable achievements in television (particularly "Cheers") then introduced each subsequent guest by repeatedly listing Wendt's achievements (insinuating that all of his guests for that night's show played the role of Norm on "Cheers"). In 1998, "Late Night" aired a fifth anniversary special in prime time, mostly consisting of clips from the first five years. It was taped in the "Saturday Night Live" studio, also in the GE Building. The special was later sold on VHS tape. In 2003, a similar tenth anniversary special was taped in New York City's famed Beacon Theatre and later made available on DVD.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: "Late Night with Conan O'Brien"s last episode was recorded February 20, 2009, and aired shortly after midnight that next morning. The episode featured clips from past shows and a reflection on the show's sixteen-year-long run. John Mayer sent a farewell video message, singing a song about how Los Angeles is "going to eat [Conan] alive." In a short remote piece, Conan released regular contributor Abe Vigoda "into the wild," as he could not bring him to Los Angeles for the move to "The Tonight Show". Will Ferrell made a surprise visit as George W. Bush, which quickly devolved into Ferrell tearing off his business suit to reveal an ill-fitting green leprechaun outfit that had been worn in a number of previous appearances on the show.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: Former sidekick Andy Richter, who re-joined O'Brien when he took over "The Tonight Show" in June, joined O'Brien onstage for two segments, watching clips and reminiscing about the show. Among the clips shown, O'Brien noted that his all-time favorite "Late Night" piece was when he attended a re-enactment of an American Civil War-era baseball game, played at a Long Island, New York museum, Old Bethpage Village Restoration. During the course of the final week, O'Brien began violently dismantling and handing out pieces of the production set to the audience. In the final show, a large piece of the stage's frame was pulled down and chopped into pieces. O'Brien then promised to give each audience member in attendance a piece of the set.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: One of Conan's favorite bands, The White Stripes, performed a new, slower arrangement of their song "We're Going to Be Friends" based on Conan's lullaby rendition of the song, with drummer Meg White playing second guitar and singing along with vocalist/guitarist Jack White. The performance proved to be the band's last before their breakup in February 2011. The program concluded with a visibly emotional O'Brien giving a farewell speech from behind his desk, thanking his fans, writers, producers, backstage crew, his family, the Max Weinberg 7, David Letterman, Joel Godard, Jay Leno, and Lorne Michaels, as well as a final assurance that he would not "grow up" as he moved to "The Tonight Show".


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: About 3.4 million viewers watched O'Brien's final episode of "Late Night", the largest audience since the January 24, 2005 episode that followed Jay Leno's tribute to Johnny Carson.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: After the end of the series, Studio 6A at Rockefeller Center was remodeled for "The Dr. Oz Show". In the summer of 2013, NBC moved "Late Night with Jimmy Fallon" to Studio 6A while 6B, which housed "Late Night" since Fallon succeeded O'Brien in 2009, was being renovated when Fallon took over "The Tonight Show" on February 17, 2014 while "The Dr. Oz Show" moved to ABC's Upper West Side studios.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: O'Brien's "Late Night" had three long-term permanent sets, but retained the basic structure used when Letterman occupied Studio 6A: the performance space at the viewer's left, and the desk area, to the viewer's right, where interviews were done. O'Brien did his monologue in the performance area, emerging at the start of each episode from the area where musical guests perform. The Max Weinberg 7 were in the corner made by the stage-right wall and the wall in front of the audience. The desk area had a desk for O'Brien, a chair and couch(es) to the viewer's left for guests (and originally Andy Richter), and a coffee table.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: Primarily, set changes involved the background behind the desk and chair and couch. The original set, used from the show's debut in 1993 until the fall of 1996, was primarily yellow, and the desk background resembled the living room of a New York City apartment, with windows that looked out at a Manhattan backdrop. For years afterwards, O'Brien mocked this original set, particularly its "mustard color". The two subsequent set designs featured darker blues and violets to emulate the feel of nighttime, with the final set featuring a balcony railing in front of a backdrop with the view from the top of Rockefeller Center. This set debuted on September 4, 2001, and necessitated changes almost instantly as its backdrop view of New York City contained the World Trade Center, which was destroyed a week later. A special curtain was used to obstruct the towers temporarily, until eventually the curtain became a permanent part of the set design even after the backdrop was altered. During his final week of episodes, Conan took an axe to parts of the set, giving it out to audience members as souvenirs, not wanting to allow it to simply be thrown away.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: CNBC Europe used to air "Late Night with Conan O'Brien" on weeknights from 11:45 pm–12:30 am CET, with weekend editions on Saturdays and Sundays at 9:45 pm–10:30 pm CET. However, in March 2007, CNBC Europe decided to show only the weekend editions, and drop the weeknight editions, to make way for more business news programmes in their weeknight schedules.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: On the week of August 4, 2008, however, CNBC Europe has discontinued showing the "NBC Nightly News", which for many years was shown live from America in a 12:30 am–1:00 am CET slot. "Late Night with Conan O'Brien" has now replaced "NBC Nightly News" in the 12:30 am–1:00 am slot. The weeknight editions are a 30-minute condensed version of the show. The show follows the weeknight condensed version of "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno" which airs at 12:00 am CET.


title: Late Night with Conan O'Brien

text: In September 2008, CNBC Europe changed the weeknight schedules to include full uncut editions of "Late Night with Conan O'Brien" broadcast in the 11:45 am CET/10:45 pm GMT 45-minute time slot. This schedule usually runs from Tuesdays to Fridays. CNBC Europe decided to stop broadcasting Late Night as of January 1, 2009, a mere two months before Conan's last show as host. Instead of following "The Tonight Show" reruns on weekends, CNBC now broadcasts two "Tonight Show" episodes in a row.


title: Flag Day (film)

text: Flag Day is a 2021 American drama film directed by and starring Sean Penn. His daughter Dylan Penn co-stars. It premiered in competition at the 2021 Cannes Film Festival. It was released on August 20, 2021, by United Artists Releasing. The film has received mixed reviews from critics.


title: Flag Day (film)

text: The daughter of a con artist struggles to come to terms with her father's past, involving the fourth-largest seizure of counterfeit bills in U.S. history, nearly $20 million. Based on Jennifer Vogel's 2004 book, "Flim-Flam Man : A True Family History".


title: Flag Day (film)

text: In March 2012, "theplaylist.net" reported Penn's interest in "Flim-Flam Man" with Alejandro González Iñárritu directing.


title: Flag Day (film)

text: It had been announced in March 2019 that a casting call for the film had been issued, with filming for the project due to commence in Winnipeg, Canada.


title: Flag Day (film)

text: Filming began in June with the cast including Penn and his children Dylan Penn and Hopper Penn. Josh Brolin, Miles Teller and Katheryn Winnick were also among the cast announced. In July 2019, James Russo was confirmed as part of the cast. On August 1, 2019, scenes were filmed at the Fort Garry campus of the University of Manitoba. On September 6, 2019, filming took place at Piedras Blancas in San Luis Obispo County, California.


title: Flag Day (film)

text: In an interview with "Deadline Hollywood" at the 2021 Cannes Film Festival, Penn said that he initially thought that it would be something he might act in, but after trouble identifying the right director he took on the offer as it was a movie that he would have liked to see get made. It is the first film directed by Penn in which he also appears.


title: Flag Day (film)

text: The film had its world premiere at the Cannes Film Festival in July 2021. Prior to the festival, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer acquired U.S. distribution rights to the film, with plans to release it later that year through their joint venture, United Artists Releasing. It was released on August 20, 2021. It was previously scheduled to be released on August 13, but moved back a week to avoid competing with another MGM film, "Respect".


title: Flag Day (film)

text: The soundtrack to "Flag Day" features original music by Eddie Vedder, Glen Hansard and Cat Power. The first single, "My Father's Daughter" marks the musical debut of Vedder's then-17-year-old daughter Olivia, who also sings lead on the song "There's a Girl". The album with the thirteen-track soundtrack was released on August 20, 2021.


title: Flag Day (film)

text: "Flag Day" was released in 24 theaters and made $40,750 in its opening weekend. According to "Deadline Hollywood", the film was targeting an "older, sophisticated demo." In its initial release, 56% of all audiences were over the age of 55, low numbers that were credited to the Delta variant. The film was screened in 50 theaters in its second weekend.


title: Flag Day (film)

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 40% based on 86 reviews, with an average rating of 5.30/10. The site's critics consensus reads: ""Flag Day" benefits from powerful performances and a moving fact-based story, but it's largely lost in the movie's melodramatic din." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 53 out of 100, based on 24 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Pure mathematics

text: Pure mathematics is the study of mathematical concepts independently of any application outside mathematics. These concepts may originate in real-world concerns, and the results obtained may later turn out to be useful for practical applications, but pure mathematicians are not primarily motivated by such applications. Instead, the appeal is attributed to the intellectual challenge and aesthetic beauty of working out the logical consequences of basic principles.


title: Pure mathematics

text: While pure mathematics has existed as an activity since at least Ancient Greece, the concept was elaborated upon around the year 1900, after the introduction of theories with counter-intuitive properties (such as non-Euclidean geometries and Cantor's theory of infinite sets), and the discovery of apparent paradoxes (such as continuous functions that are nowhere differentiable, and Russell's paradox). This introduced the need to renew the concept of mathematical rigor and rewrite all mathematics accordingly, with a systematic use of axiomatic methods. This led many mathematicians to focus on mathematics for its own sake, that is, pure mathematics.


title: Pure mathematics

text: Nevertheless, almost all mathematical theories remained motivated by problems coming from the real world or from less abstract mathematical theories. Also, many mathematical theories, which had seemed to be totally pure mathematics, were eventually used in applied areas, mainly physics and computer science. A famous early example is Isaac Newton's demonstration that his law of universal gravitation implied that planets move in orbits that are conic sections, geometrical curves that had been studied in antiquity by Apollonius. Another example is the problem of factoring large integers, which is the basis of the RSA cryptosystem, widely used to secure internet communications.


title: Pure mathematics

text: It follows that, presently, the distinction between pure and applied mathematics is more a philosophical point of view or a mathematician's preference rather than a rigid subdivision of mathematics. In particular, it is not uncommon that some members of a department of applied mathematics describe themselves as pure mathematicians.


title: Pure mathematics

text: Ancient Greek mathematicians were among the earliest to make a distinction between pure and applied mathematics. Plato helped to create the gap between "arithmetic", now called number theory, and "logistic", now called arithmetic. Plato regarded logistic (arithmetic) as appropriate for businessmen and men of war who "must learn the art of numbers or [they] will not know how to array [their] troops" and arithmetic (number theory) as appropriate for philosophers "because [they have] to arise out of the sea of change and lay hold of true being." Euclid of Alexandria, when asked by one of his students of what use was the study of geometry, asked his slave to give the student threepence, "since he must make gain of what he learns." The Greek mathematician Apollonius of Perga was asked about the usefulness of some of his theorems in Book IV of "Conics" to which he proudly asserted,


title: Pure mathematics

text: They are worthy of acceptance for the sake of the demonstrations themselves, in the same way as we accept many other things in mathematics for this and for no other reason.


title: Pure mathematics

text: And since many of his results were not applicable to the science or engineering of his day, Apollonius further argued in the preface of the fifth book of "Conics" that the subject is one of those that "...seem worthy of study for their own sake."


title: Pure mathematics

text: The term itself is enshrined in the full title of the Sadleirian Chair, "Sadleirian Professor of Pure Mathematics", founded (as a professorship) in the mid-nineteenth century. The idea of a separate discipline of "pure" mathematics may have emerged at that time. The generation of Gauss made no sweeping distinction of the kind, between "pure" and "applied". In the following years, specialisation and professionalisation (particularly in the Weierstrass approach to mathematical analysis) started to make a rift more apparent.


title: Pure mathematics

text: At the start of the twentieth century mathematicians took up the axiomatic method, strongly influenced by David Hilbert's example. The logical formulation of pure mathematics suggested by Bertrand Russell in terms of a quantifier structure of propositions seemed more and more plausible, as large parts of mathematics became axiomatised and thus subject to the simple criteria of "rigorous proof".


title: Pure mathematics

text: Pure mathematics, according to a view that can be ascribed to the Bourbaki group, is what is proved. "Pure mathematician" became a recognized vocation, achievable through training.


title: Pure mathematics

text: One central concept in pure mathematics is the idea of generality; pure mathematics often exhibits a trend towards increased generality. Uses and advantages of generality include the following:


title: Pure mathematics

text: Generality's impact on intuition is both dependent on the subject and a matter of personal preference or learning style. Often generality is seen as a hindrance to intuition, although it can certainly function as an aid to it, especially when it provides analogies to material for which one already has good intuition.


title: Pure mathematics

text: As a prime example of generality, the Erlangen program involved an expansion of geometry to accommodate non-Euclidean geometries as well as the field of topology, and other forms of geometry, by viewing geometry as the study of a space together with a group of transformations. The study of numbers, called algebra at the beginning undergraduate level, extends to abstract algebra at a more advanced level; and the study of functions, called calculus at the college freshman level becomes mathematical analysis and functional analysis at a more advanced level. Each of these branches of more "abstract" mathematics have many sub-specialties, and there are in fact many connections between pure mathematics and applied mathematics disciplines. A steep rise in abstraction was seen mid 20th century.


title: Pure mathematics

text: In practice, however, these developments led to a sharp divergence from physics, particularly from 1950 to 1983. Later this was criticised, for example by Vladimir Arnold, as too much Hilbert, not enough Poincaré. The point does not yet seem to be settled, in that string theory pulls one way, while discrete mathematics pulls back towards proof as central.


title: Pure mathematics

text: Mathematicians have always had differing opinions regarding the distinction between pure and applied mathematics. One of the most famous (but perhaps misunderstood) modern examples of this debate can be found in G.H. Hardy's 1940 essay "A Mathematician's Apology". The word "apology" in this instance refers to the archaic definition of "defense" or "explanation," as in Plato's "Apology".


title: Pure mathematics

text: It is widely believed that Hardy considered applied mathematics to be ugly and dull. Although it is true that Hardy preferred pure mathematics, which he often compared to painting and poetry, Hardy saw the distinction between pure and applied mathematics to be simply that applied mathematics sought to express "physical" truth in a mathematical framework, whereas pure mathematics expressed truths that were independent of the physical world. Hardy made a separate distinction in mathematics between what he called "real" mathematics, "which has permanent aesthetic value", and "the dull and elementary parts of mathematics" that have practical use.


title: Pure mathematics

text: Hardy considered some physicists, such as Einstein and Dirac, to be among the "real" mathematicians, but at the time that he was writing his "Apology", he considered general relativity and quantum mechanics to be "useless", which allowed him to hold the opinion that only "dull" mathematics was useful. Moreover, Hardy briefly admitted that—just as the application of matrix theory and group theory to physics had come unexpectedly—the time may come where some kinds of beautiful, "real" mathematics may be useful as well.


title: Pure mathematics

text: Friedrich Engels argued in his 1878 book "Anti-Dühring" that "it is not at all true that in pure mathematics the mind deals only with its own creations and imaginations. The concepts of number and figure have not been invented from any source other than the world of reality". He further argued that "Before one came upon the idea of deducing the form of a cylinder from the rotation of a rectangle about one of its sides, a number of real rectangles and cylinders, however imperfect in form, must have been examined. Like all other sciences, mathematics arose out of the needs of men...But, as in every department of thought, at a certain stage of development the laws, which were abstracted from the real world, become divorced from the real world, and are set up against it as something independent, as laws coming from outside, to which the world has to conform."


title: Chris Sutton

text: Christopher Roy Sutton (born 10 March 1973) is an English former professional football player and manager. He later became a pundit and commentator for BT Sport, regularly working on their coverage of Scottish football. He is now also a pundit and occasional match co-commentator on BBC Radio 5 Live.


title: Chris Sutton

text: He played as a forward from 1991 to 2007 for Norwich City, Blackburn Rovers, Chelsea, Celtic, Birmingham City and Aston Villa. Sutton scored over 150 career goals in over 400 league appearances spanning 16 years in the English and Scottish Premier Leagues. He was capped once by England. He was also known as being one of the foremost exponents of the glancing header. He scored many goals with this technique which made him particularly effective from set-pieces.


title: Chris Sutton

text: In September 2009, Sutton was appointed manager of Lincoln City, but he resigned due to personal reasons twelve months later. In 2012, he came out of retirement briefly and featured for non-league Wroxham.


title: Chris Sutton

text: He started his career at Norwich City, initially as a centre-half before being converted into a striker by manager Dave Stringer. He made his debut on 4 May 1991 in a 1–0 home win over Queens Park Rangers in the First Division.


title: Chris Sutton

text: In Stringer's final season as manager, 1991–92, Norwich were FA Cup semi-finalists and Sutton gradually broke into the first team. Sutton made 21 league appearances that season, scoring twice.


title: Chris Sutton

text: He quickly found success in his new position as Norwich spent most of the first season of the new FA Premier League, 1992–93, as league leaders, before eventually slipping back to third place under new manager Mike Walker. Sutton featured in 38 Premier League games that season, scoring eight goals – making him the club's second highest scorer behind Mark Robins.


title: Chris Sutton

text: In the autumn of 1993, he was part of the Norwich side which famously eliminated Bayern Munich from the UEFA Cup. He scored 25 Premier League goals that season, but after Walker defected to Everton in January to be succeeded by assistant John Deehan, Norwich slipped out of the top five and finished a disappointing 12th in the final table.


title: Chris Sutton

text: By now, Sutton was being linked with some of the biggest clubs in the country, including Blackburn Rovers, Arsenal and Manchester United.


title: Chris Sutton

text: Sutton became the most expensive player in English football in July 1994, when he was transferred from Norwich City to Blackburn Rovers for £5 million.


title: Chris Sutton

text: In his first season at Ewood Park he developed a strong partnership (known as 'SAS') with Alan Shearer and scored fifteen Premier League goals to help secure the club's first league title since 1914.


title: Chris Sutton

text: A succession of injuries, combined with a loss of form, saw him make just 13 Premier League appearances during 1995–96 and fail to score a single league goal. Shearer's regular strike partner that season was Mike Newell, but at the end of the season both Shearer and Newell left the club, leaving Sutton and Kevin Gallacher as Blackburn's only major strikers.


title: Chris Sutton

text: He regained his form over the next three seasons and was the joint highest goalscorer in the Premier League in 1997–98, scoring 18 times.


title: Chris Sutton

text: Sutton was involved in a controversial moment towards the end of the 1996–97 season in a league game against Arsenal at Highbury. Late in the game with "The Gunners" leading by a single goal, the ball was kicked out of play by Arsenal to allow an injured teammate to receive treatment. Under the unwritten sportsmanship rule, Arsenal would expect the ball to be returned to them unhindered. However, Sutton chased the ball instead of allowing it to be thrown back to Arsenal and won a corner from his efforts, from which Blackburn scored. At the end of the season, Arsenal missed out on a lucrative place in the Champions League to Newcastle United on goal difference. Following the incident Blackburn's interim manager Tony Parkes described Sutton as "a boy who was sometimes a bit dizzy ... a bit silly", stating "It was against the spirit of the game and he should not have done it". Sutton refused to apologise for his actions.


title: Chris Sutton

text: Although Sutton's 18 goals helped Blackburn finish sixth and qualify for the UEFA Cup in 1998, he managed just 17 league games and 3 goals the following season as they were relegated from the Premier League at the end of 1998–99, just four years after being crowned champions. His absences were the result of a series of injuries. Most notably, he was absent for the penultimate game of the season on 12 May 1999, which Blackburn had to win to keep their survival hopes alive. They could only manage a goalless draw at home to Manchester United, who went on to win the title four days later.


title: Chris Sutton

text: Sutton was sold to Chelsea for £10 million after Blackburn's relegation. His time at Stamford Bridge proved an unhappy one, as he struggled both to live up to the price tag and to adapt to Chelsea's style of play, scoring just one league goal in a 5–0 win against Manchester United in 28 appearances, and three goals in total, the other two coming against Skonto Riga in a Champions League qualifier, and Hull City in the FA Cup. He failed to even make the bench for the club's FA Cup Final win against Aston Villa, and was sold to Scottish Premier League side Celtic for £6 million in the summer of 2000.


title: Chris Sutton

text: After his disappointing season at Chelsea, Sutton quickly regained his goal-scoring form at Celtic. Sutton scored the winner on his league debut in a 2–1 win against Dundee United in July 2000, but was then sent off in his second appearance against Motherwell. Sutton endeared himself to Celtic fans four weeks later in his first Old Firm match against Rangers – scoring the first and last goals in a dramatic 6–2 victory for Celtic. Sutton went on to form a prolific partnership with Swede Henrik Larsson.


title: Chris Sutton

text: Sutton's goals helped Celtic win three SPL titles, three Scottish Cups and one Scottish League Cup, as well as reaching a UEFA Cup final. Indeed, many of Sutton's most memorable goals for Celtic were scored in European competition; Ajax away in 2001, Juventus at Celtic Park the same year, goals away at Blackburn Rovers and VfB Stuttgart during the UEFA Cup run to the final in Seville in 2003, and also a thumping volley from close range against Barcelona at Celtic Park in 2004. Sutton also holds the record for the quickest goal ever in an Old Firm Clash, scored at Ibrox in 2002, scoring inside just 18 seconds.


title: Chris Sutton

text: Sutton's acerbic nature came to the fore again at the end of the 2002–03 season when he accused Dunfermline Athletic of "lying down", in order for Celtic to lose the title. He failed to apologise and was charged with bringing the game into disrepute, and received a one-match ban to add to the four-match suspension he was serving for abusing match officials on the same day.


title: Chris Sutton

text: His best season at Celtic was arguably the 2003–04 season, when he scored 19 SPL goals. and was voted SPFA Player of the Year. Indeed, as 2003–04 drew to a conclusion, a superbly struck injury time winner by Sutton against Rangers at Celtic Park gave his side a clean sweep of victories against their old rivals that season (4 league wins and 1 Scottish Cup win).


title: Chris Sutton

text: In his five and half years at Celtic, Sutton showed his versatility on many occasions. Although considered primarily a striker, Sutton was often deployed in central midfield to allow Welsh striker John Hartson – another robust forward – to play up front alongside Larsson. On occasion Sutton was fielded in his original position of centre-half, notably against Rangers in a league game on 4 October 2003. Celtic won 1–0, with Sutton turning in an assured performance in defence.


title: Chris Sutton

text: As Gordon Strachan took up the reins of managing Celtic in 2005–06, Sutton's appearances for Celtic became more sporadic. With doubts about his fitness and rumours of a fractious relationship with Strachan, it was little surprise when Sutton departed from Celtic on a free transfer in January 2006.


title: Chris Sutton

text: He joined Premier League club Birmingham City on a free transfer in January 2006, but injuries restricted him to just eleven appearances, scoring once in the derby defeat to Aston Villa in mid-April. One of a number of players on high wages subjected to criticism by club owner David Sullivan, Sutton was released at the end of the season following Birmingham's relegation to the Championship.


title: Chris Sutton

text: Sutton signed for Aston Villa in October 2006, until the end of the 2006–07 season, where he linked up with former Celtic boss Martin O'Neill. Sutton scored his first goal for the club with the winner against Everton in November 2006.


title: Chris Sutton

text: However, in a game against Manchester United in December 2006, he suffered blurred vision and, despite having visited several specialists, did not recover. O'Neill said, "Chris has got a genuine concern. No-one can give him any guarantees about what might be the consequences if he got cracked on the head again. Whatever eyesight Chris has now, he would obviously want to keep, so he must bear that in mind when deciding his whole future and career." On 5 July 2007, Sutton retired from football due to the eye injury.


title: Chris Sutton

text: In October 2012, Sutton made a surprise return to football with Isthmian League Division One North club Wroxham. He made his debut for The Yachtsmen on 6 October 2012 against Tilbury, coming on in the 63rd minute, after his goalkeeper son Oliver had been substituted on for the Norfolk side in the first half.


title: Chris Sutton

text: Sutton's form for Blackburn won him an England cap on 15 November 1997, when he came on in the 79th minute against Cameroon, although he was left out of the World Cup squad after a fall-out with national manager Glenn Hoddle. Having been relegated to the England B team Sutton refused to play, and Hoddle never selected Sutton for an England squad again.


title: Chris Sutton

text: Sutton was interviewed in January 2009 by Inverness Caledonian Thistle for the post of manager, but was unsuccessful. On 28 September 2009, Sutton was appointed manager of League Two side Lincoln City, succeeding Peter Jackson who was dismissed earlier in the month. Despite having no managerial experience, Sutton was preferred to more than 70 other applicants. Caretaker manager Simon Clark would take charge of the following day's game, with Sutton and assistant Ian Pearce to take over the day after.


title: Chris Sutton

text: His first game as manager came at Sincil Bank against Aldershot Town on 3 October 2009. Lincoln were victorious through a second half Sergio Torres goal to give Sutton a winning start in management. Sutton took Lincoln to the FA Cup third round for the first time since 1999, but lost 4–0 to Premier League outfit Bolton Wanderers. Football League survival was confirmed on 24 April 2010 when Sutton guided the Imps to a 1–0 victory over promotion-chasing Bury at Sincil Bank, with two games remaining. Sutton left his post as Lincoln manager on 29 September due to family reasons.


title: Chris Sutton

text: Sutton acts as the main co-commentator, including on all of Celtic FC's UEFA Champions League games, alongside either Rob MacLean or Rory Hamilton. He also appears on BT Sport Score most Saturday afternoons alongside Mark Pougatch and Robbie Savage. Sutton also works as a pundit for BBC Radio 5 Live and BBC Sport. In January 2015 he attracted criticism for saying that Celtic's Scottish League Cup semi-final against Rangers would be "so one-sided" that Celtic "could win it blindfolded".


title: Chris Sutton

text: Sutton was born in Nottingham, the son of Mike Sutton, formerly a footballer with Norwich City. His younger brother John also became a footballer, and has played for a number of clubs in both England and Scotland. As a child he moved from East Leake in Nottinghamshire to Horsford in Norfolk.


title: Chris Sutton

text: After retiring from football, Sutton remained an athlete, playing cricket for Norwich Cricket Club in the EAPL.


title: Chris Sutton

text: In July 2000, Sutton was convicted of two charges of common assault and fined £300 plus costs after an incident outside a restaurant in which he spat in the face of another man.


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: The Jewel of the Nile is a 1985 American action-adventure romantic comedy film directed by Lewis Teague and produced by Michael Douglas, who also starred in the lead role, and reunites with co-stars Kathleen Turner and Danny DeVito all reprising their roles. It is the sequel to the 1984 action-adventure romantic comedy film "Romancing the Stone".


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: Like "Romancing the Stone", the opening scene takes place in one of Joan's novels. This time, instead of Jesse and Angelina in Joan's wild-west scenario, Joan and Jack are about to be married when pirates attack their ship. "The Jewel of the Nile" sends its characters off on a new adventure in a fictional African desert, in an effort to find the fabled "Jewel of the Nile".


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: The song performed by Billy Ocean, "When the Going Gets Tough, the Tough Get Going", became a major international hit, reaching #1 in the UK and #2 in the US.


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: Six months after the events in "Romancing the Stone", Joan Wilder's (Kathleen Turner) and Jack Colton's (Michael Douglas) romance has grown stale. While moored at a port in the South of France, Joan, suffering writer's block, wants to return to New York, while Jack prefers aimlessly sailing the world on his boat, the "Angelina". At a book signing engagement, Joan meets Omar Khalifa (Spiros Focás), a charming Arab ruler who wants Joan to write his biography.


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: Joan accepts and leaves with Omar over Jack's protests. Jack later runs into Ralph (Danny DeVito), the swindler from Jack and Joan's previous adventure in Colombia, who demands Jack turn over the stone Jack and Joan found. Shortly after, an Arab, Tarak (Paul David Magid), informs Jack about Omar's true intentions and claims that Omar has the "Jewel of the Nile"; just as Tarak finishes his explanations, the "Angelina" explodes from a bomb set by one of Omar's men. Ralph and Jack team up to find Joan and the fabled jewel.


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: Joan soon discovers that Omar is a brutal dictator rather than the enlightened ruler he claimed will unite the Arab world. In the palace jail, Joan encounters "Al-Julhara" (Avner Eisenberg), a holy man who is, in fact, the "Jewel of the Nile" and whom Omar fears. Al-Julhara tells Joan that Omar plans to declare himself ruler of all of the Arab world at a ceremony in the city of Kadir.


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: Realizing that Al-Julhara is the only one who can stop Omar, Joan decides to escort him to Kadir herself. The pair escape and find Jack, and they flee into the desert in Omar's hijacked F-16 fighter jet. Ralph is captured by Tarak's rebel Sufi tribe who are sworn to protect the Jewel so he can fulfill his people's destiny.


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: After encountering a Nubian mountain tribe, Joan and Jack's romance is rekindled. Joan tells Jack that the jewel is not a gem stone but Al-Julhara. In Kadir, Omar intends to use a smoke-and-mirror special effect provided by a British rock promoter to convince onlookers that he is the prophet who will unite the Arab world. Jack, Joan, and Al-Julhara arrive to expose Omar but are captured. Omar suspends Jack and Joan with ropes over a deep pit (a scenario taken from Joan's biggest-selling novel, "The Savage Secret") while Al-Julhara is in a stockade. Ralph, along with the Sufi tribe, arrives in time to rescue the three prisoners.


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: As Omar takes center stage to address the Arab people, Jack and Joan disrupt the ceremony while the Sufi battle Omar's guards. A fire breaks out, engulfing Omar's stage. Jack and Joan are separated, and Omar corners Joan atop the burning scaffolding. Ralph, using a giant crane, helps Jack reach Joan in the nick of time; he kicks Omar over the side and down into the flames, killing him. Al-Julhara rises and safely walks through the blazing inferno, fulfilling the prophecy that he is the true spiritual leader.


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: The following day, Jack and Joan are married by Al-Julhara. While Ralph is genuinely happy for Jack and Joan, he laments once again having gained nothing for his efforts, but Tarak acknowledges that he is a true Sufi friend and presents him with a jeweled dagger as Jack and Joan happily sail away down the Nile.


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: With a $21 million budget, principal photography began April 22, 1985 with filming wrapped on July 25, 1985. Location shooting took place at Villefranche-sur-Mer and the Palais des Festivals et des Congrès, Cannes, France, Ait Benhaddou near Ouarzazate and Meknes, Morocco, among other locations, including Zion National Park, Springdale, Utah.


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: At the time, both Kathleen Turner and Michael Douglas only made the sequel because they were contractually obligated to do so, although Douglas was much more invested in the film as its producer. At one point during pre-production, Turner tried to back out of the project because she found the script "terrible, formulaic, sentimental", until 20th Century Fox threatened her with a $25 million lawsuit for breach of contract. Douglas intervened on her behalf and ensured that a rewrite was made.


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: Turner was disappointed that Douglas did not ask Diane Thomas, the writer who had penned the script for "Romancing the Stone", to return for the sequel, apparently because he decided her asking price was too high. When Douglas agreed to undertake rewrites to please Turner, Thomas was asked to consult on alterations, but Turner remained disappointed with the script. She elaborated in an interview in 2018:


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: Filming in North Africa was dogged with problems from unbearable 120-degree-Fahrenheit heat to problems with the local crew but the most troubling concern was that the director showed that he was not up to the task of helming an action film. After one massive night scene that was hours in setup, and cast and crew in place, it was only then that someone noticed that there was no film in the cameras. As producer, Michael Douglas exploded; the whole debacle had to be re-filmed another day, only after the raw film stock was finally located. More problems with local customs cropped up, with film and equipment mysteriously held up by customs until the requisite bribes were paid. In the end, being only three weeks behind schedule was a minor triumph for Douglas.


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: Approximately two weeks before principal photography began, an aircraft carrying Richard Dawking (production designer) and Brian Coates (production manager) crashed during location scouting over the countryside of Morocco, killing all on board. The film is dedicated to the memory of Dawking and Coates, as well as screenwriter Diane Thomas, who had died in an automobile accident six weeks before the film's release. During filming in Morocco, Douglas and Turner, flying in an executive jet aircraft, had a near-accident when their aircraft wing struck the runway in a heavy landing.


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: The use of a General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon mockup was a key element of the main characters' escaping from a fortified town. The wooden, styrofoam and fibreglass mockup was built on an automobile chassis and powered by a 350ci Chevrolet engine.


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: As with the first film, the novelization of the sequel was credited to Joan Wilder, the character played by Kathleen Turner; both books were actually ghostwritten by Catherine Lanigan.


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: "The Jewel of the Nile" was the final film released on the RCA SelectaVision CED video format. It was also released in other media formats.


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: "When the Going Gets Tough, the Tough Get Going", performed by Billy Ocean, and "The Jewel of the Nile", performed by Precious Wilson, play during the film and in the end credits respectively. Douglas, Turner, and DeVito also co-starred with Ocean in the MTV music video of the same name. The soundtrack features 1980s rap group Whodini and their single "Freaks Come Out at Night" as Michael Douglas and company make their way through the desert on camel back as well as "Party (No Sheep Is Safe Tonight)" by The Willesden Dodgers during the campfire party scene.


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: While "The Jewel of the Nile" grossed almost as much as its predecessor, the film was much less successful critically and effectively killed the franchise.


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: Critics felt the film was loaded with numerous plot holes and that it lacked the first film's original charm. "The New York Times" opened its review by writing, "There's nothing in "The Jewel of the Nile" that wasn't funnier or more fanciful in "Romancing the Stone"." Roger Ebert agreed that "... it is not quite the equal of "Romancing the Stone"," but praised the interplay between Douglas and Turner. "It seems clear," he wrote, "that they like each other and are having fun during the parade of ludicrous situations in the movie, and their chemistry is sometimes more entertaining than the contrivances of the plot."


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: Colin Greenland reviewed "The Jewel of the Nile" for "White Dwarf" #77, and stated that ""The Jewel of the Nile" is the sequel to "Romancing the Stone", another adventure fantasy with just the right pinch of preposterousness. Against all odds, this is a sequel as enjoyable and endearing as the original."


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: "The Jewel of the Nile" holds a rating of 46% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 26 reviews. The critical consensus reads: "The sense of romantic spark has waned and the prevalence of stereotypes has grown in "Jewel of the Nile", although there is still plenty of swooning action for fans of the first adventure."


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: Talk of a third film, again starring Douglas, Turner and DeVito, never got beyond a draft. In "The Crimson Eagle", Jack and Joan take their two teenage kids to Thailand where they are blackmailed into stealing a priceless statue. The project languished until 1997, when Douglas as tentative producer, announced he was no longer interested.


title: The Jewel of the Nile

text: In 2005 and again in 2008, Douglas was working on a second sequel, entitled "Racing the Monsoon", although there have been no further developments in recent years. Since 2007, Fox considered a remake of "Romancing the Stone" with the possibility of a "reboot" of a series. The roles of Jack and Joan would be filled by Taylor Kitsch (or Gerard Butler) and Katherine Heigl. By 2011, the remake was re-worked as a television series.


title: Dehydration

text: In physiology, dehydration is a lack of total body water, with an accompanying disruption of metabolic processes. It occurs when free water loss exceeds free water intake, usually due to exercise, disease, or high environmental temperature. Mild dehydration can also be caused by immersion diuresis, which may increase risk of decompression sickness in divers.


title: Dehydration

text: Most people can tolerate a 3-4% decrease in total body water without difficulty or adverse health effects. A 5-8% decrease can cause fatigue and dizziness. Loss of over ten percent of total body water can cause physical and mental deterioration, accompanied by severe thirst. Death occurs at a loss of between fifteen and twenty-five percent of the body water. Mild dehydration is characterized by thirst and general discomfort and is usually resolved with oral rehydration.


title: Dehydration

text: Dehydration can cause hypernatremia (high levels of sodium ions in the blood) and is distinct from hypovolemia (loss of blood volume, particularly blood plasma).


title: Dehydration

text: The hallmarks of dehydration include thirst and neurological changes such as headaches, general discomfort, loss of appetite, decreased urine volume (unless polyuria is the cause of dehydration), confusion, unexplained tiredness, purple fingernails, and seizures. The symptoms of dehydration become increasingly severe with greater total body water loss. A body water loss of 1-2%, considered mild dehydration, is shown to impair cognitive performance. While in people over age 50, the body's thirst sensation diminishes with age, a study found that there was no difference in fluid intake between young and old people. Many older people have symptoms of dehydration. Dehydration contributes to morbidity in the elderly population, especially during conditions that promote insensible free water losses, such as hot weather. A Cochrane review on this subject defined water-loss dehydration as "people with serum osmolality of 295 mOsm/kg or more" and found that the main symptom in the elderly (people aged over 65) was fatigue.


title: Dehydration

text: Risk factors for dehydration include but are not limited to: exerting oneself in hot and humid weather, habitation at high altitudes, endurance athletics, elderly adults, infants, children and people living with chronic illnesses.


title: Dehydration

text: In the elderly, blunted response to thirst or inadequate ability to access free water in the face of excess free water losses (especially hyperglycemia related) seem to be the main causes of dehydration. Excess free water or hypotonic water can leave the body in two ways – "sensible" loss such as osmotic diuresis, sweating, vomiting and diarrhea, and "insensible" water loss, occurring mainly through the skin and respiratory tract. In humans, dehydration can be caused by a wide range of diseases and states that impair water homeostasis in the body. These occur primarily through either impaired thirst/water access or sodium excess.


title: Dehydration

text: Dehydration occurs when water intake does not replace free water lost due to normal physiologic processes, including breathing, urination, perspiration, or other causes, including diarrhea, and vomiting. Dehydration can be life-threatening when severe and lead to seizures or respiratory arrest, and also carries the risk of osmotic cerebral edema if rehydration is overly rapid.


title: Dehydration

text: The term "dehydration" has sometimes been used incorrectly as a proxy for the separate, related condition of hypovolemia, which specifically refers to a decrease in volume of blood plasma. The two are regulated through independent mechanisms in humans; the distinction is important in guiding treatment.


title: Dehydration

text: For routine activities, thirst is normally an adequate guide to maintain proper hydration. Minimum water intake will vary individually depending on weight, energy expenditure, age, sex, physical activity, environment, diet, and genetics. With exercise, exposure to hot environments, or a decreased thirst response, additional water may be required. In athletes in competition, drinking to thirst optimizes performance and safety, despite weight loss, and as of 2010, there was no scientific study showing that it is beneficial to stay ahead of thirst and maintain weight during exercise.


title: Dehydration

text: In warm or humid weather, or during heavy exertion, water loss can increase markedly, because humans have a large and widely variable capacity for sweating. Whole-body sweat losses in men can exceed 2 L/h during competitive sport, with rates of 3–4 L/h observed during short-duration, high-intensity exercise in the heat. When such large amounts of water are being lost through perspiration, electrolytes, especially sodium, are also being lost.


title: Dehydration

text: In most athletes exercising and sweating for 4–5 hours with a sweat sodium concentration of less than 50 mmol/L, the total sodium lost is less than 10% of total body stores (total stores are approximately 2,500 mmol, or 58 g for a 70-kg person). These losses appear to be well tolerated by most people. The inclusion of sodium in fluid replacement drinks has some theoretical benefits and poses little or no risk, so long as these fluids are hypotonic (since the mainstay of dehydration prevention is the replacement of free water losses).


title: Dehydration

text: The most effective treatment for minor dehydration is widely considered to be drinking water and reducing fluid loss. Plain water restores only the volume of the blood plasma, inhibiting the thirst mechanism before solute levels can be replenished. Solid foods can contribute to fluid loss from vomiting and diarrhea. Urine concentration and frequency will return to normal as dehydration resolves.


title: Dehydration

text: In some cases, correction of a dehydrated state is accomplished by the replenishment of necessary water and electrolytes (through oral rehydration therapy, or fluid replacement by intravenous therapy). As oral rehydration is less painful, non-invasive, inexpensive, and easier to provide, it is the treatment of choice for mild dehydration. Solutions used for intravenous rehydration must be isotonic or hypertonic. Pure water injected into the veins will cause the breakdown (lysis) of red blood cells (erythrocytes).


title: Dehydration

text: When fresh water is unavailable (e.g. at sea or in a desert), seawater or drinks with significant alcohol concentration will worsen dehydration. Urine contains a lower solute concentration than seawater; this requires the kidneys to create more urine to remove the excess salt, causing more water to be lost than was consumed from seawater. If a person is dehydrated and taken to a medical facility, IVs can also be used.


title: Dehydration

text: For severe cases of dehydration where fainting, unconsciousness, or other severely inhibiting symptoms are present (the patient is incapable of standing or thinking clearly), emergency attention is required. Fluids containing a proper balance of replacement electrolytes are given orally or intravenously with continuing assessment of electrolyte status; complete resolution is normal in all but the most extreme cases.


title: Second Anglo-Afghan War

text: The Second Anglo-Afghan War (Dari: جنگ دوم افغان و انگلیس, ) was a military conflict fought between the British Raj and the Emirate of Afghanistan from 1878 to 1880, when the latter was ruled by Sher Ali Khan of the Barakzai dynasty, the son of former Emir Dost Mohammad Khan. The war was part of the Great Game between the British and Russian empires.


title: Second Anglo-Afghan War

text: The war was split into two campaigns – the first began in November 1878 with the British invasion of Afghanistan from India. The British were quickly victorious and forced the Amir – Sher Ali Khan to flee. Ali's successor Mohammad Yaqub Khan immediately sued for peace and the Treaty of Gandamak was then signed on 26 May 1879. The British sent an envoy and mission led by Sir Louis Cavagnari to Kabul, but on 3 September this mission was massacred and the conflict was reignited by Ayub Khan which led to the abdication of his brother Yaqub.


title: Second Anglo-Afghan War

text: The second campaign ended in September 1880 when the British decisively defeated Ayub Khan outside Kandahar. A new Amir – Abdur Rahman Khan selected by the British, ratified and confirmed the Gandamak treaty once more. When the British and Indian soldiers had withdrawn, the Afghans agreed to let the British attain all of their geopolitical objectives, as well as create a buffer between the British Raj and the Russian Empire.


title: Second Anglo-Afghan War

text: After tension between Russia and Britain in Europe ended with the June 1878 Congress of Berlin, Russia turned its attention to Central Asia. That same summer, Russia sent an uninvited diplomatic mission to Kabul. Sher Ali Khan, the Amir of Afghanistan, tried unsuccessfully to keep them out. Russian envoys arrived in Kabul on 22 July 1878, and on 14 August, the British demanded that Sher Ali accept a British mission too.


title: Second Anglo-Afghan War

text: The Amir not only refused to receive a British mission under Neville Bowles Chamberlain, but threatened to stop it if it were dispatched. Lord Lytton, the viceroy of India, ordered a diplomatic mission to set out for Kabul in September 1878 but the mission was turned back as it approached the eastern entrance of the Khyber Pass, triggering the Second Anglo–Afghan War.


title: Second Anglo-Afghan War

text: The first campaign began in November 1878 when a British force of about 50,000 fighting men, mostly Indians, was distributed into three military columns which penetrated Afghanistan at three different points. The British victories at the battles of Ali Masjid and Peiwar Kotal meant that the approach to Kabul was left virtually undefended by Afghan troops.


title: Second Anglo-Afghan War

text: An alarmed Sher Ali attempted to appeal in person to the Russian Tsar for assistance, but their insistence was that he should seek terms of surrender from the British. He returned to Mazar-i-Sharif, where he died on 21 February 1879.


title: Second Anglo-Afghan War

text: With British forces occupying much of the country, Sher Ali's son and successor, Mohammad Yaqub Khan, signed the Treaty of Gandamak in May 1879 to prevent a British invasion of the rest of the country. According to this agreement and in return for an annual subsidy and vague assurances of assistance in case of foreign aggression, Yaqub relinquished control of Afghan foreign affairs to Britain. British representatives were installed in Kabul and other locations, British control was extended to the Khyber and Michni passes, and Afghanistan ceded various North-West Frontier Province areas and Quetta to Britain. The British Army then withdrew.


title: Second Anglo-Afghan War

text: However, on 3 September 1879 an uprising in Kabul led to the slaughter of Sir Louis Cavagnari, the British representative, along with his guards, and staff – provoking the next phase of the Second Afghan War.


title: Second Anglo-Afghan War

text: Major General Sir Frederick Roberts led the Kabul Field Force over the Shutargardan Pass into central Afghanistan, defeated the Afghan Army at Charasiab on 6 October 1879, and occupied Kabul two days later. Ghazi Mohammad Jan Khan Wardak, and a force of 10,000 Afghans, staged an uprising and attacked British forces near Kabul in the Siege of the Sherpur Cantonment in December 1879. The rebellion collapsed after the failure of a direct attack on Roberts' force on 23 December. Yaqub Khan, suspected of complicity in the massacre of Cavagnari and his staff, was obliged to abdicate. The British considered a number of possible political settlements, including partitioning Afghanistan between multiple rulers or placing Yaqub's brother Ayub Khan on the throne, but ultimately decided to install his cousin Abdur Rahman Khan as emir instead.


title: Second Anglo-Afghan War

text: Ayub Khan, who had been serving as governor of Herat, rose in revolt, defeated a British detachment at the Battle of Maiwand in July 1880 and besieged Kandahar. Roberts then led the main British force from Kabul and decisively defeated Ayub Khan on 1 September at the Battle of Kandahar, bringing his rebellion to an end.


title: Second Anglo-Afghan War

text: With Ayub Khan defeated, the war was officially over and the British selected and supported a new Amir – Abdur Rahman Khan son of Muhammad Afzal and nephew of the former Amir Sher Ali. Rahman confirmed the Treaty of Gandamak, whereby the British took control of the territories ceded by Yaqub Khan, and also of Afghanistan's foreign policy in exchange for protection and a subsidy. The Afghan tribes maintained internal rule and local customs, and provided a continuing buffer between the British Raj and the Russian Empire.


title: Second Anglo-Afghan War

text: Abandoning the provocative policy of maintaining a British resident in Kabul, but having achieved all their other objectives, the British withdrew from the region. By April 1881 all British and Indian troops had left Afghanistan, but British Indian agents were left behind to smooth liaison between the governments. No further trouble resulted between Afghanistan and British India during Rahman's period of rule, and he became known as the 'iron Amir'. The Russians kept well out of Afghan internal affairs, with the exception of the Panjdeh incident three years later, resolved by arbitration and negotiation after an initial British ultimatum.


title: Second Anglo-Afghan War

text: In 1893, Mortimer Durand was despatched to Kabul by British India to sign an agreement with Rahman for fixing the limits of their respective spheres of influence as well as improving diplomatic relations and trade. On November 12, 1893, the Durand Line Agreement was reached. leading to the creation of a new North-West Frontier Province.


title: Second Anglo-Afghan War

text: There were several decisive actions in the Second Anglo–Afghan War, from 1878 to 1880. Here are the battles and actions in chronological order. An asterisk (*) indicates a clasp was awarded for that particular battle with the Afghanistan Medal.


title: Second Anglo-Afghan War

text: In November 1878, at the start of the war, the British established three Field Forces – designated Peshawar Valley, Kurram Valley and Kandahar respectively – each of which invaded Afghanistan by a different route.


title: Second Anglo-Afghan War

text: At the end of the first phase of the war in May 1879, the Peshawar Force was withdrawn, while the Kandahar Force was reduced in size. In September 1879, at the beginning of the second phase, additional British and Indian Army units were despatched to Afghanistan, while the Kurram Valley Force was reinforced, and redesignated the Kabul Field Force.


title: United Technologies

text: United Technologies Corporation (UTC) was an American multinational conglomerate headquartered in Farmington, Connecticut. It researched, developed, and manufactured products in numerous areas, including aircraft engines, aerospace systems, HVAC, elevators and escalators, fire and security, building automation, and industrial products, among others. UTC was also a large military contractor, getting about 10% of its revenue from the U.S. government. Gregory J. Hayes was the CEO and chairman.


title: United Technologies

text: In 1974, Harry Gray left Litton Industries to become the CEO of United Aircraft. He pursued a strategy of growth and diversification, changing the parent corporation's name to United Technologies Corporation (UTC) in 1975 to reflect the intent to diversify into numerous high tech fields beyond aerospace. (The change became official on May 1, 1975.) The diversification was partially to balance civilian business against any overreliance on military business. UTC became a mergers and acquisitions (M&A)–focused organization, with various forced takeovers of unwilling smaller corporations. The next year (1976), UTC forcibly acquired Otis Elevator. In 1979, Carrier Refrigeration and Mostek were acquired; the Carrier deal was forcible, while the Mostek deal was a white knight move against hostile takeover designs by Gould.


title: United Technologies

text: At one point, the military portion of UTC's business, whose sensitivity to "excess profits" and boom/bust demand drove UTC to diversify away from it, actually carried the weight of losses incurred by the commercial M&A side of the business. Although M&A activity was not new to United Aircraft, the M&A activity of the 1970s and 1980s was higher-stakes and arguably unfocused. Rather than aviation being the central theme of UTC businesses, high tech (of any type) was the new theme. Some Wall Street watchers questioned the true value of M&A at almost any price, seemingly for its own sake.


title: United Technologies

text: In 2007, UTC opened the Hawk Works, a Rapid Prototyping and Military Derivatives Completion Center (RPMDCC) located west of the Elmira-Corning Regional Airport in Big Flats, New York.


title: United Technologies

text: In March 2008, UTC made a $2.63 billion bid to acquire Diebold, a Canton, Ohio based manufacturer of banking and voting machines. Diebold rejected the buyout bid as inadequate.


title: United Technologies

text: In April 2010, UTC announced that it was investing €15 million ($20 million) to set up the United Technologies Research Centre Ireland at University College Cork’s Tyndall National Institute which will carry out research on energy and security systems.


title: United Technologies

text: In June 2012, it was discovered that UTC sold military technology to the Chinese. For pleading guilty to violating the Arms Export Control Act and making false statements, United Technologies and its subsidiaries were fined $75 million.


title: United Technologies

text: In October 2014, Toshiba and United Technologies made a deal to expand their joint venture outside Japan.


title: United Technologies

text: In February 2016, UTC subsidiary Carrier Air Conditioner announced to employees at its Indianapolis and Huntington plants, that Carrier is moving manufacturing to Mexico: "The best way to stay competitive and protect the business for long-term is to move production from our facility in Indianapolis to Monterrey, Mexico. " In December, Carrier agreed to keep the Indianapolis plant open, keeping 700 jobs in Indianapolis. The plant in Huntington, Indiana would still close their doors, leaving 700 employees jobless.


title: United Technologies

text: In June 2019, United Technologies announced the intention to merge with defense contractor Raytheon to form Raytheon Technologies Corporation. The combined company, valued at more than $100 billion after planned spinoffs, would be the world's second-largest aerospace-and-defense company by sales behind Boeing. Although UTC will be the nominal survivor, the merged company will be headquartered in Waltham, Massachusetts, where Raytheon is based. The merger was completed in April 2020.


title: United Technologies

text: In March 2020, United Technologies Corporation announced the separations of Carrier Global and Otis Worldwide.


title: United Technologies

text: In April 2008, Louis Chênevert succeeded George David as the company's chief executive officer (CEO). Chênevert served until 2014, when he was succeeded by Gregory Hayes.


title: United Technologies

text: The chief financial officer's (CFO) position was held by Gregory Hayes until 2014, when he succeeded Louis Chênevert as CEO.


title: United Technologies

text: The chairman of the board of directors (Chairperson) position went to Louis Chênevert, then the company's CEO, in January 2010, succeeding George David.


title: United Technologies

text: For the fiscal year 2017, United Technologies reported earnings of US$4.552 billion, with an annual revenue of US$59.837 billion, an increase of 4.5% over the previous fiscal cycle. United Technologies shares traded at over $114 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at US$98.6 billion in October 2018. UTC ranked No. 51 in the 2018 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by total revenue.


title: United Technologies

text: During the 2004 election cycle, UTC was the sixth largest defense industry donor to political campaigns, contributing a total of $789,561; 64% went to Republicans. U


title: United Technologies

text: In the 2006 election cycle. UTC was again the sixth largest donor to federal candidates and political parties; 53% of the funds were contributed to Republicans, 35% percent to Democrats;


title: United Technologies

text: In 2005, the firm was among 53 entities that contributed the maximum of $250,000 to the second inauguration of President George W. Bush.


title: United Technologies

text: In 1981, a contribution from UTC made possible the exhibition "Paris/Magnum: Photographs 1935–1981", featuring photographs of Paris taken by photographers of Magnum Photos, the agency founded in 1947 by Robert Capa, George Rodger, Henri Cartier-Bresson, William Vandivert, and David Seymour. A volume of the same title, with text by Irwin Shaw and an introduction by Inge Morath, was also published in 1981.


title: United Technologies

text: UTC is the sponsor of the exhibition "Aphrodite and the Gods of Love" at Boston's Museum of Fine Arts that opened in fall 2011.


title: United Technologies

text: In April 2015, UTC signed an education partnership agreement with the China Friendship Foundation for Peace and Development, a united front organization under the control of the Chinese People's Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries.


title: United Technologies

text: Researchers at the University of Massachusetts Amherst have identified UTC. as the 38th-largest corporate producer of air pollution in the United States as of 2008. UTC released roughly of toxic chemicals annually into the atmosphere including manganese, nickel, chromium and related compounds.


title: United Technologies

text: In the 2016 University of Massachusetts Amherst Toxic 100 Air Polluters Index, UTC was ranked 9th by a toxicity population exposure score. It was also reported they release of toxins into the air.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: Influenza vaccines, also known as flu shots, are vaccines that protect against infection by influenza viruses. New versions of the vaccines are developed twice a year, as the influenza virus rapidly changes. While their effectiveness varies from year to year, most provide modest to high protection against influenza. The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that vaccination against influenza reduces sickness, medical visits, hospitalizations, and deaths. Immunized workers who do catch the flu return to work half a day sooner on average. Vaccine effectiveness in those over 65 years old remains uncertain due to a lack of high-quality research. Vaccinating children may protect those around them.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: Vaccines are an effective means to control outbreaks of many diseases. However, vaccines for respiratory viral infections such as flu are still suboptimal and do not offer broad-spectrum protection.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: Vaccination against influenza began in the 1930s, with large-scale availability in the United States beginning in 1945. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: The World Health Organization (WHO) and the CDC recommend yearly vaccination for nearly all people over the age of six months, especially those at high risk. The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) also recommends yearly vaccination of high risk groups. These groups include pregnant women, the elderly, children between six months and five years of age, and those with certain health problems.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: The vaccines are generally safe, including for people who have severe egg allergies. Fever occurs in five to ten percent of children vaccinated, and temporary muscle pains or feelings of tiredness may occur. In certain years, the vaccine was linked to an increase in Guillain–Barré syndrome among older people at a rate of about one case per million doses. Influenza vaccines are not recommended in those who have had a severe allergy to previous versions of the vaccine itself. The vaccine comes in "inactive" and "weakened" viral forms. The live, weakened vaccine is generally not recommended in pregnant women, children less than two years old, adults older than 50, or people with a weakened immune system. Depending on the type they can be injected into a muscle, sprayed into the nose, or injected into the middle layer of the skin (intradermal). The intradermal vaccine was not available during the 2018–2019 and 2019–2020 influenza seasons.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: Vaccines are used in both humans and nonhumans. Human vaccine is meant unless specifically identified as a veterinary, poultry or livestock vaccine.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: In the worldwide Spanish flu pandemic of 1918, "Pharmacists tried everything they knew, everything they had ever heard of, from the ancient art of bleeding patients, to administering oxygen, to developing new vaccines and serums (chiefly against what we now call "Hemophilus influenzae"a name derived from the fact that it was originally considered the etiological agentand several types of pneumococci). Only one therapeutic measure, transfusing blood from recovered patients to new victims, showed any hint of success."


title: Influenza vaccine

text: In 1931, viral growth in embryonated hens' eggs was reported by Ernest William Goodpasture and colleagues at Vanderbilt University. The work was extended to growth of influenza virus by several workers, including Thomas Francis, Jonas Salk, Wilson Smith and Macfarlane Burnet, leading to the first experimental influenza vaccines. In the 1940s, the US military developed the first approved inactivated vaccines for influenza, which were used in the Second World War. Hen's eggs continued to be used to produce virus used in influenza vaccines, but manufacturers made improvements in the purity of the virus by developing improved processes to remove egg proteins and to reduce systemic reactivity of the vaccine. In 2012, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved influenza vaccines made by growing virus in cell cultures and influenza vaccines made from recombinant proteins have been approved, with plant-based influenza vaccines being tested in clinical trials.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: The egg-based technology for producing influenza vaccine was created in the 1950s. In the US swine flu scare of 1976, President Gerald Ford was confronted with a potential swine flu pandemic. The vaccination program was rushed, yet plagued by delays and public relations problems. Meanwhile, maximum military containment efforts succeeded unexpectedly in confining the new strain to the single army base where it had originated. On that base, a number of soldiers fell severely ill, but only one died. The program was canceled after about 24% of the population had received vaccinations. An excess in deaths of 25 over normal annual levels as well as 400 excess hospitalizations, both from Guillain–Barré syndrome, were estimated to have occurred from the vaccination program itself, demonstrating that the vaccine itself is not free of risks. The result can be cited to support lingering doubts about vaccination as well as to counter ungrounded claims about the safety of vaccination. In the end, however, even the maligned 1976 vaccine may have saved lives. A 2010 study found a significantly enhanced immune response against the 2009 pandemic H1N1 in study participants who had received vaccination against the swine flu in 1976. The 2009 H1N1 “swine flu” outbreak resulted in the rapid approval of pandemic influenza vaccines. Pandemrix was quickly modified to target the circulating strain and by late 2010, 70 million people had received a dose. Eight years later, the BMJ gained access to vaccine pharmacovigilance reports compiled by GSK (GlaxoSmithKline) during the pandemic which the BMJ reported indicated death was 5.39 fold more likely with Pandemrix "vs" the other pandemic vaccines..


title: Influenza vaccine

text: A quadrivalent flu vaccine administered by nasal mist was approved by the FDA in March 2012. Fluarix Quadrivalent was approved by the FDA in December 2012.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: In 2014, the Canadian National Advisory Committee on Immunization (NACI) published a review of quadrivalent influenza vaccines.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: Starting with the 2018–2019 influenza season most of the regular-dose egg-based flu shots and all the recombinant and cell-grown flu vaccines in the United States are quadrivalent. In the 2019–2020 influenza season all regular-dose flu shots and all recombinant influenza vaccine in the United States are quadrivalent.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: In November 2019, the FDA approved Fluzone High-Dose Quadrivalent for use in the United States starting with the 2020–2021 influenza season.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: In February 2020, the FDA approved Fluad Quadrivalent for use in the United States. In July 2020, the FDA approved both Fluad and Fluad Quadrivalent for use in the United States for the 2020–2021 influenza season.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: The U.S Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends the flu vaccine as the best way to protect people against the flu and prevent its spread. The flu vaccine can also reduce the severity of the flu if a person contracts a strain that the vaccine did not contain. It takes about two weeks following vaccination for protective antibodies to form.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: A 2012 meta-analysis found that flu vaccination was effective 67percent of the time; the populations that benefited the most were HIV-positive adults aged 18 to 55 (76percent), healthy adults aged 18 to 46 (approximately 70percent), and healthy children aged six months to 24 months (66percent). The influenza vaccine also appears to protect against myocardial infarction with a benefit of 15–45%.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: A vaccine is assessed by its "efficacy" – the extent to which it reduces risk of disease under controlled conditions – and its "effectiveness" – the observed reduction in risk after the vaccine is put into use. In the case of influenza, effectiveness is expected to be lower than the efficacy because it is measured using the rates of influenza-like illness, which is not always caused by influenza. Studies on the effectiveness of flu vaccines in the real world are difficult; vaccines may be imperfectly matched, virus prevalence varies widely between years, and influenza is often confused with other influenza-like illnesses. However, in most years (16 of the 19 years before 2007), the flu vaccine strains have been a good match for the circulating strains, and even a mismatched vaccine can often provide cross-protection. The virus rapidly changes due to antigenic drift, a slight mutation in the virus that causes a new strain to arise.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: The effectiveness of seasonal flu vaccines varies significantly, with an estimated average efficacy of 50–60% against symptomatic disease, depending on vaccine strain, age, prior immunity, and immune function, so vaccinated people can still contract influenza. The effectiveness of flu vaccines is considered to be suboptimal, particularly among the elderly, but vaccination is still beneficial in reducing the mortality rate and hospitalization rate due to influenza as well as duration of hospitalization. Vaccination of school-age children has shown to provide indirect protection for other age groups. LAIVs are recommended for children based on superior efficacy, especially for children under 6, and greater immunity against non-vaccine strains when compared to inactivated vaccines.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: From 2012 to 2015 in New Zealand, vaccine effectiveness against admission to an intensive care unit was 82%. Effectiveness against hospitalized influenza illness in the 2019–2020 United States flu season was 41% overall and 54% in people aged 65 years or older. One review found 31% effectiveness against death among adults.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: Repeated annual influenza vaccination generally offer consistent year-on-year protection against influenza. There is, however, suggestive evidence that repeated vaccinations may cause a reduction in vaccine effectiveness for certain influenza subtypes; this has no relevance to current recommendations for yearly vaccinations but might influence future vaccination policy. , the CDC recommends a yearly vaccine as most studies demonstrate overall effectiveness of annual influenza vaccination.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: There is not enough evidence to establish significant differences in the effectiveness of different influenza vaccine types, but there are high-dose or adjuvanted products that induce a stronger immune response in the elderly.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: In April 2002, the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) encouraged that children 6 to 23 months of age be vaccinated annually against influenza. In 2010, ACIP recommended annual influenza vaccination for those 6 months of age and older. Currently the CDC recommends that everyone except infants under the age of six months should receive the seasonal influenza vaccine. Vaccination campaigns usually focus special attention on people who are at high risk of serious complications if they catch the flu, such as pregnant women, children under 59 months, the elderly, and people with chronic illnesses or weakened immune systems, as well as those to whom they are exposed, such as health care workers.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: As the death rate is also high among infants who catch influenza, the CDC and the WHO recommend that household contacts and caregivers of infants be vaccinated to reduce the risk of passing an influenza infection to the infant.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: In children, the vaccine appears to decrease the risk of influenza and possibly influenza-like illness. In children under the age of two data are limited. During the 2017–18 flu season, the CDC director indicated that 85 percent of the children who died "likely will not have been vaccinated".


title: Influenza vaccine

text: In the United States, , the CDC recommend that children aged six through 35 months may receive either 0.25milliliters or 0.5milliliters per dose of Fluzone Quadrivalent. There is no preference for one or the other dose volume of Fluzone Quadrivalent for that age group. All persons 36 months of age and older should receive 0.5 milliliters per dose of Fluzone Quadrivalent. , Afluria Quadrivalent is licensed for children six months of age and older in the United States. Children six months through 35 months of age should receive 0.25milliliters for each dose of Afluria Quadrivalent. All persons 36 months of age and older should receive 0.5milliliters per dose of Afluria Quadrivalent. , Afluria Tetra is licensed for adults and children five years of age and older in Canada.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: In 2014, the Canadian National Advisory Committee on Immunization (NACI) published a review of influenza vaccination in healthy 5–18-year-olds, and in 2015, published a review of the use of pediatric Fluad in children 6–72 months of age. In one study, conducted in a tertiary referral center, the rate of influenza vaccination in children was only 31%. Higher rates were found among immuno-suppressed pediatric patients (46%), and in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (50%).


title: Influenza vaccine

text: In unvaccinated adults, 16% get symptoms similar to the flu, while about 10% of vaccinated adults do. Vaccination decreased confirmed cases of influenza from about 2.4% to 1.1%. No effect on hospitalization was found.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: In working adults, a review by the Cochrane Collaboration found that vaccination resulted in a modest decrease in both influenza symptoms and working days lost, without affecting transmission or influenza-related complications. In healthy working adults, influenza vaccines can provide moderate protection against virologically confirmed influenza, though such protection is greatly reduced or absent in some seasons.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: In health care workers, a 2006 review found a net benefit. Of the eighteen studies in this review, only two also assessed the relationship of patient mortality relative to staff influenza vaccine uptake; both found that higher rates of health care worker vaccination correlated with reduced patient deaths. A 2014 review found benefits to patients when health care workers were immunized, as supported by moderate evidence based in part on the observed reduction in all-cause deaths in patients whose health care workers were given immunization compared with comparison patients where the workers were not offered vaccine.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: Evidence for an effect in adults over 65 is unclear. Systematic reviews examining both randomized controlled and case–control studies found a lack of high-quality evidence. Reviews of case–control studies found effects against laboratory-confirmed influenza, pneumonia, and death among the community-dwelling elderly.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: The group most vulnerable to non-pandemic flu, the elderly, benefits least from the vaccine. There are multiple reasons behind this steep decline in vaccine efficacy, the most common of which are the declining immunological function and frailty associated with advanced age. In a non-pandemic year, a person in the United States aged 50–64 is nearly ten times more likely to die an influenza-associated death than a younger person, and a person over 65 is more than ten times more likely to die an influenza-associated death than the 50–64 age group.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: There is a high-dose flu vaccine specifically formulated to provide a stronger immune response. Available evidence indicates that vaccinating the elderly with the high-dose vaccine leads to a stronger immune response against influenza than the regular-dose vaccine.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: A flu vaccine containing an adjuvant was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in November 2015, for use by adults aged 65 years of age and older. The vaccine is marketed as Fluad in the US and was first available in the 2016–2017 flu season. The vaccine contains the MF59C.1 adjuvant which is an oil-in-water emulsion of squalene oil. It is the first adjuvanted seasonal flu vaccine marketed in the United States. It is not clear if there is a significant benefit for the elderly to use a flu vaccine containing the MF59C.1 adjuvant. Per Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices guidelines, Fluad can be used as an alternative to other influenza vaccines approved for people 65 years and older.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: Vaccinating health care workers who work with elderly people is recommended in many countries, with the goal of reducing influenza outbreaks in this vulnerable population. While there is no conclusive evidence from randomized clinical trials that vaccinating health care workers helps protect elderly people from influenza, there is tentative evidence of benefit.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: Fluad Quad was approved for use in Australia in September 2019, Fluad Quadrivalent was approved for use in the United States in February 2020, and Fluad Tetra was approved for use in the European Union in May 2020.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: As well as protecting mother and child from the effects of an influenza infection, the immunization of pregnant women tends to increase their chances of experiencing a successful full-term pregnancy.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: Common side effects of vaccination include local injection-site reactions and cold-like symptoms. Fever, malaise, and myalgia are less common. Flu vaccines are contraindicated for people who have experienced a severe allergic reaction in response to a flu vaccine or to any component of the vaccine. LAIVs are not given to children or adolescents with severe immunodeficiency or to those who are using salicylate treatments because of the risk of developing Reye syndrome. LAIVs are also not recommended for children under the age of 2, pregnant women, and adults with immunosuppression. Inactivated flu vaccines cannot cause influenza and are regarded as safe during pregnancy.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: While side effects of the flu vaccine may occur, they are usually minor, including soreness, redness, and swelling around the point of injection, headache, fever, nausea or fatigue. Side effects of a nasal spray vaccine may include runny nose, wheezing, sore throat, cough, or vomiting.


title: Influenza vaccine

text: In some people, a flu vaccine may cause serious side effects, including an allergic reaction, but this is rare. Furthermore, the common side effects and risks are mild and temporary when compared to the risks and severe health effects of the annual influenza epidemic.