title: Ashurbanipal

text: In Assyrian royal ideology, the Assyrian king was the divinely appointed mortal representative of Ashur. The king was seen as having the moral, humane and necessary obligation to extend Assyria since lands outside Assyria were regarded to be uncivilized and a threat to the cosmic and divine order within the Assyrian Empire. Expansionism was cast as a moral duty to convert chaos to civilization, rather than exploitative imperialism. Because of the Assyrian king's role as Ashur's representative, resistance or rebellion against Assyrian rule was seen as fighting against divine will, which deserved punishment. Assyrian royal ideology perceived rebels as criminals against the divine world order. Though the royal ideology could thus be used to justify enacting brutal punishments against Assyria's enemies, levels of brutality and aggression varied considerably between kings and modern scholars do not view ancient Assyria as a whole as an unusually brutal civilization. Sargon II, the founder of Ashurbanipal's dynasty, is for instance known for several times forgiving and sparing defeated enemies. Most kings only enacted brutal acts against enemy soldiers or elites, not against civilians.


title: Ashurbanipal

text: Under Ashurbanipal, the Assyrian army campaigned further away from the Assyrian heartland than ever before. Though Ashurbanipal, contrary to the image presented in some of his reliefs and sharply contrasting with his predecessors, probably only rarely (if at all) participated in the military campaigns during his reign, he clearly stands out among the Assyrian kings for his exceptional brutality. It is possible that Ashurbanipal's excessive brutality can be partially explained through religious zealotry; he is known to have rebuilt, repaired and expanded a majority of the major shrines throughout his empire and many of the actions he took during his reign were due to omen reports, something he was very interested in. He also appointed two of his younger brothers, Ashur-mukin-paleya and Ashur-etel-shame-erseti-muballissu, as priests in the cities Assur and Harran respectively.""


title: Ashurbanipal

text: When taking all Neo-Assyrian reliefs depicting scenes of brutality together, the highest concentration of them are from Ashurbanipal's reign. Reliefs with brutality scenes from Ashurbanipal's time account for 35% of all known such depictions from the Neo-Assyrian period. Ashurbanipal is also the most brutal king in terms of the variety of different scenes depicted. He is one of only four Neo-Assyrian kings (alongside Esarhaddon, Tiglath-Pileser III and Ashurnasirpal II) who in their inscriptions claimed to have killed civilians and the one with the most varied acts against them (including live flaying, dismemberment and impalement). There are also several instances where he is recorded to have brought captive enemies to Nineveh to enthusiastically torture and humiliate them. Women were rarely depicted being harmed in Assyrian artwork, but Ashurbanipal's reliefs include some prominent exceptions to this rule. One of the reliefs from Ashurbanipal's palace in Nineveh, given the modern designation BM 124927, includes both dead female bodies and direct attacks against women. The middle part of the relief includes the most brutal act against a woman ever recorded in an Assyrian relief: Assyrian soldiers ripping open a pregnant Arab woman.


title: Ashurbanipal

text: Ashurbanipal portrayed himself as powerful in both body and mind. Typically portraying himself as carrying both weapons and a stylus, Ashurbanipal's inscriptions make him out to be unlike the kings before him, exceptionally well-versed in literature, writing, mathematics and scholarship. Deeply interested in the ancient literary culture of Mesopotamia, Ashurbanipal read complex texts in both Akkadian and Sumerian already in his youth. After he became king, Ashurbanipal, using the massive resources now at his disposal, created the world's first "universal" library in Nineveh. The resulting Library of Ashurbanipal is regarded to have been the by far most extensive library in ancient Assyria and the first systematically organized library in the world. In total it encompassed perhaps more than 100,000 texts and it was not surpassed in size until the creation of the Library of Alexandria, centuries later. Around 30,000 of the documents in the library survived the destruction of Nineveh in 612 and have been excavated among the city's ruins.


title: Ashurbanipal

text: The library was assembled at Ashurbanipal's command, with scribes being sent out throughout the empire to collect and copy texts of every type and genre from the libraries of the temples. Most of the collected texts were observations of events and omens, texts detailing the behavior of certain men and of animals, texts on the movements of celestial objects and so forth. Present in the library were also dictionaries for Sumerian, Akkadian and other languages and many religious texts, such as rituals, fables, prayers and incantations. The library contained many tablets from Babylonia, both donated and taken as war booty. Ashurbanipal's library probably represented a comprehensive and accurate picture of Mesopotamian learning up until his time. Ashurbanipal himself considered the library to be the signature accomplishment of his reign. In his inscriptions, he boasted of his own intelligence and the library's construction:


title: Ashurbanipal

text: The library was long remembered in Mesopotamia. As late as in the first century AD, scribes in Babylonia still referred to the long-lost library in some of their texts and letters. Most of the traditional Mesopotamian stories and tales known today, such as the "Epic of Gilgamesh", the "Enûma Eliš" (the Babylonian creation myth), "Erra", the "Myth of Etana" and the "Epic of Anzu", only survived until the modern era because they were included in Ashurbanipal's library. The library covered the entire spectrum of Ashurbanipal's literary interests and also included folk tales (such as "The Poor Man of Nippur", a predecessor of one of the tales in "One Thousand and One Nights"), handbooks and scientific texts.


title: Ashurbanipal

text: Regarded as a patron of the arts, Ashurbanipal erected numerous sculptures and reliefs in his palaces in Nineveh, depicting the most important events from his long reign. Ashurbanipal's artwork was innovative in terms of Assyrian art history, often having an "epic quality" unlike much of the more static artwork produced under his predecessors. A motif appearing in several of Ashurbanipal's art pieces, for instance the "Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal", is the king killing lions, a propaganda image illustrating his glory and power, as well as his ability to safeguard the Assyrian people through slaying dangerous animals.


title: Ashurbanipal

text: Various new elements can be seen in artwork produced under Ashurbanipal. The regalia of the king changes from relief to relief depending on the scene depicted; informal events for instance typically depict Ashurbanipal with an open crown design different from the typical vaguely bucket-shaped Assyrian crown. There are no known examples of art depicting Ashurbanipal seated on a throne or holding court, a common motif under previous kings, perhaps meaning that the symbol of the throne was losing its status in art, and possible also at court, during his reign. Ashurbanipal's artwork is the only ancient Assyrian art that depicts non-Assyrian foreigners as physically different (not only in their equipment and outfits but also in their features) from Assyrians. Possibly influenced by Egyptian art, which did depict foreigners differently, Ashurbanipal's reliefs show Elamites and Urartians as stockier, Urartians with larger noses, and Arabs with long straight hair (in contrast to the curly hair of the Assyrians). Inscriptions and annals from Ashurbanipal's time however offer no evidence that foreigners were seen as racially or ethnically different in terms of biology or physiognomy, which means that this might only have been an artistic choice.


title: Ashurbanipal

text: Tales of Ashurbanipal survived in the cultural memory of the Near East. He is perhaps identifiable with the figure "Asnappar", briefly mentioned in the Biblical Book of Ezra (4:10). Ashurbanipal and other ancient Assyrian kings and figures continued to appear in the folklore and literary tradition of northern Mesopotamia for centuries.


title: Ashurbanipal

text: The most prominent later legend concerning Ashurbanipal was the long-lived Greco-Roman Sardanapalus legend. The Sardanapalus of legend was according to the Assyriologist Maria de Fátima Rosa conceived as "more effeminate than a woman, a lascivious and idle man, a governor who loathed all expressions of militarism and war". This view stemmed from ancient Greek views on Mesopotamia in general; ancient Mesopotamian kings were typically seen by the Greeks as effeminate and dull despots incapable of securing the welfare for the people of their empires. The earliest known reference to Sardanapalus comes from the 5th-century BCE "Histories" of Herodotus, which includes a reference to the riches of Sardanapalus, king of Nineveh. Legendary tales in Aramaic, based on the civil war between Ashurbanipal ("Sarbanabal") and Shamash-shum-ukin ("Sarmuge"), are attested from the 3rd century BC.


title: Ashurbanipal

text: The most elaborate and lengthy ancient text concerning Sardanapalus comes from the 1st-century BCE "Bibliotheca historica" of Diodorus Siculus. Siculus's portrayal of Sardanapalus was endowed with ancient Greek orientalism; the king was stated to have lived among women, dressed like them, used a soft voice and engaged in other activities viewed as unnatural for Greek men. In Siculus's account, Sardanapalus's satrap of Media, Arbaces, saw him mingling with women in the palace and quickly revolted, assaulting Nineveh together with the Babylonian priest Belesys. After failing to urge his soldiers to defend the city, Sardanapalus locked himself in his palace chamber, with treasures and concubines, and lit up a pyre, burning down the entire capital city and ending the Assyrian Empire. It is clear from the narrative that Siculus's Sardanapalus is based not only on Ashurbanipal but also on Shamash-shum-ukin and Sinsharishkun.


title: Ashurbanipal

text: The Greek account of ancient Assyria transformed historical perception of the ancient empire and set the image of it in Western Europe for centuries. Since concrete evidence of Assyria and Babylonia was lacking, authors and artists during the Renaissance and Enlightenment based their interpretations of ancient Mesopotamia on classical Greco-Roman writings. In late 17th-century Italy, the composer Domenico Freschi wrote and performed the opera "Sardanapalo", a comedic tragedy wherein Sardanapalus was portrayed as a woman-like and sex-eager king. In the opera, Sardanapalus after watching Nineveh crumble decides to light fire to his palace so that the Assyrian Empire did not fall without a show. In 1821, Lord Byron launched the historical tragedy play "Sardanapalus", which pairs Sardanapalus with the legendary character Myrrah, often Sardanapalus's counterpart in later tales as well. Myrrah was in the story a female Greek slave and loyal supporter of Sardanapalus. In Byron's version, it was Myrrah who lit the palace on fire after Sardanapalus gave his last words, "Adieu, Assyria! I loved thee well!". Many operas, inspired by Byron, included similar storylines. It was typical to portray the fall of Nineveh and Assyria as a consequence of Assyria's supposed lack of moral values, combined with its ostentation and pomp.


title: Ashurbanipal

text: Even after archaeologists and historians began to uncover the true history of ancient Assyria in the 19th century, the perception rooted in Greco-Roman tradition proved to be enduring. When the British archaeologist Austen Henry Layard found evidence of a major fire in the ruins of Nimrud (which he believed to be Nineveh) in 1845, his colleagues suggested that this was proof of the Sardanapalus legend. Even after discoveries made it clear that the Sardanapalus of legend was far from a perfect match of the Ashurbanipal of history, the legend was not forgotten. Instead, plays and films featuring Sardanapalus simply began to mix the legendary tale with historical details. Many plays began to incorporate Assyrian architectural details, such as "lamassus". Two films based on the Sardanapalus legend have been produced in Italy; Giuseppe de Liguoro's "Sardanapalo re dell'Assiria" (1910) and Silvio Amadio's "Le sette folgori di Assur" (1962), both heavily influenced by Byron's play. Both follow Sardanapalus's relationship with Myrrah. In Amadio's film, the narrative is also inspired by Ashurbanipal's conflict with Shamash-shum-ukin, who appears in the film under the shortened name Shamash.


title: Ashurbanipal

text: The North Palace of Nineveh, constructed by Ashurbanipal, was rediscovered by the British-funded Assyrian archaeologist Hormuzd Rassam in December 1853. Rassam's excavations were a somewhat strange episode in Assyriology as his efforts were also marked by an intense rivalry with the French archaeologist Victor Place; despite agreements as to who should excavate where, Ashurbanipal's palace was found by Rassam during the night, when he sent out a team of excavators under the cover of darkness to dig in the French portion of the Nineveh excavation. Excavations where conducted in the palace in 1853–1854. Among other discoveries, Rassam recovered the reliefs making up the "Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal", which were taken from the palace and transported to the British Museum, reaching England in March 1856. Because of scholarly disagreements and rivalries, as well as issues of funding, studies and publications of the finds from Ashurbanipal's palace were produced slowly, with the first detailed analyses and studies not being published until the 1930s and 1940s.


title: Ashurbanipal

text: Ashurbanipal's reign was the last time when Assyrian armies campaigned all across the Middle East. He is consequently typically regarded to have been the "last great king of Assyria". Ashurbanipal's reign is sometimes considered the apogee of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, though many scholars instead consider the preceding reign of Esarhaddon as such. Whether Ashurbanipal is to blame for the fall of the Assyrian Empire relatively quickly after his death is disputed. J. A. Delaunay, author of the "Encyclopaedia Iranica" entry on Ashurbanipal, writes that the Neo-Assyrian Empire under Ashurbanipal had already begun "exhibiting clear symptoms of impending dislocation and fall", while Donald John Wiseman, in the "Encyclopaedia Britannica" article on Ashurbanipal, holds that "It is no indictment of his rule that his empire fell within two decades after his death; this was due to external pressures rather than to internal strife". Gérard Chaliand holds that the fall of the Assyrian Empire should be blamed on Ashurbanipal's "mediocre heirs" rather than Ashurbanipal himself; there is however no evidence that his heirs were incompetent rulers. Sinsharishkun, under whom the empire collapsed, was a militarily competent ruler, utilizing the same tactics as his predecessors."" Eckart Frahm believes the seeds of Assyria's fall were sown in Ashurbanipal's reign, in particular through the disconnect between the king and the traditional elite and through Ashurbanipal's sack of Babylon.


title: Ashurbanipal

text: Ashurbanipal has been the subject of numerous pieces of artwork created in modern times. In 1958, surrealist painter Leonora Carrington painted "Assurbanipal Abluting Harpies", an oil on canvas at the Israel Museum depicting Ashurbanipal pouring a white substance onto the heads of pigeon-like creatures with human faces. A statue of the king, called "Ashurbanipal", was created by sculptor Fred Parhad in 1988 and placed on a street near the San Francisco City Hall. The statue cost $100,000 and was described as the "first sizable bronze statue of Ashurbanipal". It was presented to the City of San Francisco as a gift from the Assyrian people on May 29, 1988, Parhad being of Assyrian descent. Some local Assyrians expressed fears that the statue resembled the legendary Mesopotamian hero Gilgamesh more than it resembled the actual Ashurbanipal. Parhad defended the statue as representing Ashurbanipal, though explained that he had taken some artistic liberties.


title: Ashurbanipal

text: Ashurbanipal has also made occasional appearances in popular culture in various media. Robert E. Howard wrote a short story entitled "The Fire of Asshurbanipal", first published in the December 1936 issue of "Weird Tales" magazine, about an "accursed jewel belonging to a king of long ago, whom the Grecians called Sardanapalus and the Semitic peoples Asshurbanipal". "The Mesopotamians", a 2007 song by They Might Be Giants, mentions Ashurbanipal alongside Sargon, Hammurabi. and Gilgamesh. Ashurbanipal was used as the ruler of the Assyrians in the game "Civilization V".


title: Ashurbanipal

text: Ashurbanipal once more entered the global spotlight and garnered increased fame in 2018, when reliefs from his reign were exhibited at the British Museum in the exhibition "I am Ashurbanipal" (8 November 2018 – 21 February 2019). The exhibition was well received, particularly due to its use of inventive technology, such as using lights to illustrate how many of Ashurbanipal's reliefs would have been painted in his lifetime, and its acknowledgement of the colonialist history of the collection itself. There was however also substantial controversy associated with the exhibition due to its sponsorship by the oil and gas company BP, involved in Middle Eastern oil since the early 20th century. The opening of the exhibition in November 2018 was met with protests, with protesters chanting slogans relating to BP's exploitation of Iraqi natural resources and pretending to sip oil-contaminated champagne.


title: Danny Trejo filmography

text: Danny Trejo is an American actor. His filmography consists of about 250 film and television roles. His prominence in the B movie scene has resulted in disparate media sources referring to Trejo as an "iconic actor" and a "film legend", among other titles.


title: Danny Trejo filmography

text: Trejo's movie career began in 1985, when he "accidentally" landed a role in "Runaway Train", playing a boxer for a daily fee of $320. Prior to that, Trejo had served time in prison on multiple occasions and worked as a drug counsellor after his release. Trejo credits the first movie in which he was given a proper credited role as Art Sanella in "". He went on to star in a multitude of other movies, including "Desperado", "From Dusk till Dawn", "Con Air", "Reindeer Games", and "Grindhouse", among others.


title: Danny Trejo filmography

text: From 2001 to 2003, Trejo appeared in the Robert Rodriguez-directed "Spy Kids" franchise as Isador "Machete" Cortez, in the films "Spy Kids", "" and "". He also voiced Uncle Machete in the video game "Spy Kids: Mega Mission Zone". In 2007, Trejo reprised his role in a fictional trailer in "Grindhouse", also directed by Rodriguez; subsequently, in 2010, Trejo reprised his role as Machete in a spin-off exploitation film of the same name as the protagonist, also directed by Rodriguez. The character is cited as his "first major film role". Subsequently, Trejo reprised his role as Machete in "", with the success of "Machete" also resulting in a direct sequel, "Machete Kills", with Trejo once again reprising his role. Trejo has been cast in many television programmes, including "Baywatch", where he portrayed different characters for different episodes. Outside of film and television appearances, Trejo has also been featured in a handful of music videos, including the video for Dustin Tavella's "Everybody Knows (Douchebag)". He voiced the characters Umberto Robina for the video games "" and "", himself in "" (2004), Raul Alfonso Tejada in "", Trainer Duke in "", himself in "" and "Call of The Dead" and "" and also himself in "Far Cry 6: Danny and Dani vs. Everybody" and "SCUM, among others.


title: Gastroenterology

text: Gastroenterology (from the Greek gastḗr- “belly”, -énteron “intestine”, and -logía "study of") is the branch of medicine focused on the digestive system and its disorders. The digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract, sometimes referred to as the "GI tract," which includes the esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine as well as the accessory organs of digestion which includes the pancreas, gallbladder, and liver. The digestive system functions to move material through the GI tract via peristalsis, break down that material via digestion, absorb nutrients for use throughout the body, and remove waste from the body via defecation. Physicians who specialize in the medical specialty of gastroenterology are called gastroenterologists or sometimes "GI doctors". Some of the most common conditions managed by gastroenterologists include gastroesophageal reflux disease, gastrointestinal bleeding, irritable bowel syndrome, irritable bowel disease which includes Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, peptic ulcer disease, gallbladder and biliary tract disease, hepatitis, pancreatitis, colitis, colon polyps and cancer, nutritional problems, and many more.


title: Gastroenterology

text: Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)A condition that is a result of stomach contents consistently coming back up into the esophagus causing troublesome symptoms or complications. Symptoms are considered troublesome based on how disruptive they are to a patient's daily life and well-being. This definition was standardized by the Montreal Consensus in 2006. Symptoms include a painful feeling in the middle of the chest and feeling stomach contents coming back up into the mouth. Other symptoms include chest pain, nausea, difficulty swallowing, painful swallowing, coughing, and hoarseness. Risk factors include obesity, pregnancy, smoking, hiatal hernia, certain medications, and certain foods. Diagnosis is usually based on symptoms and medical history, with further testing only after treatment has been ineffective. Further diagnosis can be achieved by measuring how much acid enters the esophagus or looking into your esophagus with a scope. Treatment and management options include lifestyle modifications, medications, and surgery if there is no improvement with other interventions. Lifestyle modifications include not lying down for three hours after eating, lying down on the left side, elevating head while laying by elevating head of the bed or using extra pillows, losing weight, stopping smoking, and avoiding coffee, mint, alcohol, chocolate, fatty foods, acidic foods, and spicy foods. Medications include antacids, proton pump inhibitors, H2 receptor blockers. Surgery is usually a Nissen fundoplication and is performed by a surgeon. Complications of longstanding GERD can include inflammation of the esophagus that may cause bleeding or ulcer formation, narrowing of the esophagus leading to swallowing issues, a change in the lining of the esophagus that can increase the chances of developing cancer (Barrett's esophagus), chronic cough, asthma, inflammation of the larynx leading to hoarseness, and wearing away of tooth enamel leading to dental issues.


title: Gastroenterology

text: Barrett's esophagusA condition in which the lining of the esophagus changes to look more like the lining of the intestine and increases the risk of developing esophageal cancer. There are no specific symptoms although symptoms of GERD may be present for years prior as it is associated with a 10–15% risk of Barrett's esophagus. Risk factors include chronic GERD for more than 5 years, being age 50 or older, being non-Hispanic white, being male, having a family history of this disorder, belly fat, and a history of smoking. Protective factors include H. pylori infection, frequent use of aspirin or other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and diets high in fruits and vegetables. Diagnosis can be made by looking into the esophagus with a scope and possibly taking a biopsy of the lining of the esophagus. Treatment includes managing GERD, destroying abnormal parts of the esophagus, removing abnormal tissue in the esophagus, and removing part of the esophagus as performed by a general surgeon. Further management could include periodic surveillance with repeat scopes at certain intervals determined by the physician, likely not more frequently than every three to five years. Complications from this disorder can result in a type of cancer called esophageal adenocarcinoma.


title: Gastroenterology

text: A procedure using a long thin tube with a camera that is passed through the anus to visualize the rectum and the entire length of the colon. The procedure is performed either to look for colon polyps and/or colon cancer in somebody without symptoms, referred to as screening, or to further evaluate symptoms including rectal bleeding, dark tarry stools, change in bowel habits or stool consistency (diarrhea, pencil-thin stool), abdominal pain, and unexplained weight loss. Before the procedure the physician might ask the patient to stop taking certain medications including blood thinners, aspirin, diabetes medications, or Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. A bowel prep is usually taken the night before and into the morning of the procedure which consists of an enema or laxatives, either pills or powder dissolved in liquid, that will cause diarrhea. The procedure might need to be stopped and rescheduled if there is stool remaining in the colon due to an incomplete bowel prep because the physician can not adequately visualize the colon. During the procedure the patient is sedated and the scope is used to examine the entire length of the colon looking for polyps, bleeding, or abnormal tissue. A biopsy or polyp removal can then be performed and the tissue sent to the lab for evaluation. The procedure usually takes thirty minutes to an hour followed by an one to two hour observation period. Complications include bloating, cramping, a reaction to anesthesia, bleeding, and a hole through the wall of the colon that may require repeat colonoscopy or surgery. Signs of a serious complication requiring urgent or emergent medical attention include severe pain in the abdomen, fever, bleeding that does not improve, dizziness, and weakness.


title: Gastroenterology

text: A procedure similar to a colonoscopy using a long thin tube with a camera (scope) passed through the anus but only intended to visualize the rectum and the last part of the colon closest to the rectum. All aspects of the procedure are the same as for a colonoscopy with the exception that this procedure only lasts ten to twenty minutes and is done without sedation. This usually allows for the patient to return to normal activities immediately after the procedure is finished.


title: Gastroenterology

text: A procedure using a long thin tube with a camera that is passed through the mouth to view the esophagus ("esophago-"), stomach ("gastro-"), and the duodenum ("duodeno-"). It is also referred to as upper endoscopy or just endoscopy. The procedure is performed for further evaluation of symptoms including persistent heartburn, indigestion, vomiting blood, dark tarry stools, persistent nausea and vomiting, pain, difficulty swallowing, painful swallowing, and unexplained weight loss. It is also performed for further testing following a lab test that shows low hemoglobin levels without a known cause or an abnormal barium swallow. The procedure can be used to diagnose many disorders through direct visualization or tissue biopsy including esophageal varices, esophageal strictures, gastroesophageal reflux disease, Barrett's esophagus, cancer, celiac disease, gastritis, peptic ulcer disease, and a H. pylori infection. Intra-operative techniques can then be used for treatment of certain disorders like banding esophageal varices or dilating esophageal strictures. The patient will likely be required to not eat or drink anything starting 4 hours prior to the procedure. Sedation is usually required for patient comfort. This procedure usually lasts around thirty minutes followed by an one to two hour observation period. Side effects include bloating, nausea, and a sore throat for 1 to 2 days. Complications are rare but include reaction to the anesthesia, bleeding, and a hole through the wall of the esophagus, stomach, or small intestine which could require surgery. Signs of a serious complication requiring urgent or emergent medical attention include chest pain, problems breathing, problems swallowing, throat pain that gets worse, vomiting with blood or the appearance of "coffee-grounds", worsening abdominal pain, bloody or black tarry stool, and fever.


title: Gastroenterology

text: A procedure using a long thin tube with a camera passed through your mouth into the first part of your small intestine to locate, diagnose, and treat disorders related to your bile and pancreatic ducts. These ducts carry fluids that help with digesting food from your liver, gallbladder, and pancreas and can become narrowed or blocked as a result of gallstones, infection, inflammation, pancreatic pseudocysts, and tumors of the bile ducts or pancreas. As a result one may experience back pain, yellowing of the skin, and an abnormal lab test showing an elevated bilirubin level which could necessitate this procedure. However, the procedure is not recommended if the patient has acute pancreatitis unless the level of bilirubin remains high or is increasing which could suggest the blockage is still present. The patient will likely be required to not eat or drink anything starting 8 hours prior to the procedure. After the patient is sedated, the physician will pass the scope through the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and into the duodenum to locate the opening where the ducts drain into the small intestine. The physician can then inject dye into these ducts and take X-rays which show a real time view, via fluoroscopy, allowing the physician to locate and relieve the blockage. This is done through multiple techniques including cutting the opening and creating a bigger hole for drainage, removing gallstones and other debris, dilating narrow parts of the ducts, or placing a stent which keeps the ducts open. The physician can also take a biopsy of the ducts to evaluate for cancer, infection, or inflammation. Side effects include bloating, nausea, or a sore throat for 1 to 2 days. Complications include pancreatitis, infection of the bile ducts or gallbladder, bleeding, reaction to the anesthesia, and perforation of any structures that the scope or its instruments pass but particularly the duodenum, bile duct, and pancreatic duct. Signs of a serious complication requiring urgent or emergent medical attention include bloody or black tarry stool, chest pain, fever, worsening abdominal pain, worsening throat pain, problems breathing, problems swallowing, vomit that is bloody or looks like coffee-grounds. Most of the time complications from this procedure require hospitalization for treatment.


title: Gastroenterology

text: Gastroenterology is a subspecialty of internal medicine and therefore requires three years of internal medicine residency training followed by three additional years in a dedicated gastroenterology fellowship. This training is certified by the American Board of Internal Medicine (ABIM) and the American Osteopathic Board of Internal Medicine (AOBIM) and must be completed at a program accredited by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME). Other national societies that oversee training include the American College of Gastroenterology (ACG), the American Gastroenterological Association (AGA), and the American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ASGE).


title: Gastroenterology

text: Gastroenterologists see patients both in the clinic and the hospital setting. They can order diagnostic tests, prescribe medications, and perform a number of diagnostic and therapeutic procedures including colonoscopy, esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD), endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), endoscopic ultrasound (EUS), and liver biopsy.


title: Gastroenterology

text: Some gastroenterology trainees will complete a "fourth-year" (although this is often their seventh year of graduate medical education) in transplant hepatology, advanced interventional endoscopy, inflammatory bowel disease, motility, or other topics.


title: Gastroenterology

text: Advanced endoscopy, sometimes called interventional or surgical endoscopy, is a sub-specialty of gastroenterology that focuses on advanced endoscopic techniques for the treatment of pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastrointestinal disease. Interventional gastroenterologists typically undergo an additional year of rigorous training in advanced endoscopic techniques including endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, endoscopic ultrasound-guided diagnostic and interventional procedures, and advanced resection techniques including endoscopic mucosal resection and endoscopic submucosal dissection. Additionally, the performance of endoscopic bariatric procedures is also performed by some advanced endoscopists.


title: Gastroenterology

text: Hepatology, or hepatobiliary medicine, encompasses the study of the liver, pancreas, and biliary tree, and is traditionally considered a sub-specialty of gastroenterology, while proctology encompasses disorders of the anus, rectum, and colon and is considered a sub-specialty of general surgery.


title: Gastroenterology

text: Citing from Egyptian papyri, John F. Nunn identified significant knowledge of gastrointestinal diseases among practicing physicians during the periods of the pharaohs. Irynakhty, of the tenth dynasty, 2125 B.C., was a court physician specializing in gastroenterology, sleeping, and proctology.


title: Gastroenterology

text: Among ancient Greeks, Hippocrates attributed digestion to concoction. Galen's concept of the stomach having four "faculties" was widely accepted up to modernity in the seventeenth century.


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: Amnesiac is the fifth studio album by the English rock band Radiohead, released on 30 May 2001 by EMI subsidiaries Parlophone and Capitol Records. It was recorded with the producer Nigel Godrich in the same sessions as Radiohead's previous album "Kid A" (2000); Radiohead split the work in two as they felt it was too dense for a double album. As with "Kid A, Amnesiac" incorporates influences from electronic music, 20th-century classical music, jazz and krautrock. The final track, "Life in a Glasshouse", is a collaboration with the jazz trumpeter Humphrey Lyttelton and his band.


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: After having released no singles for "Kid A", Radiohead promoted "Amnesiac" with the singles "Pyramid Song" and "Knives Out", accompanied by music videos. Videos were also made for "Pulk/Pull Revolving Doors" and "Like Spinning Plates", and "I Might Be Wrong", which was released as a promotional single. In June 2001, Radiohead began the "Amnesiac" tour, incorporating their first North American tour in three years.


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: "Amnesiac" debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart and number two on the US "Billboard" 200. By October 2008, it had sold over 900,000 copies worldwide. It is certified platinum in the UK, the US and Canada, and gold in Japan. Though some critics felt it was too experimental or less cohesive than "Kid A", or saw it as a collection of outtakes, it received positive reviews; it was named one of the year's best albums by numerous publications.


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: "Amnesiac" was nominated for the Mercury Prize and several Grammy Awards, winning for Best Recording Package for the special edition. "Pyramid Song" was named one of the best tracks of the decade by "Rolling Stone", "NME" and "Pitchfork", and "Rolling Stone" ranked "Amnesiac" number 320 in their 2012 "500 Greatest Albums of All Time" list. "Kid A Mnesia", an anniversary reissue compiling "Kid A", "Amnesiac" and previously unreleased material, was released in 2021.


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: Radiohead and producer Nigel Godrich recorded "Amnesiac" during the same sessions as its predecessor, "Kid A", released in October 2000. The sessions took place from January 1999 to mid-2000 in Paris, Copenhagen and Radiohead's Oxfordshire studio. The drummer, Philip Selway, said the sessions had "two frames of mind ... a tension between our old approach of all being in a room playing together and the other extreme of manufacturing music in the studio. I think "Amnesiac" comes out stronger in the band-arrangement way."


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: The sessions drew influence from electronic music, 20th-century classical music, jazz and krautrock, using synthesisers, ondes Martenot, drum machines, strings and brass. The strings, arranged by the guitarist Jonny Greenwood, were performed by the Orchestra of St John's and recorded in Dorchester Abbey, a 12th-century church close to Radiohead's studio.


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: Radiohead considered releasing the work as a double album, but felt it was too dense. The singer, Thom Yorke, said Radiohead split it into two albums because "they cancel each other out as overall finished things. They come from two different places, I think ... In some weird way I think "Amnesiac" gives another take on "Kid A", a form of explanation." The band stressed that they saw "Amnesiac" not as a collection of "Kid A" B-sides or outtakes but an album in its own right.


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: "Pulk/Pull Revolving Doors" began as an attempt to record another song, "True Love Waits". It features keyboard loops recorded during the "OK Computer" sessions; Radiohead disabled the erase heads on the tape recorders so that the tape repeatedly recorded over itself, creating a "ghostly" tape loop, and manipulated the results in Pro Tools. Deciding that the arrangement did not fit "True Love Waits", Radiohead used it to create a new track. Yorke added a spoken vocal and used the pitch-correcting software Auto-Tune to process it into melody. According to Yorke, Auto-Tune "desperately tries to search for the music in your speech, and produces notes at random. If you've assigned it a key, you've got music." The "True Love Waits" version of "Pulk/Pull Revolving Doors" was eventually released on the 2021 compilation "Kid A Mnesia". Auto-Tune was also used to process Yorke's vocals on "Packt Like Sardines in a Crushd Tin Box", to create a "nasal, depersonalised sound".


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: For "You And Whose Army?", Radiohead attempted to capture the "soft, warm, proto-doowop sound" of the 1940s harmony group the Ink Spots. They muffled microphones with egg boxes and used the ondes Martenot's resonating "palme diffuseur" loudspeaker to treat the vocals. Unlike many tracks from the sessions, the band recorded it live; the guitarist Ed O'Brien said, "We rehearsed it a bit, not too much, then just went in and did it. It's just us doing our thing as a band."


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: According to a diary kept by O'Brien, "Knives Out" took over a year to complete. He said it was "the most straight-ahead thing we've done in years", and that the band been tempted to over-embellish it. It was influenced by the guitar work of Johnny Marr of the Smiths. "Dollars and Cents" was edited down from an eleven-minute jam, using an editing approach inspired by krautrock band Can. The bassist, Colin Greenwood, played a jazz record by Alice Coltrane over the recording, inspiring his brother Jonny to write a "Coltrane-style" string arrangement.


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: "Like Spinning Plates" was the result of Radiohead's attempt to record another song, "I Will", on synthesiser. Dismissing the recording as "dodgy Kraftwerk", Radiohead reversed it and created a new song. Yorke said: "I was in another room, heard the vocal melody coming backwards, and thought, 'That's miles better than the right way round', then spent the rest of the night trying to learn the melody." Yorke sang the lyrics backwards; this recording was in turn reversed, creating vocals with lyrics that sound reversed. Radiohead recorded "I Will" in a new arrangement for their next album, "Hail to the Thief" (2003).


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: For the final track, "Life in a Glasshouse", Jonny Greenwood wrote to the jazz trumpeter Humphrey Lyttelton, explaining that Radiohead were "a bit stuck". Lyttelton agreed to perform on the song with his band after his daughter showed him Radiohead's 1997 album "OK Computer". According to Lyttelton, Radiohead "didn't want it to sound like a slick studio production but a slightly exploratory thing of people playing as if they didn't have it all planned out in advance". The song was recorded over seven hours, and left Lyttelton exhausted. "I detected some sort of eye-rolling at the start of the session, as if to say we were miles apart," he said. "They went through quite a few nervous breakdowns during the course of it all, just through trying to explain to us all what they wanted."


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: "Amnesiac" incorporates elements of experimental rock, electronica, alternative rock and jazz. Colin Greenwood said it contained "traditional Radiohead-type songs" alongside more experimental work. "The Atlantic" contrasted it with "the surgical glint" of "Kid A", with "swampy and foggy" arrangements and "uneasy" chords and rhythms.


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: The first track, "Packt Like Sardines in a Crushd Tin Box", is an electronic song with synthesisers and metallic percussion. "Pyramid Song", a swung ballad with piano and strings, was inspired by the Charles Mingus song "Freedom". Its lyrics were inspired by an exhibition of ancient Egyptian underworld art Yorke attended while the band was recording in Copenhagen and ideas of cyclical time discussed by Stephen Hawking and Buddhism.


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: Yorke said "You and Whose Army?" was "about someone who is elected into power by people and who then blatantly betrays them – just like Blair did". The song builds slowly on piano, before reaching a climax in the final minute. According to O'Brien, "In the Radiohead of old, on "OK Computer", that break would have lasted four minutes. We would have carried on 'Hey Jude'-style."


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: "I Might Be Wrong" combines a "venomous" guitar riff with a "trance-like metallic beat". Colin Greenwood's bassline was inspired by the Chic bassist Bernard Edwards. The lyrics were influenced by advice given to Yorke by his partner, Rachel Owen: "Be proud of what you've done. Don't look back and just carry on like nothing's happened. Just let the bad stuff go." "Knives Out", described as the album's most conventional song, features "drifting" guitar lines, "driving" percussion, a "wandering" bassline, "haunting" vocals and "eerie" lyrics.


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: "Morning Bell/Amnesiac" is an alternative version of "Morning Bell" from "Kid A"; "The Atlantic" described it as a blend of "cosiness and nausea". O'Brien said that Radiohead often record and abandon different versions of songs, but that this version was "strong enough to bear hearing again". Yorke wrote that it was included "because it came from such a different place ... Because we only found it again by accident after having forgotten about it. Because it sounds like a recurring dream. It felt right." He said the lyrics for "Dollars and Cents" were "gibberish", but were inspired by the notion that "people are basically just pixels on a screen, unknowingly serving this higher power which is manipulative and destructive".


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: "Hunting Bears" is a short instrumental on electric guitar and synthesiser. "Life in a Glasshouse" features the Humphrey Lyttelton Band playing in the style of a New Orleans jazz funeral. According to Lyttelton, the song starts with "ad-libbed, bluesy, minor-key meandering, then it gradually gets so that we're sort of playing real wild, primitive, New Orleans blues stuff". The lyrics were inspired by a news story Yorke read of a celebrity's wife so harassed by paparazzi that she papered her windows with their photographs.


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: The "Amnesiac" artwork was created by Yorke and the longtime Radiohead collaborator Stanley Donwood. For inspiration, Donwood explored London taking notes, likening the city to the labyrinth of Greek mythology. He scanned blank pages of old books and superimposed onto them photos of fireworks and Tokyo tower blocks, copies of Piranesi's "Imaginary" "Prisons" drawings, and lyrics and phrases printed by Yorke on a broken typewriter.


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: The cover depicts a book cover with a weeping minotaur. The minotaur, a motif of the "Amnesiac" artwork, represents the "maze" Yorke felt he had become lost in during his depression after "OK Computer;" Donwood described it as a "tragic figure". Other figures depicted in the artwork include faceless terrorists, self-serving politicians and corporate executives. Yorke said they represented "the abstracted, semi-comical, stupidly dark, false voices that battled us as we tried to work".


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: For the special edition, Donwood designed a package with a hardback CD case in the style of a mislaid library book. He imagined that "someone made these pages in a book and it went into drawer in a desk and was forgotten about in the attic ... And visually and musically the album is about finding the book and opening the pages." The special edition won a Grammy Award for Best Recording Package at the 44th Grammy Awards.


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: Radiohead announced "Amnesiac" on their website in January 2001, three months after the release of "Kid A". It was released in Japan on 30 May by EMI, in the UK on 4 June by Parlophone and in the US on 5 June by Capitol, both subsidiaries of EMI. After having released no singles from "Kid A", Radiohead released two from "Amnesiac": "Pyramid Song" in May and "Knives Out" in July, backed by music videos. Two music videos were created for "I Might Be Wrong", which was released as a radio-only single in June.


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: Radiohead reworked "Pulk/Pull Revolving Doors" and "Like Spinning Plates" for a computer-animated music video directed by Johnny Hardstaff. The video premiered on November 29, 2001, at an animation festival at the Centre For Contemporary Arts, Glasgow. It features imagery of killer whales swimming under UV light, a machine taking shape, and conjoined babies spinning in a centrifuge. The video received little airplay from MTV, who felt it was "of a sensitive nature" and would only broadcast it with a warning. Hardstaff said: "The irony is that you can't move on MTV for bland R&B and the empty boasts of 'artists' effectively fixated with their own flaccid showbiz cocks, but any piece of film with an ounce of real emotion isn't going to get seen."


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: Radiohead first performed "Amnesiac" songs on the "Kid A" tour, which began in June 2000. Radiohead performed the electronic tracks using rock instrumentation; for example, Yorke performed "Like Spinning Plates" as a piano ballad. On 10 June, 2001, Radiohead recorded a concert for a special hour-long episode of the BBC show "Later... with Jools Holland", including a performance of "Life in a Glasshouse" with the Humphrey Lyttelton Band. The "Amnesiac" tour began on 18 June, incorporating Radiohead's first North American tour in three years. Recordings from the "Kid A" and "Amnesiac" tours are included on "", released in November 2001.


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: "Amnesiac" debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart. On the US "Billboard" 200, it debuted at number two, with sales of 231,000, surpassing the 207,000 first-week sales of "Kid A". It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan for shipments of 100,000 copies across Japan. By October 2008, "Amnesiac" had sold more than 900,000 copies worldwide. In July 2013, it was certified platinum in the UK for sales of more than 300,000.


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: After Radiohead's previous album, "Kid A", had divided listeners, many hoped "Amnesiac" would return to their earlier rock sound. The "Guardian" titled its review "Relax: it's nothing like "Kid A"". However, "Rolling Stone" saw "Amnesiac" as a further distancing from Radiohead's earlier "Britpop-like" style, and "Pitchfork" found that it was nothing like Radiohead's 1995 album "The Bends". "Stylus" wrote that although "Amnesiac" was ""slightly" more straightforward" than "Kid A", it "solidified the postmillennial model of Radiohead: less songs and more atmosphere, more eclectic and electronic, more paranoid, more threatening, more sublime".


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: Robert Hilburn of the "Los Angeles Times" felt that "Amnesiac", compared to "Kid A", was "a richer, more engaging record, its austerity and troubled vision enriched by a rousing of the human spirit". The "Guardian" critic Alexis Petridis, who had disliked "Kid A", felt that "Amnesiac" returned Radiohead to "their role as the world's most intriguing and innovative major rock band ... [It] strikes a cunning and rewarding balance between experimentation and quality control. It's hardly easy to digest but nor is it impossible to swallow." He criticised the electronic tracks "Pulk/Pull Revolving Doors" and "Like Spinning Plates" as self-indulgent, but praised the album's "haunting musical shifts and unconventional melodies". The "Guardian" named it "CD of the week". "Stylus" wrote that it was "an excellent disc", but was not as "exploratory or interesting" as "Kid A".


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: Some dismissed "Amnesiac" as a collection of "Kid A" outtakes. The "Pitchfork" critic Ryan Schreiber wrote that its "questionable sequencing ... does little to hush the argument that the record is merely a thinly veiled B-sides compilation". Another "Pitchfork" writer, Scott Plagenhoef, felt the sequencing worked by creating tension, heightening the power of the more experimental tracks. However, he felt the more conventional marketing created a sense of "ordinariness" compared to "Kid A" and the impression that Radiohead had bowed to pressure from their record label.


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: Some critics felt "Amnesiac" was less cohesive than "Kid A". The AllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that it "often plays as a hodgepodge", and that both albums "clearly derive from the same source and have the same flaws ... The division only makes the two records seem unfocused, even if the best of both records is quite stunning." Another AllMusic critic, Sam Samuelson, said "Amnesiac" was a "thrown-together" release that might have been better packaged with the live album "I Might Be Wrong" as a "complete "Kid A" sessions package". Schreiber, however, felt the "highlights were undeniably worth the wait, and easily overcome its occasional patchiness".


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: Reviewing the 2009 reissue for "Pitchfork", Plagenhoef wrote: "More than "Kid A" – and maybe more than any other LP of its time – "Amnesiac" is the kickoff of a messy, rewarding era ... disconnected, self-aware, tense, eclectic, head-turning – an overload of good ideas inhibited by rules, restrictions, and conventional wisdom." In 2021, on the album's 20th anniversary, "The Atlantic" wrote that "Amnesiac" might be Radiohead's best work: "Listening to it 20 years after its release, the album's grumpy wisdom—its dignity in the face of dread—feels more moving than ever."


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: "Amnesiac" was nominated for the 2001 Mercury Music Prize, losing to PJ Harvey's "Stories from the City, Stories from the Sea", for which Yorke provided guest vocals. It was the fourth consecutive Radiohead album nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album, and the special edition won a Grammy Award for Best Recording Package at the 44th Grammy Awards.


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: Several publications named "Amnesiac" one of the best albums of 2001, including "Q", "The Wire", "Rolling Stone", "Kludge", the "Village Voice", "Pazz and Jop", the "Los Angeles Times", and "Alternative Press". In 2005, "Stylus" named it the best album of the decade that far. In 2009, "Pitchfork" ranked "Amnesiac" the 34th best album of the 2000s and "Rolling Stone" ranked it the 25th. It is included in the 2005 book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die", and number 320 in the 2012 edition of "Rolling Stone"'s "500 Greatest Albums of All Time" list. "Pyramid Song" was ranked among the best tracks of the decade by "Rolling Stone", "NME" and "Pitchfork".


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: After a period of being out of print on vinyl, EMI reissued a double LP of "Amnesiac" on 19 August 2008 along with "Kid A", "Hail to the Thief" and "OK Computer" as part of the "From the Capitol Vaults" series. On 31 August 2009, EMI reissued "Amnesiac" in a two-CD "Collector's Edition" and a "Special Collector's Edition" containing an additional DVD. The first CD contains the original studio album; the second CD collects B-sides from "Amnesiac" singles and live performances; the DVD contains music videos and a live television performance. Radiohead, who left EMI in 2007, had no input into the reissue and the music was not remastered. The "Collector's Editions" were discontinued after Radiohead's back catalogue was transferred to XL Recordings in 2016. In May 2016, XL reissued Radiohead's back catalogue on vinyl, including "Amnesiac".


title: Amnesiac (album)

text: An early demo of "Life in a Glasshouse", performed by Yorke on acoustic guitar, was released on the 2019 compilation "MiniDiscs [Hacked]". On November 5, 2021, Radiohead released "Kid A Mnesia," an anniversary reissue compiling "Kid A" and "Amnesiac". It includes a third album, "Kid Amnesiae", comprising previously unreleased material from the sessions. Radiohead promoted the reissue with two digital singles, the previously unreleased tracks "If You Say the Word" and "Follow Me Around". "Kid A Mnesia Exhibition", an interactive experience with music and artwork from the albums, was released on 18 November for PlayStation 5, macOS and Windows.


title: Great Tribulation

text: In Christian eschatology, the Great Tribulation () is a period mentioned by Jesus in the Olivet Discourse as a sign that would occur in the time of the end.


title: Great Tribulation

text: At Revelation 7:14, "the Great Tribulation" () is used to indicate the period spoken of by Jesus. Matthew 24: 21 and 29 uses "tribulation" (θλίβω) in a context denoting afflictions of those hard-pressed by siege and the calamities of war.


title: Great Tribulation

text: Christians disagree over whether the Tribulation will be a relatively short period of great hardship before the end of the world and Second Coming of Christ (a school of thought sometimes called "Futurism"); or has already occurred, having happened in AD 70 when Roman legions laid siege to Jerusalem and destroyed its temple (sometimes called Preterism); or began in 538 CE when papal Rome came to power -- popes being anti-Christs -- and will intensify shortly before the end of the world, (sometimes called "Historicist").


title: Great Tribulation

text: In the futurist view of Christian eschatology, the Great Tribulation is a relatively short period of time where everyone will experience worldwide hardships, persecution, disasters, famine, war, pain, and suffering, which will affect all of creation, and precede judgment of all when the Second Coming takes place. Some pretribulationists believe that those who choose to follow God will be raptured before the tribulation, and thus escape it. On the other hand, posttribulationists believe Christians who are alive at the time of the Great Tribulation must endure the Great Tribulation and will receive great blessings.


title: Great Tribulation

text: According to dispensationalists who hold the futurist view, the Tribulation is thought to occur before the Second Coming of Jesus and during the End Times. In this view, the Tribulation will last seven prophetic Hebrew years (lasting 360 days each) in all, but the Great Tribulation will be the second half of the Tribulation period.


title: Great Tribulation

text: In this view, this seven-year period is considered to be the final week of Daniel's Prophecy of Seventy Weeks, found in Daniel chapter 9. It is theorized that each week represents seven years, with the timetable beginning from Artaxerxes' order to rebuild the Second Temple in Jerusalem. After seven weeks and 62 weeks, the prophecy says that the messiah will be "cut off", which is taken to correspond to the death of Christ. This is seen as creating a break of indeterminate length in the timeline, with one week remaining to be fulfilled.


title: Great Tribulation

text: The time period for these beliefs is also based on other passages: in the Book of Daniel, "time, times, and half a time", interpreted as "three and a half years," and the Book of Revelation, "a thousand two hundred and threescore days" and "forty and two months" (the prophetic month averaging 30 days, hence 1260/30 = 42 months or 3.5 years). The 1290 days of Daniel 12:11, (rather than the 1260 days of Revelation 11:3), is thought to be the result of either a simple intercalary leap month adjustment, or due to further calculations related to the prophecy, or due to an intermediate stage of time that is to prepare the world for the beginning of the millennial reign.


title: Great Tribulation

text: Among Futurists there are differing views about what will happen to Christians during the Tribulation:


title: Great Tribulation

text: In pretribulationism and midtribulationism, the rapture and the Second Coming of Christ are separate events, while in post-tribulationism the two events are identical or simultaneous. Another feature of the pre- and mid-tribulation beliefs is the idea that after the rapture, Christ will return for a third time (when also counting the first coming) to set up his kingdom on the earth.


title: Great Tribulation

text: The Catholic Church teaches that there will be a "final Passover" or last "purgatory" before the final parousia (Second Coming), in which the church will "pass through a final fire that will shake the faith of many". Generally neither the Catholic Church, the various Orthodox and Anglican communions, nor the older Protestant denominations use the term "rapture", and tend towards amillennialism. In this view, the millennium is regarded as the initial period of Christ's reign (manifested in the life and activity of the church) that began with the Pentecost and will lead up to the messiah's eventual return, with the outcome being a single and permanent event at the end of present time.


title: Great Tribulation

text: In the Preterist view, the Tribulation took place in the past when Roman legions destroyed Jerusalem and its temple in AD 70 during the end stages of the First Jewish–Roman War, and it only affected the Jewish people rather than all mankind.


title: Great Tribulation

text: Christian preterists believe that the Tribulation was a divine judgment visited upon the Jews for their sins, including rejection of Jesus as the promised Messiah. It occurred entirely in the past, around AD 70 when the armed forces of the Roman Empire destroyed Jerusalem and its temple.


title: Great Tribulation

text: A preterist discussion of the Tribulation has its focus on the Gospels, in particular the prophetic passages in Matthew 24, Mark 13 and Luke 21, rather than on the Apocalypse or Book of Revelation. (Preterists apply much of the symbolism in the Revelation to Rome, the Cæsars, and their persecution of Christians, rather than to the Tribulation upon the Jews.)


title: Great Tribulation

text: Jesus' warning in Matthew 24:34 that "this generation shall not pass, till all these things be fulfilled" is tied back to his similar warning to the Scribes and the Pharisees that their judgment would "come upon this generation", that is, during the first century rather than at a future time long after the Scribes and Pharisees had died. The destruction in AD 70 occurred within a 40-year generation from the time when Jesus gave that discourse.


title: Great Tribulation

text: The judgment on the Jewish nation was executed by the Roman legions, "the abomination of desolation, spoken of by Daniel the prophet."


title: Great Tribulation

text: Since Matthew 24 begins with Jesus visiting the Jerusalem Temple and pronouncing that "there shall not be left here one stone upon another, that shall not be thrown down" (vs. 3), preterists see nothing in Scripture to indicate that another Jewish temple will ever be built. The prophecies were all fulfilled on the then-existing temple that Jesus spoke about and that was subsequently destroyed within that generation.


title: Great Tribulation

text: The Historicist view applies Tribulation to the period known as "persecution of the saints" (Daniel 7, Revelation 13). This is believed to have begun with the period after the "falling away" when papal Rome came to power for 1260 years from 538 to 1798 (using the day-year principle). They believe that the Tribulation is not a future event, but it intensifies right at the end to a time such as never before. Matthew's reference to "Great Tribulation" as parallel to Revelation 6:12-13, will reach a point that if it was not shortened even the just would not survive.


title: Great Tribulation

text: Historicists are prone to see prophecy fulfilled down through the centuries and rather than a single Antichrist to rule the earth during a future Tribulation period, Martin Luther, John Calvin and the other Protestant Reformers saw the Antichrist as fulfilled in the papacy. The reformers like Martin Luther, John Calvin and others saw the papacy's claim of temporal power over all secular governments and the autocratic character of the papal office as the falling away from the original faith founded by Jesus and the apostles, and challenged papal authority as it had deviated from scripture with its tradition and was a corruption from the early church.


title: Great Tribulation

text: Similarly, some modern historicists see the Tribulation on the Jews as beginning in AD 70 and continuing for centuries, covering the same time span as "the times of the Gentiles" during which "Jerusalem shall be trodden down by the Gentiles." This view would have it encompass not only the death of a million Jews at the hands of the Roman legions, but also the death of six million Jews in the Holocaust.


title: Vinod Mehra

text: Vinod Mehra (13 February 1945 – 30 October 1990) was an Indian actor in Indian films. He started out as a child actor in the late 1950s before starting his film career as an adult in 1971. He acted in over 100 films from the 1970s through to his death at the age of 45 in 1990. He was also the producer and director of the film "Gurudev" which was released 3 years after his death.


title: Vinod Mehra

text: Mehra made his debut in the 1958 film "Raagini" as a child artist playing the younger version of the character played by Kishore Kumar. After playing a few more minor roles as a child, he started his film career as an adult in 1971 with "Ek Thi Reeta", a smash hit based on the English play, "A Girl Called Rita", along with Tanuja. He was one of finalists in the 1965 All India Talent Contest organised by United Producers and Filmfare from more than ten thousand contestants. He lost the contest to Rajesh Khanna and became male runner up of the contest. He was an executive with Goldfield Mercantile Company till the time he became runner up in the contest. He joined the film industry after being spotted by Roop K Shorey at Bombay’s Gaylord restaurant.


title: Vinod Mehra

text: This was followed by the film "Parde Ke Peechey" opposite debutant Yogeeta Bali followed by "Elaan" (with Rekha), "Amar Prem" (1971) and "Lal Patthar", though it was only Shakti Samanta's "Anuraag" (1973) with Moushumi Chatterjee, which established him as an actor. He went on to appear in over 100 films in a career spanning over two decades. He played lead roles in his earlier films. Later he mostly acted in multi-starrers as a secondary lead or played strong supporting roles such as a brother, friend, uncle, father and police officer. He worked with all top actors like Sunil Dutt, Dharmendra, Sanjeev Kumar, Rajesh Khanna and Amitabh Bachchan. His frequent female co-stars included Rekha, Moushumi Chatterjee, Yogeeta Bali, Shabana Azmi and Bindiya Goswami.


title: Vinod Mehra

text: Some of his prominent films include "Nagin", "Jaani Dushman", "Ghar", "Swarg Narak", "Kartavya", "Saajan Bina Suhagan", "Jurmana", "Ek Hi Raasta", "Ye Kaisa Insaaf" "Sweekar Kiya Maine" and "Khud-Daar". He received Filmfare Nominations as Best Supporting Actor for "Anurodh" (1977), "Amar Deep" (1979), and "Bemisal" (1982). He also played the leading role in a Punjabi film "Maujaan Dubai Diyaan" in 1985.


title: Vinod Mehra

text: He turned producer and director with "Gurudev" in the late 1980s, starring Sridevi, Rishi Kapoor and Anil Kapoor in the lead. He died of a heart attack before completing the film, at the age of 45 in October 1990. The film was released in 1993 after director Raj Sippy completed the film. Many of his delayed films were released after his death and dedicated to his memory such as "Patthar Ke Phool" (1991 film), "Insaniyat" (1994) and "Aurat Aurat Aurat" (1996).


title: Vinod Mehra

text: Vinod Mehra's daughter Soniya Mehra has acted in a couple films and son Rohan Mehra made his debut in Nikhil Advani's "Baazaar" in 2018.


title: Vinod Mehra

text: Vinod Mehra was born in Amritsar in 1945 in a Punjabi family. His father's name was Parameshwaridas Mehra and mother's name Kamala Mehra. Family shifted its base to Bombay from Amritsar after independence as Parameshwaridas had business interest in Bombay. He had an elder sister named Sharda who appeared in several films before Mehra started his career in 1970s. Mehra completed his schooling in Sacred Heart Boys High School Santacruz and later earned a Bachelor's degree from St. Xavier's College, Mumbai.


title: Vinod Mehra

text: Mehra was close to Rekha during the mid-70s. Indeed, they were widely believed to have been married, but in a 2004 television interview with Simi Garewal, Rekha denied having ever been married to him, and referred to him affectionately as a well-wisher (but in Rekha's biography The Untold Story by Yasser Usman, it is mentioned that Vinod Mehra, Rekha's rumoured husband, took her to his house in Bombay, after getting married in Calcutta, and Vinod's mother pushed the actress away when the latter tried to touch her feet)." Mehra's first marriage to Meena Broca was arranged by his mother. The marriage was reportedly not consummated as Vinod had a heart attack shortly after the marriage. After he recovered, he eloped with his frequent leading lady of the time, Bindiya Goswami. Meena was left with no choice but to file for divorce. Mehra's relationship with Bindiya unraveled quickly, and she soon left him to marry director J. P. Dutta. In 1988, Mehra married Kiran, daughter of a Kenya-based transport businessman. The marriage lasted until his death two years later and produced two children: a daughter named Soniya (born in 1988) and a son named Rohan (born posthumously). Mehra died of a heart attack on 30 October 1990. He was only 45 years of age.


title: Vinod Mehra

text: After Mehra's death, his widow moved to Kenya, to live with her parents and sister. The children were raised in Mombasa and went to the UK for higher education. Both entered the film industry eventually. Soniya made her Hindi film debut in the 2007 film "Victoria No. 203", a remake of the 1972 classic film of the same name. Rohan made his debut in Nikhil Advani's "Baazaar" (2018).


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: The Oldsmobile 4-4-2 (also known as the 442) is a muscle car produced by Oldsmobile between the 1964 and 1987 model years. Introduced as an option package for US-sold F-85 and Cutlass models, it became a model in its own right from 1968 to 1971, spawned the Hurst/Olds in 1968, then reverted to an option through the mid-1970s. The name was revived in the 1980s on the rear-wheel drive Cutlass Supreme and early 1990s as an option package for the new front-wheel drive Cutlass Calais.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: The "4-4-2" name (pronounced "Four-four-two") derives from the original car's four-barrel carburetor, four-speed manual transmission, and dual exhausts (Some maintain that the '2' indicated a limited-slip differential). It was originally written "4-4-2" (with badging showing hyphens between the numerals), and remained hyphenated throughout Oldsmobile's use of the designation. Beginning in 1965, the 4-4-2s standard transmission was a three-speed manual along with an optional two-speed automatic and four-speed manual, but were still badged as "4-4-2"s.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: Because of this change, from 1965 on, according to Oldsmobile brochures and advertisements, the 4-4-2 designation referred to the 400 cubic inch engine, four-barrel carburetor, and dual exhausts. By 1968 badging was shortened to simply "442", but Oldsmobile brochures and internal documents continued to use the "4-4-2" model designation.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: The 4-4-2 was born out of competition between Pontiac and Oldsmobile divisions of GM. The high performance GTO version of the Pontiac LeMans intermediate had proved an unexpected success midway through the 1964 model year. Oldsmobile's hasty response was to beef up their own popular Cutlass, a task given to a team led by performance enthusiast and Olds engineer John Beltz (later responsible for the distinctive and powerful Toronado), aided by Dale Smith and division chief engineer Bob Dorshimer.<ref name="Car Craft, 1/91"></ref>


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: Contrasted with the 1964 Tempest LeMans GTO with its 389 cubic inch V-8 (introduced in September, 1963 as an option package), the Oldsmobile offering was a conservative package. Technically the "B09 Police Apprehender Pursuit" option, the 442 used the four-barrel carbureted 330 CID (5.4 L) V8, known as L79, but with shorter valve spring retainers, longer pushrods, M400 rod and main bearings, and high lift camshaft, raising rated (SAE gross) output to 310 hp (231.3 kW) at 5,200 rpm. Torque remained , although the torque peak rose from 2800 rpm to 3600 rpm. Enhanced handling was credited to the heavy duty (HD) suspension package that included HD springs (30% higher rating), HD shocks (valving with 50% more restriction), a 15/16 diameter front and 7/8 diameter rear sway bar, and boxed lower rear control arms with denser bushings. Other standard 442 equipment included Muncie M20, heavy duty clutch with higher rate springs in the pressure plate assembly, HD manual steering ratio 20:1 versus the standard ratio 24:1, performance rear axle ratio 3.36:1, dual exhaust, 14x6 HD wheels sporting 7.5 x14 US Royal 80XP Black with red stripe tire, front fender and rear decklid 442 medallions, and a dual snorkel air cleaner. The 442 was not equipped with power brakes or steering, unless added as an option. The frame, part number 3837595, was not unique or modified for the 442 option, and could be found under F85s equipped with a manual transmission. There was an HD frame option in 1964, part number 9773002; which was boxed, but it was not standard equipment for the 442. Unlike the 1965 442 model built in Lansing, the 1964 442 does not have an option code on the data plate. There is documentation available showing that the 1964 442 was built in both Lansing and Fremont.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: The package was dubbed "4-4-2" based on its combination of four-barrel carburetor, four-speed manual transmission, and dual exhausts. It was available on any F-85 or Cutlass model except the station wagon, although most were Cutlass hardtop coupés (Oldsmobile archives indicate that approximately 10 four-door sedans were built with the B09 option). A total of 2,999 were sold.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: "Motor Trend" tested an early 1964 4-4-2 with a 3:55 rear axle (standard ratio was 3.36:1) and found that the 3,440-lb (1,560 kg) car ran 0–60 mph (0–96 km/h) in 7.5 seconds, the standing quarter mile in 15.5 seconds at , and reached a top speed of 116 mph (185.6 km/h).


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: With the GTO receiving GM corporate sanction to receive their full-sized car's 389 V-8, Oldsmobile followed suit and replaced the 4-4-2's standard 330 CID with the new 400 CID (6.6 L). The definition of "4-4-2" was then restated as referring to 400 cubic inches, a four-barrel carburetor (a 515 cfm Rochester four-jet), and two exhausts. Output for the big engine rose to and . The standard transmission became a three-speed manual with column shifter, with a floor shifter four-speed and Oldsmobile's two-speed Jetaway automatic transmission as optional. A heavy duty three-speed with Hurst floor shifter was introduced as a mid-year option.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: Other touches added to the 1965 were chrome body side scoops adorned with 4-4-2 badging, chambered dual exhaust pipes, chrome single snout air cleaner, and 4-4-2 badging on the dash. Late in the year option N98 was added, which were chrome wheels. It also offered standard bucket seats when optioned on the Cutlass and a 6,000 rpm tachometer, mounted in the optional console, more as decoration than for usefulness. Retractable front seat belts were optional. The turning diameter was 41 feet.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: "Modern Rod" tested a 1965 F85 4-4-2 with the four-speed manual, slicks, and headers and obtained a quarter mile acceleration of 13.78 seconds at ; "Car Life"'s automatic 1965 ran the quarter mile in 15.5 seconds at , with a 0 to 60 mph time of 7.8 seconds. "Car and Driver" tested a 1965 4-4-2 and did 0–60 mph in 5.5 seconds.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: The 1966 4-4-2 shared a modest facelift with other Cutlasses. It came with a 400 ci "L78" V8 rated at /440 lb•ft with a single four-barrel carburetor. Two new optional 400 ci engines offered even higher performance: the "L69", with three two-barrel Rochester 2GC carburetors on a progressive linkage and of torque, which was priced at US$264.54, and the rare "W30". Besides the convertible, the 4-4-2 option was available on both hardtop and pillared coupes, which shared the same roofline. Besides the new sweeping C pillar on coupes which featured a "flying buttress" recessed rear window, the new body had high, round rear fenders giving the car a more muscular appearance.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: The W30 engine added an outside-air induction system (admitting cool air to the carburetors via tubing from the front grill) and a hotter cam, under-rated as producing the same as the L69. The battery was relocated to the trunk to make room for the air hoses, which prevented the package from being ordered on convertible models. Only 54 W30s were built by the factory, although an additional 97 were produced for dealer installation.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: The standard transmission was a three-speed manual with column shift and the two-speed Jetaway automatic with switch-pitch torque converter was optional. Hurst shifters became standard equipment with floor-mounted manual transmissions including the optional heavy-duty three-speed, M-20 wide-ratio four-speed or M-21 close-ratio four-speed. The standard 350-horsepower 400 engine could be ordered with any of the four transmissions, while only manual transmissions could be ordered with the L69 three two-barrel option.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: Inside, a revised instrument panel featured two round pods for the speedometer and other instruments, replacing the horizontal sweep speedometer of 1964–65 models, but the rest of the basic dashboard designed was unchanged. F-85 models had base interiors with bench seats and rubber floor mats while the more lavish Cutlass versions came with full carpeting and featured Strato bucket seats of a new design with higher and thinner seat backs, or a no-cost bench seat option. Head rests were an option.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: "Car Life" tested an L69 4-4-2 with four-speed transmission and obtained a 0–60 time of 6.3 seconds and a quarter mile of 14.8 seconds at . "Motor Trend"'s similar test car ran 0–60 mph in 7.2 seconds, with a quarter mile time of 15.2 seconds at .


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: For 1967 the 4-4-2's styling and base engine remained the same, save for minor trim changes, a distinctive louvered hood, and an increase in intake valve size to 2.067 from 1.99. The three-speed Turbo Hydra-Matic automatic transmission with Switch Pitch became available, replacing the two-speed Switch Pitch Jetaway, as was the case with the mid-sized muscle cars from other GM divisions (Pontiac GTO, Chevrolet Chevelle SS396, and Buick GS400). The heavy-duty floor-mounted three-speed manual transmission was now standard with the Muncie M-20 and M-21 four-speeds optional, all with Hurst shifters. Front disc brakes were a new option.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: A GM policy decision banning multiple carburetors for all vehicles except Ed Cole's beloved Corvette and the Corvair saw the demise of the L69 with its triple carburetors, a rare option for Olds and an icon for Pontiacs since 1957. The W30 remained available, although the four-barrel Quadrajet carburetor replaced the tri carb setup. New red plastic inner fender liners became part of the W30 package. 502 factory W30 engines were built to meet NHRA homologation rules, along with an unknown number of dealer-installed packages.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: "Cars" tested a W30 4-4-2 with close-ratio four-speed and 4.33 rear axle (a dealer-installed only option), obtaining a quarter mile of 14.1 seconds at in completely stock form. 0–60 mph times were between 6.5 and 6.7 seconds.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: Unlike in previous years which the 4-4-2 option could be ordered on either baseline F-85 or upscale Cutlass models, the 1967 4-4-2 package was based on the top-line Cutlass Supreme series, including the sport coupe (with center post), Holiday hardtop coupe and convertible. Standard equipment on all models included Strato bucket seats or no-cost notchback bench seat, full carpeting, expanded Morocceen vinyl upholstery, heavy-duty suspension with rear sway bar, and wide-oval tires.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: Like all cars sold in the U.S. for 1967, the 4-4-2 came standard with a group of occupant protection and accident avoidance features mandated by Federal law. This package included an energy-absorbing steering column and safety steering wheel, padded dash, recessed controls, four-way hazard flashers, and a dual-circuit brake hydraulic master cylinder.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: The 4-4-2 became a separate model from 1968 through 1971. The wheelbase was , and over 33,000 were sold for 1968. Despite the engine displacement staying at 400 CID, the engine was based on the new 455 V8's 4.25 stroke, with the bore decreased (to 3.87). Torque came at 3000–3200 rpm as opposed to the early 400's 3600 rpm peak, mostly due to a milder base cam grind. "Car Life" tested a 1968 4-4-2 with a 3.42:1 rear axle ratio and Hydramatic and attained 0–60 times of 7.0 seconds, and a quarter-mile time of 15.13 seconds at . Top speed was reported as . The base engine was still rated at , but only with the standard three-speed and optional four-speed; automatics were rated at . W-30s were rated again at . Car Life also tested a four-speed W-30 with a 4.33 rear end and recorded a 13.3 at .


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: All standard 1968 4-4-2 engines are painted a bronze–copper color, as with the 1967s, topped with a fire-red air cleaner. W-30 option cars were equipped with ram air intake hoses leading from chrome-topped dual snorkel black air cleaners to special under-bumper air scoops and set off by bright red plastic fender wells. In addition, a Turnpike Cruiser option was made available with a two-barrel carburetor; this was previously available on the Cutlass Supreme for 1967. 1968 was the first year for side marker lights and front outboard shoulder belts, and the last year for vent windows on hardtops and convertibles. 4-4-2s for 1968 had unique rear bumpers, with exhaust cutouts and special exhaust tips.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: In 1968 Oldsmobile partnered with Hurst Performance Research Corporation to create the Hurst/Olds rather than just adding Hurst shifters as with earlier models. The limited regular production run of 515 Hurst/Olds (459 Holiday Coupes/56 Sport Coupes) started out as regular 4-4-2s, but were treated to numerous distinct enhancements, both cosmetic and mechanical. All cars were painted Peruvian silver (a Toronado color) with liberal black striping and white pinstripes, exterior and interior H/O badging (unique to 1968), and a real walnut wood dash insert. Mechanically, the cars left the factory with two drive train combinations. Red 455 CID engines were backed by modified W-30 Turbo 400 automatic transmissions. A/C cars got W-46 engines with 3.08:1 rears while non-A/C cars got W-45 engines with 3.91:1 rears. While both engines were rated at , the W-45 engine received the cylinder heads from the W-30 and the camshaft from the W-31, making it more suitable for higher rpms. All cars came with bucket seats and a Hurst dual-gate shifter in a mini-console. Also standard were numerous regular 4-4-2 options such as disc brakes, heavy duty cooling, and FE2 suspension. They shared the red fender wells and ram air setup with the W-30. Popular, but not standard, additional options included the tick-tock-tach and wood-grained steering wheel. Power front disc brakes were optional.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: The 1968 Hurst/Olds posted a 0–60 mph time of 5.4 seconds, and turned the 1/4 mile in 13.9 seconds at .


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: 1969 4-4-2s were very similar to the 1968 except the division tooth between the grilles, the trunk lid inlets for the tail lights, wing windows deleted on Holiday Coupes and convertibles, steering lock ignition switch on the steering column, standard headrests were added to the front seats, and the paint scheme. Twin hood stripes were now available to highlight the new dual-bulged hood. The 4-4-2 numerals grew to nearly double their previous size. Optional disc brakes had updated single-piston calipers. The exhaust manifolds featured a new center divider for better performance. Other changes to the engine were minimal, but the Turnpike Cruiser option was deleted. A new optional W-32 high-performance engine was available with an automatic; it came with the W-30's forced air induction system, but had the base engine's milder cam. A total of 297 were built, including 25 sport coupes and convertibles each.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: The Hurst/Olds returned, with a cameo white and fire frost gold striped paint scheme, large functional ram air mailbox hood scoops, rear pedestal spoiler, 15" SSII chrome plated rims, European racing mirrors, and a 380-horsepower 455 cid V8 that was detuned slightly from 1968. 906 production Hurst/Olds Holiday Coupes were built, plus 6 prototypes and 2 convertibles. Performance was 0–60 in 5.9 seconds, the 1/4 mile in 14.03 seconds at .


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: 1970 was the pinnacle of performance from Oldsmobile. In order to keep up in the horsepower arms-race, General Motors dropped the cap on engine size in 1970, and Oldsmobile responded by making the Olds 455 V8 the standard 4-4-2 engine. Output was and , with a variant available with the "W30" option. The 1970 model year can be identified by its vertical bars in silver grille, rectangular parking lights in front bumper, and vertical tail lights.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: The revised body style and increased performance resulted in the 4-4-2 being awarded pace car duties at the Indianapolis 500 race in 1970. A high-performance W-30 package was offered, which added a fiberglass hood (option W25) with functional air scoops and low-restriction air cleaner, aluminum intake manifold, special camshaft, cylinder heads, distributor, and carburetor. Two W-30 equipped 4-4-2 Vista Cruisers were produced by special order. Rear shoulder seat belts were optional at $23.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: Motor Trend tested a 4-4-2 W-30 with the four-speed manual transmission and 3.91:1 rear gears, clocking a quarter mile time of 14.2 seconds at . However, the magazine noted that Oldsmobile engineers had earlier posted a best of 13.7 seconds on the same test car with a fresh tune.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: New options for the 1970 4-4-2 included GM's variable-ratio power steering (option N47), a console-mounted Hurst Dual/Gate shifter for use with the Turbo Hydra-matic transmission, and aluminum differential housing and cover (option W27). All Oldsmobile V8s received new Positive Valve Rotators for the 1970s to increase engine valve life.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: Despite an industry-wide softening of muscle car sales, the 4-4-2 returned in 1971 with only minor modifications from the previous year. Engine output was down for 1971 due to a lower compression ratio (8.5:1), which affected all of GM's engines as the result of a corporate policy requiring engines to run on lower-octane regular leaded, low lead, or unleaded gasoline, in preparation for the introduction of the catalytic converter on 1975-model cars. The base 455 was rated at , with the W-30 achieving a rating of . The W-27 option was downgraded to an aluminum cover for the cast iron differential housing.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: The 1971 4-4-2 was available in a hardtop coupe and convertible body type. The sport coupe disappeared for the first time since 1964, only to return in 1972. 1971 Model Year Appearance changes included a black grille with silver surround, silver headlight bezels, round parking lights in front bumper, and horizontal tail lights.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: Quarter mile performance as reported by Road Test magazine was 15.2 seconds at , and 0–60 mph in 8.9 seconds, using the TH400 automatic transmission.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: By 1972, the muscle car era was unmistakably in decline due to the twin blows of rising insurance rates and increasingly stringent Federal emissions standards. The 4-4-2 name reverted to an appearance and handling option package (option code W-29) in 1972 on the Cutlass Holiday coupe, Cutlass "S" sport coupe and Holiday coupe, and Cutlass Supreme convertible. The W-29 option was not available on Cutlass Supreme notchback hardtops. The 4-4-2 option package, which carried a modest sticker price of $29, consisted of the "FE2" suspension upgrades (heavy duty springs & shocks, front and rear sway bars, boxed lower rear control arms, and 14- by 7-in [356- by 178-mm] wheels), side striping, fender and decklid badging, faux hood louvers, and a unique grille. The rear bumper sported cutouts for exhaust tips, but only when paired with the optional "L75" 455 CID V8 in place of the standard Oldsmobile 350 V8.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: Interior trims differed on each 4-4-2 bodystyle, much like the early 1964–66 models. For the base Cutlass hardtop coupe a basic two-spoke steering wheel, vinyl or cloth/vinyl bench seat, and rubber floor mats were standard along; Cutlass S sport coupe and Holiday hardtop coupe featured full carpeting, deluxe steering wheel, courtesy lighting, and bench seats with cloth-and-vinyl or all-vinyl upholstery or optional Strato bucket seats; and the Cutlass Supreme convertible came with more woodgrain interior accents than the "S", along with an all-vinyl notchback bench seat with armrest or no-cost Strato bucket seats; a center console was optional. An AM/FM stereo radio with a tape player was $363.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: 4-4-2s could still be ordered with the additional W30 option, which included the still-potent L77 455 engine, rated at and s of torque with standard low-restriction dual exhausts. Other notable components of the W30 package included a lightweight aluminum intake manifold, the W25 fiberglass ram-air hood, anti-spin differential with 3.42:1 gears (3.73:1 available), and heavy duty cooling. Due to the low-vacuum at idle, air conditioning was not available, and power brakes were only available with an automatic transmission. Only 113 W30 convertibles and 659 W30 coupes were produced in 1972.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: A special edition Hurst/Olds paced the Indianapolis 500 in 1972. The H/O coupe was based on the notchback Cutlass Supreme Holiday coupe (not offered with the 4-4-2 option) and the Cutlass Supreme convertible, both of which came standard with a 270-net horsepower 455 Rocket four-barrel V8 or optional 300-net horsepower W-30 option 455. Both H/O engines were mated to Turbo 400 transmissions with console-mounted Hurst Dual Gate shifters. A H/O Vista Cruiser was provided for the Medical Director.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: Appearance changes included a silver grille with black surround, black headlight bezels, round parking lights in front bumper, and 3-section horizontal tail lights.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: Originally expected to debut for the 1972 model year, the new "Colonnade" body style was delayed until 1973 due to an auto workers strike in 1972. The body was redesigned to feature massive long doors and energy absorbing bumpers. The rear windows were fixed and the roof was reinforced in anticipation of roll-over standards being imposed by the government. These cars were a few hundred pounds heavier and slightly larger than the 1972's.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: Consistent with 1972, the 4-4-2 option remained a handling and appearance package, code W-29, and was available on the Cutlass and Cutlass "S". It consisted of a faux louvered hood, FE2 suspension, specific grilles, emblems and stripes. Items such as dual exhaust and super stock wheels were optional, reflecting an industry-wide weaning of U.S. consumers from large powerful cars.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: The W-30 (that had in 1972) had become a trim package. The L77 "V" code 455 was there, but only with the 4-speed wide-ratio M-20 transmission. 1973 was also the last year of the 4-speed manual transmission in the Oldmobile "A" body. The L77 "V" code produced 270 net HP, the L75 "U" code 455 AT produced , while the "K" code 350 single exhaust produced and the "M" code 350 with dual exhausts produced . Positraction rear ends, axle ratios, gauges, Super Stock wheels, HD cooling and many sport type options were optional. The L77 "V" code engine was also available in the Hurst/Olds without A/C, code W-46, the W-45 L75 "U" code was standard with A/C. Both 455s used the Turbo Hydra-matic 400 transmission, while the 350 was mated to the Turbo 350.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: Interior trims for the '73 4-4-2 included a cloth/vinyl or all-vinyl bench seat and rubber mats on base Cutlass coupe, while Cutlass S included full carpeting on floor and lower door panels, woodgrain trim, deluxe steering wheel and more luxurious cloth-and-vinyl or all-vinyl bench seat, or optional swiveling Strato bucket seats with vinyl trim that could be rotated 90 degrees for easy exit/entry. Center console with floor shifter was optional with either the 4-speed manual or Turbo Hydra-matic transmissions.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: The 1974 4-4-2 received the same facelift as other Cutlasses that year including a revised grille and new flush taillights over a newly mandated rear bumper to match the similarly mandated front bumper introduced in '73. It remained a handling and appearance package available on both base Cutlass and Cutlass S Colonnade coupes. Engine offerings included the standard Rocket 350 four-barrel V8 or optional Rocket 455, which reintroduced the W-30 code that signified the top 4-4-2 engine option package from 1966 to 1972. Power steering and Turbo Hydra-matic transmission became standard equipment on 4-4-2 and all other Cutlass models. The four-speed manual transmission with Hurst shifter was dropped from the option list. GM-specification radial tires were introduced as an option.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: Interiors were similar to 1973 with cloth-and-vinyl or all-vinyl bench seats standard, or optional swiveling Strato bucket seats with Moroceen vinyl upholstery. The center console with floor shifter was optional with bucket seats.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: The 1975 4-4-2 received revised vertical-bar grilles and continued with vertically stacked taillight lenses. It was once again a handling/appearance package on base Cutlass and Cutlass S coupes with content similar to previous years. Radial tires became standard equipment, along with a GM High Energy electronic ignition.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: All engines were mated to catalytic converters, which required use of unleaded gasoline and spelled the end of true dual exhausts. With economy now a selling point following the 1973–74 energy crisis, the 1975 4-4-2 and most other Cutlass models no longer included a V8 engine as standard equipment. For the first time since its 1964 introduction, the 4-4-2 came standard with a six-cylinder engine, Chevrolet's 250 cubic-inch inline unit which had previously been offered on some Oldsmobile intermediates from 1966 to 1971 and the compact Omega since its 1973 introduction. Also new was a small Oldsmobile-built 260 cubic-inch Rocket V8 specifically designed for fuel economy. The 170-horsepower 350 Rocket V8 was now an extra-cost option along with the 190-horsepower 455 V8. A three-speed manual transmission was reinstated as standard equipment with the six-cylinder engine, with the Turbo Hydra-matic transmission optional with that engine and the only transmission offered with the V8 engines. Interiors again consisted of bench seats with cloth-and-Moroceen vinyl or all-Moroceen trim, or optional swiveling Strato buckets upholstered in Moroceen vinyl. Revised door panels featured pull straps. The console remained an option with bucket seats.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: Due to Detroit's conversion from SAE Gross horsepower ratings (commonly referred to as "brake horsepower" (bhp) to SAE net for the 1972 model year, and ever-more stringent Federal emissions standards, engine output continued to significantly decline. The 1975 4-4-2 equipped with a 455 was rated by Oldsmobile at just 190 hp at 3400 rpm and 350 lb-ft at 2000 rpm.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: The 1976 4-4-2 shared a new aerodynamic sloped nose designed for NASCAR with split grilles and new quad rectangular headlights with Cutlass S models, along with revised lower sheetmetal with fewer creases than the 1973–75 models. The 4-4-2 option was offered on Cutlass S coupes and was once again an appearance/handling package. Engine/transmission offerings were unchanged from 1975 except that the 260 V8 could be ordered with a five-speed manual transmission. This was also the final year for the 455 Rocket V8.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: Interiors again consisted of bench seats with cloth-and-Moroceen vinyl or all-Moroceen trim, or optional swiveling Strato buckets upholstered in Moroceen vinyl. A console was optional with bucket seats.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: The 1977 model year was the last for the 1973-vintage Colonnade body. The 4-4-2 was the only Oldsmobile intermediate to feature the NASCAR sloped nose from the '76 model, with the Cutlass S switching to an upright nose similar to Cutlass Supreme models. Engine offerings were revised, with Buick's 231 cubic-inch V6 replacing the base model Chevy 250 inline-six, with optional powerplants again including the Oldsmobile built 260 and 350 cubic-inch Rocket V8s. Replacing the 455 as the top engine was a new Oldsmobile 403 cubic-inch Rocket V8 rated at . Transmission offerings included a three-speed manual or Turbo Hydra-matic with the V6, five-speed manual or Turbo Hydra-matic for the 260 V8, and Turbo Hydra-matic was the sole offering for the 350 and 403 V8s. Interiors included a standard bench seat with cloth-and-vinyl or all-vinyl bench seat, or optional Strato bucket seats with all-vinyl upholstery and without the swiveling feature of previous years. The console remained optional with bucket seats.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: The 4-4-2 model continued on the downsized A-body platform introduced for the 1978 model year. The 1978 version of the 4-4-2 was an option package on the semi-fastback "Aeroback" Cutlass Salon, which was now the entry-level trim of the best-selling Cutlass range. It was offered with all powertrains available on the standard Cutlass, including the two-barrel Buick V6, two-barrel Oldsmobile V8, and Chevrolet V8s, in either two- or four-barrel form. A three-speed manual transmission was standard, and a three-speed THM200 automatic was available with all engines; a Borg-Warner five-speed manual was offered with the 260 V8 and a four-speed Saginaw manual with the 305 V8.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: Distinctive trim elements included contrasting striping along the rocker panels, lower doors, and wheelwells, badging on the rear trunk, and interior emblems. All other options offered on the Cutlass Salon were available with the 4-4-2 package.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: The 1979 4-4-2 remained based on the Cutlass Salon body style. The Hurst/Olds rejoined the lineup this year, based on the Cutlass Calais.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: The 4-4-2 moved to the notchback Cutlass Calais for 1980, with some of its performance heritage returning as it gained a larger Oldsmobile V8 engine not available on other Cutlass models. It included W-30 badging on the front fenders above the side marker lights, with less dramatic graphics than before. Otherwise, the car shared identical powertrain with the 1979 Hurst/Olds, excepting the Hurst shifter. Also available only in gold over white or gold over black paint, a total of 886 were built: 540 in black, and 346 in white.


title: Oldsmobile 442

text: The MSRP of a Cutlass Calais in 1980 was $6,919.57. Option W-30 4-4-2 appearance and handling package consisted of: gold accent paint scheme (Y71), painted grille face, applique pillar molding, aluminum sport wheels, "W-30" decals on front fender, tail lamp bezel and rear window molding to match body color, "442" emblem on sail panel and deck lid, 5.7 liter engine (350 CID) V8, 4-bbl (L34), sport console (D55), Rallye suspension package (FE2), P205/70R14 steel belted radial ply blackwall tires with raised white letters (QFV) and a digital clock (UE8). The W-30 4-4-2 option was not available in California.