title: Extracellular matrix

text: Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are carbohydrate polymers and mostly attached to extracellular matrix proteins to form proteoglycans (hyaluronic acid is a notable exception; see below). Proteoglycans have a net negative charge that attracts positively charged sodium ions (Na), which attracts water molecules via osmosis, keeping the ECM and resident cells hydrated. Proteoglycans may also help to trap and store growth factors within the ECM.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Heparan sulfate (HS) is a linear polysaccharide found in all animal tissues. It occurs as a proteoglycan (PG) in which two or three HS chains are attached in close proximity to cell surface or ECM proteins. It is in this form that HS binds to a variety of protein ligands and regulates a wide variety of biological activities, including developmental processes, angiogenesis, blood coagulation, and tumour metastasis.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: In the extracellular matrix, especially basement membranes, the multi-domain proteins perlecan, agrin, and collagen XVIII are the main proteins to which heparan sulfate is attached.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Chondroitin sulfates contribute to the tensile strength of cartilage, tendons, ligaments, and walls of the aorta. They have also been known to affect neuroplasticity.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Keratan sulfates have a variable sulfate content and, unlike many other GAGs, do not contain uronic acid. They are present in the cornea, cartilage, bones, and the horns of animals.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Hyaluronic acid (or "hyaluronan") is a polysaccharide consisting of alternating residues of D-glucuronic acid and N-acetylglucosamine, and unlike other GAGs, is not found as a proteoglycan. Hyaluronic acid in the extracellular space confers upon tissues the ability to resist compression by providing a counteracting turgor (swelling) force by absorbing significant amounts of water. Hyaluronic acid is thus found in abundance in the ECM of load-bearing joints. It is also a chief component of the interstitial gel. Hyaluronic acid is found on the inner surface of the cell membrane and is translocated out of the cell during biosynthesis.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Hyaluronic acid acts as an environmental cue that regulates cell behavior during embryonic development, healing processes, inflammation, and tumor development. It interacts with a specific transmembrane receptor, CD44.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Collagens are the most abundant protein in the ECM. In fact, collagen is the most abundant protein in the human body and accounts for 90% of bone matrix protein content. Collagens are present in the ECM as fibrillar proteins and give structural support to resident cells. Collagen is exocytosed in precursor form (procollagen), which is then cleaved by procollagen proteases to allow extracellular assembly. Disorders such as Ehlers Danlos Syndrome, osteogenesis imperfecta, and epidermolysis bullosa are linked with genetic defects in collagen-encoding genes. The collagen can be divided into several families according to the types of structure they form:


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Elastins, in contrast to collagens, give elasticity to tissues, allowing them to stretch when needed and then return to their original state. This is useful in blood vessels, the lungs, in skin, and the ligamentum nuchae, and these tissues contain high amounts of elastins. Elastins are synthesized by fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells. Elastins are highly insoluble, and tropoelastins are secreted inside a chaperone molecule, which releases the precursor molecule upon contact with a fiber of mature elastin. Tropoelastins are then deaminated to become incorporated into the elastin strand. Disorders such as cutis laxa and Williams syndrome are associated with deficient or absent elastin fibers in the ECM.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: In 2016, Huleihel et al., reported the presence of DNA, RNA, and Matrix-bound nanovesicles (MBVs) within ECM bioscaffolds. MBVs shape and size were found to be consistent with previously described exosomes. MBVs cargo includes different protein molecules, lipids, DNA, fragments, and miRNAs. Similar to ECM bioscaffolds, MBVs can modify the activation state of macrophages and alter different cellular properties such as; proliferation, migration and cell cycle. MBVs are now believed to be an integral and functional key component of ECM bioscaffolds.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Fibronectins are glycoproteins that connect cells with collagen fibers in the ECM, allowing cells to move through the ECM. Fibronectins bind collagen and cell-surface integrins, causing a reorganization of the cell's cytoskeleton to facilitate cell movement. Fibronectins are secreted by cells in an unfolded, inactive form. Binding to integrins unfolds fibronectin molecules, allowing them to form dimers so that they can function properly. Fibronectins also help at the site of tissue injury by binding to platelets during blood clotting and facilitating cell movement to the affected area during wound healing.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Laminins are proteins found in the basal laminae of virtually all animals. Rather than forming collagen-like fibers, laminins form networks of web-like structures that resist tensile forces in the basal lamina. They also assist in cell adhesion. Laminins bind other ECM components such as collagens and nidogens.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: There are many cell types that contribute to the development of the various types of extracellular matrix found in the plethora of tissue types. The local components of ECM determine the properties of the connective tissue.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Fibroblasts are the most common cell type in connective tissue ECM, in which they synthesize, maintain, and provide a structural framework; fibroblasts secrete the precursor components of the ECM, including the ground substance. Chondrocytes are found in cartilage and produce the cartilaginous matrix. Osteoblasts are responsible for bone formation.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: The ECM can exist in varying degrees of stiffness and elasticity, from soft brain tissues to hard bone tissues. The elasticity of the ECM can differ by several orders of magnitude. This property is primarily dependent on collagen and elastin concentrations, and it has recently been shown to play an influential role in regulating numerous cell functions.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Cells can sense the mechanical properties of their environment by applying forces and measuring the resulting backlash. This plays an important role because it helps regulate many important cellular processes including cellular contraction, cell migration, cell proliferation, differentiation and cell death (apoptosis).


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Inhibition of nonmuscle myosin II blocks most of these effects, indicating that they are indeed tied to sensing the mechanical properties of the ECM, which has become a new focus in research during the past decade.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Differing mechanical properties in ECM exert effects on both cell behaviour and gene expression. Although the mechanism by which this is done has not been thoroughly explained, adhesion complexes and the actin-myosin cytoskeleton, whose contractile forces are transmitted through transcellular structures are thought to play key roles in the yet to be discovered molecular pathways.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: ECM elasticity can direct cellular differentiation, the process by which a cell changes from one cell type to another. In particular, naive mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been shown to specify lineage and commit to phenotypes with extreme sensitivity to tissue-level elasticity. MSCs placed on soft matrices that mimic brain differentiate into neuron-like cells, showing similar shape, RNAi profiles, cytoskeletal markers, and transcription factor levels. Similarly stiffer matrices that mimic muscle are myogenic, and matrices with stiffnesses that mimic collagenous bone are osteogenic.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Stiffness and elasticity also guide cell migration, this process is called durotaxis. The term was coined by Lo CM and colleagues when they discovered the tendency of single cells to migrate up rigidity gradients (towards more stiff substrates) and has been extensively studied since. The molecular mechanisms behind durotaxis are thought to exist primarily in the focal adhesion, a large protein complex that acts as the primary site of contact between the cell and the ECM. This complex contains many proteins that are essential to durotaxis including structural anchoring proteins (integrins) and signaling proteins (adhesion kinase (FAK), talin, vinculin, paxillin, α-actinin, GTPases etc.) which cause changes in cell shape and actomyosin contractility. These changes are thought to cause cytoskeletal rearrangements in order to facilitate directional migration.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Due to its diverse nature and composition, the ECM can serve many functions, such as providing support, segregating tissues from one another, and regulating intercellular communication. The extracellular matrix regulates a cell's dynamic behavior. In addition, it sequesters a wide range of cellular growth factors and acts as a local store for them. Changes in physiological conditions can trigger protease activities that cause local release of such stores. This allows the rapid and local growth factor-mediated activation of cellular functions without "de novo" synthesis.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Formation of the extracellular matrix is essential for processes like growth, wound healing, and fibrosis. An understanding of ECM structure and composition also helps in comprehending the complex dynamics of tumor invasion and metastasis in cancer biology as metastasis often involves the destruction of extracellular matrix by enzymes such as serine proteases, threonine proteases, and matrix metalloproteinases.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: The stiffness and elasticity of the ECM has important implications in cell migration, gene expression, and differentiation. Cells actively sense ECM rigidity and migrate preferentially towards stiffer surfaces in a phenomenon called durotaxis. They also detect elasticity and adjust their gene expression accordingly which has increasingly become a subject of research because of its impact on differentiation and cancer progression.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: In the brain, where hyaluronan is the main ECM component, the matrix display both structural and signaling properties. High-molecular weight hyaluronan acts as a diffusional barrier that can modulate diffusion in the extracellular space locally. Upon matrix degradation, hyaluronan fragments are released to the extracellular space, where they function as pro-inflammatory molecules, orchestrating the response of immune cells such as microglia.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Many cells bind to components of the extracellular matrix. Cell adhesion can occur in two ways; by focal adhesions, connecting the ECM to actin filaments of the cell, and hemidesmosomes, connecting the ECM to intermediate filaments such as keratin. This cell-to-ECM adhesion is regulated by specific cell-surface cellular adhesion molecules (CAM) known as integrins. Integrins are cell-surface proteins that bind cells to ECM structures, such as fibronectin and laminin, and also to integrin proteins on the surface of other cells.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Fibronectins bind to ECM macromolecules and facilitate their binding to transmembrane integrins. The attachment of fibronectin to the extracellular domain initiates intracellular signalling pathways as well as association with the cellular cytoskeleton via a set of adaptor molecules such as actin.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Extracellular matrix has been found to cause regrowth and healing of tissue. Although the mechanism of action by which extracellular matrix promotes constructive remodeling of tissue is still unknown, researchers now believe that Matrix-bound nanovesicles (MBVs) are a key player in the healing process. In human fetuses, for example, the extracellular matrix works with stem cells to grow and regrow all parts of the human body, and fetuses can regrow anything that gets damaged in the womb. Scientists have long believed that the matrix stops functioning after full development. It has been used in the past to help horses heal torn ligaments, but it is being researched further as a device for tissue regeneration in humans.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: In terms of injury repair and tissue engineering, the extracellular matrix serves two main purposes. First, it prevents the immune system from triggering from the injury and responding with inflammation and scar tissue. Next, it facilitates the surrounding cells to repair the tissue instead of forming scar tissue.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: For medical applications, the required ECM is usually extracted from pig bladders, an easily accessible and relatively unused source. It is currently being used regularly to treat ulcers by closing the hole in the tissue that lines the stomach, but further research is currently being done by many universities as well as the U.S. Government for wounded soldier applications. As of early 2007, testing was being carried out on a military base in Texas. Scientists are using a powdered form on Iraq War veterans whose hands were damaged in the war.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Not all ECM devices come from the bladder. Extracellular matrix coming from pig small intestine submucosa are being used to repair "atrial septal defects" (ASD), "patent foramen ovale" (PFO) and inguinal hernia. After one year, 95% of the collagen ECM in these patches is replaced by the normal soft tissue of the heart.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Extracellular matrix proteins are commonly used in cell culture systems to maintain stem and precursor cells in an undifferentiated state during cell culture and function to induce differentiation of epithelial, endothelial and smooth muscle cells in vitro. Extracellular matrix proteins can also be used to support 3D cell culture in vitro for modelling tumor development.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: A class of biomaterials derived from processing human or animal tissues to retain portions of the extracellular matrix are called ECM Biomaterial.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: Plant cells are tessellated to form tissues. The cell wall is the relatively rigid structure surrounding the plant cell. The cell wall provides lateral strength to resist osmotic turgor pressure, but it is flexible enough to allow cell growth when needed; it also serves as a medium for intercellular communication. The cell wall comprises multiple laminate layers of cellulose microfibrils embedded in a matrix of glycoproteins, including hemicellulose, pectin, and extensin. The components of the glycoprotein matrix help cell walls of adjacent plant cells to bind to each other. The selective permeability of the cell wall is chiefly governed by pectins in the glycoprotein matrix. Plasmodesmata ("singular": plasmodesma) are pores that traverse the cell walls of adjacent plant cells. These channels are tightly regulated and selectively allow molecules of specific sizes to pass between cells.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: The extracellular matrix functionality of animals (Metazoa) developed in the common ancestor of the Pluriformea and Filozoa, after the Ichthyosporea diverged.


title: Extracellular matrix

text: The importance of the extracellular matrix has long been recognized (Lewis, 1922), but the usage of the term is more recent (Gospodarowicz et al., 1979).


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Jules Henri Poincaré ( [US: stress final syllable], ; 29 April 1854 – 17 July 1912) was a French mathematician, theoretical physicist, engineer, and philosopher of science. He is often described as a polymath, and in mathematics as "The Last Universalist", since he excelled in all fields of the discipline as it existed during his lifetime.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: As a mathematician and physicist, he made many original fundamental contributions to pure and applied mathematics, mathematical physics, and celestial mechanics. In his research on the three-body problem, Poincaré became the first person to discover a chaotic deterministic system which laid the foundations of modern chaos theory. He is also considered to be one of the founders of the field of topology.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Poincaré made clear the importance of paying attention to the invariance of laws of physics under different transformations, and was the first to present the Lorentz transformations in their modern symmetrical form. Poincaré discovered the remaining relativistic velocity transformations and recorded them in a letter to Hendrik Lorentz in 1905. Thus he obtained perfect invariance of all of Maxwell's equations, an important step in the formulation of the theory of special relativity. In 1905, Poincaré first proposed gravitational waves ("ondes gravifiques") emanating from a body and propagating at the speed of light as being required by the Lorentz transformations.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Early in the 20th century he formulated the Poincaré conjecture that became over time one of the famous unsolved problems in mathematics until it was solved in 2002–2003 by Grigori Perelman.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Poincaré was born on 29 April 1854 in Cité Ducale neighborhood, Nancy, Meurthe-et-Moselle, into an influential French family. His father Léon Poincaré (1828–1892) was a professor of medicine at the University of Nancy. His younger sister Aline married the spiritual philosopher Émile Boutroux. Another notable member of Henri's family was his cousin, Raymond Poincaré, a fellow member of the Académie française, who was President of France from 1913 to 1920.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: During his childhood he was seriously ill for a time with diphtheria and received special instruction from his mother, Eugénie Launois (1830–1897).


title: Henri Poincaré

text: In 1862, Henri entered the Lycée in Nancy (now renamed the in his honour, along with Henri Poincaré University, also in Nancy). He spent eleven years at the Lycée and during this time he proved to be one of the top students in every topic he studied. He excelled in written composition. His mathematics teacher described him as a "monster of mathematics" and he won first prizes in the concours général, a competition between the top pupils from all the Lycées across France. His poorest subjects were music and physical education, where he was described as "average at best". However, poor eyesight and a tendency towards absentmindedness may explain these difficulties. He graduated from the Lycée in 1871 with a baccalauréat in both letters and sciences.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Poincaré entered the École Polytechnique as the top qualifier in 1873 and graduated in 1875. There he studied mathematics as a student of Charles Hermite, continuing to excel and publishing his first paper ("Démonstration nouvelle des propriétés de l'indicatrice d'une surface") in 1874. From November 1875 to June 1878 he studied at the École des Mines, while continuing the study of mathematics in addition to the mining engineering syllabus, and received the degree of ordinary mining engineer in March 1879.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: As a graduate of the École des Mines, he joined the Corps des Mines as an inspector for the Vesoul region in northeast France. He was on the scene of a mining disaster at Magny in August 1879 in which 18 miners died. He carried out the official investigation into the accident in a characteristically thorough and humane way.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: At the same time, Poincaré was preparing for his Doctorate in Science in mathematics under the supervision of Charles Hermite. His doctoral thesis was in the field of differential equations. It was named "Sur les propriétés des fonctions définies par les équations aux différences partielles". Poincaré devised a new way of studying the properties of these equations. He not only faced the question of determining the integral of such equations, but also was the first person to study their general geometric properties. He realised that they could be used to model the behaviour of multiple bodies in free motion within the Solar System. Poincaré graduated from the University of Paris in 1879.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: After receiving his degree, Poincaré began teaching as junior lecturer in mathematics at the University of Caen in Normandy (in December 1879). At the same time he published his first major article concerning the treatment of a class of automorphic functions.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: There, in Caen, he met his future wife, Louise Poulain d'Andecy (1857–1934), granddaughter of Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and great-granddaughter of Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and on 20 April 1881, they married. Together they had four children: Jeanne (born 1887), Yvonne (born 1889), Henriette (born 1891), and Léon (born 1893).


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Poincaré immediately established himself among the greatest mathematicians of Europe, attracting the attention of many prominent mathematicians. In 1881 Poincaré was invited to take a teaching position at the Faculty of Sciences of the University of Paris; he accepted the invitation. During the years 1883 to 1897, he taught mathematical analysis in the École Polytechnique.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: In 1881–1882, Poincaré created a new branch of mathematics: qualitative theory of differential equations. He showed how it is possible to derive the most important information about the behavior of a family of solutions without having to solve the equation (since this may not always be possible). He successfully used this approach to problems in celestial mechanics and mathematical physics.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: He never fully abandoned his career in the mining administration to mathematics. He worked at the Ministry of Public Services as an engineer in charge of northern railway development from 1881 to 1885. He eventually became chief engineer of the Corps des Mines in 1893 and inspector general in 1910.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Beginning in 1881 and for the rest of his career, he taught at the University of Paris (the Sorbonne). He was initially appointed as the "maître de conférences d'analyse" (associate professor of analysis). Eventually, he held the chairs of Physical and Experimental Mechanics, Mathematical Physics and Theory of Probability, and Celestial Mechanics and Astronomy.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: In 1887, at the young age of 32, Poincaré was elected to the French Academy of Sciences. He became its president in 1906, and was elected to the Académie française on 5 March 1908.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: In 1887, he won Oscar II, King of Sweden's mathematical competition for a resolution of the three-body problem concerning the free motion of multiple orbiting bodies. (See three-body problem section below.)


title: Henri Poincaré

text: In 1893, Poincaré joined the French Bureau des Longitudes, which engaged him in the synchronisation of time around the world. In 1897 Poincaré backed an unsuccessful proposal for the decimalisation of circular measure, and hence time and longitude. It was this post which led him to consider the question of establishing international time zones and the synchronisation of time between bodies in relative motion. (See work on relativity section below.)


title: Henri Poincaré

text: In 1904, he intervened in the trials of Alfred Dreyfus, attacking the spurious scientific claims regarding evidence brought against Dreyfus.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Poincaré was the President of the Société Astronomique de France (SAF), the French astronomical society, from 1901 to 1903.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Poincaré had two notable doctoral students at the University of Paris, Louis Bachelier (1900) and Dimitrie Pompeiu (1905).


title: Henri Poincaré

text: In 1912, Poincaré underwent surgery for a prostate problem and subsequently died from an embolism on 17 July 1912, in Paris. He was 58 years of age. He is buried in the Poincaré family vault in the Cemetery of Montparnasse, Paris, in section 16 close to the gate Rue Émile-Richard.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: A former French Minister of Education, Claude Allègre, proposed in 2004 that Poincaré be reburied in the Panthéon in Paris, which is reserved for French citizens of the highest honour.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Poincaré made many contributions to different fields of pure and applied mathematics such as: celestial mechanics, fluid mechanics, optics, electricity, telegraphy, capillarity, elasticity, thermodynamics, potential theory, quantum theory, theory of relativity and physical cosmology.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: The problem of finding the general solution to the motion of more than two orbiting bodies in the Solar System had eluded mathematicians since Newton's time. This was known originally as the three-body problem and later the "n"-body problem, where "n" is any number of more than two orbiting bodies. The "n"-body solution was considered very important and challenging at the close of the 19th century. Indeed, in 1887, in honour of his 60th birthday, Oscar II, King of Sweden, advised by Gösta Mittag-Leffler, established a prize for anyone who could find the solution to the problem. The announcement was quite specific:


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Given a system of arbitrarily many mass points that attract each according to Newton's law, under the assumption that no two points ever collide, try to find a representation of the coordinates of each point as a series in a variable that is some known function of time and for all of whose values the series converges uniformly.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: In case the problem could not be solved, any other important contribution to classical mechanics would then be considered to be prizeworthy. The prize was finally awarded to Poincaré, even though he did not solve the original problem. One of the judges, the distinguished Karl Weierstrass, said, ""This work cannot indeed be considered as furnishing the complete solution of the question proposed, but that it is nevertheless of such importance that its publication will inaugurate a new era in the history of celestial mechanics."" (The first version of his contribution even contained a serious error; for details see the article by Diacu and the book by Barrow-Green). The version finally printed contained many important ideas which led to the theory of chaos. The problem as stated originally was finally solved by Karl F. Sundman for "n" = 3 in 1912 and was generalised to the case of "n" > 3 bodies by Qiudong Wang in the 1990s. The series solutions have very slow convergence. It would take millions of terms to determine the motion of the particles for even very short intervals of time, so they are unusable in numerical work.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Poincaré's work at the Bureau des Longitudes on establishing international time zones led him to consider how clocks at rest on the Earth, which would be moving at different speeds relative to absolute space (or the "luminiferous aether"), could be synchronised. At the same time Dutch theorist Hendrik Lorentz was developing Maxwell's theory into a theory of the motion of charged particles ("electrons" or "ions"), and their interaction with radiation. In 1895 Lorentz had introduced an auxiliary quantity (without physical interpretation) called "local time" formula_1


title: Henri Poincaré

text: and introduced the hypothesis of length contraction to explain the failure of optical and electrical experiments to detect motion relative to the aether (see Michelson–Morley experiment).


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Poincaré was a constant interpreter (and sometimes friendly critic) of Lorentz's theory. Poincaré as a philosopher was interested in the "deeper meaning". Thus he interpreted Lorentz's theory and in so doing he came up with many insights that are now associated with special relativity. In (1898), Poincaré said, "


title: Henri Poincaré

text: A little reflection is sufficient to understand that all these affirmations have by themselves no meaning. They can have one only as the result of a convention." He also argued that scientists have to set the constancy of the speed of light as a postulate to give physical theories the simplest form.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Based on these assumptions he discussed in 1900 Lorentz's "wonderful invention" of local time and remarked that it arose when moving clocks are synchronised by exchanging light signals assumed to travel with the same speed in both directions in a moving frame.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: In 1881 Poincaré described hyperbolic geometry in terms of the hyperboloid model, formulating transformations leaving invariant the Lorentz interval formula_2, which makes them mathematically equivalent to the Lorentz transformations in 2+1 dimensions. In addition, Poincaré's other models of hyperbolic geometry (Poincaré disk model, Poincaré half-plane model) as well as the Beltrami–Klein model can be related to the relativistic velocity space (see Gyrovector space).


title: Henri Poincaré

text: In 1892 Poincaré developed a mathematical theory of light including polarization. His vision of the action of polarizers and retarders, acting on a sphere representing polarized states, is called the Poincaré sphere. It was shown that the Poincaré sphere possesses an underlying Lorentzian symmetry, by which it can be used as a geometrical representation of Lorentz transformations and velocity additions.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: and named it the principle of relativity in 1904, according to which no physical experiment can discriminate between a state of uniform motion and a state of rest.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: In 1905 Poincaré wrote to Lorentz about Lorentz's paper of 1904, which Poincaré described as a "paper of supreme importance." In this letter he pointed out an error Lorentz had made when he had applied his transformation to one of Maxwell's equations, that for charge-occupied space, and also questioned the time dilation factor given by Lorentz.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: In a second letter to Lorentz, Poincaré gave his own reason why Lorentz's time dilation factor was indeed correct after all—it was necessary to make the Lorentz transformation form a group—and he gave what is now known as the relativistic velocity-addition law.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Poincaré later delivered a paper at the meeting of the Academy of Sciences in Paris on 5 June 1905 in which these issues were addressed. In the published version of that he wrote:


title: Henri Poincaré

text: The essential point, established by Lorentz, is that the equations of the electromagnetic field are not altered by a certain transformation (which I will call by the name of Lorentz) of the form:


title: Henri Poincaré

text: and showed that the arbitrary function formula_4 must be unity for all formula_5 (Lorentz had set formula_6 by a different argument) to make the transformations form a group. In an enlarged version of the paper that appeared in 1906 Poincaré pointed out that the combination formula_7 is invariant. He noted that a Lorentz transformation is merely a rotation in four-dimensional space about the origin by introducing formula_8 as a fourth imaginary coordinate, and he used an early form of four-vectors. Poincaré expressed a lack of interest in a four-dimensional reformulation of his new mechanics in 1907, because in his opinion the translation of physics into the language of four-dimensional geometry would entail too much effort for limited profit. So it was Hermann Minkowski who worked out the consequences of this notion in 1907.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Like others before, Poincaré (1900) discovered a relation between mass and electromagnetic energy. While studying the conflict between the action/reaction principle and Lorentz ether theory, he tried to determine whether the center of gravity still moves with a uniform velocity when electromagnetic fields are included. He noticed that the action/reaction principle does not hold for matter alone, but that the electromagnetic field has its own momentum. Poincaré concluded that the electromagnetic field energy of an electromagnetic wave behaves like a fictitious fluid ("fluide fictif") with a mass density of "E"/"c". If the center of mass frame is defined by both the mass of matter "and" the mass of the fictitious fluid, and if the fictitious fluid is indestructible—it's neither created or destroyed—then the motion of the center of mass frame remains uniform. But electromagnetic energy can be converted into other forms of energy. So Poincaré assumed that there exists a non-electric energy fluid at each point of space, into which electromagnetic energy can be transformed and which also carries a mass proportional to the energy. In this way, the motion of the center of mass remains uniform. Poincaré said that one should not be too surprised by these assumptions, since they are only mathematical fictions.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: However, Poincaré's resolution led to a paradox when changing frames: if a Hertzian oscillator radiates in a certain direction, it will suffer a recoil from the inertia of the fictitious fluid. Poincaré performed a Lorentz boost (to order "v"/"c") to the frame of the moving source. He noted that energy conservation holds in both frames, but that the law of conservation of momentum is violated. This would allow perpetual motion, a notion which he abhorred. The laws of nature would have to be different in the frames of reference, and the relativity principle would not hold. Therefore, he argued that also in this case there has to be another compensating mechanism in the ether.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Poincaré himself came back to this topic in his St. Louis lecture (1904). He rejected the possibility that energy carries mass and criticized his own solution to compensate the above-mentioned problems:


title: Henri Poincaré

text: In the above quote he refers to the Hertz assumption of total aether entrainment that was falsified by the Fizeau_experiment but that experiment does indeed show that that light is partially "carried along" with a substance. Finally in 1908 he revisits the problem and ends with abandoning the principle of reaction altogether in favor of supporting a solution based in the inertia of aether itself.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: He also discussed two other unexplained effects: (1) non-conservation of mass implied by Lorentz's variable mass formula_9, Abraham's theory of variable mass and Kaufmann's experiments on the mass of fast moving electrons and (2) the non-conservation of energy in the radium experiments of Marie Curie.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: It was Albert Einstein's concept of mass–energy equivalence (1905) that a body losing energy as radiation or heat was losing mass of amount "m" = "E"/"c" that resolved Poincaré's paradox, without using any compensating mechanism within the ether. The Hertzian oscillator loses mass in the emission process, and momentum is conserved in any frame. However, concerning Poincaré's solution of the Center of Gravity problem, Einstein noted that Poincaré's formulation and his own from 1906 were mathematically equivalent.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: In 1905 Poincaré first proposed gravitational waves ("ondes gravifiques") emanating from a body and propagating at the speed of light. He wrote:


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Einstein's first paper on relativity was published three months after Poincaré's short paper, but before Poincaré's longer version. Einstein relied on the principle of relativity to derive the Lorentz transformations and used a similar clock synchronisation procedure (Einstein synchronisation) to the one that Poincaré (1900) had described, but Einstein's paper was remarkable in that it contained no references at all. Poincaré never acknowledged Einstein's work on special relativity. However, Einstein expressed sympathy with Poincaré's outlook obliquely in a letter to Hans Vaihinger on 3 May 1919, when Einstein considered Vaihinger's general outlook to be close to his own and Poincaré's to be close to Vaihinger's. In public, Einstein acknowledged Poincaré posthumously in the text of a lecture in 1921 titled ""Geometrie und Erfahrung" (Geometry and Experience)" in connection with non-Euclidean geometry, but not in connection with special relativity. A few years before his death, Einstein commented on Poincaré as being one of the pioneers of relativity, saying "Lorentz had already recognized that the transformation named after him is essential for the analysis of Maxwell's equations, and Poincaré deepened this insight still further ..."


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Poincaré's work in the development of special relativity is well recognised, though most historians stress that despite many similarities with Einstein's work, the two had very different research agendas and interpretations of the work. Poincaré developed a similar physical interpretation of local time and noticed the connection to signal velocity, but contrary to Einstein he continued to use the ether-concept in his papers and argued that clocks at rest in the ether show the "true" time, and moving clocks show the local time. So Poincaré tried to keep the relativity principle in accordance with classical concepts, while Einstein developed a mathematically equivalent kinematics based on the new physical concepts of the relativity of space and time.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: While this is the view of most historians, a minority go much further, such as E. T. Whittaker, who held that Poincaré and Lorentz were the true discoverers of relativity.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Poincaré introduced group theory to physics, and was the first to study the group of Lorentz transformations. He also made major contributions to the theory of discrete groups and their representations.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: The subject is clearly defined by Felix Klein in his "Erlangen Program" (1872): the geometry invariants of arbitrary continuous transformation, a kind of geometry. The term "topology" was introduced, as suggested by Johann Benedict Listing, instead of previously used "Analysis situs". Some important concepts were introduced by Enrico Betti and Bernhard Riemann. But the foundation of this science, for a space of any dimension, was created by Poincaré. His first article on this topic appeared in 1894.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: His research in geometry led to the abstract topological definition of homotopy and homology. He also first introduced the basic concepts and invariants of combinatorial topology, such as Betti numbers and the fundamental group. Poincaré proved a formula relating the number of edges, vertices and faces of "n"-dimensional polyhedron (the Euler–Poincaré theorem) and gave the first precise formulation of the intuitive notion of dimension.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Poincaré published two now classical monographs, "New Methods of Celestial Mechanics" (1892–1899) and "Lectures on Celestial Mechanics" (1905–1910). In them, he successfully applied the results of their research to the problem of the motion of three bodies and studied in detail the behavior of solutions (frequency, stability, asymptotic, and so on). They introduced the small parameter method, fixed points, integral invariants, variational equations, the convergence of the asymptotic expansions. Generalizing a theory of Bruns (1887), Poincaré showed that the three-body problem is not integrable. In other words, the general solution of the three-body problem can not be expressed in terms of algebraic and transcendental functions through unambiguous coordinates and velocities of the bodies. His work in this area was the first major achievement in celestial mechanics since Isaac Newton.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: These monographs include an idea of Poincaré, which later became the basis for mathematical "chaos theory" (see, in particular, the Poincaré recurrence theorem) and the general theory of dynamical systems.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Poincaré authored important works on astronomy for the equilibrium figures of a gravitating rotating fluid. He introduced the important concept of bifurcation points and proved the existence of equilibrium figures such as the non-ellipsoids, including ring-shaped and pear-shaped figures, and their stability. For this discovery, Poincaré received the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1900).


title: Henri Poincaré

text: After defending his doctoral thesis on the study of singular points of the system of differential equations, Poincaré wrote a series of memoirs under the title "On curves defined by differential equations" (1881–1882). In these articles, he built a new branch of mathematics, called "qualitative theory of differential equations". Poincaré showed that even if the differential equation can not be solved in terms of known functions, yet from the very form of the equation, a wealth of information about the properties and behavior of the solutions can be found. In particular, Poincaré investigated the nature of the trajectories of the integral curves in the plane, gave a classification of singular points (saddle, focus, center, node), introduced the concept of a limit cycle and the loop index, and showed that the number of limit cycles is always finite, except for some special cases. Poincaré also developed a general theory of integral invariants and solutions of the variational equations. For the finite-difference equations, he created a new direction – the asymptotic analysis of the solutions. He applied all these achievements to study practical problems of mathematical physics and celestial mechanics, and the methods used were the basis of its topological works.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Poincaré's work habits have been compared to a bee flying from flower to flower. Poincaré was interested in the way his mind worked; he studied his habits and gave a talk about his observations in 1908 at the Institute of General Psychology in Paris. He linked his way of thinking to how he made several discoveries.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: The mathematician Darboux claimed he was "un intuitif" (an intuitive), arguing that this is demonstrated by the fact that he worked so often by visual representation. Jacques Hadamard wrote that Poincaré's research demonstrated marvelous clarity and Poincaré himself wrote that he believed that logic was not a way to invent but a way to structure ideas and that logic limits ideas.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Poincaré's mental organisation was interesting not only to Poincaré himself but also to Édouard Toulouse, a psychologist of the Psychology Laboratory of the School of Higher Studies in Paris. Toulouse wrote a book entitled "Henri Poincaré" (1910). In it, he discussed Poincaré's regular schedule:


title: Henri Poincaré

text: In addition, Toulouse stated that most mathematicians worked from principles already established while Poincaré started from basic principles each time (O'Connor et al., 2002).


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Henri Poincaré did not receive the Nobel Prize in Physics, but he had influential advocates like Henri Becquerel or committee member Gösta Mittag-Leffler. The nomination archive reveals that Poincaré received a total of 51 nominations between 1904 and 1912, the year of his death. Of the 58 nominations for the 1910 Nobel Prize, 34 named Poincaré. Nominators included Nobel laureates Hendrik Lorentz and Pieter Zeeman (both of 1902), Marie Curie (of 1903), Albert Michelson (of 1907), Gabriel Lippmann (of 1908) and Guglielmo Marconi (of 1909).


title: Henri Poincaré

text: The fact that renowned theoretical physicists like Poincaré, Boltzmann or Gibbs were not awarded the Nobel Prize is seen as evidence that the Nobel committee had more regard for experimentation than theory. In Poincaré's case, several of those who nominated him pointed out that the greatest problem was to name a specific discovery, invention, or technique.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Poincaré had philosophical views opposite to those of Bertrand Russell and Gottlob Frege, who believed that mathematics was a branch of logic. Poincaré strongly disagreed, claiming that intuition was the life of mathematics. Poincaré gives an interesting point of view in his 1902 book "Science and Hypothesis":


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Poincaré believed that arithmetic is synthetic. He argued that Peano's axioms cannot be proven non-circularly with the principle of induction (Murzi, 1998), therefore concluding that arithmetic is "a priori" synthetic and not analytic. Poincaré then went on to say that mathematics cannot be deduced from logic since it is not analytic. His views were similar to those of Immanuel Kant (Kolak, 2001, Folina 1992). He strongly opposed Cantorian set theory, objecting to its use of impredicative definitions.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: However, Poincaré did not share Kantian views in all branches of philosophy and mathematics. For example, in geometry, Poincaré believed that the structure of non-Euclidean space can be known analytically. Poincaré held that convention plays an important role in physics. His view (and some later, more extreme versions of it) came to be known as "conventionalism". Poincaré believed that Newton's first law was not empirical but is a conventional framework assumption for mechanics (Gargani, 2012). He also believed that the geometry of physical space is conventional. He considered examples in which either the geometry of the physical fields or gradients of temperature can be changed, either describing a space as non-Euclidean measured by rigid rulers, or as a Euclidean space where the rulers are expanded or shrunk by a variable heat distribution. However, Poincaré thought that we were so accustomed to Euclidean geometry that we would prefer to change the physical laws to save Euclidean geometry rather than shift to a non-Euclidean physical geometry.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Poincaré's famous lectures before the Société de Psychologie in Paris (published as "Science and Hypothesis", "The Value of Science", and "Science and Method") were cited by Jacques Hadamard as the source for the idea that creativity and invention consist of two mental stages, first random combinations of possible solutions to a problem, followed by a critical evaluation.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Although he most often spoke of a deterministic universe, Poincaré said that the subconscious generation of new possibilities involves chance.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: It is certain that the combinations which present themselves to the mind in a kind of sudden illumination after a somewhat prolonged period of unconscious work are generally useful and fruitful combinations... all the combinations are formed as a result of the automatic action of the subliminal ego, but those only which are interesting find their way into the field of consciousness... A few only are harmonious, and consequently at once useful and beautiful, and they will be capable of affecting the geometrician's special sensibility I have been speaking of; which, once aroused, will direct our attention upon them, and will thus give them the opportunity of becoming conscious... In the subliminal ego, on the contrary, there reigns what I would call liberty, if one could give this name to the mere absence of discipline and to disorder born of chance.


title: Henri Poincaré

text: Poincaré's two stages—random combinations followed by selection—became the basis for Daniel Dennett's two-stage model of free will.


The 2019 Conservative Party leadership election was triggered when Theresa May announced on 24 May 2019 that she would resign as leader of the Conservative Party on 7 June and as prime minister of the United Kingdom once a successor had been elected. Nominations opened on 10 June; 10 candidates were nominated. The first ballot of members of Parliament (MPs) took place on 13 June, with exhaustive ballots of MPs also taking place on 18, 19 and 20 June, reducing the candidates to two. The general membership of the party elected the leader by postal ballot; the result was announced on 23 July, Boris Johnson being elected with almost twice as many votes as his opponent Jeremy Hunt.


title: 2019 Conservative Party leadership election

text: Speculation about a leadership election first arose following the party's performance at the 2017 snap general election. May had called it in hope of increasing her parliamentary majority for Brexit negotiations. However, the Conservatives lost their overall majority in the House of Commons. Subsequent speculation arose from the difficulties May had in obtaining a Brexit deal acceptable to the Conservative Party. These increased in November 2018, with members of the Eurosceptic European Research Group pushing for a vote of no confidence in May; the forty-eight letter threshold to force a confidence vote was met in December 2018; however, May won the vote and remained in office. In early 2019, Parliament repeatedly voted against May's proposed deal, leading to her resignation.


text: The first members' vote leadership election of the Conservative Party was held in 2001, but since then the party had been in opposition during all leadership elections except in 2016, which concluded with Andrea Leadsom withdrawing before the members' vote. Johnson became the first Conservative Party leader elected by members to immediately assume the role of Prime Minister.


text: After the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum saw a 52% to 48% vote in favour of leaving, David Cameron resigned as leader of the Conservative Party and as prime minister, triggering the 2016 Conservative Party leadership election. Theresa May, then serving as home secretary, won the contest after the withdrawal of Andrea Leadsom, and succeeded Cameron as prime minister on 13 July 2016.


text: May began the process of Brexit, the UK's withdrawal from the European Union, by triggering Article 50 on 29 March 2017. In April 2017, May announced a snap general election in June in order to "strengthen her hand" when she negotiated with the European Union. May aimed to substantially increase the Conservative Party's slim majority, with opinion polls originally predicting a landslide victory for her party. However, the result was a hung parliament, with the number of Conservative seats falling from 330 to 317. This prompted her to broker a confidence and supply deal with Northern Ireland's Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) to support her minority government.


text: May's handling of the campaign was widely criticised, particularly the role of her chiefs of staff Nick Timothy and Fiona Hill, who both resigned within days of the result. In June 2017, George Osborne, a former chancellor of the Exchequer, described May as a "dead woman walking". A YouGov poll for "The Sunday Times" had 48% of respondents saying May should resign, with 38% against. A Survation poll for "The Mail on Sunday" showed a similar result. The former Cabinet minister Anna Soubry called for May to "consider her position" after the election result. The former Cabinet minister Nicky Morgan said that May could not lead the Conservative Party into the next general election, and called for a leadership election in the summer or in 2018 before the Brexit deal would be finalised. After the Grenfell Tower fire in June 2017, May's leadership faced further criticism following her initial refusal to meet victims, and what was described as her poor handling of the crisis.


text: With May's position weakened, senior figures in the party were said to be preparing for a leadership contest and "jostling for succession". Politicians and journalists did not expect May to lead the party at the next general election. Tim Shipman, Political Editor of "The Sunday Times", described "the first shots in a battle that could tear the government apart" as the three leading contenders at that time for the leadership, David Davis, Boris Johnson and Philip Hammond, briefed against each other. Andrew Mitchell, an ally of Davis, was said to have told a dinner that May was finished and was said to be organising letters to force May to announce her date of departure. A July 2017 report in "The Independent" said a core of fifteen Conservative MPs were ready to sign letters of no confidence, with forty-eight needed to trigger a contest.


text: May reportedly announced to Conservative MPs in August 2017 that she would resign as Prime Minister on 30 August 2019. She then announced on 31 August 2017 that she intended to stay on to fight the next general election, which under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 was scheduled to be in 2022, though it could be held earlier.


text: On 16 September 2017, Johnson published an article in "The Daily Telegraph" laying out his vision for Brexit. Many saw this as a way of positioning himself for a leadership challenge, though some commentators such as columnist Iain Dale and "Newsnight"s political editor Nick Watt argued this was the wrong interpretation and that Johnson's motivation was to assert his influence in Brexit negotiations. The timing of the article—a few days before May was due to give a significant speech on her plans for the UK's relationship with Europe after Brexit, and shortly after a terrorist attack in London—was criticised.


text: Following Cabinet agreement for May's proposals on Brexit, Davis resigned as Brexit secretary on 8 July 2018. Steve Baker, a minister in the same department, resigned later the same day. On the same day it was reported that May was facing the threat of a leadership contest amid mounting anger from supporters of a hard Brexit over her government's Brexit policy. Backbencher Andrea Jenkyns called for her to be replaced, saying "Theresa May's premiership is over". Johnson later resigned as Foreign Secretary on 9 July 2018.


text: A "Daily Telegraph" article by Johnson opposing the burqa ban in Denmark in early August 2018 sparked controversy over the language he used, saying women wearing the burqa look like letterboxes or bank robbers. Kimiko de Freytas-Tamura, writing in the "New York Times", saw it as an attempt to court an anti-Islamic segment of the Conservative Party membership, who would be the electorate in the final stage of a leadership campaign. Former attorney general Dominic Grieve said that he would not remain in the party if Johnson became leader.


text: In November 2018, May presented her final proposal for an initial Brexit deal following negotiations with the EU. Brexit secretary Dominic Raab and others resigned from the Cabinet in response, with Jacob Rees-Mogg calling for a leadership election for the first time. Members of the Eurosceptic European Research Group including Rees-Mogg and Baker were seen to be launching a coup in mid-November following the Cabinet resignations. There was considerable speculation about whether enough letters of no confidence would be reached to trigger a vote.


text: Fifteen percent of the parliamentary party (forty-eight MPs) need to send a letter to the chairman of the 1922 Committee to trigger a no confidence vote in the Conservative Party leader. As of early afternoon on 16 November 2018, the BBC reported there were twenty-one MPs who had publicly stated they had sent a letter. Baker asserted that more letters had been sent and that he expected forty-eight to be reached in the week beginning 19 November. Some commentators expressed scepticism about this prediction. By 19 November 2018, twenty-six MPs publicly said they had submitted letters. Baker also suggested that the ERG could draw lots for who would be their candidate in a leadership election. By 20 November, the forty-eight letters had not been reached, with Rees-Mogg predicting that it may be reached in December when the House of Commons was due to vote on May's deal. However, facing likely defeat with opposition from the ERG, DUP and Conservative MPs who had supported Remain during the referendum, the vote in Parliament was delayed to January.


text: Conservative MPs including Dominic Grieve and Kwasi Kwarteng suggested that the party could see members leaving the party or a formal split if the party were led by Johnson.


text: By 11 December, the public count was still at twenty-six letters from MPs. That day, however, Owen Paterson publicly sent his letter and it later became clear that forty-eight letters had been submitted. May was informed, and chose to contest the vote. The confidence vote, held on 12 December, was a secret ballot of Conservative MPs.


text: In the week, May had been meeting EU leaders to discuss changes to her Brexit deal, but cancelled a planned 12 December meeting with the Irish Taoiseach in order to campaign to win the confidence vote. May and her supporters argued that a defeat for her would mean that Brexit would have to be delayed. In a speech to Conservative MPs immediately before voting, May said that she did not intend to lead the party into the 2022 general election and that she would seek a legally binding addition to the withdrawal agreement with the EU to address concerns over the Northern Ireland backstop.


text: Two MPs who had been suspended from the party, Andrew Griffiths and Charlie Elphicke, had the whip restored on the day of the vote, meaning they could also vote. Griffiths indicated his support for May; Elphicke declined to indicate his preference. There were 317 Conservative MPs able to vote. Every member of the Cabinet declared their support for May, including Leave supporters in the Cabinet like Michael Gove and Liam Fox. Notable Remain supporters in the Conservative Party including Anna Soubry also declared support for May, as did May's predecessor, David Cameron, and the leader and acting leader of the Scottish Conservatives. The Tory Reform Group announced their support for May. Notable Leave supporters outside the Cabinet, including Jacob Rees-Mogg and Bill Cash, said they would vote against her.


text: May won the vote by 200 for to 117 against. Brexit-supporting MPs varied in their response to the result: some, including Rees-Mogg and Raab, called on her to resign nevertheless, while others such as Paterson called on her to change her Brexit policy. As May won this vote, another party leader confidence vote could not be held for one year under standing rules.


text: On 27 March 2019, May said she would resign before the next stage of EU negotiations if her Brexit deal was passed. With no resolution around Brexit plans, there was continuing pressure for May to resign through April 2019.


text: After poor Conservative results in the 2019 local elections—the worst since 1995, when the party lost over 1,000 seats—there were further calls from Conservatives for May to resign. Davis announced his support for Raab, who set out a leadership platform in an interview with "The Sunday Times Magazine". With one report saying May intended to remain until autumn 2019, further senior Conservatives openly campaigned to replace her, including Andrea Leadsom, Jeremy Hunt, Michael Gove and Sajid Javid.


text: May had said that she wanted Parliament to approve her Brexit plan before the summer recess, after which she would resign, which would have been around late July. Further pressure mounted on May to be clear about her timetable for departure, with May meeting the 1922 Committee on the matter on 16 May 2019. There was talk about the Committee changing its rules to allow a new vote of no confidence in May to be held sooner. May was reported as having agreed to stand down by 30 June 2019.


text: On 21 May, May made a speech outlining her plan to introduce an EU withdrawal agreement bill in June that would allow the Commons to make amendments, such as amendments in favour of a Customs Union or a second referendum, but this was received badly by much of her own party as well as by other parties. There were growing calls for her to resign on 22 May, the day before the European Parliament elections. Andrea Leadsom, the leader of the House of Commons, resigned that day. May had planned to publish the bill on 24 May, but on polling day (23 May) she abandoned that plan, with publication delayed until early June. On 24 May she announced her resignation as leader of the Conservative Party, effective on 7 June 2019.


text: The principles of the procedure for selecting the leader of the Conservative Party are set in the party's constitution, while the detailed rules are agreed by the 1922 Committee executive in consultation with the Conservative Party Board. Nominations for the leadership are invited by the chairman of the 1922 Committee, who acts as returning officer. When nominations close, a list of valid nominations is published. If there is only one valid nomination, that person is elected. If two valid nominations are received, both names go forward to the party membership, whose numbers equate to about 0.35% of the UK electorate. Party members can vote even if they live abroad and are not UK citizens;


text: If more than two nominations are received, a ballot is held within the Parliamentary party. An exhaustive ballot system is used to select two candidates to go forward to the party membership. The 1922 Committee executive considered changing the rules such that four candidates would go to the ballot of the party membership; they also recommended increasing the number of MP nominations required to eight. On 4 June a rule change was accepted by the party board, whereby candidates would require the support of eight MPs to be nominated, then the support of at least 5% of the Parliamentary Conservative Party in the first ballot, and 10% in the second ballot in order to proceed further. In 2019, this equated to requiring the support of 17 MPs in the first ballot and 33 in the second. If all candidates met the threshold then the candidate with fewest votes would be eliminated. If three or more candidates remained after the second ballot, further ballots would be held, eliminating the candidate with the fewest votes and repeating this process until two candidates remained.


text: Nominations opened on 7 June and closed on 10 June. The first ballot was held on 13 June, with subsequent ballots being held on 18, 19 and 20 June. The first membership hustings was scheduled for 22 June and the ballot of the membership was to take place over the following month, with the winner announced on 23 July.


text: A large number of candidates attracted attention or were the subject of speculation over an extended period before the election was called. In 2017, the main contenders were initially seen to be Philip Hammond, David Davis, Boris Johnson and Amber Rudd. By early August 2017, Jacob Rees-Mogg was receiving considerable attention and he had risen to second in the betting markets after Davis. There was considerable speculation that the party's leader in Scotland, Ruth Davidson, could attempt to become the next leader, despite being ineligible as she was not an MP at Westminster. In September 2018, she said that she did not want the job and would focus on politics in Scotland.


text: Following renewed speculation about May's leadership after Johnson and Davis resigned from the Cabinet in summer 2018, press interest focused on Johnson, Rees-Mogg, Michael Gove, Sajid Javid and Jeremy Hunt. Dominic Raab became Brexit Secretary after Davis. In November 2018, following his resignation from the role over a proposed deal on the UK's departure from the European Union, Raab became the bookmakers' favourite to be new leader, followed by Javid or Johnson. Raab opposed holding a leadership election, but did not rule out his candidacy. Esther McVey, who resigned her position as work and pensions secretary on the same day, indicated that she would stand as a candidate if she had support.


text: By December 2018, Johnson, Javid and Rudd were all reported to be contemplating running if May were voted out. In November and December, other potential candidates included Gove, Hunt, Raab, Davis and Penny Mordaunt. Bookmakers had Johnson as most likely to succeed May on the morning of 12 December confidence vote.


text: On 2 May 2019, Rory Stewart, the international development secretary, announced his candidacy for the leadership. He stated that he would "bring the country together" as Prime Minister. Following a poor result for the party in the 2019 local elections on 2 May 2019, Dominic Raab, Sajid Javid, Michael Gove and Matt Hancock gave speeches and interviews that the journalist Tim Shipman described as a "beauty contest between those jostling to succeed Theresa May". On 4 May 2019, David Davis announced he would not seek the party leadership, and would instead support Raab if he chose to run. On 8 May 2019, Andrea Leadsom, the Leader of the House of Commons, stated she was "seriously considering" a second bid for the party leadership. On 9 May 2019, McVey announced she would be standing for the leadership. She stated that she had "enough support" from fellow MPs to "go forward" once May stepped down as Prime Minister.


text: On 24 May, the day May resigned, Johnson told an economic conference in Switzerland that, "We will leave the EU on October 31, deal or no deal." Stewart ruled out serving in a cabinet under Johnson over Johnson's support for a no-deal Brexit, which he believed was "undeliverable, unnecessary and is going to damage our country and economy." On the same day, Jeremy Hunt announced his candidacy for the leadership at a festival in his constituency. Matt Hancock, Dominic Raab, and Andrea Leadsom announced their candidacies the following day, 25 May; Michael Gove declared his own shortly afterwards, on 26 May, Sajid Javid and Kit Malthouse following the next day.


text: On 28 May, Gove promised to remove the charge for UK citizenship applications from EU nationals if elected. Hunt condemned a no-deal Brexit as "suicide", but McVey said it would be "political suicide" to not leave at the earliest opportunity. Both BBC News and Sky News invited candidates to debates. On 29 May, James Cleverly announced his candidacy. Hunt and Stewart both admitted during campaigning that they had taken illegal drugs in the past when abroad. The former Conservative leader Iain Duncan Smith warned on 30 May that there were too many candidates running and urged the 1922 committee to "accelerate the process." That same day, Mark Harper announced his candidacy. On 1 June, Liz Truss revealed an article of hers to be published the following day in "The Mail on Sunday", providing Johnson with his first endorsement from a Cabinet minister. Donald Trump said: "I think Boris would do a very good job. I think he would be excellent." When prompted on Gove and Hunt, Trump said he liked the latter, and criticised the former for his stance on Iran.


text: On 2 June, Sam Gyimah said no deal would be an "abject failure" and entered the race as the only candidate to back a referendum on the Brexit deal, with the options of remaining in the EU, leaving without a deal, or leaving with the current deal. He withdrew eight days later.


text: The One Nation conservative caucus of MPs announced a series of hustings over the week prior to close of nominations on 10 June. With so many candidates in the race, candidates with less support from fellow MPs were under mounting pressure to leave the leadership race. James Cleverly and then Kit Malthouse dropped out of the race on 4 June.


text: On the same day, the 1922 Committee decided on a rule change to the contest, determining that to make the ballot, MPs must have eight nominations by 10 June. The last-placed candidate in each round would be eliminated, but in addition, to survive the first and second ballots, MPs must obtain at least 5% and 10% of the total available votes (313) respectively (plus one representing their own vote; i.e., 17 and 33 respectively). The contest was to end in the week beginning 22 July.


text: By 5 June, Johnson was the clear favourite with the bookmakers, with Gove second favourite. In the hustings, Javid said he did not want to "become the Brexit Party" but Johnson said the party needed to "deliver Brexit on 31 October", whilst Hancock called Jeremy Corbyn an anti-Semite. On 7 June, Gove admitted to taking cocaine twenty years previously. Before nominations formally opened on 10 June, Johnson promised to cut income tax for higher earners and Gove to reduce VAT. Johnson also pledged to refuse to pay £39 billion to the EU. The candidates Hunt, Raab, Hancock, McVey and Gove all formally launched their campaigns on 10 June. Johnson launched his campaign on 12 June. He sidestepped a question about his previous admission that he had taken cocaine.


text: Raab said that he would be willing to prorogue Parliament in order to ensure the UK's departure from the European Union, particularly in order to leave without a deal. Johnson refused to rule out prorogation, leading to Stewart saying that he would set up an "alternative Parliament" to stop him if he prorogued Parliament.


text: On 13 June, the chancellor Philip Hammond wrote to candidates asking them to restrict themselves in any policy pledges they made to the current 2% of GDP deficit limit. This followed Raab saying he would reduce the income tax basic rate by 5p costing more than £20 billion annually, and Johnson saying he would raise the higher tax rate starting threshold from £50,000 to £80,000 costing £10 billion annually.


text: In the first MP ballot on 13 June, Leadsom, Harper and McVey were eliminated as they failed to obtain 17 votes. Johnson came first, with over a third of MPs' support—enough to ensure, were none of those who voted for him to change their minds in subsequent ballots, that he would be one of the final two on whom the membership voted. Hancock withdrew the next day.


text: Johnson was criticised for avoiding media interviews and not participating in the first TV debate, held on 16 June on Channel 4. All the other candidates took part, with an Opinium survey of those watching the debate having Stewart as the winner.


text: In the second MP ballot on 18 June, Johnson retained his substantial lead, increased by twelve compared to the first ballot. Hunt retained second place, but Stewart was the biggest gainer, up 18. Raab was eliminated as both the bottom candidate and for getting less than the required 33 votes. All five remaining candidates, Johnson, Hunt, Gove, Stewart and Javid, took part in a BBC debate later that same day. One poll after the debate found Stewart again to be the winner, but a second found Johnson ahead.


text: The third MP ballot on 19 June saw the top three remain the same (Johnson, Hunt, Gove). Stewart was the only candidate to lose votes compared to the previous round, down ten to come last, and was thus eliminated.


text: The fourth and fifth MP ballots were on 20 June. In the fourth ballot, Javid was eliminated, while Gove narrowly overtook Hunt for second place. The fifth ballot to produce a final candidate pairing eliminated Gove, who received two votes fewer than Hunt. There were questions raised as to whether the Johnson campaign encouraged some supporters to vote for Hunt instead in order to knock Gove out of the leadership, given the poor personal relationship between Johnson and Gove since the 2016 leadership election.


text: Johnson and Hunt, the final two candidates, were to be put to a vote of about 160,000 Conservative members, with the result to be announced in the week of 22 July.


text: In the early hours of 21 June, police were called to Johnson's home after neighbours heard an altercation between him and his girlfriend Carrie Symonds. The police attended and subsequently stated they found no need for police action.


text: A poll conducted on Saturday 22 June showed support for Johnson had fallen sharply following the incident. His eight-point lead earlier in the week had fallen to three points behind Hunt by Saturday morning. Among Tory voters, when asked who would make the best prime minister, Johnson's lead had fallen from 27% to 11% in the same period.


text: The first of a series of hustings took place in Birmingham on 22 June and was chaired by Iain Dale. During the hustings, Johnson repeatedly refused to answer questions about alleged altercation that took place between himself and Symonds. He claimed that the audience of Conservative members wanted to know "what my plans are for my country and for the party. I don’t think they want to hear about that kind of thing."


text: On the evening of 22 June, "The Observer" published evidence suggesting close links between Johnson and Steve Bannon. The video evidence, in which Bannon discussed how he helped Johnson craft the first speech after his resignation as foreign secretary, contradicted Johnson's previous denials of an association with Bannon.


text: The following ten MPs were nominated on 10 June. Each candidate needed the nomination of at least eight MPs, but only the proposer and seconder were made public.


text: The following MPs announced that they would seek the leadership of the Conservative Party but subsequently did not stand, or withdrew from the race, due to insufficient support or other reasons:


text: The following MPs publicly expressed interest in the leadership of the Conservative Party but subsequently declined to stand:


text: The following MPs were reported by the media as potential candidates for the leadership of the Conservative Party but subsequently declined to stand:


text: Following the fifth ballot of Conservative MPs on 20 June, the final two candidates, Jeremy Hunt and Boris Johnson, were invited to take place in a series of hustings organised by the party. Each of the sixteen events was held in a different region of the country. A digital hustings was held on 26 June, moderated by Hannah Vaughan Jones and livestreamed on social media (through Periscope).


text: On 28 May, the BBC announced plans to hold televised leadership debates for the candidates that would take place once nominations had closed. All candidates who had not yet been eliminated would be invited to take part in a hustings debate chaired by Emily Maitlis, followed by a "Question Time" special with Fiona Bruce. The final two candidates would then have a one-to-one interview with Andrew Neil, which aired on 12 July. On the same day, Sky News also announced plans for a head-to-head leadership debate between the final two candidates in front of an audience of Conservative Party members.


text: The BBC confirmed that the first debate would be broadcast under the title "Our Next Prime Minister" at 20:00 on 18 June 2019 on BBC One, two hours after the second ballot. Members of the public, speaking live from BBC studios around the UK, were to ask questions of the candidates. Channel 4 broadcast a 90-minute debate between the candidates on 16 June, hosted by Krishnan Guru-Murthy.


text: ITV announced on 20 June that they would be holding a head-to-head debate between Hunt and Johnson on 9 July, hosted by Julie Etchingham. The debate also aired in the Republic of Ireland on Virgin Media One.


text: On 21 June, Sky News presenter Kay Burley announced that their debate was planned to take place on 25 June, but Johnson was not willing to attend. On 24 June, Sky stated the event would not go ahead without Johnson, and would have to be cancelled. The channel also announced that both candidates had been invited to a rescheduled debate on 1 July. Johnson once again declined to attend; Sky News announced that it would hold an interview with Hunt on 1 July, Johnson being invited to be similarly interviewed at another date.


text: On 10 July, the BBC announced that the "Question Time" special was "unlikely to go ahead" on 16 July, due to Johnson's team expressing concerns about the format.


text: After each ballot of Conservative MPs, the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated. A new rule was introduced in 2019 due to the number of candidates: In the first ballot, held on 13 June 2019, candidates also needed to pass a threshold of 17 votes to avoid elimination. In the second ballot, held on 18 June, candidates needed to pass a threshold of 33 votes to avoid elimination.


text: The result was announced on 23 July, with Boris Johnson chosen by party members to succeed May. Johnson consequently also succeeded May as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom the following day. Outgoing party leader and British prime minister Theresa May pledged her full support for her successor and called for the rest of the party to unite behind Johnson.


text: In anticipation of Johnson's election, a number of ministers had announced that they would resign from office, due to his willingness to leave the EU without a deal. On 22 July, Foreign Minister Alan Duncan tendered his resignation; prior to the leadership election result announced on the following day, Education Minister Anne Milton stood down from her post, citing "grave concerns" over the new Prime Minister's Brexit policies. On 24 July, chancellor Philip Hammond, justice secretary David Gauke and international development secretary Rory Stewart all resigned from the May government, just hours before Boris Johnson became Prime Minister. This was done in protest against Johnson's position on withdrawing from the European Union, and in anticipation of their dismissal from office during the formation of a new cabinet. DUP leader Arlene Foster welcomed Johnson's election, reaffirming the continuity of the Conservative–DUP agreement.


text: Johnson's election was criticised by leaders of opposition parties, including Labour's Jeremy Corbyn, who restated his call for a new general election, the Scottish National Party's Commons leader Ian Blackford and the Liberal Democrats' Jo Swinson. Devolved administrations expressed a similar tone; Scotland's Nicola Sturgeon questioned his "lack of principle", and pledged to work with other parties to prevent the UK leaving the EU without a deal. Welsh first minister Mark Drakeford urged "seriousness" and "maturity", and also called for a further referendum if Johnson was unable to pass a deal that commanded the support of the House of Commons.


text: Johnson's election also caused concern in financial markets, with Moody's and Goldman Sachs both warning that the election of Boris Johnson would increase the likelihood of the exit of Britain from the European Union without a deal. Dame Carolyn Fairbairn, the Director-General of the CBI reacted to the result by urging the new Prime Minister to secure a deal, to "unlock new investment and confidence in factories and boardrooms across the country."


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: Gary Stevenson (born 30 November 1957), better known as Gary Lewis, is a Scottish actor. He has had roles in films such as "Billy Elliot", "Joyeux Noël", "Gangs of New York", "Eragon", and "Three and Out", as well as major roles in the television docudrama "Supervolcano" and the Starz series "Outlander".


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: Gary Lewis was born Gary Stevenson on 30 November 1957 in Easterhouse, Glasgow. The middle of three children, his father was a coppersmith whilst his mother worked in a local biscuit factory. After leaving school, he worked a series of jobs including as a street sweeper and in a library. He completed a social science degree at Glasgow College of Technology (now Glasgow Caledonian University), graduating with honours in 1983. Encouraged by his high school English teacher, Lewis read voraciously and eventually decided to pursue a career as an actor.


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: In 1979, Lewis starred in writer Freddy Anderson's Fringe First Award-winning play "Krassivy", which was based upon the life of Socialist school teacher John Maclean. Although he had pursued amateur theatrics, Lewis was 32 when he committed to acting, joining Robert Carlyle's newly formed Raindog Theatre. During his time with Raindog, he performed in plays such as "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest", "Ecstasy", and "Wasted". He also worked with the on "The Grapes of Wrath, "The Arches Theatre Company's production of Harold Pinter's "The Birthday Party," and starred in "One Two Hey" by Glaswegian author James Kelman.


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: In 1993, with the support of his friend actor-director Peter Mullan, Lewis was cast in the short film "Close." After working together on the short, both actors appeared in Danny Boyle's 1994 thriller "Shallow Grave", alongside Ewan McGregor and Christopher Eccleston. Lewis went on to feature in Mullan's subsequent shorts "Good Day for the Bad Guys" (1995) and the award-winning "Fridge" (1996).


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: Lewis joined director Kenneth Loach's unofficial stock company lending support to his two mentors in separate films: with Robert Carlyle, he co-starred in "Carla's Song" (1996), while he played a recovering alcoholic alongside Mullan in "My Name Is Joe" (1998). Between the two films, Lewis was featured in Sigma Films' short "California Sunshine" (1997) before again working with Mullan, who cast Lewis as over-righteous elder sibling Thomas in "Orphans" (1998), an examination of a dysfunctional family. That same year he was featured in director Albert Pyun's independent film "Postmortem", director Sean McGuire's short film "The Good Son", director Kenny Glenaan's short "The Whirlpool", short film "The Lucky Suit" opposite Robert Carlyle, and screenwriter Barry Gornell's short film "Sonny's Pride".


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: In 1999, Lewis starred in Ayub Khan Din's dramatic comedy "East is East", and Bill Forsyth's comedy "Gregory's Two Girls". He went on to star with Max Beesley in "The Match" (1999) before landing his international breakthrough in "Billy Elliot" (2000). Lewis' portrayal of a grief-stricken father, coping with the 1984-85 miner's strike and raising a son who wants to become a ballet dancer earned him a BAFTA nomination for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. In 2000, Lewis starred in May Miles Thomas' drama "One Life Stand", which premiered at the Edinburgh Film Festival, and featured Michael Caine as a boxing coach who was possibly involved in a murder in "Shiner," which screened at the San Sebastian Film Festival. Lewis finished the year with several short films including "What Where", a 12-minute short with Sean McGinley based upon Samuel Beckett's play of the same name, director David Mackenzie's "Marcie's Dowry", "The Elevator" alongside Ashley Walters, "Long Haul" alongside Simone Lahbib"," "Clean" with actor Stephen McCole, and director David McKay's "Caesar". He appeared in an additional short film in 2001, "Rob of the Rovers", which followed a day in the life of gym teacher Rob Meadows.


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: Lewis worked with director Giles MacKinnon twice in 2002. Revenge thriller "The Escapist", which featured Lewis in the role of Ron, was followed by a turn as Detective Inspector French in the crime drama "Pure". He went to Rome's Cinecittà Studios to join the ensemble cast of Martin Scorsese's "Gangs of New York", an epic tale of gang warfare among the lower classes in 1860s New York City. Lewis portrayed McGloin, an Irish-American meant to embody the shift in mid-nineteenth century attitudes towards other immigrants.


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: 2003 was another strong year with Lewis playing different roles. The first was Posh Pictures' "The Fall of Shug McCracken", which tackled the subject of employee theft and labour unions. Next was Danish director Soren Kragh-Jacobsen's film "Skagerrak", a romantic drama set in Scotland, which saw Lewis in a supporting role as a local Glaswegian. The last, a film noir drama from director and writer May Miles Thomas titled "Solid Air", which is about the relationship between a sickly father (Maurice Roeves) and his compulsive gambler son (Brian McCardie).


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: Working with director Kenneth Loach again, Lewis starred in the 2004 love story "Ae Fond Kiss...," which takes its name from a Robert Burns poem. That same year, he had a role in director Friðrik Þór Friðriksson's drama "Niceland (Population 1.000.002)" alongside Peter Capaldi and Kerry Fox. His next project was Stephen Whittaker's "The Rocket Post". Filmed on the island of Taransay, Scotland, the film explores a German scientist's idea to deliver mail via rockets in the late 1930s. Director Peter Timm's film "My Brother Is a Dog", features Lewis as the Antiquitätenhändler in a film about a young girl wishing for a dog. Lewis ended the year with two films about the post 9/11 tension between the Western and Arab worlds. First was a supporting role in writer Simon Beaufoy's "Yasmin", set in Northern England before and after the 9/11 attacks. Second was Sally Potter's fourth feature film "Yes", which views the post-traumatic rift through the lens of two lovers caught in the divide.


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: In 2005, Lewis starred in Christian Carion's international production of the film "Joyeux Noël". Set in WWI, the film explores the "Christmas Truce" of 1914 between the armies of three countries. In a departure from previous films, Lewis was next featured in director Danny Cannon's football film "Goal! The Dream Begins", which focuses on a Mexican football player trying out for the Newcastle United Football Club. Clive Gordon's 2006 film "Cargo", a psychological thriller, featured Lewis opposite Daniel Bruhl and Peter Mullan. As the skipper of a bankrupt Scottish fishing trawler in "True North", Lewis and actor Martin Compston tackle the subject of migrant smuggling and the effects it has on those making the journey. At the end of 2005, Lewis starred as Hrothgar in 20th Century Fox's live action adaptation of Christopher Paolini's hit fantasy trilogy "Eragon".


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: The 2008 British black comedy "Three and Out" (released as "A Deal Is A Deal" in Australia), from director Johnathan Gershfield, saw Lewis in the supporting role of Callaghan. The film focuses on a train conductor who tries to use a little known three strikes rule of the London train service to force an early retirement and payout for himself. Screened at the Edinburgh Film Festival, Lewis' next film was director Robert Rae's debut film "Trouble Sleeping," which tells the story of a Palestinian refugee's struggles in the UK. Psychological thriller "Dorothy Mills", directed by Agnes Merlet, featured Lewis as the brainwashing pastor of a small community on a bleak Irish island. His last film of 2008 was Mark Aldridge's drama "Blessed", alongside James Nesbitt and Lil Woods.


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: Reprising the role of Mal Braithwaite, Lewis began 2009 with the third instalment of Andrew Morahan's football series entitled "". "Wasted", his next film from filmmakers Caroline Paterson and Stuart Davids, treated the subject of homelessness in Glasgow, Scotland. From there he was cast in the Danish film "Valhalla Rising", alongside Mads Mikkelson, and director Christian Carion's Cold War thriller "Farewell" ("L'Affaire Farewell"). Lewis returned to short films in 2010 with director Tom Shrapnel's "Eat Me", Tribeca Film Festival Judge's Award nominee "The Terms", Robert James Armstrong's "Little Green Bag", and "Vocation" opposite James Chalmers"." He was also featured in Peter Mullan's gang drama "Neds".


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: 2011 showcased Lewis in two additional short films. The first, from director and writer Raisah Ahmed, titled "Last Order", featured Lewis alongside Leann O'Kasi and David Elliot. The second was filmmaker Gregor Johnstone's comedy "Rule of Thumb", which saw Lewis as the school janitor during a disastrous standoff. In 2012, Lewis appeared in two feature films. "The Strange Case of Wilhelm Reich", which explored psychiatrist Wilhem Reich's career and subsequent investigation by the FDA and other government agencies. He played Dr. Donald Cameron, who was President of the American, Canadian and World Psychiatric Associations. "When the Lights Went Out" starred Lewis as Father Clifford, a local priest who performs an exorcism on a house plagued by a poltergeist. The film is based on the real-life experiences of director Pat Holden's mother and aunt in 1970s West Yorkshire. Lewis' next role was Andrew Griffin's short film "The Gift" (2012), which was screened at the New York International Independent Film Festival in 2013.


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: Thirteen years after first working with May Thomas Miles in "One Life Stand", Lewis reunited with the filmmaker in 2013 for the film version of her BAFTA winning interactive website "The Devil's Plantation". Both the website and film are based on archaeologist Harry Bell's belief that Glasgow, Scotland was laid out based upon a secret, hidden design he called the Secret Geometry. Lewis starred as Bell, opposite Kate Dickie’s psychiatric patient Mary Ross, as their lives intertwine. He then appeared in Scottish romantic comedy "Not Another Happy Ending" as Benny Lockhart opposite Karen Gillan and fellow "Outlander" alumni Stanley Weber. Director Alberto Arvelo's "The Liberator", the story of Venezuelan freedom fighter Simón Bolívar, featured Lewis as Colonel Rooke of the Irish Brigade while director John S. Baird's psychological police drama "Filth," saw Lewis guest star as Gus. Later that year, Lewis featured in Luca Barbareschi's "The Mercury Factor", which takes on the issue of adulterated food. Returning to independent films at the end of 2013, Lewis starred alongside Teresina Moscatiello in the German production "Waiting" and in Marcus McPeake's short film "For Gracie".


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: First time British director Daniel Wolfe's thriller "Catch Me Daddy" (2014), which screened at the Director's Fortnight strand and focused on a teenager and her boyfriend who flee from her overbearing father, portrays Lewis as hired thug Tony, who is sent to retrieve the runaways. In 2015, Lewis appeared in short films, working twice with director Gordon Napier. The first film was the drama "La Chasse", in which Lewis portrayed the protagonist's deceased father through a voice over. Second was the 25-minute short "Tide", which saw Lewis star as lobster fisherman Alasdaire as he watches the life he knew erode into modern practices. Also in 2015, Lewis in featured in Joshua J. Krull's German language short film "The Heavy Load".


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: In 2018, Lewis returned to feature films with director Marcus H. Rosenmüller's football flick "The Keeper". The film is a story of German goalkeeper Bert Trautmann, who helped Manchester City win the FA Cup final in 1956. He also featured opposite Gerard Butler and Peter Mullan in Kristoffer Nyholm's 1930s era thriller, "The Vanishing". In 2021, he worked on a third Cation title, a remake of the 2017 French language Mon Garcon. My Son, set in Scotland.


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: Lewis' first professional role, in 1993, was in BBC's anthology series "Screen One," in a feature-length episode entitled "Down Among the Big Boys." The standalone film, also starring Douglas Henshall and Billy Connolly, focuses on the marriage of a policeman's son to a criminals daughter. His next project was a 1995 made-for-TV movie from writer/director David Kane. "Ruffian Hearts" is a romantic comedy set in a Glasgow tenement where Lewis' character resided. Between 1995 and 1999, Lewis appeared in several episodes of series such as "Doctor Finlay", "Hamish MacBeth" opposite Robert Carlyle, BBC medical drama "Cardiac Arrest", BBC anthology "Screen Two"'s feature length "Flowers of the Forest", school drama "Hope and Glory," and BBC Scotland's medical drama "Life Support". During that time, he also appeared in director Mark Haber's made-for-TV film "The Princess Stallion" and BAFTA winning television film "Coming Soon".


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: In 2002, Lewis starred in CBC's award-winning TV film "The Many Trials of One Jane Doe", which is based on a true story of a Toronto woman who challenged the police and their investigation after being raped, through a lengthy court battle. 2003 saw Lewis return to the BBC for director Antonia Bird's compelling TV film "Rehab", a semi-improvised film about the rehabilitation of people addicted to drugs.


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: That same year he featured in scriptwriter Andrew Davies' made for TV historical drama "Warrior Queen", which detailed the birth of Great Britain. His next project, "Gunpowder, Treason and Plot" (2004)"," was a four part mini-series for the BBC on the lives of Mary Queen of Scots and her son James VI of Scotland/James I of England. Lewis portrayed historical figure John Knox, a prominent leader of the Scottish Reformation who supervised the preparation of the Reformed Church of Scotland's constitution and liturgy.


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: The BBC and The Discovery Channel partnered in 2005 to produce a made-for-TV film, "Supervolcano", that proposed a scenario where the magma chamber beneath Yellowstone National Park erupted. Filmed in Vancouver and Yellowstone, it starred Lewis alongside Michael Riley and Shaun Johnston. Between 2006 and 2008, Lewis appeared in a wide range episodic television programs, including ITV's crime thriller "Rebus", "Prime Suspect 7: The Final Act" alongside Helen Mirren, ITV's showcase series "Comedy Lab", the second of two episodes he appeared in (the first was in 1999), Channel 4's mini series "City of Vice", "Wired" alongside Jodie Whittaker, crime drama "Taggart" the second of two episodes he appeared in (the first was in 1996), and BBC comedy "Rab C. Nesbitt".


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: In 2010 Lewis portrayed Adam Ingram in the Channel 4 drama "Mo," a biopic of former Secretary of State for Northern Ireland Mo Mowlam, a role that saw him nominated for a BAFTA Television Award in the category of Best Supporting Actor. He went on to appear alongside actor Kevin McKidd in BBC Scotland's drama "One Night in Emergency", which was based upon Homer's "The Odyssey" and written by Gregory Burke, as well as the BBC's adaptation of RAF fighter pilot Geoffrey Wellum's WWII autobiography "First Light". Lewis played Mac alongside the now star of Outlander, Sam Heughan, who played the 18 year old fighter pilot Wellum Lewis rounded out the year by featuring in series seven of the BBC's long-running crime drama "New Tricks".


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: Lewis appeared in several television miniseries in 2011. The first was episode five of the BBC's "Outcasts," which saw Lewis portraying Patrick Baxter. Next was an episode of the BBC drama "The Body Farm" where he portrayed Jimmy West, butler to an elderly man accused of murder. Finally, Lewis appeared in the BBC mini-series "Young James Herriot", which focused on the "All Creatures Great and Small" author's time as a student at Glasgow Veterinary College, in the role of Professor Quinton Gunnel. He also featured in several TV series including the enigmatic wizard Alator in two episodes of the BBC fantasy drama "Merlin," Robert Winter in ITV's crime drama "Vera", and Detective Novakowski in Canada's true crime drama "Dual Suspects".


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: In 2012 Lewis starred in the two-part television miniseries "L'Olimpiade Nascosta", on Italy's Rai 1, which tells the story of symbolic Olympic Games held by the prisoners and their captors while in Polish Nazi concentration camps. He went on to feature in a season two episode of the BAFTA winning show "Case Histories", alongside Jason Isaacs.


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: 2014 saw Lewis appear as DS MacNeil in the "Silent Witness" two-part episode "In A Lonely Place". This was the second of two guest starring roles on the hit series, the first was as Edwin Stickley in a 2008 two-part episode entitled "Terror". He next appeared in episode six of Sky One's mini-series "The Smoke", which chronicled the lives of a group of London firefighters, and the BAFTA winning TV film "Glasgow Girls", which featured Lewis as a teacher supporting his pupils in their fight to save their classmate from deportation. From 2014 to 2016, Lewis appeared in the recurring role of Colum MacKenzie, Laird of the MacKenzie clan, on Starz' time travel drama "Outlander," based upon best-selling author Diana Gabaldon's novels of the same name.


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: "Death in Paradise," BBC's lighthearted police drama set on an island in the Caribbean, featured Lewis in the guest starring role of Bill Williams early in 2015. Later that year he starred as Mike McAvett in BBC Two's mini-series "Stonemouth", an adaptation of Scottish author Iain Banks' thriller of the same name. In BBC One's four-part drama "One of Us" (aka "Retribution"), a triple homicide murder mystery, Lewis featured as farm manager Alistair. From there he starred in ITV's British crime drama "The Level", as father of protagonist Nancy Devlin (Karla Crome). Lewis ended 2016 by once again working with costar Douglas Henshall in ITV's three-part mini-series "In Plain Sight", which was based on the true story of Lanarkarshire Detective William Muncie's quest to bring serial rapist and murderer Peter Manuel to justice in the 1950s.


title: Gary Lewis (actor)

text: Lewis signed on to co-star opposite Catherine Walker and Søren Malling in MTG Studio's drama "Rig 45", set during the investigation of a fatal accident on a North Sea oil rig, in early 2018. He next appeared in season three of Netflix's Canadian fur trade drama "Frontier", alongside Jason Momoa and Zoe Boyle. During the first quarter of 2019, Lewis guest starred in series finale of BBC Scotland's hit comedy "Still Game", which focused on two Glaswegians and their reactions to the world.


title: Oak Ridge, Tennessee

text: Oak Ridge is a city in Anderson and Roane counties in the eastern part of the U.S. state of Tennessee, about west of downtown Knoxville. Oak Ridge's population was 31,402 at the 2020 census. It is part of the Knoxville Metropolitan Area. Oak Ridge's nicknames include "the Atomic City", "the Secret City", "the Ridge", "the Town the Atomic Bomb Built", and "the City Behind the Fence".