title: Crazy in Love

text: In August 2011, Beyoncé performed "Crazy in Love" during her revue show 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé. She performed a slowed-down, jazzier version of the song and danced with a similar routine to the one in the music video. During the ITV special "A Night With Beyoncé" which aired on December 4 in the United Kingdom, Beyoncé performed "Crazy in Love" to a selected crowd of fans. In May 2012, she performed the song during her revue in Atlantic City, New Jersey, United States' entertainment resort, hotel, casino and spa, Revel. During the performance, Jay-Z did not appear on stage but his pre-recorded voice was heard. Dan DeLuca of noted that the song was one of the "beat-savvy booty-shaking workouts" performed during the revue. Jim Farber of "New York Daily News" wrote that "The first, and last parts of the show stressed the steeliest Beyoncé, told in bold songs" like "Crazy in Love". A writer of Black Entertainment Television noted that, "She dazzled fans with an assortment of high-energy performances of her upbeat hits like... 'Crazy in Love.'" Beyoncé also performed the song at the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show held on February 3, 2013. In July 2013, while placing Beyoncé at number 33 on their list of 50 Best Live Musicians, the writers of "Rolling Stone" magazine noted that the performance of "Crazy in Love" was a highlight during her live shows with the singer "expertly poppin' her booty".


title: Crazy in Love

text: Several artists have recorded cover versions of "Crazy in Love". In 2003, Irish singer-songwriter Mickey Joe Harte recorded an acoustic rendition of "Crazy In Love" for the charity album "Even Better Than the Real Thing Vol. 1". Alternative rock band Snow Patrol recorded the song during a BBC session with Zane Lowe. Snow Patrol's version was released as a B-side to the single "Spitting Games", on the compilation "Cosmosonica – Tom Middleton Presents Crazy Covers Vol. 1" and on Snow Patrol's compilation album "Up to Now". Ross Langager of PopMatters noted that their cover "sparks an initial chuckle of recognition but soon after becomes more than a bit unfortunate". David Byrne closed his concert at the Hollywood Bowl on June 27, 2005, with a samba-tinged version of "Crazy in Love". In 2007, American alternative rock band Switchfoot produced a rock version that was released as part of Yahoo!'s CoverArt series. Switchfoot produced a video for their cover version. Nashville-based indie quintet Wild Cub performed a version of the song in June 2014 for "The A.V. Club" A.V. Undercover series.


title: Crazy in Love

text: British band The Magic Numbers performed "Crazy in Love" on the Australian radio station Triple J, and recorded it for the Starbucks (Hear Music) compilation album, "" (2007). Tracy Bonham covered the song with guitar and violin accompaniment, for her 2007 album "In The City + In The Woods". British close harmony trio The Puppini Sisters covered "Crazy in Love" for their 2007 album "The Rise and Fall of Ruby Woo"; this was remixed by the electronica jazz outfit The Real Tuesday Weld. Indie artist Dsico recorded an electronic cover of the song. In 2009, Pattern Is Movement recorded a cover of "Crazy in Love", which they claimed was inspired by Anohni's version; this cover was included on their September 4, 2009 Daytrotter session. Antony and the Johnsons released an orchestral version of the song as the b-side to their 2009 single "Aeon". Indie singer-songwriter Eden recorded a cover version of "Crazy in Love" for his final extended play (EP) under the EDEN Project alias.


title: Crazy in Love

text: German group The Baseballs covered the song in rockabilly style for their debut album "Strike! Back" in August 2010. "Crazy in Love" was performed live on "Australian Idol" during the first season by winner Guy Sebastian on the Final 2 showdown in 2003. A jazz version was performed during the fourth season by runner-up Jessica Mauboy on the Final 6 Big Band show in 2006. In June 2008, Mauboy performed "Crazy in Love" on "Indonesian Idol" with some eliminated contestants. "Singapore Idol" contestant Maia Lee performed "Crazy in Love" on the show. In March 2012, Swing Republic released their electro swing cover version which also ended up featuring on their album released the same year entitled Midnight Calling. In June 2012, Robin Thicke and Olivia Chisholm covered the song during the show "Duets". Kate Kroll of "Rolling Stone" gave a negative review for Chisholm's performance, saying that "Her voice sounded thin, and she just can't seem to shake that Stepford Wife stare." Emeli Sandé and The Bryan Ferry Orchestra recorded a cover of the song which was included on "The Great Gatsby" (2013). Upon hearing a preview of the song, Randall Roberts of the "Los Angeles Times" commented that the cover was the best song on the album sang with a "surprising, simmering urgency". Kyle Anderson of "Entertainment Weekly" also wrote that the swing cover of "Crazy in Love" was one of the highlights on the album. On October 21, 2013, Third Degree covered "Crazy in Love" on the fifth season of "The X Factor Australia", and on May 4, 2014, C Major covered the song on the third series of "The Voice Australia". In 2015, Monica Michael covered the song on "The X Factor UK". Filipina actress Denise Laurel covered the song while impersonating Beyoncé, based on her performance at the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show on "Your Face Sounds Familiar", in which Laurel won the season.


title: Crazy in Love

text: In 2002, Beyoncé signed a contract with Pepsi, and appeared on several of its advertising campaigns, one of which featured "Crazy in Love" as background music. After winning the Best Collaboration Awards for "Crazy in Love" at the 2004 BET Awards, Beyoncé dedicated the award to the show's host, comedian Mo'Nique, who parodied the choreography from the "Crazy in Love" video with six equally voluptuous female dancers. "Crazy in Love" was included on the official soundtrack albums of the following films: "" (2004), "White Chicks" (2004), "Taxi" (2004), "Good Luck Chuck" (2007), "Gayby" (2012), and "Love, Rosie" (2014), as well in the tenth season of Brazilian soap opera "Malhação". In 2009, the cast of "Glee" performed a mash up of the songs "Hair" from the musical "Hair" and "Crazy in Love" in season one, episode eleven "Hairography". A parody of the song is also used in the Disney Channel's show "That's So Raven", in the episode "Hizzouse Party". It was featured on the video games "Karaoke Revolution Party" and "Just Dance 2". On the eleventh series of "Dancing on Ice", Gemma Collins and Matt Evers performed to the song on the first week of the competition.


title: Crazy in Love

text: "Entertainment Weekly" magazine ranked "Crazy in Love" forty-seven in its list of The 100 Greatest Summer Songs. The song was also ranked as the Best Song of 2003 from NME, Mojo, Nöjesguiden, Rockdelux, Dotmusic, Playlouder and Magic The song was listed at number three on "Rolling Stone"s list of the 50 Best Songs of the 2000s Decade in 2009, and as the one-hundred-and-eighteenth greatest song of all time on the magazine's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time (2010), as well as ranking it at number two on the list Singles of the Year, and at number three on their 100 Best Songs of the 2000s list, writing: "The horns weren't a hook. They were a herald: Pop's new queen had arrived."


title: Crazy in Love

text: In 2018, the song topped "Rolling Stone" list on "100 Greatest Songs of the Century – So Far". In 2021, "Rolling Stone" placed "Crazy in Love" at number 16 on its list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. The song also placed at number one on the Singles of the Decade by The Times Literary Supplement and 75 Best Singles of the Decade by "The Observer". "NME" staff voted "Crazy in Love" the best song of the 2000s, calling it "a dancefloor-destroying howitzer of a pop song.", also ranking it at number nineteen on their list of five hundred best songs of all time. The song was ranked at number four on Pitchfork Media's list of The Top 500 Tracks of the 2000s, number seven on "The Daily Telegraph"'s list of the best songs of the decade and number six on "Slant"s list of the 100 Best Singles of the Decade. In September 2011, VH1 ranked "Crazy in Love" number one on its list of The 100 Greatest Songs of the 2000s. In October 2011, to mark "NME"s fifteenth birthday, its staff members selected the one-hundred-and-fifty tracks "that have meant the most to [them] over the site's lifetime", placing "Crazy in Love" at number sixteen. In 2012, the song was ranked at number twenty-two on "Billboard"s list of "Top 50 'Love' Songs of All Time". In 2013, John Boone and Jennifer Cady of E! placed the song at number one on their list of ten best Beyoncé's songs, writing: "It's the song that started it all. The definitive best Beyoncé jam is her first, complete with a guest spot by now-husband Jay Z, a killer hook and a chorus of horns that you have to dance to. Literally have to, Pavlovian conditioning-style." In a 2013 list of Jay Z's 20 Biggest "Billboard" Hits, "Crazy in Love" was ranked at number one. On July 5, 2013, "NME" magazine named "Crazy in Love" "the Best Pop Song of the Century". "Q" ranked the song at number fifty-nine on their list of 1001 Best Songs Ever. It was also ranked at number two on "The Village Voice"s list Pazz + Jop 2003.


title: Crazy in Love

text: In 2004, "Crazy in Love" was nominated for three Grammy Awards in the categories of Best R&B Song and Best Rap/Sung Collaboration, which it won, and Record of the Year, which it did not win. A remix of "Crazy in Love", known as "Krazy in Luv" (Maurice's Nu Soul Mix), won the award Best Remixed Recording, Non-Classical for its remixer, Maurice Joshua. "Crazy in Love" was also recognized at the 2004 ASCAP Pop Music Awards Awards as one of the Most Performed Songs and its publisher, EMI, received the Publisher of the Year award. "Vibe" magazine's VIBE Awards recognized the song for Coolest Collaboration in 2003. In Europe, "Crazy in Love" won the Best Song award at the 2003 MTV Europe Music Awards. "Crazy in Love" won the awards for Best R&B/Urban Track and Best Pop Dance Track at the 22nd Annual International Dance Music Awards in 2003. It was recognized by Beyoncé's peers in the urban markets, and won the award for Best Collaboration at the BET Awards, where it also received a nomination in the Viewers Choice Awards category in 2004. "Crazy in Love" was nominated at the 36th NAACP Image Awards for the Outstanding Song award and for Favorite Song at the 2004 Kids' Choice Awards.


title: Crazy in Love

text: "Crazy in Love" has various remixes, including the Rockwilder remix, Maurice Joshua's Nu Soul remix, and Juniors World remix. These versions appeared on the single releases of "Crazy in Love" under an alternative spelling, "Krazy in Luv". The Rockwilder remix slows down the beat and makes the song deeper and funkier with chopped up horn samples and sparkling synth textures from sampling Don't Stop the Music by Yarbrough and Peoples. Maurice's Nu Soul Remix speeds up the beat, taking it from hip-hop to house territory. A version of the song included on Asian special edition of "Dangerously in Love" features a rap in Mandarin Chinese performed by American-Taiwanese singer Vanness Wu, instead of Jay Z's performance.


title: Crazy in Love

text: "Crazy in Love" was re-recorded by Beyoncé for the film "Fifty Shades of Grey" (2015) and used for its trailer, which was released on July 24, 2014. The slowed-down version was produced by Boots with violin arrangements by Margot, both of whom worked on Beyoncé's self-titled fifth studio album (2013), and, unlike the original, doesn't feature Jay-Z. Margot said: "It inspires me to work on other artists' songs [because] it pushes my boundaries in a direction that I wouldn't necessarily come up with. Obviously I know how 'Crazy in Love' goes, but I knew there was the possibility her vocals would be different. It's almost more vulnerable and beautiful this way, because you "do" do crazy things when you fall in love. To hear the mood reversed and flipped makes it even more powerful."


title: Crazy in Love

text: The track was then officially released through iTunes Store on February 10, 2015. The single cover artwork uses the same image used in the original cover, but in black and white. The rendition was performed for the first time during the 2015 Budweiser Made in America Festival on September 5, 2015 and was included on the setlist of The Formation World Tour (2016), alongside the original version.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: The Ferrari 308 GTB berlinetta and targa topped 308 GTS are V8 mid-engined, two-seater sports cars manufactured by the Italian company Ferrari from 1975 to 1985. The 308 replaced the Dino 246 GT and GTS in 1975 and was updated as the 328 GTB/GTS in 1985. The similar 208 GTB and GTS were equipped with a smaller, initially naturally aspirated and later turbocharged, two-litre engine, and were sold mainly in Italy.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: The 308 had a tube frame with separate body. The 308 GTB/GTS and GT4 were mechanically similar, and also shared much with the original Dino. Both 308s sit on the same tube platform, however the GT4—being a 2+2—has a longer wheelbase.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: The engine was a V8 of a 90 degree configuration, with two belt-driven overhead camshafts per cylinder bank. It was transversely mounted in unit with the transaxle transmission assembly, which was below and to the rear of the engine's sump. All models used a fully synchromesh 5-speed "dog-leg" manual gearbox and a clutch-type limited slip differential.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: Suspension was all-independent, comprising double wishbones, coaxial coil springs and hydraulic dampers, and anti-roll bars on both axles; four wheel vented disc brakes were also fitted. Steering was unassisted rack and pinion.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: The 308's body was designed by Pininfarina's Leonardo Fioravanti, who had been responsible for some of Ferrari's most celebrated shapes to date such as the Daytona, the Dino and the Berlinetta Boxer. The 308 used elements of these shapes to create something very much in contrast with the angular Bertone-designed GT4.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: GTS models featured a removable roof panel with grained satin black finish, which could be stowed in a vinyl cover behind the seats when not in use.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: The Pininfarina-styled Ferrari 308 GTB was introduced at the Paris Motor Show in 1975 as a supplement to the Bertone-shaped 2+2 "Dino" 308 GT4 and a direct replacement for the two-seater Dino 246.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: Its "F106 AB" V8 engine was equipped with four twin-choke Weber 40DCNF carburettors and single coil ignition. European versions produced at 6600 rpm (7700 rpm redline), but American versions were down to at 6,600 rpm due to emissions control devices. European specification cars used dry sump lubrication. Cars destined to the Australian, Japanese and US market were fitted with a conventional wet sump engine from the GT4.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: A notable aspect of the early 308 GTB was that, although still built by Carrozzeria Scaglietti, its bodywork was originally entirely made of glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), allowing a very light weight of . This lasted until June 1977, when the 308 was switched to steel bodies, resulting in an overall weight increase of approximately .


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: Five-spoke 14-inch alloy wheels were standard, while 16-inch wheels were made available later as an option together with sports exhaust system, high compression pistons, a high lift camshaft and a deeper front spoiler.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: At the 1977 Frankfurt Motor Show, the targa topped 308 GTS was introduced. All GTS' received a wet sump engine and were steel-bodied. European GTB models retained the dry sump lubrication until 1981.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: There were 3219 GTS' and 2897 GTBs made from 1975 to 1980. Only 808 of the fibreglass ("vetroresina" in Italian) version were made, all with the Berlinetta bodywork.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: In 1980 Bosch K-Jetronic mechanical fuel injection was offered, leading to the 308 GTBi and GTSi; emissions decreased, at the price of a power drop to on European models and on federalized models. The fuel injection was coupled to a Marelli MED 803A Digiplex electronic ignition, incorporating a coil, distributor, and ignition module for each bank of cylinders.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: Outside, the car was identical to the 308 GTB/GTS, save for metric sized wheels of a slightly different design, fitted with Michelin TRX radial tyres—Michelin XWX on 16-inch wheels were optional. Inside, the clock and oil temperature gauge were moved to the centre console; there were also a new black steering wheel with three perforated spokes, and seats of a different pattern.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: 494 GTBis and 1743 GTSis were produced before the model was succeeded by the 308 "Quattrovalvole" in 1982.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: Two years later, at the 1982 Paris Motor Show, Ferrari launched the 308 quattrovalvole, in GTB and GTS form. The main change from the 308 GTBi/GTSi it succeeded were the four valves per cylinder—hence its name, "quattrovalvole", literally "four valves" in Italian—which pushed output back up to restoring some of the performance lost to the emission control equipment.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: The new model could be recognized by the addition of a slim louvred panel in the front lid to aid radiator exhaust air exit, power operated mirrors carrying a small enamel Ferrari badge, a redesigned radiator grille with rectangular driving lights on each side, and rectangular (in place of round) side repeaters. The interior also received some minor updates, such as a satin black three spoke steering wheel with triangular centre; cloth seat centres became available as an option to the standard full leather. Available options included metallic paint, a deep front spoiler, air conditioning, wider, 16-inch Speedline wheels with Pirelli P7 tyres, and a satin black roof aerofoil (standard on Japanese market models).


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: Apart from the DOHC 32-valve cylinder heads, the V8 engine was essentially of the same design as that used in the 308 GTSi model. Total displacement was , with a bore x stroke of . Output on European specification cars was at 7000 rpm and at 5000 rpm of torque, while for US specification variants were SAE net at 6800 rpm and at 5500 rpm of torque. The gear and final drive ratios were altered to suit the revised characteristics of the four valves per cylinder engine. One other significant benefit of the QV's four valve heads was the replacement of the non-QV models sodium valves which have been known to fail at the joint between the head and the stem. Bosch K-Jetronic fuel injection and Magneti Marelli Digiplex electronic ignition were carried over from the GTBi/GTSi. All US market examples were fitted with catalytic converters.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: The 288 GTO introduced in 1984 is considered as the first Ferrari supercar. The 288 borrowed much of the styling from the European 308 GTB QV of the previous year, 1983: it is also powered by a similar 2.8-litre V8 with a smaller bore and twin turbochargers, it retained the general bodywork lines with extended wheelarches, different side air vents, and bigger rear spoiler, longer () wheelbase, and the central tubular space frame chassis.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: In 1985 Ferrari launched the 328, which replaced the Quattrovalvole. Between 1982 and 1985 the quattrovalvole was produced in a total of 3042 GTS and only 748 GTB examples.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: In 1980 Ferrari introduced a two-litre version of the 308, 208 GTB and 208 GTS. They were mainly for the domestic Italian market, where new cars with engines above 2 litres were subjected to a much higher value added tax, 38% instead of the standard 18%. The 208 was also listed in Portugal and New Zealand. The 208 GTB/GTS replaced the 208 GT4 2+2. It is often regarded as the slowest Ferrari ever made but proved faster than the 208 GT4 Bertone in a 1980 test by American magazine "Motor Trend".


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: The engine was de-bored to 66.8 mm (giving it an undersquare design) for a total displacement of , resulting in one of the smallest V8 engines ever produced. Fed through four Weber 34 DCNF carburetors, the V8 produced at 6800 rpm. 160 208 GTS and 140 208 GTB cars were produced in 1980 and 1981.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: In 1982 the two-litre 208 was succeeded by a turbocharged and fuel injected version, the 208 GTB Turbo unveiled at the Turin Motor Show. It was the first ever turbocharged road-going Ferrari. A GTS version was introduced a year later, in 1983. Like the original 208, this model was intended for the Italian domestic market.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: The 208's engine was given a single KKK K26 turbocharger with wastegate valve, Bosch K-Jetronic fuel injection and Marelli electronic ignition. The turbocharging system's design was heavily influenced by the contemporary Ferrari 126C2 Formula One car. Forced induction increased power to at 7000 rpm, while torque output increased by 18 percent. The 208 Turbo was claimed to accelerate from 0- in 6.6 seconds, with a top speed of 150 mph.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: Both outside and inside the 208 Turbo was almost identical to the contemporary 308 Quattrovalvole. It could be recognized by NACA ducts in front of the rear wheel well openings and "turbo" badging on the tail and shrouded exhaust pipes. Extra cooling slots were also added to the lower front spoiler, below the radiator grille. In the rear of the car, additional louvers were added to the engine cover and a cooling vent was placed in the center of the rear bumper, splitting it in two. The deep front spoiler and black roof aileron, optional on the 308, were standard equipment on the 208 Turbo.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: Production ended in 1985 after 437 GTB Turbo and 250 GTS Turbo cars were produced. In 1986 they were replaced by the 328-based, intercooled GTB/GTS Turbo.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: The 308 was made famous by the television series "Magnum, P.I." in which the series' lead, Thomas Magnum (Tom Selleck) drove the car around Oahu for eight seasons while on his investigations, from 1980 to 1988. Several 308 GTS cars were used, a new one for each season, most being auctioned off after filming and all with the license plate "ROBIN 1".


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: In 2004, "Sports Car International" named this car number five on the list of Top Sports Cars of the 1970s.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: Among the typically yearly updates to the performance and style of the 308 throughout its run, cars from the same series would have a number of differences between them depending on their intended export market (which is usual for European cars). For example, a 308 destined for the American market would sport much larger heavier bumpers and a slightly sturdier frame (and many other smaller details) in order to meet more stringent US road safety standards. American market cars also suffered a performance hit due to a compression ratio of 8.6:1 vs 9.2:1 for most of the rest of the world state emissions legislation which reduced horsepower. As a result of these differences there is often a premium paid for the "purer" European spec car over the federalized car.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: The 308 GTB Millechiodi was an aerodynamic study based on the 308 GTB and designed by Pininfarina. It was first shown at the 1977 Geneva Motor Show. Differences from the standard 308 GTB include a custom, unpainted aerodynamic body kit and the instrument panel from the Berlinetta Boxer. Some of its styling elements would later show up in the Ferrari 288 GTO.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: From 1978 through 1986, rally racing versions of the Ferrari 308 GTB were developed and produced in small numbers by Michelotto, a Padua-based Ferrari dealer and race-preparation workshop. Michelotto was owned and operated by Giuliano Michelotto, not to be confused with Italian automotive designer Giovanni Michelotti. Although Michelotto was organizationally independent from Ferrari, the cars were developed in close collaboration with Ferrari factory engineers. The Michelotto workshop built rally versions of the 308 GTB to compete in Group 4 and Group B classes of the World Rally Championship. This production included cars based on modified production chassis and engines as well as the more radical, purpose-built 308 GT/M. These cars were raced with some success from the late 1970s through the mid 1980s, but development and officially sanctioned competition use of the type ceased in 1986 with the cancellation of the Group B class.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: Michelotto began constructing Group 4-specification 308 GTB rally cars in 1978. In 1980, Michelotto provided a Gr.4 308 to Padova-based rally driver "Nico" Grosoli. Grosoli provided funding for Michelotto's efforts and was able to bring in more assistance from the Ferrari factory. At the time, Lancia was the Fiat Group's official entrant into the World Rally Championship. Although Ferrari was also a member of the Fiat Group, which ostensibly co-ordinated competition activities between member brands, Michelotto (with Grosoli's assistance) was able to obtain official support from the Ferrari factory.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: Ferrari supplied bare 308 GTB chassis and engines which Michelotto built into complete rally racing cars. Michelotto installed lightweight tubular framed chassis sections made of steel and titanium, including a roll cage and a modified engine bay designed to allow easier maintenance access. They were equipped with 2-valve-per-cylinder (i.e. early type non-Quattrovalvole) engines using high-compression pistons, revised valves, cams, bearings, and spark plugs. Bosch Kugelfischer mechanical fuel injection was used instead of the Weber carburetors or Bosch K-Jetronic injection systems seen on roadgoing 308 models. Two additional oil coolers were added at the front of the car. After modifications by Michelotto, this engine produced approximately 288-330 bhp. A close-ratio transmission with no syncromesh was fitted to improve acceleration. The suspension used standard 308 components with adjustable Koni shock absorbers. The suspension was tuned for the varied surfaces found in rally stages and had a visibly higher ride height than 308 road cars. Brakes were standard 308 equipment with an added brake balance controller. Wider wheels by Campagnolo or Ruote Neri were fitted. The bodywork was constructed from fiberglass and Kevlar and was equipped with larger fender flares and optional lights for night stages. In order to save weight, the interior was stripped, Sparco fiberglass racing seats installed and the motorized hidden headlight mechanisms were replaced with manually operated mechanisms. Michelotto built a total of 11 Gr.4-specification 308 rally cars.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: Group 4 308s competed in rallies from 1978 through at least 1983. During 1978-79, a Michelotto-prepared Gr.4 308 was campaigned in several rallies by Roberto Liviero and Rafaele "Lele" Pinto, winning the 1979 Rally di Monza. Later in 1980, one of the Gr.4 cars was driven by "Nico" Grosoli in multiple rallies, including the Costa Smeralda Rally, Rally il Ciocco, Rally di Piancavallo and the Targa Florio Rally. French driver Jean-Claude Andruet witnessed the 308 competing at the Targa Florio and convinced Charles Pozzi's team to run a team of Gr.4 308s during 1981. Four Gr.4 308s were built by Michelotto for Pozzi. While the Pozzi team did not attempt to compete in all the World Rally Championship races, they were successful in the limited number of tarmac and light gravel rallies they entered. The Pozzi team declined to enter those events that involved forest roads and/or snow, as they did not feel the 308 would be competitive on such terrain. In 1981, Andruet and co-drivers Chantal Bouchetal and Michele "Biche" Petit won the Targa Florio Rally, the Rally 4 Regioni, the 24 Ore de Ypres, and the Tour de France Automobile. They temporarily held the lead in but did not win the Tour de Corse, the Rally Costa Brava, Hunsrück Rallye and the Rali Vinho da Madeira. A second Pozzi Gr.4 308 was driven by Guy Chasseuil with co-driver Bernadette Chasseuil, who did not score any wins but placed second several times. The Pozzi team continued to run the 308s in 1982, including a second-place overall finish for Andruet/Petit in the Tour de Corse, the best ever result for the 308 in an official calendar WRC event. Also in 1982, an independent team consisting of Italians Tonino Tognana and Massimo de Antoni driving a Gr.4 308 won the Rally il Ciocco and the Rally di Piancavallo and placed second at the Colline di Romagna. In 1983, an independent driver competing under the pseudonym "Panic" raced an ex-Pozzi Gr.4 308 in the Tour de France and Tour de Corse, finishing both among the top ranked non-works entries.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: Following the introduction of Group B rules in 1982, Michelotto began building 308 GTB rally cars to compete in that class. The first Gr.B 308 was built at the request of Spanish rally driver Antonio Zanini. Four Gr.B specification cars were built, with certain engine and bodywork details differing from the earlier Gr.4 cars. The first Gr.B 308, chassis 18869, was constructed with a 2-valve engine like the Gr.4 cars, while the 3 later cars used a 4-valve-per-cylinder engine and Bosch K-Jetronic fuel injection from the 308 Quattrovalvole. The QV motor produced 310 hp at 8,000 rpm after tuning by Michelotto. The Gr.B cars were also equipped with a "quick-change" gearbox that allowed the final drive ratio to be replaced quickly and easily during racing or testing. Additional modifications included upgraded Brembo brakes, Fondmetal Canonica wheels, stronger anti-roll bars, rose-joint suspension links, lighter suspension wishbones and a quicker-ratio steering rack.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: As initial homologation rules required that Gr.B cars use the same body panels as their roadgoing counterparts, the Gr.B 308s were equipped with steel and fiberglass panels. This increased total weight by over the earlier Gr.4 cars. The 308 was homologated under Group B rules three separate times in October 1982, January 1983 and April 1983. This allowed Michelotto to incorporate additional Ferrari-made performance parts into their Gr.B cars, including engine parts, lightweight windows and body panels.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: In 1983, chassis 18869 was driven to first-place finishes at several rallies, including the Imperia Rally and the Sicilian Rally Championship. In 1985, Antonio Zanini drove this car to a third-place finish at the Targa Florio, followed by several other wins which led to his victory in the Spanish Rally Championship. At the 1984 Rally Della Lana, Luigi "Lucky" Battistolli and Claudio Berro drove chassis 18847 to a second-place finish. Also in 1984, the same car was driven to a third-place finish at the Rally di Monza by Björn Waldegård and co-driver Claes Billstam.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: The Ferrari 308 GT/M was developed by Ferrari and Michelotto to compete under the Group B "Evolution/Termination" rules. Development began in November 1982 as the successes of the Gr.4 308 convinced Ferrari and Michelotto that a purpose-built Ferrari rally car could be competitive under Group B rules. The model was cancelled with the banning of Group B cars for the 1987 season.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: The 308 GT/M was built on a newly designed tubular frame steel chassis and a 3.0 liter 308 Quattrovalvole engine. This engine was mounted longitudinally in a rear-mid-engine position, in contrast to the transverse mounting of the 308 road cars and the earlier Gr.4 rally cars. The engine was upgraded internally and used an equal-length exhaust system and modified Bosch Kugelfischer fuel injection. This engine produced approx 363-370 bhp at 8900 rpm. Upgraded pistons, valves and camshafts were used and both the camshaft and belt covers were cast in lightweight magnesium alloy. A Hewland 5-speed manual transaxle was mounted at the rear and supplied power to the rear wheels only. The car was also fitted with a dual-plate, Formula-One type Borg & Beck clutch. Double wishbone suspension and coil springs were used at all four wheels, with suspension geometry based on the Ferrari Mondial. Some standard 308 and Mondial components were incorporated, although many were modified. The suspension arms and steering rack both had two alternative mounting positions to allow ride height adjustments. Brembo brakes were fitted, including a hydraulically-operated handbrake. The Kevlar and carbon fiber body of the car was designed by Francesco Boniolo. It resembled the earlier Ferrari 512 BB/LM and was influenced by wind tunnel testing of that model. It incorporated large, fixed headlights and a prominent rear spoiler. The body was constructed by Carrozzeria Auto Sport near Modena. Total weight of the car was , 120 kg less than the minimum weight mandated by Group B rules.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: Ferrari drivers extensively tested the 308 GT/M at Fiorano from 1984 to 1986. With racing tires fitted, the 308 GT/M lapped Fiorano in 1 minute, 24.6 seconds, faster than both the F40 (1:25) and 512 BB/LM (1:26.6). The car accelerated from 0- in less than 4 seconds. Ferrari designed the car to reach a top speed of at a 8500 rpm redline in 5th gear.


title: Ferrari 308 GTB/GTS

text: Three 308 GT/M chassis were constructed, numbered 001, 002 and 003. Chassis 001 was completed in 1984 and subsequently used as a test mule by Ferrari to develop the design, including extensive track testing at Fiorano Circuit. By June 1984, it was sold to Belgian driver Jean "Beurlys" Blaton. Blaton raced the car occasionally in local Belgian rallies. Chassis 002 was entered in the 1984 Rally di Monza, where it was driven by Raffaele "Lele" Pinto. Under wet conditions, Pinto damaged the rear suspension and finished 4th, trailing a "conventional" Gr.B 308 GTB. 002 was repaired and subsequently used as a road car by a private owner. Chassis 003 was built for a Dutch driver, Henk Koel. Construction of 003 began in Fall of 1986 and was completed in April 1987. Chassis 003 was never used in rally racing, but has appeared at multiple Ferrari track events.


title: Subsistence agriculture

text: Subsistence agriculture occurs when farmers grow food crops to meet the needs of themselves and their families on smallholdings. Subsistence agriculturalists target farm output for survival and for mostly local requirements, with little or no surplus. Planting decisions occur principally with an eye toward what the family will need during the coming year, and only secondarily toward market prices. Tony Waters, a professor of sociology, defines "subsistence peasants" as "people who grow what they eat, build their own houses, and live without regularly making purchases in the marketplace."


title: Subsistence agriculture

text: Despite the self-sufficiency in subsistence farming, most subsistence farmers also participate in trade to some degree. Although their amount of trade as measured in cash is less than that of consumers in countries with modern complex markets, they use these markets mainly to obtain goods, not to generate income for food; these goods are typically not necessary for survival and may include sugar, iron roofing-sheets, bicycles, used clothing, and so forth. Many have important trade contacts and trade items that they can produce because of their special skills or special access to resources valued in the marketplace.


title: Subsistence agriculture

text: Most subsistence farmers today operate in developing countries. Subsistence agriculture generally features: small capital/finance requirements, mixed cropping, limited use of agrochemicals (e.g. pesticides and fertilizer), unimproved varieties of crops and animals, little or no surplus yield for sale, use of crude/traditional tools (e.g. hoes, machetes, and cutlasses), mainly the production of food crops, small scattered plots of land, reliance on unskilled labor (often family members), and (generally) low yields.


title: Subsistence agriculture

text: Subsistence agriculture was the dominant mode of production in the world until recently, when market-based capitalism became widespread.


title: Subsistence agriculture

text: Subsistence agriculture largely disappeared in Europe by the beginning of the twentieth century. It began to decrease in North America with the movement of sharecroppers and tenant farmers out of the American South and Midwest during the 1930s and 1940s. In Central and Eastern Europe, semi-subsistence agriculture reappeared within the transition economy after 1990 but declined in significance (or disappeared) in most countries by the accession to the EU in 2004 or 2007.


title: Subsistence agriculture

text: Subsistence farming continues today in large parts of rural Africa, and parts of Asia and Latin America. In 2015, about 2 billion people (slightly more than 25% of the world's population) in 500 million households living in rural areas of developing nations survive as "smallholder" farmers, working less than 2 hectares (5 acres) of land. Around 98% of China's farmers work on small farms, and China accounts for around half of the total world farms. In India, 80% of the total farmers are smallholder farmers; Ethiopia and Asia have almost 90% being small; while Mexico and Brazil recorded having 50% and 20% being small.


title: Subsistence agriculture

text: Areas where subsistence farming is largely practiced today, such as India and other regions in Asia, have seen a recent decline in the practice. This is due to processes such as urbanization, the transformation of land into rural areas, and integration of capitalist forms of farming. In India, the increase in industrialization and decrease in rural agriculture has led to rural unemployment and increased poverty for those in lower caste groups. Those that are able to live and work in urbanized areas are able to increase their income while those that remain in rural areas take large decreases, which is why there was no large decline in poverty.  This effectively widens the income gap between lower and higher castes and makes it harder for those in rural areas to move up in caste ranking. This era has marked a time of increased farmer suicides and the "vanishing village".


title: Subsistence agriculture

text: Most subsistence agriculture is practiced in developing countries located in tropical climates. Effects on crop production brought about by climate change will be more intense in these regions as extreme temperatures are linked to lower crop yields. Farmers have been forced to respond to increased temperatures through things such as increased land and labor inputs which threaten long-term productivity. Coping measures in response to variable climates can include reducing daily food consumption and selling livestock to compensate for the decreased productivity. These responses often threaten the future of household farms in the following seasons as many farmers will sell draft animals used for labor and will also consume seeds saved for planting. Measuring the full extent of future climate change impacts is difficult to determine as smallholder farms are complex systems with many different interactions. Different locations have different adaptation strategies available to them such as crop and livestock substitutions. Rates of production for cereal crops, such as wheat, oats, and maize have been declining largely due to heat's effects on crop fertility. This has forced many farmers to switch to more heat tolerant crops to maintain levels of productivity. Substitution of crops for heat tolerant alternatives limits the overall diversity of crops grown on smallholder farms. As many farmers farm to meet daily food needs, this can negatively impact nutrition and diet among many families practicing subsistence agriculture.


title: Subsistence agriculture

text: In this type of farming, a patch of forest land is cleared by a combination of felling (chopping down) and burning, and crops are grown. After 2–3 years the fertility of the soil begins to decline, the land is abandoned and the farmer moves to clear a fresh piece of land elsewhere in the forest as the process continues. While the land is left fallow the forest regrows in the cleared area and soil fertility and biomass is restored. After a decade or more, the farmer may return to the first piece of land. This form of agriculture is sustainable at low population densities, but higher population loads require more frequent clearing which prevents soil fertility from recovering, opens up more of the forest canopy, and encourages scrub at the expense of large trees, eventually resulting in deforestation and soil erosion. Shifting cultivation is called "dredd" in India, "ladang" in Indonesia, "milpa" in Central America and Mexico and "jhumming" in North East India.


title: Subsistence agriculture

text: In this type of farming people migrate along with their animals from one place to another in search of fodder for their animals. Generally they rear cattle, sheep, goats, camels and/or yaks for milk, skin, meat and wool. This way of life is common in parts of central and western Asia, India, east and southwest Africa and northern Eurasia. Examples are the nomadic Bhotiyas and Gujjars of the Himalayas. They carry their belongings, such as tents, etc., on the backs of donkeys, horses, and camels. In mountainous regions, like Tibet and the Andes, yak and llama are reared. Reindeer are the livestock in arctic and sub-arctic areas. Sheep, goats, and camels are common animals, and cattle and horses are also important.


title: Subsistence agriculture

text: In intensive subsistence agriculture, the farmer cultivates a small plot of land using simple tools and more labour. Climate with large number of days with sunshine and fertile soils, permits growing of more than one crop annually on the same plot. Farmers use their small land holdings to produce enough for their local consumption, while remaining produce is used for exchange against other goods. It results in much more food being produced per acre compared to other subsistence patterns. In the most intensive situation, farmers may even create terraces along steep hillsides to cultivate rice paddies. Such fields are found in densely populated parts of Asia, such as in the Philippines. They may also intensify by using manure, artificial irrigation and animal waste as fertilizer. Intensive subsistence farming is prevalent in the thickly populated areas of the monsoon regions of south, southwest, and southeast Asia.


title: Subsistence agriculture

text: Subsistence agriculture can be used as a poverty alleviation strategy, specifically as a safety net for food-price shocks and for food security. Poor countries are limited in fiscal and institutional resources that would allow them to contain rises in domestic prices as well as to manage social assistance programs, which is often because they are using policy tools that are intended for middle- and high-income countries. Low-income countries tend to have populations in which 80% of poor are in rural areas and more than 90% of rural households have access to land, yet a majority of these rural poor have insufficient access to food. Subsistence agriculture can be used in low-income countries as a part of policy responses to a food crisis in the short and medium term, and provide a safety net for the poor in these countries.


title: Subsistence agriculture

text: Agriculture is  more successful over non agricultural jobs in combating poverty in countries that have a larger population of people without education or that are unskilled.However, there are levels of poverty to be aware of to target agriculture towards the right audience.Agriculture is better at reducing poverty in those that have an income of $1 per day than those that have an income of $2 per day in Africa.In Kenya, the number of people who make $1 per day decreased by 150 million in rural areas while in urban areas it increased to 50 million. People who make less income are more likely to be poorly educated and have fewer opportunities therefore they work more labor-intensive jobs, such as agriculture. People who make $2 have more opportunities to work in less labor-intensive jobs in non-agricultural fields.


title: PC game

text: A personal computer game, also known as a PC game or computer game, is a type of video game played on a personal computer (PC) rather than a video game console or arcade machine. Its defining characteristics include: more diverse and user-determined gaming hardware and software; and generally greater capacity in input, processing, video and audio output. The uncoordinated nature of the PC game market, and now its lack of physical media, make precisely assessing its size difficult. In 2018, the global PC games market was valued at about $27.7 billion.


title: PC game

text: Home computer games became popular following the video game crash of 1983, leading to the era of the "bedroom coder". In the 1990s, PC games lost mass-market traction to console games, before enjoying a resurgence in the mid-2000s through digital distribution on services such as Steam and GOG.com.


title: PC game

text: Newzoo reports that the "PC gaming sector" is the third-largest category (and estimated in decline) across all platforms , with the "console sector" second-largest, and "mobile / smartphone gaming sector" biggest. 2.2 billion video gamers generate US$101.1 billion in revenue, excluding hardware costs. "Digital game revenues will account for $94.4 billion or 87% of the global market. Mobile is the most lucrative segment, with smartphone and tablet gaming growing 19% year on year to $46.1 billion, claiming 42% of the market. In 2020, mobile gaming will represent just more than half of the total games market. [...] China expected to generate $27.5 billion, or one-quarter of all revenues in 2017."


title: PC game

text: PC gaming is considered synonymous (by Newzoo and others) with IBM Personal Computer compatible systems; while mobile computers – smartphones and tablets, such as those running Android or iOS – are also personal computers in the general sense. The APAC region was estimated to generate $46.6 billion in 2016, or 47% of total global video game revenues (note, not only "PC" games). China alone accounts for half of APAC's revenues (at $24.4 billion), cementing its place as the largest video game market in the world, ahead of the US's anticipated market size of $23.5 billion. China is expected to have 53% of its video game revenues come from mobile gaming in 2017 (46% in 2016).


title: PC game

text: Bertie the Brain was one of the first game playing machines developed. It was built in 1950 by Josef Kates. It measured more than four meters tall, and was displayed at the Canadian National Exhibition that year.


title: PC game

text: Although personal computers only became popular with the development of the microprocessor and microcomputer, computer gaming on mainframes and minicomputers had previously already existed. "OXO", an adaptation of tic-tac-toe for the EDSAC, debuted in 1952. Another pioneer computer game was developed in 1961, when MIT students Martin Graetz and Alan Kotok, with MIT student Steve Russell, developed "Spacewar!" on a PDP-1 mainframe computer used for statistical calculations.


title: PC game

text: The first generation of computer games were often text-based adventures or interactive fiction, in which the player communicated with the computer by entering commands through a keyboard. An early text-adventure, "Adventure", was developed for the PDP-11 minicomputer by Will Crowther in 1976, and expanded by Don Woods in 1977. By the 1980s, personal computers had become powerful enough to run games like "Adventure", but by this time, graphics were beginning to become an important factor in games. Later games combined textual commands with basic graphics, as seen in the SSI Gold Box games such as "Pool of Radiance", or "The Bard's Tale", for example.


title: PC game

text: By the late 1970s to early 1980s, games were developed and distributed through hobbyist groups and gaming magazines, such as "Creative Computing" and later "Computer Gaming World". These publications provided game code that could be typed into a computer and played, encouraging readers to submit their own software to competitions. Players could modify the BASIC source code of even commercial games. "Microchess" was one of the first games for microcomputers which was sold to the public. First sold in 1977, Microchess eventually sold over 50,000 copies on cassette tape.


title: PC game

text: As with second-generation video game consoles at the time, early home computer game companies capitalized on successful arcade games at the time with ports or clones of popular arcade video games. By 1982, the top-selling games for the Atari 400 and 800 were ports of "Frogger" and "Centipede", while the top-selling game for the TI-99/4A was the "Space Invaders" clone "TI Invaders". That same year, "Pac-Man" was ported to the Atari 8-bit computers, while "Donkey Kong" was licensed for the Coleco Adam. In late 1981, Atari, Inc. attempted to take legal action against unauthorized "Pac-Man" clones, despite some of these predating Atari's exclusive rights to the home versions of Namco's game.


title: PC game

text: As the video game market became flooded with poor-quality cartridge games created by numerous companies attempting to enter the market, and overproduction of high-profile releases such as the Atari 2600 adaptations of "Pac-Man" and "E.T." grossly underperformed, the popularity of personal computers for education rose dramatically. In 1983, consumer interest in console video games dwindled to historical lows, as interest in games on personal computers rose. The effects of the crash were largely limited to the console market, as established companies such as Atari posted record losses over subsequent years. Conversely, the home computer market boomed, as sales of low-cost color computers such as the Commodore 64 rose to record highs and developers such as Electronic Arts benefited from increasing interest in the platform.


title: PC game

text: The North American console market experienced a resurgence in the United States with the release of the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). In Europe, computer gaming continued to boom for many years after. Computers such as the ZX Spectrum and BBC Micro were successful in the European market, where the NES was not as successful despite its monopoly in Japan and North America. The only 8-bit console to have any success in Europe would be the Master System. Meanwhile, in Japan, both consoles and computers became major industries, with the console market dominated by Nintendo and the computer market dominated by NEC's PC-88 (1981) and PC-98 (1982). A key difference between Western and Japanese computers at the time was the display resolution, with Japanese systems using a higher resolution of 640x400 to accommodate Japanese text, which in turn affected video game design and allowed more detailed graphics. Japanese computers were also using Yamaha's FM synth sound boards from the early 1980s.


title: PC game

text: To enhance the immersive experience with their unrealistic graphics and electronic sound, early PC games included extras such as the peril-sensitive sunglasses that shipped with "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy" or the science fiction novella included with "Elite". These extras gradually became less common, but many games were still sold in the traditional oversized boxes that used to hold the extra "feelies". Today, such extras are usually found only in Special Edition versions of games, such as Battlechests from Blizzard.


title: PC game

text: During the 16-bit era, the Commodore Amiga and Atari ST became popular in Europe, while the PC-98, Sharp X68000, and FM Towns became popular in Japan. The Amiga, X68000 and FM Towns were capable of producing near arcade-quality hardware sprite graphics and sound quality when they first released in the mid-to-late 1980s.


title: PC game

text: Among launch titles for the IBM Personal Computer (PC) in 1981 was "Microsoft Adventure", which IBM described as bringing "players into a fantasy world of caves and treasures". "BYTE" that year stated that the computer's speed and sophistication made it "an excellent gaming device", and IBM and others sold games like "Microsoft Flight Simulator". The PC's CGA graphics and speaker sound were poor, however, and most customers bought the powerful but expensive computer for business. One ComputerLand owner estimated in 1983 that a quarter of corporate executives with computers "have a game hidden somewhere in their drawers", and "InfoWorld" in 1984 reported that "in offices all over America (more than anyone realizes) executives and managers are playing games on their computers", but software companies found selling games for the PC difficult; an observer said that year that "Flight Simulator" had sold hundreds of thousands of copies because customers with corporate PCs could claim that it was a "simulation".


title: PC game

text: From mid-1985, however, what "Compute!" described as a "wave" of inexpensive IBM PC clones from American and Asian companies, such as the Tandy 1000, caused prices to decline; by the end of 1986, the equivalent to a $1600 real IBM PC with 256K RAM and two disk drives cost as little as $600, lower than the price of the Apple IIc. Consumers began purchasing DOS computers for the home in large numbers. While often purchased to do work on evenings and weekends, clones' popularity caused consumer-software companies to increase the number of IBM-compatible products, including those developed specifically for the PC as opposed to porting from other computers. Bing Gordon of Electronic Arts reported that customers used computers for games more than one fifth of the time whether purchased for work or a hobby, with many who purchased computers for other reasons finding PC games "a pretty satisfying experience".


title: PC game

text: By 1987, the PC market was growing so quickly that the formerly business-only computer had become the largest and fastest-growing, and most important platform for computer game companies. DOS computers dominated the home, supplanting Commodore and Apple. More than a third of games sold in North America were for the PC, twice as many as those for the Apple II and even outselling those for the Commodore 64. With the EGA video card, an inexpensive clone had better graphics and more memory for games than the Commodore or Apple, and the Tandy 1000's enhanced graphics, sound, and built-in joystick ports made it the best platform for IBM PC-compatible games before the VGA era.


title: PC game

text: By 1988, the enormous popularity of the Nintendo Entertainment System had greatly affected the computer-game industry. A Koei executive claimed that "Nintendo's success has destroyed the [computer] software entertainment market". A Mindscape executive agreed, saying that "Unfortunately, its effect has been extremely negative. Without question, Nintendo's success has eroded software sales. There's been a much greater falling off of disk sales than anyone anticipated." A third attributed the end of growth in sales of the Commodore 64 to the console, and Trip Hawkins called Nintendo "the last hurrah of the 8-bit world". Experts were unsure whether it affected 16-bit computer games, but Hawkins, in 1990, nonetheless had to deny rumors that Electronic Arts would withdraw from computers and only produce console games. By 1993, ASCII Entertainment reported at a Software Publishers Association conference that the market for console games ($5.9 billion in revenue) was 12 times that of the computer-game market ($430 million).


title: PC game

text: However, computer games did not disappear. By 1989, "Computer Gaming World" reported that "the industry is moving toward heavy use of VGA graphics". While some games were advertised with VGA support at the start of the year, they usually supported EGA graphics through VGA cards. By the end of 1989, however, most publishers moved to at supporting at least 320x200 MCGA, a subset of VGA. VGA gave the PC graphics that outmatched the Amiga. Increasing adoption of the computer mouse, driven partially by the success of adventure games such as the highly successful "King's Quest" series, and high resolution bitmap displays allowed the industry to include increasingly high-quality graphical interfaces in new releases.


title: PC game

text: Further improvements to game artwork and audio were made possible with the introduction of FM synthesis sound. Yamaha began manufacturing FM synth boards for computers in the early-mid-1980s, and by 1985, the NEC and FM-7 computers had built-in FM sound. The first PC sound cards, such as AdLib's Music Synthesizer Card, soon appeared in 1987. These cards allowed IBM PC compatible computers to produce complex sounds using FM synthesis, where they had previously been limited to simple tones and beeps. However, the rise of the Creative Labs Sound Blaster card, released in 1989, which featured much higher sound quality due to the inclusion of a PCM channel and digital signal processor, led AdLib to file for bankruptcy by 1992. Also in 1989, the FM Towns computer included built-in PCM sound, in addition to a CD-ROM drive and 24-bit color graphics.


title: PC game

text: By 1990, DOS was 65% of the computer-game market, with the Amiga at 10%; all other computers, including the Apple Macintosh, were below 10% and declining. Although both Apple and IBM tried to avoid customers associating their products with "game machines", the latter acknowledged that VGA, audio, and joystick options for its PS/1 computer were popular. In 1991, id Software produced an early first-person shooter, "Hovertank 3D", which was the company's first in their line of highly influential games in the genre. There were also several other companies that produced early first-person shooters, such as Arsys Software's "Star Cruiser", which featured fully 3D polygonal graphics in 1988, and Accolade's "Day of the Viper" in 1989. Id Software went on to develop "Wolfenstein 3D" in 1992, which helped to popularize the genre, kick-starting a genre that would become one of the highest-selling in modern times. The game was originally distributed through the shareware distribution model, allowing players to try a limited part of the game for free but requiring payment to play the rest, and represented one of the first uses of texture mapping graphics in a popular game, along with "Ultima Underworld".


title: PC game

text: In December 1992, "Computer Gaming World" reported that DOS accounted for 82% of computer-game sales in 1991, compared to Macintosh's 8% and Amiga's 5%. In response to a reader's challenge to find a DOS game that played better than the Amiga version the magazine cited "Wing Commander" and "Civilization", and added that "The heavy MS-DOS emphasis in "CGW" merely reflects the realities of the market". A self-reported "Computer Gaming World" survey in April 1993 similarly found that 91% of readers primarily used IBM PCs and compatibles for gaming, compared to 6% for Amiga, 3% for Macintosh, and 1% for Atari ST, while a Software Publishers Association study found that 74% of personal computers were IBMs or compatible, 10% Macintosh, 7% Apple II, and 8% other. 51% of IBM or compatible had 386 or faster CPUs.


title: PC game

text: By 1992, DOS games such as "Links 386 Pro" supported Super VGA graphics. While leading Sega and Nintendo console systems kept their CPU speed at 3–7 MHz, the 486 PC processor ran much faster, allowing it to perform many more calculations per second. The 1993 release of "Doom" on the PC was a breakthrough in 3D graphics, and was soon ported to various game consoles in a general shift toward greater realism. "Computer Gaming World" reiterated in 1994, "we have to advise readers who want a machine that will play most of the games to purchase high-end MS-DOS machines".


title: PC game

text: By 1993, PC floppy disk games had a sales volume equivalent to about one-quarter that of console game ROM cartridge sales. A hit PC game typically sold about 250,000 disks at the time, while a hit console game typically sold about cartridges.


title: PC game

text: By spring 1994, an estimated 24 million US homes (27% of households) had a personal computer. 48% played games on their computer; 40% had the 486 CPU or higher; 35% had CD-ROM drives; and 20% had a sound card. Another survey found that an estimated 2.46 million multimedia computers had internal CD-ROM drives by the end of 1993, an increase of almost 2,000%. "Computer Gaming World" reported in April 1994 that some software publishers planned to only distribute on CD as of 1995. CD-ROM had much larger storage capacity than floppies, helped reduce software piracy, and was less expensive to produce. Chris Crawford warned that it was "a data-intensive technology, not a process-intensive one", tempting developers to emphasize the quantity of digital assets like art and music over the quality of gameplay; "Computer Gaming World" wrote in 1993 that "publishers may be losing their focus". While many companies used the additional storage to release poor-quality shovelware collections of older software, or "enhanced" versions of existing ones—often with what the magazine mocked as "amateur acting" in the added audio and video—new games such as "Myst" included many more assets for a richer game experience.


title: PC game

text: Many companies sold "multimedia upgrade kits" that bundled CD drives, sound cards, and software during the mid-1990s, but device drivers for the new peripherals further depleted scarce RAM. By 1993, PC games required much more memory than other software, often consuming all of conventional memory, while device drivers could go into upper memory with DOS memory managers. Players found modifying codice_1 and codice_2 files for memory management cumbersome and confusing, and each game needed a different configuration. (The game "" satirizes this by depicting two beautiful women exhaust the hero in bed, by requesting that he again explain the difference between extended and expanded memory.) "Computer Gaming World" provided technical assistance to its writers to help install games for review, and published sample configuration files. The magazine advised non-technical gamers to purchase commercial memory managers like QEMM and 386MAX and criticized nonstandard software like Origin Systems's "infamous late and unlamented Voodoo Memory Manager", which used unreal mode.


title: PC game

text: By 1996, the growing popularity of Microsoft Windows simplified device driver and memory management. The success of 3D console titles such as "Super Mario 64" and "Tomb Raider" increased interest in hardware accelerated 3D graphics on PCs, and soon resulted in attempts to produce affordable solutions with the ATI Rage, Matrox Mystique, S3 ViRGE, and Rendition Vérité. As 3D graphics libraries such as DirectX and OpenGL matured and knocked proprietary interfaces out of the market, these platforms gained greater acceptance in the market, particularly with their demonstrated benefits in games such as "Unreal". However, major changes to the Microsoft Windows operating system, by then the market leader, made many older DOS-based games unplayable on Windows NT, and later, Windows XP (without using an emulator, such as DOSBox).


title: PC game

text: The faster graphics accelerators and improving CPU technology resulted in increasing levels of realism in computer games. During this time, the improvements introduced with products such as ATI's Radeon R300 and NVidia's GeForce 6 Series have allowed developers to increase the complexity of modern game engines. PC gaming currently tends strongly toward improvements in 3D graphics.


title: PC game

text: Unlike the generally accepted push for improved graphical performance, the use of physics engines in computer games has become a matter of debate since announcement and 2005 release of the nVidia PhysX PPU, ostensibly competing with middleware such as the Havok physics engine. Issues such as difficulty in ensuring consistent experiences for all players, and the uncertain benefit of first generation PhysX cards in games such as "Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon Advanced Warfighter" and "City of Villains", prompted arguments over the value of such technology.


title: PC game

text: Similarly, many game publishers began to experiment with new forms of marketing. Chief among these alternative strategies is episodic gaming, an adaptation of the older concept of expansion packs, in which game content is provided in smaller quantities but for a proportionally lower price. Titles such as "" took advantage of the idea, with mixed results rising from concerns for the amount of content provided for the price.


title: PC game

text: During the 1980s, the cheap and talented workforce of the Polish People's Republic began producing video games with Warsaw company Karen, founded by enterprising emigrant Lucjan Wencel, developing many hits that were released in the United States. The 1991 strategy game ""Solidarność"" by Przemysław Rokita, where players led a trade union to political victory, was the symbolic beginning of a new trend where interactive works applied video game conventions to local Polish culture and history, and through a distorting mirror portrayed the Eastern Bloc, local villages, and the mentality of citizens. Developers in this age struggled with minimal profits, working after hours, harsh working conditions, older computers, and an ignorance of foreign languages and sentiments. The country saw its own text based games – e.g. "Mózgprocesor" (1989), arcade games – e.g. "Robbo" (1989), football manager – "Polish League" (1995), "Doom"-clone – "Cytadela" (1995), and "The Settlers"-clone – "Polanie" (1995), however the adventure game genre was the "most significant species in the 90s", a genre which was finally cracked with "Tajemnica Statuetki."


title: PC game

text: "Tajemnica Statuetki" was the first commercially released Polish adventure game, one of the first Polish and Polish-language video games ever, and Chmielarz's first game that he had developed from start to finish – the first officially sold program that he wrote. It is sometimes erroneously considered the first Polish computer game, a distinction held by Witold Podgórski's 1961 mainframe game "Marienbad", inspired by a Chinese puzzle called "Nim", and released on the Odra 1003. (Meanwhile, "Polygamia" writes that 1986's text-based "Puszka Pandory" is the first game written by a Pole, sold in Poland, and reviewed in Polish press). Despite this, Onet wrote in 2013 about a common misconception that the game marks the point where the history of digital entertainment in Poland begins.


title: PC game

text: In high-end PC gaming, a PC will generally have far more processing resources at its disposal than other gaming systems. Game developers can use this to improve the visual fidelity of their game relative to other platforms, but even if they do not, games running on PC are likely to benefit from higher screen resolution, higher framerate, and anti-aliasing. Increased draw distance is also common in open world games.


title: PC game

text: Better hardware also increases the potential fidelity of a PC game's rules and simulation. PC games often support more players or NPCs than equivalents on other platforms and game designs which depend on the simulation of large numbers of tokens (e.g. "Guild Wars 2", "World of Warcraft") are rarely seen anywhere else.


title: PC game

text: The PC also supports greater input fidelity thanks to its compatibility with a wide array of peripherals. The most common forms of input are the mouse/keyboard combination and gamepads, though touchscreens and motion controllers are also available. The mouse in particular lends players of first-person shooter and real-time strategy games on PC great speed and accuracy.


title: PC game

text: The defining characteristic of the PC platform is the absence of centralized control; all other gaming platforms (except Android devices, to an extent) are owned and administered by a single group.


title: PC game

text: The openness of the PC platform allows players to edit or modify their games and distribute the results over the Internet as "mods". A healthy mod community greatly increases a game's longevity and the most popular mods have driven purchases of their parent game to record heights. It is common for professional developers to release the tools they use to create their games (and sometimes even source code) in order to encourage modding, but if a game is popular enough mods generally arise even without official support.


title: PC game

text: Mods can compete with official downloadable content however, or even outright redistribute it, and their ability to extend the lifespan of a game can work against its developers' plans for regular sequels. As game technology has become more complex, it has also become harder to distribute development tools to the public.


title: PC game

text: Modding has a different connotation on consoles which are typically restricted much more heavily. As publicly released development tools are rare, console mods usually refer to hardware alterations designed to remove restrictions.


title: PC game

text: Although the PC platform is almost completely decentralized at a hardware level, there are two dominant software forces: the Microsoft Windows operating system and the Steam distribution service.


title: PC game

text: Microsoft introduced an operating environment named "Windows" on November 20, 1985, as an add-on to DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces (GUIs). Microsoft Windows came to dominate the world's personal computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984.


title: PC game

text: Valve does not release any sales figures on its Steam service, instead it only provides the data to companies with games on Steam, which they cannot release without permission due to signing a non-disclosure agreement with Valve.


title: PC game

text: However, Stardock, the previous owner of competing platform Impulse, estimated that, as of 2009, Steam had a 70% share of the digital distribution market for video games. In early 2011, "Forbes" reported that Steam sales constituted 50–70% of the $4 billion market for downloaded PC games and that Steam offered game producers gross margins of 70% of purchase price, compared with 30% at retail. In 2011, Steam served over 780 petabytes of information, double what it had delivered in 2010.


title: PC game

text: PC games are sold predominantly through the Internet, with buyers downloading their new purchase directly to their computer. This approach allows smaller independent developers to compete with large publisher-backed games and avoids the speed and capacity limits of the optical discs which most other gaming platforms rely on.


title: PC game

text: Valve released the Steam platform for Windows computers in 2003 as a means to distribute Valve-developed video games such as Half-Life 2. It would later see release on the Mac OS X operating system in 2010 and was released on Linux in 2012 as well. By 2011, it controlled 70% of the market for downloadable PC games, with a userbase of about 40 million accounts. Origin, a new version of the Electronic Arts online store, was released in 2011 in order to compete with Steam and other digital distribution platforms on the PC. The period between 2004 and now saw the rise of many digital distribution services on PC, such as Amazon Digital Services, GameStop, GFWL, EA Store, Direct2Drive, GOG.com, and GamersGate.


title: PC game

text: Digital distribution also slashes the cost of circulation, eliminates stock shortages, allows games to be released worldwide at no additional cost, and allows niche audiences to be reached with ease. However, most digital distribution systems create ownership and customer rights issues by storing access rights on distributor-owned computers. Games confer with these computers over the Internet before launching. This raises the prospect of purchases being lost if the distributor goes out of business or chooses to lock the buyer's account, and prevents resale (the ethics of which are a matter of debate).


title: PC game

text: Modern computer games place great demand on the computer's hardware, often requiring a fast central processing unit (CPU) to function properly. CPU manufacturers historically relied mainly on increasing clock rates to improve the performance of their processors, but had begun to move steadily towards multi-core CPUs by 2005. These processors allow the computer to simultaneously process multiple tasks, called threads, allowing the use of more complex graphics, artificial intelligence and in-game physics.


title: PC game

text: Similarly, 3D games often rely on a powerful graphics processing unit (GPU), which accelerates the process of drawing complex scenes in realtime. GPUs may be an integrated part of the computer's motherboard, the most common solution in laptops, or come packaged with a discrete graphics card with a supply of dedicated Video RAM, connected to the motherboard through either an AGP or PCI-Express port. It is also possible to use multiple GPUs in a single computer, using technologies such as NVidia's Scalable Link Interface and ATI's CrossFire.


title: PC game

text: Sound cards are also available to provide improved audio in computer games. These cards provide improved 3D audio and provide audio enhancement that is generally not available with integrated alternatives, at the cost of marginally lower overall performance. The Creative Labs SoundBlaster line was for many years the "de facto" standard for sound cards, although its popularity dwindled as PC audio became a commodity on modern motherboards.


title: PC game

text: Physics processing units (PPUs), such as the Nvidia PhysX (formerly AGEIA PhysX) card, are also available to accelerate physics simulations in modern computer games. PPUs allow the computer to process more complex interactions among objects than is achievable using only the CPU, potentially allowing players a much greater degree of control over the world in games designed to use the card.


title: PC game

text: Virtually all personal computers use a keyboard and mouse for user input, but there are exceptions. During the 1990s, before the keyboard and mouse combination had become the method of choice for PC gaming input peripherals, there were other types of peripherals such as the Mad Catz Panther XL, the First-Person Gaming Assassin 3D, and the Mad Catz Panther, which combined a trackball for looking / aiming, and a joystick for movement. Other common gaming peripherals are a headset for faster communication in online games, joysticks for flight simulators, steering wheels for driving games and gamepads for console-style games.


title: PC game

text: Computer games also rely on third-party software such as an operating system (OS), device drivers, libraries and more to run. Today, the vast majority of computer games are designed to run on the Microsoft Windows family of operating systems. Whereas earlier games written for DOS would include code to communicate directly with hardware, today application programming interfaces (APIs) provide an interface between the game and the OS, simplifying game design. Microsoft's DirectX is an API that is widely used by today's computer games to communicate with sound and graphics hardware. OpenGL is a cross-platform API for graphics rendering that is also used. The version of the graphics card's driver installed can often affect game performance and gameplay. In late 2013, AMD announced Mantle, a low-level API for certain models of AMD graphics cards, allowing for greater performance compared to software-level APIs such as DirectX, as well as simplifying porting to and from the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One consoles, which are both built upon AMD hardware. It is not unusual for a game company to use a third-party game engine, or third-party libraries for a game's AI or physics.


title: PC game

text: Multiplayer gaming was largely limited to local area networks (LANs) before cost-effective broadband Internet access became available, due to their typically higher bandwidth and lower latency than the dial-up services of the time. These advantages allowed more players to join any given computer game, but have persisted today because of the higher latency of most Internet connections and the costs associated with broadband Internet.


title: PC game

text: LAN gaming typically requires two or more personal computers, a router and sufficient networking cables to connect every computer on the network. Additionally, each computer must have its own copy (or spawn copy) of the game in order to play. Optionally, any LAN may include an external connection to the Internet.


title: PC game

text: Online multiplayer games have achieved popularity largely as a result of increasing broadband adoption among consumers. Affordable high-bandwidth Internet connections allow large numbers of players to play together, and thus have found particular use in massively multiplayer online role-playing games, "Tanarus" and persistent online games such as "World War II Online".


title: PC game

text: Although it is possible to participate in online computer games using dial-up modems, broadband Internet connections are generally considered necessary in order to reduce the latency or "lag" between players. Such connections require a broadband-compatible modem connected to the personal computer through a network interface card (generally integrated onto the computer's motherboard), optionally separated by a router. Online games require a virtual environment, generally called a "game server". These virtual servers inter-connect gamers, allowing real time, and often fast-paced action. To meet this subsequent need, Game Server Providers (GSP) have become increasingly more popular over the last half decade. While not required for all gamers, these servers provide a unique "home", fully customizable, such as additional modifications, settings, etc., giving the end gamers the experience they desire. Today there are over 510,000 game servers hosted in North America alone.


title: PC game

text: Emulation software, used to run software without the original hardware, are popular for their ability to play legacy video games without the platform for which they were designed. The operating system emulators include DOSBox, a DOS emulator which allows playing games developed originally for this operating system and thus not compatible with a modern-day OS. Console emulators such as Nestopia and MAME are relatively commonplace, although the complexity of modern consoles such as the Xbox or PlayStation makes them far more difficult to emulate, even for the original manufacturers. The most technically advanced consoles that can currently be successfully emulated for commercial games on PC are the PlayStation 2 using PCSX2, and the Nintendo Wii U using the Cemu emulator. A PlayStation 3 emulator named RPCS3 is in development, although it can currently only run small Homebrew games and certain old arcade titles that were originally ported to the PS3 from older platforms.


title: PC game

text: Most emulation software mimics a particular hardware architecture, often to an extremely high degree of accuracy. This is particularly the case with classic home computers such as the Commodore 64, whose software often depends on highly sophisticated low-level programming tricks invented by game programmers and the demoscene.


title: PC game

text: Other projects aim to bring compatibility of older games and its features back to modern platforms such as WineVDM (for running 16-bit games on 64-bit Windows), nGlide (for enabling Glide (API) to other video cards), IPXWrapper (for enabling IPX/SPX based LAN play).


title: PC game

text: PC games have long been a source of controversy, largely due to the depictions of violence that has become commonly associated with video games in general, with much of the criticism stemming from the fact that the PC gaming industry isn't as regulated as on other platforms. The debate surrounds the influence of objectionable content on the social development of minors, with organizations such as the American Psychological Association concluding that video game violence increases children's aggression, a concern that prompted a further investigation by the Centers for Disease Control in September 2006. Industry groups have responded by noting the responsibility of parents in governing their children's activities, while attempts in the United States to control the sale of objectionable games have generally been found unconstitutional.


title: PC game

text: Video game addiction is another cultural aspect of gaming to draw criticism as it can have a negative influence on health and on social relations. The problem of addiction and its health risks seems to have grown with the rise of massively multiplayer online role playing games (MMORPGs). Alongside the social and health problems associated with computer game addiction have grown similar worries about the effect of computer games on education.


title: PC game

text: There are several computer games museums around the world. In 2011 one opened in Berlin, a computer game museum that documents computer games from the 1970s until today. The Museum of Art and Digital Entertainment, in Oakland, California also exhibits PC games in its general collection. The Video Game Museum in Rome is dedicated to the preservation of videogames, and includes Pss games in its collection. The Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California holds a collection of PC games, and allows visitors to play "Spacewar!", the first computer game, on a restored original DEC PDP-1.


title: Esomeprazole

text: Esomeprazole, sold under the brand name Nexium among others, is a medication which reduces stomach acid. It is used to treat gastroesophageal reflux disease, peptic ulcer disease, and Zollinger–Ellison syndrome. Effectiveness is similar to other proton pump inhibitors (PPIs). It is taken by mouth or injection into a vein.


title: Esomeprazole

text: Common side effects include headache, constipation, dry mouth, and abdominal pain. Serious side effects may include angioedema, "Clostridium difficile" infection, and pneumonia. Use in pregnancy appears to be safe, while safety during breastfeeding is unclear. Esomeprazole is the ("S")-(−)-isomer of omeprazole. It works by blocking H/K-ATPase in the parietal cells of the stomach.


title: Esomeprazole

text: It was patented in 1993 and approved for medical use in 2000. It is available as a generic medication and sold over the counter in a number of countries. In 2020, it was the 122nd most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 5million prescriptions. It is also available without a prescription in the United States.


title: Esomeprazole

text: The primary uses of esomeprazole are gastroesophageal reflux disease, treatment and maintenance of erosive esophagitis, treatment of duodenal ulcers caused by "H. pylori", prevention of gastric ulcers in those on chronic NSAID therapy, and treatment of gastrointestinal ulcers associated with Crohn's disease.


title: Esomeprazole

text: Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a condition in which the digestive acid in the stomach comes in contact with the esophagus. The irritation caused by this disorder is known as heartburn. Long-term contact between gastric acids and the esophagus can cause permanent damage to the esophagus. Esomeprazole reduces the production of digestive acids, thus reducing their effect on the esophagus.


title: Esomeprazole

text: Esomeprazole is combined with the antibiotics clarithromycin and amoxicillin (or metronidazole instead of amoxicillin in penicillin-hypersensitive patients) in a 10-day eradication triple therapy for "Helicobacter pylori". Infection by "H. pylori" is a causative factor in the majority of peptic and duodenal ulcers.


title: Esomeprazole

text: A 2006 meta analysis concluded that compared to other proton pump inhibitors, esomeprazole confers a modest overall benefit in esophageal healing and symptom relief. When broken down by disease severity, the benefit of esomeprazole relative to other proton pump inhibitors was negligible in people with mild disease (number needed to treat 50), but appeared more in those with severe disease (number needed to treat 8). A second meta analysis also found increases in erosive esophageal healing (>95% healing rate) when compared to standardized doses in broadly selected patient populations. A 2017 study found esomeprazole to be among a number of effective doses of PPIs.


title: Esomeprazole

text: Common side effects include headache, diarrhea, nausea, flatulence, decreased appetite, constipation, dry mouth, and abdominal pain. More severe side effects are severe allergic reactions, chest pain, dark urine, fast heartbeat, fever, paresthesia, persistent sore throat, severe stomach pain, unusual bruising or bleeding, unusual tiredness, and yellowing of the eyes or skin.


title: Esomeprazole

text: Proton pump inhibitors may be associated with a greater risk of hip fractures and "Clostridium difficile"-associated diarrhoea. Patients are frequently administered the drugs in intensive care as a protective measure against ulcers, but this use is also associated with a 30% increase in occurrence of pneumonia.


title: Esomeprazole

text: Long-term use of proton pump inhibitors in patients treated for "Helicobacter pylori" has been shown to dramatically increase the risk of gastric cancer.


title: Esomeprazole

text: Esomeprazole is a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme CYP2C19, and may therefore interact with drugs that depend on it for metabolism, such as diazepam and warfarin; the concentrations of these drugs may increase if they are used concomitantly with esomeprazole. Conversely, clopidogrel (Plavix) is an inactive prodrug that partially depends on CYP2C19 for conversion to its active form; inhibition of CYP2C19 blocks the activation of clopidogrel, thus reducing its effects.


title: Esomeprazole

text: Drugs that depend on stomach pH for absorption may interact with omeprazole; drugs that depend on an acidic environment (such as ketoconazole or atazanavir) will be poorly absorbed, whereas drugs that are broken down in acidic environments (such as erythromycin) will be absorbed to a greater extent than normal.


title: Esomeprazole

text: Single 20 to 40mg oral doses generally give rise to peak plasma esomeprazole concentrations of 0.5-1.0mg/L within 1–4 hours, but after several days of once-daily administration, these levels may increase by about 50%. A 30-minute intravenous infusion of a similar dose usually produces peak plasma levels on the order of 1–3mg/L. The drug is rapidly cleared from the body, largely by urinary excretion of pharmacologically inactive metabolites such as 5-hydroxymethylesomeprazole and 5-carboxyesomeprazole. Esomeprazole and its metabolites are analytically indistinguishable from omeprazole and the corresponding omeprazole metabolites unless chiral techniques are employed.


title: Esomeprazole

text: Esomeprazole is available as delayed-release capsules in the United States or as delayed-release tablets in Australia, the United Kingdom, and Canada (containing esomeprazole magnesium) in strengths of 20 and 40mg, as delayed-release capsules in the United States (containing esomeprazole strontium) in a 49.3mg strength (delivering the equivalent of 40mg of esomeprazole, and as esomeprazole sodium for intravenous injection/infusion. Oral esomeprazole preparations are enteric-coated, due to the rapid degradation of the drug in the acidic conditions of the stomach. This is achieved by formulating capsules using the multiple-unit pellet system.


title: Esomeprazole

text: The combination naproxen/esomeprazole magnesium (brand name Vimovo) is used for the prevention of gastric ulcers associated with chronic NSAID therapy. Vimovo is available in two dosage strengths: 500/20mg and 375/20mg. Clinical trials of naproxen/esomeprazole demonstrated an incidence of GI ulcer in 24% of patients on naproxen (alone) versus 7% on naproxen/esomeprazole. The FDA has added warnings to the label for Vimovo concerning acute interstitial nephritis and risk of kidney problems in some patients.


title: Esomeprazole

text: Esomeprazole capsules, as well as Losec/Prilosec tablets, are formulated as a "multiple-unit pellet system" (MUPS). Essentially, the capsule consists of extremely small enteric-coated granules (pellets) of the esomeprazole formulation inside an outer shell. When the capsule is immersed in an aqueous solution, as happens when the capsule reaches the stomach, water enters the capsule by osmosis. The contents swell from water absorption, causing the shell to burst, and releasing the enteric-coated granules. For most patients, the multiple-unit pellet system is of no advantage over conventional enteric-coated preparations. Patients for whom the formulation is of benefit include those requiring nasogastric tube feeding and those with difficulty swallowing (dysphagia).


title: Esomeprazole

text: In 2010, AstraZeneca announced a co-promotion agreement with Daiichi Sankyo to distribute Nexium in Japan. In September 2011, Nexium was approved for sale and was launched by Daiichi Sankyo in Japan. Esomeprazole was approved for use in the United States in February 2001.


title: Esomeprazole

text: There has been some controversy about AstraZeneca's behaviour in creating, patenting, and marketing the drug. Esomeprazole's successful predecessor, omeprazole, is a mixture of two mirror-imaged molecules (esomeprazole which is the S-enantiomer, and R-omeprazole); critics said the company was trying to "evergreen" its omeprazole patent by patenting the pure esomeprazole and aggressively marketing to doctors that it is more effective than the mixture.


title: Esomeprazole

text: Thomas A. Scully, head of the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS), also criticized AstraZeneca for their aggressive marketing of Nexium. At a conference of the American Medical Association (AMA), he said that Astra was using the new drug to overcharge consumers and insurance companies.


title: Esomeprazole

text: Generic versions of esomeprazole magnesium are available worldwide. It is available over-the-counter under the brand name Nexium in the United States and the UK.


title: Esomeprazole

text: Injection formulations of esomeprazole are used for gastroprotection in veterinary medicine. In goats administered the drug by intravenous or subcutaneous injection rapid elimination was noted. In that study the sulfone metabolite was detectable for several hours after injection of the parent drug.


title: Esomeprazole

text: Esomeprazole can be used as a parasiticide. Gokmen "et al.", 2016 screen for efficacy against "Trichomonas vaginalis" isolates from horses. They found esomeprazole to be effective as a veterinary antiparasitic.


title: Battle of Vimy Ridge

text: The Battle of Vimy Ridge was part of the Battle of Arras, in the Pas-de-Calais department of France, during the First World War. The main combatants were the four divisions of the Canadian Corps in the First Army, against three divisions of the German 6th Army. The battle took place from 9 to 12 April 1917 at the beginning of the Battle of Arras, the first attack of the Nivelle Offensive, which was intended to attract German reserves from the French, before the French attempt at a decisive offensive on the Aisne and the Chemin des Dames ridge further south, several days later.


title: Battle of Vimy Ridge

text: The Canadian Corps were to capture the German-held high ground of Vimy Ridge, an escarpment on the northern flank of the Arras front. This would protect the First Army and the Third Army farther south from German enfilade fire. Supported by a creeping barrage, the Canadian Corps captured most of the ridge during the first day. The village of Thélus fell during the second day, as did the crest of the ridge, once the Canadian Corps overran a salient against considerable German resistance. The final objective, a fortified knoll outside the village of Givenchy-en-Gohelle, fell to the Canadians on 12 April. The 6th Army then retreated to the Oppy–Méricourt line.


title: Battle of Vimy Ridge

text: Historians attribute the success of the Canadian Corps to technical and tactical innovation, meticulous planning, powerful artillery support and extensive training, as well as the inability of the 6th Army to properly apply the new German defensive doctrine. The battle was the first occasion when the four divisions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force fought together and it was made a symbol of Canadian national achievement and sacrifice. A portion of the former battleground serves as a memorial park and site of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial.


title: Battle of Vimy Ridge

text: Vimy Ridge is an escarpment northeast of Arras on the western edge of the Douai Plain. The ridge rises gradually on its western side and drops more quickly on the eastern side. At approximately in length and culminating at an elevation of or above the Douai Plains, the ridge provides a natural unobstructed view for tens of kilometres in all directions. The ridge fell under German control in October 1914 during the Race to the Sea as the Franco-British and German forces continually attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France. The French Tenth Army attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and Notre Dame de Lorette. The French 1st Moroccan Division managed to briefly capture the height of the ridge but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements. The French made another attempt during the Third Battle of Artois in September 1915 but only captured the village of Souchez at the western base of the ridge. The Vimy sector calmed following the offensive with both sides taking a largely live and let live approach. The French suffered approximately 150,000 casualties in their attempts to gain control of Vimy Ridge and surrounding territory.


title: Battle of Vimy Ridge

text: The French Tenth Army was relieved in February 1916 by British XVII Corps (Lieutenant-General Sir Julian Byng) and transferred to join in the Battle of Verdun. The British soon discovered that German tunnelling companies had taken advantage of the relative calm on the surface to build an extensive network of tunnels and deep mines from which they would attack French positions by setting off explosive charges underneath their trenches. The Royal Engineers sent specialist tunnelling companies to the ridge to combat the German mining operations and German artillery and trench mortar fire intensified in early May 1916. On 21 May 1916, after shelling the British forward trenches and divisional artillery positions from eighty hidden batteries on the reverse slope of the ridge, the German infantry began , an attack on the British lines along a front, to eject them from positions along the ridge. The Germans captured several British-controlled tunnels and mine craters before halting their advance and digging in. Small counter-attacks by battalions of the 140th and 141st Brigades took place on 22 May but were ineffective. The Canadian Corps relieved IV Corps along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge in October 1916.


title: Battle of Vimy Ridge

text: On 28 May 1916, Byng took command of the Canadian Corps from Lieutenant-General Sir Edwin Alderson. Formal discussions for a spring offensive near Arras began, following a conference of corps commanders held at the First Army Headquarters on 21 November 1916. In March 1917, the First Army headquarters formally presented Byng with orders outlining Vimy Ridge as the Canadian Corps objective for the Arras Offensive. A formal assault plan, adopted in early March 1917, drew heavily on the briefings of staff officers sent to learn from the experiences of the French Army during the Battle of Verdun. For the first time the four Canadian divisions would fight together. The nature and size of the attack needed more resources than the Canadian Corps possessed; the British 5th Division, artillery, engineer and labour units were attached to the corps, bringing the nominal strength of the Canadian Corps to about 170,000 men, of whom 97,184 were Canadian.


title: Battle of Vimy Ridge

text: In January 1917, three Canadian Corps officers accompanied other British and Dominion officers attending a series of lectures hosted by the French Army regarding their experiences during the Battle of Verdun. The French counter offensive devised by General Robert Nivelle had been one of a number of Allied successes of 1916. Following extensive rehearsal, eight French divisions had assaulted German positions in two waves along a front. Supported by extremely strong artillery, the French had recovered lost ground and inflicted heavy casualties on five German divisions.


title: Battle of Vimy Ridge

text: On their return from the lectures, the Canadian Corps staff officers produced a tactical analysis of the Verdun battles and delivered a series of corps and divisional-level lectures to promote the primacy of artillery and stress the importance of harassing fire and company and platoon flexibility. The report of 1st Canadian Division commander Arthur Currie highlighted the lessons he believed the Canadian Corps could learn from the experiences of the French. The final plan for the assault on Vimy Ridge drew heavily on the experience and tactical analysis of the officers who attended the Verdun lectures. British First Army commander General Henry Horne approved the plan on 5 March 1917.