title: Victor Emmanuel II Monument

text: The two quadrigae, as the Latin inscriptions placed on the pediments of the underlying propylaea expressly declare, symbolize the freedom of the citizens ("", right) and the unity of the homeland ("", left), the two concepts pivots that inform the entire monument and are attributed to the sovereign Victor Emmanuel II. The implicit message is that Italy, once again a single political group and gained independence, leaving behind the glories of Rome and the pomp of the papal court, is ready to spread a new Italian Renaissance articulated on the moral virtues represented allegorically in the Vittoriano.


title: Victor Emmanuel II Monument

text: The concepts "freedom of citizens" and "unity of the homeland" also summarize the fundamental themes that characterized the beginning and the end of the contribution given by Victor Emmanuel II to the Unification of Italy. Having ascended the throne for a few months, he published the proclamation of Moncalieri (20 November 1849) which confirmed the survival of the liberal regime even in the repressive period following the wave of revolutions of 1848. His political work had ended with the capture of Rome (20 September 1870), which became the capital, although the unification of Trentino-Alto Adige and Julian March (annexed only in 1919 after the First World War) were still missing. The quadrigas, already planned in the original project, were built and positioned in 1927. Inside the pediments of the two propylaea are sculptural groups that have the same theme as the respective quadrigas above.


title: Victor Emmanuel II Monument

text: The interiors of the portico and the propylaea can be accessed through two triumphal entrance stairways of each propylaeum. These are on a small shelf that can be reached via a short staircase that joins the terrace of the redeemed cities. At the base of the entrance stairway of the propylaea are four statues of "Winged Victories" on triumphal columns, made in 1911 – two are at the entrance to the right propylea, and two at the entrance to the left propylea.


title: Victor Emmanuel II Monument

text: Each entrance leads to a large quadrangular vestibule, in dialogue with the outside due to a colonnade, and from the vestibules one enters the interior spaces of the portico. These rooms are decorated with mosaics, important works of floral Liberty and pictorial symbolism, which cover the lunettes and the two domes of the propylaea. Even the mosaics have as their subject the metaphorical representation of virtues and feelings, very often rendered as allegorical personifications, which animated Italians during the unification of Italy. The interiors of the portico are decorated with the allegories of the sciences, while the doors that connect the propylaea and the portico are embellished with depictions on the arts.


title: Victor Emmanuel II Monument

text: The decoration of the ceiling of the left propylaeum was entrusted to Giulio Bargellini; in these mosaics he adopted innovative technical devices, such as the use of materials of various kinds and tiles of different sizes and inclined so as to create studied reflections of light, and where the lines of the mosaic representations continue towards those of the columns below. The mosaics of Bargellini, along the highest part of the walls, represent figuratively "The Faith", "The Force", "The Work" and "The Wisdom". The decoration of the ceiling of the right propylaeum was instead entrusted to Antonio Rizzi. Rizzi dedicated himself, along the highest part of the vertical walls, to "The Law", "The Value", "The Peace", "The Union" and "The Poetry".


title: Victor Emmanuel II Monument

text: The internal doors leading from the two propylaea to the portico are decorated with allegorical sculptures representing "The Architecture" and "The Music", which are found in the vestibule on the left and which are the work of Antonio Garella, and "The Painting" and "The Sculpture", in the vestibule on the right and which were made by Lio Gangeri. The interior of the portico has a polychrome marble floor and a Coffered ceiling—the latter of which was designed by Gaetano Koch, is called the "ceiling of the sciences".


title: Victor Emmanuel II Monument

text: The ceiling owes its name to the bronze sculptures of Giuseppe Tonnini placed inside the portico, collectively known as "The Allegories" of "The Sciences". They are all made up of female personifications: "The Geometry", "The Chemistry", "The Physics", "The Mineralogy", "The Mechanics", "The Astronomy" and "The Geography". The vertical wall opposite the columns is decorated at the top with mosaics at gilded backgrounds, after 1925. Other sculptures present inside the portico are the trophy of arms—a vast set of shields, cuirasses, halberds, spears, flags, arrows and quivers in a trophy the crown of Italy is shown, along with the eagle with the crusader shield and the collar of the Annunciation (emblems of the House of Savoy).


title: Victor Emmanuel II Monument

text: The staircase leading to the terrace of the redeemed cities is the best point of observation of the statues of the Italian regions, since the latter are found on the cornice of the portico, each in correspondence of a column. The presence of metaphorically depicting statues of the Italian regions is inspired by the allegorical personifications of the Roman provinces, often placed on commemorative monuments during the imperial era. The number of statues placed on the top of the portico is equal to 16, given that at the time of the drafting of the construction project, 16 Italian regions were identified. Each statue is high and was entrusted to a different sculptor who were almost always native to the region of which he would have carved the image. The cornice is also embellished with friezes consisting of eagles and lion heads.


title: Victor Emmanuel II Monument

text: The crypt of the Italian Unknown Soldier is under the "equestrian statue of Victor Emmanuel II" which can be accessed from the Shrine of the Flags museum, from where it is possible to see the side of the shrine of the Soldier that faces inwards. It is thus by the Altar of the Fatherland, from where the outward side of the tomb is seen.


title: Victor Emmanuel II Monument

text: The crypt of the Unknown Soldier is the work of the architect Armando Brasini. It is a room in the shape of a Greek cross with a domed vault which is accessed via two flights of stairs. A short tunnel starts from the crypt and reaches the niche of the chapel of the Unknown Soldier. The niche is inserted in an arcosolium inspired by the style of early Christian buildings, especially the catacombs. The ceiling of the crypt instead recalls the Roman architecture, alternating cross vaults and barrel vaults. The room, built using bricks, is characterized by the presence of round arches and niches. There is also a small altar for religious services.


title: Victor Emmanuel II Monument

text: The walls of the crypt are decorated with a mosaic of Byzantine style, by Giulio Bargellini, of a religious nature. The crucifixion of Jesus is above the tomb of the Unknown Soldier, where, on the walls, stand the patron saints of the Italian Armed Forces: Saint Martin patron of the infantry, Saint George of the cavalry, Saint Sebastian of the local police and Saint Barbara of the Italian Navy, artillery and military engineers. Finally, in the dome, is the Madonna of Loreto, patron saint of the Italian Air Force.


title: Victor Emmanuel II Monument

text: Parts of the crypt and sepulcher were made with stone materials from the mountains that were the scene of battles of the First World War, with the floor made of Karst marble, and the small altar made from a single block of stone from Monte Grappa.


title: Victor Emmanuel II Monument

text: Inside the Vittoriano are some museums dedicated to the history of Italy, especially the Unification of Italy ("Risorgimento"): the Central Museum of the Risorgimento () with an adjoining study institute, the Flag of Italy Memorial () and an area that hosts temporary exhibitions of artistic interest, historical, sociological and cultural called "ala Brasini".


title: Victor Emmanuel II Monument

text: Access to the Central Museum of the Risorgimento is on the left side of the monument, at the back of the Santa Maria in Ara Coeli along via di San Pietro in Carcere. The period of Italian history between the end of the 18th century and the First World War is displayed by memorabilia, paintings, sculptures, documents (letters, diaries and manuscripts), drawings, engravings, weapons and prints.


title: Victor Emmanuel II Monument

text: On the entrance stairway of the Central Museum of the Risorgimento are visible engravings related to some significant episodes for the birth of the Risorgimento movement, from the seed thrown by the French Revolution to the Napoleonic Wars, to better frame and remember the national history included between the reform of the ancient Italian states and the end of the First World War. Along the walls, other marble engravings show some pieces of texts enunciated by prominent personalities, which better testify and describe this part of Italian history.


title: Victor Emmanuel II Monument

text: The Central Museum of the Risorgimento also includes the Shrine of the Flags, a museum where the war flags of dissolved military units and decommissioned ships from the Italian Army, Italian Air Force, Italian Navy, Carabinieri, "Polizia di Stato", Penitentiary Police and "Guardia di Finanza" are collected and temporarily stored. In case a unit is reformed, the flags are retrieved by the unit. Access to the shrine is along Via dei Fori Imperiali, where memorabilia, relating mainly to the Risorgimento wars, in which the Italian Armed Forces took part, are also kept.


title: Victor Emmanuel II Monument

text: The "ala Brasini", reserved for temporary exhibitions, is dedicated to Armando Brasini, the main promoter of the Central Museum. The wing has three exhibition rooms: the "large exhibition hall", with a surface area of , generally hosts art exhibitions, and those that require more space, the "central hall" of and the "jubilee hall" of , are used.


title: Ford Sierra

text: The Ford Sierra is a mid-size car or large family car manufactured and marketed by Ford Europe from 1982-1993, designed by Uwe Bahnsen, Robert Lutz and Patrick le Quément — and noted for its aerodynamic styling producing a drag coefficient of 0.34, a significant improvement over its predecessors.


title: Ford Sierra

text: The Sierra debuted at the 1982 British International Motor Show in Birmingham, shortly followed by the 1982 Paris Salon de l'Automobile. Sales began on 15 October 1982, replacing the Ford Taunus TC3 (UK: Ford Cortina Mark V). Its aerodynamic styling and the absence of a saloon/sedan configuration was such that many conservative buyers (including company car drivers) did not prefer its design. A saloon/sedan model debuted in 1987 with the introduction of the facelifted Sierra.


title: Ford Sierra

text: Designated internally under the "Project Toni" code name, the nameplate "Sierra" derived from the Spanish word for mountain range. The car was primarily manufactured in Germany, Belgium, and the United Kingdom, although Sierras were also assembled in Ireland, Argentina, Venezuela, South Africa and New Zealand.


title: Ford Sierra

text: By 1978, Ford Europe was working on a new mid-range model to replace the Cortina/Taunus during the early 1980s, working under the codename "Project Toni".. Although still popular with buyers, the outgoing Cortina/Taunus was essentially a 12-year old design by the time of the Sierra's launch; despite the TC2 shape launching in 1976, and the mildly reworked TC3/Mk5 three years later, both were merely a reskinned version of the 1970 TC/Mk3 with few major mechanical changes in that time. Ford's future model policy and styling direction had already been shown with the Escort III two years earlier, in that its conventionally styled saloons of the 1970s would be replaced by hatchbacks with advanced aerodynamic styling.


title: Ford Sierra

text: Ford had confirmed during 1981, a year before the Sierra's official launch, that its new mid-range car would carry the Sierra name, signalling the end of the Taunus and Cortina nameplates after 43 years and nine generations respectively 20 years and five generations. In September that year, it had unveiled the Probe III concept car at the Frankfurt Motor Show, hinting at what the new car would look like when the final product was unveiled 12 months later.


title: Ford Sierra

text: After the sharp-edged, straight-line three-box styling of its predecessors, the Sierra was nicknamed "the jellymould". The shape served a purpose though, producing a drag coefficient of 0.34, a significant improvement over the boxy outgoing Taunus's/Cortina's 0.45. This aerodynamic design was key for reducing fuel consumption according to Ford, and was even used as compensation for the V6-engines. The interior was more conventional, taking a page from BMW by its dashboard, angled to the driver.


title: Ford Sierra

text: Sales were slow in the first months - aggravated by heavy discounting by Ford dealers of surplus Cortina stock from the autumn of 1982 on, with more than 11,000 new Cortinas being registered in 1983. However in 1983, its first full year of sales, the Sierra managed nearly 160,000 sales in Britain, outsold only by the smaller Escort. Ford had also launched the more conservatively designed Escort-based Orion saloon that year, which found favour with buyers who would otherwise have been the Sierra's target customers.


title: Ford Sierra

text: In West Germany, it proved popular from an early stage; within months of its launch, it was reportedly achieving treble the number of sales that the Taunus had been attaining - though in West Germany, the Taunus had not been quite as popular or iconic as its Cortina equivalent had been in Britain.


title: Ford Sierra

text: It was later in the Sierra's life that the styling began to pay off; ten years after its introduction, the Sierra's styling was not nearly as outdated as its contemporaries, even though all major competitors were newer designs, though the Sierra had been tweaked on several occasions and many new engines had been added. The most notable changes came at the autumn of 1987, with a major facelift and the addition of a 4-door saloon (UK: Sapphire). As other manufacturers adopted similar aerodynamic styling, the Sierra looked more normal. At its peak, it was Britain's second best selling car in 1983, 1988 and 1989, and was still Britain's fifth best selling car in 1992. Its best year was 1989, when more than 175,000 were sold. However, it was outsold by the Vauxhall Cavalier in MK2 form during 1984 and 1985, and then from 1990 until its demise by the MK3 Cavalier. Nevertheless, it comfortably outsold its second key rival, the Austin Montego, which was launched in April 1984. Between 1985 and 1988, the Sierra faced fresh competition in Europe from the likes of the Renault 21 and Peugeot 405, while Japanese carmaker Nissan was producing its Bluebird model in Britain from 1986.


title: Ford Sierra

text: Early versions suffered from crosswind stability problems, which were addressed in 1985 with the addition of aerodynamic nolders (small spoilers) on the rear edge of the rubber seals of the rear-most side windows. These shortcomings saw a lot of press attention, and contributed to early slow sales, when it was outsold by its key rival the Vauxhall Cavalier in 1984 and 1985. Other rumours that the car's design could hide major crash damage (in part true, as the new bumper design sprung back after minor impact and couldn't be "read" to interpret major damage) also harmed the car's reputation. This reached near-hysterical heights in its early months on sale, with UK press making a report that Ford would reintroduce the previous Cortina model out of desperation. These reports were swiftly denied by Ford. However, sales began to rise during 1983, and it finished as Britain's second best selling car behind the Escort. After being outsold by the Cavalier for the next two years, it regained its lead of the market sector in Britain during 1986, and a refreshed range (with more engine options as well as the introduction of a saloon) enjoyed a surge in sales from 1987, though the MK3 Cavalier finally outsold it in 1990. Even in 1992, the Sierra was still Britain's fifth best selling car. It was nicknamed "the salesman's spaceship" on account of its status as a popular fleet car in Britain.


title: Ford Sierra

text: In contrast to the Sierra's exterior design, its drivetrain was conservatively engineered, retaining rear-wheel drive and the same engines and transmissions as the Cortina/Taunus which were effectively 12 years old as they were first used on the TC1/MkIII generation in 1970. Much of this was done to appease the important fleet market which was wary of complexity. However, there was much modification; for example the engines were fitted with breakerless ignition, improved carburettors and the option of fuel injection, whilst 5-speed transmissions were now available. Most competitors were already switched to front-wheel drive around that time. Ford claimed however this set-up was required to offer V6-engines, which had to contribute to the Sierra's driving comfort. New for the Sierra was a diesel engine, although the engine itself wasn't new at all. Similar to the Ford Granada, Ford used an "Indenor"-engine which was designed by Peugeot in the 1950s. While the Granada was offered with 1.9, 2.1 and 2.5 diesels, the Sierra unit had a displacement of 2,3 liter. This engine was replaced only in 1989 by an all-new 1.8 liter turbodiesel, developed by Ford itself. The Sierra had a four-speed manual gearbox as standard, with a five-speed as option but standard on the 2.3D and 2.3 V6. At a time when the rival Vauxhall Cavalier was offered with a five-speed, this led to some critics commenting that the Sierra was somewhat underpowered. In the mid-1980s, many smaller cars (some even two segments smaller) featured five-speed gearboxes as standard.


title: Ford Sierra

text: The chassis, however, was more sophisticated than the Cortina/Taunus, with fully independent suspension on both axles. The rear suspension was essentially carried over from the Granada, with trailing arms and coil springs mounted on a tubular sub-frame which also provided location for the final drive/differential housing driving the axle shafts. The front suspension dispensed with the Cortina/Taunus' double wishbones in favour of a scaled-up version of the Fiesta and Escort/Orion's layout with MacPherson struts, lower locating arms and anti-roll bars.


title: Ford Sierra

text: One striking feature of the Sierra was its closed front panel — where typically a grille was located, later found on the 1985 Ford Taurus. The air intake was situated below the front bumper, making the Sierra a so-called 'bottom breather'. The headlights were integrated in this front panel while the indicators were mounted in the bumper within a combined unit with the foglights. However, this set-up was only present on the top-of-the-line "Ghia"-trim as well on the later introduced XR4i sportmodel. The other Sierra models had a more traditional front end with a two-bar grille between the headlights, being unpainted on the base model. These models had the indicators in the bumper as well, although being slimmer but wider and without the foglights. Both the Ghia and XR4i had wide headlights with two lenses while the other models had smaller lights with a single lens. For the 1985 model year, all the lower-spec models, except the base model, adopted the Ghia and XR4i's front grille and headlight treatment. However, the second lens of the lower-spec models had no actual light within it. On the Ghia and XR4i this lens contained additional high beam lamps. The South-African XR8 model's front end was similar to the XR4i's but featured a small grille between the headlights. The rear lights of the Ghia, as well as the very early XR4i's, were the same shape and layout as other models, but featured tiny horizontal black strakes on the lenses to give the impression that they were smoked.


title: Ford Sierra

text: The car was replaced by the Mondeo in Europe in April 1993, though stocks lasted for about two years afterwards. The Sierra remained a popular second-hand buy and common sight on British roads until well beyond the year 2000.


title: Ford Sierra

text: In Europe's largest auto-market, the magazine "Auto, Motor und Sport" published, in December 1982, a three-way road test comparison involving the Sierra and its obvious competitors, the recently upgraded Volkswagen Passat and Opel Ascona (Vauxhall Cavalier Mk II in the UK). The Sierra tested in 1982 outranked both the Passat and the Ascona.


title: Ford Sierra

text: The significance of this result was highlighted more than three decades later, in February 2015, when the magazine reported that no Ford model had beaten a Volkswagen under their road test criteria since the Sierra's "victory" in 1982.


title: Ford Sierra

text: Just before he became leader of the Labour Party in 1983, Neil Kinnock became the owner of one of the first Sierras produced for the British market, but his car was wrecked in a crash on the M4 motorway in Berkshire soon after he bought it. He escaped from the crash uninjured.


title: Ford Sierra

text: In 1986 the founder of the Williams Formula One team, former racing car driver and mechanic, Sir Frank Williams crashed whilst driving a rental Ford Sierra in France rendering him tetraplegic.


title: Ford Sierra

text: Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands, then Prince, crashed his Sierra XR4x4 in 1988 in the city of Leiden where he attended the university as a student.


title: Ford Sierra

text: In 1985, at the Geneva Motor Show, the four-wheel drive Sierra XR4x4 was shown as a derivative of the XR4i. It had two viscous differentials with two thirds of the power directed towards the rear wheels. It was originally available only as a three-door hatchback; the bodywork had the large single-piece rear windows rather than the design with an additional pillar as used on the XR4. The XR4x4 had a single rear spoiler instead of the distinctive biplane unit used on the XR4 but did receive unique alloy wheels. A five-door version was added soon thereafter. A four-wheel-drive estate became available with this drivetrain at the 1986 Geneva Motor Show, but with Ghia rather than XR4x4 badging. This version was better equipped and without the sporting edge of the hatchbacks, and was also available with an automatic transmission. The four-wheel drive allowed for an extra margin of security on slick or snowy roads, while retaining the car's rear-wheel drive comportment.


title: Ford Sierra

text: The original, rear-wheel drive XR4 was quickly taken out of production after the XR4x4 arrived. The XR4x4 originally came equipped with the 2.8 litre Cologne V6 engine using the same Bosch K-Jetronic mechanical injection system used since 1977 in the Granada, and since 1981 in the Capri, but it was replaced in 1989 by the new more efficient 2.9 litre Cologne V6 engine, with electronic fuel injection.


title: Ford Sierra

text: In February 1987, a restyled Sierra was launched for the 1988 model year and a four-door saloon version was added to the range - this was marketed as the Sierra Sapphire on the UK market. The front end was completely revised, with the biggest difference seeing the indicators now positioned above the bumper and to the side of a new headlight design. While the grille again remained blanked-off, UK, Irish and South African versions of the newly introduced saloon bodystyle, featured a unique shallow black grille between the headlights. That apart, all specifications of the Sierra now shared a common front end, compared to the car's original styling. The side windows were made slightly larger with the corners made sharper to increase outward vision. The rear lights were replaced with slimmer but wider models containing separate stop lamps. The saloon got similar rear lights as the revised hatchbacks, though not interchangeable. The rear end of the estate has never changed during the Sierra's lifespan. The interior was slightly modernized.


title: Ford Sierra

text: Also new to the range was a new 1.8 litre "lean burn" petrol engine, which proved to be one of the most popular choices in the Sierra range.


title: Ford Sierra

text: The XR4x4 was now based on the five-door hatchback bodystyle and featured different front and rear body-coloured bumper styling, along with wider side rubbing strips. The RS Cosworth, from January 1988, was now based on the newly introduced saloon bodystyle and featured another style of front bumper as well as the black grille which was only found on UK versions of the saloon bodystyle. The RS Cosworth received more power and four-wheel drive from January 1990. In addition, a roller cam engine was added in 1987 to prevent excessive wear to the cam.


title: Ford Sierra

text: From 1988 a pickup called the P100 was produced in Portugal using the Sierra-cab and engines, replacing the previous Cortina/Taunus-related model.


title: Ford Sierra

text: The Sierra was Ford's answer to the success of the General Motors "J-car" (Vauxhall Cavalier in the UK), which had been launched in 1981 with front-wheel drive and a hatchback bodystyle to complement the saloon. Unusually in its sector by that time, the Sierra was still rear-wheel drive.


title: Ford Sierra

text: It was also a strong competitor for other rivals of the early 1980s, including the Talbot Alpine, Peugeot 505 and Morris Ital and the Citroën BX, but by 1988, it was competing with a host of new rivals, including the third generation Vauxhall Cavalier (Opel Vectra), Rover Montego, Peugeot 405, Renault 21 and Nissan Bluebird.


title: Ford Sierra

text: The switch to the Sierra from the Cortina and Taunus was the second time that Ford had changed its saloon-based line-up into a hatchback-based one following the launch of the Escort Mark III in 1980, and before the introduction of the Scorpio (known as the Granada Mark III in the UK and Ireland) in 1985. However, like the Cortina and Taunus before it, the Sierra was available as an estate.


title: Ford Sierra

text: The company launched the Ford Orion in 1983 to fill the gap in the saloon range left by the Cortina. Ford found that customers were more attached to the idea of a saloon than they had expected, and this was further addressed in 1987 by the production of a saloon version of the Sierra. In the UK, this model was called the Ford Sierra Sapphire. This differed from the other Sierra models in having a traditional black grille, which only appeared in right hand drive markets.


title: Ford Sierra

text: During the life of the car, two different styles of 3-door body were used; one with two pillars rear of the door, looking very much like a modified 5-door frame, as used on the high-performance XR4i; and a one-pillar design used on standard-performance 3-door hatchbacks and also at the other end of the scale as the basis for the very high-performance RS Cosworth.


title: Ford Sierra

text: At the time of the car's launch, both styles were already envisaged, and a demonstration model with one style on either side was displayed at a Sierra design exhibition at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, but the one-pillar design was not launched until 1984. The three-door Sierra was later dropped in the UK after just two years, only to be revived for the Cosworth version. Production of the 3-door Sierra continued in continental Europe, including after the Sierra range was given a facelift in 1987, but this was never offered in the UK. After 1987, the Cosworth used the four-door saloon bodystyle instead.


title: Ford Sierra

text: A 5-door van based on the estate, known as the Sierra Van, was introduced in 1984, which, unlike similar car-derived vans, retained its side windows. The back seat was removed and the metal cargo floor was extended towards the front seats. A diesel engine and a limited choice of petrol engines were available for the Van. This variant was never sold in the UK. although some were produced in right hand drive for the Irish market.


title: Ford Sierra

text: 1300, 1600 and 2000 engines all had a 4-speed manual gearbox; a 5-speed manual gearbox was optional with 1600 and 2000 engines, and standard with the 1600 Economy engine, the 2300 and 2300 Diesel. An optional 3-speed automatic transmission was available with 1600, 2000 and 2300 engines.


title: Ford Sierra

text: The 2.0 V6 and 2.3 V6 versions of the Sierra were dropped at the end of 1985 and the 1.3-litre was discontinued in 1986. A carburetted 1.8 and a fuel injected 2.0-litre petrol engine were added at Geneva 1985. In 1990, the 2.3-litre diesel was replaced by a 1.8-litre turbodiesel. The turbocharged 2-litre RS Cosworth engine featured on all three Cosworth versions of the Sierra; the three-door rear-wheel drive hatchback, the rear-wheel drive saloon, and the four-wheel drive saloon.


title: Ford Sierra

text: The sporting model XR4i utilized the 2.8 engine with mechanical fuel injection (Bosch K Jetronic) coupled to rear-wheel drive (1983-1985) and to four-wheel-drive as XR4x4 (1985-1987). There were visual differences and alterations between the XR4i and XR4x4, such as coloured bumpers, the removal of the 'bi-plane' rear wing and alloy wheels as seen on the Ford Escort RS Turbo Series 1. There was also a 2.8-engined Ghia Estate in some markets, and from 1985 until 1987 Swiss customers could buy rear-wheel-drive, 2.8-litre powered GL and Ghia models with five-door hatchback or estate bodywork. The Swiss (and Swedish) market engines produced marginally less power, as those countries had particularly stringent emissions standards. Output was in 1985 and in 1986. In the Mark II Sierras the 2.8 "Cologne" engine was replaced by a 2.9-litre version. Both the 2.8/2.9-litre engines gave 150 PS in uncatalyzed trim.


title: Ford Sierra

text: The well known Cosworth model was powered by a turbocharged 16-valve 4-cylinder engine known as the 'YB' which was based on the Ford "Pinto" block. The Ford Sierra RS Cosworth was introduced in 1986 as a three-door hatchback, with a 2-litre DOHC turbo engine producing and a top speed of 150 mph - a speed normally found only in sports cars from prestige brands like Ferrari and Porsche, at much higher prices as well as with less practicality. At the time Ford wanted to compete in Group A touring cars and therefore eligible to produce a limited run of 10% of the initial production, therefore this would be 500 cars. This was known as an 'evolution' model. Ford employed Tickford to help with the development. The Sierra RS500 as it was known sported a small additional rear spoiler, and larger front chin spoiler, extra cooling ducts for the engine, brakes and intercooler. The placement of the additional cooling ducts is where the foglights seen on the previous Sierra RS Cosworth had an option to remove and refit the aforementioned foglights. A larger turbocharger and intercooler was fitted along with an extra set of injectors, so instead of the standard four injectors it was built with eight, although in road trim these extra injectors did not function. These modifications produced in road trim and around in race trim. They were very successful in motorsport and are highly tunable road cars with a very large following.


title: Ford Sierra

text: In 1987, Ford introduced a four-door saloon (marketed in the UK as the Sierra Sapphire), which was sold alongside the hatchback and estate until the Sierra was replaced by the Mondeo in early 1993. The last Sierra rolled off the production line in December 1992.


title: Ford Sierra

text: The Sierra Cosworth line-up switched to a saloon bodystyle with a four-door arrangement in January 1988, aptly named the 'Sapphire', again with rear-wheel drive, before the four-wheel drive version replaced it two years later. The Sierra Sapphire RS Cosworth was based on the second generation variant of the Sierra model, having a different front and rear fascia compared to the first generation Sierra. The same turbocharged 2-litre Cosworth YB engine found itself present in the Sapphire RS Cosworth as found with the three-door Sierra.


title: Ford Sierra

text: In South Africa, the Sierra range featured both the five-door hatchback and station wagon bodies and production began at the Silverton (Pretoria) plant in January 1983. The restyled Sierra range differed from its European equivalent by featuring the traditional grille of the Sierra Sapphire saloon on the hatchback and wagon, though later, the grille would feature on these models in Europe. The saloon, only introduced in South Africa in the second quarter of 1989, was known simply as the "Ford Sapphire".


title: Ford Sierra

text: Versions sold in South Africa were available with the 1.6 (Kent) and 2.0 (Pinto) four-cylinders, 2.3 V6 (Cologne) or 3.0-litre V6 (Essex) petrol engines. While the Cortina MkV in South Africa had retained the old 3.0 V6 Essex engine, the Sierra was initially given the new 2.3 V6 Cologne motor, this being fitted to the top of the line model only. However, owing to the low cost of petrol, and the popularity of the old Cortina XR6, a Sierra XR6 was later launched, featuring the old Essex, initially producing .


title: Ford Sierra

text: Versions were LX, GL and GLX, the Ghia trim level was not available for the South African market except on the Ford Sapphire, the saloon version.


title: Ford Sierra

text: As the 2.8/2.9 Cologne was never launched in South Africa, the venerable and popular Essex V6 remained the best normal production engine fitted to the Sierra. At the top of the range, the 2.3 GLS quickly gave way to a 3.0 GLX flagship model (producing less power but more torque than the XR6) and that was the end of the Cologne in South Africa, even the station wagon receiving the 3.0 V6 Essex. By 1985, the Sierra had become the largest Ford model in this market, following the demise of the Granada.


title: Ford Sierra

text: Towards the end of its production life, the Essex was modified again - the standard carburetted version was tuned to produce from 1991 to 1993, while a fuel-injected version was available from 1992 to 1993. Fitted to the Sierra as the 3.0i RS (replacing the XR6) and to the Sapphire saloon as the Sapphire Ghia (replacing the 3.0 GLX), the fuel-injected Essex put out around and was the most powerful Sierra/Sapphire version sold in South Africa, excluding the small number of XR8s built for homologation purposes. At the end of production a limited edition of 150 vehicles designated as 3.0i RS which based on the saloon (Sapphire) body was produced with some slight engine tweaks which resulted in a power output of . This vehicle was also fitted with the ATE ABS system as was customary only on the Sapphire GHIA models at the time. These limited edition vehicles were only available to two colours, namely red and white.


title: Ford Sierra

text: Uniquely, the South African market also saw the introduction of a 5.0-litre XR8 between June 1984 and 1988. A limited number of 250 Sierras were made for the purposes of homologation, as this model was the premier Ford used in Group A racing. The XR8 was fitted with the 302 ci engine from the US Ford Mustang, and the Borg Warner T5 heavy duty transmission. Front brakes were AP Racing four-piston calipers on 280 mm discs. Max power is and a top speed of was claimed. The XR8 is easily recognized by having four cooling slats between the headlights, whereas lesser versions were sold with the original smooth front.


title: Ford Sierra

text: The 1.6 Kent continued almost unchanged during the 9 year life of the Sierra/Sapphire, while the 2.0 Cologne was revised several times, being fitted to the Sierra 2.0 GL and GLE and later to the stripped down Sierra 2.0 LX and Sapphire 2.0 GL and GLE models. It eventually even received fuel injection in the Sapphire 2.0GLi, boosting the power from to .


title: Ford Sierra

text: The Sierra was eventually replaced in South Africa by the Telstar in 1993. Samcor, which assembled Ford models under license after Ford had divested from the country, was already assembling the smaller Laser and Meteor, alongside the Mazda 323, on which they were based, as well as a facelifted earlier version of the Mazda 626. The Telstar was finally replaced by the Mondeo in 1998.


title: Ford Sierra

text: Whereas British buyers rued the absence of a saloon version of the Sierra, in New Zealand, it was the absence of an estate (station wagon) there that customers missed, when Ford New Zealand replaced the Cortina with the Ford Telstar range. In order to fill the gap in the market, Ford introduced the Sierra wagon in 1984, in spite of opposition at Ford Asia Pacific and from the Detroit headquarters. This was assembled locally from imported CKD ("completely knocked down") kits. The wagon was offered in 1.6- (base) and 2.0-litre "L" and "Ghia" models initially, and proved to be a strong seller. The then Prime Minister, Sir Robert Muldoon, used a Sierra as his personal transport and would drive it to his office in the government building known as the Beehive. New Zealand was the only market in the world where both the Telstar and the Sierra were offered next to each other.


title: Ford Sierra

text: In one month in 1987, the facelifted Ford Sierra, by then a single station wagon model, was the country's top-selling car range. A few fully built-up 2.3 V6 five-doors and XR4i three-doors were also imported from 1984.


title: Ford Sierra

text: However, Ford cancelled the Sierra once Mazda, which developed the Telstar, could offer a station wagon. The Telstar wagon, while popular, never reached the Sierra's heights, especially its competition successes overseas. Further reasons could be customers' knowledge of the Telstar's Japanese roots, and that the equivalent Mazda 626 wagon offered a considerably longer warranty at a similar price.


title: Ford Sierra

text: Relative rejection of the Telstar forced Ford to import completely built-up (CBU) premium models built in Genk, Belgium from 1990: the Sierra 2.0 GLX Wagon, the Sierra Sapphire 2.0 Ghia and the XR4×4 were part of this range. The advertising copy read, "Introducing the new car that needs no introduction." However, a relatively high price did not help – the Wagon began at over NZ$31,000 – and production errors in the launch brochure showed cars with no steering wheels. Furthermore, any marketing boosts Ford could have gained through Group A touring car racing were over with the Escort Cosworth becoming the company's standard-bearer in competition (and the Escort, meanwhile, was absent from the New Zealand market).


title: Ford Sierra

text: The Sierra was withdrawn from the New Zealand market in 1992, and it would be another five years before its European successor the Mondeo would arrive there. Sierra Cosworths remain sought-after performance cars.


title: Ford Sierra

text: By contrast, the Sierra was never sold in Australia, as there was less demand for a medium-sized wagon than in New Zealand, although the RS Cosworth/RS500 was used in the Australian Touring Car Championships from the late-1980s and early-1990s.


title: Ford Sierra

text: In Argentina, the Sierra was offered as a five-door hatchback beginning in the summer of 1984. A station wagon body style was added in September 1985. The sporting XR4, with three-door bodywork arrived a couple of months after the original introduction. The facelifted post-1987 model did not reach the Argentinian market, where the range continued with a Merkur XR4Ti-like grille until 1991 for XR4 and 1992 for five-door models, when it was replaced by the Volkswagen Santana-based Galaxy. Argentinian Sierras can be distinguished by a more sculpted front bumper with an extra cooling inlet.


title: Ford Sierra

text: The 1.6L was offered in GL model only, while the LX, Ghia, Ghia S/SX and XR4 were available with a 2.3-litre inline-four with some differences in specs. Both engines, as for the preceding Taunus TC3, were from the "Pinto" family. The power ranged between for the 1.6 and for the XR4 and later Ghia S versions. Some Ghia models also featured automatic transmission as an optional. The station wagon was called the Sierra Rural. Ford had previously used the name "Rural" for station wagons in Argentina, such as the Taunus, in a similar way to "Turnier" in Germany.


title: Ford Sierra

text: The GL model was the base model replaced by the LX with the same equipment. The XR4 was eventually complemented by the five-door Ghia S/SX.


title: Ford Sierra

text: In Venezuela the locally assembled Ford Sierra was launched in 1985, the 2.8L V6 engine being standard on versions sold there, including the 5 door hatchback (280 LS and 280ES) and 3 door hatchback (XR4i and 280GT) as well as the 5 door station wagon (Ranchera). In 1990, a face-lifted version of the Sierra, powered by the 2.9L V6 engine was offered as both a hatchback and a saloon, the latter being known as the Sierra 300 Sapphire, although unlike the Sapphire in other markets, it had a blanked-off grille. Also launched in Venezuela was the XR6i.


title: Ford Sierra

text: In North America, the Ford Sierra was offered under the now defunct Merkur brand, imported from Germany as a three-door hatchback and marketed as the XR4Ti. The North American market had already seen the similar-sounding Oldsmobile Ciera, and the "Sierra" name was trademarked by General Motors Corporation from the 1970s as a trim level on its pickup trucks.


title: Ford Sierra

text: The XR4Ti was offered from the start of the Merkur brand in 1985 until 1989, equipped as a rear-wheel-drive 2.3-litre SOHC inline four-cylinder (commonly known as the "Lima" engine) equipped with a Garrett T3 turbocharger and fuel injection. The engine produced and was largely the same engine as was available in the Mustang, where it produced thanks to the fitment of an intercooler.


title: Ford Sierra

text: Negatively affecting the XR4Ti's popularity, North American safety and emissions regulations (including requiring air bags for all 1990 and newer vehicles, not required in foreign markets), forced costly homologation modifications, resulting in relatively high pricing. Exchange rates also fluctuated frequently. Moreover, since Merkurs were sold at Lincoln–Mercury dealers, many customers were more attracted towards Mercury models, such as the Mercury Sable, which were similarly styled and had similar equipment for significantly lower prices.


title: Ford Sierra

text: Unlike many of its rivals, the Sierra retained rear-wheel drive, albeit with a modern, fully independent rear suspension, departing from the Cortina's live axle.


title: Ford Sierra

text: In the beginning the Sierra used engines and transmissions from the Taunus / Cortina. The engines were of two types, the SOHC Ford Pinto engine in 1.3, 1.6, 1.8 and 2.0-litre displacements, and the OHV Cologne V6 engine (in 2.0, 2.3, 2.8, and 2.9-litre capacities). Towards the end of the 1980s due to tightening emission standards, the Pinto engine began to be phased out-the 1.8-litre in 1988 replaced by a 1.8-litre CVH, the 2.0-litre in 1989, replaced with the Ford I4 DOHC engine and the 1.6 in 1992, replaced by the 1.6 CVH first seen in the Escort in 1980, described as a "CFi", a single point fuel injection system with a catalytic converter. The 2.9 L Cologne engine was available in the Sierra XR4x4 and the Sierra Ghia. Models with the 2.0 L and Cologne V6 engines had an option of a limited slip differential. Models built until 1989 used the type 9 gearbox that had been used in the Cortina, with the exception of 2WD Cosworth models that used the T5. The T5 had several variations, most were internal. This was basically the same transmission used in the Ford Mustang. The .80 overdrive gears were the weak link. It was later superseded by the MT75 unit (for DOHC, 4X4 and V6 models). All Sierras had rear drum brakes, except sporting models (2.0iS (some), 2.0 GLX & GLS, XR4x4, Sierra Cosworth, other special/sporting models inc 2.0i 4x4) and models with anti-lock brakes. American versions meanwhile were sold only with a 2.3 L four-cylinder turbocharged version of the Pinto engine.


title: Ford Sierra

text: The Sierra also had a diesel option on the engine, namely at launch the 2.3 L normally aspirated Indenor diesel made by Peugeot. This engine was also used in contemporary Granadas and whilst reliable and economical it made an unrefined, noisy and very slow vehicle, but remained a popular option for Taxi firms. This was later superseded in 1990 by a 1.8 L turbocharged powerplant of Ford's own design which offered better response times and slightly more power. During the Sierra's production run the engine was known both as the Lynx and as the Endura-D, though was further rebranded as the 'Endura-DE' with the release of the second-generation Ford Mondeo.


title: Ford Sierra

text: In 1983, the high-performance XR4i version was introduced. It utilised the same 2.8 L Cologne engine as used in the Ford Capri 2.8 Injection of that era and sported a restyled version of the 3-door Sierra bodyshell. The double rear spoiler and curious multi-pillared rear windows were considered over-styled by some prospective buyers, and the car never achieved the cult status of the smaller Fiesta XR2 and Escort XR3i. A version of the XR4i with a 2.3 L turbocharged engine was sold in the United States as the Merkur XR4Ti. The XR4Ti was raced in Europe, most notably by Andy Rouse who used one to win the 1985 BTCC.


title: Ford Sierra

text: In South Africa, there was a 3.0 L V6 version, called the XR6, also made in South Africa was a limited run of 250 V8 XR8s for saloon car racing homologation in 1984. These were based on the Ford Windsor 302 engine.


title: Ford Sierra

text: In 1985 the XR4i was replaced by the XR4x4, which was based on the five-door hatchback, had four-wheel drive and was powered by the same 2.8 L V6 engine but wasn't equipped with the bi-plane rear spoiler. Only a very limited number of three-door XR4x4's have been built. By the end of its production in 1990, 23,540 had been produced. From 1990 to 1993 the XR4x4 was available with both the revised 2.9 EFi and 2.0 DOHC EFi engines. The XR4i also made a reappearance (as a badging exercise) in 5-door form but with the DOHC 2.0 engine instead of the V6.


title: Ford Sierra

text: In 1989, Ford nodded towards its past and created the Sierra 2.0i 2000E, a model name used with limited success on the Mk3 Cortina. The Sierra 2000E had two-tone metallic paint, alloys, light grey leather interior, and a trip computer in addition the standard features on the 'Ghia' models. It was only available in saloon form and a limited number of models were sold between 1989 and 1991. Ford used this to showcase the new DOHC twin cam engine which was also released in 1989.


title: Ford Sierra

text: In Argentina the non-injected XR4 model was equipped with the Taunus 2.3 engine and was produced between 1986 and 1991. In this market the most direct rival was the Renault Fuego 2.2.


title: Ford Sierra

text: In July 1986, a special version called the Ford Sierra RS Cosworth was launched, using the 2.0 OHC bottom end with a 16V DOHC cylinder head specially developed by Cosworth. With the Cosworth Garret T3 turbocharger and intercooler setup the engine produced . It was designed by Ford's Special Vehicle Engineering (SVE) group and made in Ford's Genk factory in Belgium for use in group A. It was based on a three-door Sierra with the dashboard from the Merkur XR4Ti. The car was available in only white, black or Ford's 'Moonstone Blue' and only 5545 were made. The Sierra RS Cosworth was available in both right hand drive and left hand drive, the RS500 was only produced in Right Hand Drive. Racing conversion were done with the European Merkur dashboard.


title: Ford Sierra

text: In 1987, a Sierra Cosworth, the RS500, was sold alongside the regular version. Only 500 were produced as the minimum number of road-going cars required to meet with newly introduced homologation racing rules, allowing it to compete in evolution form for group A racing. The car was modified by the Tickford Engineering Company in conjunction with Ford. Revisions included uprated brakes and larger brake cooling ducts and modified front and rear spoilers (a second smaller rear spoiler was added beneath the large "whale-tail"), a modified front bumper to allow extra cooling for a larger intercooler, as well as various engine upgrades including a larger turbocharger and a second fuel rail (which did not operate on road models). Race outputs were as high as , in which the Sierra dominated group A series around the world.


title: Ford Sierra

text: Racing versions of the Cosworth were highly successful in European and World Touring Car racing throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s, and the RS500 helped Ford to win the manufacturer's title in the 1987 World Touring Car Championship. Ford was forced to fall back on the Sierra for rallying from 1987, after the banning of the Group B formula. With only rear-drive, the Sierra struggled to compete on looser surfaces but was very quick on asphalt, Didier Auriol winning his first World Championship rally in a Sierra in Corsica, 1988. It was replaced by the 4x4 Sapphire version from 1990, which never managed to win a World Championship event but became a popular and successful car in national championships. The Sierra was replaced by the Escort Cosworth in 1993.


title: Ford Sierra

text: In 1988, a new Cosworth was produced which was based on the Sierra Sapphire saloon. 13,140 were produced until it was replaced in 1990 by a four-wheel-drive version, the Sierra Sapphire RS Cosworth 4x4, of which 12,250 were built. Its replacement came in the form of the Escort RS Cosworth which appeared in 1992, which used a shortened and developed version of the Sierra platform and running gear but clothed with an Escort-esque bodyshell and the return of the whale-tail spoiler.


title: Ford Sierra

text: Turbocharged versions of the Sierra were also available as post-production models from companies like Janspeed and, most notably, from Turbo Technics. The XR4x4 2.8 was available with a range of aftermarket kits pushing power from to over . The 2.9 got a twin-turbo setup, available with variants up to . Even the DOHC version got a single turbo kit, of which only a small number were made. Turbo Technics even sold their own pre-prepared Sierra known as the Minker; only a handful were ever produced, as they cost significantly more than Ford's own RS Cosworth.


title: Ford Sierra

text: In Finland, tax laws made the 1.3 L and 1.6 L-engined Sierras attractive business cars in the mid 1980s. Beginning in 1982, a number of these smaller engines were turbocharged locally in order to gain 2.0 L engine power without moving into the higher tax bracket. The 2.0 L OHC engine was also available turbocharged. These are often called "Stockmann Turbo" Sierras, after the provider of the most popular conversion kits. After stricter emissions standards were introduced for 1989, Stockmann focused on getting the more popular 1.6-litre kit approved and stopped offering the other ones. They were not intended as sporting cars, but were "tax specials" meant to save owners money without sacrificing power. The purchase price of a 1.6 Turbo was marginally higher than that of a factory 2.0, but the difference was quickly made up in tax savings.


title: Ford Sierra

text: After the major facelift of 1987, and the introduction of the DOHC engines in 1989, further changes to the Sierra were superficial. Some detail styling changes were made in 1990, when the dashboard styling was freshened up, the front was given clear-lensed indicators, the rear given smoked rear lamp lenses, the steering wheel redesigned and a new front grille was added, together with fuel injection as standard, 15-inch wheels and rear disc brakes. UK production of the Sierra ceased in 1990 with right hand drive production moving to Belgium.


title: Ford Sierra

text: For the 1991 model year, the 1.6 litre Pinto engine was finally dropped and replaced by a CVH unit of similar capacity, marking the end of the venerable Pinto unit after it had been introduced in the Cortina/Taunus some 21 years earlier. The 1992 model year cars saw the final revisions - most notably the dashboard which gained a more rounded instrument binnacle similar in style to the 1990 Escort and Orion, along with specification, colour and trim upgrades across the whole range.


title: Ford Sierra

text: By 1989, Ford had confirmed that the successor to the Sierra (due by 1993) would feature front-wheel drive, and a number of concept cars were shown in the motoring press, hinting at what the new car might look like. By the early 1990s it had become clear that the Sierra had fallen out of step technologically against modern Japanese rivals which offered multi-valve engines and multi-link rear suspension. All of these features appeared on the Sierra's replacement, the front-wheel-drive Mondeo, which was unveiled in November 1992 and went on sale the following March.


title: Ford Sierra

text: The Sierra is the tenth-most popular car to have been sold in Britain, with 1,299,993 units having been sold. The first Sierras were sold in October 1982, and stocks lasted for around two years after the end of production - with more than 200 models being sold in 1994 and at least one example being sold in 1995 (in February as an M-registered model).


title: Ford Sierra

text: The Sierra remained a common sight on the roads in the United Kingdom and several other European countries, and a popular second-hand buy, until well into the 21st century. However, just 2,425 Ford Sierras were reported to be taxed and still on UK roads in December 2019, with 11,562 currently SORN.


title: Butterworth filter

text: The Butterworth filter is a type of signal processing filter designed to have a frequency response that is as flat as possible in the passband. It is also referred to as a maximally flat magnitude filter. It was first described in 1930 by the British engineer and physicist Stephen Butterworth in his paper entitled "On the Theory of Filter Amplifiers".


title: Butterworth filter

text: Butterworth had a reputation for solving "impossible" mathematical problems. At the time, filter design required a considerable amount of designer experience due to limitations of the theory then in use. The filter was not in common use for over 30 years after its publication. Butterworth stated that:


title: Butterworth filter

text: Such an ideal filter cannot be achieved, but Butterworth showed that successively closer approximations were obtained with increasing numbers of filter elements of the right values. At the time, filters generated substantial ripple in the passband, and the choice of component values was highly interactive. Butterworth showed that a low-pass filter could be designed whose cutoff frequency was normalized to 1 radian per second and whose frequency response (gain) was


title: Butterworth filter

text: where formula_2 is the angular frequency in radians per second and formula_3 is the number of poles in the filter—equal to the number of reactive elements in a passive filter. If formula_2 = 1, the amplitude response of this type of filter in the passband is 1/ ≈ 0.7071, which is half power or −3 dB. Butterworth only dealt with filters with an even number of poles in his paper. He may have been unaware that such filters could be designed with an odd number of poles. He built his higher-order filters from 2-pole filters separated by vacuum tube amplifiers. His plot of the frequency response of 2-, 4-, 6-, 8-, and 10-pole filters is shown as A, B, C, D, and E in his original graph.


title: Butterworth filter

text: Butterworth solved the equations for two-pole and four-pole filters, showing how the latter could be cascaded when separated by vacuum tube amplifiers and so enabling the construction of higher-order filters despite inductor losses. In 1930, low-loss core materials such as molypermalloy had not been discovered and air-cored audio inductors were rather lossy. Butterworth discovered that it was possible to adjust the component values of the filter to compensate for the winding resistance of the inductors.


title: Butterworth filter

text: He used coil forms of 1.25″ diameter and 3″ length with plug-in terminals. Associated capacitors and resistors were contained inside the wound coil form. The coil formed part of the plate load resistor. Two poles were used per vacuum tube and RC coupling was used to the grid of the following tube.


title: Butterworth filter

text: Butterworth also showed that the basic low-pass filter could be modified to give low-pass, high-pass, band-pass and band-stop functionality.


title: Butterworth filter

text: The frequency response of the Butterworth filter is maximally flat (i.e. has no ripples) in the passband and rolls off towards zero in the stopband.


title: Butterworth filter

text: When viewed on a logarithmic Bode plot, the response slopes off linearly towards negative infinity. A first-order filter's response rolls off at −6 dB per octave (−20 dB per decade) (all first-order lowpass filters have the same normalized frequency response). A second-order filter decreases at −12 dB per octave, a third-order at −18 dB and so on. Butterworth filters have a monotonically changing magnitude function with ω, unlike other filter types that have non-monotonic ripple in the passband and/or the stopband.


title: Butterworth filter

text: Compared with a Chebyshev Type I/Type II filter or an elliptic filter, the Butterworth filter has a slower roll-off, and thus will require a higher order to implement a particular stopband specification, but Butterworth filters have a more linear phase response in the passband than Chebyshev Type I/Type II and elliptic filters can achieve.


title: Butterworth filter

text: A transfer function of a third-order low-pass Butterworth filter design shown in the figure on the right looks like this:


title: Butterworth filter

text: A simple example of a Butterworth filter is the third-order low-pass design shown in the figure on the right, with formula_6 = 4/3 F, formula_7 = 1 Ω, formula_8 = 3/2 H, and formula_9 = 1/2 H. Taking the impedance of the capacitors formula_10 to be formula_11 and the impedance of the inductors formula_12 to be formula_13, where is the complex frequency, the circuit equations yield the transfer function for this device:


title: Butterworth filter

text: The group delay is defined as the derivative of the phase with respect to angular frequency and is a measure of the distortion in the signal introduced by phase differences for different frequencies. The gain and the delay for this filter are plotted in the graph on the left. It can be seen that there are no ripples in the gain curve in either the passband or the stop band.


title: Butterworth filter

text: The log of the absolute value of the transfer function formula_19 is plotted in complex frequency space in the second graph on the right. The function is defined by the three poles in the left half of the complex frequency plane.


title: Butterworth filter

text: These are arranged on a circle of radius unity, symmetrical about the real formula_20 axis. The gain function will have three more poles on the right half-plane to complete the circle.


title: Butterworth filter

text: By replacing each inductor with a capacitor and each capacitor with an inductor, a high-pass Butterworth filter is obtained.


title: Butterworth filter

text: A band-pass Butterworth filter is obtained by placing a capacitor in series with each inductor and an inductor in parallel with each capacitor to form resonant circuits. The value of each new component must be selected to resonate with the old component at the frequency of interest.


title: Butterworth filter

text: A band-stop Butterworth filter is obtained by placing a capacitor in parallel with each inductor and an inductor in series with each capacitor to form resonant circuits. The value of each new component must be selected to resonate with the old component at the frequency that is to be rejected.


title: Butterworth filter

text: Like all filters, the typical prototype is the low-pass filter, which can be modified into a high-pass filter, or placed in series with others to form band-pass and band-stop filters, and higher order versions of these.


title: Butterworth filter

text: The gain formula_15 of an formula_3th-order Butterworth low-pass filter is given in terms of the transfer function formula_19 as


title: Butterworth filter

text: where formula_3 is the order of filter, formula_26 is the cutoff frequency (approximately the −3 dB frequency), and formula_27 is the DC gain (gain at zero frequency).


title: Butterworth filter

text: It can be seen that as formula_3 approaches infinity, the gain becomes a rectangle function and frequencies below formula_26 will be passed with gain formula_27, while frequencies above formula_26 will be suppressed. For smaller values of formula_3, the cutoff will be less sharp.


title: Butterworth filter

text: We wish to determine the transfer function formula_19 where formula_34 (from Laplace transform). Because formula_35 and, as a general property of Laplace transforms at formula_36, formula_37, if we select formula_19 such that:


title: Butterworth filter

text: where formula_42 is the product of a sequence operator. The denominator is a Butterworth polynomial in formula_20.


title: Butterworth filter

text: The Butterworth polynomials may be written in complex form as above, but are usually written with real coefficients by multiplying pole pairs that are complex conjugates, such as formula_44 and formula_45. The polynomials are normalized by setting formula_46. The normalized Butterworth polynomials then have the general product form


title: Butterworth filter

text: Factors of Butterworth polynomials of order 1 through 10 are shown in the following table (to six decimal places).


title: Butterworth filter

text: where the Greek letter phi ( or formula_49) represents the golden ratio. It is an irrational number that is a solution to the quadratic equation formula_50 with a value of


title: Butterworth filter

text: Further, formula_57. The rounded coefficients formula_53 for the first 10 Butterworth polynomials formula_59 are:


title: Butterworth filter

text: The normalized Butterworth polynomials can be used to determine the transfer function for any low-pass filter cut-off frequency formula_26, as follows


title: Butterworth filter

text: Assuming formula_46 and formula_64, the derivative of the gain with respect to frequency can be shown to be


title: Butterworth filter

text: which is monotonically decreasing for all formula_2 since the gain formula_67 is always positive. The gain function of the Butterworth filter therefore has no ripple. The series expansion of the gain is given by


title: Butterworth filter

text: In other words, all derivatives of the gain up to but not including the 2formula_3-th derivative are zero at formula_70, resulting in "maximal flatness". If the requirement to be monotonic is limited to the passband only and ripples are allowed in the stopband, then it is possible to design a filter of the same order, such as the inverse Chebyshev filter, that is flatter in the passband than the "maximally flat" Butterworth.


title: Butterworth filter

text: In decibels, the high-frequency roll-off is therefore 20formula_3 dB/decade, or 6formula_3 dB/octave (the factor of 20 is used because the power is proportional to the square of the voltage gain; see 20 log rule.)


title: Butterworth filter

text: There are several different filter topologies available to implement a linear analogue filter. The most often used topology for a passive realisation is the Cauer topology, and the most often used topology for an active realisation is the Sallen–Key topology.


title: Butterworth filter

text: The Cauer topology uses passive components (shunt capacitors and series inductors) to implement a linear analog filter. The Butterworth filter having a given transfer function can be realised using a Cauer 1-form. The "k"-th element is given by


title: Butterworth filter

text: The filter may start with a series inductor if desired, in which case the "L" are "k" odd and the "C" are "k" even. These formulae may usefully be combined by making both "L" and "C" equal to "g". That is, "g" is the immittance divided by "s".


title: Butterworth filter

text: These formulae apply to a doubly terminated filter (that is, the source and load impedance are both equal to unity) with ω = 1. This prototype filter can be scaled for other values of impedance and frequency. For a singly terminated filter (that is, one driven by an ideal voltage or current source) the element values are given by


title: Butterworth filter

text: Voltage driven filters must start with a series element and current driven filters must start with a shunt element. These forms are useful in the design of diplexers and multiplexers.


title: Butterworth filter

text: The Sallen–Key topology uses active and passive components (noninverting buffers, usually op amps, resistors, and capacitors) to implement a linear analog filter. Each Sallen–Key stage implements a conjugate pair of poles; the overall filter is implemented by cascading all stages in series. If there is a real pole (in the case where formula_3 is odd), this must be implemented separately, usually as an RC circuit, and cascaded with the active stages.


title: Butterworth filter

text: We wish the denominator to be one of the quadratic terms in a Butterworth polynomial. Assuming that formula_46, this will mean that


title: Butterworth filter

text: Butterworth lowpass filters with Sallen–Key topology of 3rd and 4th order, using only one op amp, are described by Huelsman, and further single-amplifier Butterworth filters also of higher order are given by Jurišić et al.


title: Butterworth filter

text: Digital implementations of Butterworth and other filters are often based on the bilinear transform method or the matched Z-transform method, two different methods to discretize an analog filter design. In the case of all-pole filters such as the Butterworth, the matched Z-transform method is equivalent to the impulse invariance method. For higher orders, digital filters are sensitive to quantization errors, so they are often calculated as cascaded biquad sections, plus one first-order or third-order section for odd orders.


title: Butterworth filter

text: Here is an image showing the gain of a discrete-time Butterworth filter next to other common filter types. All of these filters are fifth-order.


title: Butterworth filter

text: The Butterworth filter rolls off more slowly around the cutoff frequency than the Chebyshev filter or the Elliptic filter, but without ripple.


title: Glycolic acid

text: Glycolic acid (or hydroxyacetic acid; chemical formula HOCHCOH) is a colorless, odorless and hygroscopic crystalline solid, highly soluble in water. It is used in various skin-care products. Glycolic acid is widespread in nature. A glycolate (sometimes spelled "glycollate") is a salt or ester of glycolic acid.


title: Glycolic acid

text: The name "glycolic acid" was coined in 1848 by French chemist Auguste Laurent (1807–1853). He proposed that the amino acid glycine—which was then called "glycocolle"—might be the amine of a hypothetical acid, which he called "glycolic acid" ("acide glycolique").


title: Glycolic acid

text: Glycolic acid was first prepared in 1851 by German chemist Adolph Strecker (1822–1871) and Russian chemist Nikolai Nikolaevich Sokolov (1826–1877). They produced it by treating hippuric acid with nitric acid and nitrogen dioxide to form an ester of benzoic acid and glycolic acid (CHC(=O)OCHCOOH), which they called "benzoglycolic acid" ("Benzoglykolsäure"; also benzoyl glycolic acid). They boiled the ester for days with dilute sulfuric acid, thereby obtaining benzoic acid and glycolic acid ("Glykolsäure").


title: Glycolic acid

text: Glycolic acid can be synthesized in various ways. The predominant approaches use a catalyzed reaction of formaldehyde with synthesis gas (carbonylation of formaldehyde), for its low cost.


title: Glycolic acid

text: It is also prepared by the reaction of chloroacetic acid with sodium hydroxide followed by re-acidification.


title: Glycolic acid

text: Other methods, not noticeably in use, include hydrogenation of oxalic acid, and hydrolysis of the cyanohydrin derived from formaldehyde. Some of today's glycolic acids are formic acid-free. Glycolic acid can be isolated from natural sources, such as sugarcane, sugar beets, pineapple, cantaloupe and unripe grapes.


title: Glycolic acid

text: Glycolic acid can also be prepared using an enzymatic biochemical process that may require less energy.


title: Glycolic acid

text: Glycolic acid is slightly stronger than acetic acid due to the electron-withdrawing power of the terminal hydroxyl group. The carboxylate group can coordinate to metal ions forming coordination complexes. Of particular note are the complexes with Pb and Cu which are significantly stronger than complexes with other carboxylic acids. This indicates that the hydroxyl group is involved in complex formation, possibly with the loss of its proton.


title: Glycolic acid

text: Glycolic acid is a useful intermediate for organic synthesis, in a range of reactions including: oxidation-reduction, esterification and long chain polymerization. It is used as a monomer in the preparation of polyglycolic acid and other biocompatible copolymers (e.g. PLGA). Commercially, important derivatives include the methyl (CAS# 96-35-5) and ethyl (CAS# 623-50-7) esters which are readily distillable (boiling points 147–149 °C and 158–159 °C, respectively), unlike the parent acid. The butyl ester (b.p. 178–186 °C) is a component of some varnishes, being desirable because it is nonvolatile and has good dissolving properties.


title: Glycolic acid

text: Plants produce glycolic acid during photorespiration. It is recycled by conversion to glycine within the peroxosomes and to tartronic acid semialdehyde within the chloroplasts.


title: Glycolic acid

text: Because photorespiration is wasteful side reaction with regards to photosynthesis, much effort has been devoted to suppressing its formation. One process converts glycolate into glycerate without using the conventional BASS6 and PLGG1 route; see glycerate pathway.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: Grand Junction is a home rule municipality that is the county seat and the most populous municipality of Mesa County, Colorado, United States. The city population was 65,560 at the 2020 United States Census, making Grand Junction the 17th most populous Colorado municipality and the most populous city in western Colorado.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: Grand Junction is west-southwest of the Colorado State Capitol in Denver. The city has a council–manager form of government. It is a major commercial and transportation hub within the large area between the Green River and the Continental Divide, and the largest city in Colorado outside of the Front Range Corridor.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: The city is along the Colorado River, at its confluence with the Gunnison River, which comes in from the south. "Grand" refers to the historical Grand River; it was renamed the Upper Colorado River in 1921. "Junction" refers to the confluence of the Colorado and Gunnison rivers. Grand Junction has been nicknamed "River City". It is near the midpoint of a arcing valley, known as the Grand Valley; since the late 19th century it has been a major fruit-growing region. The valley was long occupied by the Ute people and earlier indigenous cultures. It was not settled by European-American farmers until the 1880s. Since the late 20th century, several wineries have been established in the area.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: The Colorado National Monument, a unique series of canyons and mesas, overlooks the city on the west. Most of the area is surrounded by federal public lands managed by the US Bureau of Land Management. Interstate 70 connects the city eastward to Glenwood Springs and Denver and westward to Green River, Utah; Salt Lake City is reached to the west via Interstate 70 and U.S Route 6; and Las Vegas (via Interstate 70 and Interstate 15).


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: In September 1881, the former Ute Indian Territory was abolished and the Utes were forced into a reservation so that the U.S. government could open the area to settlers. Clinton County, Pennsylvania-born George Addison Crawford (1827–91) soon purchased a plot of land. On July 22, 1882, he incorporated the town of Grand Junction and planted Colorado's first vineyard near Palisade, Colorado, causing the area to become known as the Colorado Wine Country.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: Grand Junction also has a storied past with gunfighters, miners, and early settlers of the American Southwest.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: Grand Junction has a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen "BSk"). Grand Junction sits in a large area of high desert lands in Western Colorado. Winters are cold and dry, with a January mean temperature of . Due to its location "west" of the Rockies, Grand Junction does not receive as much influence from the Chinook winds as locations in Colorado east of the Front Range, yet it does receive protection from the Arctic air masses that can settle to the east of the Rockies. This is illustrated by the fact that from December to February, highs reach only 18 days. Lows drop to or below on 2.9 nights per year. Snowfall is low compared to much of the rest of the state, averaging per season; only once in the entire period of record dating to 1893, has observed in a calendar day, though the median is , and moreover, snow cover is intermittent. Snow is greatest in December and January. Spring warming is gradual but quickens when nearing June; the average last freeze date is April 25. Summer is hot and dry, with a July mean temperature of . Grand Junction averages 68 days a year with temperatures at or above, and an average 8 days attaining or more. Autumn cooling is rapid, with the average first freeze date being October 11. The area receives little precipitation year-round, averaging , with no real seasonal spike. Sunshine hours are abundant, even in winter, and total just over 3,200 hours per year, or 73% of the possible total.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 41,986 people, 17,865 households, and 10,540 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 18,784 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 91.78% White, 0.60% African American, 0.94% Native American, 0.76% Asian, 0.12% Pacific Islander, 3.81% from other races, and 1.99% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 10.86% of the population.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: There were 17,865 households, out of which 25.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.1% were married couples living together, 9.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.0% were non-families. Of all households 33.2% were made up of individuals, and 13.8% had one living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.84.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 21.2% under the age of 18, 11.9% from 18 to 24, 26.3% from 25 to 44, 22.8% from 45 to 64, and 17.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.6 males.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: The population figures are for Grand Junction only; the city abuts smaller towns and unincorporated county areas which contribute to area commerce.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: The median income for a household in the city was $33,152, and the median income for a family was $43,851. Males had a median income of $31,685 versus $22,804 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,692. About 7.5% of families and 11.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.8% of those under age 18 and 9.0% of those age 65 or over.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: From the time settlers arrived in the 1880s until the 1960s, three of the main economic activities in the region were farming, fruit growing, and cattle raising. Fruit orchards, particularly between Grand Junction and Palisade to the east, remain important to the region's reputation and economy to the present day. Fruits most often grown are peaches, pears, apricots, plums, cherries, and, particularly since the 1980s, grapes for wine. In this semi-arid environment, these orchards thrive from a combination of abundant sunshine and irrigation from a system of canals that divert water from the Colorado River.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: Attempts were made to establish sugar beet farming and beet sugar production. The Grand Valley Sugar Company established a campaign in 1893, sending three train carloads to the Utah-Idaho Sugar Company. Several tariffs and subsidies to domestic sugar were established in the 1890s, which led to uncertainty in the market. After the 1897 Dingley Act, the company was revived in 1898 and rallied to build a sugar factory. They failed to fundraise to build the plant. At the same time, Charles N. Cox was able to organize an effort to establish a factory in 1898 as well. John F. Campion and others including James Joseph Brown, Eben Smith, Charles E. Mitchell, George Trimble, James R. McKinnie, and Charles Boettcher invested, creating the Colorado Sugar Manufacturing Company in 1899 and contracting E. H. Dyer to build a factory. The failed to succeed, so they sold the plant to local investors, who were able to make it a success. The Campion-Boettcher group then created the Great Western Sugar Company.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: Retail sales have been important to the economy for decades (e.g., gasoline, and hunting and fishing related sales), and uranium mining-related activities have also been significant. Grand Junction was home to the Climax Uranium Mill, a now decommissioned mill that provided uranium ore to the US Atomic Energy Commission.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: Education and healthcare have been important to the economy of the area, especially since the 1950s, with the rise of Colorado Mesa University and St. Mary's Hospital as leading employers in these fields.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: Vast oil shale reserves were known to exist near Parachute, Colorado in the Piceance Basin. The oil embargoes of the 1970s and high gas prices resulted in major financial interest in the region. Exxon purchased rights and used Grand Junction as its seat of operations. The city and the surrounding Grand Valley became prosperous in the 1970s and early 1980s largely because of the effects of oil shale development. The United States, western Colorado in particular, has the largest-known concentration of oil shale in the world (according to the Bureau of Land Management) and holds an estimated 800 gigabarrels of recoverable oil, enough to meet U.S. demand for oil at current levels for 110 years. Known as the "Rock That Burns", the shale can be mined and processed to produce oil. In the past it was significantly more expensive than conventional oil. Sustained prices above $95 per barrel, however, may make extraction economically attractive in the coming years (see Oil shale economics). ExxonMobil pulled out of the region because of lower oil prices, which led to economic hardship in the region.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: The economic bust, known as "Black Sunday" (May 2, 1982) to the locals, started with a phone call from the president of Exxon to Governor Richard Douglas Lamm, stating that Exxon would cut its losses while retaining mining rights to the (then and currently) uneconomic oil. The economic bust was felt statewide, as Exxon had invested more than 5 billion in the state. Colorado historian Tom Noel observed, "I think that was a definite turning point, and it was a reminder that we were a boom-and-bust state...There were parallels to the silver crash of 1893."


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: By 2008, the economy of Grand Junction appeared to be more diverse and stable than it had been in previous decades. Major contributors to the economy were health care, tourism, agriculture, livestock, and energy mining (gas and oil). Major energy companies had once again invested large amounts of money due to increases in oil and natural gas prices (such as in the years 2005–2008). However, a major drop (in the summer of 2008) of market natural gas prices led to reduced gas well drilling and related capital expenditures in the area, significantly slowing the Grand Junction economy in 2009. Reports given in 2009 suggested that Grand Junction had once again been hard-hit economically, with one report by April 2010 listing the area as having had the largest percentage drop in employment of any "small city" in the entire United States.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: By 2008, Grand Junction was being discovered by the "nation's elite business and leisure travelers" as a destination for private jet travel, with nearby Powderhorn Resort and other ski resorts a major attraction.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: Grand Junction's Colorado National Monument was home to a stage in the Coors Classic bicycle race known as "The Tour of the Moon" due to the Monument's unique landscape.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: Since 1958, the JUCO World Series has been played at Suplizio Field. The city also has a professional Minor League Baseball team, the Grand Junction Jackalopes, who play in the Pioneer Baseball League.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: Both Suplizio Field and Stocker Stadium also host Colorado Mesa University as well as School District 51 sporting events.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: The Grand Junction area has developed as a mountain biking destination, with many bikers coming from the Front Range of Colorado, the Salt Lake City area, and as far away as California to enjoy the area's abundant single-track trails. Two prominent trails are the Tabeguache and Kokopelli trails, the latter running from near Loma to Moab, Utah. Fruita, Colorado, with its 18-Road trail system, is within 10 miles of the city and has become a major mountain biking destination.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: The Mesa Valley School District No. 51 provides comprehensive K–12 public education to the Grand Junction area. School District 51 operates five high schools:


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: In addition, the district operates numerous middle, elementary, and other types of schools, including East Middle School, Redlands Middle School, and West Middle School. District 51 partners with Western Colorado Community College (WCCC) to operate a vocational school, owned and operated by Colorado Mesa University. WCCC was formerly named UTEC.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: Colorado Mesa University, a public, four-year, liberal arts college, serves as the primary provider of higher education on the Western Slope from its campus in central Grand Junction. This campus has an average enrollment of just under 10,000 students and offers a variety of degrees, including a Masters in Business Administration, Educational Leadership, and ESOL.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: The Grand Junction radio market includes all of Mesa County, Colorado. Six AM radio stations and more than 25 FM stations are licensed to broadcast from the city.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: Grand Junction is serviced by one local newspaper, The "Grand Junction Daily Sentinel". The Grand Junction area also receives newspaper influence from sources in the greater Denver front range area.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: Grand Junction has ABC, NBC, and CBS television station affiliates under the call signs of KJCT-TV (Channel 8), KKCO-TV (Channel 11), and KREX-TV (Channel 5), respectively. Also, Grand Junction has a Fox (Channel 4) affiliate station under the call sign of KFQX that receives news from the Denver FOX affiliate, KDVR (Channel 31) at 9 pm. KLML (Channel 20) broadcasts Cozi TV programming. KRMJ (Channel 18) is the local PBS affiliate, part of the statewide Rocky Mountain PBS network.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: Grand Junction Regional Airport (formerly Walker Field Airport) serves as the major airport in the area. The airport is located in north Grand Junction on Horizon Drive. As of 2011, two-way flights to Denver, Salt Lake City, Las Vegas, Dallas, Phoenix, Los Angeles, and Houston were available.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Grand Junction Station, operating its California Zephyr daily in both directions between Chicago and Emeryville, California, across the bay from San Francisco.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: Bustang, Colorado's state-run bus system, provides intercity bus service to the city. There are two bus lines that include Grand Junction. The West line connects to Denver, while the Outrider line connects to Durango. Both of these have multiple stops in between the final destinations, and the West line has options to transfer to alternative lines.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: Grand Valley Transit (GVT) is a regional transit system serving the Grand Valley. It operates 11 bus routes in the area as well as a "dial-a-ride" service.


title: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: The city also has plans to implement shared micromobility in the form of Electric Scooters by April 2023. The companies that will deploy the scooters are currently unknown.


title: Meghna Gulzar

text: Meghna Gulzar is an Indian writer, director and producer. She is best known for directing of Bollywood film Raazi in 2018.


title: Meghna Gulzar

text: After debuting as a screenwriter with her father's 1999 directorial "Hu Tu Tu", Meghna directed her first film, the drama "Filhaal..." (2002), though did not achieve success in direction that decade. Following an eight-year sabbatical, she directed the critically acclaimed "Talvar" (2015), which earned her Best Director nominations despite underperforming at the box office. Her first directorial profitable venture came in 2018, when she directed the patriotic thriller "Raazi", that emerged as one of the highest-grossing Indian films. She won the Filmfare Award for Best Director for her work in the same. This established her as a director, and she next helmed the biographical drama "Chhapaak" (2020).


title: Meghna Gulzar

text: The daughter of lyricist and poet Gulzar and former actress Raakhee, Meghna Gulzar was born on 13 December 1973 in Maharashtra, Mumbai. She was named Meghna by her mother, after the river Meghna in present day Bangladesh.


title: Meghna Gulzar

text: Meghna began her writing career as a freelance writer for "The Times of India" and the NFDC publication "Cinema in India". Her poetry was published in anthologies of the Poetry Society of India. After completing her graduation in Sociology, she worked with noted filmmaker Saeed Akhtar Mirza as an assistant director. In 1995, she completed a short course in filmmaking from the Tisch School of Arts, New York University, New York. Upon her return, she joined her father, writer-director Gulzar, as an assistant on his films "Maachis" and "Hu Tu Tu". Meghna simultaneously began scripting her own film along with directing documentaries for Doordarshan and music videos for several music albums.


title: Meghna Gulzar

text: Meghna directed her first film, "Filhaal", in 2002, starring former Miss Universe-turned-actress Sushmita Sen and Tabu. Her second directorial movie was "Just Married" in 2007. She also directed a short film "Pooranmasi" for Sanjay Gupta's anthology "Dus Kahaniyaan", starring Amrita Singh. In 2015, Meghna directed "Talvar", written by Vishal Bharadwaj and based on the 2008 Noida double murder case.


title: Meghna Gulzar

text: In 2018, she directed the thriller "Raazi". Produced by Junglee Pictures and Dharma Productions, it starred Alia Bhatt and Vicky Kaushal.


title: Meghna Gulzar

text: The film is based on Harinder Sikka’s novel "Calling Sehmat". With worldwide earnings of , it proved one of the highest-grossing Bollywood films. Both "Talvar" and "Raazi" received Filmfare Award for Best Film nominations and Meghna garnered two nominations in the Best Director category for her work. "Raazi" managed to win Best Film and Meghna won the Best Director award for it as well.


title: Meghna Gulzar

text: For her next directorial concept, Meghna chose to make a biopic on the life of acid attack survivor Laxmi Agarwal, which she named "Chhapaak", that is about Malti, an acid attack survivor inspired by Agarwal. The film featured Deepika Padukone as Malti and was critically acclaimed upon its release on 10 January 2020. She will next helm the life of military officer Sam Manekshaw in a biographical film that will star Kaushal as Manekshaw and is produced by Ronnie Screwvala.


title: Michael Kamen

text: Michael Arnold Kamen (April 15, 1948 – November 18, 2003) was an American composer (especially of film scores), orchestral arranger, orchestral conductor, songwriter, and session musician.


title: Michael Kamen

text: Michael Arnold Kamen was born in New York City, the second of four sons. His father, Saul Kamen, was a dentist, and his mother, Helen, was a teacher. He was of Jewish heritage.


title: Michael Kamen

text: While attending the High School of Music & Art in New York City, Kamen became friends with Martin Fulterman (later known as Mark Snow), who composed the theme music for "The X-Files", among other projects. While studying the oboe, Kamen formed a rock-classical fusion band called New York Rock & Roll Ensemble, together with classmates Fulterman and Dorian Rudnytsky, along with Clifton Nivison and Brian Corrigan of Toms River, New Jersey. The group released five albums from 1968 to 1972 ("Self-Titled", "Reflections", "Faithful Friends", "Roll Over" & "Freedomburger"). The group performed in white tie (not tuxedos), as typically worn by classical musicians. In the middle of the concert, Fulterman and Kamen would play an oboe duet. The group backed up friend and classmate Janis Ian in a concert at Alice Tully Hall in late 1967.


title: Michael Kamen

text: Kamen's early work concentrated on ballets before extending to Hollywood with the score for "The Next Man" in 1976, and then to pop and rock arranging, collaborating with Pink Floyd on their album "The Wall".


title: Michael Kamen

text: Kamen became a highly sought-after arranger in the realms of pop and rock music. His contemporaries in this field included Academy Award winner Anne Dudley, Richard Niles, and Nick Ingman.


title: Michael Kamen

text: His successes include his work with Pink Floyd, David Gilmour and Roger Waters (he is one of the few people invited to work with both former Pink Floyd members, even after their acrimonious split), as well as Queen (orchestration on "Who Wants to Live Forever"), Eric Clapton (on "Edge of Darkness"), Roger Daltrey, Aerosmith (live orchestral version of "Dream On" for MTV), Tom Petty, Bon Jovi, David Bowie, Bryan Ferry, Eurythmics, Queensrÿche, Rush, Metallica (on the song "Nothing Else Matters" and their live album, "S&M"), Def Leppard, Herbie Hancock, Tim Curry, The Cranberries, Bryan Adams, Jim Croce, Coldplay, Sting, Guns N' Roses (on their performance of "November Rain" on the MTV Video Music Awards) and Kate Bush. For Bush, Kamen delivered an orchestral backing for "Moments of Pleasure" from "The Red Shoes" album, substantially building upon a simple piano theme Bush had composed. In this instance and many others, he conducted the orchestra personally for the recording. In 1984, two years after moving to London, Kamen had similarly heightened the effect of a pop recording for the Eurythmics "Here Comes the Rain Again", that score relying as much on his compositional skills as his arranging talents.


title: Michael Kamen

text: In 1990, Kamen joined many other guests for Roger Waters' performance of "The Wall" in Berlin, and led the National Philharmonic Orchestra during the "24 Nights" sessions with Eric Clapton the following year.


title: Michael Kamen

text: Lenny Kravitz recorded a cover of "Fields of Joy", a song co-written by Kamen and Hal Fredricks, on his 1991 CD "Mama Said".


title: Michael Kamen

text: Kamen had a successful partnership with Bryan Adams and "Mutt" Lange composing scores and songs. The ballad "(Everything I Do) I Do It for You" for the 1991 film "" was the number one song that year worldwide. Other songs were "All for Love" for the movie "The Three Musketeers" in 1993, and "Have You Ever Really Loved a Woman?" the song from the film "Don Juan DeMarco", in 1994.


title: Michael Kamen

text: Kamen wrote eleven ballets, a saxophone concerto and an electric guitar concerto (with Japanese guitarist Tomoyasu Hotei as a soloist, though originally performed by Eric Clapton). Additionally, he wrote a commissioned work, "Quintet", for the Canadian Brass. He also provided scores for the films "The Dead Zone", "For Queen and Country", "Polyester", "Brazil", "Someone To Watch Over Me", "The Adventures of Baron Munchausen", "The Three Musketeers", "Highlander", "X-Men", "", "Licence to Kill," the "Lethal Weapon" series, the first three films of the "Die Hard" series, "Mr. Holland's Opus", "The Iron Giant", "Splitting Heirs", "Frequency", "Memento" and many others. He also scored both the "From the Earth to the Moon" and "Band of Brothers" series on HBO. The trailer for the 2007 release "Bee Movie", the 2008 release "Nim's Island", the 2008 release "WALL-E", and the 2014 release "Mr. Peabody & Sherman" featured Kamen's "Central Services / The Office" from his score to "Brazil" (1985).


title: Michael Kamen

text: In television, Kamen composed music for two series of "The Manageress" produced by Glenn Wilhide at Zed Productions for Channel 4, but perhaps his best known work was on the 1985 BBC Television serial "Edge of Darkness", on which he collaborated with Eric Clapton to write the score. The pair were awarded with a British Academy Television Award for Best Original Television Music for their work and performed the main movie theme with the National Philharmonic Orchestra at the Royal Albert Hall of London in 1990 and 1991. In 1994, Kamen conducted an orchestration of the Who's music for Roger Daltrey's 50th birthday concert series entitled which was subsequently released on CD and DVD.


title: Michael Kamen

text: Kamen was nominated for two Academy Awards and won three Grammy Awards, two Golden Globes, two Ivor Novello Awards, an Annie Award, and an Emmy.


title: Michael Kamen

text: His involvement with "Mr. Holland's Opus", a film about a frustrated composer who finds fulfillment as a high school music teacher, led Kamen to create The Mr. Holland's Opus Foundation in 1996. The foundation supports music education through the donation of new and refurbished musical instruments to underserved school and community music programs and individual students in the United States. In 2005 the foundation created an emergency fund for schools and students affected by Hurricane Katrina.


title: Michael Kamen

text: In 1998, Kamen composed and conducted the soundtrack for "What Dreams May Come". Produced by James Seymour Brett, the score was initially set to be composed by Ennio Morricone. The Italian composer had initially completed and recorded a full score for the film but, after editorial changes were made, his score was rejected and Kamen was hired in his place. Short on time, Kamen took the song "Beside You" from his New York Rock Ensemble's album "Roll Over" and adapted it as the movie's main musical theme.


title: Michael Kamen

text: Between April 21 and 22, 1999, Kamen worked with the heavy metal band Metallica, along with The San Francisco Symphony, to record a two-day concert that was held at The Berkeley Community Theatre in Berkeley, California. The concert performance, titled "S&M" by Metallica, which is an acronym for "Symphony and Metallica", referencing the collaboration of the two artists, was released on November 23, 1999, on CD, DVD, and VHS formats, debuting at #2 on the Billboard 200, subsequently reaching multi-platinum status by 2001. Later that year, Kamen and Metallica won a Grammy Award For Best Rock Instrumental Performance for the "S&M" track titled "The Call Of Ktulu".


title: Michael Kamen

text: In 2001 and 2002, Kamen performed with David Gilmour at Gilmour's semi-unplugged shows at the Royal Festival Hall, playing piano and cor anglais. The 2001 concert and highlights from 2002 were released on DVD as "David Gilmour in Concert".


title: Michael Kamen

text: In 2002, Kamen, along with Julian Lloyd Webber, Dame Evelyn Glennie, and Sir James Galway launched the Music Education Consortium in the UK. The consortium's efforts led to the injection of £332 million for music education in the UK. He was also commissioned to write a piece for the opening ceremonies of the Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City.


title: Michael Kamen

text: His last recorded work appeared on Bryan Adams's album "Room Service" where he played the oboe and wrote the orchestration to "I Was Only Dreamin'". Kamen had also completed the charts for accompaniment to two songs on Kate Bush's album "Aerial", which was released in April 2005.


title: Michael Kamen

text: Kamen was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis in 1997. He died in London, England, from a heart attack on November 18, 2003, at age 55.


title: Michael Kamen

text: In 2004, when Annie Lennox accepted the Academy Award for Best Original Song (for "Into the West" from ""), she dedicated her achievement to the memory of Kamen.


title: Michael Kamen

text: The 2004 films "Boo, Zino & the Snurks" (also known as "Back to Gaya") and "First Daughter", which Kamen was working on at the time of his death, were dedicated to his memory.


title: Michael Kamen

text: David Gilmour's 2006 album "On an Island" was dedicated to the memory of Kamen and longtime Pink Floyd manager Steve O'Rourke.