title: Medieval Warm Period

text: Palaeoclimatologists developing region-specific climate reconstructions of past centuries conventionally label their coldest interval as "LIA" and their warmest interval as the "MWP." Others follow the convention, and when a significant climate event is found in the "LIA" or "MWP" timeframes, they associate their events to the period. Some "MWP" events are thus wet events or cold events, rather than strictly warm events, particularly in central Antarctica, where climate patterns that are opposite to those of the North Atlantic have been noticed.


title: Medieval Warm Period

text: In 2019, by using an extended proxy data set, the Pages-2k consortium confirmed that the Medieval Climate Anomaly was not a globally-synchronous event. The warmest 51-year period within the MWP did not occur at the same time in different regions. They argue for a regional instead of global framing of climate variability in the preindustrial Common Era to aid in understanding.


title: Medieval Warm Period

text: Lloyd D. Keigwin's 1996 study of radiocarbon-dated box core data from marine sediments in the Sargasso Sea found that its sea surface temperature was approximately cooler approximately 400 years ago, during the LIA, and 1700 years ago and was approximately 1 °C warmer 1000 years ago, during the MWP.


title: Medieval Warm Period

text: Using sediment samples from Puerto Rico, the Gulf Coast, and the Atlantic Coast from Florida to New England, Mann "et al." (2009) found consistent evidence of a peak in North Atlantic tropical cyclone activity during the MWP, which was followed by a subsequent lull in activity.


title: Medieval Warm Period

text: Iceland was first settled between about 865 and 930, during a time believed to be warm enough for sailing and farming. By retrieval and isotope analysis of marine cores and from examination of mollusc growth patterns from Iceland, Patterson "et al." reconstructed a stable oxygen (δ O) and carbon (δ C) isotope record at a decadal resolution from the Roman Warm Period to the MWP and the LIA. Patterson "et al." conclude that the summer temperature stayed high but winter temperature decreased after the initial settlement of Iceland.


title: Medieval Warm Period

text: The 2009 Mann "et al." study found warmth exceeding 1961–1990 levels in southern Greenland and parts of North America during the MWP, which the study defines as from 950 to 1250, with warmth in some regions exceeding temperatures of the 1990–2010 period. Much of the Northern Hemisphere showed a significant cooling during the LIA, which the study defines as from 1400 to 1700, but Labrador and isolated parts of the United States appeared to be approximately as warm as during the 1961–1990 period.


title: Medieval Warm Period

text: The Norse colonization of the Americas has been associated with warmer periods. The common theory is that Norsemen took advantage of ice-free seas to colonize areas in Greenland and other outlying lands of the far north. However, a study from Columbia University suggests that Greenland was not colonized in warmer weather, but the warming effect in fact lasted for only very briefly. , the climate was sufficiently warm for the Vikings to journey to Newfoundland and to establish a short-lived outpost there.


title: Medieval Warm Period

text: In around 985, Vikings founded the Eastern and Western Settlements, both near the southern tip of Greenland. In the colony's early stages, they kept cattle, sheep, and goats, with around a quarter of their diet from seafood. After the climate became colder and stormier around 1250, their diet steadily shifted towards ocean sources. By around 1300, seal hunting provided over three quarters of their food.


title: Medieval Warm Period

text: By 1350, there was reduced demand for their exports, and trade with Europe fell away. The last document from the settlements dates from 1412, and over the following decades, the remaining Europeans left in what seems to have been a gradual withdrawal, which was caused mainly by economic factors such as increased availability of farms in Scandinavian countries.


title: Medieval Warm Period

text: Substantial glacial retreat in southern Europe was experienced during the MWP. While several smaller glaciers experienced complete deglaciation, larger glaciers in the region survived and now provide insight into the region’s climate history. In addition to warming induced glacial melt, sedimentary records reveal a period of increased flooding, coinciding with the MWP, in eastern Europe that is attributed to enhanced precipitation from a positive phase North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). Other impacts of climate change can be less apparent such as a changing landscape. Preceding the MWP, a coastal region in western Sardinia was abandoned by the Romans. The coastal area was able to substantially expand into the lagoon without the influence of human populations and a high stand during the MWP. When human populations returned to the region, they encountered a land altered by climate change and had to reestablish ports.


title: Medieval Warm Period

text: In Chesapeake Bay (now in Maryland and Virginia, United States), researchers found large temperature excursions (changes from the mean temperature of that time) during the MWP (about 950–1250) and the Little Ice Age (about 1400–1700, with cold periods persisting into the early 20th century), which are possibly related to changes in the strength of North Atlantic thermohaline circulation. Sediments in Piermont Marsh of the lower Hudson Valley show a dry MWP from 800 to 1300.


title: Medieval Warm Period

text: Prolonged droughts affected many parts of what is now the Western United States, especially eastern California and the west of Great Basin. Alaska experienced three intervals of comparable warmth: 1–300, 850–1200, and since 1800. Knowledge of the MWP in North America has been useful in dating occupancy periods of certain Native American habitation sites, especially in arid parts of the Western United States. Droughts in the MWP may have impacted Native American settlements also in the Eastern United States, such as at Cahokia. Review of more recent archaeological research shows that as the search for signs of unusual cultural changes has broadened, some of the early patterns (such as violence and health problems) have been found to be more complicated and regionally varied than had been previously thought. Other patterns, such as settlement disruption, deterioration of long-distance trade, and population movements, have been further corroborated.


title: Medieval Warm Period

text: The climate in equatorial eastern Africa has alternated between being drier than today and relatively wet. The climate was drier during the MWP (1000–1270). Off the coast of Africa, Isotopic analysis of bones from the Canary Islands’ inhabitants during the MWP to LIA transition reveal the region experienced a 5 °C decrease in air temperature. Over this period, the diet of inhabitants did not appreciably change, which suggests they were remarkably resilient to climate change.


title: Medieval Warm Period

text: A sediment core from the eastern Bransfield Basin, in the Antarctic Peninsula, preserves climatic events from both the LIA and the MWP. The authors noted, "The late Holocene records clearly identify Neoglacial events of the LIA and Medieval Warm Period (MWP)." Some Antarctic regions were atypically cold, but others were atypically warm between 1000 and 1200.


title: Medieval Warm Period

text: Corals in the tropical Pacific Ocean suggest that relatively cool and dry conditions may have persisted early in the millennium, which is consistent with a La Niña-like configuration of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation patterns.


title: Medieval Warm Period

text: In 2013, a study from three US universities was published in "Science" magazine and showed that the water temperature in the Pacific Ocean was 0.9 degrees warmer during the MWP than during the LIA and 0.65 degrees warmer than the decades before the study.


title: Medieval Warm Period

text: The MWP has been noted in Chile in a 1500-year lake bed sediment core, as well as in the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador.


title: Medieval Warm Period

text: A reconstruction, based on ice cores, found that the MWP could be distinguished in tropical South America from about 1050 to 1300 and was followed in the 15th century by the LIA. Peak temperatures did not rise as to the level of the late 20th century, which were unprecedented in the area during the study period of 1600 years.


title: Medieval Warm Period

text: Adhikari and Kumon (2001), investigating sediments in Lake Nakatsuna, in central Japan, found a warm period from 900 to 1200 that corresponded to the MWP and three cool phases, two of which could be related to the LIA. Other research in northeastern Japan showed that there was one warm and humid interval, from 750 to 1200, and two cold and dry intervals, from 1 to 750 and from 1200 to now. Ge "et al." studied temperatures in China for the past 2000 years and found high uncertainty prior to the 16th century but good consistency over the last 500 years highlighted by the two cold periods, 1620s–1710s and 1800s–1860s, and the 20th-century warming. They also found that the warming from the 10th to the 14th centuries in some regions might be comparable in magnitude to the warming of the last few decades of the 20th century, which was unprecedented within the past 500 years. Generally, a warming period was identified in China, coinciding with the MWP, using multi-proxy data for temperature. However, the warming was inconsistent across China. Significant temperature change, from the MWP to LIA, was found for northeast and central-east China but not for northwest China and the Tibetan Plateau. Alongside an overall warmer climate, areas in Asia experienced wetter conditions in the MWP southeastern China, India, and far eastern Russia. Peat cores from peatland in southeast China suggest changes in the East Asian Summer Monsoon (EASM) and El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) are responsible for increased precipitation in the region during the MWP. The Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) was also enhanced during the MWP with a temperature driven change to the Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation (AMO), bringing more precipitation to India. In far eastern Russia, continental regions experienced severe floods during the MWP while nearby islands experienced less precipitation leading to a decrease in peatland. Pollen data from this region indicates an expansion of warm climate vegetation with an increasing number of broadleaf and decreasing number of coniferous forests.


title: Medieval Warm Period

text: There is an extreme scarcity of data from Australia for both the MWP and the LIA. However, evidence from wave-built shingle terraces for a permanently-full Lake Eyre during the 9th and the 10th centuries is consistent with a La Niña-like configuration, but the data are insufficient to show how lake levels varied from year to year or what climatic conditions elsewhere in Australia were like.


title: Medieval Warm Period

text: A 1979 study from the University of Waikato found, "Temperatures derived from an O/O profile through a stalagmite found in a New Zealand cave (40.67°S, 172.43°E) suggested the Medieval Warm Period to have occurred between AD and and to have been 0.75 °C warmer than the Current Warm Period." More evidence in New Zealand is from an 1100-year tree-ring record.


title: Nazaré, Portugal

text: Nazaré () is a Portuguese town and municipality located in the Oeste region, in the historical province of Estremadura, and in the Leiria District. The municipality has a population of 14,889 in an area of 82.43 km, while the town itself has around 10,000 inhabitants.


title: Nazaré, Portugal

text: The town of Nazaré consists of three neighbourhoods: "Praia" (along the beach), "Sítio" (an old village, on top of a cliff) and "Pederneira" (another old village, on a hilltop). "Praia" and "Sítio" are linked by the Nazaré Funicular, a funicular railway.


title: Nazaré, Portugal

text: The present mayor is Walter Chicharro, a member of the Socialist Party. The municipal holiday is on 8 September, as part of the Our Lady Of Nazaré Festival, a ten-day religious and secular celebration with processions, bullfights, fireworks, folk dancing and a fair.


title: Nazaré, Portugal

text: The earliest settlements were in Pederneira and in Sítio, above the beach. They provided the inhabitants with refuge against raids by Viking and, later, French, English and Dutch pirates, that lasted until as late as the beginning of the 19th century. In fact, only in the 19th century, with the gradual end of maritime piracy, was possible for the people to start occupying the "Praia" which is today considered the town center.


title: Nazaré, Portugal

text: According to the Legend of Nazaré, the town derives its name from a small wooden statue of the Virgin Mary, brought from Nazareth, Holy Land, to a monastery near the city of Mérida, Spain, by a monk in the 4th century. The statue was brought to its current location in 711 by another monk, Romano, accompanied by Roderic, the last Visigoth king of today's Portugal. After their arrival at the seaside they decided to become hermits. Romano lived and died in a small natural grotto, on top of a cliff above the sea. After his death and according to his wishes, the king buried him in the grotto. Roderic left the statue of the Black Madonna in the grotto on an altar.


title: Nazaré, Portugal

text: The first church in "Sítio" was built over the grotto to commemorate a miraculous intervention in 1182 by the Virgin Mary, which saved the life of the 12th-century Portuguese knight Dom Fuas Roupinho (possibly a templar) while he was hunting deer one morning in a dense fog. The episode is usually referred to as the Legend of Nazaré. In memory of the miracle he had a chapel ("Capela da Memória") built over the small grotto, where the miraculous statue had been placed by king Roderic. Beside the chapel, on a rocky outcrop 110 meters above the Atlantic, one can still see the mark made in the rock by one of the hooves of Dom Fuas' horse. This Church of Nazareth, high on the rocky outcrop over Pederneira Bay, was noted as a landmark in sailors' manuals.


title: Nazaré, Portugal

text: In 1377, King Fernando I of Portugal founded a new, more spacious church, which was totally transformed between the 16th and 19th centuries. The Sanctuary of Our Lady of Nazaré is a rich baroque building, with splendid tiles on its interior. Behind and above the main altar, visitors can see and venerate the miraculous statue of Our Lady of Nazaré. The religious figures are crowned by 18th century diadems, presented to the church by King John VI. The sacred image is wrapped with a green cloak decorated with gold, gifted to the Virgin Mary by King John V. The main chapel is separated from the body of the church with an arcade made from "pau-santo" and a few pillars decorated with mosaics in 19th century Italian marble.


title: Nazaré, Portugal

text: The Nazarene coastline is among the most dangerous in the world with its high waves and local fishermen have braved them for centuries. The town’s reliance on the sea for food production and economic viability is a result of the unique climate that differs from the surrounding Mediterranean eco-zone where land-farming is more common. Fishing in Nazaré is an activity carried out entirely by the village men, leaving the women to run daily life and daily governance in the town. These distinctly gendered roles and adherence to rudimentary fishing practices are widely believed to be the primary reason the town has not yet developed into a modern industrial society.


title: Nazaré, Portugal

text: The municipality of Nazaré borders the Atlantic to the west and is surrounded entirely by the municipality of Alcobaça to the north, east and south.


title: Nazaré, Portugal

text: Nazaré has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen: "Csb") with warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters. The town's climate is moderated by the Atlantic Ocean and the seasonal upwelling phenomena typical of western Portugal gives it cool to warm, dry and overall sunny summers. As a result of the marine layer, morning and evening fogs are very frequent in the summer and can persist all day on rare occasions. The seasonal downwelling on the other hand is most common in the winter and gives Nazaré a more unstable, Atlantic dominated weather with often overcast, rainy and stormy days, clear days, however, are not uncommon in this season. Temperatures above or below are very uncommon. Nazaré also experiences some seasonal lag, with temperatures in September being warmer than those in June.


title: Nazaré, Portugal

text: Over the 20th century, Nazaré progressively evolved from a fishing village to a point of interest among Portuguese and International tourists, advertising itself internationally as a picturesque seaside village.


title: Nazaré, Portugal

text: Located on the Atlantic coast, it has long sandy beaches (considered by some to be among the best in Portugal), attracting many tourists in the summer. The town used to be known for the traditional costumes worn by the fishermen. Women traditionally wear a headscarf and embroidered apron over seven flannel skirts in different colours. The costumes are still worn occasionally.


title: Nazaré, Portugal

text: It is quite visited due to the religious festivals dedicated to Our Lady of Nazaré, in which there are processions and also some profane celebrations.


title: Nazaré, Portugal

text: Many of the tourists and Catholic pilgrims who visit Central Portugal, and especially the internationally famous Sanctuary of Our Lady of Fátima (located nearby in Cova da Iria), go to Nazaré for a visit or to watch the surfing championships.


title: Nazaré, Portugal

text: Nazaré is a very popular surfing destination because of the very high breaking waves that form due to the presence of the underwater Nazaré Canyon. The canyon increases and converges the incoming ocean swell which, in conjunction with the local water current, dramatically enlarges wave heights.


title: Nazaré, Portugal

text: Due to the height of the waves, numerous surfing records have been set at Nazaré. In November 2011, surfer Garrett McNamara, who resided in Hawaii at that time, surfed a then record-breaking giant wave: from trough to crest, at Praia do Norte, Nazaré. On November 8, 2017, Brazilian surfer Rodrigo Koxa broke the previous record by surfing a big wave of ; for this feat he won the Quiksilver XXL Biggest Wave prize and entered the Guinness World Record for the biggest wave ever surfed. In October 2020, German surfer Sebastian Steudtner broke this record, riding a giant wave which was measured at making it the largest ever surfed.


title: Nazaré, Portugal

text: There has been a marked increase in visitors to popular viewing points for surfing competitions, such as the lighthouse at the Fort of São Miguel Arcanjo, which has seen numbers increase from 80,000 visitors in 2015 to 174,000 in 2017.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: The Honda CR-Z is a sport compact hybrid electric automobile manufactured by Honda and marketed as a "sport hybrid coupe." The CR-Z combines a hybrid gasoline-electric powertrain with traditional sports car elements, including a 2+2 seating arrangement (excluding North American models where the backseat is removed) and a standard 6-speed manual transmission. The CR-Z is regarded as the spiritual successor to the second-generation Honda CR-X in both name and exterior design.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: In the U.S., the CR-Z is one of the least polluting vehicles available and is rated as an Advanced Technology Partial Zero Emissions Vehicle (AT-PZEV) as defined by the California Air Resources Board (CARB). The CR-Z is the third gasoline-electric hybrid model offered by Honda (after the 2000–2006 Insight and 2003–2005 Civic Hybrid) that can be equipped with a manual transmission, and the only one in its class.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: The CR-Z is the sixth unique version of Honda's Integrated Motor Assist (IMA) technology since the technology was first launched in the first generation Insight 3 door hatchback.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: Sales of the CR-Z began in Japan in February 2010. Sales in the U.S. began in August 2010, and production ended by the end of 2016.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: The design and production of the CR-Z followed two other Honda hybrid concept cars: the Honda Remix, introduced at the 2006 Los Angeles Auto Show, and the Honda Small Hybrid Sports, introduced at the 2007 Geneva Motor Show.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: The Honda CR-Z was introduced as a concept vehicle on October 23, 2007 at the 2007 Tokyo Motor Show. Honda said the name "CR-Z" stood for ‘Compact Renaissance Zero’ — reflecting the idea of a renaissance in the design of compact cars. At the show, CEO Fukui stated that a production model is "in the works" and that the car was intended to be "sporty, incredibly efficient and inexpensive". The CR-Z name was previously used as a grade level in 1985 and 1986 as the Honda Ballade CR-Z, which was sold alongside the original Ballade Sports CR-X in Japan.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: The CR-Z was first shown in America at the 2008 Detroit North American International Auto Show. At the 2009 Tokyo Motor Show, Honda displayed a revised "CR-Z Concept 2009".


title: Honda CR-Z

text: In January 2010, Honda introduced the production CR-Z at the 2010 North American International Auto Show in Detroit. At its introduction in 2010, it won the Car of the Year Japan Award.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: Automotive News reported in June 2010 that since its debut at the Detroit Auto Show, the CR-Z Web site had had 1 million hits.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: Honda promoted the 2011 model from the Facebook game "Car Town". The car was also featured in the music video for the Jason Derulo song Ridin' Solo.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: CR-Z models have received an average rating for side crash safety, an excellent (5 out of 5 stars) rating for rollover, and a 4 out of 5 star rating for frontal crash safety for 2012 and newer model. The 2011 model has an average frontal crash safety rating (3 out of 5 stars). Dual front airbags, side airbags and head-protecting side curtains are standard equipment. Antilock brakes (ABS), electronic brakeforce distribution (EBD).


title: Honda CR-Z

text: The basic concept of the CR-Z is to create a fun-to-drive sports car with driving characteristics of a Honda. In a video, Torikai, the chief chassis engineer of CR-Z, explained that during the development process “this car was brought to Europe at each prototype stage to be tested under various road conditions to evaluate whether the desired performance had been achieved.”


title: Honda CR-Z

text: The CR-Z is powered by a i-VTEC SOHC inline-4 engine, designated as LEA, with Honda's Integrated Motor Assist (IMA) hybrid-electric system. A six-speed manual transmission is standard equipment and a continuously variable transmission (CVT) is available. The system delivers a combined peak output of at 6000 rpm and at 1000 to 1500 rpm ( on CVT-equipped models). The gasoline engine contributes at 6000 rpm and at 4800 rpm. An early road test of a Japanese-market CR-Z resulted in 0–100 km/h in 10.5 seconds and the quarter mile in 17.6 seconds. Inside Line performed the same 0–100 km/h test in 8.8 seconds, and Motor Trend, in 8.3 seconds.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: On November 21, 2012, Honda released the 2013 CR-Z to the United States market, which other than minor cosmetic changes, included a more powerful electric motor (from 10 to 15 kilowatts), and a new, higher voltage (144V), 0.6 kWh lithium-ion battery pack. The 2013 CR-Z delivers a combined peak output of 130 horsepower at 6,000 rpm and 140 pound-feet of torque (127 pound-feet on CVT-equipped models), a gain of eight horsepower and 12 pound-feet of torque (4 pound-feet on CVT equipped models).


title: Honda CR-Z

text: A new Plus Sport System is standard. If the battery is more than 30 percent charged and the CR-Z is traveling over 18 mph, the driver can press the "S+" button on the steering wheel to deliver increased acceleration for up to five seconds. Manual-transmission versions also receive both a larger clutch and a new lower final drive ratio. EPA-rated fuel economy figures increased by 1 mpg city for CVT equipped models, and 1 mpg highway for those with the six-speed manual transmission.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: Japanese fuel economy ratings are for CVT and for MT in 10•15 mode; and for CVT and for MT in JC08 mode.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: The 2011 CR-Z U.S. EPA ratings are for city and for highway with manual transmission. The model with CVT transmission has a rating of for city driving cycle and for highway. Beyond U.S. EPA estimates, among drivers reporting real-world fuel economy the CR-Z averages nearly 39 mpg overall.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: When comparing fuel economy to the CR-Z's older cousin, according to fueleconomy.gov, the 1988 gasoline-powered Honda CR-X HF had an EPA rating of city driving, and highway driving. The CR-Z is ranked number four on 2011 EPA top ten list of fuel efficient vehicles for CVT equipped model and number ten for manual transmission equipped model.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: Sales of the CR-Z began in Japan on August 24, 2010 at a starting price of million (~) before any government subsidies. Honda announced that in less than one month it had received orders for more than 10,000 vehicles, far exceeding its sales forecast.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: As of the end of August 2010, more than 19,000 CR-Z were delivered and sales orders received are three times higher than expected, which led to Japanese media comparing its success with the NSX in the 1990s, another sports car from Honda.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: In an interview in early February 2011, a Honda executive disclosed that Honda produces around 200,000 hybrids a year in Japan.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: Sales in North America started on February 26, 2010. The 2011 CR-Z was offered in three trim levels: base, EX, and EX with Navigation. The base CR-Z starts at , the CR-Z EX starts at and the EX with navigation trim is priced at . The CR-Z pricing was similar to the now discontinued Honda Insight and had a lower price than the market leader Toyota Prius.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: After its launch in late August 2010, there were 3,349 Honda CR-Z sold as of end of October 2010. It ranked as the fourth most sold hybrid in the U.S. for September and October of that year. U.S. sales for year 2010 reached 5,249 units, and ranked 11th in hybrid sales for that year. For year 2011 cumulative sales of the CR-Z in the U.S. reached 9,635 units through August, ranking number four in hybrid sales in 2011 and outsold only by the Hyundai Sonata Hybrid, Honda Insight, and Toyota Prius.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: In addition to commercials airing during sporting events, Honda held a marketing competition available to universities throughout the United States. This competition allowed students to create public relations and social media campaigns for the vehicle. A team from Syracuse University won first place in the competition, followed by runners-up New England School of Communications and University of La Verne.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: The CR-Z was launched for the Malaysian market on November 3, 2011, which made it the first in Southeast Asia to offer the three-door hybrid.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: The introduction of the CR-Z was a result of the 2012 Malaysian Budget that extended the full import duty and excise duty exemption to imported hybrid vehicles and electric cars to 31 December 2013. The 6-speed manual model has been offered, with plans to bring in the CVT version in 2012; in addition to white, three more colors will be offered by early 2012.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: Honda announced that it would being importing the CR-Z in mid-2011 after showing the car at the 2011 Australian International Motor Show in June but the launch was delayed by the earthquake and tsunami in Japan.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: The CR-Z was finally launched in December 2011 with a base price of A$34,990 plus on-road costs in two grades: Sport and Luxury. Grades were identical except that Sport was only available with manual transmission while Luxury was only available with CVT automatic transmission and the addition of satellite navigation and glass roof.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: In January 2015 Honda announced that it was cease selling the CR-Z in Australia citing rationalization of its hybrid model lineup but the CR-Z did not sell strongly in the Australian market with only 69 reported sales in 2014.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: Introduced in Indonesia International Motor Show 2012 in September 2012, the CR-Z was launched in February 2013. Honda CR-Z was the third hybrid car released in Indonesia after Toyota Prius and Toyota Camry Hybrid. Transmission is offered in 6-speed manual or CVT automatic.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: Honda Cars Philippines Inc. introduced the CR-Z hybrid coupe to the Philippine market in August 2013. The Honda CR-Z is offered in three variants; a standard trim, Modulo, and Mugen.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: Honda Atlas Cars (Pakistan) Limited introduced the CR-Z hybrid coupe to the Pakistani market in December 2013 with a price tag of Rs.3,269,000 for the manual transmission and Rs. 3,419,000 for the Automatic. An additional Rs. 80,000 is charged for the Pearl/Metallic Colors only.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: In 2016, the Honda CR-Z received a minor refresh. It received a change to the front and rear bumper, as well as a slightly revised interior. It also gained the EX-L trim from the refresh with a small increase in price. The base trim is renamed as LX and its price starts at $20,295 with a manual transmission, and $20,945 with a continuously variable transmission or CVT. The EX trim increased to $22,140 with a manual transmission, and $22,790 with a CVT. The new EX-L trim starts at $24,440 with a manual transmission, and $25,090 with a CVT. The refresh has changed a few colors as well. The North Shore Blue Pearl color changed to the Aegean Blue Metallic color, the Crystal Black Pearl color has changed to the Jet Black color, and Premium White Pearl has changed to Ivory Pearl. On the EX trim, the secondary interior red color has changed to orange. The CR-Z also gained a few new wheel designs for the refresh. Honda had previously confirmed that a second generation of the CR-Z was under development, possibly for the 2018 model year.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: On June 17, 2016, Honda announced that the CR-Z will be discontinued at the end of the year to make room for the Accord Hybrid and Clarity.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: Two Honda Performance Development CR-Z Racers entered the 25-hour of Thunderhill endurance race held on December 4–5, 2010 at Willows, California. The car, first shown to the public at 2010 SEMA Show, is fully stripped down with lowered suspension. A turbo charger is bolted to the engine raising output to and of torque, furthermore, the Integrated Motor Assist setup is modified utilizing components from Mission Motors and a push-to-pass function is added, making a total of and of torque when the button is pressed. One of the two entrants battled from a near 10-lap deficit to finish second in the Endurance 3 class, after suffering early in the race from two five-minute "stop-and-hold" penalties caused by refueling problems. The other entrant scored pole position of the class but failed to finish the race.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: The Honda CR-Z was one of the most showcased cars during the SEMA Show earlier in the year and one of the cars produced . This is what the hybrid engine could withstand in terms of power.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: A sportier and quicker variant called the CR-Z Mugen came with plenty of aftermarket parts from Honda's Motorsport division, Mugen. Parts include an Aero Package, a tweaked sports suspension, a special glossy black grille with daytime running lights, a triangular sports exhaust, carbon fiber shift knob, a set of 17-inch bronze/silver wheels in 7-spoke and minor interior cosmetic bits.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: The car is powered by a 1.5-liter engine which has been equipped with a supercharger and a revised ECU. Thanks to these tweaks, the hybrid is rumored to have 178 hp (133 kW / 180 PS) instead of the concept's 197 hp (147 kW / 200 PS). This enables the car to accelerate from 0–60 mph (97 km/h) in 6.1 seconds before hitting a top speed in excess of 130 mph (209 km/h).


title: Honda CR-Z

text: The CR-Z Mugen was slated to be launched early 2012 with a base price of approximately £23,000 ($35,820 / €26,780).


title: Honda CR-Z

text: Honda's Motorsport Division Mugen has announced plans to offer a high-performance Honda CR-Z in Japan. Production was limited to 300 units.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: Dubbed the Mugen RZ, the model features an aerodynamic body kit with a front spoiler, a revised grille and modified side skirts. It also features a rear diffuser, an adjustable wing and a sports twin exhaust system. Other highlights include an adjustable suspension, high-performance brakes and 17-inch alloy wheels.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: The cabin has two-tone seats, a carbon fiber gear knob, a boost meter and an individually-numbered plaque.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: Power is provided by a supercharged 1.5-liter engine that produces 156 HP (115 kW) and 185 Nm (136 lb-ft) of torque. It is backed up by an IMA hybrid system that develops 20 HP (15 kW) and 78 Nm (58 lb-ft) of torque.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: Beginning August 21, 2014, Honda North America's racing division, HPD, released a line of performance parts for the CR-Z available through North American Honda dealers.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: The parts line-up includes a supercharger kit, limited-slip differential, performance suspension, cat-back exhaust, rear diffuser, 18 inch alloy wheels, larger brake calipers and rotors, and decals and badges. The supercharger kit can only be installed on manual transmission equipped vehicles and requires the dealer to send the car's ECU directly to HPD for reprogramming. This would allow an estimated 197 HP and 176 ft-lb of torque to be produced using 91 octane fuel.


title: Honda CR-Z

text: If the supercharger kit was equipped at a Honda dealer, the original powertrain warranty would not be voided and carry over after installation was complete. Cars with ECU's that have gone through HPD's programming also receive an individually numbered plaque placed just below the radio unit.


title: Baltimore/Washington International Airport

text: Baltimore/Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport , commonly referred to as BWI or BWI Marshall, is an international airport in the Eastern United States serving mainly Baltimore, Maryland and Washington, D.C. With Dulles International Airport and Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport, it is one of three major airports serving the Washington–Baltimore metropolitan area. Located in an unincorporated area of Anne Arundel County, the airport is 9 miles (14 km) south of Downtown Baltimore and northeast of Washington, D.C.


text: BWI Thurgood Marshall Airport, a base for Southwest Airlines, is the 22nd busiest airport in the United States and the busiest in the Washington–Baltimore metropolitan area. It is named after Thurgood Marshall, a Baltimore native, who was the first African American to serve as an Associate Justice on the U.S. Supreme Court. This airport also draws large numbers of travelers from the Harrisburg, Philadelphia, and Richmond metropolitan areas. BWI covers 3,160 acres (1,279 ha) of land.


text: Planning for a new airport on to serve the Baltimore–Washington area began just before the end of World War II. In 1944, the Baltimore Aviation Commission announced its decision that the best location to build a new airport would be on a tract of land near Linthicum Heights. The cost of building the airport was estimated at $9 million. The site was chosen because it was a 15-minute drive from downtown Baltimore; close to the Pennsylvania Railroad line, the Baltimore and Annapolis Railroad line and the proposed Baltimore–Washington Parkway; and visibility was generally good. An alternate site along Gov. Ritchie Highway at Furnace Branch was rejected by the United States War Department, and another possible site at Lipin's Corner was deemed too far from Baltimore. The State Aviation Commission approved of the Linthicum Heights site in 1946.


text: Much of the land was purchased from Friendship Methodist Church in 1946, and ground was broken on May 2, 1947. Friendship Methodist Church held its last service on Easter Sunday in 1948. Friendship Methodist Church was razed to make room for the new airport. In addition, several pieces of land were bought, and 170 bodies buried in a cemetery were moved. Baltimore–Fort Meade Road was moved to the west to make way for the airport's construction.


text: Friendship International Airport was dedicated on June 24, 1950, by President Harry S. Truman. Truman arrived in the then official presidential plane Independence from nearby Washington National Airport carrying the Governor of Maryland, William Preston Lane Jr., as well as Baltimore Mayor Thomas D'Alesandro Jr. on his first aircraft flight. The total cost to construct the airport totaled $15 million. The following month the airlines moved to the new airport from the old Baltimore Municipal Airport (Harbor Field in southeast Baltimore at ). Eastern Airlines flew the first scheduled flight, a DC-3, into the airport at 12:01 am on July 23, 1950. Seven minutes later, the same plane was also the first flight to depart from the airport. 300 people came to watch the first flight arrive and depart.


text: The Official Airline Guide for April 1957 shows 52 weekday departures: 19 Eastern, 12 Capital, 8 American, 4 National, 3 TWA, 3 United, 2 Delta, and 1 Allegheny. Miami had a couple of nonstop flights, but westward nonstop flights did not reach beyond Ohio; Baltimore's reach expanded when jet service started. The early Boeing 707s and Douglas DC-8s could not use Washington National Airport and Dulles International Airport did not open until 1962, so Baltimore became Washington's jet airport in May–June 1959 when American and TWA began transcontinental 707 flights.


text: The Maryland Department of Transportation purchased Friendship International Airport from the City of Baltimore for $36 million in 1972. Under MDOT, the Maryland State Aviation Administration took over airfield operations and grew from three employees to more than 200. Plans to upgrade, improve, and modernize all Maryland airport facilities were announced almost immediately by the Secretary of Transportation, Harry Hughes.


text: To attract passengers from the Washington metropolitan area, particularly Montgomery and Prince George's counties, the airport was renamed Baltimore/Washington International Airport, effective November 16, 1973. Its IATA code, originally BAL, didn't reflect its new name for seven years until the International Air Transport Association assigned BWI to the airport on April 20, 1980, with the change becoming official six months later on October 26. The BWI code had previously been used by an airport in Bewani, Papua New Guinea.


text: The first phase of the airport's modernization was completed in 1974 at a cost of $30 million. Upgrades included improved instrument landing capabilities and runway systems, and construction of three new air cargo terminals, expanding the airport's freight capacity to .


text: The terminal renovation program was complete in 1979, the most dramatic work of the airport's modernization, which was designed by DMJM along with Peterson & Brickbauer. The BWI terminal more than doubled in size to ; the number of gate positions increased from 20 to 27. The total cost was $70 million. To continue the work, the BWI Development Council was established to support initiatives for airport development.


text: The BWI Rail Station opened in 1980, providing a connection for passengers on the Northeast Corridor through Amtrak. BWI was the first airport in the U.S. with a dedicated intercity rail station. In particular, the station provided rail transit access to Washington, D.C., something that Dulles will not have until 2022 at the earliest. In 1997 a new international terminal (Concourse E), designed by STV Group and William Nicholas Bodouva & Associates, was added, though Dulles continues to hold the lion's share of the region's international flights, and BWI has not attracted many long-haul international carriers. The first transatlantic nonstops were on World Airways about 1981; British Airways arrived at BWI a few years later. Aer Lingus, Air Jamaica, Air Aruba, Air Greenland, El Al, Icelandair, KLM, Air Canada, Ladeco, and Mexicana previously flew to BWI. Military flights, operated by the U.S. Air Force's Air Mobility Command, continue to have a significant presence at BWI.


text: In the first half of the 1990s runway 15L/33R was extended from to its current length of , allowing it to be used by small passenger jets like the Boeing 737.


text: Beginning in the 1980s and for much of the 1990s BWI was a hub for Piedmont Airlines and successor , but that airline's financial problems in the wake of the dot-com bust, the September 11 attacks, and low fare competition forced it to cut back. The airport has been a haven for low-cost flights in the Baltimore/Washington Metropolitan Area since Southwest Airlines' arrival in September 1993 and subsequent expansion in the early 2000s. Southwest is the airport's largest carrier, accounting for 56.12% of passengers carried in 2011. Southwest Airlines currently serves on average 245 daily departures to the US, Mexico and the Caribbean.


text: Ghana Airways began service to Accra in July 2000. The airline operated McDonnell Douglas DC-10s to Baltimore and sought to serve the many people of West African origin residing in the region. In July 2004, however, the US government prohibited Ghana Airways flights from taking off from or landing in the country. According to officials, the company was operating on an expired license and had disobeyed orders to stop flying an unsafe plane.


text: To accommodate Southwest's extensive presence at the airport, in 2005 Concourses A and B were expanded, renovated, and integrated with one another to house all of that airline's operations there for their major operating base. This new facility, designed by URS Corporation, opened on May 22, 2005. On October 1 of that year, the airport was renamed again, becoming "Baltimore/Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport," to honor former US Supreme Court justice Thurgood Marshall, who grew up in Baltimore.


text: North American Airlines' introduction of a link to Accra via Banjul in June 2006 marked the return of direct flights between Baltimore and Africa. The carrier employed Boeing 767s on the route. Nevertheless, North American ended all scheduled service in May 2008. At the time, it flew nonstop to Accra and Lagos from Baltimore.


text: The airport has been a backdrop in numerous films, including "The Silence of the Lambs", "Goldfinger", "Broadcast News", "Home for the Holidays" and "Twelve Monkeys".


text: In late 2008 "Health" magazine named BWI the second healthiest airport in the United States. In 2009 the airport had a six percent increase in air travelers due to the proliferation of discount flights. In a 2009 survey of airport service quality by Airports Council International, BWI was the world's top ranking airport in the 15-to-25-million-passenger category. BWI also ranked seventh, in medium-sized airports, based on customer satisfaction conducted by J.D Power and Associates.


text: On August 5, 2014, little-used runway 04-22 was permanently closed. It was 6,000 feet (1,829 meters) long and used primarily when the main runways needed to be closed for repairs. The last operation on the runway was a Southwest Airlines flight from Chicago Midway that arrived at 4:18 AM.


text: In 2015, Norwegian Air Shuttle announced they would start flights from Baltimore to the islands of Guadelope and Martinique. In an interview with The Baltimore Sun, CEO Bjorn Kjos said "Baltimore is high on the list for long-haul destinations," hinting at further expansion into Europe. In mid-2018, however, the airline ceased all flights out of Baltimore due to heavy financial losses.


text: In early 2016 a partnership between the airport and Towson University's WTMD Radio Station announced a new concert series that will take place at the terminal's baggage claim on the lower level. The local bands of Wye Oak, Arboretum, and Super City. This new series follows the release event of Animal Collective's new album "Painting With" on November 25, 2015, where the new album was streamed throughout the airport.


text: In late 2018 construction began on a $60 million, five-gate expansion of terminal A for Southwest Airlines. The new expansion began operations in 2021. 2018 also marked a new annual record for passenger traffic at BWI Marshall Airport with over 27.1 million passengers.


text: In 2021, commuter airline Southern Airways Express ended its hub at BWI and switched its east coast hub to Washington Dulles International Airport. In addition, the airport's international growth continued with the addition of a twice-weekly flight by Air Senegal to Blaise Diagne International Airport in Dakar, Senegal via a stop in New York-JFK. However, in October, it was announced that Air Senegal would be ceasing the New York to Baltimore portion of this route, dropping Baltimore back down to only two transatlantic flights. In 2022, Play Airlines became the second airline to offer direct flights from Baltimore to Reykjavik, Iceland.


text: Baltimore/Washington International Airport has five concourses with 78 gates. Of these, 14 are international (all 11 gates in Concourse E are international gates, four of E's gates are arrival-only, and three gates in Concourse D are also international gates).


text: The airport's cargo concourse covers a area. Its facilities include a cargo building in the Midfield Cargo Complex, including a 200,000 square feet warehouse used for Amazon Air, a foreign trade zone, a air cargo ramp, and ramp parking for 17 aircraft with direct nose-in access for eight freighters.


text: BWI is located at the southeast terminus of Interstate 195, a spur route providing connections to the Baltimore–Washington Parkway and Interstate 95.


text: BWI was ranked one of the "Top 10 Easiest U.S. Airports to Get to" by Aviation.com in 2007 and has a light rail station located just outside its main terminal.


text: Passenger van service to and from the Eastern Shore and Western Maryland is available through BayRunner Shuttle with services to and from BWI to Kent Island, Easton, Cambridge, Salisbury, Ocean Pines, and Ocean City (for the Eastern Shore) and Grantsville, Frostburg, Cumberland, Hancock, Hagerstown, and Frederick (for Western Maryland). There are also numerous private car, rental car, and cab services, as well as shuttles that go to and from BWI to local hotels; Baltimore and Washington and their suburbs; and Central and Western Maryland.


text: BWI Rail Station is located about a mile from the airport terminal; the free BWI Marshall Airport Shuttle connects the train station and airport terminals. The station is served by Amtrak Northeast Corridor trains, including the high-speed Acela Express, and the MARC Penn Line commuter rail service. Travel time by train is about twenty minutes to Baltimore's Penn Station and thirty-five minutes to Union Station in Washington, D.C. Trains depart at least once an hour seven days a week, with significantly higher numbers of departure times during rush hours.


text: In August 2014, BWI piloted a new bicycle-sharing system with the Boston-based company Zagster. Located adjacent to the light rail station, the bike sharing service connected terminal passengers to the nearby BWI Trail, as well as other local destinations. This service has been discontinued.


text: In 1985, the BWI Business District was established as a way to formalize businesses and hotels operating adjacent to the airport. The district comprises two smaller districts located to the north (West Nursery Hotel District) and west (Stoney Run District) of the airport. Numerous traveler resources and employment centers are located within both districts, such as the BWI Rail Station and BWI Rental Car Facility in the Stoney Run District, and the BWI Business District Light Rail Station, the NSA Friendship Annex, and dozens of hotel facilities in the West Nursery District.


text: A DHS facility is located in the lower level of the main terminal, near the international arrivals area / Concourse E Baggage Claim. This facility also includes a Global Entry Enrollment Center, as well as a TSA PreCheck enrollment facility.


text: In the early 1990s, BWI Airport opened the Thomas A. Dixon Aircraft Observation Area at Friendship Park. The observation plaza features a playground and a terrace overlooking the southern approach to the airport's 15R-33L runway. From this vantage point, several planes can be viewed simultaneously as they prepare for landing. The southern loop of the 13.3 mile BWI Trail travels through the park, providing cyclist and pedestrian access to the park.


text: In addition to the Thomas A. Dixon Aircraft Observation Area, which provides spotters with views of aircraft landing on runway 33L, spotters can use one of several parking garages to view arrivals to runway 15R, with some arrivals appearing to be below the spotter.


text: The Maryland Aviation Administration has its headquarters on the third floor of the terminal building.


title: AK-105

text: The AK-105 is a shortened carbine version of the AK-74M rifle, which in turn was derived from the original AK-47 design and its successor, the AK-74. It's chambered to fire 5.45×39mm ammunition.


title: AK-105

text: Compared to the AK-74M, AK-101, and AK-103, which are full-size assault rifles of similar design, the AK-102, 104, and 105 feature shortened barrels that make them a middle ground between a full rifle and the more compact AKS-74U. However, the AK-105 also features a solid, side-folding polymer stock, unlike the shorter, skeleton-stocked AKS-74U. The AK-105 uses an adjustable notched rear tangent iron sight calibrated in increments from . The front sight is a post adjustable for elevation in the field. Horizontal adjustment is done by the armory before issue. The AK-105 has a muzzle booster derived from the AKS-74U.


title: AK-105

text: Protective coatings ensure excellent corrosion resistance of metal parts. Forearm, magazine, butt stock and pistol grip are made of high strength plastic. The weapon is equipped with a flash hider.


title: Person

text: A person (: people or persons) is a being that has certain capacities or attributes such as reason, morality, consciousness or self-consciousness, and being a part of a culturally established form of social relations such as kinship, ownership of property, or legal responsibility. The defining features of personhood and, consequently, what makes a person count as a person, differ widely among cultures and contexts.


title: Person

text: In addition to the question of personhood, of what makes a being count as a person to begin with, there are further questions about personal identity and self: both about what makes any particular person that particular person instead of another, and about what makes a person at one time the same person as they were or will be at another time despite any intervening changes.


title: Person

text: The plural form "people" is often used to refer to an entire nation or ethnic group (as in "a people"), and this was the original meaning of the word; it subsequently acquired its use as a plural form of person. The plural form "persons" is often used in philosophical and legal writing.


title: Person

text: Personhood is the status of being a person. Defining personhood is a controversial topic in philosophy and law, and is closely tied to legal and political concepts of citizenship, equality, and liberty. According to common worldwide general legal practice, only a natural person or legal personality has rights, protections, privileges, responsibilities, and legal liability.


title: Person

text: Personhood continues to be a topic of international debate, and has been questioned during the abolition of slavery and the fight for women's rights, in debates about abortion, fetal rights, and in animal rights advocacy.


title: Person

text: Various debates have focused on questions about the personhood of different classes of entities. Historically, the personhood of women, and slaves has been a catalyst of social upheaval. In most societies today, postnatal humans are defined as persons. Likewise, certain legal entities such as corporations, sovereign states and other polities, or estates in probate are legally defined as persons. However, some people believe that other groups should be included, depending on the theory, the category of "person" may be taken to include or not pre-natal humans or such non-human entities as animals, artificial intelligences, or extraterrestrial life.


title: Person

text: Personal identity is the unique identity of persons through time. That is to say, the necessary and sufficient conditions under which a person at one time and a person at another time can be said to be the "same" person, persisting through time. In the modern philosophy of mind, this concept of personal identity is sometimes referred to as the "diachronic" problem of personal identity. The "synchronic" problem is grounded in the question of what features or traits characterize a given person at one time.


title: Person

text: Identity is an issue for both continental philosophy and analytic philosophy. A key question in continental philosophy is in what sense we can maintain the modern conception of identity, while realizing many of our prior assumptions about the world are incorrect.


title: Person

text: Proposed solutions to the problem of personal identity include continuity of the physical body, continuity of an immaterial mind or soul, continuity of consciousness or memory, the bundle theory of self, continuity of personality after the death of the physical body, and proposals that there are actually no persons or selves who persist over time at all.


title: Person

text: In ancient Rome, the word "persona" (Latin) or "prosopon" (πρόσωπον; Greek) originally referred to the masks worn by actors on stage. The various masks represented the various "personae" in the stage play.


title: Person

text: The concept of person was further developed during the Trinitarian and Christological debates of the 4th and 5th centuries in contrast to the word nature. During the theological debates, some philosophical tools (concepts) were needed so that the debates could be held on common basis to all theological schools. The purpose of the debate was to establish the relation, similarities and differences between the /"Verbum" and God. The philosophical concept of person arose, taking the word "prosopon" () from the Greek theatre. Therefore, Christ (the /"Verbum") was defined as a "person" of God. This concept was applied later to the Holy Ghost, the angels and to all human beings. Trinitarianism holds that God has three persons.


title: Person

text: Since then, a number of important changes to the word's meaning and use have taken place, and attempts have been made to redefine the word with varying degrees of adoption and influence. According to Noller, at least six approaches can be distinguished:


title: Person

text: "(1) The ontological definition of the person as "an individual substance of a rational nature" (Boethius). (2) The self-consciousness-based definition of the person as a being that "can conceive itself as itself" (John Locke). (3) The moral-philosophical definition of the person as "an end in itself" (Immanuel Kant). In current analytical debate, the focus has shifted to the relationship between bodily organism and person. [4.] The theory of animalism (Eric T. Olson) states that persons are essentially animals and that mental or psychological attributes play no role in their identity. [5.] Constitution theory (Lynne Baker), on the other hand, attempts to define the person as a natural and at the same time self-conscious being: the bodily organism constitutes the person without being identical to it. Rather, it forms with it a "unity without identity". [6.] [... Another idea] for conceiving the natural-rational unity of the person has emerged recently in the concept of the "person life" (Marya Schechtman)."


title: Person

text: Other theories attribute personhood to those states that are viewed to possess intrinsic or universal value. Value theory attempts to capture those states that are universally considered valuable by their nature, allowing one to assign the concept of personhood upon those states. For example, Kelly argues that the value that is intuitively bestowed upon humans, their possessions, animals, and aspects of the natural environment is due to a value monism known as “richness.” Richness, Kelly argues, is a product of the “variety” and the “unity” within an entity or agent. According to Kelly, human beings and animals are morally valued and entitled to the status of persons because they are complex organisms whose multitude of psychological and biological components are generally unified towards a singular purpose in any moment, existing and operating with relative harmony.


title: Person

text: Primus defines people exclusively as their desires, whereby desires are states which are sought for arbitrary or nil purpose(s). Primus views that desires, by definition, are each sought as ends in and of themselves and are logically the most precious (valuable) states that one can conceive. Primus distinguishes states of desire (or ‘want’) from states which are sought instrumentally, as a means to an end (on the basis of perceived ‘need’). Primus’ approach can thus be contrasted to Kant’s moral-philosophical definition of a person: Whereas Kant’s Second Formulation of the Categorical Imperative states that rational beings must never be treated merely as a means to an end and that they must also always be treated as an end, Primus offers that the aspects that humans (and some animals) desire, and only those aspects, are ends, by definition.


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: The Free Territory of Trieste was an independent territory in Southern Europe between northern Italy and Yugoslavia, facing the north part of the Adriatic Sea, under direct responsibility of the United Nations Security Council in the aftermath of World War II. For a period of seven years, it acted essentially as a free city.


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: The territory was established on 10 February 1947 by a protocol of the Treaty of Peace with Italy in order to accommodate an ethnically and culturally mixed population in a neutral independent country. The intention was also to cool down territorial claims between Italy and Yugoslavia, due to its strategic importance for trade with Central Europe. It came into existence on 15 September 1947. Its administration was divided into two areas: one being the port city of Trieste with a narrow coastal strip to the northwest (Zone A); the other (Zone B) was formed by a small portion of the north-western part of the Istrian peninsula.


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: The territory was dissolved "de facto" and given to Italy and Yugoslavia in 1954. This was formalized much later by the bilateral Treaty of Osimo of 1975, ratified in 1977.


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: The Free Territory of Trieste comprised an area of around the Bay of Trieste from Duino/Devin in the north to Novigrad/Cittanova in the south, and had approximately 330,000 inhabitants. It bordered the new Italian Republic to the north, and the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to the south and to the east. The rivers of the territory included the Rižana/Risano, the Dragonja/Dragogna, the Timavo/Timava, the Val Rosandra/Glinščica, and the Mirna/Quieto. The Territory's highest point was at Monte Cocusso/Kokoš (). Its most extreme points were near Medeazza/Medjavas at 45° 48’ in the north, at Tarski Zaliv / Porto Quieto at 45° 18’ in the south, Savudrija / Punta Salvore at 13° 29’ in the west, and Gročana/Grozzana at 13° 55’ in the east.


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: Since 1382, Trieste had been part of the Habsburg monarchy, whilst Istria had been divided for centuries between the Habsburg monarchy (its central, northern and eastern parts) and the Republic of Venice (its western and southern parts). The population of the territory has been diverse and mixed, with different and often changing ethnic majorities in different parts of the territory.


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: Italian-speakers have been predominant in most urban settlements and in the coast, with strong minorities of Slovenes, Serbs and Croats, especially in Trieste district, where Slovenes represented a third of the population by the end of World War I (most of them however were of recent arrivals, after 1880, from interior Slovene districts). The countryside of the territory was mostly Slovene or Croatian in the southernmost portion of the area. There was also a smaller number of Istro-Romanians, Greeks, Albanians and a strong Triestine Jewish community.


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: The Triestine dialect reflects this ethnic mix. Its base is derived from Venetian, influenced by an ancient Rhaeto-Romance substrate, mainly due to the existence of the now defunct Tergestine dialect.


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: Some of the Triestine words are of German and Slovene origin and also came from other languages, such as Greek.


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: The variations of spoken Slovenian and Serbo-Croatian in the territory were also largely dialectal, sharing words with the Triestine and Istrian dialects. In the southernmost part of the territory, the Croatian-based dialects are of the Chakavian type, while the Venetian-based Istrian is also commonly used.


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: At the end of World War I, Italy annexed Trieste, Istria and part of modern-day western Slovenia from Austria-Hungary, establishing the border region known as the Julian March (Venezia Giulia). In 1924, Italy annexed the Free State of Fiume, now the city of Rijeka in Croatia.


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: During the 1920s and 1930s, the Slavic population was subjected to forced Italianization and discrimination under the Italian fascist regime. They were also exposed to state violence by fascist party mobs, including the burning of the Slovene National Hall in Trieste on 13 July 1920, and also in other towns and villages. A few Slovenes and Croats consequentially emigrated to Yugoslavia, while some joined the TIGR resistance organization, whose methods included more than 100 acts of terrorism, mostly against the exponents of the Italian authorities in the region (especially in the provinces of Trieste and Gorizia).


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: Italy fought with Nazi Germany as an Axis power in World War II from 1940. When the Fascist regime collapsed in 1943 and Italy capitulated, the territory was occupied by German forces who created the Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral, the capital of which was Trieste. The Yugoslav 4th Army and the Slovenian 9th Corps entered Trieste on 1 May 1945, after a battle in the town of Opicina. The 2nd Division (New Zealand) arrived the next day and forced the surrender of the 2,000 German Army troops holding out in Trieste, who warily had refused to capitulate to Yugoslav troops, fearing they would be executed by them. An uneasy truce developed between New Zealand and Yugoslav troops occupying the area until British General Sir William Morgan proposed a partition of the territory and the removal of Yugoslav troops from the area occupied by the Allies. Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito agreed in principle on 23 May, as the British XIII Corps was moving forward to the proposed demarcation line. An agreement was signed in Duino on 10 June, creating the Morgan Line. The Yugoslav troops withdrew by 12 June 1945.


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: In January 1947, the United Nations Security Council approved Resolution 16 under Article 24 of its charter calling for the creation of a free state in Trieste and the region surrounding it. A permanent statute codifying its provisions was to become recognized under international law upon the appointment of an international governor approved by the Quatripartite Powers. On 15 September 1947, the peace treaty between the United Nations (UN) and Italy was ratified, establishing the Free Territory of Trieste. Official languages were Italian and Slovene, possibly with the use of Serbo-Croatian in the portion of Zone B south of the Dragonja River. However, the territory never received its planned self-government and it was maintained under military occupation respecting the administrative division into two zones as decided by the Morgan Line: Zone A, which was and had 262,406 residents including Trieste, was administered by British and American forces, while Zone B, which was with 71,000 residents including north-western Istria, was administered by the Yugoslav People's Army.


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: Between October 1947 and March 1948, the Soviet Union rejected the candidacy of 12 nominations for governor, at which point the Tripartite Powers (United States, United Kingdom, and France) issued a note to the Soviet and Yugoslav governments on 20 March 1948 recommending that the territory be returned to Italian sovereignty. No governor was ever appointed under the terms of Resolution 16. The Territory thus never functioned as a real independent state, although its formal status was generally respected and it was involved in the European Recovery Program (ERP) and in the OEEC. The Tito-Stalin split in mid-1948 resulted in the proposal to return the territory to Italy being suspended until 1954.


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: The Allied Military Government administered Zone A, which was divided into peacekeeping and law enforcement sectors protected by a command of 5,000 Americans ("TRUST", the Trieste United States Troops) and 5,000 British in "BETFOR" (British Element Trieste FORce), each comprising a brigade-sized infantry force and complete support units (signals, engineers, military police, etc.)


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: According to the estimates published by the Allied Military Government, as of 1949 in Zone A there were about 310,000 inhabitants, including 239,200 Italians and 63,000 Slovenes. According to contemporary Italian sources, in Zone B there were 36,000 to 55,000 Italians and 12,000 to 17,000 Slovenes and Croats. According to the Yugoslav census of 1945, which was considered falsified by the Quadripartite Commission set up by the UN, in the part of Istria which was to become Zone B there were 67,461 inhabitants, including 30,789 Slovenes, Serbs and Croats, 29,672 Italians, and 7,000 people of unidentified nationality.


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: Elections were held twice, in 1949 and 1952, but only for municipal councils, never for the FTT People's Assembly (FTT legislature).


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: On 5 October 1954, the London Memorandum was signed in the British capital by ministers of the United States, United Kingdom, Italy, and Yugoslavia. It gave the former Zone A with Trieste to Italy for ordinary civil administration, and Zone B, which had already had a communist government since 1947, to Yugoslavia. In addition, Yugoslavia was given the area containing the city of Koper (Koppe) in Zone A, as well as several villages in the municipality of Muggia that had been part of Zone A: Plavje, Spodnje Škofije, Elerji, Hrvatini, Kolomban, Cerej, Premančan, and Barizoni. The castle and village of Socerb above San Dorligo della Valle was also ceded to the Yugoslav administration, according to the demarcation line defined by Annex I to the London Memorandum.


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: In 1975, the bilateral Treaty of Osimo was signed and ratified two years later, definitively stopping respective claims over the former Free Territory of Trieste by Italy and Yugoslavia, as the London Memorandum only disestablished the territory "de facto", but not "de jure".


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: The economy of the territory was based on its ports, namely the Free Port of Trieste and the Port of Koper/Capodistria. The first had a peculiar free zone (nowadays also offshore) status originated in 1719 and confirmed by the Treaty of Peace with Italy of 1947, which allows the transportation of goods inside the area.


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: An excerpt from the answer given by Algirdas Šemeta on 7 August 2012, on behalf of the European Commission about the Free Port of Trieste:


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: Annex VIII to the Treaty of peace with Italy of 10 February 1947 stipulates in its Article 1 that the port of Trieste shall be a customs-free port. Article 5(2) of Annex VIII provides that in connection with the importation into or exportation from or transit through the Free Port, "the authorities of the Free Territory shall not levy on such goods customs duties or charges other than those levied for services rendered". [emphasis added]


title: Free Territory of Trieste

text: During the late 1940s and in the years following the division of the territory, up to 40,000 people (mostly Italians) chose to leave the Yugoslav Zone B and move to the Italian Zone A for various reasons: some were intimidated into leaving, and some simply preferred not to live in Yugoslavia. (See Italianization that occurred previously.) Within Yugoslavia, the people who left were referred to as ' 'choosers', whereas they called themselves ' 'exiles'. About 14,000 Italians chose to remain in the Yugoslav zone. The population of the Free Territory of Trieste was approximately 370,000 in 1949.


title: Merino

text: The Merino is a breed or group of breeds of domestic sheep, characterised by very fine soft wool. It was established in Spain near the end of the Middle Ages, and was for several centuries kept as a strict Spanish monopoly; exports of the breed were not allowed, and those who tried risked the death penalty. During the eighteenth century, flocks were sent to the courts of a number of European countries, including France (where they developed into the Rambouillet), Hungary, the Netherlands, Prussia, Saxony, Estonia, Livonia and Sweden. The Merino subsequently spread to many parts of the world, including South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. Numerous recognised breeds, strains and variants have developed from the original type; these include, among others, the American Merino and Delaine Merino in the Americas, the Australian Merino, Booroola Merino and Peppin Merino in Oceania, the Gentile di Puglia, Merinolandschaf and Rambouillet in Europe.


title: Merino

text: The Australian Poll Merino is a polled (hornless) variant. Rams of other Merino breeds have long, spiral horns which grow close to the head, while ewes are usually hornless.


title: Merino

text: The name "merino" was not documented in Spain until the early 15th century, and its origin is disputed.


title: Merino

text: The three theories of the origins of the Merino breed in Spain are: the importation of north African flocks in the 12th century; its origin and improvement in Extremadura in the 12th and 13th centuries; the selective crossbreeding of Spanish ewes with imported rams at several different periods, so that its characteristic fine wool was not fully developed until the 15th century or even later. The first theory accepts that the breed was improved by later importation of north African rams and the second accepts an initial stock of north African sheep related to types from Asia Minor, and both claim an early date and largely north African origin for the merino breed.


title: Merino

text: Sheep were relatively unimportant in the Islamic Caliphate of Córdoba, and there is no record of extensive transhumance before the caliphate's fall in the 1030s. The Marinids, when a nomadic Zenata Berber tribe, held extensive sheep flocks in what is now Morocco, and its leaders who formed the Marinid Sultanate militarily intervened in southern Spain, supporting the Emirate of Granada several times in the late 13th and early 14th centuries. Although they may possibly have brought new breeds of sheep into Spain, there is no definite evidence that the Marinids did bring extensive flocks to Spain. As the Marinids arrived as an intervening military force, they were hardly in a position to protect extensive flocks and practice selective breeding.


title: Merino

text: The third theory, that the Merino breed was created in Spain over several centuries with a strong Spanish heritage, rather than simply being an existing north African strain that was imported in the 12th century, is supported both by recent genetic studies and the absence of definitely merino wool before the 15th century. The predominant native sheep breed in Spain from pre-Roman times was the churro, a homogeneous group closely related to European sheep types north of the Pyrenees and bred mainly for meat and milk, with coarse, coloured wool. Churro wool had little value, except where its ewes had been crossed with a fine wool breed from southern Italy in Roman times. Genetic studies have shown that the Merino breed most probably developed by the crossing of churro ewes with a variety of rams of other breeds at different periods, including Italian rams in Roman times, north African rams in the mediaeval period, and English rams from fine-wool breeds in the 15th century.


title: Merino

text: Although Spain exported wool to England, the Low Countries and Italy in the 13th and 14th centuries this was only used to make cheap cloths. The earliest evidence of fine Spanish wool exports were to Italy in the 1390s and Flanders in the 1420s, although in both cases fine English wool was preferred. Spain became noted for its fine wool (spinning count between 60s and 64s) in the late 15th century, and by the mid-16th century its merino wool was acknowledged to equal that of the finest English wools.


title: Merino

text: The earliest documentary evidence for merino wools in Italy dates to the 1400s, and in the 1420s and 1430s, merino wools were being mixed with fine English wool in some towns in the Low Countries to produce high quality cloth. However, it was only in the mid-16th century that the most expensive grades of cloth could be made entirely from merino wool, after its quality had improved to equal that of the finest English wools, which were in increasingly short supply at that time.


title: Merino

text: Preserved mediaeval woollen fabrics from the Low Countries show that, before the 16th century, only the best quality English wools had a fineness of staple comparable to modern merino wool. The wide range of Spanish wools produced in 13th and early 14th centuries were mostly used domestically for cheap, coarse and light fabrics, and were not merino wools. Later in the 14th century, similar non-merino wools were exported from the northern Castilian ports of San Sebastián, Santander, and Bilbao to England and the Low Countries to make coarse, cheap cloth. The quality of Spanish wools exported increased markedly in the late 15th century, as did their price, promoted by the efforts of the monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella to improve quality.


title: Merino

text: Spain built up a virtual monopoly in fine wool exports in the final decades of the 15th century and in the 16th century, creating a substantial source of income for Castile. In part, this was because most English wool was woven and made into textile goods within England by the 16th century, rather than being exported.


title: Merino

text: Many of the Castillian merino flocks were owned by nobility or the church, although Alfonso X realised that granting the urban elites of the towns of Old Castile and León transhumant rights to would create an additional source of royal income and counteract the power of the privileged orders During the late 15th, 16th and early 17th century, two-thirds of the sheep migrating annually were held in flocks of less than 100 sheep and very few flocks exceeded 1,000 sheep. By the 18th century, there were fewer small owners, and several owners held flocks of more than 20,000 sheep, but owners of small to moderately-sized flocks remained, and the Mesta was never simply a combination of large owners.


title: Merino

text: The transhumant sheep grazed the southern Spanish plains in winter and the northern highlands in summer. The annual migrations to and from Castile and León, where the sheep were owned and where they had summer pasturage, was organised and controlled by the Mesta along designated sheep-walks, or "cañadas reales" and arranged for suitable grazing, water and rest stops in these routes, and for shearing when the flocks started their return north.


title: Merino

text: The three Merino strains that founded the world's Merino flocks are the Royal Escurial flocks, the Negretti and the Paula. Among Merino bloodlines stemming from Vermont in the US, three historical studs were highly important: Infantado, Montarcos and Aguires. In recent times, Merino and breeds deriving from Merino stocks have spread worldwide. However, there has been a substantial decline in the numbers of several European Merino breeds, which are now considered to be endangered breeds and are no longer the subject of genetic improvement. In Spain, there are now two populations, the commercial Merino flocks, most common in the province of Extremadura and an "historical" Spanish Merino strain, developed and conserved in a breeding centre near Cordoba. The commercial Merino flocks show considerable genetic diversity, probably because of their cross-breeding with non-Spanish Merino-derived breeds since the 1960s, to create a strain more suitable for meat production. The historical Spanish strain, bred from animals selected from the main traditional Spanish genetic lines to ensure the conservation of a purebred lineage, exhibits signs of inbreeding.


title: Merino

text: Before the 18th century, the export of Merinos from Spain was a crime punishable by death. In the 18th century, small exportation of Merinos from Spain and local sheep were used as the foundation of Merino flocks in other countries. In 1723, some were exported to Sweden, but the first major consignment of Escurials was sent by Charles III of Spain to his cousin, Prince Xavier the Elector of Saxony, in 1765. Further exportation of Escurials to Saxony occurred in 1774, to Hungary in 1775 and to Prussia in 1786. Later in 1786, Louis XVI of France received 366 sheep selected from 10 different cañadas; these founded the stud at the Royal Farm at Rambouillet. In addition to the fine wool breeds mentioned, other breeds derived from Merino stocks were developed to produce mutton, including the French Ile de France and Berrichon du Cher breeds. Merino sheep were also sent to Eastern Europe where their breeding began in Hungary in 1774


title: Merino

text: The Rambouillet stud enjoyed some undisclosed genetic development with some English long-wool genes contributing to the size and wool-type of the French sheep. Through one ram in particular named Emperor – imported to Australia in 1860 by the Peppin brothers of Wanganella, New South Wales – the Rambouillet stud had an enormous influence on the development of the Australian Merino.


title: Merino

text: Sir Joseph Banks procured two rams and four ewes in 1787 by way of Portugal, and in 1792 purchased 40 Negrettis for King George III to found the royal flock at Kew. In 1808, 2000 Paulas were imported.


title: Merino

text: The King of Spain also gave some Escurials to the Dutch government in 1790; these thrived in the Dutch Cape Colony (South Africa). In 1788, John MacArthur, from the Clan Arthur (or MacArthur Clan) introduced Merinos to Australia from South Africa.


title: Merino

text: From 1765, the Germans in Saxony crossed the Spanish Merino with the Saxon sheep to develop a dense, fine type of Merino (spinning count between 70s and 80s) adapted to its new environment. From 1778, the Saxon breeding center was operated in the Vorwerk Rennersdorf. It was administered from 1796 by Johann Gottfried Nake, who developed scientific crossing methods to further improve the Saxon Merino. By 1802, the region had four million Saxon Merino sheep, and was becoming the centre for stud Merino breeding, and German wool was considered to be the finest in the world.


title: Merino

text: In 1802, Colonel David Humphreys, United States Ambassador to Spain, introduced the Vermont strain into North America with an importation of 21 rams and 70 ewes from Portugal and a further importation of 100 Infantado Merinos in 1808. The British embargo on wool and wool clothing exports to the U.S. before the 1812 British/U.S. war led to a "Merino Craze", with William Jarvis of the Diplomatic Corps importing at least 3,500


title: Merino

text: The Napoleonic wars (1793–1813) almost destroyed the Spanish Merino industry. The old "cabañas" or flocks were dispersed or slaughtered. From 1810 onwards, the Merino scene shifted to Germany, the United States and Australia. Saxony lifted the export ban on living Merinos after the Napoleonic wars. Highly decorated Saxon sheep breeder Nake from Rennersdorf had established a private sheep farm in Kleindrebnitz in 1811, but ironically after the success of his sheep export to Australia and Russia, failed with his own undertaking.


title: Merino

text: Merino sheep were introduced to Vermont in 1812. This ultimately resulted in a boom-bust cycle for wool, which reached a price of 57 cents/pound in 1835. By 1837, 1,000,000 sheep were in the state. The price of wool dropped to 25 cents/pound in the late 1840s. The state could not withstand more efficient competition from the other states, and sheep-raising in Vermont collapsed. Many sheep farmers from Vermont migrated with their flocks to other parts of the United States.


title: Merino

text: About 70 native sheep, suitable only for mutton, survived the journey to Australia with the First Fleet, which arrived in late January 1788. A few months later, the flock had dwindled to just 28 ewes and one lamb.


title: Merino

text: In 1797, Governor King, Colonel Patterson, Captain Waterhouse and Kent purchased sheep in Cape Town from the widow of Colonel Gordon, commander of the Dutch garrison. When Waterhouse landed in Sydney, he sold his sheep to Captain John MacArthur, Samuel Marsden and Captain William Cox. Although the early origin of the Australian Merino breed involved different stocks from Cape Colony, England, Saxony, France and America and although different Merino strains are bred today in Australia, the Australian


title: Merino

text: Merino populations are genetically similar and distinct from all other Merino populations, indicating a common history after they arrived in Australia.


title: Merino

text: By 1810, Australia had 33,818 sheep. John MacArthur (who had been sent back from Australia to England following a duel with Colonel Patterson) brought seven rams and one ewe from the first dispersal sale of King George III stud in 1804. The next year, MacArthur and the sheep returned to Australia, Macarthur to reunite with his wife Elizabeth, who had been developing their flock in his absence. Macarthur is considered the father of the Australian Merino industry; in the long term, however, his sheep had very little influence on the development of the Australian Merino.


title: Merino

text: Macarthur pioneered the introduction of Saxon Merinos with importation from the Electoral flock in 1812. The first Australian wool boom occurred in 1813, when the Great Dividing Range was crossed. During the 1820s, interest in Merino sheep increased. MacArthur showed and sold 39 rams in October 1820, grossing £510/16/5. In 1823, at the first sheep show held in Australia, a gold medal was awarded to W. Riley ('Raby') for importing the most Saxons; W. Riley also imported cashmere goats into Australia.


title: Merino

text: Two of Eliza Furlong's (sometimes spelt Forlong or Forlonge) children had died from consumption, and she was determined to protect her surviving two sons by living in a warm climate and finding them outdoor occupations. Her husband John, a Scottish businessman, had noticed wool from the Electorate of Saxony sold for much higher prices than wools from New South Wales. The family decided on sheep farming in Australia for their new business. In 1826, Eliza walked over through villages in Saxony and Prussia, selecting fine Saxon Merino sheep. Her sons, Andrew and William, studied sheep breeding and wool classing. The selected 100 sheep were driven (herded) to Hamburg and shipped to Hull. Thence, Eliza and her two sons walked them to Scotland for shipment to Australia. In Scotland, the new Australia Company, which was established in Britain, bought the first shipment, so Eliza repeated the journey twice more. Each time, she gathered a flock for her sons. The sons were sent to New South Wales, but were persuaded to stop in Tasmania with the sheep, where Eliza and her husband joined them.


title: Merino

text: "The Age" in 1908 described Eliza Furlong as someone who had 'notably stimulated and largely helped to mould the prosperity of an entire state and her name deserved to live for all time in our history' (reprinted Wagga Wagga Daily Advertiser January 27, 1989).


title: Merino

text: There were nearly 2 million sheep in Australia by 1830, and by 1836, Australia had won the wool trade war with Germany, mainly because of Germany's preoccupation with fineness. German manufacturers commenced importing Australian wool in 1845. In 1841, at Mount Crawford in South Australia, Murray established a flock of Camden-blood ewes mated to Tasmanian rams. To broaden the wool and give the animals some size, it is thought some English Leicester blood was introduced. The resultant sheep were the foundation of many South Australian strong wool studs. His brother Alexander Borthwick Murray was also a highly successful breeder of Merino sheep.


title: Merino

text: The Peppin brothers took a different approach to producing a hardier, longer-stapled, broader wool sheep. After purchasing Wanganella Station in the Riverina, they selected 200 station-bred ewes that thrived under local conditions and purchased 100 South Australian ewes bred at Cannally that were sired by an imported Rambouillet ram. The Peppin brothers mainly used Saxon and Rambouillet rams, importing four Rambouillet rams in 1860. One of these, Emperor, cut an 11.4 lb (5.1 kg clean) wool clip. They ran some Lincoln ewes, but their introduction into the flock is undocumented. In 1865, George Merriman founded the fine wool Merino Ravensworth Stud, part of which is the Merryville Stud at Yass, New South Wales.


title: Merino

text: In the 1880s, Vermont rams were imported into Australia from the U.S.; since many Australian stud men believed these sheep would improve wool cuts, their use spread rapidly. Unfortunately, the fleece weight was high, but the clean yield low, the greater grease content increased the risk of fly strike, they had lower uneven wool quality, and lower lambing percentages. Their introduction had a devastating effect on many famous fine-wool studs.


title: Merino

text: In 1889, while Australian studs were being devastated by the imported Vermont rams, several U.S. Merino breeders formed the Rambouillet Association to prevent the destruction of the Rambouillet line in the U.S. Today, an estimated 50% of the sheep on the U.S. western ranges are of Rambouillet blood.


title: Merino

text: The federation drought (1901–1903) reduced the number of Australian sheep from 72 to 53 million and ended the Vermont era. The Peppin and Murray blood strain became dominant in the pastoral and wheat zones of Australia.


title: Merino

text: The world record price for a ram was A$450,000 for JC&S Lustre 53, which sold at the 1988 Merino ram sale at Adelaide, South Australia. In 2008, an Australian Merino ewe was sold for A$14,000 at the Sheep Show and auction held at Dubbo, New South Wales.


title: Merino

text: The New England Merino Field Days, which display local studs, wool, and sheep, are held during January in even numbered years in and around the Walcha, New South Wales district. The Annual Wool Fashion Awards, which showcase the use of Merino wool by fashion designers, are hosted by the city of Armidale, New South Wales in March each year.


title: Merino

text: In Australia, mulesing of Merino sheep is a common practice to reduce the incidence of flystrike. It has been attacked by animal rights and animal welfare activists, with PETA running a campaign against the practice in 2004. The PETA campaign targeted U.S. consumers by using graphic billboards in New York City. PETA threatened U.S. manufacturers with television advertisements showing their companies' support of mulesing. Fashion retailers including Abercrombie & Fitch Co., Gap Inc and Nordstrom and George (UK) stopped stocking Australian Merino wool products.


title: Merino

text: Merino is an excellent forager and very adaptable. It is bred predominantly for its wool, and its carcass size is generally smaller than that of sheep bred for meat. South African Meat Merino (SAMM), American Rambouillet and German "Merinofleischschaf" have been bred to balance wool production and carcass quality.


title: Merino

text: Merino has been domesticated and bred in ways that would not allow them to survive well without regular shearing by their owners. They must be shorn at least once a year because their wool does not stop growing. If this is neglected, the overabundance of wool can cause heat stress, mobility issues, and even blindness.


title: Merino

text: Merino wool is fine and soft. Staples are commonly long. A Saxon Merino produces of greasy wool a year, while a good quality Peppin Merino ram produces up to . Merino wool is generally less than 24 micron (μm) in diameter. Basic Merino types include: strong (broad) wool (23 - 24.5 μm), medium wool (21 - 22.9 μm), fine (18.6 - 20.9  μm), superfine (15 – 18.5 μm) and ultra-fine (11.5 - 15 μm).


title: Extreme sport

text: Action sports, adventure sports or extreme sports are activities perceived as involving a high degree of risk. These activities often involve speed, height, a high level of physical exertion and highly specialized gear. Extreme tourism overlaps with extreme sport. The two share the same main attraction, "adrenaline rush" caused by an element of risk, and differ mostly in the degree of engagement and professionalism.


title: Extreme sport

text: The definition of extreme sports is not exact and the origin of the terms is unclear, but it gained popularity in the 1990s when it was picked up by marketing companies to promote the X Games and when the Extreme Sports Channel and Extreme International launched. More recently, the commonly used definition from research is "a competitive (comparison or self-evaluative) activity within which the participant is subjected to natural or unusual physical and mental challenges such as speed, height, depth or natural forces and where fast and accurate cognitive perceptual processing may be required for a successful outcome" by Dr. Rhonda Cohen (2012).


title: Extreme sport

text: While the use of the term "extreme sport" has spread everywhere to describe a multitude of different activities, exactly which sports are considered 'extreme' is debatable. There are, however, several characteristics common to most extreme sports. While they are not the exclusive domain of youth, extreme sports tend to have a younger-than-average target demographic. Extreme sports are also rarely sanctioned by schools for their physical education curriculum. Extreme sports tend to be more solitary than many of the popular traditional sports (rafting and paintballing are notable exceptions, as they are done in teams).


title: Extreme sport

text: Activities categorized by media as extreme sports differ from traditional sports due to the higher number of inherently uncontrollable variables. These environmental variables are frequently weather and terrain related, including wind, snow, water and mountains. Because these natural phenomena cannot be controlled, they inevitably affect the outcome of the given activity or event.


title: Extreme sport

text: In a traditional sporting event, athletes compete against each other under controlled circumstances. While it is possible to create a controlled sporting event such as X Games, there are environmental variables that cannot be held constant for all athletes. Examples include changing snow conditions for snowboarders, rock and ice quality for climbers, and wave height and shape for surfers.


title: Extreme sport

text: Whilst traditional sporting judgment criteria may be adopted when assessing performance (distance, time, score, etc.), extreme sports performers are often evaluated on more subjective and aesthetic criteria. This results in a tendency to reject unified judging methods, with different sports employing their own ideals and indeed having the ability to evolve their assessment standards with new trends or developments in the sports.


title: Extreme sport

text: While the exact definition and what is included as extreme sport is debatable, some attempted to make classification for extreme sports.


title: Extreme sport

text: Along this definition, being a passenger in a canyon jet boat ride will not fulfill the requirements as the skill required pertains to the pilot, not the passengers. "Thrill seeking" might be a more suitable qualification than "extreme sport" or "action sport" in these cases.


title: Extreme sport

text: The origin of the divergence of the term "extreme sports" from "sports" may date to the 1950s in the appearance of a phrase usually, but wrongly, attributed to Ernest Hemingway. The phrase is;


title: Extreme sport

text: There are only three sports: bullfighting, motor racing, and mountaineering; all the rest are merely games.


title: Extreme sport

text: The implication of the phrase was that the word "sport" defined an activity in which one might be killed. The other activities being termed "games". The phrase may have been invented by either writer Barnaby Conrad or automotive author Ken Purdy.The Dangerous Sports Club of Oxford University, England was founded by David Kirke, Chris Baker, Ed Hulton and Alan Weston. They first came to wide public attention by inventing modern day bungee jumping, by making the first modern jumps on 1 April 1979, from the Clifton Suspension Bridge, Bristol, England. They followed the Clifton Bridge effort with a jump from the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, California (including the first female bungee jump by Jane Wilmot), and with a televised leap from the Royal Gorge Suspension Bridge in Colorado, sponsored by and televised on the popular American television program "That's Incredible!" Bungee jumping was treated as a novelty for a few years, then became a craze for young people, and is now an established industry for thrill seekers.


title: Extreme sport

text: The Club also pioneered a surrealist form of skiing, holding three events at St. Moritz, Switzerland, in which competitors were required to devise a sculpture mounted on skis and ride it down a mountain. The event reached its limits when the Club arrived in St. Moritz with a London double-decker bus, wanting to send it down the ski slopes, and the Swiss resort managers refused.


title: Extreme sport

text: Other Club activities included expedition hang gliding from active volcanoes; the launching of giant (20 m) plastic spheres with pilots suspended in the centre (zorbing); microlight flying; and BASE jumping (in the early days of this sport).


title: Extreme sport

text: In recent decades the term "extreme sport" was further promoted after the Extreme Sports Channel, Extremesportscompany.com launched and then the X Games, a multi-sport event was created and developed by ESPN. The first X Games (known as 1995 Extreme Games) were held in Newport, Providence, Mount Snow, and Vermont in the United States.


title: Extreme sport

text: Certain extreme sports clearly trace back to other extreme sports, or combinations thereof. For example, windsurfing was conceived as a result of efforts to equip a surfboard with a sailing boat's propulsion system (mast and sail). Kitesurfing on the other hand was conceived by combining the propulsion system of kite buggying (a parafoil) with the bi-directional boards used for wakeboarding. Wakeboarding is in turn derived from snowboarding and waterskiing.


title: Extreme sport

text: Some contend that the distinction between an extreme sport and a conventional one has as much to do with marketing as with the level of danger involved or the adrenaline generated. For example, rugby union is both dangerous and adrenaline-inducing but is not considered an extreme sport due to its traditional image, and because it does not involve high speed or an intention to perform stunts (the aesthetic criteria mentioned above) and also it does not have changing environmental variables for the athletes.


title: Extreme sport

text: A feature of such activities in the view of some is their alleged capacity to induce an adrenaline rush in participants. However, the medical view is that the rush or high associated with the activity is not due to adrenaline being released as a response to fear, but due to increased levels of dopamine, endorphins and serotonin because of the high level of physical exertion. Furthermore, recent studies suggest that the link to adrenaline and 'true' extreme sports is tentative. Brymer and Gray's study defined 'true' extreme sports as a leisure or recreation activity where the most likely outcome of a mismanaged accident or mistake was death. This definition was designed to separate the marketing hype from the activity.Eric Brymer also found that the potential of various extraordinary human experiences, many of which parallel those found in activities such as meditation, was an important part of the extreme sport experience. Those experiences put the participants outside their comfort zone and are often done in conjunction with adventure travel.