title: Dinosaurs in Jurassic Park

text: In "Jurassic World", the raptors were created primarily through motion capture. A full-sized raptor model from the first film was also provided by Legacy Effects to ILM as a reference. The model weighed approximately and measured approximately tall and long. Life-size maquettes were also used during scenes in which the raptors are caged. Audio recordings of penguins and toucans provided the raptor vocals. The sound effects of the raptors moving around were created by Benny Burtt, who attached microphones to his shoelaces and tromped around Skywalker Ranch, the film's sound-recording facility.


title: Dinosaurs in Jurassic Park

text: Several raptors are killed in "Jurassic World", leaving only one survivor, a female individual named Blue.


title: Dinosaurs in Jurassic Park

text: In "Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom", Owen's past bond with Blue prompts him to join a mission to save her and other dinosaurs from Isla Nublar, after the island's volcano becomes active. For the film, Neal Scanlan's team created a Blue animatronic that was laid on an operating table, for a scene depicting the animal after an injury. The animatronic was operated by a dozen puppeteers hidden under the table. The scene was shot with and without the animatronic, and the two versions were combined during post-production. Modified penguin noises were used during this scene to provide a purring sound for Blue.


title: Dinosaurs in Jurassic Park

text: To create Blue's CGI appearances, the ILM animators referred to the previous film. David Vickery of ILM said that Blue's movements were designed to resemble a dog: "You look at the way Blue cocks her head and looks up at you. It's exactly like a dog. You're trying to sort of connect the dinosaur with things that you understand as a human". Small puppets were also used to depict Owen's raptors as babies. John Hankla, an advisor for "Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom", provided an accurately sized "Velociraptor" skeleton that appears in the background at the Lockwood Estate's library of dinosaur skeletons. It is the first accurately sized "Velociraptor" to appear in the franchise.


title: Dinosaurs in Jurassic Park

text: In "Jurassic World: Dominion", Blue asexually reproduces a hatchling named Beta. Although Biosyn operatives kidnap Beta, Owen, with the help of Maisie Lockwood and Alan Grant, recaptures it and brings it back to Blue.


title: Dinosaurs in Jurassic Park

text: Blue is the focus of a two-part virtual reality miniseries, titled "Jurassic World: Blue". It was released for Oculus VR headsets as a "Fallen Kingdom" tie-in. It depicts Blue on Isla Nublar at the time of the volcanic eruption.


title: Dinosaurs in Jurassic Park

text: In the first film, a replica skeleton of "Alamosaurus" is present in the Jurassic Park visitor center. "Parasaurolophus" made a brief debut in the first film and has appeared in each one since then, including the short film "Battle at Big Rock".


title: Dinosaurs in Jurassic Park

text: "Mamenchisaurus" appears briefly in "The Lost World: Jurassic Park" as one of the dinosaurs chased by Peter Ludlow's group. The "Mamenchisaurus" design was based on a maquette created by Winston's team. ILM then took the "Brachiosaurus" model from the first film and altered it to portray the "Mamenchisaurus", which was fully computer-generated.


title: Dinosaurs in Jurassic Park

text: "Allosaurus", "Baryonyx", "Carnotaurus", and "Sinoceratops" are introduced in "Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom". "Baryonyx" and "Carnotaurus" were among dinosaurs created through CGI. The "Carnotaurus" vocal sounds were made from orangutan noises, as well as Styrofoam, which was scraped with a double-bass bow. "Sinoceratops" makes several appearances in the film, including a scene in which the dinosaur is shown licking Owen after he has been sedated. Animator Jance Rubinchik described this as the dinosaur's motherly instinct to save Owen. The scene was shot using a prop tongue.


title: Dinosaurs in Jurassic Park

text: In "Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom", the skull of an unnamed ceratopsian is kept on display in Benjamin Lockwood's estate. Production designer Andy Nicholson said: "When it came to the ceratopsian skull which takes centre stage in Lockwood Manor, we were quite conscious that it couldn't be a "Triceratops" because it wouldn’t have been big enough to kill the "Indoraptor". With that in mind, we created a new genus which was an amalgamation of two different ceratopsians". Several creatures appear in the film as dioramas, on display in Lockwood's estate. These include "Concavenator", "Dimetrodon", and "Mononykus".


title: Dinosaurs in Jurassic Park

text: "Jurassic World Dominion" introduces several new creatures, including "Atrociraptor", which Trevorrow described as more vicious than the "Velociraptors". Another new creature is "Lystrosaurus", a therapsid rather than a dinosaur, which is portrayed with the use of an animatronic. A group of living "Dimetrodon" also appear in the film. "Microceratus", a favorite dinosaur of Trevorrow's, also makes its series debut in "Dominion". Returning dinosaurs include "Allosaurus", "Baryonyx", "Carnotaurus", and "Nasutoceratops".


title: Dinosaurs in Jurassic Park

text: The prologue for "Dominion" introduces several other new creatures, including "Dreadnoughtus", "Iguanodon", "Oviraptor", and the pterosaur "Quetzalcoatlus". It also features "Moros", a small, feathered member of the tyrannosaur family that was described in 2019. "Moros" also appears in the film itself, along with "Quetzalcoatlus", "Dreadnoughtus", and "Iguanodon". "Dreadnoughtus" appears several times, and is depicted through CGI. "Quetzalcoatlus" is depicted with the exaggerated ability to tear apart an airplane, despite its light bodyweight. An "Oviraptor" appears in a deleted scene in "Dominion", in which it is forced to fight a "Lystrosaurus" which bites its head off and wins the fight.


title: Leon Bailey

text: Leon Patrick Bailey (born 9 August 1997) is a Jamaican professional footballer who plays as a winger for Premier League club Aston Villa and the Jamaica national team.


title: Leon Bailey

text: Bailey arrived in Europe at the age of 13 and played for a number of clubs at youth level before being signed by Belgian side Genk in 2015, where he was named Belgian Young Footballer of the Year. His success in Belgium earned him a move to Bundesliga side Bayer Leverkusen in 2017. After four years at the club, he was signed by Aston Villa in 2021 for a fee of around £30 million.


title: Leon Bailey

text: Bailey started his career playing for the Phoenix All-Star Academy operated by his adoptive father, Craig Butler. In 2011, Butler arrived in Europe to find a club for Bailey and Butler’s biological son, Kyle. Bailey caught the eye of K.R.C. Genk in Belgium, but because of the very strict regulations on minors by FIFA, they could not offer him a contract. Bailey almost joined Standard Liège, but the transfer was not approved because Butler had no work permit. In October 2013, Bailey reached a verbal agreement AFC Ajax, but a transfer did not materialize due to FIFA rules. Aged 13, Bailey signed for Austrian non-league side Anif Jugend, before moving to FC Liefering.


title: Leon Bailey

text: Bailey joined K.R.C. Genk in 2015 from Trenčín. He made his Belgian Pro League debut on 21 August 2015 in a 3–1 away defeat against Sint-Truiden replacing Siebe Schrijvers after 62 minutes. He scored his first professional goal for KRC Genk on 21 November versus OH Leuven. At the end of the 2015–16 season he won the Belgian Young Footballer of the Year award. His goal in the Europa League against Rapid Wien on 15 September 2016 was chosen as the top goal of the competition for the 2016–17 season by UEFA.


title: Leon Bailey

text: Bailey joined Bayer Leverkusen in January 2017 for a fee of €20 million, after interest from Manchester United and Chelsea. He made his debut for Leverkusen on 3 February 2017, in a 1–0 defeat against Hamburg. His Champions League debut came on 24 February 2017, in a 2–2 defeat against Atlético Madrid. He made ten appearances for Leverkusen in his first half season at the club.


title: Leon Bailey

text: He scored his first goal for the club on 11 August 2017, in the first game of the 2017–18 season in a 3–0 victory in the German Cup against Karlsruher SC. His first league goal for the club came on 29 September against Schalke 04. He finished the season scoring 12 goals in 34 games in all competitions, helping guide Bayer Leverkusen to a fifth place finish in the Bundesliga. On 30 November 2019, he scored twice in a 2–1 win over champions Bayern Munich, one goal with each foot.


title: Leon Bailey

text: On 4 August 2021, Bailey signed for Premier League club Aston Villa. On 14 August 2021, he made his Premier League debut as a substitute in a 3–2 loss to Watford. On 18 September 2021, he scored his first goal for Villa in a 3–0 home victory over Everton, in which he also took a corner that led to a Lucas Digne own goal. Bailey's first season with Aston Villa was punctuated with injury, suffering a quad injury in the aforementioned game against Everton in September, another thigh injury in December that ruled him out until February, which was followed by an ankle injury in April - ultimately limiting Bailey to only 7 starts.


title: Leon Bailey

text: Growing up in Jamaica, Bailey wanted to become a footballer or a sprinter - inspired by the success of Usain Bolt. Bailey was one of 23 children adopted by football coach Craig Butler, whose Phoenix Academy team Bailey played for as a child. Butler worked cleaning toilets to save enough money to travel to Europe - where he hoped to find Bailey, and his biological son, Kyle a professional club. Since the age of 13, Bailey has lived in Europe.


title: Leon Bailey

text: Bailey played in a friendly match for Jamaica under-23s on 8 March 2015 versus the Cayman Islands under-23 side, where he scored directly from a free kick.


title: Leon Bailey

text: In March 2017 it was reported that Bailey would refuse Jamaica call ups until the standards of Jamaican football improved. In September 2017, Bailey told German football magazine Kicker: "They always want me to play for Jamaica, but I've had personal problems with the association since I was eleven or twelve years old". In January 2018, Winfried Schäfer, the former Jamaica national team coach told a German newspaper Bild "I really wanted to make him a national player. I have invited him several times – among others to the Gold Cup in America and to international matches. I also called at Genk. But his step-father blocked everything." Bailey was thought to have accepted a call-up in October 2018, but reneged after demanding that his brother Kyle Butler, who at the time played for the reserves of FC Juniors OÖ in the Austrian 2. Liga, be called up too.


title: Leon Bailey

text: In May 2019, Bailey was named to the Jamaican provisional squad for the 2019 CONCACAF Gold Cup, with Bailey officially announcing that he would accept the call-up and represent the Reggae Boyz. He would earn his first Jamaica international cap on 17 June 2019 against Honduras. Bailey scored his first goal for Jamaica on 6 September 2019 against Antigua and Barbuda, netting the fifth goal in a 6–0 victory in CONCACAF Nations League play.


title: Leon Bailey

text: Bailey was thought to have been eligible to represent England as he has two grandparents who have British citizenship. However, he is not eligible to play for England as none of his grandparents were born in England.


title: Joe Talbot (musician)

text: Joseph Talbot (born 23 August 1984) is a Welsh singer and songwriter. He has been the vocalist for British rock band Idles since their inception in 2009.


title: Joe Talbot (musician)

text: Talbot was born in Newport on 23 August 1984. He moved to England as a child, where he grew up in Exeter. He met Idles bassist Adam Devonshire at sixth form college in Exeter before the two moved to Bristol, where they studied at the St Matthias Campus of the University of the West of England and decided to start a band. Following university, they went on to start the now-defunct Bat-Cave night at


title: Joe Talbot (musician)

text: Talbot has released four studio albums and many EPs and singles with Idles. His music has been described as punk rock, and post-punk, especially due to its passionate nature and political lyrics, which have criticized right-wing news networks such as Fox News and "The Sun," (during the "Joy" tour, Talbot was known to shout ""Don't read The Sun, it'll give you cancer"" at shows before the closing song, Rottweiler) and outlined social issues such as depression, white privilege, and toxic masculinity. However, Talbot has rejected all of these genre labels. In 2017, he was quoted saying: "We're not a post-punk band. I guess we have that motorik, engine-like drive in the rhythm section that some post-punk bands have but we have plenty of songs that aren't like that at all." At a 2018 concert in Manchester, he said: "for the last time, we're not a fucking punk band".


title: Joe Talbot (musician)

text: Talbot appears on the track "Wish" on Anna Calvi's fourth full-length album "Hunted". In 2020, he collaborated with Jehnny Beth for her debut solo album, "To Love Is to Live": he co-wrote and recorded vocals on the track "How Could You".


title: Joe Talbot (musician)

text: Talbot also sang guest vocals for fellow Bristolians Turbowolf on the track "Capital X" from their 2018 album "The Free Life". Talbot also appears on the Frank Carter and the Rattlesnakes Single "My Town" that was released 27 April 2021.


title: Joe Talbot (musician)

text: Additionally, he is the subject of the song "Blood Brother", by Bristol-based band Heavy Lungs, whose vocalist Danny Nedelko is the namesake and subject of the fourth track on Idles' second record "Joy as an Act of Resistance".


title: Joe Talbot (musician)

text: He cites The Strokes, The Streets, Thom Yorke, Battles, The Walkmen, Joy Division, The Horrors, and The Fall as influences.


title: Joe Talbot (musician)

text: When Talbot was 16, his mother had a stroke and was paralysed; after the death of his step-father, he became his mother's primary caretaker until her death in 2015. She became the primary subject of the Idles album "Brutalism".


title: Joe Talbot (musician)

text: Talbot and his wife, Beth, have a daughter, Frida. Their first daughter, Agatha, was stillborn in 2017. This became a primary subject of the Idles album "Joy as an Act of Resistance".


title: Wings of Fire (autobiography)

text: Wings of Fire (1999), is the autobiography of the "Missile Man of India" and President of India, Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam. It was written by him and Arun Tiwari.


title: Wings of Fire (autobiography)

text: In the autobiography, Kalam examines his early life, effort, hardship, fortitude, luck and chance that eventually led him to lead Indian space research, nuclear and missile programs. Kalam started his career, after graduating from Aerospace engineering at Madras Institute of Technology, at Hindustan Aeronautics Limited and was assigned to build a hovercraft prototype. Later


title: Wings of Fire (autobiography)

text: he moved to ISRO and helped establish the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre and pioneered the first space launch-vehicle program. During the 1990s and early 2000, Kalam moved to the DRDO to lead the Indian nuclear weapons program, with particular successes in thermonuclear weapons development culminating in the operation Smiling Buddha and an ICBM Agni.


title: Wings of Fire (autobiography)

text: The autobiography first published in English, has so far been translated and published in 13 languages including Hindi, Bengali, Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, Malayalam, Odia, Marathi, and Gujarati. Outside of the major Indian languages, "Wings of Fire" was translated into Chinese (titled "Huo Yi", by Ji Peng), and into French by various translators.


title: Wings of Fire (autobiography)

text: Kalam was born on October 15, 1931, the son of a little educated boat owner in Rameswaram, Tamil Nadu. His father was also imam of the small mosque in Rameswaram. He had an unparalleled career as a defence scientist, culminating in the highest civilian award of India, Bharat Ratna. As chief of the country's defence research and development programmer, Kalam demonstrated a great, great potential for dynamics and innovations that existed in a seemingly moribund research establishment. This is the story of Kalam's own rise from obscurity and his personal and professional struggles, as well as the story of AGNI, TRISHUL, and NAG missiles that have become household names in India and that have raised the nation to the level of a missile power of international reckoning. Since independence, India has sought in various ways, self-realization, adulation, and success.


title: Wings of Fire (autobiography)

text: The book begins with the childhood of Kalam's life. In the beginning, he introduces us to his family and tries to familiarize us with his birthplace Rameswaram. In the childhood, he was a great admirer of his father, Jainulabdeen. He was a man of great wisdom and kindness, and Pakshi Lakshmana Sastry, a close friend of his father and the head priest of the Rameswaram Temple. He had an ideal helpmate in his mother, Ashiamma. He was also influenced by his close friend, Ahmed Jalaluddin; he was about 15 years older than Kalam. With his friend, he talked about spiritual matters. This shows that he believed in spirituality and also believed in God or Khuda. He always went to Lord Shiva's temple with his friends.


title: Wings of Fire (autobiography)

text: In the later part of the opening chapters, he introduces his cousin Samsuddin, his school teachers, and all the people who have felt any difference amongst them. Here he expresses one event, which happened in his school days,


title: Wings of Fire (autobiography)

text: "Rameswaram Sastry, a new teacher of his school, could not stomach a Hindu Priest's son sitting with a Muslim boy. In accordance with our social ranking as the new teacher saw it, I was asked to go and sit on the backbench. I felt very sad, and so did my parents about the incident. Lakshmana Sastry summoned the teacher, and in our presence, told the teacher that he should not spread the poison of social inequality and communal intolerance in the minds of innocent children".


title: Wings of Fire (autobiography)

text: He completed his school education in the Rameswaram Elementary School in Rameswaram and later on studied at Schwartz high school in Ramanathapuram. In 1950, he joined St. Joseph's College Trichi, to study for the B.Sc degree course when he realized that physics was not his subject. Then, at last, he applied to Madras Institute of Technology. He or his family could not afford to spend that much money on the course at Madras Institute of Technology. Zohara, his sister stood with him. When he had a specific branch of aeronautical engineering, the goal was very clear in his mind at that time. And he tried to communicate with different kinds of people. At Madras Institute of Technology, their teachers shaped his thoughts, Prof. Sponder, Prof. Kal Pandalai, and Prof. Narasingalu Rao. Each of them had carried distinct personalities. Last year Madras Institute of Technology was a year of transition and had a great impact on his later life. From Madras Institute of Technology, he went out to Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, [HAL], at Bangalore as a trainer. There he worked on engine overhauling as part of a team. He had trained in radial engine-cum- drum operations.


title: Wings of Fire (autobiography)

text: After the completion of engineering, he had applied for the Air Force and Directorate of Technical Development and Production –DTP and PC (Air) of the Ministry of Defence. But he was not selected in Air Force because he failed to pass the physical fitness standards. Later, he was appointed in DTP and PC (Air) as senior scientific Assistant on a basic salary only of Rs. 250 per month, in 1950. He had to create opportunities on his own. At this stage, he covered 32 eventful years of his life when he was just on the threshold of his career after graduation.


title: Wings of Fire (autobiography)

text: The section 'Creation' traverses seven chapters, from chapters four to chapter ten; and covers Kalam's life and work for 17 years, from the year 1963 until 1980. It begins with his recollection of works at the Langley Research Center, NASA, in Houston, Virginia, U.S., and at other facilities in the US, including the Wallops Flight Facility at Wallops Island in East Coast of the United States, Virginia. At a NASA facility, he remembers to have seen a painting, prominently displayed in the lobby. The painting depicted a battle scene with a rocket flying in the background. On closer examination, he found that the painting depicted Tipu Sultan's army fighting the British. Kalam felt happy to see an Indian glorified in NASA as a hero of rocketry warfare.


title: Wings of Fire (autobiography)

text: His association with the Satellite Launch Vehicle and related projects are vividly presented in the section 'Creation'. During the period covered under 'Creation', Kalam, in the year 1976, lost his father who lived up to 102 years of age. Kalam took the bereavement with courage and remembered these words written on the death of William Butler Yeats by his friend Auden, and his father:


title: Wings of Fire (autobiography)

text: The period covered in the section 'Creation' also brought Kalam national recognition. A pleasant surprise came in the form of conferment of Padma Bhushan on Republic Day, 1981.


title: Wings of Fire (autobiography)

text: This section covers the scientist's journey towards becoming the "missile man of India". In this section, his excellent leadership qualities as taking up the responsibility of shaping up the Guided Missile Development Program, are clearly visible. In this phase of the life, Kalam was responsible for the development of the 5 missiles – Prithvi, Trishul, Akash, Nag and Agni.


title: Timothy Dexter

text: Timothy Dexter (January 22, 1747 – October 23, 1806) was an American businessman noted for his writing and eccentricity.


title: Timothy Dexter

text: Dexter was born in Malden in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. He had little schooling and dropped out of school to work as a farm laborer at the age of eight. When he was 16, he became a tanner's apprentice. In 1769, he moved to Newburyport, Massachusetts. He married 32-year-old Elizabeth Frothingham, a rich widow, and he then bought a mansion with the money.


title: Timothy Dexter

text: At the end of the American Revolutionary War, he purchased large amounts of depreciated Continental currency that was worthless at the time. At the war's end, the U.S. government made good on its notes at one percent of face value, while Massachusetts paid its own notes at par. His investment enabled him to amass a considerable profit. He built two ships and began an export business to the West Indies and Europe.


title: Timothy Dexter

text: Because he was largely uneducated, his business sense was considered peculiar. He was advised to send bed warmers—used to heat beds in the cold New England winters—for resale in the West Indies, a tropical area. This advice was a deliberate ploy by rivals to bankrupt him. His ship's captain sold them as ladles to the local molasses industry and made a handsome profit. Next, Dexter sent wool mittens to the same place, where Asian merchants bought them for export to Siberia.


title: Timothy Dexter

text: People jokingly told him to "ship coal to Newcastle". Fortuitously, he did so during a Newcastle miners' strike, and his cargo was sold at a premium. On another occasion, practical jokers told him he could make money by shipping gloves to the South Sea Islands. His ships arrived there in time to sell the gloves to Portuguese boats on their way to China.


title: Timothy Dexter

text: He exported Bibles to the East Indies and stray cats to Caribbean islands and again made a profit; Eastern missionaries were in need of the Bibles and the Caribbean welcomed a solution to rat infestation. He also hoarded whalebones by mistake, but ended up selling them profitably as corset stays.


title: Timothy Dexter

text: While subject to ridicule, Dexter's boasting makes it clear that he understood the value of cornering the market on goods that others did not see as valuable and the utility of "acting the fool".


title: Timothy Dexter

text: New England high society snubbed him. Dexter bought a large house in Newburyport from Nathaniel Tracy, a local socialite, and tried to emulate him. He decorated this house with minarets, a golden eagle on the top of the cupola, a mausoleum for himself, and a garden of 40 wooden statues of famous men, including George Washington, William Pitt, Napoleon Bonaparte, Thomas Jefferson, and himself. The last had the inscription, "I am the first in the East, the first in the West, and the greatest philosopher in the Western World". Dexter also bought an estate in Chester, New Hampshire.


title: Timothy Dexter

text: Despite his good fortune, his relationship with his family suffered. He frequently told visitors that his wife (who was actually alive) had died, and that the woman frequenting the building was simply her ghost. In one notable episode, Dexter faked his own death to see how people would react, and about 3,000 people attended Dexter's mock wake. When Dexter did not see his wife cry, he revealed the hoax and promptly caned her for not sufficiently mourning his death.


title: Timothy Dexter

text: At age 50, Dexter authored the book "", in which he complained about politicians, the clergy, and his wife. The book contains 8,847 words and 33,864 letters, but without any punctuation and with unorthodox spelling and capitalization. One section begins:


title: Timothy Dexter

text: The first edition was self-published in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1802. Dexter initially distributed his book for free, but it became popular and was reprinted eight times. The second edition was printed in Newburyport in 1805. In the second edition, Dexter responded to complaints about the book's lack of punctuation by adding an extra page of 11 lines of punctuation marks with the instruction that printers and readers could insert them wherever needed—or, in his words, "thay may peper and solt it as they plese".


title: Timothy Dexter

text: Dexter attempted to burnish his own legacy by enlisting the efforts of Jonathan Plummer, a fish merchant and amateur poet, who extolled his patron in verse:


title: Timothy Dexter

text: Some of his social contemporaries considered him very unintelligent; his obituary considered "his intellectual endowments not being of the most exalted stamp".


title: Timothy Dexter

text: Dexter's Newburyport house became a hotel. Storms ruined most of his statues; the only identified surviving statue was that of William Pitt.


title: Timothy Dexter

text: In 1984 Prof. William Quill, who was raised on Johnston Street in Newburyport, purchased Timothy Dexter's House for $200,000 and restored it.


title: Yugoslavia national football team

text: Although the team mainly represented the pre-war Kingdom of Yugoslavia and the post-war SFR Yugoslavia, various iterations of the state were formally constituted in football, including the:


title: Yugoslavia national football team

text: It enjoyed success in international competition, finishing in fourth place at the 1930 and 1962 FIFA World Cups. In 1992, during the Yugoslav wars, the team was suspended from international competition as part of a United Nations sanction. In 1994, when the boycott was lifted, it was succeeded by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia national football team.


title: Yugoslavia national football team

text: The Serbia national football team inherited Yugoslavia's spot within FIFA and UEFA and is considered by both organisations as the only successor of Yugoslavia (and of Serbia and Montenegro).


title: Yugoslavia national football team

text: The first national team was in the kingdom that existed between the two world wars. The Football Federation of what was then the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was founded in Zagreb in 1919 under the name "Jugoslavenski nogometni savez" (and admitted into FIFA), and the national team played its first international game at the Summer Olympics in Antwerp in 1920. The opponent was Czechoslovakia, and the historic starting eleven that represented Kingdom of SCS on its debut were: Dragutin Vrđuka, Vjekoslav Župančić, Jaroslav Šifer, Stanko Tavčar, Slavin Cindrić, Rudolf Rupec, Dragutin Vragović, Artur Dubravčić, Emil Perška, Ivan Granec, and Jovan Ružić. They lost by a huge margin 0–7, but nonetheless got their names in the history books.


title: Yugoslavia national football team

text: In 1929, the country was renamed to Yugoslavia and the football association became "Fudbalski savez Jugoslavije" and ordered to move its headquarters from Zagreb to Belgrade. The national team participated at the 1930 FIFA World Cup, finishing in fourth place. In its first ever World Cup match in Montevideo's Parque Central, Yugoslavia managed a famous 2–1 win versus mighty Brazil, with the following starting eleven representing the country: Milovan Jakšić, Branislav Sekulić, Aleksandar Tirnanić, Milutin Ivković, Ivica Bek, Momčilo Đokić, Blagoje Marjanović, Milorad Arsenijević, Đorđe Vujadinović, Dragoslav Mihajlović, and Ljubiša Stefanović. The team was the youngest squad at the inaugural World Cup at an average age of just under 22 years old, and became quite popular amongst the Uruguayan public, who dubbed them "Los Ichachos". The national team consisted of players based in Serbian football clubs, while the Zagreb Subassociation forbid players from Croatian clubs, some of whom were regulars in the national team until then, to play in the World Cup due to the relocation of football association's headquarters from Zagreb to Belgrade.


title: Yugoslavia national football team

text: The federation and football overall was disrupted by World War II. After the war, a socialist federation was formed and the football federation reconstituted. It was one of the founding members of the UEFA in 1954.


title: Yugoslavia national football team

text: Yugoslavia began their football campaign by defeating Luxembourg 6–1, with five different players scoring the goals. In the quarter-finals and the semi-finals, they would take out Turkey and Great Britain by the same score of 3–1. In the final though, they would lose to Sweden.


title: Yugoslavia national football team

text: Having a team with many players from the 1948 generation, Yugoslavia was a formidable side at the 1952 Summer Olympics and finished as runners-up behind the famous "Golden Team" representing Hungary. Against the USSR, Yugoslavia was 5–1 up with 15 minutes of their first round match to go. The Yugoslavs, understandably, put their feet up. Arthur Ellis, the match referee, recorded what happened next in his book, "The Final Whistle" (London, 1963): "The USSR forced the most honourable draw ever recorded! [Vsevolod] Bobrov, their captain, scored a magnificent hat-trick. After the USSR had reduced the lead to 5–2, he, almost single-handed, took the score to 5–5, scoring his third in the last minute. For once, use of the word sensational was justified." Although Bobrov's early goal in their replay presaged a miraculous recovery, Yugoslavia recovered sufficiently to put out their opponents easily in the second half.


title: Yugoslavia national football team

text: In 1976, Yugoslavia organized the European Championship played in Belgrade and Zagreb. The national team participated in eight World Cups and four Euros, won the Olympic football tournament in 1960 at the Summer Games (they also finished second three times and third once), and developed a reputation for skillful and attacking football, leading them to be dubbed "the Brazilians of Europe".


title: Yugoslavia national football team

text: Dragan Džajić holds the record for the most national team caps at 85, between 1964 and 1979. The best scorer is Stjepan Bobek with 38 goals, between 1946 and 1956.


title: Yugoslavia national football team

text: With the end of the Cold War, democratic principles were introduced to the country which brought about the end of Titoist rule. In the subsequent atmosphere, national tensions were heightened. At the Yugoslavia-Netherlands friendly in preparation for the 1990 World Cup, the Croatian crowd in Zagreb jeered the Yugoslav team and anthem and waved Dutch flags (owing to its resemblance to the Croatian tricolour). With the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the team split up and the remaining team of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) was banned from competing at Euro 92. The decision was made on 31 May 1992, just 10 days before the competition commenced.


title: Yugoslavia national football team

text: They had finished top of their qualifying group, but were unable to play in the competition due to United Nations Security Council Resolution 757. Their place was taken by Denmark, who went on to win the competition. Yugoslavia had also been drawn as second seed in Group 5 of the European Zone in the qualifying tournament for the 1994 World Cup. FRY was barred from competing, rendering the group unusually weak.


title: Yugoslavia national football team

text: After the breakup of Yugoslavia, the FRY consisted of Montenegro and Serbia. The national team of Serbia and Montenegro continued under the name Yugoslavia until 2003, when country and team were renamed Serbia and Montenegro.


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: The Zhuangzi (Chinese: , historically romanized Chuang Tzŭ) is an ancient Chinese text from the late Warring States period (476221) which contains stories and anecdotes that exemplify the carefree nature of the ideal Taoist sage. Named for its traditional author, "Master Zhuang" (Zhuangzi), the "Zhuangzi" is one of the two foundational texts of Taoism, along with the "Tao Te Ching".


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: The "Zhuangzi" consists of a large collection of anecdotes, allegories, parables, and fables, which are often humorous or irreverent. Its main themes are of spontaneity in action and of freedom from the human world and its conventions. The fables and anecdotes in the text attempt to illustrate the falseness of human distinctions between good and bad, large and small, life and death, and human and nature. While other ancient Chinese philosophers focused on moral and personal duty, Zhuangzi promoted carefree wandering and becoming one with "the Way" ("Dào" ) by following nature.


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: Though primarily known as a philosophical work, the "Zhuangzi" is regarded as one of the greatest literary works in Chinese history, and has been called "the most important pre-Qin text for the study of Chinese literature". A masterpiece of both philosophical and literary skill, it has significantly influenced major Chinese writers and poets for more than 2000 years from the Han dynasty (206AD220) to the present.


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: The "Zhuangzi" is named for and attributed to a man named Zhuang Zhou, who was traditionally known as "Zhuangzi" ("Master Zhuang", from Mandarin Chinese ). Nothing is concretely known of Zhuangzi's life. He is generally said to have been born around 369 at a place called Meng () in the state of Song (around present-day Shangqiu, Henan Province), and to have died around 301, 295, or 286. He is thought to have spent time in the southern state of Chu, as well as in Linzi, the capital of the state of Qi. Sima Qian's 1st century BC "Records of the Grand Historian", the first of China's 24 dynastic histories, has a biography of Zhuangzi, but most of it seems to have simply been drawn from anecdotes in the "Zhuangzi" itself. In the introduction to his "Zhuangzi" translation, the American scholar Burton Watson concluded: "Whoever Zhuang Zhou was, the writings attributed to him bear the stamp of a brilliant and original mind."


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: The first seven chapters of the "Zhuangzi", which are known as the "inner chapters" ( ), were historically considered the actual work of Zhuangzi, and most modern scholars agree with this view. The remaining 26 chapters are known as the "outer chapters" ( ) and "miscellaneous chapters" ( ). Whether these chapters were written by Zhuangzi has long been debated. Chinese scholars recognized as early as the Sung dynasty (9601279) that some parts of the book could not have been written by Zhuangzi himself. Today, it is generally accepted that the middle and later "Zhuangzi" chapters are the result of a process of "accretion and redaction" by other authors "responding to the scintillating brilliance" of the inner chapters. Despite the uncertainty over the later chapters' authorship, scholars accept all of the "Zhuangzi" 33 surviving chapters as compositions dating from the 4th to 2nd centuries BC.


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: Details of the "Zhuangzi"s textual history prior to the Han dynasty (206AD220) are largely unknown. Traces of its influence in late Warring States period (475221) philosophical texts such as the "Guanzi", "Han Feizi", "Huainanzi", and "Lüshi Chunqiu" suggest that Zhuangzi's intellectual lineage was already fairly influential in the states of Qi and Chu in the 3rd century. In "Records of the Grand Historian", Sima Qian refers to a 100,000-word "Zhuangzi" work and references several chapters that are still in the text. The "Book of Han", finished in AD 111, lists a "Zhuangzi" in 52 chapters, which many scholars believe to be the original form of the work. Several different versions of the "Zhuangzi" survived into the Tang dynasty (618907), but a shorter and more popular 33-chapter form of the book prepared by the philosopher and writer Guo Xiang around AD 300 is the source of all surviving editions.


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: In 742, an imperial proclamation from Emperor Xuanzong of Tang canonized the "Zhuangzi" as one of the Chinese classics and awarded it the honorific title "True Scripture of Southern Florescence" ( ). Nevertheless, most Chinese scholars did not consider the "Zhuangzi" to be a true "classic" ( ) due to its non-Confucian nature.


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: Portions of the "Zhuangzi" have been discovered among bamboo slip texts from Warring States period and Han dynasty tombs, particularly at the Shuanggudui and Zhangjiashan Han bamboo texts sites. One of the slips from the Guodian bamboo texts, which date to around 300 BC, contains what appears to be a short fragment from the "Ransacking Coffers" ("Qū qiè" ) chapter.


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: Many "Zhuangzi" fragments dating from the early Tang dynasty were discovered among the Dunhuang manuscripts in the early 20th century by the expeditions of Hungarian-British explorer Aurel Stein and French Sinologist Paul Pelliot. They collectively form about twelve chapters of Guo Xiang's version of the "Zhuangzi", and are preserved mostly at the British Library and the Bibliothèque nationale de France.


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: Among the Japanese national treasures preserved in the Kōzan-ji temple in Kyoto is a "Zhuangzi" manuscript from the Muromachi period (13381573). The manuscript has seven complete chapters from the "outer" and "miscellaneous" chapters, and is believed to be a close copy of an annotated edition written in the 7th century by the Chinese Daoist master Cheng Xuanying.


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: The "Zhuangzi" consists of a large collection of anecdotes, allegories, "goblet words", parables, and fables which are often humorous or irreverent in nature. Most "Zhuangzi" stories are fairly short and simple, such as "Lickety" and "Split" drilling seven holes in "Wonton" (chapter 7) or Zhuangzi being discovered sitting and drumming on a basin after his wife dies (chapter 18), although a few are longer and more complex, like the story of Master Lie and the magus (chapter 14) and the account of the Yellow Emperor's music (chapter 14). Unlike the other stories and allegories in other pre-Qin texts, the "Zhuangzi" is unique in that the allegories form the bulk of the text, rather than occasional features, and are always witty, emotional, and are not limited to reality.


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: Unlike other ancient Chinese works, whose allegories were usually based on historical legends and proverbs, most "Zhuangzi" stories seem to have been invented by Zhuangzi himself. Some are completely whimsical, such as the strange description of evolution from "misty spray" through a series of substances and insects to horses and humans (chapter 18), while a few other passages seem to be "sheer playful nonsense" which read like Lewis Carroll's "Jabberwocky". The "Zhuangzi" is full of quirky and fantastic characters, such as "Mad Stammerer", "Fancypants Scholar", "Sir Plow", and a man who fancies that his left arm will turn into a rooster, his right arm will turn into a crossbow, and his buttocks will become cartwheels.


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: A master of language, Zhuangzi sometimes engages in logic and reasoning, but then turns it upside down or carries the arguments to absurdity to demonstrate the limitations of human knowledge and the rational world. Sinologist Victor Mair compares Zhuangzi's reasoning, such as his argument with his philosopher friend Huizi (Master Hui) about the joy of fish (chapter 17), to the Socratic dialogue tradition, and terms Huizi's paradoxes near the end of the book "strikingly like those of Zeno of Elea".


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: The most famous of all "Zhuangzi" stories—"Zhuang Zhou Dreams of Being a Butterfly"—appears at the end of the second chapter, "On the Equality of Things".


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: The image of Zhuangzi wondering if he was a man who dreamed of being a butterfly or a butterfly dreaming of being a man became so well-known that whole dramas have been written on its theme. In the passage, Zhuangzi "[plays] with the theme of transformation", illustrating that "the distinction between waking and dreaming is another false dichotomy. If [one] distinguishes them, how can [one] tell if [one] is now dreaming or awake?"


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: Another well known Zhuangzi story"The Death of Wonton"illustrates the dangers Zhuangzi saw in going against the innate nature of things.


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: Zhuangzi believed that the greatest of all human happiness could be achieved through a higher understanding of the nature of things, and that in order to develop oneself fully one needed to express one's innate ability. In this anecdote, Zhuangzi humorously and absurdly uses "Wonton"a name for the Chinese conception of primordial chaos that later lent its name to wonton soupto demonstrate what he believed were the disastrous consequences of going against things' innate natures.


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: The story of "The Debate on the Joy of Fish" is a well-known anecdote that has been compared to the Socratic dialogue tradition of ancient Greece.


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: The exact point made by Zhuangzi in this debate is not entirely clear. The story seems to make the point that "knowing" a thing is simply a state of mind, and that it is not possible to determine if that "knowing" has any objective validity. This story has been cited as an example of Zhuangzi's linguistic mastery, as he subtly uses reason to make an anti-rationalist point.


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: Another well-known Zhuangzi story—"Drumming On a Tub and Singing"—describes how Zhuangzi did not view death as something to be feared.


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: Zhuangzi seems to have viewed death as a natural process or transformation, where one gives up one form of existence and assumes another. In the second chapter, he makes the point that, for all humans know, death may in fact be better than life: "How do I know that loving life is not a delusion? How do I know that in hating death I am not like a man who, having left home in his youth, has forgotten the way back?" His writings teach that "the wise man or woman accepts death with equanimity and thereby achieves absolute happiness."


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: The story of Zhuangzi's death, contained in chapter 32 of the text, exemplifies the colorful lore that grew up around Zhuangzi in the decades after his death, as well as the elaboration of the core philosophical ideas contained in the "inner chapters" that appears in the "outer" and "miscellaneous chapters".


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: The stories and anecdotes of the "Zhuangzi" embody a unique set of principles and attitudes, including living one's life with natural spontaneity, uniting one's inner self with the cosmic "Way" ("Dao"), keeping oneself distant from politics and social obligations, accepting death as a natural transformation, showing appreciation and praise for things others view as useless or aimless, and stridently rejecting social values and conventional reasoning. These principles form the core ideas of philosophical Daoism. The other major philosophical schools of ancient Chinasuch as Confucianism, Legalism, and Mohismwere all concerned with concrete social, political, or ethical reforms designed to reform people and society and thereby alleviate the problems and suffering of the world. Zhuangzi believed that the key to true happiness was to free oneself from the world and its standards through the Daoist principle of "inaction" ("wúwéi" )action that is not based on any purposeful striving or motives for gainand was fundamentally opposed to systems that impose order on individuals.


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: The "Zhuangzi" interprets the universe as a thing that changes spontaneously without a conscious God or will driving it, and argues that humans can achieve ultimate happiness by living equally spontaneously. It argues that because of humans' advanced cognitive abilities, they have a tendency to create artificial distinctionssuch as good versus bad, large versus small, usefulness versus uselessness, and social systems like Confucianismthat remove themselves from the natural spontaneity of the universe. To illustrate the mindlessness and spontaneity he felt should characterize human action, Zhuangzi most often uses the analogy of craftsmen or artisans. As Burton Watson described, "the skilled woodcarver, the skilled butcher, the skilled swimmer does not ponder or ratiocinate on the course of action he should take; his skill has become so much a part of him that he merely acts instinctively and spontaneously and, without knowing why, achieves success." The term "wandering" ("yóu") is used throughout the stories of the "Zhuangzi" to describe how an enlightened person "wanders through all of creation, enjoying its delights without ever becoming attached to any one part of it."


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: The "Zhuangzi" vigorously opposes formal government, which Zhuangzi seems to have felt was problematic at its foundation "because of the opposition between man and nature." The text tries to show that "as soon as government intervenes in natural affairs, it destroys all possibility of genuine happiness." It is unclear if Zhuangzi's positions amounted to a form of anarchism, as the political references in the "Zhuangzi" are more concerned with what government should not do, rather than what kind of government should exist.


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: Western scholars have long noticed that the "Zhuangzi" is often strongly anti-rationalist. Whereas reason and logic became the hallmark of Ancient Greek philosophy and then the entire Western philosophical tradition, Chinese philosophers preferred to rely on moral persuasion and intuition. The "Zhuangzi" played a significant role in the traditional Chinese skepticism toward rationalism, as Zhuangzi frequently turns logical arguments upside-down to satirize and discredit them. Zhuangzi did not entirely abandon language and reason, but "only wished to point out that overdependence on them could limit the flexibility of thought."


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: The "Zhuangzi" is the most influential purely literary Chinese work dating from before China's imperial unification in 221. Its literary quality, imagination and creativity, and linguistic prowess were unprecedented in the period of its creation. Virtually every major Chinese writer or poet in history, from Sima Xiangru and Sima Qian during the Han dynasty, Ruan Ji and Tao Yuanming during the Six Dynasties, Li Bai during the Tang dynasty, to Su Shi and Lu You in the Song dynasty were "deeply imbued with the ideas and artistry of the "Zhuangzi"."


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: Traces of the "Zhuangzi"s influence in late Warring States period philosophical texts such as the "Guanzi", "Han Feizi", "Huainanzi", and "Lüshi Chunqiu" suggest that Zhuangzi's intellectual lineage was already fairly influential in the states of Qi and Chu in the 3rd century. During the Qin and Han dynastieswith their state-sponsored Legalist and Confucian ideologies, respectivelythe "Zhuangzi" does not seem to have been highly regarded. One exception is Han dynasty scholar Jia Yi's 170 work ""Fu" on the Owl" ("Fúniǎo fù" ), the earliest definitively known "fu" rhapsody, which does not reference the "Zhuangzi" by name but cites it for one-sixth of the poem.


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: After the collapse of the Han dynasty in AD 207 and the subsequent chaos of the Three Kingdoms period, both the "Zhuangzi" and Zhuang Zhou began to rise in popularity and acclaim. The 3rd century AD poets Ruan Ji and Xi Kang, both members of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, were ardent "Zhuangzi" admirers, and one of Ruan's essays, entitled "Discourse on Summing Up the "Zhuangzi"" ("Dá Zhuāng lùn" ), is still extant. This period saw Confucianism temporarily surpassed by a revival of Daoism and old divination texts, such as the "Classic of Changes" ("I Ching" ), and many early medieval Chinese poets, artists, and calligraphers were deeply influenced by the "Zhuangzi".


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: The "Zhuangzi" has been called "the most important of all the Daoist writings", and its "inner chapters" embody the core ideas of philosophical Daoism. In the 4th century AD, the "Zhuangzi" became a major source of imagery and terminology for a new form of Daoism known as the "Highest Clarity" ("Shangqing" ) school that was popular among the aristocracy of the Jin dynasty (266–420). Highest Clarity Daoism borrowed notable "Zhuangzi" terms, such as "perfected man" ("zhēn rén" ), "Great Clarity" ("Tài Qīng" ), and "fasting the mind" ("xīn zhāi" ), and although they are used somewhat differently than in the "Zhuangzi" itself, they still show the important role the "Zhuangzi" played at the time.


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: The "Zhuangzi" was very influential in the adaptation of Buddhism to Chinese culture after Buddhism was first brought to China from India in the 1st century AD. Zhi Dun, China's first aristocratic Buddhist monk, wrote a prominent commentary to the "Zhuangzi" in the mid-4th century. The "Zhuangzi" also played a significant role in the formation of Chan ("Zen") Buddhism, which grew out of "a fusion of Buddhist ideology and ancient Daoist thought." Among the traits Chan/Zen Buddhism borrowed from the "Zhuangzi" are a distrust of language and logic, an insistence that "the Dao" can be found in everything, even dung and urine, and a fondness for dialogues based on riddles or paradigm-challenging statements known as "gōng'àn" (; Japanese "kōan").


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: The "Zhuangzi" retained prominence throughout Chinese history as the preeminent example of core Daoist philosophical ideals. The 17th century scholar Gu Yanwu lamented his government's flippant use of the "Zhuangzi" on the imperial examination essays as representative of a decline in traditional morals at the end of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). In the great Chinese novel "Dream of the Red Chamber" ("Hong lou meng" ), the main protagonist, Jia Baoyu, often turns to the "Zhuangzi" for comfort amidst his despair over conflicting love interests and relationships. The story of Zhuangzi drumming on a tub and singing after the death of his wife inspired an entire tradition of folk music called "funeral drumming" ("sàng-gǔ" ) in central China's Hubei and Hunan Provinces that survived into the 18th and 19th centuries.


title: Zhuangzi (book)

text: Outside of China and the traditional "Sinosphere", the "Zhuangzi" lags far behind the "Tao Te Ching" in general popularity, and is rarely known by non-scholars. A number of prominent scholars have attempted to bring the "Zhuangzi" to wider attention among Western readers. In 1939, the British translator and Sinologist Arthur Waley described the "Zhuangzi" as "one of the most entertaining as well as one of the profoundest books in the world." In the introduction to his 1994 translation of the "Zhuangzi", the American Sinologist Victor H. Mair wrote: "I feel a sense of injustice that the "Dao De Jing" is so well known to my fellow citizens while the "Zhuangzi" is so thoroughly ignored, because I firmly believe that the latter is in every respect a superior work."


title: Bird migration

text: Bird migration is the regular seasonal movement, often north and south along a flyway, between breeding and wintering grounds. Many species of bird migrate. Migration carries high costs in predation and mortality, including from hunting by humans, and is driven primarily by the availability of food. It occurs mainly in the northern hemisphere, where birds are funneled onto specific routes by natural barriers such as the Mediterranean Sea or the Caribbean Sea.


title: Bird migration

text: Migration of species such as storks, turtle doves, and swallows was recorded as many as 3,000 years ago by Ancient Greek authors, including Homer and Aristotle, and in the Book of Job. More recently, Johannes Leche began recording dates of arrivals of spring migrants in Finland in 1749, and modern scientific studies have used techniques including bird ringing and satellite tracking to trace migrants. Threats to migratory birds have grown with habitat destruction, especially of stopover and wintering sites, as well as structures such as power lines and wind farms.


title: Bird migration

text: The Arctic tern holds the long-distance migration record for birds, traveling between Arctic breeding grounds and the Antarctic each year. Some species of tubenoses (Procellariiformes) such as albatrosses circle the earth, flying over the southern oceans, while others such as Manx shearwaters migrate between their northern breeding grounds and the southern ocean. Shorter migrations are common, while longer ones are not. The shorter migrations include altitudinal migrations on mountains such as the Andes and Himalayas.


title: Bird migration

text: The timing of migration seems to be controlled primarily by changes in day length. Migrating birds navigate using celestial cues from the sun and stars, the earth's magnetic field, and mental maps.


title: Bird migration

text: In the Pacific, traditional land finding techniques used by Micronesians and Polynesians suggest that bird migration was observed and interpreted for more than 3,000 years. In Samoan tradition, for example, Tagaloa sent his daughter Sina to Earth in the form of a bird, Tuli, to find dry land, the word tuli referring specifically to land finding waders, often to the Pacific golden plover. Bird migrations were recorded in Europe from at least 3,000 years ago by the Ancient Greek writers Hesiod, Homer, Herodotus and Aristotle. The Bible, as in the Book of Job, notes migrations with the inquiry: "Is it by your insight that the hawk hovers, spreads its wings southward?" The author of Jeremiah wrote: "Even the stork in the heavens know its seasons, and the turtle dove, the swift and the crane keep the time of their arrival."


title: Bird migration

text: Aristotle recorded that cranes traveled from the steppes of Scythia to marshes at the headwaters of the Nile. Pliny the Elder, in his "Historia Naturalis", repeats Aristotle's observations.


title: Bird migration

text: Aristotle, however, suggested that swallows and other birds hibernated. This belief persisted as late as 1878 when Elliott Coues listed the titles of no fewer than 182 papers dealing with the hibernation of swallows. Even the "highly observant" Gilbert White, in his posthumously published 1789 "The Natural History of Selborne", quoted a man's story about swallows being found in a chalk cliff collapse "while he was a schoolboy at Brighthelmstone", though the man denied being an eyewitness. However, he writes that "as to swallows being found in a torpid state during the winter in the Isle of Wight or any part of this country, I never heard any such account worth attending to", and that if early swallows "happen to find frost and snow they immediately withdraw for a time—a circumstance this much more in favor of hiding than migration", since he doubts they would "return for a week or two to warmer latitudes".


title: Bird migration

text: It was not until the end of the eighteenth century that migration as an explanation for the winter disappearance of birds from northern climes was accepted. Thomas Bewick's "A History of British Birds" (Volume 1, 1797) mentions a report from "a very intelligent master of a vessel" who, "between the islands of Menorca and Majorca, saw great numbers of Swallows flying northward", and states the situation in Britain as follows:


title: Bird migration

text: Bewick then describes an experiment that succeeded in keeping swallows alive in Britain for several years, where they remained warm and dry through the winters. He concludes:


title: Bird migration

text: In 1822, a white stork was found in the German state of Mecklenburg with an arrow made from central African hardwood, which provided some of the earliest evidence of long-distance stork migration. This bird was referred to as a "Pfeilstorch", German for "Arrow stork". Since then, around 25 "Pfeilstörche" have been documented.


title: Bird migration

text: Migration is the regular seasonal movement, often north and south, undertaken by many species of birds. Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability, habitat, or weather. Sometimes, journeys are not termed "true migration" because they are irregular (nomadism, invasions, irruptions) or in only one direction (dispersal, movement of young away from natal area). Migration is marked by its annual seasonality. Non-migratory birds are said to be resident or sedentary. Approximately 1,800 of the world's 10,000 bird species are long-distance migrants.


title: Bird migration

text: Many bird populations migrate long distances along a flyway. The most common pattern involves flying north in the spring to breed in the temperate or Arctic summer and returning in the autumn to wintering grounds in warmer regions to the south. Of course, in the southern hemisphere, the directions are reversed, but there is less land area in the far south to support long-distance migration.


title: Bird migration

text: The primary motivation for migration appears to be food; for example, some hummingbirds choose not to migrate if fed through the winter. In addition, the longer days of the northern summer provide extended time for breeding birds to feed their young. This helps diurnal birds to produce larger clutches than related non-migratory species that remain in the tropics. As the days shorten in autumn, the birds return to warmer regions where the available food supply varies little with the season.


title: Bird migration

text: These advantages offset the high stress, physical exertion costs, and other risks of the migration. Predation can be heightened during migration: Eleonora's falcon "Falco eleonorae", which breeds on Mediterranean islands, has a very late breeding season, coordinated with the autumn passage of southbound passerine migrants, which it feeds to its young. A similar strategy is adopted by the greater noctule bat, which preys on nocturnal passerine migrants. The higher concentrations of migrating birds at stopover sites make them prone to parasites and pathogens, which require a heightened immune response.


title: Bird migration

text: Within a species not all populations may be migratory; this is known as "partial migration". Partial migration is very common in the southern continents; in Australia, 44% of non-passerine birds and 32% of passerine species are partially migratory. In some species, the population at higher latitudes tends to be migratory and will often winter at lower latitude. The migrating birds bypass the latitudes where other populations may be sedentary, where suitable wintering habitats may already be occupied. This is an example of "leap-frog migration". Many fully migratory species show leap-frog migration (birds that nest at higher latitudes spend the winter at lower latitudes), and many show the alternative, chain migration, where populations 'slide' more evenly north and south without reversing the order.


title: Bird migration

text: Within a population, it is common for different ages and/or sexes to have different patterns of timing and distance. Female chaffinches "Fringilla coelebs" in Eastern Fennoscandia migrate earlier in the autumn than males do and the European tits of genera "Parus" and "Cyanistes" only migrate their first year.


title: Bird migration

text: Most migrations begin with the birds starting off in a broad front. Often, this front narrows into one or more preferred routes termed flyways. These routes typically follow mountain ranges or coastlines, sometimes rivers, and may take advantage of updrafts and other wind patterns or avoid geographical barriers such as large stretches of open water. The specific routes may be genetically programmed or learned to varying degrees. The routes taken on forward and return migration are often different. A common pattern in North America is clockwise migration, where birds flying North tend to be further West, and flying South tend to shift Eastwards.


title: Bird migration

text: Many, if not most, birds migrate in flocks. For larger birds, flying in flocks reduces the energy cost. Geese in a V-formation may conserve 12–20% of the energy they would need to fly alone. Red knots "Calidris canutus" and dunlins "Calidris alpina" were found in radar studies to fly faster in flocks than when they were flying alone.


title: Bird migration

text: Birds fly at varying altitudes during migration. An expedition to Mt. Everest found skeletons of northern pintail "Anas acuta" and black-tailed godwit "Limosa limosa" at on the Khumbu Glacier. Bar-headed geese "Anser indicus" have been recorded by GPS flying at up to while crossing the Himalayas, at the same time engaging in the highest rates of climb to altitude for any bird. Anecdotal reports of them flying much higher have yet to be corroborated with any direct evidence. Seabirds fly low over water but gain altitude when crossing land, and the reverse pattern is seen in landbirds. However most bird migration is in the range of . Bird strike aviation records from the United States show most collisions occur below and almost none above .


title: Bird migration

text: Bird migration is not limited to birds that can fly. Most species of penguin (Spheniscidae) migrate by swimming. These routes can cover over . Dusky grouse "Dendragapus obscurus" perform altitudinal migration mostly by walking. Emus "Dromaius novaehollandiae" in Australia have been observed to undertake long-distance movements on foot during droughts.


title: Bird migration

text: During nocturnal migration ("nocmig"), many birds give nocturnal flight calls, which are short, contact-type calls. These likely serve to maintain the composition of a migrating flock, and can sometimes encode the sex of a migrating individual, and to avoid collision in the air. Nocturnal migration can be monitored using weather radar data, allowing ornithologists to estimate the number of birds migrating on a given night, and the direction of the migration. Future research includes the automatic detection and identification of nocturnally calling migrant birds.


title: Bird migration

text: Nocturnal migrants land in the morning and may feed for a few days before resuming their migration. These birds are referred to as "passage migrants" in the regions where they occur for a short period between the origin and destination.


title: Bird migration

text: Nocturnal migrants minimize depredation, avoid overheating, and can feed during the day. One cost of nocturnal migration is the loss of sleep. Migrants may be able to alter their quality of sleep to compensate for the loss.


title: Bird migration

text: The typical image of migration is of northern land birds, such as swallows (Hirundinidae) and birds of prey, making long flights to the tropics. However, many Holarctic wildfowl and finch (Fringillidae) species winters in the North Temperate Zone, in regions with milder winters than their summer breeding grounds. For example, the pink-footed goose migrates from Iceland to Britain and neighbouring countries, whilst the dark-eyed junco migrates from subarctic and arctic climates to the contiguous United States and the American goldfinch from taiga to wintering grounds extending from the American South northwestward to Western Oregon. Some ducks, such as the garganey "Anas querquedula", move completely or partially into the tropics. The European pied flycatcher "Ficedula hypoleuca" follows this migratory trend, breeding in Asia and Europe and wintering in Africa.


title: Bird migration

text: Migration routes and wintering grounds are both genetically and traditionally determined depending on the social system of the species. In long-lived, social species such as white storks "(Ciconia ciconia)," flocks are often led by the oldest members and young storks learn the route on their first journey. In short-lived species that migrate alone, such as the Eurasian blackcap "Sylvia atricapilla" or the yellow-billed cuckoo "Coccyzus americanus", first-year migrants follow a genetically determined route that is alterable with selective breeding.


title: Bird migration

text: Many migration routes of long-distance migratory birds are circuitous due to evolutionary history: the breeding range of Northern wheatears "Oenanthe oenanthe" has expanded to cover the entire Northern Hemisphere, but the species still migrates up to 14,500 km to reach ancestral wintering grounds in sub-Saharan Africa rather than establish new wintering grounds closer to breeding areas.


title: Bird migration

text: A migration route often does not follow the most direct line between breeding and wintering grounds. Rather, it could follow a hooked or arched line, with detours around geographical barriers or towards suitable stopover habitat. For most land birds, such barriers could consist of large water bodies or high mountain ranges, a lack of stopover or feeding sites, or a lack of thermal columns (important for broad-winged birds).


title: Bird migration

text: Conversely, in water-birds, large areas of land without wetlands offering suitable feeding sites may present a barrier, and detours avoiding such barriers are observed. For example, brent geese "Branta bernicla bernicla" migrating between the Taymyr Peninsula and the Wadden Sea travel via low-lying coastal feeding-areas on the White Sea and the Baltic Sea rather than directly across the Arctic Ocean and the Scandinavian mainland.


title: Bird migration

text: Great snipes make non-stop flights of 4,000–7,000 km, lasting 60–90 h, during which they change their average cruising heights from 2,000 m (above sea level) at night to around 4,000 m during daytime.


title: Bird migration

text: A similar situation occurs with waders (called "shorebirds" in North America). Many species, such as dunlin "Calidris alpina" and western sandpiper "Calidris mauri", undertake long movements from their Arctic breeding grounds to warmer locations in the same hemisphere, but others such as semipalmated sandpiper "C. pusilla" travel longer distances to the tropics in the Southern Hemisphere.


title: Bird migration

text: For some species of waders, migration success depends on the availability of certain key food resources at stopover points along the migration route. This gives the migrants an opportunity to refuel for the next leg of the voyage. Some examples of important stopover locations are the Bay of Fundy and Delaware Bay.


title: Bird migration

text: Some bar-tailed godwits "Limosa lapponica baueri" have the longest known non-stop flight of any migrant, flying 11,000 km from Alaska to their New Zealand non-breeding areas. Prior to migration, 55 percent of their bodyweight is stored as fat to fuel this uninterrupted journey.


title: Bird migration

text: Seabird migration is similar in pattern to those of the waders and waterfowl. Some, such as the black guillemot "Cepphus grylle" and some gulls, are quite sedentary; others, such as most terns and auks breeding in the temperate northern hemisphere, move varying distances south in the northern winter. The Arctic tern "Sterna paradisaea" has the longest-distance migration of any bird, and sees more daylight than any other, moving from its Arctic breeding grounds to the Antarctic non-breeding areas. One Arctic tern, ringed (banded) as a chick on the Farne Islands off the British east coast, reached Melbourne, Australia in just three months from fledging, a sea journey of over . Many tubenosed birds breed in the southern hemisphere and migrate north in the southern winter.


title: Bird migration

text: The most pelagic species, mainly in the 'tubenose' order Procellariiformes, are great wanderers, and the albatrosses of the southern oceans may circle the globe as they ride the "roaring forties" outside the breeding season. The tubenoses spread widely over large areas of open ocean, but congregate when food becomes available. Many are among the longest-distance migrants; sooty shearwaters "Puffinus griseus" nesting on the Falkland Islands migrate between the breeding colony and the North Atlantic Ocean off Norway. Some Manx shearwaters "Puffinus puffinus" do this same journey in reverse. As they are long-lived birds, they may cover enormous distances during their lives; one record-breaking Manx shearwater is calculated to have flown during its over-50-year lifespan.


title: Bird migration

text: Some large broad-winged birds rely on thermal columns of rising hot air to enable them to soar. These include many birds of prey such as vultures, eagles, and buzzards, but also storks. These birds migrate in the daytime. Migratory species in these groups have great difficulty crossing large bodies of water, since thermals only form over land, and these birds cannot maintain active flight for long distances. Mediterranean and other seas present a major obstacle to soaring birds, which must cross at the narrowest points. Massive numbers of large raptors and storks pass through areas such as the Strait of Messina, Gibraltar, Falsterbo, and the Bosphorus at migration times. More common species, such as the European honey buzzard "Pernis apivorus", can be counted in hundreds of thousands in autumn. Other barriers, such as mountain ranges, can cause funnelling, particularly of large diurnal migrants, as in the Central American migratory bottleneck. The Batumi bottleneck in the Caucasus is one of the heaviest migratory funnels on earth, created when hundreds of thousands of soaring birds avoid flying over the Black Sea surface and across high mountains. Birds of prey such as honey buzzards which migrate using thermals lose only 10 to 20% of their weight during migration, which may explain why they forage less during migration than do smaller birds of prey with more active flight such as falcons, hawks and harriers.


title: Bird migration

text: From observing the migration of eleven soaring bird species over the Strait of Gibraltar, species which did not advance their autumn migration dates were those with declining breeding populations in Europe.


title: Bird migration

text: Many long-distance migrants appear to be genetically programmed to respond to changing day length. Species that move short distances, however, may not need such a timing mechanism, instead moving in response to local weather conditions. Thus mountain and moorland breeders, such as wallcreeper "Tichodroma muraria" and white-throated dipper "Cinclus cinclus", may move only altitudinally to escape the cold higher ground. Other species such as merlin "Falco columbarius" and Eurasian skylark "Alauda arvensis" move further, to the coast or towards the south. Species like the chaffinch are much less migratory in Britain than those of continental Europe, mostly not moving more than 5 km in their lives.


title: Bird migration

text: Short-distance passerine migrants have two evolutionary origins. Those that have long-distance migrants in the same family, such as the common chiffchaff "Phylloscopus collybita", are species of southern hemisphere origins that have progressively shortened their return migration to stay in the northern hemisphere.


title: Bird migration

text: Species that have no long-distance migratory relatives, such as the waxwings "Bombycilla", are effectively moving in response to winter weather and the loss of their usual winter food, rather than enhanced breeding opportunities.


title: Bird migration

text: In the tropics there is little variation in the length of day throughout the year, and it is always warm enough for a food supply, but altitudinal migration occurs in some tropical birds. There is evidence that this enables the migrants to obtain more of their preferred foods such as fruits.


title: Bird migration

text: Altitudinal migration is common on mountains worldwide, such as in the Himalayas and the Andes. Dusky grouse in Colorado migrate less than a kilometer away from their summer grounds to winter sites which may be higher or lower by about 400 m in altitude than the summer sites.


title: Bird migration

text: Many bird species in arid regions across southern Australia are nomadic; they follow water and food supply around the country in an irregular pattern, unrelated to season but related to rainfall. Several years may pass between visits to an area by a particular species.


title: Bird migration

text: Sometimes circumstances such as a good breeding season followed by a food source failure the following year lead to irruptions in which large numbers of a species move far beyond the normal range. Bohemian waxwings "Bombycilla garrulus" well show this unpredictable variation in annual numbers, with five major arrivals in Britain during the nineteenth century, but 18 between the years 1937 and 2000. Red crossbills "Loxia curvirostra" too are irruptive, with widespread invasions across England noted in 1251, 1593, 1757, and 1791.


title: Bird migration

text: This is because continental landmasses of the northern hemisphere are almost entirely temperate and subject to winter food shortages driving bird populations south (including the Southern Hemisphere) to overwinter; In contrast, among (pelagic) seabirds, species of the Southern Hemisphere are more likely to migrate. This is because there is a large area of ocean in the Southern Hemisphere, and more islands suitable for seabirds to nest.


title: Bird migration

text: The control of migration, its timing and response are genetically controlled and appear to be a primitive trait that is present even in non-migratory species of birds. The ability to navigate and orient themselves during migration is a much more complex phenomenon that may include both endogenous programs as well as learning.


title: Bird migration

text: The primary physiological cue for migration is the changes in the day length. These changes are related to hormonal changes in the birds. In the period before migration, many birds display higher activity or Zugunruhe (), first described by Johann Friedrich Naumann in 1795, as well as physiological changes such as increased fat deposition. The occurrence of Zugunruhe even in cage-raised birds with no environmental cues (e.g. shortening of day and falling temperature) has pointed to the role of circannual endogenous programs in controlling bird migrations. Caged birds display a preferential flight direction that corresponds with the migratory direction they would take in nature, changing their preferential direction at roughly the same time their wild conspecifics change course.


title: Bird migration

text: Satellite tracking of 48 individual Asian houbaras ("Chlamydotis macqueenii") across multiple migrations showed that this species uses the local temperature to time their spring migration departure. Notably, departure responses to temperature varied between individuals but were individually repeatable (when tracked over multiple years). This suggests that individual use of temperature is a cue that allows for population-level adaptation to climate change. In other words, in a warming world, many migratory birds are predicted to depart earlier in the year for their summer or winter destination.


title: Bird migration

text: In polygynous species with considerable sexual dimorphism, males tend to return earlier to the breeding sites than their females. This is termed protandry.


title: Bird migration

text: Navigation is based on a variety of senses. Many birds have been shown to use a sun compass. Using the sun for direction involves the need for making compensation based on the time. Navigation has been shown to be based on a combination of other abilities including the ability to detect magnetic fields (magnetoreception), use visual landmarks as well as olfactory cues.


title: Bird migration

text: Long-distance migrants are believed to disperse as young birds and form attachments to potential breeding sites and to favourite wintering sites. Once the site attachment is made they show high site-fidelity, visiting the same wintering sites year after year.


title: Bird migration

text: The ability of birds to navigate during migrations cannot be fully explained by endogenous programming, even with the help of responses to environmental cues. The ability to successfully perform long-distance migrations can probably only be fully explained with an accounting for the cognitive ability of the birds to recognize habitats and form mental maps. Satellite tracking of day migrating raptors such as ospreys and honey buzzards has shown that older individuals are better at making corrections for wind drift. Birds rely for navigation on a combination of innate biological senses and experience, as with the two electromagnetic tools that they use. A young bird on its first migration flies in the correct direction according to the Earth's magnetic field, but does not know how far the journey will be. It does this through a radical pair mechanism whereby chemical reactions in special photo pigments sensitive to short wavelengths are affected by the field. Although this only works during daylight hours, it does not use the position of the sun in any way. At this stage the bird is in the position of a Boy Scout with a compass but no map, until it grows accustomed to the journey and can put its other capabilities to use. With experience it learns various landmarks and this "mapping" is done by magnetites in the trigeminal system, which tell the bird how strong the field is. Because birds migrate between northern and southern regions, the magnetic field strengths at different latitudes let it interpret the radical pair mechanism more accurately and let it know when it has reached its destination. There is a neural connection between the eye and "Cluster N", the part of the forebrain that is active during migrational orientation, suggesting that birds may actually be able to "see" the magnetic field of the earth.


title: Bird migration

text: Migrating birds can lose their way and appear outside their normal ranges. This can be due to flying past their destinations as in the "spring overshoot" in which birds returning to their breeding areas overshoot and end up further north than intended. Certain areas, because of their location, have become famous as watchpoints for such birds. Examples are the Point Pelee National Park in Canada, and Spurn in England.


title: Bird migration

text: Reverse migration, where the genetic programming of young birds fails to work properly, can lead to rarities turning up as vagrants thousands of kilometres out of range.


title: Bird migration

text: Drift migration of birds blown off course by the wind can result in "falls" of large numbers of migrants at coastal sites.


title: Bird migration

text: A related phenomenon called "abmigration" involves birds from one region joining similar birds from a different breeding region in the common winter grounds and then migrating back along with the new population. This is especially common in some waterfowl, which shift from one flyway to another.


title: Bird migration

text: It has been possible to teach a migration route to a flock of birds, for example in re-introduction schemes. After a trial with Canada geese "Branta canadensis", microlight aircraft were used in the US to teach safe migration routes to reintroduced whooping cranes "Grus americana".


title: Bird migration

text: Birds need to alter their metabolism to meet the demands of migration. The storage of energy through the accumulation of fat and the control of sleep in nocturnal migrants require special physiological adaptations. In addition, the feathers of a bird suffer from wear-and-tear and require to be moulted. The timing of this moult – usually once a year but sometimes twice – varies with some species moulting prior to moving to their winter grounds and others molting prior to returning to their breeding grounds. Apart from physiological adaptations, migration sometimes requires behavioral changes such as flying in flocks to reduce the energy used in migration or the risk of predation.


title: Bird migration

text: Migration in birds is highly labile and is believed to have developed independently in many avian lineages. While it is agreed that the behavioral and physiological adaptations necessary for migration are under genetic control, some authors have argued that no genetic change is necessary for migratory behavior to develop in a sedentary species because the genetic framework for migratory behavior exists in nearly all avian lineages. This explains the rapid appearance of migratory behavior after the most recent glacial maximum.


title: Bird migration

text: Theoretical analyses show that detours that increase flight distance by up to 20% will often be adaptive on aerodynamic grounds – a bird that loads itself with food to cross a long barrier flies less efficiently. However some species show circuitous migratory routes that reflect historical range expansions and are far from optimal in ecological terms. An example is the migration of continental populations of Swainson's thrush "Catharus ustulatus", which fly far east across North America before turning south via Florida to reach northern South America; this route is believed to be the consequence of a range expansion that occurred about 10,000 years ago. Detours may also be caused by differential wind conditions, predation risk, or other factors.


title: Bird migration

text: Large scale climatic changes are expected to have an effect on the timing of migration. Studies have shown a variety of effects including timing changes in migration, breeding as well as population declines. Many species have been expanding their range as a likely consequence of climate change. This is sometimes in the form of former vagrants becoming established or regular migrants.


title: Bird migration

text: The migration of birds also aids the movement of other species, including those of ectoparasites such as ticks and lice, which in turn may carry micro-organisms including those of concern to human health. Due to the global spread of avian influenza, bird migration has been studied as a possible mechanism of disease transmission, but it has been found not to present a special risk; import of pet and domestic birds is a greater threat. Some viruses that are maintained in birds without lethal effects, such as the West Nile virus may however be spread by migrating birds. Birds may also have a role in the dispersal of propagules of plants and plankton.


title: Bird migration

text: Some predators take advantage of the concentration of birds during migration. Greater noctule bats feed on nocturnal migrating passerines. Some birds of prey specialize on migrating waders.


title: Bird migration

text: Early studies on the timing of migration began in 1749 in Finland, with Johannes Leche of Turku collecting the dates of arrivals of spring migrants.


title: Bird migration

text: Bird migration routes have been studied by a variety of techniques including the oldest, marking. Swans have been marked with a nick on the beak since about 1560 in England. Scientific ringing was pioneered by Hans Christian Cornelius Mortensen in 1899. Other techniques include radar and satellite tracking. The rate of bird migration over the Alps (up to a height of 150 m) was found to be highly comparable between fixed-beam radar measurements and visual bird counts, highlighting the potential use of this technique as an objective way of quantifying bird migration.


title: Bird migration

text: Stable isotopes of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and sulphur can establish avian migratory connectivity between wintering sites and breeding grounds. Stable isotopic methods to establish migratory linkage rely on spatial isotopic differences in bird diet that are incorporated into inert tissues like feathers, or into growing tissues such as claws and muscle or blood.


title: Bird migration

text: An approach to identify migration intensity makes use of upward pointing microphones to record the nocturnal contact calls of flocks flying overhead. These are then analyzed in a laboratory to measure time, frequency and species.


title: Bird migration

text: An older technique developed by George Lowery and others to quantify migration involves observing the face of the full moon with a telescope and counting the silhouettes of flocks of birds as they fly at night.


title: Bird migration

text: Orientation behavior studies have been traditionally carried out using variants of a setup known as the Emlen funnel, which consists of a circular cage with the top covered by glass or wire-screen so that either the sky is visible or the setup is placed in a planetarium or with other controls on environmental cues. The orientation behavior of the bird inside the cage is studied quantitatively using the distribution of marks that the bird leaves on the walls of the cage. Other approaches used in pigeon homing studies make use of the direction in which the bird vanishes on the horizon.


title: Bird migration

text: Human activities have threatened many migratory bird species. The distances involved in bird migration mean that they often cross political boundaries of countries and conservation measures require international cooperation. Several international treaties have been signed to protect migratory species including the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 of the US. and the African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird Agreement


title: Bird migration

text: The concentration of birds during migration can put species at risk. Some spectacular migrants have already gone extinct; during the passenger pigeon's ("Ectopistes migratorius") migration the enormous flocks were wide, darkening the sky, and long, taking several days to pass.


title: Bird migration

text: Hunting along migration routes threatens some bird species. The populations of Siberian cranes ("Leucogeranus leucogeranus") that wintered in India declined due to hunting along the route, particularly in Afghanistan and Central Asia. Birds were last seen in their favourite wintering grounds in Keoladeo National Park in 2002. Structures such as power lines, wind farms and offshore oil-rigs have also been known to affect migratory birds. Other migration hazards include pollution, storms, wildfires, and habitat destruction along migration routes, denying migrants food at stopover points. For example, in the East Asian–Australasian Flyway, up to 65% of key intertidal habitat at the Yellow Sea migration bottleneck has been destroyed since the 1950s.


title: Bird migration

text: Other significant areas include stop-over sites between the wintering and breeding territories. A capture-recapture study of passerine migrants with high fidelity for breeding and wintering sites did not show similar strict association with stop-over sites. Unfortunately, many historic stopover sites have been destroyed or drastically reduced due to human agricultural development, leading to an increased risk of bird extinction, especially in the face of climate change.


title: Bird migration

text: California's Central Valley was once a massive stopover site for birds traveling along the Pacific Flyway, before being converted into agricultural land. 90% of North America’s shorebirds utilize this migration path and the destruction of rest stops has had detrimental impacts on bird populations, as they cannot get adequate rest and food and can be unable to complete their migration. As a solution, conservationists and farmers in the United States are now working together to help provide stopover habitats for migrating birds. In the winter, when many of these birds are migrating, farmers are now flooding their fields in order to provide temporary wetlands for birds to rest and feed before continuing their journey. Rice is a major crop produced along this flyway, and flooded rice paddies have shown to be important areas for at least 169 different bird species. For example, in California, legislation changes have made it illegal for farmers to burn excess rice straw, so instead they have begun flooding their fields during the winter. Similar practices are now taking place across the nation, with the Mississippi Alluvial Valley being a primary area of interest due to its agricultural use and its importance for migration.


title: Bird migration

text: Plant debris provides food sources for the birds while the newly formed wetland serves as a habitat for bird prey species such as bugs and other invertebrates. In turn, bird foraging assists in breaking down plant matter and droppings then help to fertilize the field helping the farmers, and in turn significantly decreasing their need for artificial fertilizers by at least 13%. Recent studies have shown that the implementation of these temporary wetlands has had significant positive impacts on bird populations, such as the White‐fronted Goose, as well as various species of wading birds. The artificial nature of these temporary wetlands also greatly reduces the threat of predation from other wild animals. This practice requires extremely low investment on behalf of the farmers, and researchers believe that mutually beneficial approaches such as this are key to wildlife conservation moving forward. Economic incentives are key to getting more farmers to participate in this practice. However, issues can arise if bird populations are too high with their large amounts of droppings decreasing water quality and potentially leading to eutrophication. Increasing participation in this practice would allow migratory birds to spread out and rest on a wider variety of locations, decreasing the negative impacts of having too many birds congregated in a small area. Using this practice in areas with close proximity to natural wetlands could also greatly increase their positive impact.


title: AS Adema 149–0 SO l'Emyrne

text: The match was part of a four-team round-robin play-off to determine the national championship. The league crown went to Adema after SOE, who were defending champions, was held to a 2–2 draw by DSA Antananarivo in their penultimate match, during which the referee awarded a late and disputed penalty to SOE, resulting in a draw.


title: AS Adema 149–0 SO l'Emyrne

text: That draw meant that SOE was knocked out of the title race. With the championship already decided, SOE decided to protest; according to some sources, there was an argument between the SOE coach and the referee himself. SOE deliberately scored 149 own goals, with spectators saying that after each kick-off, the ball was kicked into their own goal with the opposition players standing and looking bemused. It was reported that spectators descended on the ticket booths to demand a refund.


title: AS Adema 149–0 SO l'Emyrne

text: Following the match, the Malagasy Football Federation (FMF) suspended SOE coach Zaka Ratsarazaka for three years and four of the team's players, SOE captain Manitranirina Andrianiaina, goalkeeper Dominique Rakotonandrasana, Mamisoa Razafindrakoto (who was the captain of the Madagascar national football team) and Nicolas Rakotoarimanana, were suspended until the end of the season and banned from visiting stadiums for the same period. All other players from both teams received a warning and a threat of more serious action should they commit further offenses.


title: AS Adema 149–0 SO l'Emyrne

text: The referee was not punished, as the situation was deemed to be out of his control, while Madagascar's sports ministry proceeded to dissolve the FMF, which was later reconstituted.


title: John Paul DeJoria

text: John Paul Jones DeJoria (born April 13, 1944) is an American entrepreneur, self-made billionaire and philanthropist best known as a co-founder of the Paul Mitchell line of hair products and The Patrón Spirits Company. Due to his personal career and achievements in business from once being homeless to becoming a self-made billionaire and successful entrepreneur DeJoria has been described as a living example of the American Dream and has been featured in a number of reports and documentaries.


title: John Paul DeJoria

text: John Paul Jones DeJoria was born the second son of an Italian immigrant father and a Greek immigrant mother on April 13, 1944, in the Echo Park neighborhood of Los Angeles, California. His parents divorced by the time he was two years old. When his single mother proved unable to support both children, they were sent to an East Los Angeles foster home and stayed there during the week until he was nine and returned to his mother. At nine he began selling Christmas cards and newspapers with his older brother to support his family.


title: John Paul DeJoria

text: DeJoria spent two years in the United States Navy, serving on the USS "Hornet". After that, he held a series of jobs including janitor, door-to-door encyclopedia salesman and insurance salesman.


title: John Paul DeJoria

text: DeJoria entered the world of hair care as an entry-level employee of Redken Laboratories. He was fired from this position. In 1980, he formed John Paul Mitchell Systems with hairdresser Paul Mitchell and a loan for $700 and while living in a 20-year-old Rolls-Royce automobile.


title: John Paul DeJoria

text: DeJoria co-founded the Patrón Spirits Company in 1989, is a founding partner of the House of Blues nightclub chain, and has interests in Madagascar Oil Ltd., Pyrat Rum, Smokey Mountain Bison Farm, llc, Ultimat Vodka, Solar Utility, Sun King Solar, Touchstone Natural Gas, Three Star Energy, Diamond Audio, a Harley-Davidson dealership, a diamond company (DeJoria), mobile technology developer ROK AMERICAS, the John Paul Pet Company which does hair and personal grooming for animals, and J&D Acquisitions LLC, the parent company for the Larson, Striper, Triumph, Marquis and Carver boat companies formed with Minneapolis-based investor Irwin L. Jacobs. In 2008, DeJoria became an advisory board member for The Beauty Channel; a streaming beauty and fashion-focused television station.


title: John Paul DeJoria

text: DeJoria has been active in the film industry as an executive producer and actor. He made a cameo appearance as himself, in the 2008 comedy "You Don't Mess with the Zohan", and also in "The Big Tease" as the fictional John Paul Mitchell. DeJoria also made a cameo appearance in the Showtime series "Weeds" season 2. He narrated and appeared in television commercials for Patron in November 2011. He appeared on the November 1, 2013, broadcast of the ABC reality series "Shark Tank" as a guest investor, replacing series regular Robert Herjavec. With a 2017 net worth of US$3.1 billion, he is the 3rd richest "shark" of all time on the show, behind series regular Mark Cuban (2017 net worth: US $3.3 billion) and fellow "guest shark" Sir Richard Branson (2017 net worth: US $5.1 billion).


title: John Paul DeJoria

text: In 2018, DeJoria co-founded ROKiT Group alongside business partner Jonathan Kendrick. Since their start in 2018, DeJoria and Kendrick have expanded ROKiT Group, creating brands such as ROKiT Phones, ROKiT Telemedicine, ROKiT Drinks and more.


title: John Paul DeJoria

text: DeJoria owns the Patrón Tequila Express, a historic private railroad car. It was built in 1927, and was previously used by the Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad as Car No. 50. DeJoria bought the train car in 1996 and spent $2 million to renovate it. The train car is long and contains three staterooms (each with a bathroom and shower), a kitchen, a dining room, an observation room, and an outdoor deck. In addition to the mileage fees paid to Amtrak to transport the train car across the United States, it costs $10,000 a month to staff, maintain, store, and insure the Patrón Tequila Express.


title: John Paul DeJoria

text: DeJoria is married. He and his wife, Eloise (née Broady), have contributed over $4,000 to the political campaigns of Senator Ted Cruz and over $5,000 to Texas Governor Rick Perry, among others, as well as to the DNC and many Democratic political candidates.


title: John Paul DeJoria

text: DeJoria is a supporter of Mobile Loaves & Fishes, Food4Africa, Mineseeker, and Blazer House. In 2008, DeJoria traveled to sub-Saharan Africa to join Nelson Mandela in his efforts to help feed over 17,000 orphaned children through Food4Africa. In the same year his company Paul Mitchell helped provide over 400,000 life-saving meals for the children. Dejoria is a co-creator of Grow Appalachia, an organization begun in 2009 which helps promote healthy food and teaching farming skills.


title: John Paul DeJoria

text: In 2017, a documentary named "Good Fortune" was released depicting the struggle and philanthropic work of DeJoria which later won the Audience Award for Best Documentary at Sundance.