title: UFO (TV series)

text: "UFO" featured key motifs and plot elements that shared a conceptual continuity with nearly all of Anderson's previous television work. Every series from "Supercar" onward focused on the heroic exploits of a secret but benevolent group or agency (the Supercar team, World Space Patrol, WASP, International Rescue, Spectrum, WIN, BISHOP, SHADO), operating from a remote or hidden base, and equipped with futuristic technology and/or advanced transport vehicles, whose mission is to protect the people of Earth from danger and disaster, and counter the nefarious schemes of a sinister, devious and elusive enemy (Masterspy, the Subterrains, the Aquaphibians, The Hood, The Mysterons, the aliens).


title: UFO (TV series)

text: In addition to the shift from using marionettes to real actors, another key point of difference is that while Anderson's previous series were explicitly made for pre-teen audiences, "UFO" was a deliberate attempt to court young adult and adult viewers. Some "UFO" episodes included serious adult themes such as divorce, drug use, the challenge of maintaining work/family balance, mind control, alien abduction, illegal organ harvesting, and murder.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: Principal photography commenced in April 1969 with production based at MGM-British Studios in Borehamwood. Seventeen episodes were filmed at these studios before they closed at the end of 1969. Production resumed at Pinewood Studios when studio space became available in June 1970, making "UFO" a 17-month-long production by the time the final nine episodes were completed. After the break, George Sewell (who played Alec Freeman) and Gabrielle Drake (Lt. Gay Ellis) were no longer available, and left the series.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: Due to the series being shown out of production order, their omission was not overly noticeable. Previously, Harry Baird, who played interceptor pilot Mark Bradley, had left the series after just four episodes, citing contractual problems (although he reappeared in a few later episodes from stock footage). Also, Skydiver Captain Peter Carlin, played by Peter Gordeno, left after eight episodes out of a fear of being typecast.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: The different writers and directors, as well as a production break when MGM-British Studios was closed, resulted in episodes of varying quality.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: Some episodes feature downbeat or tragic elements. In "Flight Path", a SHADO operative who has been blackmailed into giving crucial data to the aliens redeems himself by thwarting a sneak attack on Moonbase, but is killed in the attempt, and dies not knowing that his wife has been murdered by an alien agent. In "Survival", after another sneak attack on Moonbase, an injured Col. Foster encounters an alien on the lunar surface but, although the alien unexpectedly befriends and helps him, a misunderstanding leads to the alien being killed by SHADO operatives. "Confetti Check A-O.K." is almost entirely devoted to the breakdown of Straker's marriage under the strain of maintaining secrecy, owing to the classified nature of his duties. "A Question of Priorities" hinges on Straker having to choose between diverting a SHADO aircraft to deliver life-saving medical supplies to his critically injured son, or allow the aircraft to continue its mission to intercept an alien who appears to want to surrender to SHADO.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: Another episode, "The Square Triangle", centres on a woman and her lover who plan to murder her husband. When they accidentally kill an alien from a downed UFO instead, SHADO intervenes and doses the guilty pair with amnesia drugs. Straker realises, however, that the drugs will not affect their basic motivation and, worse, he cannot reveal the truth to local legal authorities. The end credits of this episode run over a scene set in the near future, showing the woman visiting her husband's grave and then walking away to meet her lover.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: Some critics complained that the emphasis on down-to-earth relationships weakened the show's science fiction premise and were also a means of saving money on special effects. Others countered that the characters were more well-rounded than in other science fiction shows, and that science fiction concepts and special effects in themselves did not preclude realistic action and interaction and believable, emotionally engaging plots.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: "UFO" confused broadcasters in Britain and the United States, who could not decide if it was a show for adults or for children. In the UK, the first episodes were originally shown in the 5:15pm 'tea-time' slot on Saturdays, and then on Saturday mornings during an early repeat, by both Southern Television — which began broadcasting "UFO" almost two months before the London area — and London Weekend Television. The fact that the Andersons were primarily associated with children's programming did not help matters. This confusion and erratic broadcast schedules are considered contributing factors in its cancellation, although "UFO" is credited with opening the door to moderately successful runs of later live-action, adult-oriented programming by Anderson such as "The Protectors" and "".


title: UFO (TV series)

text: To defend against the aliens, a secret organisation called SHADO, the Supreme Headquarters, Alien Defence Organisation, is established. Operating under the cover (as well as literally beneath the premises) of the Harlington-Straker Studios movie studio in England, SHADO is headed by Commander Edward Straker (Ed Bishop), a former United States Air Force colonel and astronaut, whose "cover" is his role as the studio's chief executive.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: Establishing the main character and principal location as the chief executive of a movie studio was a cost-saving move by the producers: the Harlington-Straker Studio was the actual studio where the series was being filmed, originally the MGM-British Studios (later moved to Pinewood Studios) — although the Harlington-Straker studio office block seen throughout the series was actually Neptune House, a building at the former British National Studios in Borehamwood that was owned by ATV. Pinewood's studio buildings and streetscapes were used extensively in later episodes, particularly "Timelash" and "Mindbender" — the latter featuring scenes that show the behind-the-scenes workings of the "UFO" sets, when Straker briefly finds himself hallucinating that he is an actor in a TV series and all his SHADO colleagues are likewise actors. In "The Man Who Came Back", the main set for "The Devils", then in production at Pinewood, can be seen in the background of several scenes.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: Typical of Anderson's work, the studio-as-cover concept served multiple practical and narrative functions: It was simple and cost-effective for the production, it provided an engaging vehicle for the viewer's suspension of disbelief, it eliminated the need to build an expensive exterior set for the SHADO base, and it combined the all-important "secret" cover (concealment and secrecy are always central themes in Anderson dramas) with at least nominal plausibility. A studio was a business where unusual events and routines would not be remarkable or even noticed. Comings and goings at odd times, the movement of people and unusual vehicles, equipment and material would not create undue interest and could easily be explained away as sets, props, or extras.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: Another recurring Anderson "leitmotif" was the concept of the mechanical conveyor (e.g. the automatic boarding tubes of the "Stingray" and the "Thunderbird" craft). In "UFO" this took several forms – Straker's "secret" office doubles as a secret elevator that takes him down to the SHADO control centre located beneath the studio, and the pilots of the Moonbase interceptors and the amphibious Sky One jet interceptor slide down boarding chutes to board their craft. The interceptors then rise from their hangar via elevating platforms to a launch pad disguised as a lunar crater. The device of the personnel boarding chute or conveyor served both narrative and practical functions – like firefighters responding to a fire alarm by sliding down the fireman's pole to board the fire engine, these personnel chutes/conveyors signified to the audience that the characters were embarking on a perilous mission; they were also a carry-over from the previous marionette series and were one of several plot devices (e.g. the Thunderbirds hover-bikes) which Anderson and his team devised to provide a fast-paced, futuristic and visually exciting way to move the action forward, whilst also minimising or eliminating the undesirable comical effect of seeing the marionettes walking, which might otherwise undercut the dramatic tension of the sequence.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: The special effects, supervised by Derek Meddings, were produced with limited resources. In a refinement of the underwater effect developed for "Stingray", Meddings' team devised a disconcerting effect – a double-walled visor for the alien space helmets, which could be gradually filled from the bottom up with green-dyed water. When filmed from the appropriate angle it produced an illusion of the helmet filling up and submerging the wearer's head. The series also revisited and improved on the clever and cost-effective aquatic effects originally devised for "Stingray". The submerged launch of Sky One was filmed on a special set dressed to look like an underwater location; a thin, glass-walled water tank containing small fish and equipped with small air-bubble generators was placed in front of the camera, the set behind the tank was filled with smoke, and set elements were agitated with fans to simulate water movement, creating a surprisingly convincing underwater scene without any of the high cost or technical problems associated with real underwater filming.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: SHADO has a variety of high-tech hardware and vehicles at its disposal to implement a layered defence of Earth. Early warnings of alien attack would come from SID, the Space Intruder Detector, an unmanned computerised tracking satellite that constantly scans for UFO incursions. The forward line of defence is Moonbase from which the three lunar Interceptor spacecraft, that fire a single explosive warhead, are launched. The second line of defence includes Skydiver, a submarine mated with the submersible, undersea-launched Sky One interceptor aircraft, which attacks UFOs in Earth's atmosphere. The last line of defence is ground units including the armed, IFV-like SHADO Mobiles, fitted with caterpillar tracks.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: On Earth, SHADO also uses two SHADAIR aircraft, a Seagull X-ray supersonic jet (e.g. in the episode "Identified") and a transport plane (e.g. in the episode "A Question of Priorities"); a transatlantic Lunar Carrier with a separating Lunar module (e.g. in "Computer Affair"); a Helicopter (actually, a small VTOL aeroplane with large rotating propellers, e.g. in the episode "Ordeal"); and a Radio-controlled (Space) Dumper (e.g. in "The Long Sleep"). Also, the Moonbase has hovercraft-like Moon Hoppers/Moonmobiles that can be deployed for transportation or reconnaissance.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: The special effects (as in all Anderson's shows of this era) were supervised by Derek Meddings, and the vehicles were designed by Meddings and his assistant Michael Trim. As with all these Anderson series, the look and narrative action of "UFO" relied heavily on the groundbreaking miniature props and special effects sequences created by Meddings and his team, who devised a range of innovative low-cost, high-quality techniques used to create very convincing miniature sets and locations and miniature action scenes featuring ground transportation, underwater, atmospheric and space travel, and dramatic explosion effects. The large-scale miniature vehicles and craft used for close-up filming were extremely detailed and combine innovative design with a high level of fine workmanship. Most production miniatures typically consisted of a mixture of custom-made elements and detail pieces 'cannibalised' from commercial scale model kits.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: As with all the Anderson/Century 21 programmes of that period, very few original series props and miniatures have survived, and these are now highly valuable collector's items. Miniatures from the series known to still exist include:


title: UFO (TV series)

text: The extraterrestrial spacecraft can readily cross the vast distances between their planet and Earth at many times the speed of light (abbreviated and pronounced as "SOL"; e.g., "SOL one decimal seven" is 1.7 times the speed of light), but are too small to carry more than a few crew members. Their time on station is limited: UFOs can only survive for a couple of days in Earth's atmosphere before they deteriorate and finally explode. The UFOs can survive for far longer underwater; one episode, "Reflections in the Water", deals with the discovery of a secret undersea alien base and shows one UFO flying straight out of an extinct volcano, which Straker describes as "a back door to the Atlantic". A special underwater version of the standard UFO design is seen in "Sub-Smash". In flight they are surrounded by horizontally spinning vanes, and emit a distinctive pulsing electronic whine that sounds like a "Shoooe-Wheeeh!" (produced by series composer Barry Gray on an ondes Martenot). The craft is armed with a laser-type weapon, and conventional explosive warheads can destroy it. The personal arms of the aliens resemble shiny metal submachine guns; these have a lower rate of fire than those used by SHADO. Later episodes, such as "The Cat with Ten Lives", show the aliens using other weapons, such as a small device that paralyses victims.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: Notably for science fiction, the alien race is never given a proper name, either by themselves or by human beings; they are simply referred to as "the aliens". They are humanoid in appearance, and the post mortem examination of the first alien captured reveals that they are harvesting organs from the bodies of abducted humans to prolong their lifespans. However, the later episode "The Cat with Ten Lives" suggests that these "humanoids" are actually beings subject to alien mind control, and one "alien" body recovered was suspected of being completely "Homo sapiens", "possessed" by one of the alien minds—a concept central to Anderson's previous Supermarionation series "Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons". Their faces are stained green by the hue of a green oxygenated liquid, which is believed to cushion their lungs against the extreme acceleration of interstellar flight; this liquid is contained in their helmets. To protect their eyes, the aliens wear opaque sclera contact lenses with small pinholes for vision. The show's opening sequence begins by showing the image of one of these contact lenses being removed from an obviously real eye with a small suction cup, even though the lens is not shown in contact with the eye. The entire lens-removal sequence is shown in the pilot episode.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: Only two of the alien suits were made, so at no point in the series are more than two of the aliens seen on screen at any one time. In the episode "Ordeal", Paul Foster is carried by two aliens while he is wearing an alien space suit, but one of those two aliens is always off-screen when Foster is on-screen.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: The alien spacesuit costumes were made of red spandex. At the start of production, the alien spacesuits were ornamented with brass chain mesh, as seen in the episode "Survival". Later, this was replaced by silvery panels. In reality, the dark vertical bands on the sides of the helmets were slits meant to allow the actors to breathe.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: The Andersons never explained at the time why female Moonbase personnel uniformly wore mauve or purple wigs, silver catsuits, and extensive eye make-up. Furthermore, their unusual apparel is never discussed in the series. Gerry Anderson has since commented that it made them look more futuristic and that it filmed better under the bright lights, while Sylvia Anderson said she believed wigs would become accepted components of military uniforms by the 1980s. However, in an interview given toward the end of her life, Sylvia explained that the decision was a combination of visual appeal and practicality - the wigs provided a striking and futuristic look, but they also saved the production the considerable time and expense of having to style the hair of each of the female Moonbase staff for each episode, as well as keeping the 'look' of the hairstyles consistent from episode to episode. However, whenever female Moonbase personnel visited Earth (as Ellis and Barry did from time to time), their lunar uniforms and wigs were never worn.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: The show's fictional conception of futuristic dress can be compared to André Courreges' actual futurist 'Space Designs' really worn just before the show's time.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: Ed Bishop, who had naturally dark hair, initially bleached his hair for Straker's unique white-haired look. After the break in production he began wearing a white wig. Until not long before his death he possessed one of the wigs he wore on the show, and took great delight in displaying it at science fiction conventions and on TV programmes. In the episode "Mindbender", Stuart Damon is seen wearing the same white wig, although deliberately ill-fitting, in a dream sequence segment. Bishop also kept a Certina watch that was specially made for his character.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: Other male characters in the series also wore wigs, again because the Andersons felt that they would become fashionable for both sexes by the 1980s. Michael Billington does not wear a wig in early episodes; these can be identified by his receding hairline and long sideburns.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: On both Skydiver and Moonbase, SHADO pilots enter their interceptor craft by sliding down tubes. This is an allusion to the Andersons' earlier series "Thunderbirds", which had the characters reaching their craft in similar fashion. This was owing to the difficulty of getting a puppet into a cockpit easily and in a natural way.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: The SHADO HQ and Moonbase control consoles, computer units, lighting panels and spacesuits make numerous appearances in later TV shows of the 1970s such as "Doctor Who", "Timeslip", "Doomwatch", "The Tomorrow People", "The Goodies", "The New Avengers", "Star Maidens" and "Blake's 7", as well as feature films such as "Diamonds Are Forever", "Carry On Loving" and "Confessions of a Pop Performer". An alien spacesuit can also be seen in the Children's Film Foundation production "Kadoyng".


title: UFO (TV series)

text: Sylvia Anderson, having had made a pair of very sheer trousers for actor Patrick Allen to wear in the episode "Timelash", later regretted not having had the nerve to ask him to wear a jockstrap underneath, and commented on the DVD release of the series that "you should not be able to tell which side anybody's 'packet' is on".


title: UFO (TV series)

text: The futuristic, gull-winged cars driven by Straker and Foster were originally built for the Anderson movie "Doppelgänger". During the shooting of "UFO", David Lowe and Sydney Carlton raised funds to form a company called The Explorer Motor Company, dedicated to the mass production of these cars for sale to the public. A plastic mould was made of the Straker car, in preparation for mass production, but the company never got off the ground. Both Ed Bishop and Michael Billington commented that the futuristic cars were "impossible to drive", partly because the steering wheel was designed for looks rather than functionality. Also, the gull-wing doors did not open automatically. Every shot in which the car door was seen to open automatically had to be arranged so that a prop man could run up to the car, just outside the frame, open the door, and hold it open while Ed Bishop stepped out. In certain episodes (most notably "Court Martial") the prop man can be seen. The show also made limited use of American models, which were unfamiliar to British viewers. These supposedly futuristic vehicles included a 1965 Ford Galaxie station wagon and an Oldsmobile Toronado.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: The Blue SHADO Jeeps, six-wheeled light utility vehicles, were originally supplied for "Doppelgänger". Using modified Austin Mini Moke chassis with an extra rear axle, the marine ply, fibreglass and perspex bodies, fitted for the film were modified, with the windscreen moved rearwards. As with the other SHADO vehicles, gull-wing doors, operated by a prop man out of shot, were fitted. Later episodes, such as "Timelash" saw these doors omitted, presumably for ease of filming.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: The episode "Survival" shows that SHADO's Moonbase is in the Mare Imbrium, or in the northeast part of it, according to a map that Foster and an alien studied while they were stranded on the surface. The map is a real one.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: On the Carlton DVD commentary for the first episode, Gerry Anderson noted that perhaps the programme's most dated aspect was its tobacco and alcohol consumption, although in the 1980 of real-life England and America there was still plenty of smoking indoors and many executives had bars in their offices. Straker has a futuristic home bar in his office, from which Col. Freeman partakes fairly regularly. While Straker himself does not drink, he is regularly seen smoking in SHADO headquarters, his tobacco of choice being either a cigarette or what appears to be a slim panatela cigar, complete with holder. And despite the high-tech milieu and enclosed environments, smoking is seen throughout the show, as it often was in 1970s British television drama. As a consequence, some of the sequences in the bunker of SHADO HQ are seen through a slight smoky haze. Similarly, many of the medical staff smoke whilst on duty, and smoking is even permitted on board the closed environment of the Skydiver, where Capt. Carlin is shown idly flicking through magazines with a cigarette in hand. Most striking of all, Moonbase personnel also light up frequently.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: Two years after the 26 episodes were completed, the series was syndicated on American television. Many stations who carried the series were affiliated with CBS; they tended to schedule the show in the Saturday evening hour leading into "All in the Family", the hugely popular comedy which was the highest-rated program on all of U.S. television at the time. (The FCC had mandated that the major networks give back the first half-hour of the evening schedule to local stations, as an attempt to limit the networks' dominance in programming at the expense of independent producers.) Naturally, the ratings of "UFO" were initially promising enough to prompt ITC to commission a second series.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: As the Moon-based episodes appeared to have proven more popular than the Earth-based stories, ITC insisted that in the new series, the action would take place entirely on the Moon. Gerry Anderson proposed a format in which SHADO Moonbase had been greatly enlarged to become the organisation's main headquarters, and pre-production on "UFO 2" began with extensive research and design for the new Moonbase. These developments had precedent in the earlier episodes: a subplot of "Kill Straker!" sees Straker negotiating with SHADO's financial supporters for funding to build more moonbases within 10 years. However, when ratings for the syndicated broadcasts in America dropped towards the end of the run, ITC cancelled the second series plans. Unwilling to let the "UFO 2" pre-production work go to waste, Anderson instead offered ITC a new series idea, unrelated to "UFO", in which the Moon would be blown out of Earth orbit taking the Moonbase survivors with it. This proposal developed into "".


title: UFO (TV series)

text: In 1986-1987, Channel 5 released a seven-volume VHS collection of episodes (volumes 2-7), preceded by the compilation film "Invasion: UFO" (volume 1), while a similar series was later released by ITC in 1993.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: The complete series was released on DVD in the UK and in North America in 2002 and in Australia in 2007. Bonus features include a commentary by Gerry Anderson on the pilot episode "Identified", and an actor's commentary by Ed Bishop on the episode "Sub-Smash". There are also deleted scenes, stills and publicity artwork.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: In 2002, A&E Home Entertainment, under licence from Carlton International Media Limited released the complete series on Region 1 (US/North America) DVD.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: As with many Anderson productions, the series generated a range of merchandising toys based on the SHADO vehicles. The classic Dinky die-cast range of vehicles featured robust yet finely finished products, and included Straker's futuristic gull-winged gas turbine car, the SHADO mobile and the missile-bearing Lunar Interceptor, though Dinky's version of the interceptor was released in a lurid metallic green finish unlike the original's stark white. Like the "Thunderbirds" and "Captain Scarlet" models, the original Dinky toys are now prized collectors' items. All the major vehicles, characters, and more have been produced in model form many times over by a large number of licensee companies; the Anderson shows and their merchandise have always had widespread popularity, but they are especially popular in Japan.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: Australian company Bump Map, run by Albert Hastings, pitched a revival of "UFO" to one of Australia's major TV production companies in 1995/6. Also in 1996, Ed Bishop briefly corresponded with independent Australian film maker/"UFO" fan Adrian Sherlock about an unofficial revival called "Damon Dark: Shadofall". Funding for the project fell through, but the script has been made into a fan-made audio production and uploaded to YouTube, and it continues as an independent series.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: In 2009, it was announced that producer Robert Evans and ITV Global would produce a big-screen adaptation of the series. Ryan Gaudet and Joseph Kanarek were to write the script, which was to be set in 2020. It was claimed that the "UFO" movie would be visual effects supervisor Matthew Gratzner's directorial debut and that Joshua Jackson would play Col. Paul Foster. Ali Larter was linked to the role of Col. Virginia Lake. However, the film did not go ahead.


title: UFO (TV series)

text: Producers Avi Haas and Matthew Gratzner posted on the official "UFO" film website that the film was under development and planned for a summer 2013 release. However, nothing was completed, and the film's web page is no longer available.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: The Toyota Corolla (E120/E130) is the ninth generation of compact cars sold by Toyota under the Corolla nameplate. In Japan, this series arrived to the market in August 2000; however, exports were typically not achieved until 2001 and 2002 depending on the market.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: The sedan and station wagon arrived first in August 2000, followed by the five-door hatchback in January 2001, and the Europe-only three-door hatchback in 2002. Toyota supplemented the original styling with an edgier, hatchback-only styling treatment from 2002. Sedans and wagons sold in Japan adopted a new front-end design in 2004, although this version did not typically reach export markets. In other Asian markets and the Americas, the ninth generation Corolla (sedan and wagon only) had unique front and rear styling treatments with mild updates over the model's production run.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: The E120/E130 model offered a longer wheelbase. It is built on a shortened V50 series Vista platform. From being marketed as a premium compact sedan, to an affordable hatchback, the ninth generation Corolla was designed as a "global" automobile to suit different market needs. This was one of Toyota's most versatile and most popular models ever produced.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: The E120/E130 series Corolla has also spawned another separate hatchback model called the Matrix, sold in the United States, Canada and Mexico, which forms the basis of the Pontiac Vibe, which was in turn sold in Japan as the Voltz.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: The E120 series was replaced by the E140 or E150 series in late 2006 or early 2007 but the E120 continued to be produced in China until 2017.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: For the Japanese market, trim levels for the Corolla Sedan were X Assista Package (Base), X, G and Luxel. In 2003, 1.5-litre 4WD sedans were made available in the Japanese market.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: The station wagon model is called the Corolla Fielder in Japan and the five-door hatchback is called the Corolla RunX, launched in 2001. The Toyota Allex is a five-door hatchback that replaced the Sprinter sedan, a badge engineered version of the Corolla RunX. The Allex was exclusive to "Toyota Netz Store" locations, while the Corolla RunX was exclusive to "Toyota Corolla Store" locations.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: JDM Corolla RunX trim levels are: RunX X (1500 cc 1NZ-FE engine), RunX S (1800 cc 1ZZ-FE engine) and RunX Z as well as RunX Z Aero (1800 cc 2ZZ-GE engine).


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: The first two of three JDM Allex trim levels were not differentiated with a visual badge, but offered similar packages to the RunX with the base model featuring the 1500 cc 1NZ-FE engine, the middle range featuring the 1800 cc 1ZZ-FE engine and the Allex RS180 featuring the 1800 cc 2ZZ-GE engine. Allex models offered a different colour range and had minor styling differences to the RunX, such examples include the plastic trim above the license plate area being chrome as opposed to body colour like on the RunX. Interior cloth patterns also differed from the RunX.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: All RunX and Allex models featured ABS and driver/passenger airbags as well as all auto windows and tinted rear glass as standard.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: The RunX X and Allex (base) models featured 14" steel wheels with optional alloys, optional side, front and rear skirting, automatic or manual gearbox options, and manual A/C.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: RunX S and Allex (mid range) models featured 15" steel wheels with optional 16" alloys, optional side, front and rear skirting, automatic or manual gearbox options, optional front fog lamps, manual or automatic climate controlled A/C.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: RunX Z, Z Aero and Allex RS180 models featured 15" steel wheels or optional 16" alloys, optional (but mostly purchased as standard) side, front and rear skirting and automatic climate controlled A/C as standard. These models offered an extra 4-speed tiptronic automatic or 6-speed manual transmission, opposing the rest of the lineup.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: The Corolla Spacio (Verso in Europe) moved on to the new platform, with later models adding a third row of fold-down seating in the back. The Corolla sedan sold in Japan also differed slightly as compared to the other markets with a slightly different headlamp and tail lamp design.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: The E120 Corolla sold in Australia was available as a sedan, wagon and five-door hatchback (Seca). Trim levels offered were the Ascent, Ascent Sport, Conquest, Levin and Ultima. A small number of models were built in South Africa, with the high-performance Sportivo (hatchback only) built exclusively in South Africa. South African-built Corollas have a vehicle identification number starting with A; Japanese-made examples have a VIN starting with J. The Sportivo was powered by the "2ZZ-GE" engine and a six-speed manual gearbox, while the other models had the "1ZZ-FE". Minor changes in 2004 included the grille and replacing the headlights with a "tear drop" type. The Sportivo was discontinued in Australia from 2006 due to the prohibitive costs involved in modifying the engine to comply with Euro IV emissions.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: All the other models had their engine power and torque reduced with October 2005 production from and from to comply with Euro IV. From May 2006, the Ascent and Ascent Sport models were upgraded with standard front power windows and passenger airbag, while the Conquest models had ABS as standard. The equipment upgrades were not applied to the wagon, which ceased production in August 2006.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: In New Zealand, the Corolla hatch was offered in three trim levels: GL, GLX & T Sport. The GL proved most popular and differed from the GLX only by a lack of woodgrain trim, rear electric windows, passenger airbag and alloy wheels. GLX models mostly featured tan coloured interior with woodgrain trim, front fog lights and alloy wheels as standard. The T Sport model offered a sportier look with spoiler, side skirts, front fog lights and 15-inch alloy wheels as standard. All models had the 1.8-litre 1ZZ-FE, offered either a four-speed automatic or five-speed manual and had manual A/C as standard. The Corolla sedan was offered only in the GL and GLX trim level, whilst the station wagon offered in the GL trim only.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: For the European market, the Corolla was offered in 3-door hatchback, 5-door hatchback, sedan or saloon, and wagon or Kombi / Estate forms. The high-performance Corolla T-Sport with 1.8-litre 2ZZ-GE engine was available in certain countries.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: An upmarket version of the ninth generation Corolla, dubbed the Corolla Altis, is manufactured and sold in countries such as India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand and Vietnam. It debuted in March 2001 as a bigger and more luxurious variant of the Japanese Corolla, featuring unique interior and exterior panels that separates it from the basic Corolla. The Corolla Altis is targeted at consumers who prefer more comfort than the standard Corolla but do not wish to buy the more luxurious Camry. Two versions of engines are available: the 81 kW (110 bhp), 1.6 L 3ZZ-FE engine and the 100 kW (134 bhp), 1.8 L 1ZZ-FE engine, both with VVT-i technology.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: In October 2003, the Corolla Altis received its first facelift. Changes include a new grille design, a sleeker front bumper, redesigned fog lamps, new LED tail lights, different alloy wheels and minor interior updates (auto climate control became a standard feature in lower end variants). Two years later, to keep up with its newer competitors, the Corolla Altis received its second facelift. Exterior changes include another redesigned grille, redesigned chrome rear license plate ornament, a new third LED brake light, and new audio switches on the steering wheel.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: A low end variant of the Corolla Altis is also branded as the Toyota Limo, featuring lower spec and intended for taxi businesses in Thailand. It is not to be confused with the low end taxi version of the Toyota Vios which is also called Toyota Limo in Indonesia.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: In Malaysia, the Corolla Altis was introduced in July 2001. Notably in Malaysia the models sold had tail lights that are identical to the models that are sold outside of Asia and Southeast Asia. It features three-round insets for the tail lamps instead of the standard single round inset used in other Asian markets. These were later replaced with the standard single round insets from 2004. Both the 1.6 L and 1.8 L models were sold in Malaysia. A new aerokit and new wing mirrors with signal indicators (similar to the 2007 Camry) is available as an optional package in Malaysia.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: In the Philippines, the Corolla Altis was launched in September 2001 and it came in four trim levels: 1.6 J, 1.6 E, 1.6 G and the highest-spec 1.8 G. The first two comes in both 5-speed manual transmission and 4-speed automatic transmission, while the latter two comes only in 4-speed automatic transmission. It has improved features and more premium amenities compared to its predecessor.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: The facelifted Corolla Altis was introduced in December 2003 and it came in five trims: the base-grade 1.6 J which is paired with 5-speed manual transmission, 1.6 E which are paired with both 5-speed manual and 4-speed automatic transmissions, 1.8 E, and the top-spec 1.8 G which are only paired with 4-speed automatic transmission. It has added some features such as 8-way power adjustment seats, power retractable side mirrors, etc.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: In January 2006, a 1.6 S trim was added to the lineup. Based on the base J trim, it came with extras such as the body kits, front fog lamps, mesh-type grille, 15-inch S-type alloy wheels, 2-DIN audio system with MP3, leather shift knob, 4-spoke leather steering wheel and leather seats and door trims.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: In Singapore, Toyota's exclusive authorised dealer Borneo Motors originally sold the Japanese version of the Corolla in 1.5L (LX, XLi) and 1.6L (LX). The facelift Japanese Corolla was launched in September 2003, featuring dual headlamp lamp clusters, updated tail lamp design and front bumper and chrome horizontal grille. It was later replaced with the Corolla Altis in August 2004 with 1.6L and 1.8L variants in automatic transmissions only. The 1.8L model offered optitron display for the speedometer clusters, rain sensors and a zig-zag automatic gearshift layout and some 1.8 model batches included a full bodykit as standard. In late 2007, the Corolla Altis was offered in a limited run where the 1.6 models featured interior silver panel trims, and updated double-din headunit, 15” double-spoke rims, honeycomb grille (adapted from the Corolla S) and bodykit with a boot-lid spoiler with a special Limited Edition sticker at the boot.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: With large numbers sold and production lasting for seven years—longer than most other Corolla generations—the E120 Corolla Altis is among the all-time most popular Corollas in Asia.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: The ninth generation Corolla was sold in China as the Corolla EX through FAW Toyota alongside the newer tenth-generation Corolla. It was also known as the 花冠 (Hua Guan) which is a direct translation of 'Corolla' (crown of the flower) in Mandarin Chinese. Three trim levels were available namely: Value, Excellence & Elegance. The Excellence and Elegance editions were offered with a 5-speed manual or a 4-speed automatic gearbox while the Value edition was only available in manual transmission. The Corolla EX was powered by a 1.6 L 1ZR-FE dual VVT-i engine producing or the 1.6 L 4ZR-FE dual VVT-i engine producing . An electric variant was produced called the Ranz E50 EV by the automotive marque called Ranz which was owned by Sichuan FAW Toyota Motor. Production for the Ranz E50 EV commenced production in April 2015. The production of the Corolla EX commenced in February 2004 and ended on 17 February 2017 after a 13-year run.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: In 1998, Masao Saito's E120 design proposal was chosen and frozen for production in early 1999, with patents filed on 22 July 1999 at the Japan Patent Office under patent number 1120997. The North American model was designed to be bigger than the Japanese Corolla, and was based on the Corolla Altis distributed in Southeast Asia. It came to the United States in March 2002 for the 2003 model year, following its unveiling at the 2002 North American International Auto Show in January. Trim levels offered are CE, LE, and S, continuing from the previous generation. Production for the ninth-generation Corolla ended in December 2007, with the tenth-generation Corolla introduced in January 2008 as a 2009 model. The Corolla carried over the 1ZZ-FE of the previous generation, but updated with a plastic intake manifold. Power output was increased to 130 hp. The Corolla grew in height from the previous generation, and used larger 15-inch wheels, which resulted in increased size and weight compared to the previous generation. The S trim level featured sportier front and rear bumpers and side skirts, but maintained side skirts and fog lights like the previous model.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: Official Toyota accessories available through dealerships for all ninth generation Corollas include: front-end mask, gold emblem package, mudguards, 15" flared 5-spoke aluminum alloy wheels, wheel locks, simulated carbon fiber dash appliqué, simulated blackwood dash appliqué, auto-dimming electrochromic rearview mirror, ashtray cup, carpeted floor mats, all-weather floor mats, cargo net, cargo mat, Cargo-Logic cargo mat by Nifty Products, cargo tote, first aid kit, Toyota VIP RS3200 remote keyless security system (CE, S), Toyota VIP RS3200 Plus security system (S, LE), and a CD autochanger (6-disc).


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: In 2004, for the 2005 model year, the exterior styling was refreshed with a new front bumper and grille, clear rear turn signal lenses, and updated wheel covers for the CE and LE trims. Interior differences include white on black Optitron gauges for the LE trim, a rear center headrest, and an updated radio head unit. Certain models were updated with Electronic Throttle Bodies and an Anti-Lock Braking System. The Manual transmission was dropped for the CE and LE trims, and was only available on the S.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: This was the first generation of the Corolla to be available in Mexico, and was offered in 3 trim levels: the base CE, the mid-range LE and S, the latter the only trim to offer a manual transmission.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: The base CE or “Classic Edition” trim came standard with manual windows and locks, but was available with optional power windows and locks. The mid-range LE or “Luxury Edition” came with blue gauge faces with dark blue numbers and orange needles. It was also fitted with mock-wood interior accents. Some models came with a 2-compartment center console and leather seats. On the exterior, the LE and above models came with colour-keyed mirrors and door guards, and blacked out B-pillars. 15-inch 6 spoke Alloy wheels were optional, as well as a rear spoiler. The S or “Sport” trim adds side skirts, front and rear ground effects, a rear spoiler, and 15-inch 6 spoke aluminium alloy wheels as standard. Some models were available with blacked out headlight housings. On the interior, the colour scheme is changed to black, with subtle chrome accents. The S trim also adds a gauge set with white numbers and red markings and needles for a sporty appearance.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: Shown as a concept in November 2003, a sporty XRS model (ZZE131), introduced in 2004 between the 2005 and 2006 model years only, featured the high-revving at 7,600 rpm, at 4,400 rpm 2ZZ-GE engine and 6-speed manual from the Toyota Celica GT-S and Lotus Elise. The 2ZZ-GE motor was developed with collaboration from Yamaha Motor Corporation (like other wide-angle head GE, GTE, and GZE Toyota engines), and uses similar technologies found in its sibling motor the 1ZZ-FE. The XRS was very similar to its Corolla S cousin in appearance, however there are significant changes to the mechanical components. The 2ZZ-GE uses a cable throttle (unlike the electronic throttle control of the 2ZZ-GE in the later years of the Celica GT-S) with a lift set-point at 6,700 rpm and an 8,200 rpm redline. The close ratio C60 6-speed manual transmission (also found in the Toyota Matrix XRS) was the only transmission available. The sport-tuned suspension lowered the Corolla XRS by . A Yamaha designed brace spans the front strut towers as well as a X-brace for the rear towers. The steering column is thicker and the power steering system is unique.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: The rear drum brakes from the S (and other Corolla trims) were replaced with the drum-in-disc brakes from the Celica GT-S and the ABS system was upgraded to a four-channel with EBD (Electronic Brakeforce Distribution). Absent are Traction Control and Stability Control Systems (VSC). The Corolla XRS was given 5 spoke 16-inch painted aluminium alloy wheels (similar to the Matrix) and Michelin Pilot Primacy P195/55-R16 summer performance tires, equipped with a Tire Pressure Monitoring System (TPMS). The wheels are the most noticeable difference in exterior appearance from the Corolla S that features 6-spoke 15-inch alloy wheels. Other exterior differences being the key coloured grill surround (other trims have chrome), XRS badge at the back, rear discs, and a slightly lowered appearance.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: The interior features a three-spoke leather wrapped steering wheel from the Celica, leather shift knob, and leather shift boot from the Matrix XRS. Optitron gauges like those found in Lexus vehicles replaced the standard red-on-white gauges of the Corolla S. The interior has dark blue plastic with silver accenting and beige pillars from the bottom of the windows to the beige headliner. The dashboard is black. The front seats were replaced with manually adjustable sports seats with more side bolstering. The 4 main seats are black cloth with a blue hexagon pattern and black cloth sides. The front floor mats are from the Corolla S. Due to the rear X-brace, the rear seats do not fold 60-40 like those found in the other Corolla trims. Colour choices for the Corolla XRS were Super White II, Silver Streak Mica, Phantom Gray Pearl, Black Sand Pearl, Impulse Red Pearl, and Indigo Ink Pearl.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: The Corolla XRS was on sale in the United States, Canada, and Puerto Rico. Toyota estimated to sell approximately 5,000 Corolla XRS per year. Production numbers have not been released, however it has been speculated that less than 7,000 were produced (unofficially estimated at 6,619 units). Unofficially, Toyota Canada has disclosed that 818 were sold MY (model year) 2005 and only 279 MY 2006, bringing a total of 1,097 Corolla XRS being sold in the country over the 2 model years. This limited production and minimal exterior differences resulted in the Corolla XRS being a unique sleeper hiding among the extremely common Corolla S and is the final outright performance designed model from Toyota that was targeted towards "single male buyers" before the complete switch to the Toyotas' Scion youth oriented brand.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: The E140 Corolla XRS introduced for the 2009 model year as a successor used the 2.4L 2AZ-FE from the Toyota Camry and Scion tC and was available with a 5-speed manual or 5-speed automatic. While the 2009 Corolla XRS caters to a greater range of customers with the option of an automatic transmission, it is significantly slower than the previous generation and although its design intentions are similar, it is a different car from the original 2005 and 2006 Corolla XRS.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: To commemorate 20 years of building Toyota Corolla in Canada, Toyota Canada offered the 20th Anniversary Edition Corolla CE for the 2008 model year, which includes power door locks with keyless entry, cruise control, power windows with driver's side auto down, special edition badging, aluminium alloy wheels and power sunroof.


title: Toyota Corolla (E120)

text: In Brazil, the Corolla sedan and the Corolla Fielder wagon are built locally. It is available with the 1.6L 3ZZ-FE engine (sedan only) and the 1.8L 1ZZ-FE. The sedan is externally identical to both US and ASEAN (Altis) models, but the Fielder has different styling from the Japanese version. Starting from the 2008 model (released May 2007), the 1.8L 1ZZ-FBE engine has flexible fuel technology. Unlike most other flexible fuel vehicles in Brazilian market, the Corolla Flex has the same power ratings either with ethanol or petrol.


title: Languages of Afghanistan

text: Afghanistan is a linguistically diverse nation, with an upwards of 40 distinct languages. The two most prominent languages being Dari and Pashto. Dari, serving as a historic Lingua Franca between different linguistic groups, is the most widely understood language. Pashto however, being the largest first language, has the most native speakers of all of Afghanistans languages. Both Languages have shared official status and are genetically related.


title: Languages of Afghanistan

text: Dari is the official name of the variety of Persian language spoken in Afghanistan. It is often referred to as the "Afghan Persian". Although still widely known as "Farsi" (Persian: فارسی; "Persian") to its native speakers, the name was officially changed to Dari in 1964 by the Afghan government. Dari has been the preferred language of government for centuries, despite the domination of politics by Pashtuns, whose native language is Pashto.


title: Languages of Afghanistan

text: According to CIA World Factbook, Dari Persian is spoken by 78% (L1 + L2) and functions as the lingua franca, while Pashto is spoken by 35%, Uzbek 10%, English 5%, Turkmen 2%, Urdu 2%, Pashayi 1%, Nuristani 1%, Arabic 1%, and Balochi 1% (2021 est). Data represent the most widely spoken languages; shares sum to more than 100% because there is much bilingualism in the country and because respondents were allowed to select more than one language. The Turkic languages Uzbek and Turkmen, as well as Balochi, Pashayi, Nuristani, and Pamiri are the third official languages in areas where the majority speaks them.


title: Languages of Afghanistan

text: Both Persian and Pashto are Indo-European languages from the Iranian languages sub-family. Other regional languages, such as Uzbek, Turkmen, Balochi, Pashayi and Nuristani, are spoken by minority groups across the country.


title: Languages of Afghanistan

text: Minor languages include: Ashkunu, Kamkata-viri, Vasi-vari, Tregami and Kalasha-ala, Pamiri (Shughni, Munji, Ishkashimi and Wakhi), Brahui, Arabic, Qizilbash, Aimaq, and Pashai and Kyrgyz, and Punjabi. Linguist Harald Haarmann believes that Afghanistan is home to more than 40 minor languages, with around 200 different dialects.


title: Languages of Afghanistan

text: The Persian or Dari language functions as the nation's lingua franca and is the native tongue of several of Afghanistan's ethnic groups including the Tajiks, Hazaras and Aimaqs. Pashto is the native tongue of the Pashtuns, the dominant ethnic group in Afghanistan. Due to Afghanistan's multi-ethnic character, multilingualism is a common phenomenon.


title: Languages of Afghanistan

text: The exact figures about the size and composition of the various ethnolinguistic groups are unavailable since no systematic census has been held in Afghanistan in decades. The table below displays the major languages spoken in Afghanistan per sample statistics:


title: Languages of Afghanistan

text: A sizeable population in Afghanistan, especially in Kabul, can also speak and understand Hindustani due to the popularity and influence of Bollywood films and songs in the region.


title: Languages of Afghanistan

text: The official languages of the country are Dari and Pashto, as established by the 1964 Constitution of Afghanistan. Dari is the most widely spoken language of Afghanistan's official languages and acts as a lingua franca for the country. In 1980, other regional languages were granted official status in the regions where they are the language of the majority. This policy was codified in the 2004 Afghan Constitution, which established Uzbek, Turkmen, Balochi, Pashayi, Nuristani and Pamiri as a third official language in areas where they are spoken by a majority of the population.


title: Languages of Afghanistan

text: Since Afghanistan is predominantly located on the Iranian plateau, the majority of spoken languages belong to the family of Iranic languages. Turkic languages are spoken sparsely at the northern intersection of the plateau with Central Asia. Similarly, Nuristani languages and Dravidian languages are spoken sparsely at some regions where the plateau intersects with the Indian subcontinent.


title: Languages of Afghanistan

text: Until 2004, Dari and Pashto were the only languages promoted by the government. Though policy has since changed, it has still harmed many minority languages of the country. The table below shows endangered languages spoken in Afghanistan that are recognized by UNESCO. UNESCO recognizes 23 endangered languages in Afghanistan, 12 of which are exclusively spoken in Afghanistan and one having gone extinct after UNESCO's survey.


title: Meir Kahane

text: Meir David HaKohen Kahane (; ; born Martin David Kahane; August 1, 1932 – November 5, 1990) was an American-born Israeli ordained Orthodox rabbi, writer, and ultra-nationalist politician who served one term in Israel's Knesset before later being convicted of acts of terrorism. A cofounder of the Jewish Defense League (JDL) and founder of the Israeli political party Kach, he espoused strong views against antisemitism.


title: Meir Kahane

text: Kahane was an intense advocate for Jewish causes. He organized defense squads and patrols in Jewish neighborhoods, and demanded that the Soviet Union release its oppressed Jews. He supported violence against those he regarded as enemies of the Jewish people, called for immediate Jewish mass migration to Israel to avoid a potential "Holocaust" in the United States, supported the restriction of Israel's democracy to its Jewish citizens, and endorsed the annexation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip.


title: Meir Kahane

text: In 1968, Kahane was one of the co-founders of the JDL in the United States. In 1971, he co-founded Kach ("Thus"), a new political party in Israel. That same year, he was convicted in New York for conspiracy to manufacture explosives and received a suspended sentence of five years. In Israel, he was convicted for plotting to blow up the Libyan embassy in Brussels in revenge for the massacre of 11 Israeli athletes at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, receiving a suspended sentence and probation. In 1984, he became a member of the Knesset, when Kach gained its only-ever seat in parliamentary elections. Kahane was boycotted across the aisles of the Knesset, and would often speak in front of an empty chamber. The Israel Broadcasting Authority similarly avoided coverage of his activities. The Central Elections Committee tried to ban Kahane from running in the 1984 elections, but this ban was overturned by the Supreme Court because there was no law to support it. In response, the Knesset approved an ad hoc law that allowed for the banning of parties that are "racist" or "undemocratic". In 1988, despite polls showing Kach gaining popularity due in part to the ongoing First Intifada, Kach was banned from entering that year's elections.


title: Meir Kahane

text: Kahane publicized his "Kahanism" ideology, which he claimed was simply Torah Judaism based on "Halakha" (Jewish law), through published works, weekly articles, speeches, debates on college campuses and in synagogs throughout the United States, and appearances on various televised programs and radio shows. In Israel, he proposed enforcing "Halakha" as codified by Maimonides and hoped that Israel would eventually adopt "Halakha" as state law. Non-Jews wishing to dwell in Israel would have three options: remain as "resident strangers" with limited rights, leave Israel and receive compensation for their property, or be forcibly removed without compensation. While serving in the Knesset in the mid-1980s Kahane proposed numerous laws, none of which passed, to emphasize Judaism in public schools, reduce Israel's bureaucracy, forbid sexual relations between Jews and non-Jews, separate Jewish and Arab neighborhoods, and end cultural meetings between Jewish and Arab students.


title: Meir Kahane

text: Kahane was assassinated in a New York City hotel by an Egyptian-born U.S. citizen in November 1990. His legacy continues to influence militant and far-right political groups active today in Israel.


title: Meir Kahane

text: Meir Kahane was born in Brooklyn, New York, to an Orthodox Jewish family. Kahane was a member of an established rabbinic family, including his father, who was head of the Flatbush Board of Rabbis. His father, Yechezkel Shragei (Charles) Kahane (1905–1978), had studied at Polish and Czech yeshivas, and was the author of the rabbinic work "Torah Yesharah". He was deeply involved in the Revisionist Zionist movement as a close friend of Ze'ev Jabotinsky. Kahane's grandfather was Nachman Kahane (1869–1937), a leading rabbinic scholar in Safed, who was the son of Baruch David Kahane (1850–1925), the author of "Hibat ha-Eretz", and a disciple of Chaim Halberstam of Sanz. Baruch David was a direct descendant of Simcha Rappaport (1650–1718), of the Rappaport rabbinic family, who were allegedly able to trace their ancestry back to Eleazar ben Azariah, a 1st-century sage in the Land of Israel. Baruch David immigrated to Mandatory Palestine from Poland in 1873. An uncle of Kahane's was killed in Safed during the 1929 Arab riots.


title: Meir Kahane

text: As a teenager, Kahane became an ardent admirer of Jabotinsky and Peter Bergson, who were frequent guests in his parents' home. He joined the Betar (Brit Trumpeldor) youth wing of Revisionist Zionism. He was active in protests against Ernest Bevin, the British Foreign Secretary who maintained restrictions on the immigration of Jews, even Holocaust survivors, to Palestine after the end of the Second World War. In 1947, Kahane was arrested for throwing eggs and tomatoes at Bevin, who was disembarking at Pier 84 on a visit to New York. A photo of the arrest appeared in the "New York Daily News". In 1954, he became the Mazkir (Secretary) of Greater New York City's 16 Bnei Akiva chapters.


title: Meir Kahane

text: Kahane's formal education included Yeshiva of Flatbush for elementary school and Brooklyn Talmudical Academy for high school. Kahane received his rabbinical ordination from the Mir Yeshiva in Brooklyn, where he was especially admired by the head Rabbi Abraham Kalmanowitz. He was fully conversant in the Tanakh (Jewish Bible), the Talmud, the Midrash and Jewish law. Subsequently, Kahane earned a B.A. in political science from Brooklyn College in 1954, a Bachelor of Law – LL.B. from New York Law School, and an M.A. in International Relations from New York University.


title: Meir Kahane

text: In 1956, Kahane married Libby Blum, with whom he had four children: Tzipporah, Tova, Baruch, and Binyamin.


title: Meir Kahane

text: In 1966, Kahane, under the alias of Michael King and while already married, had an affair and proposed to 21-year-old model Gloria Jean D'Argenio (who used the stage name Estelle Donna Evans). Kahane sent a letter to D'Argenio in which he unilaterally ended their relationship. In response, D'Argenio jumped off the Queensboro Bridge and died of her injuries the next day. In 2008, Kahane's wife dismissed the incident as lacking proof.


title: Meir Kahane

text: After D'Argenio's death, Kahane started the Estelle Donna Evans Foundation in her name. Kahane claimed D'Argenio had been his former secretary in his failed consulting operation, she had died of terminal cancer, and her "well-to-do" family had endowed the foundation. In reality, the money was used to fund the JDL, including supplies for bombings and Kahane's lavish travel.


title: Meir Kahane

text: In 1958, Kahane became the rabbi of the Howard Beach Jewish Center in Queens, New York City. Although the synagog was originally Conservative, rather than strictly Orthodox, the board of directors agreed to Kahane's conditions, which included resigning from the Conservative movement's United Synagogue of America, installing a partition separating men and women during prayer, instituting traditional prayers, and maintaining a kosher kitchen. At the Jewish Center, Kahane influenced many of the synagog's youngsters to adopt a more observant lifestyle, which often troubled parents. He trained Arlo Guthrie for his bar mitzvah. When his contract was not renewed, he soon published an article entitled "End of the Miracle of Howard Beach". That was Kahane's first article in "The Jewish Press", an American Orthodox Jewish weekly for which he would continue to write for the rest of his life. Kahane also used the pen name David Sinai, and the pseudonyms Michael King, David Borac, and Martin Keene.


title: Meir Kahane

text: In the late 1950s and the early 1960s, Kahane's life of secrecy and his strong anticommunism landed him a position as a consultant with the FBI. According to his wife, Libby, his assignment was to infiltrate the anticommunist John Birch Society and report his findings to the FBI.


title: Meir Kahane

text: At some time in the late 1950s, Kahane assumed the persona of a Gentile, along with the pseudonym Michael King. Kahane began openly expressing his anticommunism. He and Joseph Churba created the July Fourth Movement, which was formed to counteract widespread opposition towards U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. Subsequently, they coauthored the book "The Jewish Stake in Vietnam", an attempt to convince American Jews of the "evil of Communism". The introduction states that, "All Americans have a stake in this grim war against Communism... It is vital that Jews realize the threat to their very survival [should Communism succeed]." Churba had a major falling out with Kahane over the use of paramilitary activities, and they parted ways permanently. Churba went on to pursue his own career, joining the U.S. Air Force, writing many books on the Middle East, and eventually becoming one of Ronald Reagan's consultants. Kahane chose to fight for Jewish rights, and was willing to use extreme measures. He even attempted to acquire and grow biological weapons to use on a Soviet military installation. He began using the phrase "Never again" and conceived the Jewish Star and fist insignia, a symbol resembling that of the Black Panther Party. However, Kahane himself opposed the Black Panthers, claiming they had supported anti-Jewish riots in Massachusetts and had left-wing views.


title: Meir Kahane

text: Kahane founded the Jewish Defense League (JDL) in New York City in 1968. Its self-described purpose was to protect Jews from local manifestations of anti-Semitism. The JDL said it was committed to five fundamental principles:


title: Meir Kahane

text: According to his wife Libby Kahane, the JDL favored "civil rights for blacks, but opposed black anti-Semites and racism of any form." In 1971, the JDL formed an alliance with a black rights group in what Kahane termed "a turning point in Black-Jewish relations". The Anti-Defamation League claimed that Kahane "preached a radical form of Jewish nationalism which reflected racism, violence and political extremism" that was replicated by Irv Rubin, the JDL's successor to Kahane.


title: Meir Kahane

text: A number of the JDL's members and leaders, including Kahane, were convicted of acts related to domestic terrorism. In 1971, Kahane was sentenced to a suspended five-year prison sentence and fined $5,000 for conspiring to manufacture explosives. In 1975, Kahane was arrested for leading the attack on the Soviet United Nations mission and injuring two officers, but he was released after being given summonses for disorderly conduct. Later the same year, Kahane was accused of conspiring to kidnap a Soviet diplomat, bomb the Iraqi embassy in Washington, and ship arms abroad from Israel. He was convicted of violating his probation for the 1971 bombing conviction and was sentenced to one year in prison. However, he served most of it in a hotel, with frequent unsupervised absences, because of a concession over the provision of kosher food.


title: Meir Kahane

text: In a 1984 interview with "Washington Post" correspondent Carla Hall, Kahane admitted that the JDL "bombed the Russian [Soviet] mission in New York, the Russian cultural mission here [Washington] in 1971, the Soviet trade offices".


title: Meir Kahane

text: In 1971, Kahane moved to Israel. At the time, he declared that he would focus on Jewish education. He later began gathering lists of Arab citizens of the State of Israel who were willing to emigrate for compensation, and eventually, he initiated protests that advocated the expulsion of Arabs from that country, and Israeli-occupied territories. In 1972, Jewish Defense League leaflets were distributed in Hebron, calling for the mayor to stand trial for the 1929 Hebron massacre. Kahane was arrested dozens of times. In 1971, he founded Kach, a political party that ran for the Knesset, the Israeli Parliament, during the 1973 general elections under the name "The League List". It won 12,811 votes (0.82%), just 2,857 (0.18%) short of the electoral threshold at the time (1%) for winning a Knesset seat. The party was even less successful in the 1977 elections, winning only 4,836 votes.


title: Meir Kahane

text: In 1980, Kahane was arrested for the 62nd time since his emigration, and he was jailed for six months after a detention order that was based on allegations of him planning armed attacks against Palestinians in response to the killings of Jewish settlers. Kahane was held in prison in Ramla, where he wrote the book "They Must Go". Kahane was banned from entering the UK in 1981.


title: Meir Kahane

text: In 1981, Kahane's party again ran for the Knesset during the 1981 elections, but it did not win a seat and received only 5,128 votes. In 1984, the Israeli Central Elections Committee banned him from being a candidate on the grounds that Kach was a racist party, but the Supreme Court of Israel overturned the ban on the grounds that the committee was not authorized to ban Kahane's candidacy. The Supreme Court suggested that the Knesset pass a law excluding racist parties from future elections. The Knesset responded in 1985 by amending the "Basic Law: Knesset" to include a prohibition (paragraph 7a) against the registration of parties that explicitly or implicitly incite racism.


title: Meir Kahane

text: In the 1984 legislative elections, Kahane's Kach party received 25,907 votes (1.2%), gaining one seat in the Knesset, which was taken by Kahane. He refused to take the standard oath of office and insisted on adding a Biblical verse from Psalms to indicate that national laws were overruled by the Torah if they conflict. Kahane's legislative proposals focused on Jewish education, an open economy, transferring the Arab population out of the Land of Israel, revoking Israeli citizenship from non-Jews, and banning Jewish-Gentile marriages and sexual relations.


title: Meir Kahane

text: While his popularity in Israel grew, Kahane was boycotted in the Knesset, where his speeches were often made to an empty assembly except for the duty chairman and the transcriptionist. The Knesset revoked his Parliamentary immunity to prevent his freedom of movement in areas where his inflammatory rhetoric could cause harm. Kahane's legislative proposals and motions of no-confidence against the government were ignored or rejected. Kahane often pejoratively called other Knesset members "Hellenists," a reference to Jews who assimilated into Greek culture after Judea's occupation by Alexander the Great.


title: Meir Kahane

text: In 1987, Kahane opened a yeshiva ("HaRaayon HaYehudi") with funding from US supporters to teach "the Authentic Jewish Idea". Despite the boycott, his popularity grew among the Israeli public, especially for working-class Sephardi Jews. Polls showed that Kach would have likely received anywhere from four to twelve seats in the coming November 1988 elections.


title: Meir Kahane

text: In 1985, the Knesset passed an amendment to the Basic Law of Israel, barring political parties that incited to racism. The Central Elections Committee banned Kahane a second time, and he appealed to the Israeli Supreme Court. However, the Supreme Court this time ruled in favor of the committee, disqualifying Kach from running in the 1988 legislative elections. Kahane was thus the first candidate in Israel to be barred from election for racism. The move was criticized as being anti-democratic by Alan M. Dershowitz.


title: Meir Kahane

text: After Kahane's election to the Knesset in 1984, the United States government attempted to revoke his U.S. citizenship, which Kahane successfully challenged in court. However, in 1987, the Knesset passed a law declaring that a Knesset member could only be an Israeli citizen. To remain eligible for office, Kahane renounced his United States citizenship, but after being banned from the Knesset for his politics, he again filed suit to get his U.S. citizenship reinstated based on the argument that he was compelled to relinquish it by the Knesset. The court rejected this argument, but he was permitted to continue traveling to the United States.


title: Meir Kahane

text: In November 1990, Kahane gave a speech to an audience of mostly Orthodox Jews from Brooklyn, where he warned American Jews to emigrate to Israel before it was "too late". As a crowd gathered around Kahane in the second-floor lecture hall in Midtown Manhattan's New York Marriott East Side, Kahane was assassinated by El Sayyid Nosair, an Egyptian-born U.S. citizen. He was initially charged and acquitted of the murder. Nosair was later convicted of the murder in U.S. District Court for his involvement in the 1993 World Trade Center bombing. Prosecutors were able to try Nosair again for the murder because the federal indictment included the killing as part of the alleged terrorist conspiracy. He was sentenced to life imprisonment and later made a confession to federal agents.


title: Meir Kahane

text: Kahane was buried on Har HaMenuchot, in Jerusalem. He was eulogized by supporters in both the U.S. and in Israel, including Rabbi Moshe Tendler and the Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Israel, Mordechai Eliyahu, who spoke of how little the people understood of Kahane's true value.


title: Meir Kahane

text: Kahane argued that there was a glory in Jewish destiny, which came through the observance of the Torah and "halakha" (Jewish law). He observed, "Democracy and Judaism are not the same thing." Kahane was of the view a Jewish state and a Western democracy were incompatible, since Western democracy is religion-blind, and a Jewish state is religion-oriented by its very name. He feared non-Jewish citizens becoming a majority and voting against the Jewish character of the state: "The question is as follows: if the Arabs settle among us and make enough children to become a majority, will Israel continue to be a Jewish state? Do we have to accept that the Arab majority will decide?" He also said, "Western democracy has to be ruled out. For me, that's cut and dried: There's no question of setting up democracy in Israel, because democracy means equal rights for all, irrespective of racial or religious origins."


title: Meir Kahane

text: Kahane proposed an "exchange of populations" that would continue the Jewish exodus from Arab lands: "A total of some 750,000 Jews fled Arab lands since 1948. Surely it is time for Jews, worried over the huge growth of Arabs in Israel, to consider finishing the exchange of populations that began 35 years ago." Kahane proposed a $40,000 compensation plan for Arabs who would leave voluntarily, and forcible expulsion for those who "don't want to leave". He encouraged retaliatory violence against Arabs who attacked Jews: "I approve of anybody who commits such acts of violence. Really, I don't think that we can sit back and watch Arabs throwing rocks at buses whenever they feel like it. They must understand that a bomb thrown at a Jewish bus is going to mean a bomb thrown at an Arab bus."


title: Meir Kahane

text: In some of his writings, Kahane argued that Israel should never start a war for territory but that if a war were launched against Israel, Biblical territory should be annexed. However, in an interview, he defined Israel's "minimal borders" as follows: "The southern boundary goes up to El Arish, which takes in all of northern Sinai, including Yamit. To the east, the frontier runs along the western part of the East Bank of the Jordan River, hence part of what is now Jordan. Eretz Yisrael also includes part of Lebanon and certain parts of Syria, and part of Iraq, all the way to the Euphrates River." When critics suggested that following Kahane's plans would mean a perpetual war between Jews and Arabs, Kahane responded, "There will be a perpetual war. With or without Kahane."


title: Meir Kahane

text: Following Kahane's death, no leader emerged to replace him in the movement. However, the idea of transferring populations, attributed mainly to Kahane, was subsequently incorporated into the political platform of several parties in Israel, such as Moledet (applying to Arab non-citizen residents of the West Bank) and Yisrael Beiteinu (in the form of population exchange). Two small Kahanist factions later emerged; one under the name "Kach", and the other under the name "Kahane chai" (Hebrew: כהנא חי, literally "Kahane lives [on]"), the second one being led by his younger son, Binyamin Ze'ev Kahane. Neither one was permitted to participate in the Knesset elections by the Central Elections Committee.


title: Meir Kahane

text: In 1994, following the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre of Palestinian Muslim worshippers in Hebron by Kach supporter Baruch Goldstein, in which 29 Muslim worshipers were killed, the Israeli government declared both parties to be terrorist organizations. The US State Department also added Kach and Kahane Chai to its list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations.


title: Meir Kahane

text: In the 2003 Knesset elections, Herut, which had split off from the National Union list, ran with Michael Kleiner and former Kach activist Baruch Marzel taking the top two spots on the list. The joint effort narrowly missed the 1.5% barrier. In the following 2006 elections, the Jewish National Front, led by Baruch Marzel, fared better, but it also failed to pass the minimum threshold. A follower of Kahane who was involved with Kach for many years, Michael Ben-Ari, was elected to the Knesset in the 2009 elections on renewed National Union list. He stood again in the 2013 elections as the second candidate on the list of Otzma LeYisrael, but the party failed to pass the minimum threshold.


title: Meir Kahane

text: In 2007, the FBI released over a thousand documents relating to its daily surveillance of Kahane from the early 1960s.


title: Meir Kahane

text: In 2015, Kahane's grandson, Meir Ettinger, was detained by Israeli law enforcement. He was the alleged leader of the radical Jewish group "The Revolt". In an online "manifesto" echoing some of his grandfather's teachings, Ettinger promotes the "dispossession of gentiles" who live in Israel and the establishment of a new "kingdom of Israel", a theocracy ruled according to the Halacha. Ettinger's writings condemned Israel's government, mainstream rabbis, and the IDF, and also have denounced Christian churches as "idolatry".


title: Meir Kahane

text: Libby Kahane, his widow, published the first volume of a biography "Rabbi Meir Kahane: His Life and Thought Vol. One: 1932–1975" around 2008. A contributor to "Haartez" said the book "lacks serious analysis", "ignores important unflattering details" and "serves as an apologetic". In 2016, Libby Kahane claimed that modern Jewish extremists in Israel do not follow the ideology of her late husband. She justified that claim by arguing that, unlike modern Jewish extremists, Rabbi Kahane had a more mature approach that did not encourage illegal activities.


title: Meir Kahane

text: In 2017, "The Forward" reported that some of Kahane's followers were aligning themselves with white nationalists and the alt-right. Other Kahanists declared that such moves did not reflect Kahane's teachings, and they supported that declaration by arguing that Kahane worked together with African Americans.


title: Johnny Got His Gun

text: Johnny Got His Gun is an anti-war novel written in 1938 by American novelist Dalton Trumbo and published in September 1939 by J. B. Lippincott. The novel won one of the early National Book Awards: the Most Original Book of 1939. A 1971 film adaptation was written for the screen and directed by Trumbo himself.


title: Johnny Got His Gun

text: Joe Bonham, a young American soldier serving in World War I, awakens in a hospital bed after being caught in the blast of an exploding artillery shell. He gradually realizes that he has lost his arms, legs, and all of his face (including his eyes, ears, nose, teeth, and tongue), but that his mind functions perfectly, leaving him a prisoner in his own body.


title: Johnny Got His Gun

text: Joe attempts suicide by suffocation, but finds that he has had a tracheotomy that he can neither remove nor control. At first Joe wishes to die, but he later decides that he desires to be placed in a glass box and toured around the country in order to show others the true horrors of war. Joe successfully communicates these desires with military officials after months and months of banging his head on his pillow in Morse code. However, he realizes that the military will not grant his wishes, as it is "against regulations". It is implied that he will live the rest of his natural life in his condition.


title: Johnny Got His Gun

text: As Joe drifts between reality and fantasy, he remembers his old life with his family and girlfriend, and reflects upon the myths and realities of war.


title: Johnny Got His Gun

text: Joe Bonham is the main character. "The novel mainly consists of his reminiscences of childhood and his current struggle to remain sane and finally to communicate."


title: Johnny Got His Gun

text: "As a caretaker, capable of great humanistic love, the regular day nurse stands apart from the terse medical establishment, represented by the Morse code man, yet is not capable of the perceptive sympathy of the new day nurse."


title: Johnny Got His Gun

text: Joe's father, Bill Bonham, courted Joe's mother and raised a family with her in Colorado. "His character comes to stand for Joe's nostalgia for an older way of life." It is also said that Bill passes away (chapter 1) leaving his mother and his younger sisters alone (one aged 13 years, the other aged about 9 years).


title: Johnny Got His Gun

text: Joe's mother, Marcia Bonham, was close to Joe and Bill. She is referenced regularly in the book singing, cooking/baking and playing the piano.


title: Johnny Got His Gun

text: Kareen (who was aged 19 years at the time of Joe's departure) is mentioned throughout the book as Joe floats between reality and fantasy. She and Joe sleep together for the first time (chapter 3) the night before he leaves, with her father's reluctant approval.


title: Johnny Got His Gun

text: Diane is only mentioned in chapter 4. In that chapter it is mentioned that she cheated on Joe with a boy named Glen Hogan. She also cheats on Joe with his best friend, Bill Harper (who told him that she cheated with Hogan).


title: Johnny Got His Gun

text: Bill Harper warns Joe that Diane has cheated on him with Glen Hogan. Joe, who doesn't believe the news, hits Bill. Joe later finds out Bill was truthful and decides that he wants to renew their friendship. However, he finds Bill and Diane making out at her home and is hurt by both. The end of chapter 4 references how Bill was killed at Belleau Wood.


title: Johnny Got His Gun

text: Joe meets Howie (chapter 9) after his troubles with Diane and Glen Hogan. It seems that Howie was never able to keep a girl in his life, and his girlfriend Onie also cheated on him with Glen Hogan. Joe and Howie decide not only to forget about their girlfriends but also about Glen Hogan. Joe and Howie join a group of Mexicans working on a railroad. However, once Howie receives an apologetic telegram from Onie, the boys decide to return home.


title: Johnny Got His Gun

text: José worked at a bakery with Joe. He was given the job at the bakery through the local homeless shelter. José has many stories that set him apart from the other homeless workers, including the fact that he refused marriage to a wealthy woman. José wanted to work in Hollywood. When the opportunity presented itself to work for a picture company, José purposely gets fired because he feels his own personal honor will not allow him to quit on the boss that gave him his original opportunity.


title: Johnny Got His Gun

text: The new day nurse was the first person to successfully communicate with Joe after his injuries. She moved her finger on his bare chest in the shape of the letter M until Joe signaled that he understood "M". She then spelled out "MERRY CHRISTMAS" and Joe signaled that he understood. The new day nurse then deduced that Joe's head-banging was in Morse Code and fetched someone who knew Morse Code.


title: Johnny Got His Gun

text: a rallying call that was commonly used to encourage young American men to enlist in the military in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. That phrase was popularized in the George M. Cohan song "Over There", which was widely recorded in the first year of American involvement in World War I; the versions by Al Jolson, Enrico Caruso, and Nora Bayes are believed to have sold the most copies on phonograph records at the time. "Johnny Get Your Gun" is also the name of a 1919 film directed by Donald Crisp.


title: Johnny Got His Gun

text: Many of protagonist Joe Bonham's early memories are based on Dalton Trumbo's early life in Colorado and Los Angeles. The novel is inspired by articles about two men with severe injuries that Trumbo read about: the tearful hospital visit of Edward VIII, Prince of Wales to Curley Christian, considered to be the first and only Canadian soldier in WWI who was a quadruple amputee, and a British major whose body was damaged so horrifically that he was reported as MIA to his family. The family discovered the truth years after his death in the hospital. "Though the novel was a pacifist piece published in wartime, it was well reviewed and won an American Booksellers Award in 1940."


title: Johnny Got His Gun

text: Serialized in the "Daily Worker" in March 1940, published by the Communist Party USA to which Trumbo belonged, the book became "a rally point for the political left" which had opposed involvement in World War II during the period of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (1939-1941) when the USSR maintained a non aggression pact with Nazi Germany. Shortly after the 1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union, Trumbo and his publishers decided to suspend reprinting the book until the end of the war, due to the Communist Party USA's support for the war so long as the US was allied with the Soviet Union against Nazi Germany.


title: Johnny Got His Gun

text: In his introduction to a 1959 reprinting, Trumbo describes receiving letters from right-wing isolationists requesting copies of the book when it was out of print. Trumbo contacted the FBI and turned these letters over to them. Trumbo regretted this decision, which he later called "foolish," after two FBI agents showed up at his home and it became clear that "their interest lay not in the letters but in me."


title: Kent McCord

text: Kent Franklin McWhirter (born September 26, 1942), known by his stage name Kent McCord, is a retired American actor, best known for his role as Officer Jim Reed on the television series "Adam-12."


title: Kent McCord

text: McCord was born Kent Franklin McWhirter in Los Angeles, California to Bert and Laura McWhirter. First using his real name on television in 1962 in "The Adventures of Ozzie & Harriet", he later adopted his stage name. He became a close friend of Rick Nelson and made 44 appearances on the program. He also landed small parts in five Elvis Presley films and (as Kent McWhirter) portrayed a motorcycle courier in "McHale's Navy" in the episode "Monkey Business 007". McCord also appeared in the first episode (September 14, 1967) of Raymond Burr's "Ironside" series, titled "Message from Beyond", as motorcycle cop Kellogg.


title: Kent McCord

text: In the first season of Jack Webb's "Dragnet 1967", he appeared three times. The first appearance was an extra as a patrol officer in the episode "The Big Explosion". He was credited under his legal name. In the third episode, "The Interrogation", McCord was credited under his stage name in the role of a police officer who has been accused of robbing a store while working an undercover narcotics detail fresh out of the police academy. McCord went on to appear five additional times in the second season, three times as unnamed officers and twice as his eventual "Adam-12" character Jim Reed. He appeared once more on "Dragnet" as Reed before the character became exclusive to "Adam-12".


title: Kent McCord

text: McCord's big break came in 1968 when he was given a lead role next to Martin Milner as rookie police officer James A. "Jim" Reed on "Adam-12", a police drama television series created by Jack Webb. The show ran on NBC from 1968 to 1975.


title: Kent McCord

text: McCord was elected to the national board of directors of the Screen Actors Guild in 1972 and was on the board for 11 years. He was the first national vice president while on the National Board of Directors.


title: Kent McCord

text: McCord appeared as a downed fighter ace on the 1970s series "Baa Baa Black Sheep". In 1980, he played Troy on the television series "Galactica 1980". Two years later, Webb tabbed him for a new "Dragnet" series he was ready to launch, with McCord to play the partner to Webb's Joe Friday. Webb died in December 1982, however, before any of the episodes he wrote could be produced. In 1982, McCord played Mr. Unger on "".


title: Kent McCord

text: In 1989, he co-starred on the crime drama "Unsub". He re-teamed with Martin Milner, his co-star in "Adam-12", in the cable TV-movie "Nashville Beat" (1990), originally shown on The Nashville Network. In 1990, McCord appeared in the film "Predator 2" as Captain Pilgrim. He played John Reynolds in "Return of the Living Dead 3" (1993).


title: Kent McCord

text: From 1994 to 1995, McCord played the recurring role of Scott Keller on "seaQuest DSV". He appeared in three episodes of "JAG", and more recently, became a semi-regular guest star on "Farscape", where he played two versions (one human and one alien appearing in the physical form of the human) of the same character, Jack Crichton from 1999 to 2003, appearing in all four seasons. He played Deputy U.S. Marshal Jack Hendricks on the series "Renegade".


title: Lev Kamenev

text: Lev Borisovich Kamenev ("né" Rozenfeld; – 25 August 1936) was a Bolshevik revolutionary and a prominent Soviet politician.


title: Lev Kamenev

text: Born in Moscow to parents who were both involved in revolutionary politics, Kamenev attended Imperial Moscow University before becoming a revolutionary himself, joining the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) in 1901 and was active in Moscow, Saint Petersburg and Tiflis (now Tbilisi). He took part in the failed Russian Revolution of 1905. Relocating abroad in 1908, Kamenev became an early member of the Bolsheviks and a close associate of the exiled Vladimir Lenin. In 1914, he was arrested on his return to Saint Petersburg and exiled in Siberia, but was able to return following the February Revolution of 1917 which overthrew the Tsarist monarchy. In 1917, he served briefly as the equivalent of the first head of state of Soviet Russia. Kamenev disagreed with Lenin's strategy of armed uprising during the October Revolution, but nevertheless remained in a position of power after the fall of the Provisional Government. In 1919, he was elected as a full member of the first Politburo.


title: Lev Kamenev

text: During Lenin's final illness in 1923–24, Kamenev was the acting leader of the Soviet Union, forming a troika with Grigory Zinoviev and Joseph Stalin which led to Leon Trotsky's downfall. Stalin subsequently turned against his former allies and ousted Kamenev from the Soviet leadership. Along with Zinoviev, he was expelled from the party three times. Kamenev was arrested in 1935 following the assassination of Sergei Kirov and made a chief defendant in 1936 Trial of the Sixteen, which marked the start of the Great Purge. He was found guilty during the show trial and executed by a firing squad on 25 August. He coincidentally died on the same day as Sergey Kamenev, with whom he was not related.


title: Lev Kamenev

text: Kamenev was born as Leo Rosenfeld in Moscow, the son of a Jewish railway worker who was a convert to Russian Christian Orthodoxy and an ethnic Russian Orthodox Christian mother. Both of his parents were active in radical politics. His father used the capital he earned in the construction of the Baku–Batumi railway to pay for Lev's education. Kamenev attended the boys' Gymnasium in Tiflis, Georgia (now Tbilisi) and later Moscow University where he became involved in political activity. His arrest in 1902 interrupted his formal education. From that point on, he worked as a professional revolutionary, and was active in the capital St. Petersburg, Moscow and Tiflis. He adopted the surname Kamenev during this period. In the early 1900s, he married Olga Bronstein, a fellow Marxist (and younger sister of Leon Trotsky, who had also adopted a different surname). The couple had two sons together.


title: Lev Kamenev

text: Kamenev joined the Social Democrats in 1901. He took a brief trip abroad in 1902, meeting Russian social democratic leaders living in exile, including Vladimir Lenin, whose adherent and close associate he became. He also visited Paris and met the "Iskra" group who published the newspaper. After attending the 3rd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) in London in March 1905, Kamenev returned to Russia to participate in the Russian Revolution of 1905 in St. Petersburg in October–December.


title: Lev Kamenev

text: He went back to London to attend the 5th RSDLP Party Congress, where he was elected to the party's Central Committee and the Bolshevik Center, in May 1907, but was arrested upon his return to Russia. After Kamenev was released from prison in 1908, he and his family went abroad later in the year to help Lenin edit the Bolshevik magazine "Proletariy." After Lenin's split with another senior Bolshevik leader, Alexander Bogdanov, in mid-1908, Kamenev and Grigory Zinoviev became Lenin's main assistants abroad. They helped him expel Bogdanov and his Otzovist (Recallist) followers from the Bolshevik faction of the RSDLP in mid-1909.


title: Lev Kamenev

text: In January 1910, Leninists, followers of Bogdanov, and various Menshevik factions held a meeting of the party's Central Committee in Paris and tried to re-unite the party. Kamenev and Zinoviev were dubious about the idea, but were willing to give it a try under pressure from "conciliator" Bolsheviks like Victor Nogin. Lenin was adamantly opposed to re-unification, but was outvoted within the Bolshevik leadership. The meeting reached a tentative agreement. As one of its provisions, Trotsky's Vienna-based "Pravda" was designated as a party-financed 'central organ'. Kamenev, Trotsky's brother-in-law, was added to Pravda's editorial board as a representative of the Bolsheviks in this process. The unification attempts failed in August 1910, when Kamenev resigned from the board amid mutual recriminations.


title: Lev Kamenev

text: After the failure of the reunification attempt, Kamenev continued working for "Proletariy" and taught at the Bolshevik party school at Longjumeau near Paris. It had been founded as a Leninist alternative to Bogdanov's Party School based in Capri. In January 1912, Kamenev helped Lenin and Zinoviev to convince the Prague Conference of Bolshevik delegates to split from the Mensheviks and Otzovists.


title: Lev Kamenev

text: In January 1914, he was sent to St. Petersburg to direct the work of the Bolshevik version of "Pravda" and the Bolshevik faction of the Duma. Kamenev was arrested in November and tried, where he distanced himself from Lenin's anti-war stance. In early 1915, Kamenev was sentenced to exile in Siberia; he survived two years there until being freed by the successful February Revolution of 1917.


title: Lev Kamenev

text: Before leaving Siberia, Kamenev proposed sending a telegram thanking the Tsar's brother Mikhail for refusing the throne. He was so embarrassed later by his action that he denied ever having sent it.


title: Lev Kamenev

text: On 25 March 1917, Kamenev returned from Siberian exile to St. Petersburg (renamed as Petrograd in 1914). Kamenev and Central Committee members Joseph Stalin and Matvei Muranov took control of the revived Bolshevik "Pravda" and moved it to the Right. Kamenev formulated a policy of conditional support of the newly formed Russian Provisional Government and a reconciliation with the Mensheviks. After Lenin's return to Russia on 3 April 1917, Kamenev briefly resisted Lenin's anti-government April Theses, but soon fell in line and supported Lenin until September.


title: Lev Kamenev

text: Kamenev and Zinoviev had a falling out with Lenin over their opposition to Soviet seizure of power in October 1917. On 10 October 1917 (Old Style), Kamenev and Zinoviev were the only two Central Committee members to vote against an armed revolt. Their publication of an open letter opposed to the use of force enraged Lenin, who demanded their expulsion from the party. However, when the Bolshevik-led Military Revolutionary Committee, headed by Adolph Joffe, and the Petrograd Soviet, led by Trotsky, staged an uprising, Kamenev and Zinoviev went along. At the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets, Kamenev was elected Congress Chairman and Chairman of the permanent All-Russian Central Executive Committee. The latter position was equivalent to the head of state under the Soviet system.


title: Lev Kamenev

text: On 10 November 1917, three days after the Soviet seizure of power during the October Revolution, the executive committee of the national railroad labor union, "Vikzhel", threatened a national strike unless the Bolsheviks shared power with other socialist parties and dropped the uprising's leaders, Lenin and Trotsky, from the government. Zinoviev, Kamenev and their allies in the Bolshevik Central Committee argued that the Bolsheviks had no choice but to start negotiations, since a railroad strike would cripple their government's ability to fight the forces that were still loyal to the overthrown Provisional Government. Although Zinoviev and Kamenev briefly had the support of a Central Committee majority and negotiations were started, a quick collapse of the anti-Bolshevik forces outside Petrograd aided Lenin and Trotsky to convince the Central Committee to abandon the negotiating process. In response, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Alexei Rykov, Vladimir Milyutin and Victor Nogin resigned from the Central Committee on 4 November 1917 (Old Style) and Kamenev resigned from his Central Executive Committee post. The following day Lenin wrote a proclamation calling Zinoviev and Kamenev "deserters." He never forgot their behavior, eventually making an ambiguous reference to their "October episode" in his Testament.


title: Lev Kamenev

text: In 1918, Kamenev became chairman of the Moscow Soviet, and soon thereafter Lenin's Deputy Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars (government) and the Council of Labour and Defence. In March 1919, Kamenev was elected as a full member of the first Politburo. His personal relationship with his brother-in-law Trotsky, which was good in the aftermath of the 1917 revolution and during the Russian Civil War, lessened after 1920. For the next 15 years, Kamenev was a friend and close ally of Grigory Zinoviev, who exceeded him in ambition.


title: Lev Kamenev

text: During Lenin's illness, Kamenev was appointed as the acting President of the Council of People's Commissars and Politburo chairman. Together with Zinoviev and Joseph Stalin, he formed a ruling 'triumvirate' (or 'troika') in the Communist Party, and played a key role in the marginalization of Trotsky. The triumvirate carefully managed the intra-party debate and delegate selection process in the fall of 1923 during the run-up to the 13th Party Conference, securing a vast majority of the seats. The Conference, held in January 1924 immediately prior to Lenin's death, denounced Trotsky and "Trotskyism."


title: Lev Kamenev

text: In the spring of 1924, while the triumvirate was criticizing the policies of Trotsky and the Left Opposition as "anti-Leninist", the tensions between the volatile Zinoviev and his close ally Kamenev on one hand, and the cautious Stalin on the other, became more pronounced and threatened to end their fragile alliance. However, Zinoviev and Kamenev helped Stalin retain his position as General Secretary of the Central Committee at the XIIIth Party Congress in May–June 1924 during the first Lenin's Testament controversy, ensuring that the triumvirate gained more political advantage at Trotsky's expense.


title: Lev Kamenev

text: In October 1924, Stalin proposed his new theory of Socialism in One Country in opposition to Trotsky's theory of Permanent revolution, while Trotsky published "Lessons of October," an extensive summary of the events of 1917. In the article, Trotsky described Zinoviev and Kamenev's opposition to the Bolshevik seizure of power in 1917, something that the two would have preferred left unmentioned. This started a new round of intra-party struggle, with Zinoviev and Kamenev once again allied with Stalin against Trotsky. They and their supporters accused Trotsky of various mistakes and worse during the Russian Civil War. Trotsky was ill and unable to respond much to the criticism, and the triumvirate damaged Trotsky's military reputation so much that he was forced out of his ministerial post as People's Commissar of Army and Fleet Affairs and Chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council in January 1925. Zinoviev demanded Trotsky's expulsion from the Communist Party, but Stalin refused to go along with this and skillfully played the role of a moderate.


title: Lev Kamenev

text: At the XIVth Conference of the Communist Party in April 1925, Zinoviev and Kamenev found themselves in a minority when their motion to specify that socialism could only be achieved internationally was rejected, resulting in the triumvirate of recent years breaking up. At this time, Stalin was moving more and more into a political alliance with Nikolai Bukharin and the Right Opposition, with Bukharin having elaborated on Stalin's "Socialism in One Country" policy, giving it a theoretical justification.