title: People's Party (United States)

text: Macune and other Farmer's Alliance leaders helped organize a December 1889 convention in St. Louis; the convention met with the goal of forming a confederation of the major farm and labor organizations. Though a full merger was not achieved, the Farmer's Alliance and the Knights of Labor jointly endorsed the St. Louis Platform, which included many of the long-standing demands of the Farmer's Alliance. The Platform added a call for Macune's "Sub-Treasury Plan," under which the federal government would establish warehouses in agricultural counties; farmers would be allowed to store their crops in these warehouses and borrow up to 80 percent of the value of their crops. The movement began to expand into the Northeast and the Great Lakes region, while Macune led the establishment of the National Reform Press Association, a network of newspapers sympathetic to the Farmer's Alliance.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: The Farmer's Alliance had initially sought to work within the two-party system, but by 1891 many party leaders had become convinced of the need for a third party that could challenge the conservatism of both major parties. In the 1890 elections, Farmer's Alliance-backed candidates won dozens of races for the U.S. House of Representatives and gained majorities in several state legislatures. Many of these individuals were elected in coalition with Democrats; in Nebraska, the Farmer's Alliance forged an alliance with newly elected Congressman William Jennings Bryan, while in Tennessee, local Farmer's Alliance leader John P. Buchanan was elected governor on the Democratic ticket. As most leading Democrats refused to endorse the Sub-Treasury, many leaders of the Farmer's Alliance remained dissatisfied with both major parties.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: In December 1890, a Farmer's Alliance convention re-stated the organization's platform with the Ocala Demands; Farmer's Alliance leaders also agreed to hold another convention in early 1892 to discuss the possibility of establishing a third party if Democrats failed to adopt their policy goals. Among those who favored the establishment of a third party were Farmer's Alliance president Leonidas L. Polk, Georgia newspaper editor Thomas E. Watson, and former Congressman Ignatius L. Donnelly of Minnesota.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: The February 1892 Farmer's Alliance convention was attended by supporters of Edward Bellamy and Henry George, as well as current and former members of the Greenback Party, Prohibition Party, Anti-Monopoly Party, Labor Reform Party, Union Labor Party, United Labor Party, Workingmen Party, and dozens of other minor parties. Delivering the final speech of the convention, Ignatius L. Donnelly, stated, "We meet in the midst of a nation brought to the verge of moral, political, and material ruin. ... We seek to restore the government of the republic to the hands of the 'plain people' with whom it originated. Our doors are open to all points of the compass. ... The interests of rural and urban labor are the same; their enemies are identical." Following Donnelly's speech, delegates agreed to establish the People's Party and hold a presidential nominating convention on July 4 in Omaha, Nebraska. Journalists covering the fledgling party began referring to it as the "Populist Party," and that term quickly became widely popular.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: The initial front-runner for the Populist Party's presidential nomination was Leonidas Polk, who had served as the chairman of the convention in St. Louis, but he died of an illness weeks before the Populist convention. The party instead turned to former Union General and 1880 Greenback presidential nominee James B. Weaver of Iowa, nominating him on a ticket with former Confederate army officer James G. Field of Virginia. The convention agreed to a party platform known as the Omaha Platform, which proposed the implementation of the Sub-Treasury and other longtime Farmer's Alliance goals. The platform also called for a graduated income tax, direct election of Senators, a shorter workweek, restrictions on immigration to the United States, and public ownership of railroads and communication lines.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: The Populists appealed most strongly to voters in the South, the Great Plains, and the Rocky Mountains. In the Rocky Mountains, Populist voters were motivated by support for free silver (bimetallism), opposition to the power of railroads, and clashes with large landowners over water rights. In the South and the Great Plains, Populists had a broad appeal among farmers, but relatively little support in cities and towns. Businessmen and, to a lesser extent, skilled craftsmen were appalled by the perceived radicalism of Populist proposals. Even in rural areas, many voters resisted casting aside their long-standing partisan allegiances. Turner concludes that Populism appealed most strongly to economically distressed farmers who were isolated from urban centers. Linda Slaughter, a prominent women's rights advocate from the Dakota Territory, also participated in the convention, making her the first American woman to vote for a presidential candidate at a national convention.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: One of the Populist Party's central goals was to create a coalition between farmers in the South and West and urban laborers in the Midwest and Northeast. In the latter regions, the Populists received the support of union officials like Knights of Labor leader Terrence Powderly and railroad organizer Eugene V. Debs, as well as author Edward Bellamy's Nationalist Clubs. But the Populists lacked compelling campaign planks that appealed specifically to urban laborers, and were largely unable to mobilize support in urban areas. Corporate leaders had largely been successful in preventing labor from organizing politically and economically, and union membership did not rival that of the Farmer's Alliance. Some unions, including the fledgling American Federation of Labor, refused to endorse any political party. Populists were also largely unable to win the support of farmers in the Northeast and the more developed parts of the Midwest.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: In the 1892 presidential election, Democratic nominee Grover Cleveland, a strong supporter of the gold standard, defeated incumbent Republican President Benjamin Harrison. Weaver won over one million votes, carried Colorado, Kansas, Idaho, and Nevada, and received electoral votes from Oregon and North Dakota. He was the first third-party candidate since the Civil War to win electoral votes, while Field was first Southern candidate to win electoral votes since the 1872 election. The Populists performed strongly in the West, but many party leaders were disappointed by the results in parts of the South and the entire Great Lakes Region. Weaver failed to win more than 5% of the vote in any state east of the Mississippi River and north of the Mason–Dixon line.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: Shortly after Cleveland took office, the country fell into a deep recession known as the Panic of 1893. In response, Cleveland and his Democratic allies repealed the Sherman Silver Purchase Act and passed the Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act, which provided for a minor reduction in tariff rates. The Populists denounced the Cleveland administration's continued adherence to the gold standard, and they angrily attacked the administration's decision to purchase gold from a syndicate led by J. P. Morgan. Millions fell into unemployment and poverty, and groups like Coxey's Army organized protest marches in Washington, D.C. Party membership grew in several states; historian Lawrence Goodwyn estimates that in the mid-1890s the party had "a following of anywhere from 25 to 45 percent of the electorate in twenty-odd states." Partly due to the growing popularity of the Populist movement, the Democratic Congress included a provision to re-implement a federal income tax in the 1894 Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: The Populists faced challenges from both the established major parties and the "Silverites," who generally disregarded the Omaha Platform in favor of bimetallism. These Silverites, who formed groups like the Silver Party and the Silver Republican Party, became particularly strong in Western mining states like Nevada and Colorado. In Colorado, Populists elected Davis Hanson Waite as governor, but the party divided over the Waite's refusal to break the Cripple Creek miners' strike of 1894. Silverites were also strong in Nebraska, where Democratic Congressman William Jennings Bryan continued to enjoy the support of many Nebraska Populists. A coalition of Democrats and Populists elected Populist William V. Allen to the Senate.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: The 1894 elections were a massive defeat for the Democratic Party throughout the country, and a mixed result for the Populists. Populists performed poorly in the West and Midwest, where Republicans dominated, but won elections in Alabama and other states. In the aftermath, some party leaders, particularly those outside the South, became convinced of the need to fuse with Democrats and adopt bimetallism as the party's key issue. Party chairman Herman Taubeneck declared that the party should abandon the Omaha Platform and "unite the reform forces of the nation" behind bimetallism. Meanwhile, leading Democrats increasingly distanced themselves from Cleveland's gold standard policies in the aftermath of their performance in the 1894 elections.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: The Populists became increasingly polarized between moderate "fusionists" like Taubeneck and radical "mid-roaders" (named for their desire to take a middle road between Democrats and Republicans) like Tom Watson. Fusionists believed the perceived radicalism of the Omaha Platform limited the party's appeal, whereas a platform based on free silver would resonate with a wide array of groups. The mid-roaders believed that free silver did not represent serious economic reform, and continued to call for government ownership of railroads, major changes to the financial system, and resistance to the influence of large corporations. One Texas Populist wrote that free silver would "leave undisturbed all the conditions which give rise to the undue concentration of wealth. The so-called silver party may prove a veritable Trojan Horse if we are not careful." In an attempt to get the party to repudiate the Omaha Platform in favor of free silver, Taubeneck called a party convention in December 1894. Rather than repudiating the Omaha Platform, the convention expanded it to include a call for the municipal ownership of public utilities.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: In 1894–1896 the Populist wave of agrarian unrest swept through the cotton and tobacco regions of the South. The most dramatic impact was in North Carolina, where the poor white farmers who comprised the Populist party formed a working coalition with the Republican Party, then largely controlled by blacks in the low country, and poor whites in the mountain districts. They took control of the state legislature in both 1894 and 1896, and the governorship in 1896. Restrictive rules on voting were repealed. In 1895 the legislature rewarded its black allies with patronage, naming 300 black magistrates in eastern districts, as well as deputy sheriffs and city policemen. They also received some federal patronage from the coalition congressman, and state patronage from the governor.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: Due to the prevailing racist attitudes of the late 19th century, any political alliance of Southern blacks and Southern whites was difficult to construct, but shared economic concerns allowed some transracial coalition building. After 1886, black farmers started organizing local agricultural groups along the lines the Farmer's Alliance advocated, and in 1888 the national Colored Alliance was established. Some southern Populists, including Watson, openly spoke of the need for poor blacks and poor whites to set aside their racial differences in the name of shared economic interests. The Populists followed the Prohibition Party in actively including women in their affairs. But regardless of these appeals, racism did not evade the People's Party. Prominent Populist Party leaders such as Marion Butler at least partially demonstrated a dedication to the cause of white supremacy, and there appears to have been some support for this viewpoint in the party's rank-and-file membership. After 1900 Watson himself became an outspoken white supremacist.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: Historians continue to debate the degree to which the Populists were bigoted against foreigners and Jews. Members of the anti-Catholic American Protective Association were influential in California's Populist Party organization, and some Populists embraced the anti-Semitic conspiracy theory that the Rothschild family sought to control the United States. Historian Hasia Diner says:


title: People's Party (United States)

text: In the lead-up to the 1896 presidential election, mid-roaders, fusionists, and free silver Democrats all maneuvered to put their favored candidates in the best position to win. Mid-roaders sought to ensure that the Populists would hold their national convention before that of the Democratic Party, thereby ensuring that they could not be accused of dividing "reform" forces. Defying those hopes, Taubeneck arranged for the 1896 Populist National Convention to take place one week after the 1896 Democratic National Convention. Mid-roaders mobilized to defeat the fusionists; the "Southern Mercury" urged readers to nominate convention delegates who would "support the Omaha Platform in its entirety." As most of the party's high-ranking officeholders were fusionists, the mid-roaders faced difficulty in uniting around a candidate.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: The 1896 Republican National Convention nominated William McKinley, a long-time Republican leader who was best known for leading the passage of 1890 McKinley Tariff. McKinley initially sought to downplay the gold standard in favor of campaigning on higher tariff rates, but he agreed to fully endorse the gold standard at the insistence of Republican donors and party leaders. Meeting later in the year, the 1896 Democratic National Convention nominated William Jennings Bryan for president after Bryan's Cross of Gold speech galvanized the party behind free silver. For vice president, the party nominated conservative shipping magnate Arthur Sewall.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: When the Populist convention met, fusionists proposed that the Populists nominate the Democratic ticket, while mid-roaders organized to defeat fusionist efforts. As Sewall was objectionable to many within the party, the mid-roaders successfully moved a motion to nominate the vice president first. Despite a telegram from Bryan indicating that he would not accept the Populist nomination if the party did not also nominate Sewall, the convention chose Tom Watson as the party's vice presidential nominee. The convention also reaffirmed the major planks of the 1892 platform and added support for initiatives and referendums. When the convention's presidential ballot began, it was still unclear whether Bryan would be nominated for president and whether Bryan would accept the nomination if offered. Mid-roaders put forward their own candidate, obscure newspaper editor S. F. Norton, but Norton was unable to win the support of many delegates. After a long and contentious series of roll call votes, Bryan won the Populist presidential nomination, taking 1042 votes to Norton's 321 votes.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: Despite his earlier proclamation, Bryan accepted the Populist nomination. Facing a massive financial and organizational disadvantage, Bryan embarked on a campaign that took him across the country. He largely ignored major cities and the Northeast, instead focusing on the Midwest, which he hoped to win in conjunction with the Great Plains, the Far West, and the South. Watson, ostensibly Bryan's running mate, campaigned on a platform of "Straight Populism" and frequently attacked Sewall as an agent for "the banks and railroads." He delivered several speeches in Texas and the Midwest before returning to his home in Georgia for the remainder of the election.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: Ultimately, McKinley won a decisive majority of the electoral vote and became the first presidential candidate to win a majority of the popular vote since the 1876 presidential election. Bryan swept the old Populist strongholds in the West and South, and added the silverite states in the West, but did poorly in the industrial heartland. His strength was largely based on the traditional Democratic vote, but he lost many German Catholics and members of the middle class. Historians believe his defeat was partly attributable to the tactics Bryan used; he had aggressively "run" for president, while traditional candidates would use "front porch campaigns." The united opposition of nearly all business leaders and most religious leaders also hurt his candidacy, as did his poor showing among Catholic groups who were alienated by Bryan's emphasis on Protestant moral values.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: The Populist movement never recovered from the failure of 1896, and national fusion with the Democrats proved disastrous to the party. In the Midwest, the Populist Party essentially merged into the Democratic Party before the end of the 1890s. In the South, the National alliance with the Democrats sapped the Populists' ability to remain independent. Tennessee's Populist Party was demoralized by a diminishing membership, and puzzled and split by the dilemma of whether to fight the state-level enemy (the Democrats) or the national foe (the Republicans and Wall Street). By 1900 the People's Party of Tennessee was a shadow of what it once was. A similar pattern repeated throughout the South, where the Populist Party had previously sought alliances with the Republican Party against the dominant state Democrats, including in Watson's Georgia.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: In North Carolina, the state Democratic Party orchestrated a propaganda campaign in newspapers across the state, and created a brutal and violent white supremacy election campaign to defeat the North Carolina Populists and GOP, the Fusionist revolt in North Carolina collapsed in 1898, and white Democrats returned to power. The gravity of the crisis was underscored by a major race riot in Wilmington in 1898, two days after the election. Knowing they had just retaken control of the state legislature, the Democrats were confident they could not be overcome. They attacked and overcame the Fusionists; mobs roamed the black neighborhoods, shooting, killing, burning buildings, and making a special target of the black newspaper. There were no further insurgencies in any Southern states involving a successful black coalition at the state level. By 1900, the gains of the populist-Republican coalition were reversed, and the Democrats ushered in disfranchisement: practically all blacks lost their vote, and the Populist-Republican alliance fell apart.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: In 1900, many Populist voters supported Bryan again (though Marion Butler's home county of Sampson swung heavily to Republican McKinley in a backlash against the state Democratic party), but the weakened party nominated a separate ticket of Wharton Barker and Ignatius L. Donnelly, and disbanded afterward. The prosperity of the first decade of the 1900s helped ensure that the party continued to fade away. Populist activists retired from politics, joined a major party, or followed Debs into the Socialist Party.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: In 1904, the party was reorganized, and Watson was its nominee for president in 1904 and 1908, after which the party disbanded again.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: In "A Preface to Politics", published in 1913, Walter Lippmann wrote, "As I write, a convention of the Populist Party has just taken place. Eight delegates attended the meeting, which was held in a parlor." This may record the last gasp of the party organization.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: According to Gene Clanton's study of Kansas, populism and progressivism had a few similarities but different bases of support. Both opposed corruption and trusts. Populism emerged earlier and came out of the farm community. It was radically egalitarian in favor of the disadvantaged classes. It was weak in the towns and cities except in labor unions. Progressivism, on the other hand, was a later movement. It emerged after the 1890s from the urban business and professional communities. Most of its activists had opposed populism. It was elitist, and emphasized education and expertise. Its goals were to enhance efficiency, reduce waste, and enlarge the opportunities for upward social mobility. However, some former Populists changed their emphasis after 1900 and supported progressive reforms.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: Since the 1890s historians have vigorously debated the nature of Populism. Some historians see the populists as forward-looking liberal reformers, others as reactionaries trying to recapture an idyllic and utopian past. For some they were radicals out to restructure American life, and for others they were economically hard-pressed agrarians seeking government relief. Much recent scholarship emphasizes Populism's debt to early American republicanism. Clanton (1991) stresses that Populism was "the last significant expression of an old radical tradition that derived from Enlightenment sources that had been filtered through a political tradition that bore the distinct imprint of Jeffersonian, Jacksonian, and Lincolnian democracy." This tradition emphasized human rights over the cash nexus of the Gilded Age's dominant ideology.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: Frederick Jackson Turner and a succession of western historians depicted the Populist as responding to the closure of the frontier. Turner wrote:


title: People's Party (United States)

text: The most influential Turner student of Populism was John D. Hicks, who emphasized economic pragmatism over ideals, presenting Populism as interest group politics, with have-nots demanding their fair share of America's wealth which was being leeched off by nonproductive speculators. Hicks emphasized the drought that ruined so many Kansas farmers, but also pointed to financial manipulations, deflation in prices caused by the gold standard, high interest rates, mortgage foreclosures, and high railroad rates. Corruption accounted for such outrages and Populists presented popular control of government as the solution, a point that later students of republicanism emphasized. In the 1930s, C. Vann Woodward stressed the southern base, seeing the possibility of a black-and-white coalition of poor against the overbearing rich.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: In the 1950s, scholars such as Richard Hofstadter portrayed the Populist movement as an irrational response of backward-looking farmers to the challenges of modernity. Though Hofstadter wrote that the Populists were the "first modern political movement of practical importance in the United States to insist that the federal government had some responsibility for the common weal", he criticized the movement as anti-Semitic, conspiracy-minded, nativist, and grievance-based. According to Hofstadter, the antithesis of anti-modern Populism was the modernizing nature of Progressivism. Hofstadter noted that leading progressives like Theodore Roosevelt, Robert La Follette Sr., George Norris and Woodrow Wilson were vehement enemies of Populism, though Bryan cooperated with them and accepted the Populist nomination in 1896. Reichley (1992) sees the Populist Party primarily as a reaction to the decline of the political hegemony of white Protestant farmers; the share of farmers in the workforce had fallen from about 70% in the early 1830s to about 33% in the 1890s. Reichley argues that, while the Populist Party was founded in reaction to economic hardship, by the mid-1890s it was "reacting not simply against the money power but against the whole world of cities and alien customs and loose living they felt was challenging the agrarian way of life."


title: People's Party (United States)

text: Goodwyn (1976) and Postel (2007) reject the notion that the Populists were traditionalistic and anti-modern. Rather, they argue, the Populists aggressively sought self-consciously progressive goals. Goodwyn criticizes Hofstadter's reliance on secondary sources to characterize the Populists, working instead with material generated by the Populists themselves. Goodwyn determines that the farmers' cooperatives gave rise to a Populist culture, and their efforts to free farmers from lien merchants revealed to them the political structure of the economy, which propelled them into politics. The Populists sought diffusion of scientific and technical knowledge, formed highly centralized organizations, launched large-scale incorporated businesses, and pressed for an array of state-centered reforms. Hundreds of thousands of women committed to Populism, seeking a more modern life, education, and employment in schools and offices. A large section of the labor movement looked to Populism for answers, forging a political coalition with farmers that gave impetus to the regulatory state. Progress, however, was also menacing and inhumane, Postel notes. White Populists embraced social-Darwinist notions of racial improvement, Chinese exclusion and separate-but-equal.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: Populist voters remained active in the electorate long after 1896, but historians continue to debate which party, if any, absorbed the largest share of them. In a case study of California Populists, historian Michael Magliari found that Populist voters influenced reform movements in California's Democratic Party and Socialist Party, but had a smaller impact on California's Republican Party. In 1990, historian William F. Holmes wrote, "an earlier generation of historians viewed Populism as the initiator of twentieth-century liberalism as manifested in Progressivism, but over the past two decades we have learned that fundamental differences separated the two movements." Most of the leading progressives (except Bryan) fiercely opposed Populism. Theodore Roosevelt, Norris, La Follette, William Allen White and Wilson all strongly opposed Populism. It is debated whether any Populist ideas made their way into the Democratic Party during the New Deal era. The New Deal farm programs were designed by experts (like Henry A. Wallace) who had nothing to do with Populism. Michael Kazin's "The Populist Persuasion" (1995) argues that Populism reflected a rhetorical style that manifested itself in spokesmen like Father Charles Coughlin in the 1930s and Governor George Wallace in the 1960s.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: Long after the dissolution of the Populist Party, other third parties, including a People's Party founded in 1971 and a Populist Party founded in 1984, took on similar names. These parties were not directly related to the Populist Party.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: In the United States, the term "populist" originally referred to the Populist Party and related left-wing movements of the late 19th century that wanted to curtail the power help I've been kidnaped of the corporate and financial establishment. Later the term "populist" began to apply to any anti-establishment movement. The original generic definition of the term, which has held consistently since the emergence of its post-Populist Party genericness, describes a populist as "a believer in the rights, wisdom, or virtues of the common people." In the 21st century, the term once again began to be used. Politicians as diverse as independent left-wing Senator Bernie Sanders of Vermont and Republican President Donald Trump have been labeled populists.


title: People's Party (United States)

text: Approximately forty-five members of the party served in the U.S. Congress between 1891 and 1902. These included six United States Senators:


title: Fournier gangrene

text: Fournier gangrene is a type of necrotizing fasciitis or gangrene affecting the external genitalia or perineum. It commonly occurs in older men, but it


title: Fournier gangrene

text: can also occur in women and children. It is more likely to occur in diabetics, alcoholics, or those who are immunocompromised.


title: Fournier gangrene

text: About one per 62,500 males are affected per year. Males are affected about 40 times more often than females. It was first described by Baurienne in 1764 and is named after a French venereologist, Jean Alfred Fournier, following five cases he presented in clinical lectures in 1883.


title: Fournier gangrene

text: Initial symptoms of Fournier gangrene include swelling or sudden pain in the scrotum, fever, pallor, and generalized weakness. It is characterized by pain that extends beyond the border of the demarcated erythema. Most cases present mildly, but can progress in hours. Subcutaneous air is often one of the specific clinical signs, but is not seen in >50% of presenting clinical cases. More marked cases are characterized by a foul odor and necrotic infected tissue. Crepitus has been reported. It begins as a subcutaneous infection. However, necrotic patches soon appear in the overlying skin, which later develop into necrosis.


title: Fournier gangrene

text: Most cases of Fournier gangrene are infected with both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria such as "Clostridium perfringens". It can also result from infections caused by group A streptococcus (GAS), as well as other pathogens such as "Staphylococcus aureus" and "Vibrio vulnificus". Lack of access to sanitation, medical care, and psychosocial resources has been linked to increased mortality.


title: Fournier gangrene

text: A 2006 Turkish study reported that blood sugar levels were elevated in 46 percent of patients diagnosed with Fourniers. Another study reported that about one third of patients were alcoholic, diabetic, and malnourished, while another ten percent had been immunosuppressed through chemotherapy, steroids, or malignancy.


title: Fournier gangrene

text: Fournier gangrene is a rare side effect of SGLT2 inhibitors (canagliflozin, dapagliflozin, and empagliflozin), which increase the excretion of glucose in the urine.


title: Fournier gangrene

text: Fournier gangrene is usually diagnosed clinically, but laboratory tests and imaging studies are used to confirm diagnosis, determine severity, and predict outcomes. X-rays and ultrasounds may show the presence of gas below the surface of the skin. A CT scan can be useful in determining the site of origin and extent of spread.


title: Fournier gangrene

text: Fournier gangrene is a urological emergency requiring intravenous antibiotics and debridement (surgical removal) of dead tissue. In addition to surgery and antibiotics, hyperbaric oxygen therapy may be useful and acts to inhibit the growth of and kill the anaerobic bacteria. Multiple wound debridement may be required in cases with extensive tissue involvement. Simple reconstructive procedures following wound debridement yield satisfactory outcomes in majority of the cases.


title: Fournier gangrene

text: While recent case series (n=980) studies have found a mortality rate of 20–40%, a large (n=1641) 2009 study reported a mortality rate of 7.5%.


title: Fournier gangrene

text: A 2009 epidemiological study found the incidence of Fournier gangrene to be 1.6 cases per 100,000 males, in the United States. Males 50 to 79 years old had the highest rate at 3.3 per 100,000. Of 1,680 cases identified in the study, 39 were women.


title: Suits (season 5)

text: The fifth season of the American legal comedy-drama "Suits" was ordered on August 11, 2014. The fifth season originally aired on USA Network in the United States between June 24, 2015 and March 2, 2016. The season was produced by Hypnotic Films & Television and Universal Cable Productions, and the executive producers were Doug Liman, David Bartis and series creator Aaron Korsh. The season had six series regulars playing employees at the fictional Pearson Specter Litt law firm in Manhattan: Gabriel Macht, Patrick J. Adams, Rick Hoffman, Meghan Markle, Sarah Rafferty, and Gina Torres


title: Suits (season 5)

text: The series revolves around corporate lawyer Harvey Specter and his associate attorney Mike Ross, the latter practicing without a law degree.


title: Suits (season 5)

text: Six actors received star billing in the show's first season. Each character works at the fictional Pearson Specter Litt law firm in Manhattan. Gabriel Macht plays corporate lawyer Harvey Specter, who is promoted to senior partner and is forced to hire an associate attorney. Patrick J. Adams plays college dropout Mike Ross, who wins the associate position with his eidetic memory and genuine desire to be a good lawyer. Rick Hoffman plays Louis Litt, Harvey's jealous rival and the direct supervisor of the firm's first-year associates. Meghan Markle plays Rachel Zane, a paralegal who aspires to be an attorney but her test anxiety prevents her from attending Harvard Law School. Sarah Rafferty plays Donna Paulsen, Harvey's long-time legal secretary and confidant. Gina Torres plays Jessica Pearson, the co-founder and managing partner of the firm.


title: Endometrium

text: The endometrium is the inner epithelial layer, along with its mucous membrane, of the mammalian uterus. It has a basal layer and a functional layer: the basal layer contains stem cells which regenerate the functional layer. The functional layer thickens and then is shed during menstruation in humans and some other mammals, including apes, Old World monkeys, some species of bat, the elephant shrew and the Cairo spiny mouse. In most other mammals, the endometrium is reabsorbed in the estrous cycle. During pregnancy, the glands and blood vessels in the endometrium further increase in size and number. Vascular spaces fuse and become interconnected, forming the placenta, which supplies oxygen and nutrition to the embryo and fetus. The speculated presence of an endometrial microbiota


title: Endometrium

text: The endometrium consists of a single layer of columnar epithelium plus the stroma on which it rests. The stroma is a layer of connective tissue that varies in thickness according to hormonal influences. In the uterus, simple tubular glands reach from the endometrial surface through to the base of the stroma, which also carries a rich blood supply provided by the spiral arteries. In a person with a uterus of reproductive age, two layers of endometrium can be distinguished. These two layers occur only in the endometrium lining the cavity of the uterus, and not in the lining of the Fallopian tubes.


title: Endometrium

text: In the absence of progesterone, the arteries supplying blood to the functional layer constrict, so that cells in that layer become ischaemic and die, leading to menstruation.


title: Endometrium

text: It is possible to identify the phase of the menstrual cycle by reference to either the ovarian cycle or the uterine cycle by observing microscopic differences at each phase—for example in the ovarian cycle:


title: Endometrium

text: About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and some 70% of these genes are expressed in the normal endometrium. Just over 100 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the endometrium with only a handful genes being highly endometrium specific. The corresponding specific proteins are expressed in the glandular and stromal cells of the endometrial mucosa. The expression of many of these proteins vary depending on the menstrual cycle, for example the progesterone receptor and thyrotropin-releasing hormone both expressed in the proliferative phase, and PAEP expressed in the secretory phase. Other proteins such as the HOX11 protein that is required for female fertility, is expressed in endometrial stroma cells throughout the menstrual cycle. Certain specific proteins such as the estrogen receptor are also expressed in other types of female tissue types, such as the cervix, fallopian tubes, ovaries and breast.


title: Endometrium

text: The uterus and endometrium was for a long time thought to be sterile. The cervical plug of mucosa was seen to prevent the entry of any microorganisms ascending from the vagina. In the 1980s this view was challenged when it was shown that uterine infections could arise from weaknesses in the barrier of the cervical plug. Organisms from the vaginal microbiota could enter the uterus during uterine contractions in the menstrual cycle. Further studies sought to identify microbiota specific to the uterus which would be of help in identifying cases of unsuccessful IVF and miscarriages. Their findings were seen to be unreliable due to the possibility of cross-contamination in the sampling procedures used. The well-documented presence of "Lactobacillus" species, for example, was easily explained by an increase in the vaginal population being able to seep into the cervical mucous. Another study highlighted the flaws of the earlier studies including cross-contamination. It was also argued that the evidence from studies using germ-free offspring of axenic animals (germ-free) clearly showed the sterility of the uterus. The authors concluded that in light of these findings there was no existence of a microbiome.


title: Endometrium

text: The normal dominance of Lactobacilli in the vagina is seen as a marker for vaginal health. However, in the uterus this much lower population is seen as invasive in a closed environment that is highly regulated by female sex hormones, and that could have unwanted consequences. In studies of endometriosis "Lactobacillus" is not the dominant type and there are higher levels of "Streptococcus" and "Staphylococcus" species. Half of the cases of bacterial vaginitis showed a polymicrobial biofilm attached to the endometrium.


title: Endometrium

text: The endometrium is the innermost lining layer of the uterus, and functions to prevent adhesions between the opposed walls of the myometrium, thereby maintaining the patency of the uterine cavity. During the menstrual cycle or estrous cycle, the endometrium grows to a thick, blood vessel-rich, glandular tissue layer. This represents an optimal environment for the implantation of a blastocyst upon its arrival in the uterus. The endometrium is central, echogenic (detectable using ultrasound scanners), and has an average thickness of 6.7 mm.


title: Endometrium

text: During pregnancy, the glands and blood vessels in the endometrium further increase in size and number. Vascular spaces fuse and become interconnected, forming the placenta, which supplies oxygen and nutrition to the embryo and fetus.


title: Endometrium

text: The functional layer of the endometrial lining undergoes cyclic regeneration from stem cells in the basal layer. Humans, apes, and some other species display the menstrual cycle, whereas most other mammals are subject to an estrous cycle. In both cases, the endometrium initially proliferates under the influence of estrogen. However, once ovulation occurs, the ovary (specifically the corpus luteum) will produce much larger amounts of progesterone. This changes the proliferative pattern of the endometrium to a secretory lining. Eventually, the secretory lining provides a hospitable environment for one or more blastocysts.


title: Endometrium

text: Upon fertilization, the egg may implant into the uterine wall and provide feedback to the body with human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). hCG provides continued feedback throughout pregnancy by maintaining the corpus luteum, which will continue its role of releasing progesterone and estrogen. In case of implantation, the endometrial lining remains as "decidua". The decidua becomes part of the placenta; it provides support and protection for the gestation.


title: Endometrium

text: Without implantation of a fertilized egg, the endometrial lining is either reabsorbed (estrous cycle) or shed (menstrual cycle). In the latter case, the process of shedding involves the breaking down of the lining, the tearing of small connective blood vessels, and the loss of the tissue and blood that had constituted it through the vagina. The entire process occurs over a period of several days. Menstruation may be accompanied by a series of uterine contractions; these help expel the menstrual endometrium.


title: Endometrium

text: If there is inadequate stimulation of the lining, due to lack of hormones, the endometrium remains thin and inactive. In humans, this will result in amenorrhea, or the absence of a menstrual period. After menopause, the lining is often described as being atrophic. In contrast, endometrium that is chronically exposed to estrogens, but not to progesterone, may become hyperplastic. Long-term use of oral contraceptives with highly potent progestins can also induce endometrial atrophy.


title: Endometrium

text: In humans, the cycle of building and shedding the endometrial lining lasts an average of 28 days. The endometrium develops at different rates in different mammals. Various factors including the seasons, climate, and stress can affect its development. The endometrium itself produces certain hormones at different stages of the cycle and this affects other parts of the reproductive system.


title: Endometrium

text: Chorionic tissue can result in marked endometrial changes, known as an Arias-Stella reaction, that have an appearance similar to cancer. Historically, this change was diagnosed as endometrial cancer and it is important only in so far as it should not be misdiagnosed as cancer.


title: Endometrium

text: Thin endometrium may be defined as an endometrial thickness of less than 8 mm. It usually occurs after menopause. Treatments that can improve endometrial thickness include Vitamin E, L-arginine and sildenafil citrate.


title: Endometrium

text: Gene expression profiling using cDNA microarray can be used for the diagnosis of endometrial disorders.


title: Endometrium

text: The European Menopause and Andropause Society (EMAS) released Guidelines with detailed information to assess the endometrium.


title: Endometrium

text: An endometrial thickness (EMT) of less than 7 mm decreases the pregnancy rate in in vitro fertilization by an odds ratio of approximately 0.4 compared to an EMT of over 7 mm. However, such low thickness rarely occurs, and any routine use of this parameter is regarded as not justified.


title: Endometrium

text: Observation of the endometrium by transvaginal ultrasonography is used when administering fertility medication, such as in in vitro fertilization. At the time of embryo transfer, it is favorable to have an endometrium of a thickness of between 7 and 14 mm with a "triple-line" configuration, which means that the endometrium contains a hyperechoic (usually displayed as light) line in the middle surrounded by two more hypoechoic (darker) lines. A "triple-line" endometrium reflects the separation of the basal layer and the functional layer, and is also observed in the periovulatory period secondary to rising estradiol levels, and disappears after ovulation.


title: Endometrium

text: Estrogens stimulate endometrial proliferation and carcinogenesis. Conversely, progestogens inhibit endometrial proliferation and carcinogenesis caused by estrogens and stimulate differentiation of the endometrium into decidua, which is termed endometrial transformation or decidualization. This is mediated by the progestogenic and functional antiestrogenic effects of progestogens in this tissue. These effects of progestogens and their protection against endometrial hyperplasia and endometrial cancer caused by estrogens is referred to as "endometrial protection".


title: AST/ALT ratio

text: The AST/ALT ratio or De Ritis ratio is the ratio between the concentrations of the enzymes aspartate transaminase (AST) and alanine transaminase, aka alanine aminotransferase (ALT) in the blood of a human or animal. It is measured with a blood test and is sometimes useful in medical diagnosis for elevated transaminases to differentiate between causes of liver damage, or hepatotoxicity.


title: AST/ALT ratio

text: Most causes of liver cell injury are associated with a greater increase in ALT than AST; however, an AST to ALT ratio of 2:1 or greater is suggestive of alcoholic liver disease, particularly in the setting of an elevated gamma-glutamyl transferase.


title: AST/ALT ratio

text: The AST to ALT ratio can also occasionally be elevated in a liver disease pattern in patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, and it is frequently elevated in an alcoholic liver disease pattern in patients with hepatitis C who have developed cirrhosis. In addition, patients with Wilson's disease or cirrhosis due to viral hepatitis may have an AST that is greater than the ALT, though the ratio typically is not greater than two.


title: AST/ALT ratio

text: When the AST is higher than ALT, a muscle source of these enzymes should be considered. For example, muscle inflammation due to dermatomyositis may cause AST>ALT. This is a good reminder that AST and ALT are not good measures of liver function when other sources may influence AST and/or ALT, because they do not reliably reflect the synthetic ability of the liver, and they may come from tissues other than liver (such as muscle). For example, intense exercise such as weight lifting can increase ALT to 50-200 U/L, and AST to 100-1000 U/L (and raise AST to about 4 times ALT) for the week following the exercise.


title: AST/ALT ratio

text: The "De Ritis Ratio" is named after Fernando De Ritis, who performed analysis on transaminases in 1957.


title: AST/ALT ratio

text: The proportion of AST to ALT in hepatocytes is approximately 2.5:1, but because AST is removed from serum by the liver sinusoidal cells twice as quickly (serum half-life t = 18 hr) compared to ALT (t = 36 hr), so the resulting serum levels of AST and ALT are about equal in healthy individuals, resulting in a normal AST/ALT ratio of approximately 1.


title: AST/ALT ratio

text: An AST/ALT ratio >5 necessarily involves extrahepatic tissue, as death of hepatocytes alone would produce an AST/ALT ratio no greater than 2.5. Because the primary cause is extrahepatic, there is typically an isolated elevated AST, with no change in ALT. Common causes include bone disease, pregnancy, chronic renal failure, lymphoma, and congestive heart failure.


title: AST/ALT ratio

text: When hepatocellular death is increased beyond the usual "background" levels, the serum levels of AST compared to ALT tend to reflect the cellular proportions, yielding AST that is over twice as prevalent as ALT (AST/ALT >2) in conditions with chronic, constant hepatocyte damage (such as alcoholic hepatitis, hepatocellular carcinoma) and during early-stage acute liver damage (such as viral hepatitis).


title: AST/ALT ratio

text: In late-stage acute liver damage, the body has had adequate time to clear AST, but not ALT, often resulting in an AST/ALT <1. Since testing typically occurs late in acute viral hepatitis, it is conventionally associated with an AST/ALT ratio <1, even though early in the disease AST/ALT ratio is often elevated. As the acute liver damage resolves, the body has more time to clear ALT, so in the absence of chronic liver disease, the AST/ALT ratio gradually returns to baseline levels.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: Dundee Football Club is a professional football club based in the city of Dundee, Scotland, founded in 1893. The team are nicknamed "The Dark Blues" or "The Dee". The club plays its home matches at Dens Park.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: The club was formed after a merger between clubs Dundee East End and Dundee Our Boys in order to apply for the SFL. Within a decade they had become a major force in Scottish football, finishing as league runners-up three times in the 1900s, and finished the decade as Scottish Cup winners in 1910. They remained a major side in Scottish football before a decline in the 1930s. After the return to football in the aftermath of the Second World War, the club experienced a revival in the late 1940s and 1950s under George Anderson with another runners-up finish and consecutive Scottish League Cup wins in 1952 and 1953.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: The club's most successful era was in the 1960s when, under the management of Bob Shankly, Dundee won the Scottish Football League title in 1962, before reaching the semi-finals of the 1962–63 European Cup the following season. The club again won the League Cup in the 1973–1974 season, but since that time has won no further major honour. Since the late 1970s the club has experienced issues with frequent relegations and financial issues, though has found stability in the latter as of late.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: The club has a long-standing rivalry with fellow Dundee side Dundee United, which is situated on the same street. It is the most local football derby in Great Britain. Matches between the two are called the Dundee derby, and games are fiercely contested and are often considered one of the most exciting fixtures in Scottish football. Despite this, the rivalry is much friendlier than other Scottish derbies such as the Old Firm, with families often split down the middle in terms of support.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: Dundee F.C. was formed in 1893 by the merger of two local clubs, East End and Our Boys, with the intention of gaining election to the Scottish Football League (SFL). Their application was successful and they played their first League game on 12 August 1893 at West Craigie Park, securing a 3–3 draw against Rangers. Dundee struggled during the first 10 years of their existence. Their best league position was fifth which they achieved in seasons 1895–96 and 1896–97. They also reached the semi-finals of the Scottish Cup in 1894–95 and 1897–98, losing to Renton and Kilmarnock respectively. On 26 October 1895 Dundee lost a league game by a club record score of 0–11 to Celtic in Glasgow. On 1 January 1894 Dundee defeated Newton Heath (the future Manchester United) 2–1 at their then Carolina Port ground in Dundee. Carolina Port also hosted the first international football match held in Dundee on 21 March 1896 when Scotland defeated Wales 4–0. Dundee's goalkeeper Frank Barrett, midfielder Sandy Keillor and inside-forward Bill Thomson were all capped for Scotland during this early period of the club's history. Things began to improve for Dundee with the beginning of the new century. In 1899 they moved from Carolina Port to their present ground of Dens Park. In season 1902–1903 they finished runners-up in the league championship to Hibernian. (In season 1902–1903 Dundee allowed 12 league goals against, which remains the fewest goals conceded by any British club in a full league season.)


title: Dundee F.C.

text: Dundee were also league runners-up in 1906–1907 and 1908–1909 finishing behind Celtic on both occasions, in 1908–1909 by just 1 point. In the 10 seasons from 1902 to 1903 Dundee lost just 16 league games at Dens Park out of 154 played and were unbeaten at home during season 1909–1910. Although ultimate success eluded Dundee in the league the club achieved success in the Scottish Cup. In season 1909–1910 Dundee won their first trophy by defeating Clyde in the Scottish Cup Final. (Dundee took three games to beat Hibernian in the semi-final and then the same number to defeat Clyde.) The winning goal in the second replay was scored by John 'Sailor' Hunter. In season 1910–1911 Dundee defeated Rangers 2–1 at Dens Park in the Scottish Cup quarter-final but lost to Hamilton in the semi-final. The beginning of the First World War and the call-up of many players for military duty drastically curtailed football in Britain from 1914 and in 1917 Dundee and Aberdeen were both asked to withdraw from the league due to increasing transport costs for the other league clubs. In 1919 league football recommenced and good home form once again propelled Dundee up the league. They finished fourth in seasons 1919–1920, 1920–1921 and 1921–1922, and were unbeaten at home during season 1921–1922. However, they could not make the breakthrough to win the league championship.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: Dave Halliday had played on the left wing for his previous clubs – St Mirren and his hometown side Queen of the South. He went to Dundee in 1921, where Scotland internationalist Alec Troup played left wing. Dundee thus converted Halliday to centre forward with spectacular results; he finished as Scottish top scorer in the 1923–1924 season with 38 goals from his 36 top division appearances. This remains the club record all-time league goalscoring record for a single season. (Later, Halliday top-scored in England's top division in 1928–29, to become the most recent of only two players to be outright top scorer in Scotland and England). With Halliday, Dundee reached the 1924–25 Scottish Cup final, en route eliminating the holders, the Airdrieonians side of Hughie Gallacher. Dundee led Celtic 1–0 at half time in the final before losing out to a last-minute Jimmy McGrory winner. Halliday top-scored for Dundee in that cup run. In end-of-season tours with Dundee, he scored doubles against each of Athletic Bilbao, Real Madrid, Valencia CF and FC Barcelona. He scored 103 goals in 147 league and cup appearances for the Dee. He then moved south to set scoring records in England, where other teams profited from Dundee's decision to convert Halliday to centre-forward.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: The post-Second World War period was a golden era for Dundee Football Club. Having been relegated on the eve of war, the Dark Blues started in 1946 in the first official season in the second tier but within five years they were runners-up in the Scottish League Championship and won their first trophy in forty-one years.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: Back-to-back 'B' Division titles earned George Anderson's Dundee promotion in 1947, and just two years later they were within a whisker of becoming champions of Scotland. Silverware was not far away; after spending a world record transfer fee of £23,500 on Billy Steel (much to the chagrin of some supporters of the club – who resented the aspect of finance in football, and instead wished for 'homegrown' talent), they won the Scottish League Cup in 1951 in one of the most exciting finals Hampden has ever seen.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: Twelve months later the team were back at Hampden to become the first side to retain the League Cup, and in between these two victories appeared in the 1952 Scottish Cup Final. The Dark Blue side of the era included players such as Bill Brown, Tommy Gallacher, Doug Cowie, Alfie Boyd, Bobby Flavell and Billy Steel.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: In the 1958–59 Scottish Cup Dundee suffered a shock 1–0 defeat to Highland League side Fraserburgh. This is widely regarded as Dundee's most embarrassing defeat in their history.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: Bob Shankly (brother of Bill Shankly) was appointed manager in 1959. Dundee became champions of Scotland when they won the Division One league title in the 1961–1962 season. With players such as Bobby Cox, Bobby Wishart, Pat Liney, Alan Cousin, Andy Penman, Hugh Robertson, Alan Gilzean, Alex Hamilton, Bobby Seith, Gordon Smith and Ian Ure they clinched the title with a win against St Johnstone, which in turn relegated St Johnstone to the then Second Division. Gordon Smith earned the distinction of being the only player to win the Scottish football championship with three clubs (Hibs, Hearts and Dundee), none of them either half of the traditionally dominant Old Firm.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: The following season, 1962–1963, Dundee reached the semi-finals of the European Cup beating 1. FC Köln, Sporting Clube de Portugal and R.S.C. Anderlecht. Dundee lost to A.C. Milan on aggregate in the semi-finals, though they won (and kept a clean sheet) against Milan in the home leg at Dens Park.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: The Dee reached the Scottish Cup final again in the 1963–1964 competition. Shankly left Dundee in February 1965.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: The next manager after Shankly was former player Bobby Ancell from the 1947 B Division Championship side. Ancell took Dundee to a 1967–68 League Cup final against the previous season's European Cup winners, Celtic. Ancell's team scored three times at Hampden Park in Glasgow but still lost 5–3.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: In the predecessor to the UEFA Cup/Europa League, Dundee reached the semi-finals of the 1967–68 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup. Dundee eliminated opposition from the Netherlands, Belgium and Switzerland to meet Leeds United in the semi-final. After a 1–1 draw at Dens, a 1–0 second leg win took Leeds through.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: In 1973, under the management of David White and captaincy of Tommy Gemmell, the League Cup returned to Dens following a 1–0 win against Celtic.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: In 2000 the club hit the headlines when it signed Argentine international Claudio Caniggia, who later signed for Rangers. Caniggia was only one of many foreign signings in the Dundee side in the early 2000s, which also included former Newcastle United player Temuri Ketsbaia. The signing of such high-profile players, along with many others, led Dundee to a Scottish Cup final and two top-six finishes. This was achieved firstly under the managership of Ivano Bonetti (who also made a short but notable playing contribution, linking up well with Caniggia) and then under Jim Duffy. Attendances were still short of the hoped-for numbers, and with spending significantly outweighing income, Dundee was soon forced into administration.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: Before Dundee entered financial trouble, the team knocked out Glasgow side Partick Thistle 2–0 away from home in the third round of the Scottish Cup in 2003. The fourth round saw Dundee knock out Aberdeen 2–0 at Dens Park. Dundee continued their march towards Hampden Park with a 1–1 draw away and a 4–1 extra time victory over Falkirk at Dens booked their place in the semi-finals playing Inverness CT at Hampden Park. A goal by Georgi Nemsadze secured a 1–0 victory and a place in the Final against Rangers. In the final Barry Smith hit the post for Dundee but Lorenzo Amoruso scored to bring Dundee's cup run to an end.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: That year, due to the club's failure to sell on players as anticipated insufficient income was raised to fund the large wage bill under owners Peter and James Marr, resulting in a £23m debt which meant they were forced to go into administration with many players such as Fabian Caballero, Craig Burley and Georgian captain Giorgi Nemsadze leaving in 2005. Despite this huge debt, Dundee survived by selling their stadium in 2003. But the club was then relegated to the second tier of the Scottish leagues, where they remained until July 2012. In mid-2006, it was announced that financial restructuring would see the club become debt-free.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: In 2007, James and Peter Marr severed some of their ties with Dundee, stepping down as chairman and Chief Executive respectively, when their company P&J Taverns was forced into administration. Bob Brannan and Dave MacKinnon took the Marrs' place.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: In 2008, after a poor run in the league, manager Alex Rae was sacked, with former manager Jocky Scott taking over for his third stint with the club.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: In the 2009–10 season Dundee director Calum Melville was in trouble for claiming he was going to offer rivals Dundee United £500,000 for ex-Dundee midfielder Scott Robertson. Dundee won the Challenge Cup Final when they beat Inverness Caledonian Thistle 3–2.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: In March 2010, Scott was sacked as manager after a 3–0 defeat by Airdrie United. He was replaced by Gordon Chisholm, with Billy Dodds as his assistant.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: In September 2010, Dundee were again on the brink of going into administration due to a £365,000 unpaid tax bill. During negotiations with HM Revenue & Customs, the club's offer to pay £100,000 immediately was rejected. On 14 September it was announced that the club would be going into administration. As punishment for entering administration the Scottish Football League docked Dundee 25 points on 1 November 2010. At the time the punishment was imposed, this left Dundee bottom of the First Division table with −11 points, 20 points behind the second-bottom team. On 10 December 2010 the Dark Blues Business Trust was set up by former Dundee owner Peter Marr and former director Steve Martin to help the club recover from their financial situation. On 17 December 2010 Dundee's appeal against the points deduction was rejected. Dundee went on a 23 match undefeated streak in the first division beating the previous record set by the team.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: On 12 May 2011, Dundee FC exited administration. The club's supporters' trust, Dundee FC Supporters' Society Ltd., became the majority shareholder, and Steve Martin of the DFC Business Trust joined the board of directors along with 5 of the Society Fans board.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: On 6 November 2011, it was announced Harry MacLean had resigned from his position as Chief Executive and would work a month's notice. MacLean, who had played a key role in saving the club during administration, accepted an invitation to re-join the club in a non-executive role before departing his position as Chief Executive. His resignation was followed just eleven days later by Stuart Murphy's decision to step down as club chairman and Director of the Club which was effective immediately. On 27 December 2011, Harry MacLean resigned from his non-executive role causing questions to arise about the stability of the boardroom. Shortly after the gap left by MacLean was filled by Scot Gardiner.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: On 16 July 2012, Dundee were invited to join the Scottish Premier League to replace Rangers after their liquidation and subsequent admittance to the fourth tier of Scottish football.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: Since the second period of administration, Dundee, along with their Supporters' Society, implemented regular KPI targets. These targets were set to ensure, in some part, that the failures that led to administration and indeed, several decades of financial turmoil, could not be repeated. Dundee were left after the second administration with only footballing debt and no borrowing capability. Since exiting administration, the club has focussed on honouring the footballing debt, whilst keeping lower football wages and stadium bills, according to the income generated. The debt post-admin was unexpectedly still over £200,000 which had to be quickly worked into the board's already stretched budgets.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: After an unsuccessful season in the Premier League, when they were asked to replace Rangers, Dundee were again relegated after finishing bottom, despite vastly improved form after John Brown replaced Barry Smith as manager toward the end of the season. The following season (2013–14) Dundee would take part in the Scottish Championship (formerly the First Division) after reforms were made to the Scottish League system.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: Throughout the summer leading up to the start of the 2013–14 season talks were held regarding a possible Texan based takeover with investments to be made of up to £650,000. The takeover was completed and former Director Bill Colvin was appointed as chairman to oversee this new board of which main investor Tim Keyes of Keyes Capital, Austin, Texas, appointed John Nelms to look after his interests. The 2013–14 season proved to be one to remember with Dundee clinching the title and promotion to the top tier on the last day of the season with a 2–1 win over Dumbarton. After a heavy defeat to Falkirk and a draw against Alloa, manager John Brown was replaced by Paul Hartley. A 3–0 win at Alloa for The Dark Blues and a 4–1 loss to Dumbarton for Hamilton Academical meant that Dundee were in the driving seat when it came to the finale. Dens Park was sold out for the game against Dumbarton when Christian Nade headed in the opening goal. Soon after, Peter MacDonald scored the second goal. The away side pulled a goal back in the second half and Hamilton Academical managed to close the goal difference with a 10–2 victory over Greenock Morton. But Dundee got the three points, and clinched promotion to the Scottish Premiership.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: Paul Hartley was quick in the transfer window for the following season, bringing in no fewer than twelve new players, to rebuild the squad for top-flight football, having already signed Greg Stewart on a pre-contract from Cowdenbeath and Philip Roberts who joined before the end of May. Released Hibernian players James McPake and Kevin Thomson were next to join, along with Alloa goalkeeper Scott Bain. Thomson was made Captain after signing. Simon Ferry, released from Portsmouth then returned to his hometown to play for Dundee. Paul McGowan and Paul McGinn arrived from St Mirren and Dumbarton respectfully, then attacking midfielder Gary Harkins signed for his third spell at the club on the last day of June, after also being released from St Mirren. A number of first team players departed, namely Christian Nade and Ryan Conroy, who both went on to join Raith Rovers, Gavin Rae who retired from playing and player-coach Matt Lockwood.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: On the opening day of the 2014–2015 season, Dundee recorded a 1–1 draw against Kilmarnock at home, Gary Harkins put Dundee ahead from the spot after Kilmarnock conceded a penalty, with Craig Slater equalising for the visitors from a well struck free-kick on the edge of the Dundee area. Dundee won their first game of the 2014–2015 season on 23 August with a 1–0 win over St Mirren away from home, a 79th-minute goal from Peter MacDonald securing the win, making them unbeaten in their first four league games of the season. Dundee also started the League Cup well with two 4–0 wins on the bounce over Peterhead and Raith Rovers.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: Dundee managed to gain a top six place by mid-April thus securing their position in the Premiership for 2015–16 campaign. They secured the place for definite after Kilmarnock were defeated 2–1 by Aberdeen on 12 April and a Dundee derby victory on 8 April in a 3–1 Win at home to Dundee United.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: At the end of the 2014–15 season, in June, Dundee chairman Bill Colvin stepped down as chairman and sold his share in Dundee to then director, Tim Keyes who became the new chairman of the club.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: Dundee finished eighth in the 2015–16 Scottish Premiership, notably relegating rivals Dundee United at Dens Park.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: Dundee were relegated to the Scottish Championship at the end of the 2018–2019 season. Manager Jim McIntyre and assistant manager Jimmy Boyle were sacked on 12 May. After playing the role of interim manager in Dundee's final home game, former player James McPake was hired as manager on a permanent basis, with Jimmy Nicholl, then current assistant manager of Northern Ireland, brought in as assistant manager. The club would finish the season (prematurely ended due to the COVID-19 pandemic) in third place, and the following season would finish as runners-up. In the Premiership play-offs, Dundee would defeat Raith Rovers and Premiership side Kilmarnock to earn promotion back into the top flight after two seasons.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: Since 1899, Dundee have played their home matches at Dens Park which has a capacity of 11,775. Uniquely, the stadium shares part of the same road (Sandeman Street) as Tannadice Park, which is the home of city rivals Dundee United.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: In 2002, plans were drawn up for a new stadium to be built in the city as part of Scotland's bid to host the 2008 European Football Championship. This stadium would have been shared by Dundee and near-neighbours Dundee United, which would have required the two to leave their historic grounds at Dens Park and Tannadice Stadium respectively. However, when Ukraine and Poland were selected to co-host the event, the plans were shelved for the immediate future.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: In May 2009, it was reported that the stadium is owned by local businessman John Bennett who, despite having invested heavily in Dundee, had rejoined the Dundee United board, where he had previously been a director until September 2008.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: In October 2014, Dundee Supporter's Society announced they had put forward plans to then club chairman, Bill Colvin which would allow the club to buy back the stadium from current owner John Bennett. They also expressed this was not a plan to enable the Supporter's Society to own the Stadium but for the club themselves, and that they will "simply administer the scheme".


title: Dundee F.C.

text: In April 2015, Colvin announced that negotiations were taking place to buy back the Stadium from current owner John Bennett and his company Sandeman Holdings.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: In August 2016, club owners Tim Keyes and John Nelms were reported to have bought land in the Camperdown area of Dundee, next to the city's Ice Arena. It was then made clear in February 2017 that the plan for this land was to develop a new stadium for the club due to the increasing maintenance costs of Dens Park, although plans for a move were described by Nelms as being "early doors" in a video interview published on the club's website.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: In May 2018, it was announced that the stadium would be renamed Kilmac Stadium at Dens Park for sponsorship reasons for the next two seasons. In October 2020, the club announced that Kilmac had extended its sponsorship for another year, again renaming the stadium to Kilmac Stadium.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: Former and current players who have played at full international level while with the club, ordered by nationality and year of their debut:


title: Dundee F.C.

text: Dundee's traditional rivals are Dundee United, with whom they compete in the Dundee derby. The rivalry is unique, as the two teams' stadiums are located within 100 yards of each other, making them the two closest League grounds in Britain. The close proximity of the two teams also fuels the intensity of the rivalry. This intensity makes it one of the most exciting and notable derbies in Scotland. While it is far friendlier than other Scottish derbies such as the Old Firm, both sets of fans regard the fixture to be of high importance, with derby results throughout the season being defining points in each teams' seasons.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: Dundee traditionally dominated the fixture in its first few decades, but the momentum shifted in the 1980s, with United taking a foothold in the fixture. The history of late has been defined by the inability of both teams to consistently stay in the same division, with Dundee a division below United for quite a few seasons while dealing with the after-effects of multiple administrations. Dundee eventually returned to the Scottish Premiership in 2014, and in 2016 it was a Dundee derby victory over United that confirmed the latter's own relegation. After a few years of Dundee being a league above United, the two were eventually reunited again in the Scottish Championship in 2019 following Dundee's relegation.


title: Dundee F.C.

text: Dundee and United also share a mutual rivalry with St Johnstone, due to the close proximity between Dundee and Perth, known as the Tayside derby. This fixture however is considered far less serious than the Dundee derby, though took prominence after United's relegation in 2016. The most notable fixture between the two occurred in 1962, where Dundee defeated St Johnstone 0–3 at the latter's former ground, Muirton Park. This result both confirmed Dundee as league champions for the first and to date only time in their history, and confirmed St Johnstone's relegation from the First Division.


title: The Woman King

text: The Woman King is a 2022 American alternate history epic film about the Agojie, the all-female warrior unit that protected the West African kingdom of Dahomey during the 17th to 19th centuries. Set in the 1820s, the film stars Viola Davis as a general who trains the next generation of warriors to fight their enemies. It is directed by Gina Prince-Bythewood and written by Dana Stevens, based on a story she wrote with Maria Bello. The film also stars Thuso Mbedu, Lashana Lynch, Sheila Atim, Hero Fiennes Tiffin, and John Boyega.


title: The Woman King

text: Bello conceived the idea for "The Woman King" in 2015 after visiting Benin, where the kingdom used to be located, and learning the history of the Agojie. She recruited Cathy Schulman to develop it into a feature film, pitching it to several studios, who turned it down due to financial concerns. After they met with TriStar Pictures in 2017, the film was greenlit in 2020. Production began in South Africa in November 2021, shut down due to the COVID-19 Omicron variant a few weeks later, and resumed in early 2022. Polly Morgan was the cinematographer. During post-production, the musical score was composed by Terence Blanchard, and editing was completed by Terilyn A. Shropshire.


title: The Woman King

text: "The Woman King" had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 9, 2022, and Sony Pictures Releasing released the film in theaters in the United States on September 16, 2022. Following the festival screening, the film received positive reviews from critics, with praise was directed towards Davis's performance and the action choreography, while it received mixed to negative reactions from historians and public viewers who regarded the film as an attempt of historical distortion. Organizations like the National Board of Review and the American Film Institute named it as one of the films of 2022 and of all time.


title: The Woman King

text: In the West African kingdom of Dahomey in 1823, General Nanisca, leader of the all-female group of warriors, the Agojie, liberates Dahomean women who were abducted by slavers from the Oyo Empire. This provokes King Ghezo of Dahomey to prepare for an all-out war with the Oyo. Nanisca begins to train a new generation of warriors to join the Agojie to protect the kingdom. Among these warriors is Nawi, a strong-willed girl who was offered by her father to the king after refusing to marry men who would beat her. Nawi befriends Izogie, a veteran Agojie. She also reveals to Nanisca that she is adopted and shows a birthmark on her left shoulder, shocking Nanisca.


title: The Woman King

text: Portuguese slave traders led by Santo Ferreira and accompanied by the half-Dahomean Malik arrive as part of an alliance with the Oyo, led by General Oba Ade. Nawi encounters Malik while the latter is bathing, and the two become friends. Shortly after graduating from training to become a full-fledged Agojie, Nawi sneaks off to speak with Malik and learns that the Oyo are planning to attack. She reports this to Nanisca, who tells her off for her recklessness. Nanisca reveals that in her youth, she was captured by Oba, raped, and impregnated. After giving birth to a daughter, Nanisca embedded a shark tooth in her left shoulder before giving her away. Nanisca helps Nawi extract the tooth, confirming that she is her biological daughter.


title: The Woman King

text: Nanisca leads the Agojie in an attack on the Oyo. The attack is successful, but Oba escapes and Nawi and Izogie are captured. One of the captured Agojie slips away and reports the others' fate to Nanisca. Ghezo prepares to bestow the title of Woman King, his partner and equal in ruling Dahomey, upon Nanisca, but refuses to authorize a rescue mission for the captive Agojie. Meanwhile, Izogie is killed in an escape attempt and Malik buys Nawi to protect her. Nanisca defies orders and sets out with a group of like-minded warriors to rescue the captives. The chaos allows Nawi to escape and rejoin Nanisca. Malik frees several other slaves who drown Ferreira, and Nanisca kills Oba in single combat. The triumphant Agojie returns to Dahomey, where Ghezo privately and briefly admonishes Nanisca for disobeying him, before crowning her the Woman King. After the festivities, Nanisca and Nawi privately acknowledge their familial relationship.


title: The Woman King

text: "The Woman King" was produced by Maria Bello and Cathy Schulman, written by Dana Stevens with contributions by Gina Prince-Bythewood, and directed by Prince-Bythewood. It is a co-production between TriStar Pictures and Entertainment One. In 2015, Bello went to the West African nation of Benin to learn the history of the Agojie. Convinced she had found a story worth telling, she returned to Los Angeles and recruited Schulman, then head of organization Women in Film, to help her make the film. On September 19, 2015, Bello used a moment when she was presenting actress Viola Davis with an award at the Skirball Cultural Center in Los Angeles to pitch her idea for the movie in front of the crowd, who cheered at the notion of seeing Davis in the lead role.


title: The Woman King

text: Schulman first tried to set up the film at STX Films, where she was the head of the production, but the studio was only willing to offer an unsatisfactory $5 million. After leaving STX in 2016, Schulman worked with Bello, Davis, and Julius Tennon, Davis's husband and producing partner at JuVee Productions, to take the idea elsewhere. Studios who turned it down cited an unlikely chance for the film to turn a profit; others, according to Davis, wanted to cast light-skinned, well-known actresses, which they refused to do for historical accuracy and the audience's sake. Prince-Bythewood, also in 2016, was approached to write the screenplay but could not commit due to a scheduling conflict with "Silver & Black". In 2017, without a script or director, the producers met with TriStar's then-chief Hannah Minghella and then-senior vice president Nicole Brown. Within two years, Brown had taken over Minghella's position and made "The Woman King" one of TriStar's top priorities. In early 2018, the commercial success of the superhero movie "Black Panther", which featured a fictionalized version of the Agojie, further motivated the crew to move forward with the project. In March 2018, Davis and Lupita Nyong'o were announced to star; Nyong'o's role was ultimately played by Thuso Mbedu. Prince-Bythewood read the screenplay once it was completed and came on board to direct, and in 2020, "The Woman King" was greenlit with a $50 million budget.


title: The Woman King

text: Prince-Bythewood referenced epic films like "The Last of the Mohicans" (1992), "Braveheart" (1995), and "Gladiator" (2000) as influences. Her background in sports gave her a perspective on the realism of fight scenes. In crafting the story, she sought for the women to be multi-faceted in both their fighting ability and their emotional reactions. She worked with production designer Akin McKenzie to learn about the Agojie. Their research included books, out-of-print texts, photographs, and writings by Princeton professor Leonard Wantchekon. "The biggest eye-opener," she said, "was how much misinformation there is about these women and this culture, given that so much of their history was written from the colonizer's point of view. So it was really about separating the texts that were from that point of view, which were so disparaging and disrespectful, from the truth." For four months before the shoot, the cast performed 90 minutes a day of weight lifting with trainer Gabriela Mclain, followed by three and a half hours of fight training with stunt coordinator Danny Hernandez, which included running, martial arts, and working with swords and spears. Davis was inspired by pro boxer Claressa Shields.


title: The Woman King

text: In November 2021, the cast and crew flew to South Africa for a five-month shoot. Prince-Bythewood prioritized department heads who were women and people of color, including cinematographer Polly Morgan, production designer Akin McKenzie, costume designer Gersha Phillips, hairstylist Louisa Anthony, visual effects supervisor Sara Bennett, and editor Terilyn Shropshire. Makeup was handled by a local, South African artist, Babalwa Mtshiselwa. "The thing is for women and people of color," Prince-Bythewood said, "often the résumés are not long because it's about lack of opportunity, not lack of talent. So when you’re in my position, it's important to look past that résumé."


title: The Woman King

text: For a sequence in which a character is remembering a sexual assault, Prince-Bythewood referenced Christine Blasey Ford's testimony at Brett Kavanaugh's Supreme Court nomination hearing and asked the actress to read the Roxane Gay book "", a memoir about Gay's rape. Filming for the first two weeks took place in the coastal province of KwaZulu-Natal for the shooting of jungle scenes. They then moved to the capital city of Cape Town, where the majority of filming would take place. In their third week in South Africa, the COVID-19 omicron variant hit the production; Davis and Tennon were among the infected. Production shut down for a few weeks and resumed in mid-January 2022. This production halt forced them to re-rehearse a battle sequence with hundreds of performers. Prince-Bythewood called it the hardest shoot of her career.


title: The Woman King

text: Editing was completed by Terilyn A. Shropshire, who worked on Prince-Bythewood's "The Old Guard" (2020). The film's musical score was composed by Terence Blanchard, who worked with Prince-Bythewood on her first film "Love & Basketball" (2000) and the television shows "Shots Fired" and "Swagger". For the score, Blanchard enlisted the nine-voice Vox Noire ensemble, who worked with him on his opera "Fire Shut Up in My Bones", and also jazz singer Dianne Reeves as his soloist. They recorded for five days with the 78-member Royal Scottish National Orchestra in Glasgow, Scotland. Additional recordings occurred in New York with Vox Noire and Colorado with Reeves. Ghanaian-American mezzo-soprano Tesia Kwarteng led the choir. Three numbers by South African composer Lebo M. of chants and dances were also performed in the film. The song in the end credits, "Keep Rising," was an original piece written by Jessy Wilson, Jeremy Lutito, and Angélique Kidjo and performed by Kidjo for Warner Chappell Music in late 2020, and later sold to Sony. The soundtrack album was released on September 16, 2022, by Milan Records.


title: The Woman King

text: The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 9, 2022. It was released in theaters on September 16, 2022, by Sony Pictures Releasing. The film was released for VOD on November 22, 2022, followed by a Blu-ray, DVD, and 4K UHD release on December 13, 2022.


title: The Woman King

text: , "The Woman King" has grossed $67.2 million in the United States and Canada, and $27.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $94.2 million.


title: The Woman King

text: In the United States and Canada, "The Woman King" was projected to gross around $12 million in its opening weekend, with some studios estimating it could reach as much as $16 million. The film made $6.8 million on its first day, including $1.7 million from Thursday night previews. It went on to over-perform and debut at $19.05 million from 3,765 theaters, topping the box office. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a rare average grade of "A+" on an A+ to F scale, while those at PostTrak gave the film a 95% overall positive score. Of the opening weekend audience, 60% were female, 58% were over the age of 35, and 59% were African-American. In its second weekend, the film made $11.1 million (a drop of 42%), finishing behind newcomer "Don't Worry Darling". In its third weekend, the film made $6.8 million, finishing third.


title: The Woman King

text: "The Woman King" received positive reviews from critics for the cast's performance, including Viola Davis's starring role and Thuso Mbedu's breakout performance, and its action choreography, while some minor disappointment was expressed in the script.


title: The Woman King

text: Lovia Gyarkye of "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote, "A crowd-pleasing epic think "Braveheart" with Black women." Robert Daniels at "RogerEbert.com" said, "When "The Woman King" works, it's majestic... The magnitude and the awe this movie inspires are what epics like "Gladiator" and "Braveheart" are all about." Kate Erbland of "IndieWire" said, "A hell of a time at the movies, a seemingly 'niche' topic with great appeal, the sort of battle-heavy feature that will likely engender plenty of hoots and hollers." "/Film"s Chris Evangelista said it was "an absolute blast. It's a film that isn't afraid to get you cheering." BBC critic Caryn James wrote, "It is a splashy popcorn movie with a social conscience."


title: The Woman King

text: Jamie Broadnax of "Black Girl Nerds" called Viola Davis's performance a career-best. Gyarkye said, "The Oscar-winning actress, known for digging into her characters' psyches, accesses an impressive level of emotional depth and nuance as Nanisca." "The Wrap"s Martin Tsai wrote, "Davis truly gets to flex the full range of her acting chops. A performance of this caliber is rare in what's essentially an action flick." Chris Bumbray of "JoBlo" wrote, "Her raw intensity is backed up by a newly jacked physique that makes her an imposing action heroine, and she performs exceptionally well in the numerous action scenes." Other cast members that were praised included Lashana Lynch (Evangelista at "/Film" and Reuben Baron at "Looper.com" called her the film's stand-out) and Thuso Mbedu, who was called a "breakout star" by several critics; Tim Grierson at "Screen International" said she "nearly steals the show" with an "exceptional supporting performance".


title: The Woman King

text: James said representation of history and culture "leans toward fantasy in its heroic moments, but is rooted in [the] truth about war, brutality, and freedom." Gyarkye said it "begins as portraiture and then surrenders to melodrama when faced with the challenges of translating history for the screen and constructing a coherent geopolitical thread." Reuben Baron of "Looper.com" wrote, ""The Woman King" is an 8/10 for entertainment value, and 4/10 for how it deals with history." On the aspect of spectacle, critics said they wanted more action movies like "The Woman King". Erbland said, "If this is what a Hollywood-ized and -sized blockbuster looks like in 2022, bring it on. Bring them all on." Evangelista concluded in his review, "Maybe one day we'll get to a point where such a movie doesn't feel groundbreaking, but here we are."


title: The Woman King

text: "The Woman King" is set in the kingdom of Dahomey in the year 1823. The kingdom existed from around 1600 through 1904, and the Agojie existed for most of that time.


title: The Woman King

text: The film has been described as historically inaccurate by the president of the American Historical Association: "the film The Woman King seems to suggest that Dahomey’s female warriors and King Ghezo fought the European slave trade. In fact, they promoted it. Historically accurate rendering of Asante or Dahomean greed and enslavement apparently contradict modern-day political imperatives".


title: The Woman King

text: Viola Davis plays the Agojie general Nanisca, who is fictional. "History vs. Hollywood" speculated her name was inspired by an Agojie teenage recruit of the same name who was written about by a French naval officer in 1889. John Boyega plays King Ghezo, a real-life figure who ruled Dahomey from 1818 to 1858 and engaged in the Atlantic slave trade through the end of his reign. Hero Fiennes Tiffin plays the white Portuguese-speaking slave trader Santo Ferreira who is fictional and portrayed as an enemy to Ghezo. "History vs. Hollywood" said the character was "possibly loosely inspired" by Francisco Félix de Sousa, a Brazilian slave trader who in actuality helped Ghezo gain power.


title: The Woman King

text: Historically, Dahomey was a kingdom that conquered other African states and enslaved their citizens to sell in the Atlantic slave trade, and most of the kingdom's wealth was derived from slavery. The Agojie had a history of participating in slave raiding, and slavery in Dahomey persisted after the British Empire stopped Dahomey from continuing in the Atlantic slave trade.


title: The Woman King

text: In the film's setting of the 1820s, Nanisca confronts Ghezo about the immorality of selling Dahomey slaves to the Portuguese and suggests trading in palm oil production instead. Nanisca being fictional, the confrontation did not take place. "Smithsonian" wrote, "Though Ghezo did at one point explore palm oil production as an alternative source of revenue, it proved far less lucrative, and the king soon resumed Dahomey’s participation in the slave trade."


title: The Woman King

text: At the film's onset in the 1820s, as in real life, Dahomey is a tributary state of the Oyo Empire, which it had become in 1730. As portrayed in the film, Dahomey fought successfully to be freed from its status under Oyo. Also in the film, European colonization is a threat to Dahomey, but in real life, territorial disputes began with France in 1863 and led to the First Franco-Dahomean War in 1890, followed by the Second Franco-Dahomean War in 1892. France defeated Dahomey in 1894 and colonized it, and the kingdom became part of French Dahomey.


title: Chauri Chaura incident

text: From 1920 onwards, Indians, led by Mahatma Gandhi, were engaged in a nationwide non-cooperation movement. Using non-violent methods of civil disobedience known as Satyagraha, protests were organised by the Indian National Congress to challenge oppressive government regulatory measures such as the Rowlatt Act, with the ultimate goal of attaining "Swaraj" (home rule).


title: Chauri Chaura incident

text: Two days before the incident, on 2 February 1922, volunteers participating in the non-cooperation movement led by a retired soldier of the British Indian Army named Bhagwan Ahir, protested against high food prices and liquor sales at Gauri Bazaar. The demonstrators were beaten back by the local "Daroga" (inspector) Gupteshwar Singh and other police officers. Several of the leaders were arrested and put in the lock-up at the Chauri Chaura police station. In response to this, a protest against the police was called on 4 February, to be held at the Bazaar.


title: Chauri Chaura incident

text: On 4 February, approximately 2,000 to 2,500 protesters assembled and began marching towards the market lane at Chauri Chaura. They had gathered to picket the "Gauri Bazaar Liquor Shop". Armed police were dispatched to control the situation while the protesters marched towards the Bazaar, shouting anti-British slogans. In an attempt to frighten and disperse the crowd, Gupteshwar Singh ordered his 13 local police officers to fire warning shots into the air. This only agitated the crowd who began to throw stones at the police.


title: Chauri Chaura incident

text: With the situation getting out of control, the sub-inspector Prithvi Pal ordered the police to open fire on the advancing crowd, killing three and wounding several others. Reports vary on the reason for the police retreat, with some suggesting that the constables ran out of ammunition while others claimed that the crowd's unexpectedly assertive reaction to the gunfire was the cause. In the ensuing chaos, the heavily outnumbered police fell back to the shelter of the police "chowki" while the angry mob advanced. Infuriated by the gunfire into their ranks, the crowd set the "chowki" ablaze, killing all of the policemen trapped inside, including Inspector Gupteshwar Singh.


title: Chauri Chaura incident

text: The following are the names of the senior officers, constables and "chaukidars" (government watchmen) who were killed in the incident:


title: Chauri Chaura incident

text: One "chaukidar" named Jathai Ram was thrown into the burning station by the mob but he was able to survive. He had several burn injuries. When the regional Police Commissioner arrived after the incident, he ordered Jathai to be taken to hospital where he later died.


title: Chauri Chaura incident

text: Most victims were burned to death, although several appear to have been killed by the crowd at the entrance to the chowki and their bodies thrown back into the fire. The death count is reported in the literature as either 22 or 23 policemen by different accounts, possibly because of ignoring or counting the subsequent death of Jathai Ram.


title: Chauri Chaura incident

text: In response to the killing of the police, the British colonial authorities declared martial law in and around Chauri Chaura. Several raids were conducted and hundreds of people were arrested.


title: Chauri Chaura incident

text: Appalled at the outrage, Gandhi went on a five-day fast as penance for what he perceived as his culpability in the bloodshed. In reflection, Gandhi felt that he had acted too hastily in encouraging people to revolt against the British colonial government without sufficiently emphasizing the importance of "ahimsa" (non-violence) and without adequately training the people to exercise restraint in the face of attack. He decided that the Indian people were ill-prepared and not yet ready to do what was needed to achieve independence. Gandhi was also arrested and sentenced to six years of imprisonment but was later released in February 1924, on grounds of his ill health.


title: Chauri Chaura incident

text: On 12 February 1922, the Indian National Congress halted the non-cooperation movement on the national level as a direct result of the Chauri Chaura tragedy.


title: Chauri Chaura incident

text: Jawaharlal Nehru and most of the workers of the Congress, who were in prison when Gandhi took this decision, felt that this was a hasty and incorrect decision at a time when the nation was reaching the epoch of support for the Indian independence movement. A few months after this withdrawal, the colonial government arrested Gandhi and put him in Jail.


title: Chauri Chaura incident

text: A total of 225 people were brought to trial at Gorakhpur Sessions Court of Judge H. E. Holmes, on charges of "rioting and arson" in conjunction with the Chauri Chaura affair. Of these, six died while in police custody, two were sentenced to 2 years' imprisonment, while 170 were convicted and sentenced to death by hanging, while 47 were acquitted on 9 January 1923, following a trial which lasted eight months.


title: Chauri Chaura incident

text: A storm of protest erupted over the verdicts, which were characterised as "legalised murder" by Indian Communist leader M.N. Roy, who called for a general strike of Indian workers.


title: Chauri Chaura incident

text: On 30 April 1923, The Allahabad High Court pronounced the final judgements in the case, after appeals had been considered:


title: Chauri Chaura incident

text: 14 ^ Narayan, Badri (14 November 2006). Women Heroes and Dalit Assertion in North India: Culture, Identity and Politics


title: Physicist

text: A physicist is a scientist who specializes in the field of physics, which encompasses the interactions of matter and energy at all length and time scales in the physical universe.


title: Physicist

text: Physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms.


title: Physicist

text: Physicists work across a wide range of research fields, spanning all length scales: from sub-atomic and particle physics, through biological physics, to cosmological length scales encompassing the universe as a whole.


title: Physicist

text: The field generally includes two types of physicists: experimental physicists who specialize in the observation of natural phenomena and the development and analysis of experiments, and theoretical physicists who specialize in mathematical modeling of physical systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena.


title: Physicist

text: Physicists can apply their knowledge towards solving practical problems or to developing new technologies (also known as applied physics or engineering physics).


title: Physicist

text: The study and practice of physics is based on an intellectual ladder of discoveries and insights from ancient times to the present. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in the work of ancient civilizations, such as the Babylonian astronomers and Egyptian engineers, the Greek philosophers of science and mathematicians such as Thales of Miletus, Euclid in Ptolemaic Egypt, Archimedes of Syracuse and Aristarchus of Samos. Roots also emerged in ancient Asian cultures such as India and China, and particularly the Islamic medieval period, which saw the development of scientific methodology emphasising experimentation, such as the work of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) in the 11th century. The modern scientific worldview and the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus leading to the physics of Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler in the early 1600s. The work on mechanics, along with a mathematical treatment of physical systems, was further developed by Christiaan Huygens and culminated in Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation by the end of the 17th century. The experimental discoveries of Faraday and the theory of Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism were developmental high points during the 19th century. Many physicists contributed to the development of quantum mechanics in the early-to-mid 20th century. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes a large increase in understanding physical cosmology.


title: Physicist

text: The broad and general study of nature, natural philosophy, was divided into several fields in the 19th century, when the concept of "science" received its modern shape. Specific categories emerged, such as "biology" and "biologist", "physics" and "physicist", "chemistry" and "chemist", among other technical fields and titles. The term "physicist" was coined by William Whewell (also the originator of the term "scientist") in his 1840 book "The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences".