title: Hector Berlioz

text: The "Dramatic Symphony" with chorus, "Roméo et Juliette" (1839), is still further from the traditional symphonic model. The episodes of Shakespeare's drama are represented in orchestral music, interspersed with expository and narrative sections for voices. Among Berlioz's admirers the work divides opinion. Weingartner called it "a style-less mixture of different forms; not quite oratorio, not quite opera, not quite symphony – fragments of all three, and nothing perfect". Countering accusations of lack of unity in this and other Berlioz works, Emmanuel Chabrier replied in a single emphatic word. Cairns regards the work as symphonic, albeit "a bold extension" of the genre, but he notes that other Berliozians including Wilfrid Mellers view it as "a curious, not entirely convincing compromise between symphonic and operatic techniques". Rushton comments that "pronounced unity" is not among the virtues of the work, but he argues that to close one's mind on that account is to miss all that the music has to give.


title: Hector Berlioz

text: The last of the four symphonies is the "Symphonie funebre et triomphale", for giant brass and woodwind band (1840), with string parts added later, together with optional chorus. The structure is more conventional than the instrumentation: the first movement is in sonata form, but there are only two other movements, and Berlioz did not adhere to the traditional relationship between the various keys of the piece. Wagner called the symphony "popular in the most ideal sense ... every urchin in a blue blouse would thoroughly understand it".


title: Hector Berlioz

text: None of Berlioz's three completed operas were written to commission, and theatre managers were not enthusiastic about staging them. Cairns writes that unlike Meyerbeer, who was rich, influential, and deferred to by opera managements, Berlioz was "an opera composer on sufferance, one who composed on borrowed time paid for with money that was not his but lent by a wealthy friend".


title: Hector Berlioz

text: The three operas contrast strongly with one another. The first, "Benvenuto Cellini" (1838), inspired by the memoirs of the Florentine sculptor, is an opera semiseria, seldom staged until the 21st century, when there have been signs of a revival in its fortunes, with its first production at the Metropolitan Opera (2003) and a co-production by the English National Opera and the Opéra national de Paris (2014), but it remains the least often produced of the three operas. In 2008, the music critic Michael Quinn called it "an opera overflowing in every way, with musical gold bursting from each curve and crevice ... a score of continually stupendous brilliance and invention" but agreed with the general view of the libretto: "incoherent ... episodic, too epic to be comedy, too ironic for tragedy". Berlioz welcomed Liszt's help in revising the work, streamlining the confusing plot; for his other two operas he wrote his own libretti.


title: Hector Berlioz

text: The epic "Les Troyens" (1858) is described by the musical scholar James Haar as "incontestably Berlioz's masterpiece", a view shared by many other writers. Berlioz based the text on Virgil's "Aeneid", depicting the fall of Troy and subsequent travels of the hero. Holoman describes the poetry of the libretto as old fashioned for its day, but effective and at times beautiful. The opera consists of a series of self-contained numbers, but they form a continuous narrative, with the orchestra playing a vital part in expounding and commenting on the action. Although the work plays for five hours (including intervals) it is no longer the normal practice to present it across two evenings. "Les Troyens", in Holoman's view, embodies the composer's artistic creed: the union of music and poetry holds "incomparably greater power than either art alone".


title: Hector Berlioz

text: The last of Berlioz's operas is the Shakespearean comedy "Béatrice et Bénédict" (1862), written, the composer said, as a relaxation after his efforts with "Les Troyens". He described it as "a caprice written with the point of a needle". His libretto, based on "Much Ado About Nothing", omits Shakespeare's darker sub-plots and replaces the clowns Dogberry and Verges with an invention of his own, the tiresome and pompous music master Somarone. The action focuses on the sparring between the two leading characters, but the score contains some gentler music, such as the nocturne-duet "Nuit paisible et sereine", the beauty of which, Cairns suggests, matches or surpasses the love music in "Roméo" or "Les Troyens". Cairns writes that "Béatrice et Bénédict" "has wit and grace and lightness of touch. It accepts life as it is. The opera is a divertissement, not a grand statement".


title: Hector Berlioz

text: Berlioz gained a reputation, only partly justified, for liking gigantic orchestral and choral forces. In France there was a tradition of open-air performance, dating from the Revolution, calling for larger ensembles than were needed in the concert hall. Among the generation of French composers ahead of him, Cherubini, Méhul, Gossec and Berlioz's teacher Le Sueur all wrote for huge forces on occasion, and in the Requiem and to a lesser degree the Te Deum Berlioz follows them, in his own manner. The Requiem calls for sixteen timpani, quadruple woodwind and twelve horns, but the moments when the full orchestral sound is unleashed are few – the Dies irae is one such – and most of the Requiem is notable for its restraint. The orchestra does not play at all in the "Quaerens me" section, and what Cairns calls "the apocalyptic armoury" is reserved for special moments of colour and emphasis: "its purpose is not merely spectacular but architectural, to clarify the musical structure and open up multiple perspectives."


title: Hector Berlioz

text: What Macdonald calls Berlioz's monumental manner is more prominent in the "Te Deum", composed in 1849 and first heard in 1855, when it was given in connection with the Exposition Universelle. By that time the composer had added to its two choruses a part for massed children's voices, inspired by hearing a choir of 6,500 children singing in St Paul's Cathedral during his London trip in 1851. A cantata for double chorus and large orchestra in honour of Napoleon III, "L'Impériale", described by Berlioz as "en style énorme", was played several times at the 1855 exhibition, but has subsequently remained a rarity.


title: Hector Berlioz

text: "La Damnation de Faust", though conceived as a work for the concert hall, did not achieve success in France until it was staged as an opera long after the composer's death. Within a year of Raoul Gunsbourg's production of the piece at Monte Carlo in 1893 the work was presented as an opera in Italy, Germany, Britain, Russia and the US. The many elements of the work vary from the robust "Hungarian March" near the beginning to the delicate "Dance of the Sylphs", the frenetic "Ride to the Abyss", Méphistophélès' suave and seductive "Song of the Devil", and Brander's "Song of a Rat", a requiem for a dead rodent.


title: Hector Berlioz

text: "L'Enfance du Christ" (1850–1854) follows the pattern of "La Damnation de Faust" in mixing dramatic action and philosophic reflection. Berlioz, after a brief youthful religious spell, was a lifelong agnostic, but he was not hostile to the Roman Catholic church, and Macdonald calls the "serenely contemplative" end of the work "the nearest Berlioz ever came to a devoutly Christian mode of expression".


title: Hector Berlioz

text: Berlioz wrote songs throughout his career, but not prolifically. His best-known work in the genre is the song cycle "Les Nuits d'été", a group of six songs, originally for voice and piano but now usually heard in its later orchestrated form. He suppressed some of his early songs, and his last publication, in 1865, was the "33 Mélodies", collecting into one volume all his songs that he chose to preserve. Some of them, such as "Hélène" and "Sara la baigneuse", exist in versions for four voices with accompaniment, and there are others for two or three voices. Berlioz later orchestrated some of the songs originally written with piano accompaniment, and some, such as "Zaïde" and "Le Chasseur danois" were written with alternative piano or orchestral parts. "La Captive", to words by Victor Hugo, exists in six different versions. In its final version (1849) it was described by the Berlioz scholar Tom S. Wotton as like "a miniature symphonic poem". The first version, written at the Villa Medici, had been in fairly regular rhythm, but for his revision Berlioz made the strophic outline less clear-cut, and added optional orchestral parts for the last stanza, which brings the song to a quiet close.


title: Hector Berlioz

text: The songs remain on the whole among the least known of Berlioz's works, and John Warrack suggests that Schumann identified why this might be so: the shape of the melodies is, as usual with Berlioz, not straightforward, and to those used to the regular four-bar phrases of French (or German) song this is an obstacle to appreciation. Warrack also comments that the piano parts, though not lacking in harmonic interest, are discernibly written by a non-pianist. Despite that, Warrack considers up to a dozen songs from the "33 Mélodies" well worth exploring – "Among them are some masterpieces."


title: Hector Berlioz

text: Berlioz's literary output was considerable and mostly consists of music criticism. Some was collected and published in book form. His "Treatise on Instrumentation" (1844) began as a series of articles and remained a standard work on orchestration throughout the 19th century; when Richard Strauss was commissioned to revise it in 1905 he added new material but did not change Berlioz's original text. The revised form remained widely used well into the 20th century; a new English translation was published in 1948.


title: Hector Berlioz

text: Other selections from Berlioz's press columns were published in "Les Soirées de l'orchestre" (Evenings with the Orchestra, 1852), "Les Grotesques de la musique" (1859) and "À travers chants" (Through Songs, 1862). His "Mémoires" were published posthumously in 1870. Macdonald comments that there are few facets of musical practice of the time untouched in Berlioz's "feuilletons". He professed to dislike writing his press pieces, and they undoubtedly took up time that he would have preferred to spend writing music. His excellence as a witty and perceptive critic may have worked to his disadvantage in another way: he became so well known to the French public in that capacity that his stature as a composer became correspondingly more difficult to establish.


title: Hector Berlioz

text: The first biography of Berlioz, by Eugène de Mirecourt, was published during the composer's lifetime. Holoman lists six other French biographies of the composer published in the four decades after his death. Of those who wrote for and against Berlioz's music in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, among the most outspoken were musical amateurs such as the lawyer and diarist George Templeton Strong, who called the composer's music variously "flatulent", "rubbish", and "the work of a tipsy chimpanzee", and, in the pro-Berlioz camp, the poet and journalist Walter J. Turner, who wrote what Cairns calls "exaggerated eulogies". Like Strong, Turner was, in the words of the music critic Charles Reid, "unhampered by any excess of technical knowledge".


title: Hector Berlioz

text: Serious studies of Berlioz in the 20th century began with Adolphe Boschot's "L'Histoire d'un romantique" (three volumes, 1906–1913). His successors were Tom S. Wotton, author of a 1935 biography, and Julien Tiersot, who wrote numerous scholarly articles on Berlioz and began the collection and editing of the composer's letters, a process eventually completed in 2016, eighty years after Tiersot's death. In the early 1950s the best-known Berlioz scholar was Jacques Barzun, a protégé of Wotton, and, like him, strongly hostile to many of Boschot's conclusions, which they saw as unfairly critical of the composer. Barzun's study was published in 1950. He was accused at the time by the musicologist Winton Dean of being excessively partisan, and refusing to admit failings and unevenness in Berlioz's music; more recently he has been credited by the musicologist Nicholas Temperley with playing a major part in improving the climate of musical opinion towards Berlioz.


title: Hector Berlioz

text: Since Barzun, the leading Berlioz scholars have included David Cairns, D. Kern Holoman, Hugh Macdonald and Julian Rushton. Cairns translated and edited Berlioz's "Mémoires" in 1969, and published a two-volume, 1500-page study of the composer (1989 and 1999), described in "Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians" as "one of the masterpieces of modern biography". Holoman was responsible for the publication in 1987 of the first thematic catalogue of Berlioz's works; two years later he published a single-volume biography of the composer. Macdonald was appointed in 1967 as the inaugural general editor of the New Berlioz Edition published by Bärenreiter; 26 volumes were issued between 1967 and 2006 under his editorship. He is also one of the editors of Berlioz's "Correspondance générale", and author of a 1978 study of Berlioz's orchestral music, and of the "Grove" article on the composer. Rushton has published two volumes of analyses of Berlioz's music (1983 and 2001). The critic Rosemary Wilson said of his work, "He has done more than any other writer to explain the uniqueness of Berlioz's musical style without losing a sense of wonder in its originality of musical expression."


title: Hector Berlioz

text: Because few of Berlioz's works were often performed in the late-19th and early 20th centuries, widely accepted views of his music were based on hearsay rather than on the music itself. Orthodox opinion emphasised supposed technical defects in the music and ascribed to the composer characteristics that he did not possess. Debussy called him "a monster ... not a musician at all. He creates the illusion of music by means borrowed from literature and painting". In 1904, in the second edition of "Grove", Henry Hadow made this judgment:


title: Hector Berlioz

text: By the 1950s the critical climate was changing, although in 1954 the fifth edition of "Grove" carried this verdict from Léon Vallas:


title: Hector Berlioz

text: Cairns dismisses the article as "an astonishing anthology of all the nonsense that has ever been talked about [Berlioz]", but adds that by the 1960s it seemed a quaint survival from a vanished age. By 1963 Cairns, viewing Berlioz's greatness as firmly established, felt able to advise anyone writing on the subject, "Do not keep harping on the 'strangeness' of Berlioz's music; you will no longer carry the reader with you. And do not use phrases like 'genius without talent', 'a certain strain of amateurishness', 'curiously uneven': they have had their day."


title: Hector Berlioz

text: One important reason for the steep rise in Berlioz's reputation and popularity is the introduction of the LP record after the Second World War. In 1950 Barzun made the point that although Berlioz was praised by his artistic peers, including Schumann, Wagner, Franck and Mussorgsky, the public had heard little of his music until recordings became widely available. Barzun maintained that many myths had grown up about the supposed quirkiness or ineptitude of the music – myths that were dispelled once the works were finally made available for all to hear. Neville Cardus made a similar point in 1955. As more and more Berlioz works became widely available on record, professional musicians and critics, and the musical public, were for the first time able to judge for themselves.


title: Hector Berlioz

text: A milestone in the reappraisal of Berlioz's reputation came in 1957, when for the first time a professional opera company staged the original version of "The Trojans" in a single evening. It was at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden; the work was sung in English with some minor cuts, but its importance was internationally recognised, and led to the world premiere staging of the work uncut and in French, at Covent Garden in 1969, marking the centenary of the composer's death.


title: Hector Berlioz

text: In recent decades Berlioz has been widely regarded as a great composer, prone to lapses like any other. In 1999 the composer and critic Bayan Northcott wrote that the work of Cairns, Rushton, Sir Colin Davis and others retained "the embattled conviction of a cause". Nevertheless, Northcott was writing about Davis's "Berlioz Odyssey" of seventeen concerts of Berlioz's music, featuring all the major works, a prospect unimaginable in earlier decades of the century. Northcott concluded, "Berlioz still seems so immediate, so controversial, so ever-new".


title: Hector Berlioz

text: All of Berlioz's major works and most of his minor ones have been commercially recorded. This is a comparatively recent development. In the mid-1950s the international record catalogues listed complete recordings of seven major works: the "Symphonie fantastique", "Symphonie funèbre et triomphale", "Harold in Italy", "Les Nuits d'été," "Roméo et Juliette", the Requiem and the Te Deum, and various overtures. Excerpts from "Les Troyens" were available but there were no complete recordings of the operas.


title: Hector Berlioz

text: Recordings conducted by Colin Davis are prominent in the Berlioz discography, some studio-made and others recorded live. The first was "L'Enfance du Christ" in 1960 and the last the Requiem in 2012. In between there were five recordings of "Les Nuits d'été", four each of "Béatrice et Bénédict", the "Symphonie fantastique" and "Roméo et Juliette", and three of "Harold in Italy", "Les Troyens", and "La Damnation de Faust".


title: Hector Berlioz

text: In addition to Davis's versions, "Les Troyens" has received studio recordings under Charles Dutoit and John Nelson; Nelson and Daniel Barenboim have recorded versions of "Béatrice et Bénédict", and Nelson and Roger Norrington have conducted "Benvenuto Cellini" for CD. Singers who have recorded "Les Nuits d'été" include Victoria de los Ángeles, Leontyne Price, Janet Baker, Régine Crespin, Jessye Norman and Kiri Te Kanawa, and more recently, Karen Cargill and Susan Graham.


title: Hector Berlioz

text: By far the most recorded of Berlioz's works is the "Symphonie fantastique". The discography of the British Hector Berlioz website lists 96 recordings, from the pioneering version by Gabriel Pierné and the Concerts Colonne in 1928 to those conducted by Beecham, Pierre Monteux, Charles Munch, Herbert von Karajan and Otto Klemperer to more recent versions including those of Boulez, Marc Minkowski, Yannick Nézet-Séguin and François-Xavier Roth.


title: Active transport

text: In cellular biology, "active transport" is the movement of molecules or ions across a cell membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration—against the concentration gradient. Active transport requires cellular energy to achieve this movement. There are two types of active transport: primary active transport that uses adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and secondary active transport that uses an electrochemical gradient.


title: Active transport

text: Unlike passive transport, which uses the kinetic energy and natural entropy of molecules moving down a gradient, active transport uses cellular energy to move them against a gradient, polar repulsion, or other resistance. Active transport is usually associated with accumulating high concentrations of molecules that the cell needs, such as ions, glucose and amino acids. Examples of active transport include the uptake of glucose in the intestines in humans and the uptake of mineral ions into root hair cells of plants. active transport is the movement of molecules across a cell membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration—against the concentration gradient. Active transport requires cellular energy to achieve this movement


title: Active transport

text: In 1848, the German physiologist Emil du Bois-Reymond suggested the possibility of active transport of substances across membranes.


title: Active transport

text: In 1926, Dennis Robert Hoagland investigated the ability of plants to absorb salts against a concentration gradient and discovered the dependence of nutrient absorption and translocation on metabolic energy using innovative model systems under controlled experimental conditions.


title: Active transport

text: Rosenberg (1948) formulated the concept of active transport based on energetic considerations, but later it would be redefined.


title: Active transport

text: In 1997, Jens Christian Skou, a Danish physician received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his research regarding the sodium-potassium pump.


title: Active transport

text: One category of cotransporters that is especially prominent in research regarding diabetes treatment is sodium-glucose cotransporters. These transporters were discovered by scientists at the National Health Institute. These scientists had noticed a discrepancy in the absorption of glucose at different points in the kidney tubule of a rat. The gene was then discovered for intestinal glucose transport protein and linked to these membrane sodium glucose cotransport systems. The first of these membrane transport proteins was named SGLT1 followed by the discovery of SGLT2. Robert Krane also played a prominent role in this field.


title: Active transport

text: Specialized transmembrane proteins recognize the substance and allow it to move across the membrane when it otherwise would not, either because the phospholipid bilayer of the membrane is impermeable to the substance moved or because the substance is moved against the direction of its concentration gradient. There are two forms of active transport, primary active transport and secondary active transport. In primary active transport, the proteins involved are pumps that normally use chemical energy in the form of ATP. Secondary active transport, however, makes use of potential energy, which is usually derived through exploitation of an electrochemical gradient. The energy created from one ion moving down its electrochemical gradient is used to power the transport of another ion moving against its electrochemical gradient. This involves pore-forming proteins that form channels across the cell membrane. The difference between passive transport and active transport is that the active transport requires energy, and moves substances against their respective concentration gradient, whereas passive transport requires no cellular energy and moves substances in the direction of their respective concentration gradient.


title: Active transport

text: In an antiporter, one substrate is transported in one direction across the membrane while another is cotransported in the opposite direction. In a symporter, two substrates are transported in the same direction across the membrane. Antiport and symport processes are associated with secondary active transport, meaning that one of the two substances is transported against its concentration gradient, utilizing the energy derived from the transport of another ion (mostly Na, K or H ions) down its concentration gradient.


title: Active transport

text: If substrate molecules are moving from areas of lower concentration to areas of higher concentration (i.e., in the opposite direction as, or "against" the concentration gradient), specific transmembrane carrier proteins are required. These proteins have receptors that bind to specific molecules (e.g., glucose) and transport them across the cell membrane. Because energy is required in this process, it is known as 'active' transport. Examples of active transport include the transportation of sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell by the sodium-potassium pump. Active transport often takes place in the internal lining of the small intestine.


title: Active transport

text: Plants need to absorb mineral salts from the soil or other sources, but these salts exist in very dilute solution. Active transport enables these cells to take up salts from this dilute solution against the direction of the concentration gradient. For example, chloride (Cl) and nitrate (NO) ions exist in the cytosol of plant cells, and need to be transported into the vacuole. While the vacuole has channels for these ions, transportation of them is against the concentration gradient, and thus movement of these ions is driven by hydrogen pumps, or proton pumps.


title: Active transport

text: Primary active transport, also called direct active transport, directly uses metabolic energy to transport molecules across a membrane. Substances that are transported across the cell membrane by primary active transport include metal ions, such as Na, K, Mg, and Ca. These charged particles require ion pumps or ion channels to cross membranes and distribute through the body.


title: Active transport

text: Most of the enzymes that perform this type of transport are transmembrane ATPases. A primary ATPase universal to all animal life is the sodium-potassium pump, which helps to maintain the cell potential. The sodium-potassium pump maintains the membrane potential by moving three Na ions out of the cell for every two K ions moved into the cell. Other sources of energy for primary active transport are redox energy and photon energy (light). An example of primary active transport using redox energy is the mitochondrial electron transport chain that uses the reduction energy of NADH to move protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane against their concentration gradient. An example of primary active transport using light energy are the proteins involved in photosynthesis that use the energy of photons to create a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane and also to create reduction power in the form of NADPH.


title: Active transport

text: ATP hydrolysis is used to transport hydrogen ions against the electrochemical gradient (from low to high hydrogen ion concentration). Phosphorylation of the carrier protein and the binding of a hydrogen ion induce a conformational (shape) change that drives the hydrogen ions to transport against the electrochemical gradient. Hydrolysis of the bound phosphate group and release of hydrogen ion then restores the carrier to its original conformation.


title: Active transport

text: Adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette transporters (ABC transporters) comprise a large and diverse protein family, often functioning as ATP-driven pumps. Usually, there are several domains involved in the overall transporter protein's structure, including two nucleotide-binding domains that constitute the ATP-binding motif and two hydrophobic transmembrane domains that create the "pore" component. In broad terms, ABC transporters are involved in the import or export of molecules across a cell membrane; yet within the protein family there is an extensive range of function.


title: Active transport

text: In plants, ABC transporters are often found within cell and organelle membranes, such as the mitochondria, chloroplast, and plasma membrane. There is evidence to support that plant ABC transporters play a direct role in pathogen response, phytohormone transport, and detoxification. Furthermore, certain plant ABC transporters may function in actively exporting volatile compounds and antimicrobial metabolites.


title: Active transport

text: In petunia flowers ("Petunia hybrida"), the ABC transporter PhABCG1 is involved in the active transport of volatile organic compounds. PhABCG1 is expressed in the petals of open flowers. In general, volatile compounds may promote the attraction of seed-dispersal organisms and pollinators, as well as aid in defense, signaling, allelopathy, and protection. To study the protein PhABCG1, transgenic petunia RNA interference lines were created with decreased "PhABCG1" expression levels. In these transgenic lines, a decrease in emission of volatile compounds was observed. Thus, PhABCG1 is likely involved in the export of volatile compounds. Subsequent experiments involved incubating control and transgenic lines that expressed "PhABCG1" to test for transport activity involving different substrates. Ultimately, PhABCG1 is responsible for the protein-mediated transport of volatile organic compounds, such as benzyl alcohol and methylbenzoate, across the plasma membrane.


title: Active transport

text: Additionally in plants, ABC transporters may be involved in the transport of cellular metabolites. Pleiotropic Drug Resistance ABC transporters are hypothesized to be involved in stress response and export antimicrobial metabolites. One example of this type of ABC transporter is the protein NtPDR1. This unique ABC transporter is found in "Nicotiana tabacum" BY2 cells and is expressed in the presence of microbial elicitors. NtPDR1 is localized in the root epidermis and aerial trichomes of the plant. Experiments using antibodies specifically targeting NtPDR1 followed by Western blotting allowed for this determination of localization. Furthermore, it is likely that the protein NtPDR1 actively transports out antimicrobial diterpene molecules, which are toxic to the cell at high levels.


title: Active transport

text: In secondary active transport, also known as cotransport or coupled transport, energy is used to transport molecules across a membrane; however, in contrast to primary active transport, there is no direct coupling of ATP. Instead, it relies upon the electrochemical potential difference created by pumping ions in/out of the cell. Permitting one ion or molecule to move down an electrochemical gradient, but possibly against the concentration gradient where it is more concentrated to that where it is less concentrated, increases entropy and can serve as a source of energy for metabolism (e.g. in ATP synthase). The energy derived from the pumping of protons across a cell membrane is frequently used as the energy source in secondary active transport. In humans, sodium (Na) is a commonly cotransported ion across the plasma membrane, whose electrochemical gradient is then used to power the active transport of a second ion or molecule against its gradient. In bacteria and small yeast cells, a commonly cotransported ion is hydrogen. Hydrogen pumps are also used to create an electrochemical gradient to carry out processes within cells such as in the electron transport chain, an important function of cellular respiration that happens in the mitochondrion of the cell.


title: Active transport

text: In August 1960, in Prague, Robert K. Crane presented for the first time his discovery of the sodium-glucose cotransport as the mechanism for intestinal glucose absorption. Crane's discovery of cotransport was the first ever proposal of flux coupling in biology.


title: Active transport

text: Cotransporters can be classified as symporters and antiporters depending on whether the substances move in the same or opposite directions.


title: Active transport

text: In an antiporter two species of ions or other solutes are pumped in opposite directions across a membrane. One of these species is allowed to flow from high to low concentration, which yields the entropic energy to drive the transport of the other solute from a low concentration region to a high one.


title: Active transport

text: An example is the sodium-calcium exchanger or antiporter, which allows three sodium ions into the cell to transport one calcium out. This antiporter mechanism is important within the membranes of cardiac muscle cells in order to keep the calcium concentration in the cytoplasm low. Many cells also possess calcium ATPases, which can operate at lower intracellular concentrations of calcium and sets the normal or resting concentration of this important second messenger. But the ATPase exports calcium ions more slowly: only 30 per second versus 2000 per second by the exchanger. The exchanger comes into service when the calcium concentration rises steeply or "spikes" and enables rapid recovery. This shows that a single type of ion can be transported by several enzymes, which need not be active all the time (constitutively), but may exist to meet specific, intermittent needs.


title: Active transport

text: A symporter uses the downhill movement of one solute species from high to low concentration to move another molecule uphill from low concentration to high concentration (against its concentration gradient). Both molecules are transported in the same direction.


title: Active transport

text: An example is the glucose symporter SGLT1, which co-transports one glucose (or galactose) molecule into the cell for every two sodium ions it imports into the cell. This symporter is located in the small intestines, heart, and brain. It is also located in the S3 segment of the proximal tubule in each nephron in the kidneys. Its mechanism is exploited in glucose rehydration therapy This mechanism uses the absorption of sugar through the walls of the intestine to pull water in along with it. Defects in SGLT2 prevent effective reabsorption of glucose, causing familial renal glucosuria.


title: Active transport

text: Endocytosis and exocytosis are both forms of bulk transport that move materials into and out of cells, respectively, via vesicles. In the case of endocytosis, the cellular membrane folds around the desired materials outside the cell. The ingested particle becomes trapped within a pouch, known as a vesicle, inside the cytoplasm. Often enzymes from lysosomes are then used to digest the molecules absorbed by this process. Substances that enter the cell via signal mediated electrolysis include proteins, hormones and growth and stabilization factors. Viruses enter cells through a form of endocytosis that involves their outer membrane fusing with the membrane of the cell. This forces the viral DNA into the host cell.


title: Active transport

text: Exocytosis involves the removal of substances through the fusion of the outer cell membrane and a vesicle membrane. An example of exocytosis would be the transmission of neurotransmitters across a synapse between brain cells.


title: Mazda 787B

text: The Mazda 787 and its derivative 787B are Group C sports prototype racing cars that were developed by Japanese automobile manufacturer Mazda for use in the World Sportscar Championship, All Japan Sports Prototype Championship, and the 24 Hours of Le Mans from 1990 to 1991. Designed to combine a mixture of the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile (FISA) Group C regulations with the International Motor Sports Association (IMSA) GTP regulations, the 787s were the last Wankel rotary-powered racing cars to compete in the World and Japanese championships, using Mazda's R26B engine.


title: Mazda 787B

text: Although the 787 and 787B lacked the single lap pace of World Championship competitors such as Mercedes-Benz, Jaguar, and Porsche, as well as Japanese Championship competitors Nissan and Toyota, the 787s had reliability that allowed them to contend for their respective championships. The reliability of the cars eventually paid off in 1991 when a 787B driven by Johnny Herbert, Volker Weidler, and Bertrand Gachot went on to victory in the 1991 24 Hours of Le Mans. As of 2021, this remains the only victory by a car not using a reciprocating engine design. It was the first victory by a Japanese manufacturer, and the only such victory until Toyota won the 2018 24 Hours of Le Mans.


title: Mazda 787B

text: The initial design of the 787 was an evolution of the 767 and 767B designs that had been used by Mazda in 1988 and 1989. The 787 name was used instead of 777 to indicate a two-step improvement over the 767, and possibly over pronunciation difficulties of 777 in Japanese. Many mechanical elements of the 767 were carried over by Nigel Stroud when he designed the 787, but with some notable exceptions. Foremost was the replacement of the 767's 13J Wankel rotary engine. In its place, the brand new R26B was installed. The custom-built R26B featured a nearly identical layout and displacement, but included new design elements such as continuously variable intakes and three spark plugs per rotor instead of the 13J's two along with carbon fibre apex seals and variable length trumpets. This allowed for a maximum power output of , which was limited to 700 hp during the race for longevity. Porsche's five-speed gearbox manufactured by Porsche was retained.


title: Mazda 787B

text: Other modifications made to the 787's design included a relocation of the radiators. Initially placed beside the cockpit on the 767, a new single radiator was integrated into the nose of the 787. Air moved from the blunt nose of the car underneath the bodywork and through the radiator before exiting in front of the windshield. A Gurney flap was located at the radiator exit to increase front-end downforce. This new radiator location also meant a redesign of the doors of the car, where the old radiator design had been located. The intake in front of the door and exit behind were no longer necessary and were thus not included, giving the 787 a smoother bodywork design on top. To aid in rear engine and brake cooling, intakes were placed on the side bodywork, immediately above the exhaust cooling vents.


title: Mazda 787B

text: As before, Stroud's monocoque design was built from carbon and kevlar by Advanced Composite Technology in the United Kingdom. Carbon fiber body panels were affixed to the two initial chassis that were built in 1990.


title: Mazda 787B

text: Following the 1990 season, Mazda continued development of the 787 chassis in order to make improvements on its pace and reliability. One major development was the intake system for the rotary engine. In the past, Mazda had developed variable-length telescopic intake runners to optimize engine power and torque for varying RPM levels. For 1991, the system became continuously variable, rather than previous versions that had steps for different engine ranges. This resulted in an increased torque of at 6,500 rpm. The 787B's onboard ECU controlled the action of the telescopic intake. Another main improvement was the change in suspension geometry which allowed for larger wheels to be fitted along with carbon ceramic brakes, a first for a Mazda racing car.


title: Mazda 787B

text: The engineers at Mazdaspeed determined that fuel efficiency was crucial for achieving victory so they restricted the redline of the engine to 8,500 rpm thus reducing the power output to . Emphasis was put on high cornering speeds rather than attaining high top speeds at the straight sections of the track. Jacky Ickx was appointed as an advisor to guide the team in preparing the car.


title: Mazda 787B

text: Three new 787Bs were built for 1991, while the two existing 787s were also upgraded with the new intakes. For Le Mans, two 787Bs were entered along with a 787 in the C2 class which were subject to greater restrictions than the newly introduced C1 class in which the cars were fitted with 3.5-litre Formula One inspired naturally aspirated engines. The third car was built primarily to replace the Le Mans winning car in competition but it retired in 1992 with no notable success.


title: Mazda 787B

text: The first 787 chassis made its competition debut in April 1990, at the second round of the All Japan Sports Prototype Championship (JSPC) season. For the Inter Challenge Fuji 1000 km, Mazdaspeed entered their 787 alongside an older 767B chassis, with Yoshimi Katayama, David Kennedy, and Pierre Dieudonné in the new car. After Fuji, the second 787 chassis was completed, and the team departed for Europe to prepare for Le Mans. Tests were performed at the Silverstone Circuit in Great Britain and Autódromo do Estoril in Portugal to prepare the car's setups and test its endurance. A total of were completed over the tests.


title: Mazda 787B

text: Former Le Mans-winner Jacky Ickx was hired by Mazdaspeed in order to prepare the two 787s, as well as an older 767B, for the race. Driver Stefan Johansson joined Kennedy and Dieudonné in the first car, and Bertrand Gachot, Volker Weidler and Johnny Herbert were hired for the second entry. The all-Japanese line-up of Katayama, Yojiro Terada and Takashi Yorino remained in the 767B. In qualifying the new 787s set the 22nd and 23rd fastest lap times, ahead of the 767B's 34th fastest time.


title: Mazda 787B

text: The two 787s ran reliably for much of the race, lasting through the night until problems were encountered in the early hours of Sunday morning. While leading their GTP class, an oil leak on the No. 201 entry for Kennedy, Dieudonné, and Johansson forced the team to retire the car. Two hours later, the No. 202 787 was also retired after an electrical failure and fire. Heat from the engine was blamed for both failures. The 767B, the only car remaining in its class, survived until the end of the race and finished 20th.


title: Mazda 787B

text: After Le Mans, Mazdaspeed withdrew the remaining 767B from competition. Two 787s were entered for the rest of the JSPC season with the Japanese trio of drivers in one entry and Kennedy and Dieudonné remaining in the other. Returning to Fuji, the 787s earned fifth and tenth-place finishes in a 500 km event, although the fifth-place finisher was later disqualified due to a fuel cell that was too large. Tenth place was again earned at the 1000 km of Suzuka, although the all-Japanese entry retired after an engine failure. A similar result occurred at Sugo, except it was the Japanese squad that finished eleventh while the international squad had an engine failure.


title: Mazda 787B

text: For the last event of the season, the 1000 km of Fuji, Mazdaspeed entered the two 787s and a 767B, brought out of retirement. It finished sixth: one 787 was seventh and the other retired following a transmission failure. Mazdaspeed's Yoshimi Katayama earned 25th in the drivers' championship, and Mazda was fourth in the constructors' championship.


title: Mazda 787B

text: For the 1991 season, Mazda expanded their efforts with the 787. Two cars were assigned to the JSPC series, while a third car ran the full Sportscar World Championship season for the first time, with drivers David Kennedy, Maurizio Sandro Sala, and Pierre Dieudonné assigned to the team. The French Oreca team were put in charge of the world championship campaign. Oreca and team consultant Jacky Ickx were able to persuade FISA that the 787s should be allowed to run with less weight than their competitors, leading to FISA allowing the team to run the cars at rather than the standard required for the C2 class.


title: Mazda 787B

text: Unlike the JSPC series, FISA had begun to integrate regulations for a new engine formula in the world championship, which required all teams to use 3,500 cc engines by 1992. Cars that met these regulations in 1991 became the top C1 class, while cars with other engines, including the 787, were reclassified as C2. The C2 class cars also retained the fuel consumption formula that group C had been founded on, while C1 cars no longer required it. This meant that Mazda now had to fight for class wins within their new class. In the JSPC, however, Mazda's 787s remained in the GTP class, as the sole competitors in the category.


title: Mazda 787B

text: The year started in Japan, with Mazdaspeed entering two older 787s while the new 787Bs were being finalised. Both cars suffered problems and were uncompetitive. Attention then turned to the Suzuka Circuit, where the début race of the world championship season was being run. The first new 787B chassis arrived alongside an older 787. The newer car, with Sandro Sala and Kennedy, out-qualified the older chassis driven by the all Japanese squad by only an eighth of a second, but the 787B was able to outlast several other competitors and finish in sixth overall, fourth in the C2 class, and earning Mazda points in the championship.


title: Mazda 787B

text: The 787B was retained in Japan while the European squad turned to Monza with an older 787. Yojiro Terada and Takashi Yorino earned the new 787B another sixth-place finish at the 1000 km of Fuji, while the European team finished seventh at Monza on the same day. A poor race at Silverstone added no points to Mazda's world championship total before the team concentrated on Le Mans.


title: Mazda 787B

text: Following the team's Le Mans victory, Mazdaspeed returned to Fuji once more with a 787B, and improved their season results with a fourth-place finish followed by another sixth at Suzuka. A third 787B was completed by October, and the two cars finished in third and fourth places at the second 1000 km of Fuji. To end the season, the team finished in sixth at Sportsland SUGO, earning Mazda fourth in the constructors' championship, and Takashi Yorino fourteenth in the drivers' championship.


title: Mazda 787B

text: The European squad meanwhile continued to use the older 787, finishing in fifth at the Nürburgring and seventh at Magny-Cours. The championship then flew to Mexico City where Mazda finished ninth, before the season ended back in Japan. The two 787Bs of the Japanese squad replaced the older 787, and the two cars finished in ninth and tenth places. Mazdaspeed finished fifth in the teams' championship, and Maurizio Sandro Sala earned fifteenth place in the drivers' championship.


title: Mazda 787B

text: The 59th 24 Hours of Le Mans, round four of the World Sportscar Championship, was the first time the race took place at the entirely new pit complex much to the pleasure of pit crews and drivers, after several years of having to use the notoriously cramped area, which became associated with the film "Le Mans".


title: Mazda 787B

text: Mazdaspeed entered three cars and a spare. One of them was a 787 from the previous year, numbered 56, driven by Dieudonné, Yorino and Terada and two brand new 787B's. One of them was driven by Maurizio Sandro Sala who replaced the newly retired Katayama, Johansson and Kennedy No. 18 (001) and the No. 55 (002) car of Weidler, Herbert and Gachot making its only appearance in its sole race.


title: Mazda 787B

text: Unlike the other two cars that were painted in their standard blue stripes on white livery, No. 55 had an outrageous bright orange and green scheme in honour of a main sponsor, Renown, a Japanese clothing manufacturer that had been supporting the team since 1988 by providing all their clothing for the events.


title: Mazda 787B

text: Mazda was not the favourite to win, but the three Mazdas started 19th (No. 55), 23rd (No. 18) and 30th (No. 56), despite being the 12th, 17th and 24th fastest qualifiers respectively. The new 3.5 litre cars were given the first grid positions, moving everyone else back by seven places. On the day before the race, team manager Ohashi decided to drop his usual conservative strategy and instructed the drivers of the No. 55 car to drive as if it were a short sprint race.


title: Mazda 787B

text: The decision was made based on the reliability of the cars demonstrated in the Paul Ricard tests, as well as the car's exceptional fuel economy, which meant that the carefully learned driving techniques intended to preserve the fuel allowance were no longer a critical part of the team's strategy.


title: Mazda 787B

text: In the early stages of the race, the No. 55 car made its way to third place with the No. 18 car behind it two laps down. The No. 18 had a lower gear ratio setup meaning the car used less fuel but was slower. The No. 55 moved into second place when the Mercedes-Benz C11 of Michael Schumacher, Fritz Kreutzpointner and Karl Wendlinger spun off and later pitted with a gearbox problem. It soon became obvious that the leading car had slowed down to preserve its fuel allowance and an air of disbelief spread around the Mazda pit as it became obvious with six hours to run that there was a chance of victory.


title: Mazda 787B

text: At the 22nd hour, the No. 55 car took the lead after the C11 of Alain Ferté was forced to pit with mechanical problems. At the last pit-stop, Herbert asked to stay in the car, and went on to take the 787B across the finish line first, completing 362 laps and covering 4,932.2 km (both new records for the recently modified circuit). The two other cars finished sixth (No. 18) and eighth (No. 56). Three Jaguar XJR-12s and a sole Mercedes filled out positions two through five.


title: Mazda 787B

text: Herbert was so dehydrated that he had to be assisted out of the car and taken to the circuit's medical centre. As a result, he was unable to make it to the podium, leaving Weidler and Gachot to take up the celebrations. He later commented in a magazine interview that some “dodgy” spaghetti he ate before his shift was the cause.


title: Mazda 787B

text: The winning car ran without a hitch apart from a blown headlamp bulb and a precautionary rear wheel bearing change on the driver's side of the car, when a regular check during a pit-stop showed it to be overheating slightly. The victory was a major success for Mazda after several years of poor results.


title: Mazda 787B

text: After Le Mans, the winning car (787B-002) was retired from duty while the other two cars (787B-001 and new 787B-003) continued to race. Mazda would go on to finish fourth and fifth in the Japanese and world championship respectively, with a season high (besides Le Mans) third in the 1000 km Fuji race (a JSPC race). As Mazda used different drivers throughout the season, none of their drivers finished in the top 10 in points.


title: Mazda 787B

text: After the 1991 24 Hours of Le Mans, the 787B would compete once more at the last race of the season, the 1991 430 km of Autopolis (finishing 9th and 10th). At the end of the season, the Group C series was replaced by the 3.5-litre World Sports Championship and therefore Wankel-type rotary engines would no longer be allowed to run as they were outlawed and, as per Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile's earlier decision, 3.5-litre engines similar to those used in Formula One became the new formula for the 1992 season. The following year, Mazda entered the MXR-01, based on the Jaguar XJR-14 and powered by a Judd unit, without much success (placed fourth at Le Mans in 1992).


title: Mazda 787B

text: Despite the Le Mans success of the 787B and its Wankel powerplant, Mazda did not exploit its historic victory through marketing campaigns and advertising. It partially improved sales for Mazda's road cars, however. In the United Kingdom, Mazda would introduce a special edition of its MX-5 with the racing colour and also a BBR (Brodie Brittain Racing) turbo conversion; only 24 were produced and the car is one of the most sought after special edition cars of its model. Long a proponent of the rotary engine, Mazda maintained a rotary-engine road car for many years, though sales of the RX-7 were stopped in North America after the 1995 model year (with Japanese-market production ending in 2002) until the introduction of the 2003 RX-8. The RX-8 utilized a new generation of the Mazda Wankel engine, dubbed "Renesis", which uses side intake and exhaust ports.


title: Mazda 787B

text: 787B was displayed at the for 20 years, but the car has been returned to Mazda Headquarters as of November 18, 2015.


title: Mazda 787B

text: Of the winning drivers, Herbert would have a successful career in Formula One, notching three wins before leaving the championship in 2000 and returning to sportscar racing. Gachot would go on to drive for Jordan Grand Prix in 1991 before being given an eighteen-month prison sentence in August 1991 for a CS gas attack on a taxi driver in London; his place for the Belgian Grand Prix was famously filled by then-newcomer Michael Schumacher. He was released after two months and achieved minor successes before retiring altogether. Weidler would compete in the Japanese Formula 3000 championship, only to have his career cut short when he was diagnosed with tinnitus. It was recommended he should take time off to allow for an operation but he chose to retire from the sport and handed his seat over to Heinz-Harald Frentzen. Of the non-winning drivers, Dieudonné would later hang up his helmet and become sporting director at Oreca, this time backed by Chrysler to help the Dodge Viper to score class wins at Le Mans by the late nineties and an overall win at the 24 Hours of Daytona in 2000. Terada, a veteran of the race since 1974, continued to run his Autoexe tuning business. He still competed at Le Mans, although without factory backing but showing no signs of retiring. The former F1 driver, Johansson, would return to IndyCar duties frequently competing in the race before returning full-time.


title: Mazda 787B

text: The R26B engine would be used by Mazda in its RX-792P for its premier IMSA GTP category with limited success. The engine continued to be used in the GTS category for the spaceframe FD3S RX-7, which would return to Le Mans in 1994, backed by Mazdaspeed. The livery would return again in 1995 in Jim Downing's rotary-powered Kudzu DG-1, which competed in IMSA's WSC (World Sport Car), a category with different regulations than the FIA. This time they would start the race without the Renown sponsorship and in 1996 in the lower end LMP2 category, which was the last time Mazda used the livery. Mazdaspeed would continue to compete in the race until 1999.


title: Mazda 787B

text: In 2002 Autoexe Motorsport with Yojiro Terada as one of its drivers participated in 24 Hours of Le Mans using a R26B 2.6L four-rotor engine in a modified WR chassis. They did not finish the race, however. In 2005 B-K Motorsports competed a Courage C65 LMP2 prototype in the American Le Mans Series, powered by a Mazda tri-rotor Wankel and painted in a yellow and blue version of the livery worn by the 787B.


title: Mazda 787B

text: Today the car is considered by Mazda and Wankel enthusiasts as one of the most iconic race cars to come out of Japan. The 787B has been celebrated by every major toy and model company in and outside Japan. It is considered as the most popular of the group C cars and has appeared in several video games, such as , Gran Turismo 4, Gran Turismo 5, Gran Turismo 6, Gran Turismo Sport, Gran Turismo 7, Forza Motorsport 5, Forza Motorsport 6, Forza Motorsport 7, Real Racing 3, Assetto Corsa, , and Racing Rivals. Throughout the "Gran Turismo" series, the colour scheme can be seen as a fictitious compilation of various Mazda paint schemes. In 2005, a factory-backed RX-8 used the Renown colours to compete in a 24-hour race at Silverstone.


title: Mazda 787B

text: Mazda keeps the winning car at the Mazda Museum in Hiroshima. At the same time, Mazda produced two replicas and gave one of them to the Le Mans Museum. The car usually makes appearances at the annual Sevenstock shows, and has made two appearances at the Monterey Historics event in 1999 and 2004 and still bears a pair of small oval racing stickers behind the side windows, referring to its appearance at the 1999 Goodwood Festival of Speed, when it was reunited with and driven by Gachot.


title: Mazda 787B

text: After a lengthy restoration, the winning No. 55 787B was demonstrated during the pre-race of the 2011 24 Hours of Le Mans. Winning driver Johnny Herbert took the 787B around the Circuit de La Sarthe for a demonstration lap.


title: Mazda 787B

text: On December 24, 2014, as part of the Gran Turismo 6 Vision Gran Turismo project, Mazda introduced the LM55 Vision Gran Turismo into the game. The LM55 is seen as an homage to Mazda's own 1991 victory at the 24 Hours of Le Mans. At the 2015 Goodwood Festival of Speed, the LM55 and 787B were the focus of that year's monument.


title: Mazda 787B

text: On July 2, 2016, at the annual Sahlen's Six Hours of the Glen, held at Watkins Glen International as leg in the Tequila Patron North American Endurance Cup, Mazda's Prototype team used the 787B livery on their two prototypes in commemoration for the 25th anniversary of Mazda's Le Mans win.


title: Mazda 787B

text: On July 30, 2018, the 787B No. 55 was one of a batch of cars added to the game Gran Turismo Sport as part of a scheduled update, thus keeping the 787B's long streak as part of the Gran Turismo franchise alive. The car's engine sound was slightly updated, along with its interior and its drivers' names, which were corrected.


title: Criminal (2016 film)

text: Criminal is a 2016 American action thriller film directed by Ariel Vromen and written by Douglas Cook and David Weisberg. The film is about a convict who is implanted with a dead CIA agent's memories to finish an assignment. The film stars Kevin Costner, Gary Oldman, and Tommy Lee Jones, in the second collaboration among all three following the 1991 film "JFK". The film also features Alice Eve, Gal Gadot, Michael Pitt, Jordi Mollà, Antje Traue, Scott Adkins, Amaury Nolasco, and Ryan Reynolds.


title: Criminal (2016 film)

text: Principal photography began on September 4, 2014, in London. The film was produced by Campbell-Grobman Films and Millennium Films and was released on April 15, 2016. It received generally negative reviews from critics and was a financial disappointment, grossing $38 million against its $31.5 million budget.


title: Criminal (2016 film)

text: Spanish industrialist-turned-anarchist Xavier Heimdahl arranges for his associate Jan Strook—a hacker known as "the Dutchman"—to create a wormhole program that would allow the owner to bypass all computer codes protecting the world's nuclear defense codes. The Dutchman panics and attempts to hand his secret over to CIA agent Bill Pope. Although Pope gets the Dutchman to a safe house and recovers the money to pay him for his services, he is caught by Heimdahl's men and tortured to death before he can tell anyone where he hid the Dutchman.


title: Criminal (2016 film)

text: Desperate to find the Dutchman, Pope's supervisor Quaker Wells contacts Dr. Micah Franks, who has developed a treatment that could theoretically plant the memory patterns of a dead person onto a living one. Franks requests that they "graft" Pope's knowledge into the brain of convict Jerico Stewart, who received damage in his frontal lobe by being abused as a child and is effectively a sociopath.


title: Criminal (2016 film)

text: After the operation, Jerico escapes custody and fakes his death. He steals a maintenance van and goes to Pope's house, where he holds Pope's widow Jillian hostage while he looks for the money. As time goes on, he experiences memory flashes of Pope's past, but all he can determine is that the bag of money was hidden behind a bookshelf, without identifying where it or the Dutchman is kept.


title: Criminal (2016 film)

text: The CIA learns that the Dutchman is planning to sell the program to the Russians, believing that the CIA has betrayed him. Fortunately, they are able to find Jerico after he contacts Dr. Franks for medication using Pope's CIA codes. Jerico is beginning to develop emotions and draw on Pope's experience. As Jerico attempts to retrace the route Pope took to hide the Dutchman, Heimdahl creates a distraction at the airport that draws Wells' attention, allowing Heimdahl's accomplice and lover Elsa to try and capture Jerico, killing his CIA guards before Jerico escapes by driving a taxi off a bridge.


title: Criminal (2016 film)

text: Jerico retreats to the Pope house, where he encounters Jillian and explains the situation to her. Although she initially fears him, Jillian comes to accept Jerico as she sees him bonding with her daughter, Emma, allowing Jerico to stay the night. The next morning, Jerico realizes through a conversation with Jillian that the bag is hidden in the rare books collection at the University of London where she works. He attempts to retrieve the bag, but he is captured by Heimdahl and Elsa once he has found it. Heimdahl threatens to kill Jillian and Emma unless Jerico takes him to the Dutchman.


title: Criminal (2016 film)

text: With the CIA and a Russian strike team now seeking the Dutchman, Jerico—who has recalled that Pope hid the Dutchman in Jillian's office at the university—is able to escape Elsa using an improvised nitro-glycerine bomb, returning to the office to provide a hurried explanation to the Dutchman. Elsa finds them before they can escape, shooting Jerico in the shoulder and killing the Dutchman, but Jerico gets the upper hand and bludgeons her to death with a lamp.


title: Criminal (2016 film)

text: Jerico steals an ambulance and takes the flash drive containing the wormhole program to the airfield where Heimdahl is attempting an escape. Jerico saves Jillian and Emma, even as Heimdahl shoots him. As Heimdahl's plane takes off, Jerico reveals to Wells that he had the Dutchman reprogram the wormhole so that it would target the source of the next transmission. This results in Heimdahl unwittingly destroying his own plane when he tries to fire a missile at the airfield.


title: Criminal (2016 film)

text: A few months later, Jerico is shown on the beach where Pope and Jillian had their honeymoon. He is initially unresponsive to anything but automatic reflexes and responses. With all other options exhausted, Wells and Franks take Jillian and Emma to see him. The sight of Pope's family confirms that some part of Pope exists in Jerico as he responds with a nose-tap. This was Pope and Jillian's way of saying "I love you". Witnessing this, Quaker reflects that he will offer Jerico a job.


title: Criminal (2016 film)

text: On June 20, 2013, it was announced that Millennium Films had acquired the script for "Criminal", written by Douglas Cook and David Weisberg, an action film in which a dead CIA operative's memories, secrets, and skills are implanted into a dangerous criminal, who is sent on a government mission. J.C. Spink, Chris Bender, Matt O'Toole and Mark Gill were initially announced as producers, with Boaz Davidson later joining the production. On September 13, Millennium set Ariel Vromen to direct the film.


title: Criminal (2016 film)

text: On June 17, 2014, Kevin Costner was cast to play a dangerous criminal with a dead CIA operative's skills, secrets, and memories implanted into him to finish a job. On July 10, Gary Oldman was in talks to join the film to play the CIA chief. On July 23, Tommy Lee Jones joined the film to play a neuroscientist who transplants the memories to the criminal, while Oldman's role was also confirmed. On August 4, Ryan Reynolds was added to the cast. On August 7, Alice Eve joined the cast. On August 11, Jordi Mollà joined the film in the villain role of Hagbardaka Heimdahl, who wants the dead CIA agent's secrets now implanted in the criminal's brain. On August 12, Gal Gadot signed on to star in the film as Reynolds' character's wife. On September 26, Antje Traue joined the film to play the villain's accomplice.


title: Criminal (2016 film)

text: Principal photography on the film began on September 4, 2014, in London. Some actors and crews were also spotted filming scenes for the film on King's Road in Kingston. From September 22–25, filming was taking place in Yateley, Hampshire, where actors were spotted filming car crashes and helicopter chase scenes at the Blackbushe Airport. Filming was also done in Croydon College in Croydon, with the college building used as medical research labs and the CIA operations centre. In October 2014, Connect 2 Cleanrooms installed a cleanroom in Surrey Quays Road, London, for the scene where Tommy Lee Jones' character operates on Kevin Costner's. On October 23, aerial drone filming was undertaken featuring Costner in a car chase scene on White's Row in East London. Some filming also took place at the SOAS University of London library. Filming also took place at Pinewood Studios.


title: Criminal (2016 film)

text: On December 9, 2014, it was announced that Haim Mazar had signed on to compose the music of the film. However, on June 10, 2015, according to "Film Music Reporter", it was announced that Brian Tyler and Keith Power had taken over scoring duties on the film, replacing Mazar.


title: Criminal (2016 film)

text: The film was to be released on January 22, 2016 in the United States, but in August 2015 the release was pushed back to April 15, 2016.


title: Criminal (2016 film)

text: "Criminal" grossed $14.7 million in the United States and Canada, and $24.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $38.8 million.


title: Criminal (2016 film)

text: In the United States and Canada, the film was released alongside "The Jungle Book" and "", and was projected gross $9–12 million from 2,683 theaters in its opening weekend. The film ended up grossing just $5.8 million in its opening weekend, below expectations and the among the worst wide-release openings of Costner's career, finishing 6th at the box office.


title: Criminal (2016 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 30% based on 138 reviews, with an average rating of 4.41/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "Despite the valiant efforts of a game and talented cast, "Criminal" has little to offer beyond the bare minimum expected by the most undemanding of genre enthusiasts." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 36 out of 100, based on 27 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Criminal (2016 film)

text: In his review, "Empire" magazine's John Nugent wrote: "We can but pray that scientists invent a procedure to remove the memory of ever watching this film in the first place," and awarded the film 1 star out of 5. Writing for "The Telegraph", Tim Robey called it "wanton, low-down entertainment" and awarded it 2 stars out of 5. BBC film critic Mark Kermode placed it in fifth place in his mid-year list of the Worst Films of 2016.


title: AirBaltic

text: airBaltic, legally incorporated as AS Air Baltic Corporation, is the flag carrier of Latvia, with its head office on the grounds of Riga International Airport in Mārupe municipality near Riga. Its main hub is Riga, and it operates bases in Tallinn, Vilnius and Tampere.


title: AirBaltic

text: Baltic International Airlines (BIA) was a Latvian and US joint venture company owned by SIA Baltic International Airlines whose main airport was Riga International Airport . It was founded in June 1992, after the US-based private company Baltic International USA (BIUSA) failed to buy a part of the state-owned Latvian national airline Latavio. In the joint venture, the Latvian government owned 60%, while BIUSA owned 40% of the property. After unsuccessful privatization attempts, Latavio was declared insolvent from October 1995. It was liquidated and the Latvian government together with the Latvian-US joint stock company Baltic International Airlines created a new national airline airBaltic.


title: AirBaltic

text: The airline was established as Air Baltic on 28 August 1995 with the signing of a joint venture between Scandinavian Airlines (SAS) and the Latvian state. Operations started on 1 October 1995 with the arrival of the first Air Baltic aircraft, a Saab 340, at Riga, and that afternoon, the plane made the first passenger flight for Air Baltic.


title: AirBaltic

text: In 1996, the airline's first Avro RJ70 was delivered; and Air Baltic joined the SAS frequent flier club as a partner. 1997 saw the opening of a cargo department and, in 1998, the airline's first Fokker 50 plane was delivered. The adopted livery was mainly white, with the name of the airline written in blue on the forward fuselage, the 'B' logo being heavily stylized in blue checks. The checker blue pattern was repeated on the aircraft tailfin.


title: AirBaltic

text: In 1999, airBaltic became a joint stock company; it was previously a limited liability company. All of their Saab 340s were replaced by Fokker 50s. By September, the airline had begun operating under the European Aviation Operating Standards, or JAR ops. Air Baltic welcomed the new millennium by introducing new uniforms and opening a cargo centre at Riga's airport.


title: AirBaltic

text: The first Boeing 737-500 joined the fleet in 2003, and on 1 June 2004, Air Baltic launched services from the Lithuanian capital, Vilnius, initially to five destinations. In October 2004, Air Baltic was rebranded as AirBaltic. Their present livery consists of an all-white fuselage and lime tailfin. AirBaltic.com is displayed on the forward upper fuselage, and the word "Baltic" is repeated in blue on the lower part of the tailfin. In December 2006, the first Boeing 737-300 joined the fleet and was configured with winglets. In July 2007, AirBaltic introduced an online check-in system. It was the first online check-in system in the Baltic states. In the spring of 2008, two long-haul Boeing 757s joined the existing AirBaltic fleet. On 10 March 2008, it was announced that in the next three years the airline would acquire new aircraft, experiencing the largest fleet expansion in the company's history. The new additions will be next generation De Havilland Dash 8-400 aircraft.


title: AirBaltic

text: AirBaltic had strong links with SAS, which owned 47.2% of the airline, and operated frequent flights to SAS hubs in Copenhagen, Oslo and Stockholm. Some of AirBaltic's products and services are still shared with SAS, including co-ordinated timetabling and shared airport lounges. AirBaltic is not a member of any airline alliance but does have codeshare agreements in place with several Star Alliance member airlines and others.


title: AirBaltic

text: AirBaltic had secondary hubs at Vilnius Airport and Tallinn Airport. The majority of the routes commenced from Tallinn were cancelled shortly after opening, leading to complaints from the Estonian Consumer Protection Department.


title: AirBaltic

text: In January 2009, SAS sold its entire stake in the company (47.2% of the airline) to Baltijas aviācijas sistēmas Ltd (BAS) for 14 million lats. BAS was wholly owned by Bertolt Flick (President and CEO) until December 2010, when 50% of BAS shares were transferred to Taurus Asset Management Fund Limited, registered in the Bahamas.


title: AirBaltic

text: In August 2011, AirBaltic requested more than 60 million lats in capital as its losses continued to mount, and suffered speculation about its financial position and political scandals throughout 2011. In mid-September 2011, the company announced plans to lay off around half its employees and cancel around 700 flights a month to avoid possible grounding. The company also announced that a mystery investor was willing to pay 9.6 million euros for an additional 59,110 shares. On 4 October 2011, the plans were annulled in order to make the necessary investments in the airline's capital. The government of Latvia and BAS agreed to invest around 100 million lats in the airline's share capital in proportion to their stakes in AirBaltic. In connection with the agreement, Flick stepped down as long-term President and CEO of the airline. Martin Gauss, former CEO of Hungarian airline Malév, became the new CEO.


title: AirBaltic

text: AirBaltic had made an announcement on 23 September 2010 that it would establish a new secondary hub at Oulu Airport, but in early 2012 it was confirmed that the Oulu hub plans had been cancelled due to AirBaltic's financial problems.


title: AirBaltic

text: The cost-cutting program, initiated by AirBaltic which aims to return to profitability in 2014, scored better than planned results in 2012, by narrowing its losses to €27.2 million, from €121.5 in 2011.


title: AirBaltic

text: The state's shareholding had been 99.8% since 30 November 2011, following the collapse of a bank linked with a finance package negotiated for the airline, but on 6 November 2015 it was reported that the Latvian Cabinet of Ministers had approved plans to sell 20% of airBaltic to German investor Ralf Dieter Montag-Girmes for €52 million and agreed to invest a further €80 million in the airline. The total of €132 million of fresh capital for the carrier is intended to spur its Horizon 2021 business plan and fleet modernisation. Following the closure of Air Lituanica and Estonian Air respectively in June and November 2015, it is alongside Nordica, one of two flag carriers in the Baltic countries.


title: AirBaltic

text: The Bombardier CS300 delivery was much anticipated by airBaltic since this new aircraft type was originally planned to replace most of the airline's Boeing 737-300s and Boeing 737-500s and now will replace all by 2020. The delivery of the CS300 happened on 29 November 2016, at 2 am ET. On 28 November, Bombardier and airBaltic held a ceremony in Mirabel, Quebec, Canada for the first delivery of the CS300. At 1:30 am, shortly before the scheduled departure, an oil leak from an engine was spotted. It delayed the departure, but at 2:23 am ET, the aircraft was now airBaltic's property. On board the inaugural flight, there were 18 people, including 6 pilots: 3 from Bombardier, and 3 from airBaltic. At 4:13 am ET, after a delay of over 2 hours, flight BT9801 took off en route to Stockholm. The airline received two CS300 in 2016 and expects to receive six in 2017, eight in 2018 and four more in 2020.


title: AirBaltic

text: AirBaltic was looking for opportunities to replace its Q400 turboprop fleet, and Bombardier and Embraer were viewed as potential future aircraft suppliers, with possible deliveries of 14 new aircraft beginning in 2020.


title: AirBaltic

text: On 26 September 2017, AirBaltic announced it would buy at least 14 additional CSeries aircraft from Bombardier before the end of 2018; it planned to switch to an all-CSeries fleet by the early 2020s. Additional orders by AirBaltic were announced by Bombardier on 28 May 2018 and included 30 CS300 with options and purchase rights for a further 30 CS300. Airbus purchased a 50.01% majority stake in the CSeries program in October 2017, with the deal closing in July 2018; the aircraft family was subsequently renamed the Airbus A220.


title: AirBaltic

text: AirBaltic temporarily suspended operations on 17 March 2020 due to the coronavirus pandemic, and flights only restarted on a limited basis from 18 May 2020.


title: AirBaltic

text: On 14 December 2021, AirBaltic announced that its first secondary hub outside of the Baltic countries will be founded in Tampere Airport in May 2022.


title: AirBaltic

text: In October 2022, AirBaltic launched a NFT collection with benefits for the airBaltic Club loyalty programme.


title: AirBaltic

text: The airline's full accounts have not always been published regularly; figures disclosed by AirBaltic via various publications are shown below (for years ending 31 December):


title: AirBaltic

text: airBaltic operates direct year-round and seasonal short-haul flights from Riga, Tallinn and Vilnius, mostly to metropolitan and leisure destinations within Europe. Though they do not operate long-haul flights, they codeshare with partners in all three airline alliances to allow through-ticketed long-haul flights.


title: AirBaltic

text: The original livery was painted on Avro RJ70s and had a white fuselage. The original airBaltic colour scheme, blue and white, was painted on the engines and the vertical stabiliser. The second-generation livery also had a lime green wingtip and vertical stabiliser; however the logo was changed to airBaltic.com and the word airBaltic was painted on the engines, which were in their original metallic colour.


title: AirBaltic

text: Until December 2019, the livery consisted of a white fuselage and lime green vertical stabiliser, wingtips and engines. In December 2019, the rear fuselage below the vertical stabilizer was also painted in lime green, with the tail cone remained white. The logo, stylised 'airBaltic', is painted in dark blue on the fuselage across the windows and on the underside of the aircraft. This livery is mainly used on A220s.


title: AirBaltic

text: In order to represent the three Baltic states, three of the A220s have been painted in a series of national flag liveries - one each for Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania.


title: AirBaltic

text: The airline's frequent flyer programme is called airBaltic Club. Travellers can earn 'pins' and collect stamps while travelling and receive various rewards. There are three levels: Club level, Executive level and VIP level, each with different reward structures. Previously the airline used the SAS EuroBonus frequent flyer programme,


title: Ola Hudson

text: Ola Hudson ("née" Oliver; October 12, 1946 – June 5, 2009) was an American fashion designer and costumier. She designed costumes for several famous musicians, including the Pointer Sisters, Diana Ross, Janet Jackson, David Bowie, John Lennon and Ringo Starr. She is the mother of Saul Hudson, known professionally as Slash, of Guns N' Roses. Her designs are in the permanent collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art.


title: Ola Hudson

text: Hudson was born Ola Oliver in Los Angeles, California, on October 12, 1946. As a young adult, she studied at the Lester Horton School of Modern Dance. She also studied with dancers Bella Lewitzsky and Linda Gold. She then went to study at the Institute of Dance in Paris, at Le Loft in Switzerland and the Max Rivers School in London.


title: Ola Hudson

text: In London, she met and married Anthony Hudson. In 1965, she gave birth to Saul Hudson (Slash from Guns N' Roses) in her husband's native United Kingdom. Her marriage to Anthony was troubled and she returned to Los Angeles, working out of Hollywood. In 1972, she gave birth to Albion. Her family met back up with her in Los Angeles around 1975. When Hudson worked with David Bowie in the mid-1970s, the relationship started out professional, but later they became lovers for a time.


title: Ola Hudson

text: Hudson's design company was named Ola Hudson Enterprises, Incorporated. Hudson also created special collections for Arpeja, Henri Bendel, Right Bank Clothing and Neiman Marcus in Beverly Hills, Maxfield Blu of Los Angeles. Hudson's fashion design was somewhat minimal. She said, "It's getting right down to basics". She was also known for her retro design work, featuring details from the 1940s, that the Pointer Sisters wore. Hudson's designs were featured at a 1974 show, "Los Angeles Space-Age Designs: Past-Present-Future". Hudson also designed clothing for dancer Linda Gold.


title: Ola Hudson

text: Hudson designed clothing for "The Man Who Fell to Earth" and for "Station to Station". She also created the black pants and waistcoat for David Bowie's Thin White Duke look in 1976. Some of the items she designed for Bowie are part of the permanent collection at the Metropolitan Museum of Modern Art.


title: Capital punishment in India

text: Capital punishment in India is a legal penalty for some crimes under the country's main substantive penal legislation, the Indian Penal Code, as well as other laws. Executions are carried out by hanging as the primary method of execution as given under Section 354(5) of the Criminal Code of Procedure, 1973 is "Hanging by the neck until dead", and is awarded only in the 'rarest of cases'.


title: Capital punishment in India

text: Currently, there are around 488 prisoners on death row in India. The most recent executions in India took place in March 2020, when the four 2012 Delhi gang rape and murder perpetrators were executed at the Tihar Jail in Delhi.


title: Capital punishment in India

text: In the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC), 1898 death was the default punishment for murder and required the concerned judges to give reasons in their judgment if they wanted to give life imprisonment instead. By an amendment to the CrPC in 1955, the requirement of written reasons for not imposing the death penalty was removed, reflecting no legislative preference between the two punishments. In 1973, when the CrPC was amended further, life imprisonment became the norm and death penalty was to be imposed only in exceptional cases and required 'special reasons. This significant change indicated a desire to limit the imposition of the death penalty in India. The CrPC, 1973 also bifurcated a criminal trial into two stages with separate hearings, one for conviction and another for sentencing.


title: Capital punishment in India

text: After the completion of proceedings as prescribed by the Code of Criminal Procedure, the judge pronounces the judgment in a case under Section 235. In case of conviction of the accused, there shall be a mandatory pre-sentencing hearing as according to Section 235(2), Code of Criminal Procedure. The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, also contains a provision regarding special reason for death sentence. Section 354(3) of the Code provides that the court must record "Special reasons" justifying the sentence and state as to why an alternative sentence would not meet the ends of justice in the case, according to the principle 'Life imprisonment is the rule and death sentence is the exception'.


title: Capital punishment in India

text: After the decision and sentencing by the Court of Sessions, a high court needs to confirm it for the death sentence to be valid. The high court may confirm the death sentence awarded by the Court of Sessions, pass any other sentence warranted by law, annul the conviction, convict the person of any offence for which the Court of Sessions might have convicted them, order a new trial on the same or amended charge or acquit the accused person under Section 368, Code of Criminal Procedure. The High Court may also enhance the sentence awarded by the Court of Session to death sentence according to Section 386 (c), CrPC. The High Court shall not enhance the sentence awarded to the accused without giving them a reasonable opportunity of showing cause against such enhancement and while showing such cause, the accused may even plead for acquittal or reduction of sentence awarded by the Court of Session. Additionally, the State Government or the Central Government under Section 377, CrPC may direct the public prosecutor to appeal to the High Court against the sentence granted by the Court of Session on grounds of inadequacy. Further, exercising of its suo-moto revisional powers under Section 397, CrPC read with Section 401, CrPC, the High Court may, even in the absence of an appeal enhance the sentence awarded by the Court of Session. The High Court may also in accordance with Section 367 of the Code conduct or direct further inquiry into or additional evidence to be taken on any point bearing upon the guilt or innocence of the convicted person. Unless directed by the High Court, the accused need not be present during this period of this inquiry or when additional evidence is taken. The High Court also has the power under Section 407 of the CrPC to withdraw a case pending before a subordinate court and conduct the trial, and may award the sentence of death.


title: Capital punishment in India

text: After the death sentence is confirmed by the High Court, an appeal by Special Leave Petition (SLP) under Article 136 of the Constitution may be filed. The Supreme Court may in its discretion after considering the issues grant special leave to appeal under Article 136 of the Constitution. Exercising its power under Article 136, the Supreme Court decides whether the special leave petition deserve to be heard as appeals. Correcting an earlier trend of dismissal of SLPs involving the death sentence "in limine" (dismissal of Special Leave Petition at the threshold without giving any detailed reasons) it was held in two cases of Babasaheb Maruti Kamble v. State of Maharashtra, November 2018 and Jitendra @ Jeetu v. State Of Madhya Pradesh & Others, July 2020 that special leave petition filed in those cases where death sentence is awarded by the courts below, should not be dismissed without giving reasons, at least qua death sentence. It was opined that in such cases a deeper scrutiny coupled with reasons in support of death penalty should be given by the Court.


title: Capital punishment in India

text: A petition seeking review of a judgment or order passed by the Supreme Court may be filed under Article 137 of the Constitution before the Supreme Court within thirty days from the date of such judgment or order. As per the Supreme Court in Mohd Arif @ Ashfaq v. The Registrar, Supreme Court of India & Ors, September 2014, review petitions for death sentence cases should be heard in open court, but there would be a time limit of 30 minutes for oral hearing. Such a procedure would be just and fair. The cases would be heard by a bench of three judges, and the special procedure would apply to all cases of death sentence where the review had been dismissed but the sentence was yet to be executed, including cases brought under Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act. Various cases such as M. A. Antony @ Antappan v. State of Kerala, April 2009, Md. Mannan @ Abdul Mannan v. State Of Bihar, April 2011, Ambadas Laxman Shinde And Ors V. The State Of Maharashtra, October 2018 were reopened after being dismissed earlier to be heard in the open court after the above judgement, which resulted in commutations and an acquittal.


title: Capital punishment in India

text: As per the Supreme Court judgment in Rupa Ashok Hurrah v. Ashok Hurrah & Ors, April 2002 after the dismissal of the review petition, the Supreme Court may allow a curative petition to reconsider its judgment or order if it is established that there was a violation of principles of natural justice or apprehension of bias on part of a judge. The Supreme Court in the said case held that in order to prevent abuse of its process and to cure gross miscarriage of justice, it may reconsider its judgements in exercise of its inherent powers. The curative petition would be circulated before the same bench which decided the review petition, if available, or the three senior-most judges of the Supreme Court. The curative petition would be disposed of without oral arguments, unless ordered otherwise by the Supreme Court.


title: Capital punishment in India

text: Articles 72 and 161 of the Constitution give power to the President of India and the Governor to grant pardons and to suspend, remit or commute sentences in certain cases. The president or the governor may consider the case of the convict and may pardon the death sentence.


title: Capital punishment in India

text: Various legal issues surrounding mercy petition has arisen time and again, one of them being delay. In V. Sriharan @ Murugan v. Union of India, February 1947, the Supreme Court reiterated that the clemency procedure under Article 72/161 provides a ray of hope to the condemned prisoners and his family members for commutation of death sentence into life imprisonment and, therefore, the executive should step up and exercise its time honoured tradition of clemency power of guaranteed in the constitution one way or the other within a reasonable time. In the case of Shatrughan Chauhan v. Union of India, January 2014, a three-judge bench of the Indian Supreme Court delivered a landmark judgment on the death penalty: holding, in particular, that an excessive delay in carrying out the death sentence was an essential mitigating factor in a plea for commutation. This was also held in a previous case Triveniben V. State of Gujarat & Ors, February 1989 stating that the Court may consider whether there was undue long delay in disposing of mercy petition; whether the State was guilty of dilatory conduct and whether the delay was for no reason at all.  Though the inordinate delay may be a significant factor,  that by itself cannot render the execution unconstitutional. Further, the courts have also recognised some other supervening circumstances which should be considered during mercy petition such as mental illness/insanity, trauma, solitary confinement etc.


title: Capital punishment in India

text: In cases where the death sentence is awarded, Form No. 42 in the Second Schedule of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 contains the form of the "death warrant" or "black warrant". It is addressed to the superintendent of the relevant prison who is supposed to return the warrant to the court after certifying that the death sentence has been carried out. If a sessions court issues a death warrant before the end of the judicial and administrative process, it would amount to a serious violation of the law as laid down by the Supreme Court in Shabnam v. Union of India, May 2015 which affirmed the guidelines laid down by the Allahabad High Court in PUDR v. Union of India, January 2015. In Shabnam v. Union of India, the Supreme Court held that the principles of natural justice have to be read into death warrant proceedings. The convict should be allowed to exhaust all the legal remedies available such as appeal, review and mercy petitions. The guidelines given in the PUDR case are needed to be followed before issuing the death warrant.


title: Capital punishment in India

text: Prior to the examination of Supreme Court of India, the abolition of the death sentence in India was examined by the 35th Law Commission report in response to a resolution moved by Raghunath Singh, Member of Lok Sabha. The Law Commission of India stressed on the reasoning that the conditions in India demands the contrary position to the proposition of 'abolition of death penalty' and concluded the death penalty should be retained. It said that the variety of upbringing, the diversity of the population, the disparity in the levels of education and morality and the paramount need for maintaining law and order were fundamental factors and issues that impede India from taking a favourable position to abolish the capital punishment. However, the jurisprudence regarding the capital sentence inordinately changed throughout various landmark judgments pronounced by the Supreme Court of India.


title: Capital punishment in India

text: The first challenge to the capital punishment in India came during the 1973 case of Jagmohan Singh v. State of U.P, October 1972. The judgment came before the , whereby the death sentence constituted an exceptional sentence. It was argued that the death penalty violates to the right to life and equality and guaranteed by the Indian Constitution. Moreover, the uncontrolled and unguided arbitrary discretion in the judges to impose capital punishment violates Article 14 of the Indian Constitution and the petitioners contended that the procedure for consideration of circumstances in order to pronounce finding and reasoning to make judicial decision between capital punishment and life imprisonment is not available under CrPC, 1898, therefore it violated Article 21 of the Indian Constitution. However, the Supreme Court of India refused to accept the argument and held that the death sentence is pronounced after detailed recording and evaluation of the aggravating and mitigating circumstances, thus such procedure justifies the imposition of capital punishment and does not violate Article 21 of the Indian Constitution. Moreover, the criticism of judge-centric or wide discretion on the judges on the fixation of the punishment is subject to the scrutiny of the superior judges and premised on the well recognized judicial principles. The judgment also discussed the US Supreme Court Decision in Furman v. Georgia, October 1971 where the US Supreme Court struck down the death sentence scheme as it violated the Eighth Amendment of the US Constitution as being cruel and unusual punishment. But, the Supreme Court of India refused to accept the reasoning and stated that there is no rational basis for concluding the death sentence as unconstitutional because the Indian Constitution does not have an equivalent to the Eighth Amendment.


title: Capital punishment in India

text: Since the incorporation of Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898, while imposing the death sentence, the courts were obliged to provide 'special reasons' for not imposing the death sentence. The true departure from death sentence as a norm to an exception came after the introduction of Code of Criminal Procedure re-enacted in 1973. The CrPC 1973 introduced Section 354(3), the section mandated that judge must provide 'special reasons'  for inflicting or imposing the death sentence. Also, the CrPC 1973 introduced the Section 235(2), which allowed the post-conviction hearing on sentencing which drastically changed the jurisprudence allowing a careful evaluation and analysis of circumstances revolving around the jurisprudence of death sentence.


title: Capital punishment in India

text: Post the re-enactment of CrPC 1973, there was ambiguity in the jurisprudential understanding of 'special reasons' for imposing the death sentence.  The Supreme Court in Rajendra Prasad v. State of Uttar Pradesh, February 1979 dealt with the legal policy on sentencing discretion and also comprehensively discussed the meaning of 'special reasons' for inflicting death sentence on exceptional grounds. The Court departed from retributive theory and emphasized on the deterrence and reformative theory as the social goals. Furthermore, the Court held that the 'special reasons' required to impose the capital punishment must not relate to the crime, but focus must be on the criminal.


title: Capital punishment in India

text: The constitutional validity of death penalty was again challenged in the Bachan Singh v. State of Punjab, in May 1980, and it was premised on multiple new developments. Firstly, the re-enactment of CrPC 1973 had made the death penalty as an exception with regards to the rule of imposing life imprisonment for offences consist of choice between life imprisonment and death sentence. Secondly, the dictum of Rajendra Prasad v. State of Uttar Pradesh, February 1979, had interpreted the parameter on which 'death sentence' must be related to circumstance of the criminal and not the crime itself. Thirdly, it reviewed the death sentence in the light of Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, January 1978 since every punitive action must satisfy the test of reasonableness after satisfying the golden triangle test of Articles 14, 19 and 21 of the Indian Constitution.  The primary challenges to the death penalty in Bachan Singh v. State of Punjab, May 1980 was that the death punishment is unnecessary, cruel, inhumane and degrading treatment and the punishment of death sentence does not serve the purpose of deterrence. Furthermore, the constitutional validity of Section 302 of IPC and  Section 366(2) of CrPC was challenged in this case on the ground that the imposition of death penalty is arbitrary and whimsical. However, the Supreme Court by a majority of 4:1 did not accept this contention and affirmed the constitutional validity of death sentence but propounded the doctrine of 'rarest of rare' as that the death sentence can only imposed 'in  the  rarest  of  rare  cases  when  the alternative option is unquestionably foreclosed." Moreover, the Supreme Court ascertained that the "special reasons" in the context of inflicting death sentence must pay due regard to both the crime and criminal and the relative weight has to be given both aggravating and mitigating circumstance prior to the stating of special reasons for inflicting the death sentence. The Supreme Court recognized that the mitigating factors includes the mental condition, the age of the accused, the possibility of reforming or that the person committed the crime under the superior orders. The Supreme Court recognized and emphasized on the individual yet principled sentencing of the death sentence,  the court refused to create categories, instead provided discretion to the judges to apply the principled reasoning of inflicting death sentence in each individual case on the basis of aggravating and mitigating circumstances.


title: Capital punishment in India

text: In the dissenting opinion written by Justice P. N. Bhagawati in August 1982, two years after the majority's decision, he held the death penalty to be unconstitutional. He opined that the capital sentencing system, which required 'special reasons' without any guidance on its meaning, essentially left decision-making to the subjective assessment of individual judges, making it arbitrary.


title: Capital punishment in India

text: In this case, the court discussed Section 303 of the IPC which provided for a mandatory death sentence for offenders serving a life sentence. This section was based on the logic that any criminal who has been convicted for life and still can kill someone is beyond reformation and so, the only suitable punishment left would be death. It was discussed that the original idea behind drafting of this section was to discourage assaults by life convicts on the prison staff, but the language chosen by the legislature had widely exceeded its intention. It was held that Section 303 violated right to equality and right to life and personal liberty as conferred under Articles 14 and 21 of the Constitution.


title: Capital punishment in India

text: In Channulal, the Supreme Court, through Justice Kurian Joseph noted that the time was appropriate to review the constitutionality of the death penalty and take into consideration reformative aspects of punishment. While dissenting on the question of propriety of the death penalty, the remaining two judges on the bench emphasized on the duty of courts to be constitutionally correct, even if its views are counter-majoritarian. Public opinion is generally formed by emotionally charged narratives which need not necessarily be legally correct, properly informed. They may even be against the values of rule of law and constitutionalism that courts are bound by. The court reiterated the view in Santosh Kumar Satishbhushan Bariyar v. State of Maharashtra that in death penalty sentencing, public opinion is neither an objective circumstance relating to crime nor to the criminal. The death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment after taking into consideration the possibility of reform and rehabilitation of the appellant that was evidenced by his good conduct in prison.


title: Capital punishment in India

text: Hanging is a method of execution which involve suspending the convict from a gallows or crossbeam until death occurs from asphyxia, or it may be that the condemned person stands on a trapdoor and when the trap is released he falls a couple of metres until stopped by the rope tied around his neck or a knot in the noose helps jerk back the victim's head sharply enough to break the neck. This mode of execution is widely debated and the Law Commission in its report in 2015 stated that the shift from hanging to more advanced methods execution must be made in India.