title: Attack submarine

text: Attack submarines may be either nuclear-powered or diesel-electric ("conventionally") powered. In the United States Navy naming system, and in the equivalent NATO system (STANAG 1166), nuclear-powered attack submarines are known as SSNs and their anti-submarine (ASW) diesel-electric predecessors are SSKs. In the US Navy, SSNs are unofficially called "fast attacks".


title: Attack submarine

text: During World War II, submarines that fulfilled the offensive surface attack role were termed fleet submarines in the U.S. Navy and "ocean-going", "long-patrol", "type 1" or "1st class" by continental European navies.


title: Attack submarine

text: In the action of 9 February 1945, sank while both were at periscope depth. This was the first and so far only intentional sinking of a submerged submarine by a submerged submarine. "U-864" was snorkeling, thus producing much noise for "Venturer"s hydrophones (an early form of passive sonar) to detect, and "Venturer" was fortunate in having over 45 minutes to plot the U-boat's zig-zag course by observing the snorkel mast. "Venturer"s commander, James S. "Jimmy" Launders, was astute in assuming the U-boat would execute an "emergency deep" maneuver once it heard the torpedoes in the water, thus the "spread" of four torpedoes immediately available was aimed on that assumption. One hit, sinking the U-boat.


title: Attack submarine

text: Following World War II, advanced German submarines, especially the Type XXI U-boat, became available to the Allies, particularly the United States Navy and the Soviet Navy. Initially, the Type XVII U-boat, with a Walter hydrogen peroxide-fueled gas turbine allowing high sustained underwater speed, was thought to be more developed than was actually the case, and was viewed as the submarine technology of the immediate future. However, the Type XXI, streamlined and with a high battery capacity for high submerged speed, was fully developed and became the basis for most non-nuclear submarine designs worldwide through the 1950s. In the US Navy, the Greater Underwater Propulsion Power Program (GUPPY) was developed to modernize World War II submarines along the lines of the Type XXI. By 1955 the U.S. Navy was using the term 'attack submarine' to describe the GUPPY conversions and the first postwar submarines (the and the ).


title: Attack submarine

text: It was realized that the Soviet Union had acquired Type XXI and other advanced U-boats and would soon be putting their own equivalents into production. In 1948 the US Navy prepared estimates of the number of anti-submarine warfare (ASW)-capable submarines that would be needed to counter the hundreds of advanced Soviet submarines that were expected to be in service by 1960. Two scenarios were considered: a reasonable scenario assuming the Soviets would build to their existing force level of about 360 submarines, and a "nightmare" scenario projecting that the Soviets could build submarines as fast as the Germans had built U-boats, with a force level of 2,000 submarines. The projected US SSK force levels for these scenarios were 250 for the former and 970 for the latter. Additional anti-surface (i.e., 'attack'), guided missile, and radar picket submarines would also be needed. By comparison, the total US submarine force at the end of World War II, excluding obsolescent training submarines, was just over 200 boats.


title: Attack submarine

text: A small submarine suitable for mass production was designed to meet the SSK requirement. This resulted in the three submarines of the "K-1" class (later named the "Barracuda" class), which entered service in 1951. At surfaced, they were considerably smaller than the boats produced in World War II. They were equipped with an advanced passive sonar, the bow-mounted BQR-4, but had only four torpedo tubes. Initially, a sonar located around the conning tower was considered, but tests showed that bow-mounted sonar was much less affected by the submarine's own noise.


title: Attack submarine

text: While developing the purpose-built SSKs, consideration was given to converting World War II submarines into SSKs. The less-capable was chosen for this, as some of the deeper-diving - and boats were being upgraded as GUPPYs. Seven "Gato"-class boats were converted to SSKs in 1951–53. These had the bow-mounted BQR-4 sonar of the other SSKs, with four of the six bow torpedo tubes removed to make room for the sonar and its electronics. The four stern torpedo tubes were retained. Two diesel engines were removed, and the auxiliary machinery was relocated in their place and sound-isolated to reduce the submarine's own noise.


title: Attack submarine

text: The Soviets took longer than anticipated to start producing new submarines in quantity. By 1952 only ten had entered service. However, production was soon ramped up. By the end of 1960 a total of 320 new Soviet submarines had been built (very close to the USN's 1948 low-end assumption), 215 of them were the Project 613 class (NATO Whiskey class), a smaller derivative of the Type XXI. Significantly, eight of the new submarines were nuclear-powered.


title: Attack submarine

text: , the world's first nuclear submarine, was operational in 1955; the Soviets followed this only three years later with their first Project 627 "Kit"-class SSN (NATO November class). Since a nuclear submarine could maintain a high speed at a deep depth indefinitely, conventional SSKs would be useless against them:


title: Attack submarine

text: As the development and deployment of nuclear submarines proceeded, in 1957–59 the US Navy's SSKs were decommissioned or redesignated and reassigned to other duties. It had become apparent that all nuclear submarines would have to perform ASW missions.


title: Attack submarine

text: Research proceeded rapidly to maximize the potential of the nuclear submarine for the ASW and other missions. The US Navy developed a fully streamlined hull form and tested other technologies with the conventional , commissioned in 1953. The new hull form was first operationalized with the three conventional boats and the six nuclear boats, when both classes entered service beginning in 1959. The was declared the "world's fastest submarine" following trials, although the actual speed was kept secret.


title: Attack submarine

text: Sonar research showed that a sonar sphere capable of three-dimensional operation, mounted at the very bow of a streamlined submarine, would increase detection performance. This was recommended by Project Nobska, a 1956 study ordered by Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke. The one-off in 1960 and the starting in 1961 were the first with a bow-mounted sonar sphere; midships torpedo tubes angled outboard were fitted to make room for the sphere.


title: Attack submarine

text: "Tullibee" was a type of nuclear-powered SSK; technologically very successful, intentionally slow but ultra-quiet with turbo-electric drive. Her unexpectedly high cost compared with the "Thresher" proved it was impossible to build a low-cost nuclear SSK (several nuclear reactor features could not be scaled down beyond a certain point, including radiation shielding). This result coupled with her lower performance was judged to be not cost-effective and the type was not repeated; the Navy decided to merge the hunter-killer role with the attack submarines, making the terms interchangeable. "Thresher" was faster and had an increased diving depth, carried twice as many torpedoes, included comparable sound silencing improvements, and was commissioned only nine months later.


title: Attack submarine

text: "Thresher"'s loss in April 1963 triggered a major redesign of subsequent US submarines known as the SUBSAFE program. However, "Thresher"s general arrangement and concept were continued in all subsequent US Navy attack submarines.


title: Attack submarine

text: The first fully streamlined Soviet attack submarines were the Project 671 "Yorsh" class (NATO Victor I class), which first entered service in 1967.


title: Attack submarine

text: China commissioned its first nuclear attack submarine Changzheng 1 in 1974, and France its first "Rubis"-class submarine in 1983.


title: Attack submarine

text: The only time in history that a nuclear attack submarine engaged and sank an enemy warship was in the Falklands War, when on 2 May 1982 the British nuclear submarine torpedoed and sank the Argentine light cruiser .


title: Attack submarine

text: As of 2021 Brazil has a nuclear attack submarine under construction, India has finalized a nuclear attack submarine interim design, and Australia has started a nuclear attack submarine program under the AUKUS security pact with UK and US assistance.


title: Attack submarine

text: Conventional attack submarines have however remained relevant throughout the nuclear era, with the British class and the Soviet , , and classes being good examples which served during the Cold War. With the advent of air-independent propulsion technology, these submarines have grown more and more capable. Examples include the Type 212, and classes of submarine. The US Navy leased to perform the opposing force role during ASW exercises tactics. The "Gotland" caused a stir in 2005 when during training it "sank" the American carrier .


title: Upanayana

text: Upanayana ( ) is a Brahmin educational sacrament, one of the traditional saṃskāras or rites of passage that marked the acceptance of a student by a preceptor, such as a "guru" or "acharya", and an individual's initiation into a school in Brahminism. Some traditions consider the ceremony as a spiritual rebirth for the child or future "dvija", twice born. It signifies the acquisition of the knowledge of God and the start of a new and disciplined life as a brahmachari.Its applicable only those who are in Brahmin, Kshatriya or Vaishya Varna according to Hinduism. According to the given community and region, it is also known by numerous terms such as "janai" or "janea", "poita/paita", "logun/nagun", y"agnopavita", "bratabandha", "bratopanayan, mekhal." The "Upanayanam" ceremony is arguably the most important rite for the Brahmin male, ensuring his rights and responsibilities as a Brahmin and signifying his advent into adulthood.


title: Upanayana

text: The tradition is widely discussed in ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism and varies regionally. The sacred thread or Yajnopavita (also referred to as "Janeu", "Jandhyam," "Poonal, Munja, Yonya and Janivara") has become one of the most important identifiers of the "Upanayana" ceremony in contemporary times, however this was not always the case. Generally, this ceremony should be performed before the advent of adulthood.


title: Upanayana

text: An interesting fact hardly known is that Janeu was worn by Jains as well in olden days, both by Guru and also Laymen. How this tradition died amongst Jains is unknown. Details of this ritual can be found as Upanayan sanskar vidhi in the 'Achar Dinkar Granth' by Jain monk Acharya Vardhamansuri of 10th century CE.


title: Upanayana

text: Recently in 2021, a Jain temple was excavated in Halebidu, Karnataka where a Jain idol wearing a janeu was found. More recently, in the 1st week of November 2022, another Jain idol with a janeu was found in a ruined Jain Temple in Sirichelma Village, Adilabad district, Telangana. Based on the mudra, it is assumed to be an idol of Gautam swami, the primary disciple of 24th Jain Tirthankar Mahāvīra. Guru Gautam swami in this mudra is commonly seen in Shwetambar Jain temples.


title: Upanayana

text: "Upanayana" literally means "the act of leading to or near, bringing", "introduction (into any science)" or "initiation" (as elucidated by Monier-Williams). Upanayana is formed from the root √"ni" meaning 'to lead'. "Nayana" is a noun formed from the root √"ni" meaning 'leading to'. The prefix "upa" means 'near'. With the prefix the full literal meaning becomes 'leading near (to)'. The initiation or rite of passage ceremony in which the sacred thread is given symbolizes the child drawn towards a school, towards education, by the guru or teacher. The student was being taken to the Gods and a disciplined life. As explained by PV Kane, taking (the child) near the acarya (for instruction), or alternately "introducing to studenthood". It is a ceremony in which a teacher accepts and draws a child towards knowledge and initiates the second birth that is of the young mind and spirit.


title: Upanayana

text: A popular variation is "Maunjibandhana", derived from two words munja, a type of grass, and "bandhana" which means to tie or bind. The munjha grass is tied around the waist. This word was used by Manu. Another variation is "vratabandha(na)" meaning "binding to an observance". The word "janeu" is a condensed version of "yagyopaveeta". The ceremony is also known as "punal kalyanam" (meaning auspicious thread ceremony) and "Brahmopadesa".


title: Upanayana

text: The sacred thread or upper garment (such as a dupatta or uparane) is also called "Yajñopavita", used as an adjective, which is derived from "Yajna" (sacrifice) and "Upavita" (worn)"." The literal meaning would then become "some thing worn on the body for the sacrifice". Along with the "Yajñopavita" there may be a "danda" (staff) and "mekhala" (girdle).


title: Upanayana

text: The earliest form of this samskara, whose name there are no records of, may have been to mark the acceptance of a person into a particular community. Indologically, the ritual is present in the Grhyasūtras and Dharmasūtras and "Dharmaśāstra", as well as a couple of times in the Samhitas.


title: Upanayana

text: Educational courses or training has been referred to in the "Chandogya Upanishad" and in the "Yājñavalkya Smṛti"; Gharpure (1956) writes that during the Smriti period, Upanayana may have attained a permanent fixture if the life of students to be as compared to being optional before.


title: Upanayana

text: In the Atharvaveda, and later in the Sutras period, the word "Upanayana" meant taking responsibility of a student, the beginning of an education, a students initiation into "studentship" and the acceptance of the student by the teacher. Preceptors could include a Guru, Acharya, Upadhyaya and Rtvik.


title: Upanayana

text: Gradually new layers of meaning emerged such as the inclusion of Goddess Savitri or Saraswati, with the teacher becoming the enabler of the connection between this goddess and the student. The meaning was extended to include Vedangas and vows among other things.


title: Upanayana

text: The education of a student was not limited to ritual and philosophical speculations found in the Vedas and the Upanishads. It extended to many arts and crafts, which had their own, similar rites of passages. Aitareya Brahmana, Agamas and Puranas literature of Hinduism describe these as "Śilpa Śastras". They extend to all practical aspects of culture, such as the sculptor, the potter, the perfumer, the wheelwright, the painter, the weaver, the architect, the dancer, and the musician. The training of these began from childhood and included studies about dharma, culture, reading, writing, mathematics, geometry, colors, tools, as well as traditions and trade secrets. The rites of passage during apprentice education varied in the respective guilds. Susruta and Charaka developed the initiation ceremony for students of Ayurveda. The "Upanayana" rite of passage was also important to the teacher, as the student would therefrom begin to live in the "gurukula" (school).


title: Upanayana

text: Upanayana became an elaborate ceremony, that includes rituals involving the family, the child and the teacher. A boy receives during this ceremony a sacred thread called "Yajñopaveetam" that he wears. The "Yajñopavita" ceremony announces that the child had entered into formal education. In the modern era, the Upanayana rite of passage is open to anyone at any age. Upanayana follows Vidyāraṃbhaṃ, the previous rite of passage. Vidyāraṃbhaṃ became an intermediary samskara following the evolution in writing and language. Vidyāraṃbhaṃ now marked the beginning of primary education or literacy while Upanayana went on to refer to spiritual education. Upanayana can also take place at the student's home for those who are home-schooled. Ceremonial begging as one of the rituals during Upanayana became important, attaining sizeable proportions. The actual initiation occurred during the recitation of the Gayatri Mantra. The spiritual birth would take place four days after the initial Upanayana rituals. It was then that the last ritual was performed, the Medhajanana. The Samavartanam or convocation ritual marked the end of the course. The Upanayana became a permanent feature around the Upanisadic period.


title: Upanayana

text: In Hindu traditions, a human being is born at least twice—once at physical birth and second at intellectual birth through teacher's care. The first is marked through the "Jatakarman" rite of passage; the second is marked through "Upanayanam" or "Vidyarambha" rites of passage. A sacred thread was given by the teacher during the initiation to school ceremony and was a symbolic reminder to the student of his purpose at school as well as a social marker of the student as someone who was born a second time ("dvija", twice born).


title: Upanayana

text: Many medieval era texts discuss Upanayana in the context of three of the four "varnas" (caste, class) — Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. The ceremony was typically performed at age eight among the Brahmins, at age 11 among the Kshatriyas, and age 12 among Vaishyas. "Apastamba Gryha Sutra" (verse 1.1.1.27) places a maximum age limit of 24 for the Upanayana ceremony and start of formal education. However, "Gautama Gryha Sutra" and other ancient texts state that there is no age restriction and anyone of any age can undertake Upanayanam when they initiate their formal studies of the Vedas.


title: Upanayana

text: Several texts such as "Sushruta Sutrasthana", however, also include the fourth varna, the Shudras, entering schools and the formal education process, stating that the Upanayana rite of passage was open to everyone.


title: Upanayana

text: The large variation in age and changes to it over time was to accommodate for the diversity in society and between families.


title: Upanayana

text: Vedic period texts such as the Baudhāyana "Grihyasutra" encouraged the three Varnas of society to undergo the Upanayana.


title: Upanayana

text: In some regions, in modern times, some girls undergo Upanayana rite of passage. In ancient and medieval eras, texts such as Harita Dharmasutras, Asvalayana Grhya Sutra and Yama smriti suggest women could begin Vedic studies after Upanayana.


title: Upanayana

text: Girls who decided to become a student underwent the Upanayana rite of passage, at the age of 8, and thereafter were called "Brahmavadini". They wore a thread or upper garment over their left shoulder. Those girls who chose not to go to a "gurukul" were called "Sadyovadhu" (literally, one who marries straight). However, the "Sadyovadhu", too, underwent a step during the wedding rituals, where she would complete Upanayana, and thereafter wear her upper garment (saree) over her left shoulder. This interim symbolic Upanayana rite of passage for a girl, before her wedding, is described in multiple texts such as the Gobhila Gryha Sutra (verse 2.1.19) and some Dharmasutras.


title: Upanayana

text: The sacred thread or yajnopavita ( "yajñopavītam") has become one of the most important parts of contemporary Upanayana ceremonies. There are accordingly a number of rules related to it. The thread is composed of three cotton strands of nine strands each. The strands symbolize different things in their regions. For example, among Tamils, each strand is for each of the three trinity of goddesses Parvati, Lakshmi and Saraswati. According to another tradition, each of the nine threads represented a God, such as Agni, Bhaga and Chandra.


title: Upanayana

text: The predecessor to the sacred thread was an upper garment (such as a dupatta or uparane). However as traditions developed the upper garment began to be worn continuously. The usage of a thread grew out of convenience and manageability, becoming more popular than alternatives such as a kusa rope.


title: Upanayana

text: The ancient Sanskrit texts offer a diverse view while describing yajñopavītam or upavita. The term upavita was originally meant to be any upper garment, as stated in Apastamba Dharmasutra (verse 2.2.4.22–2.2.4.23) or, if the wearer does not want to wear a top, a thread would suffice. The ancient Indian scholar Haradatta states, ""yajñopavītam" means a particular mode of wearing the upper garment, and it is not necessary to have the yajñopavīta at all times".


title: Upanayana

text: There is no mention of any rule or custom, states Patrick Olivelle, that "required Brahmins to wear a sacred string at all times", in the Brahmanical literature (Vedic and ancient post-Vedic). Yajñopavītam, textual evidence suggests, is a medieval and modern tradition. However, the term "Yajñopavīta" appears in ancient Hindu literature, and therein it means a way of wearing the upper garment during a ritual or rites of passage. The custom of wearing a string is a late development in Hinduism, was optional in the medieval era, and the ancient Indian texts do not mention this ritual for any class or for "Upanayana".


title: Upanayana

text: The Gobhila Gryha Sutra (verse 1.2.1) similarly states in its discussion on Upanayana, that "the student understands the yajnopavita as a cord of threads, or a garment, or a rope of kusa grass", and it is its methods of wearing and the significance that matters. The proper manner of wearing the upper garment or thread, state the ancient texts, is from over the left shoulder and under the right arm. "Yajñopavīta" contrasts with "Pracinavita" method of wearing the upper garment, the latter a reverse and mirror image of former, and suggested to signify rituals for elders/ancestors (for example, funeral).


title: Upanayana

text: The idea of wearing the upper garment or sacred thread, and its significance, extended to women. This is reflected in the traditional wearing of sari over the left shoulder, during formal occasions and the celebration of rites of passage such as Hindu weddings. It was also the norm if a girl undertakes the Upanayana ceremony and begins her Vedic studies as a "Brahmavadini".


title: Upanayana

text: The sacred Yajñopavītam is known by many names (varying by region and community), such as "Bratabandha, Janivaara", " Jaanva", "Jandhyam", "Poita", "Pūṇūl", "Janeu", "Lagun", "Yajnopavita", "Yagyopavit", "Yonya" and "Zunnar".


title: Upanayana

text: Scholars state that the details and restrictions in the Upanayana ceremony is likely to have been inserted into ancient texts in a more modern era. Hermann Oldenberg, for example, states that Upanayana — the solemn reception of the pupil by the teacher to teach him the Veda — is joined into texts of Vedic texts at places that simply do not make any contextual sense, do not match the style, and are likely to be a corruption of the ancient texts. For example, in Satapatha Brahmana, the "Upanayana" rite of passage text appears in the middle of a dialogue about Agnihotra; after the Upanayana verse end, sage Saukeya abruptly returns to the Agnihotra and Uddalaka. Oldenberg states that the Upanayana discussion is likely an insertion into the older text.


title: Upanayana

text: Kane states in his History of Dharmasastra reviews, as well as other scholars, that there is high likelihood of interpolation, insertion and corruption in dharma sutras and dharma sastra texts on Upanayana-related rite of passage. Patrick Olivelle notes the doubts in postmodern scholarship about the presumed reliability of Manusmriti manuscripts. He writes, "Manusmriti was the first Indian legal text introduced to the western world through the translation of Sir William Jones in 1794". This was based on the Calcutta manuscript with the commentary of Kulluka, which has been assumed to be the reliable vulgate version, and translated repeatedly from Jones in 1794 to Doniger in 1991. The reliability of the Manusmriti manuscript used since colonial times, states Olivelle, is "far from the truth. Indeed, one of the great surprises of my editorial work has been to discover how few of the over fifty manuscripts that I collated actually follow the vulgate in key readings."


title: Upanayana

text: In Nepal, a ceremony is held which combines "choodakarma" (tonsure, shave the head) and Upanayana saṃskāra locally known as "Bratabandha" (Sanskrit "brata" = promise, "bandhan" = to be bound).


title: Upanayana

text: This Sanskara involves the participation of entire family and a teacher who then accepts the boy as a disciple in the Guru–shishya tradition of Hinduism. Gayatri Mantra marks as an individual's entrance to a school of Hinduism. This ceremony ends after the boy goes for his first alms round to relatives and leave for gurus Ashram. Traditionally these boys were sent to "ashrams" with the gurus to learn in a gurukul system of education but in modern times this act of the boy doing for first alms round in town and leaving his family for gurus hermitage is done symbolically.


title: Historical revisionism

text: In historiography, historical revisionism is the reinterpretation of a historical account. It usually involves challenging the orthodox (established, accepted or traditional) views held by professional scholars about a historical event or timespan or phenomenon, introducing contrary evidence, or reinterpreting the motivations and decisions of the people involved. The revision of the historical record can reflect new discoveries of fact, evidence, and interpretation, which then results in revised history. In dramatic cases, revisionism involves a reversal of older moral judgments.


title: Historical revisionism

text: At a basic level, legitimate historical revisionism is a common and not especially controversial process of developing and refining the writing of histories. Much more controversial is the reversal of moral findings, whereby what mainstream historians had considered (for example) positive forces are depicted as negative. Such revisionism, if challenged (especially in heated terms) by the supporters of the previous view, can become an illegitimate form of historical revisionism known as historical negationism if it involves inappropriate methods such as the use of forged documents or implausible distrust of genuine documents, attributing false conclusions to books and sources, manipulating statistical data, and deliberately mistranslating texts. This type of historical revisionism can present a re-interpretation of the moral meaning of the historical record. Negationists use the term "revisionism" to portray their efforts as legitimate historical inquiry; this is especially the case when "revisionism" relates to Holocaust denial.


title: Historical revisionism

text: Historical revisionism is the means by which the historical record, the history of a society, as understood in its collective memory, continually accounts for new facts and interpretations of the events that are commonly understood as history. The historian and American Historical Association member James M. McPherson has said:


title: Historical revisionism

text: In the field of historiography, the historian who works within the existing establishment of society and has produced a body of history books from which he or she can claim authority, usually benefits from the "status quo". As such, the professional-historian paradigm is manifested as a denunciative stance towards any form of historical revisionism of fact, interpretation or both. In contrast to the single-paradigm form of writing history, the philosopher of science, Thomas Kuhn, said, in contrast to the quantifiable hard sciences, characterized by a single paradigm, the social sciences are characterized by several paradigms that derive from a "tradition of claims, counterclaims, and debates over [the] fundamentals" of research. On resistance to the works of revised history that present a culturally-comprehensive historical narrative of the US, the perspectives of black people, women, and the labour movement, the historian David Williams said:


title: Historical revisionism

text: After the Second World War, the study and production of history in the US was expanded by the G.I. Bill, which funding allowed "a new and more broadly-based generation of scholars" with perspectives and interpretations drawn from the feminist movement, the Civil Rights Movement, and the American Indian Movement. That expansion and deepening of the pool of historians voided the existence of a definitive and universally-accepted history, therefore, is presented by the revisionist historian to the national public with an history that has been corrected and augmented with new facts, evidence, and interpretations of the historical record. In "The Cycles of American History" (1986), in contrasting and comparing the US and the Soviet Union during the Cold War (1945–1991), the historian Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. said:


title: Historical revisionism

text: Revisionist historians contest the mainstream or traditional view of historical events and raise views at odds with traditionalists, which must be freshly judged. Revisionist history is often practiced by those who are in the minority, such as feminist historians, ethnic minority historians, those working outside of mainstream academia in smaller and less known universities, or the youngest scholars, essentially historians who have the most to gain and the least to lose in challenging the status quo. In the friction between the mainstream of accepted beliefs and the new perspectives of historical revisionism, received historical ideas are either changed, solidified, or clarified. If over a period of time, the revisionist ideas become the new establishment "status quo" a paradigm shift is said to have occurred. The historian Forrest McDonald is often critical of the turn that revisionism has taken but admits that the turmoil of the 1960s America has changed the way history was written:


title: Historical revisionism

text: Historians are influenced by the "zeitgeist" (spirit of the time), and the usually progressive changes to society, politics, and culture, such as occurred after the Second World War (1939–1945); in "The Future of the Past" (1989), the historian C. Vann Woodward said:


title: Historical revisionism

text: Developments in the academy, culture, and politics shaped the contemporary model of writing history, the accepted paradigm of historiography. The philosopher Karl Popper said that "each generation has its own troubles and problems, and, therefore, its own interests and its own point of view".


title: Historical revisionism

text: As the social, political, and cultural influences change a society, most historians revise and update their explanation of historical events. The old consensus, based upon limited evidence, might no longer be considered historically valid in explaining the particulars: of cause and effect, of motivation and self-interest – that tell "How?" and "Why?" the past occurred as it occurred; therefore, the historical revisionism of the factual record is revised to concord with the contemporary understanding of history. As such, in 1986, the historian John Hope Franklin described four stages in the historiography of the African experience of life in the US, which were based upon different models of historical consensus.


title: Historical revisionism

text: The historian Deborah Lipstadt ("Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory", 1993), and the historians Michael Shermer and Alex Grobman ("Denying History: Who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and Why Do They Say It?", 2002), distinguish between historical revisionism and historical negationism, the latter of which is a form of denialism. Lipstadt said that Holocaust deniers, such as Harry Elmer Barnes, disingenuously self-identify as "historical revisionists" in order to obscure their denialism as academic revision of the historical record.


title: Historical revisionism

text: As such, Lipstadt, Shermer, and Grobman said that legitimate historical revisionism entails the refinement of existing knowledge about an historical event, not a denial of the event, itself; that such refinement of history emerges from the examination of new, empirical evidence, and a re-examination, and consequent re-interpretation of the existing documentary evidence. That legitimate historical revisionism acknowledges the existence of a "certain body of irrefutable evidence" and the existence of a "convergence of evidence", which suggest that an event – such as the Black Death, American slavery, and the Holocaust – did occur; whereas the denialism of history rejects the entire foundation of historical evidence, which is a form of historical negationism.


title: Historical revisionism

text: Authors have challenged the traditional understanding of the fall of the Roman Republic, particularly regarding Julius Caesar's ascent to power and the role of his assassins. In his 2004 book, "The Assassination of Julius Caesar: A People's History of Ancient Rome", Michael Parenti challenges the orthodoxy regarding the role of several actors, most notably Cicero, as well as Brutus and others, arguing that Caesar was assassinated not out of legitimate concern for the Republic's integrity, but rather out of political animosity due to Caesar's reformist goals and policies. So-called "Caesarians" remain in the minority, however, as Parenti notes.


title: Historical revisionism

text: As non-Latin texts, such as Welsh, Gaelic and the Norse sagas have been analysed and added to the canon of knowledge about the period, and as much more archaeological evidence has come to light, the period known as the Dark Ages has narrowed to the point that many historians no longer believe that such a term is useful. Moreover, the term "dark" implies less of a void of culture and law but more a lack of many source texts in Mainland Europe. Many modern scholars who study the era tend to avoid the term altogether for its negative connotations and find it misleading and inaccurate for any part of the Middle Ages.


title: Historical revisionism

text: The concept of feudalism has been questioned. Revisionist scholars led by historian Elizabeth A. R. Brown have rejected the term.


title: Historical revisionism

text: For centuries, historians thought the Battle of Agincourt was an engagement in which the English army, overwhelmingly outnumbered four to one by the French army, pulled off a stunning victory, a version that was especially popularised by Shakespeare's play "Henry V". However, recent research by Professor Anne Curry, using the original enrollment records, has brought into question this interpretation. Though her research is not finished, she has published her initial findings, that the French outnumbered the English and the Welsh only by 12,000 to 8,000. If true, the numbers may have been exaggerated for patriotic reasons by the English.


title: Historical revisionism

text: In recounting the European colonization of the Americas, some history books of the past paid little attention to the indigenous peoples of the Americas, usually mentioning them only in passing and making no attempt to understand the events from their point of view. That was reflected in the description of Christopher Columbus having discovered America. Those events' portrayal has since been revised to avoid the word "discovery."


title: Historical revisionism

text: In his 1990 revisionist book, "The Conquest of Paradise: Christopher Columbus and the Columbian Legacy", Kirkpatrick Sale argued that Christopher Columbus was an imperialist bent on conquest from his first voyage. In a "New York Times" book review, historian and member of the Christopher Columbus Quincentenary Jubilee Committee William Hardy McNeill wrote about Sale:


title: Historical revisionism

text: McNeill declares Sale's work to be "unhistorical, in the sense that [it] selects from the often-cloudy record of Columbus's actual motives and deeds what suits the researcher's 20th-century purposes." McNeill states that detractors and advocates of Columbus present a "sort of history [that] caricatures the complexity of human reality by turning Columbus into either a bloody ogre or a plaster saint, as the case may be."


title: Historical revisionism

text: Historians in China and the West long wrote that the Manchus who conquered China and established the Qing dynasty (1636-1912) adopted the customs and institutions of the Han Chinese dynasties that preceded them and were "sinicized", that is, absorbed into Chinese culture. In the late 20th century, historians, especially in the West, explored Manchu language sources and newly accessible imperial archives, and discovered that the emperors retained their Manchu culture and that they regarded China proper as only one part of their larger empire. These scholars differ among themselves but agree on a major revision of the history of the Qing dynasty.


title: Historical revisionism

text: After the proclamation of the Argentine Republic in late 1861, its first "de facto" President, Bartolomé Mitre, wrote the first Argentine historiographical works: "Historia de Belgrano y de la Independencia Argentina" and "Historia de San Martín y de la emancipación sudamericana". Although these were criticised by notorious intellectuals such as Dalmacio Vélez Sarsfield and Juan Bautista Alberdi and even by some colleagues like Adolfo Saldías, both stated a liberal-conservative bias on Argentine history through the National Academy of History established in 1893, despite the existence of caudillos and gauchos.


title: Historical revisionism

text: During the Radical Civic Union government of Hipólito Yrigoyen, historians followed the revisionist view of anti-mitrist politicians such as Carlos D'Amico, Ernesto Quesada and David Peña and their theories reached the academy thanks to Dardo Corvalán Mendilharsu. Argentine historical revisionism could reach its peak during the peronist government. In 2011, the Manuel Dorrego National Institute of Argentine and Iberoamerican Historical Revisionism was established by the Secretary of Culture, but this one suffered a rupture between 21st century socialists and nationalists. Three weeks after the Inauguration of Mauricio Macri, the Institute was closed.


title: Historical revisionism

text: In reaction to the orthodox interpretation enshrined in the Versailles Treaty, which declared that Germany was guilty of starting World War I, the self-described "revisionist" historians of the 1920s rejected the orthodox view and presented a complex causation in which several other countries were equally guilty. Intense debate continues among scholars.


title: Historical revisionism

text: The military leadership of the British Army during World War I was frequently condemned as poor by historians and politicians for decades after the war ended. Common charges were that the generals commanding the army were blind to the realities of trench warfare, ignorant of the conditions of their men and unable to learn from their mistakes, thus causing enormous numbers of casualties ("lions led by donkeys"). However, during the 1960s, historians such as John Terraine began to challenge that interpretation. In recent years, as new documents have come forth and the passage of time has allowed for more objective analysis, historians such as Gary D. Sheffield and Richard Holmes observe that the military leadership of the British Army on the Western Front had to cope with many problems that they could not control, such as a lack of adequate military communications, which had not occurred. Furthermore, military leadership improved throughout the war, culminating in the Hundred Days Offensive advance to victory in 1918. Some historians, even revisionists, still criticise the British High Command severely but are less inclined to portray the war in a simplistic manner with brave troops being led by foolish officers.


title: Historical revisionism

text: There has been a similar movement regarding the French Army during the war with contributions by historians such as Anthony Clayton. Revisionists are far more likely to view commanders such as French General Ferdinand Foch, British General Douglas Haig and other figures, such as American John Pershing, in a sympathetic light.


title: Historical revisionism

text: Revisionist historians of the Reconstruction era of the United States rejected the dominant Dunning School that stated that Black Americans were used by carpetbaggers, and instead stressed economic greed on the part of northern businessmen. Indeed, in recent years a "neoabolitionist" revisionism has become standard; it uses the moral standards of racial equality of the 19th century abolitionists to criticize racial policies. "Foner's book represents the mature and settled Revisionist perspective", historian Michael Perman has concluded regarding Eric Foner's "Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877" (1988).


title: Historical revisionism

text: The role of American business and the alleged "robber barons" began to be revised in the 1930s. Termed "business revisionism" by Gabriel Kolko, historians such as Allan Nevins, and then Alfred D. Chandler emphasized the positive contributions of individuals who were previously pictured as villains. Peter Novick writes, "The argument that whatever the moral delinquencies of the robber barons, these were far outweighed by their decisive contributions to American military [and industrial] prowess, was frequently invoked by Allan Nevins."


title: Historical revisionism

text: Prior to the collapse of the Soviet Union and the archival revelations, Western historians estimated that the numbers killed by Stalin's regime were 20 million or higher. After the Soviet Union dissolved, evidence from the Soviet archives also became available and provided information that led to a significant revision in death toll estimates for the Stalin regime, with estimates in the range from 3 million to 9 million.


title: Historical revisionism

text: The orthodox interpretation blamed Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan for causing the war. Revisionist historians of World War II, notably Charles A. Beard, said the United States was partly to blame because it pressed the Japanese too hard in 1940 and 1941 and rejected compromises. Other notable contributions to this discussion include Charles Tansill, "Back Door To War" (Chicago, 1952); Frederic Sanborn, "Design For War" (New York, 1951); and David Hoggan, "The Forced War" (Costa Mesa, 1989). The British historian A. J. P. Taylor ignited a firestorm when he argued Hitler was an ineffective and inexperienced diplomat and did not deliberately set out to cause a world war.


title: Historical revisionism

text: Patrick Buchanan, an American paleoconservative pundit, argued that the Anglo–French guarantee in 1939 encouraged Poland not to seek a compromise over Danzig. He further argued that Britain and France were in no position to come to Poland's aid, and Hitler was offering the Poles an alliance in return. Buchanan argued the guarantee led the Polish government to transform a minor border dispute into a major world conflict, and handed Eastern Europe, including Poland, to Stalin. Buchanan also argued the guarantee ensured the country would be eventually invaded by the Soviet Union, as Stalin knew the British were in no position to declare war on the Soviet Union in 1939, due to their military weakness.


title: Historical revisionism

text: The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki have generated controversy and debate. Historians who accepted President Harry Truman's reasoning in justifying dropping atomic bombs in order to force Japanese surrender end of World War II are known as "orthodox," while "revisionists" generally deny that the bombs were necessary. Some also claim that Truman knew they were not necessary but wanted to pressure the Soviet Union. These historians see Truman's decision as a major factor in starting the Cold War. They and others also may charge that Truman ignored or inflated predictions of casualties.


title: Historical revisionism

text: Historians debate the causes and responsibility for the Cold War. The "orthodox" view puts the major blame on the Soviet Union, while a "revisionist" view puts more responsibility on the United States.


title: Historical revisionism

text: "America in Vietnam" (1978), by Guenter Lewy, is an example of historical revisionism that differs much from the popular view of the U.S. in the Vietnam War (1955–75) for which the author was criticized and supported for belonging to the revisionist school on the history of the Vietnam War. Lewy's reinterpretation was the first book of a body of work by historians of the revisionist school about the geopolitical role and the U.S. military behavior in Vietnam.


title: Historical revisionism

text: Other reinterpretations of the historical record of the U.S. war in Vietnam, which offer alternative explanations for American behavior, include "Why We Are in Vietnam" (1982), by Norman Podhoretz, "Triumph Forsaken: The Vietnam War, 1954–1965" (2006), by Mark Moyar, and "Vietnam: The Necessary War" (1999), by Michael Lind.


title: Historical revisionism

text: It is generally accepted that the foundations of modern chronology were laid by the humanist Joseph Scaliger. Isaac Newton in his work "The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms" made one of the first attempts to revise the "Scaligerian chronology". In the twentieth century the "revised chronology" of Immanuel Velikovsky can be singled out in this direction, perhaps it initiated a wave of new broad interest in the revision of chronology. The materials of the "New Chronology", a proposed revision of eras by academician Anatoly Fomenko, albeit one widely rejected by mainstream scholars as pseudoscience, show many old historical images with dates indicating the addition of a supplemental millennium in calendars in use in the Christian world a few centuries ago.


title: Historical revisionism

text: In general, many near-academic revisionist chronological theories suggest halving the duration of the Christian era, or consider certain historical periods to be erroneously dated, such as Heribert Illig's "Phantom time hypothesis". At the same time, contemporary non-academic researchers often propose a more radical revision. For example, the model of chronology reconstruction of the revisionist reduces the entire known written history to several centuries. At the same time, other non-academic revisionists, thanks to publicly available sources, question the historical reliability of the person of Joseph Scaliger himself.


title: Suits (season 7)

text: The seventh season of the American legal drama "Suits" was ordered on August 3, 2016, and started airing on USA Network in the United States July 12, 2017. The season has five series regulars playing employees at the fictional Pearson Specter Litt law firm in Manhattan: Gabriel Macht, Patrick J. Adams, Rick Hoffman, Meghan Markle, and Sarah Rafferty. Gina Torres is credited as the sixth regular only for the episodes that she appears in, following her departure last season.


title: Suits (season 7)

text: The season featured the 100th episode of the series, which was directed by Patrick J. Adams and aired August 30, 2017. To celebrate the series' milestone, the main cast (including Gina Torres) and creator Aaron Korsh came together at ATX Television Festival for a live read-through of the series' pilot script. They were joined by Abigail Spencer and Nick Wechsler to read for the episode's guest stars.


title: Suits (season 7)

text: After Markle's engagement to Prince Harry was announced on November 27, 2017, it was confirmed by show producers the next day that she would be leaving the show at the end of the season. The back half of the season aired from March 28, 2018, to April 25, 2018, concluding the season with a finale that saw the departure of both Markle and Adams.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: Kyle Joseph Schwarber (born March 5, 1993) is an American professional baseball outfielder for the Philadelphia Phillies of Major League Baseball (MLB). He played college baseball for the Indiana Hoosiers and was a first-round selection in the 2014 MLB draft by the Chicago Cubs. He made his MLB debut with the Cubs in 2015 and has also played for the Washington Nationals and Boston Red Sox. He helped the Cubs win the 2016 World Series over the Cleveland Indians, ending their 108-year drought. Known for his powerful, hard-hit home runs, Schwarber led the National League in home runs during his 2022 debut season with the Phillies, winning his first Silver Slugger Award and contributing to their appearance in the 2022 World Series.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: Schwarber attended Middletown High School in Middletown, Ohio. During his four years, he batted .408 with 18 home runs and 103 runs batted in (RBIs).


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: Schwarber enrolled at the Indiana University Bloomington to play college baseball for the Indiana Hoosiers. As a freshman, Schwarber was named a freshman All-American by Louisville Slugger and "Collegiate Baseball Newspaper" after hitting .300/.390/.513 with eight home runs and 47 RBIs. As a sophomore in 2013, he hit .366/.456/.647 with 18 home runs and 54 RBIs in 61 games. He was named a first-team All-American by the National Collegiate Baseball Writers Association (NCBWA) After the season, Schwarber played for the United States collegiate national team during the summer. As a junior, he batted .348/.456/.643 with 13 home runs. He was a finalist for the Johnny Bench Award. He majored in recreational sports management.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: In the 2012 college offseason, Schwarber played for the Wareham Gatemen of the Cape Cod Baseball League (CCBL). After winning the league championship with the Gatemen, Schwarber was awarded the playoff's most valuable player award. In June 2019, it was announced that he would join the CCBL Hall of Fame class of 2019.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: Schwarber was drafted by the Chicago Cubs in the first round, fourth overall, in the 2014 Major League Baseball draft. He signed on June 11. Upon being drafted, MLB.com analyst Bernie Pleskoff profiled Schwarber as a "game-changing" power-hitter. However, Pleskoff was critical of his base-running and fielding skills, commenting "Schwarber is sluggish on the bases and slow defensively". ESPN's Keith Law echoed a similar sentiment in his draft profile, noting "Schwarber might have the most raw power of any prospect in the class." Two pre-draft scouting reports by the MLB Scouting Bureau compared Schwarber's swinging mechanics to those of Jeff Bagwell, while also projecting him to play a role similar to Matt Stairs.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: He made his professional debut with the Boise Hawks three days later, going 3-for-4 with a home run and three RBI. The Cubs then promoted him to the Kane County Cougars of the Class A Midwest League and the Daytona Cubs of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League before the end of the season. In 72 total games between the three teams, he slashed .344/.428/.634 with 18 home runs, 53 RBI, and 18 doubles.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: Schwarber began the 2015 season with the Double-A Tennessee Smokies of the Southern League. In July 2015, he played in the All-Star Futures Game, where he was named the MVP of the game after hitting a go-ahead two-run triple for Team USA.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: The Cubs promoted Schwarber to the major leagues on June 16, 2015, to serve as a designated hitter for six games during interleague play.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: Schwarber made his major league debut as a position player that night, replacing ejected starting catcher Miguel Montero in the eighth inning against the Cleveland Indians at Wrigley Field. The following night, as a designated hitter, he got four hits in five at bats with two RBI and six total bases after the Cubs and Indians both traveled to Cleveland.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: The Cubs sent Schwarber to the Triple-A Iowa Cubs of the Pacific Coast League after the six games. On July 16, 2015, Schwarber was recalled from Triple A Iowa, to rejoin the Cubs due to an injury to catcher Montero. On July 21, in a 5–4 extra-inning victory over the Cincinnati Reds, Schwarber hit a game-tying two-run homer in the ninth inning and a solo go-ahead home run in the top of the 13th to give the Cubs the lead. Over the course of the season he split time between catcher and outfield positions. He finished the 2015 regular season having played 69 games, recording a .246 batting average with 16 home runs, 52 runs scored, and 43 RBI in just 273 plate appearances. In the National League Wild Card Game, Schwarber drove in three runs and hit a long two-run home run to help the Cubs defeat the Pittsburgh Pirates, 4–0, and advance to the Division Series against the St. Louis Cardinals. In the NLDS, Schwarber helped the Cubs to a 3–1 series victory with two home runs, including a mammoth Game 4 homer that landed on top of the new Wrigley Field scoreboard in right field. The ball was removed during the 2015–16 off-season to prevent theft but was encased in Plexiglas and returned "to where it landed". In his eighth career postseason game, a 5–2 loss to the New York Mets in Game 3 of the 2015 National League Championship Series (NLCS), Schwarber set a Cubs record with his fifth career postseason home run and also the record for the most home runs in a single postseason by a player age 22 or younger, passing Miguel Cabrera.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: Schwarber only played two games before he was involved in an outfield collision with teammate Dexter Fowler on April 7, 2016, and was removed from the game with a left leg injury. Schwarber tore the anterior cruciate ligament and lateral collateral ligament in his left knee, and would miss the rest of the 2016 season. Despite being injured, there were many trade rumors surrounding Schwarber during the season, especially regarding the Cubs desire for a premium reliever. Club president Theo Epstein addressed Schwarber's situation by saying it "wouldn't be right to trade him". The Cubs eventually acquired closer Aroldis Chapman from the New York Yankees without having to give up Schwarber. As the Cubs advanced further into the postseason, an unexpectedly fast recovery made the return of Schwarber increasingly more of a possibility. Schwarber participated in a successful on-field workout with the team at Dodger Stadium before Game 3 of the 2016 NLCS. On October 22, Schwarber went to the Arizona Fall League to play with the Mesa Solar Sox, the same day the Cubs played in Game 6 of the NLCS.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: The Cubs added Schwarber to their roster for the 2016 World Series, and started him in Game 1 as their designated hitter. Schwarber's addition to the Cubs' starting line-up was surprising given he had not played in a Major League game since his injury in April. Schwarber hit a double off the right-field wall in the 4th inning of Game 1. He became the first major league position player in baseball history to get his first hit of the season during the World Series. He was not medically cleared to play on defense, and only made appearances as a pinch or designated hitter. Schwarber and the Cubs defeated the Indians in seven games to claim the Cubs' first World Series championship in 108 years. During the World Series, Schwarber recorded seven hits, including one double, two RBI, and one stolen base while batting for a .412 batting average and maintaining a .500 on-base percentage.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: Schwarber was the opening day starting left fielder and lead-off hitter during April and May for the 2017 Chicago Cubs season. Schwarber started the first third of the year with one of the worst batting averages in all of baseball, hitting just .120 for the month of May. When he was demoted to Triple-A on June 22 he had 12 home runs and 28 RBI but his batting average was the lowest in baseball, he was averaging one strike out every three at-bats and was hitting just .143 against left-handers. Schwarber returned to the Cubs active roster on July 6, after the All-Star break. By August 12, he had hit safely in 10 of 13 games with five home runs, three doubles and a triple. He had struck out 106 times in 300 plate appearances. Schwarber hit .288 with a .954 OPS in 59 September at-bats, hit six homers to finish with 30 and raised his season average from .168 on July 6 to .211 by the end of the year.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: During the off-season Schwarber implemented a strict workout regimen and lost 30 pounds. Schwarber hit 55 home runs during three stages of the 2018 Major League Baseball Home Run Derby and finished second to Washington Nationals hometown hero Bryce Harper in the final round, 19–18. For the season, he batted .238 with 26 home runs, 14 doubles and 61 RBI.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: In 2019, Schwarber batted .250/.339/.531 with 38 home runs and 92 RBI. He was thrown the highest percentage of curveballs of all major league batters (14.7%). In 2019, on defense he led all National League left fielders in errors, with six, and had the lowest fielding percentage of all major league left fielders (.974).


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: In 2020, Schwarber batted .188/.308/.393, and had the lowest batting average of all qualified NL batters. On December 2, the Cubs non-tendered Schwarber.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: On January 9, 2021, the Washington Nationals announced they had signed Schwarber to a one-year major league contract containing a mutual option for 2022. After a slow start to the season, Schwarber went on a tear in June, hitting 16 home runs in an 18-game span from June 12 to 29. He had 5 multi-homer games during the stretch, including a 3-homer game against the New York Mets on June 20 and he slashed .280/.362/.760. This was the most home runs hit in any month in Nationals franchise history, and the second-most ever hit in the month of June in Major League history. Schwarber and Frank Howard during the 1968 Washington Senators season are the only two MLB players to hit 11 home runs in 9 games. He was named the National League Player of the Month for his efforts. On July 3, he was added to the injured list with a right hamstring strain. Schwarber appeared in 72 games with the Nationals, batting .253 with 25 home runs and 53 RBIs.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: On July 29, 2021, Schwarber was traded to the Boston Red Sox in exchange for minor-league pitcher Aldo Ramirez.He was activated from the injured list on August 13 and made his Red Sox debut that evening against the Baltimore Orioles. In a change from his outfield role, the Red Sox had him learn first base, where he had mixed success defensively. Through the end of the regular season, Schwarber played in 41 games for Boston, batting .291 with seven home runs and 18 RBIs. He then played in 11 postseason games, batting 9-for-44 (.205) as the Red Sox advanced to the American League Championship Series (ALCS). In Game 3 of the ALCS, Schwarber hit a grand slam that was Boston's third in two games, setting an MLB record for the most grand slams in a postseason series. On November 5, he declined his half of a mutual option and became a free agent.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: On March 20, 2022, Schwarber agreed to join the Philadelphia Phillies on a four-year, $79 million contract.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: Schwarber was awarded NL Player of the Month honors for June of 2022, after batting .272 with 12 home runs (most of all MLB players in June), with an OPS+ of 189 in 27 games. On September 16, 2022, Schwarber hit his 31st home run at the leadoff spot, breaking Jimmy Rollins' Phillies franchise record for most home runs at that spot in the batting order.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: In 155 games in the regular season in 2022, Schwarber finished with a .218 batting average, 100 runs scored, an NL-leading 46 home runs, and 94 RBIs. He also struck out an MLB-leading 200 times. He had the highest fly-ball percentage of all major leaguers (51.1%).


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: In the first game of the National League Championship Series, Schwarber hit a home run at Petco Park, which was both the farthest hit ball ever tracked by StatCast at that stadium and by a Phillie. Schwarber hit two more home runs in the series as the Phillies defeated the Padres in six games, reaching their first World Series since 2009.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: In the 2022 World Series against the Houston Astros, Schwarber batted .250 with five hits and four RBIs in six games. He also had the most home runs of any player in the series with three, including a game-tying solo shot to lead-off Game 5 off of Justin Verlander and a go-ahead solo shot in Game 6 off of Framber Valdez in the top of the sixth inning; however, the Phillies would lose both games and the series.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: Schwarber is credited with introducing the song “Dancing on my Own”, by Culum Scott, to the Phillies clubhouse and the song is played after every Phillies home win.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: Schwarber is the son of Greg, a retired police chief, and Donna Schwarber. He has three sisters. Kyle's uncle Thomas Schwarber played college baseball as a pitcher at Ohio State and played professionally in the Detroit Tigers minor league system for three seasons from 1991 to 1993. Schwarber played football as a linebacker in high school and also participated in Middletown High School's show choir. He grew up a Cincinnati Reds fan. Schwarber chose "Schwarbs" as his nickname for the Players Weekend during the 2017 season.


title: Kyle Schwarber

text: In 2017, while with the Chicago Cubs, Schwarber launched "Schwarber's Neighborhood Heroes" to honor and give back to first responders. and also hosted his first inaugural fundraiser, "Schwarber's Block Party", to help raise funds for first responders. On August 23rd, 2019, Schwarber held his third and final annual block party.


title: Rockmond Dunbar

text: Rockmond Dunbar (born January 11, 1973) is an American actor, best known for his roles as Baines on the NBC series "Earth 2", Kenny Chadway on Showtime family drama "Soul Food", and Benjamin Miles "C-Note" Franklin on the Fox crime drama "Prison Break". He also played Sheriff Eli Roosevelt on the FX Drama series "Sons of Anarchy", FBI Agent Dennis Abbott on "The Mentalist", FBI Agent Abe Gaines in the Hulu series "The Path", and Michael Grant on "9-1-1".


title: Rockmond Dunbar

text: Dunbar was born January 11, 1973, in Oakland, California. He attended Oakland Technical High School and graduated from Morehouse College before moving on to study at the College of Santa Fe and the University of New Mexico.


title: Rockmond Dunbar

text: Dunbar is known for his leading role as Kenny Chadway on the television series "Soul Food", and "TV Guide" named him as one of "Television's 50 Sexiest Stars of All Time". He landed a regular role as Benjamin Miles "C-Note" Franklin on the television series "Prison Break". In 2007, Dunbar starred on the short-lived TNT medical drama "Heartland". He made a guest appearance on "Noah's Arc" as himself to give Noah (screenwriter and the main character of the show) some ideas about his movie "Fine Art". He also had a recurring role on the UPN series "Girlfriends", and is also known for his role as "Pookie" on the television series "The Game". He was also a regular on the short-lived FX series "Terriers".


title: Rockmond Dunbar

text: Dunbar's other TV credits include guest appearances in "Earth 2", "Felicity", "The Pretender", "Two Guys and a Girl", and "North Shore".


title: Rockmond Dunbar

text: In 2011, he joined the cast of FX's show "Sons of Anarchy" as the new Sheriff of Charming, Eli Roosevelt. In 2013, Dunbar joined the CBS crime drama "The Mentalist" as FBI agent Dennis Abbott. In 2018, Dunbar joined the cast of "9-1-1" as Michael Grant, leaving in 2021 over the COVID-19 vaccine mandate, after his requests for exemptions were denied. In February 2022 it was reported that he has sued the makers of the show, saying he "was denied medical and religious exemptions and faced racial discrimination." In July 25, 2022, it was reported that Dunbar's case of racial misconduct was dismissed as baseless by a judge in a Los Angeles Courtroom, but that Disney/Fox does face some claims from Rockmond Dunbar alleging religious, retaliation and breach of contract, among other claims.


title: Rockmond Dunbar

text: His film projects include "Punks" (which debuted at the 2000 Sundance Film Festival), "Misery Loves Company", "Sick Puppies", "Whodunit", "Dirty Laundry", "All About You", "Kiss Kiss Bang Bang", and the Tyler Perry-produced film, "The Family That Preys".


title: Rockmond Dunbar

text: Dunbar has contributed to the art world through the mixed media exhibit, "ARTHERAPY". He posed for the November 2003 issue of "Playgirl" magazine.


title: Rockmond Dunbar

text: According to DNA analysis, Dunbar's ancestry is mainly from the Yoruba people of Nigeria. On his visit to Nigeria, he was given the Yoruba name, "Omobowale" (a variant form of "Omowale") meaning "our son has come home".


title: Rockmond Dunbar

text: Dunbar was married to Ivy Holmes from 2003 to 2006. Years later, he became engaged to his girlfriend Maya Gilbert, an actress and writer. After dating for a year, the couple's engagement took place in Montego Bay, Jamaica on December 30, 2012.


title: Rockmond Dunbar

text: Dunbar is a member of the Church of Universal Wisdom, whose members are "obligated to avoid medical intervention that introduces disease into the body". His lawsuit against Disney and Fox alleges that their lawyers called his religion "fake" and his beliefs "insincere" in discussions about the Covid-19 vaccination mandate.


title: Barter

text: In trade, barter (derived from "baretor") is a system of exchange in which participants in a transaction directly exchange goods or services for other goods or services without using a medium of exchange, such as money. Economists distinguish barter from gift economies in many ways; barter, for example, features immediate reciprocal exchange, not one delayed in time. Barter usually takes place on a bilateral basis, but may be multilateral (if it is mediated through a trade exchange). In most developed countries, barter usually exists parallel to monetary systems only to a very limited extent. Market actors use barter as a replacement for money as the method of exchange in times of monetary crisis, such as when currency becomes unstable (such as hyperinflation or a deflationary spiral) or simply unavailable for conducting commerce.


title: Barter

text: No ethnographic studies have shown that any present or past society has used barter without any other medium of exchange or measurement, and anthropologists have found no evidence that money emerged from barter. They instead found that gift-giving (credit extended on a personal basis with an inter-personal balance maintained over the long term) was the most usual means of exchange of goods and services. Nevertheless, economists since the times of Adam Smith (1723–1790) often inaccurately imagined pre-modern societies as examples to use the inefficiency of barter to explain the emergence of money, of "the" economy, and hence of the discipline of economics itself.


title: Barter

text: Adam Smith, the father of modern economics, sought to demonstrate that markets (and economies) pre-existed the state. He argued (against conventional wisdom) that money was not the creation of governments. Markets emerged, in his view, out of the division of labour, by which individuals began to specialize in specific crafts and hence had to depend on others for subsistence goods. These goods were first exchanged by barter. Specialization depended on trade but was hindered by the "double coincidence of wants" which barter requires, i.e., for the exchange to occur, each participant must want what the other has. To complete this hypothetical history, craftsmen would stockpile one particular good, be it salt or metal, that they thought no one would refuse. This is the origin of money according to Smith. Money, as a universally desired medium of exchange, allows each half of the transaction to be separated.


title: Barter

text: Barter is characterized in Adam Smith's ""The Wealth of Nations"" by a disparaging vocabulary: "haggling, swapping, dickering". It has also been characterized as negative reciprocity, or "selfish profiteering".


title: Barter

text: Anthropologists have argued, in contrast, "that when something resembling barter "does" occur in stateless societies it is almost always between strangers." Barter occurred between strangers, not fellow villagers, and hence cannot be used to naturalistically explain the origin of money without the state. Since most people engaged in trade knew each other, exchange was fostered through the extension of credit. Marcel Mauss, author of 'The Gift', argued that the first economic contracts were to "not" act in one's economic self-interest, and that before money, exchange was fostered through the processes of reciprocity and redistribution, not barter. Everyday exchange relations in such societies are characterized by generalized reciprocity, or a non-calculative familial "communism" where each takes according to their needs, and gives as they have.


title: Barter

text: Since direct barter does not require payment in money, it can be utilized when money is in short supply, when there is little information about the credit worthiness of trade partners, or when there is a lack of trust between those trading.


title: Barter

text: Barter is an option to those who cannot afford to store their small supply of wealth in money, especially in hyperinflation situations where money devalues quickly.


title: Barter

text: The limitations of barter are often explained in terms of its inefficiencies in facilitating exchange in comparison to money.


title: Barter

text: Other anthropologists have questioned whether barter is typically between "total" strangers, a form of barter known as "silent trade". Silent trade, also called silent barter, dumb barter ("dumb" here used in its old meaning of "mute"), or depot trade, is a method by which traders who cannot speak each other's language can trade without talking. However, Benjamin Orlove has shown that while barter occurs through "silent trade" (between strangers), it also occurs in commercial markets as well. "Because barter is a difficult way of conducting trade, it will occur only where there are strong institutional constraints on the use of money or where the barter symbolically denotes a special social relationship and is used in well-defined conditions. To sum up, multipurpose money in markets is like lubrication for machines - necessary for the most efficient function, but not necessary for the existence of the market itself."


title: Barter

text: In his analysis of barter between coastal and inland villages in the Trobriand Islands, Keith Hart highlighted the difference between highly ceremonial gift exchange between community leaders, and the barter that occurs between individual households. The haggling that takes place between strangers is possible because of the larger temporary political order established by the gift exchanges of leaders. From this he concludes that barter is "an atomized interaction predicated upon the presence of society" (i.e. that social order established by gift exchange), and not typical between complete strangers.


title: Barter

text: As Orlove noted, barter may occur in commercial economies, usually during periods of monetary crisis. During such a crisis, currency may be in short supply, or highly devalued through hyperinflation. In such cases, money ceases to be the universal medium of exchange or standard of value. Money may be in such short supply that it becomes an item of barter itself rather than the means of exchange. Barter may also occur when people cannot afford to keep money (as when hyperinflation quickly devalues it).


title: Barter

text: An example of this would be during the Crisis in Bolivarian Venezuela, when Venezuelans resorted to bartering as a result of hyperinflation. The increasingly low value of bank notes, and their lack of circulation in suburban areas, meant that many Venezuelans, especially those living outside of larger cities, took to the trading over their own goods for even the most basic of transactions.


title: Barter

text: Economic historian Karl Polanyi has argued that where barter is widespread, and cash supplies limited, barter is aided by the use of credit, brokerage, and money as a unit of account (i.e. used to price items). All of these strategies are found in ancient economies including Ptolemaic Egypt. They are also the basis for more recent barter exchange systems.


title: Barter

text: While one-to-one bartering is practised between individuals and businesses on an informal basis, organized barter exchanges have developed to conduct third party bartering which helps overcome some of the limitations of barter. A barter exchange operates as a broker and bank in which each participating member has an account that is debited when purchases are made, and credited when sales are made.


title: Barter

text: Modern barter and trade has evolved considerably to become an effective method of increasing sales, conserving cash, moving inventory, and making use of excess production capacity for businesses around the world. Businesses in a barter earn trade credits (instead of cash) that are deposited into their account. They then have the ability to purchase goods and services from other members utilizing their trade credits – they are not obligated to purchase from those whom they sold to, and vice versa. The exchange plays an important role because they provide the record-keeping, brokering expertise and monthly statements to each member. Commercial exchanges make money by charging a commission on each transaction either all on the buy side, all on the sell side, or a combination of both. Transaction fees typically run between 8 and 15%. A successful example is International Monetary Systems, which was founded in 1985 and is one of the first exchanges in North America opened after the TEFRA Act of 1982.


title: Barter

text: Throughout the 18th century, retailers began to abandon the prevailing system of bartering. Retailers operating out of the Palais complex in Paris, France were among the first in Europe to abandon the bartering, and adopt fixed-prices thereby sparing their clientele the hassle of bartering. The Palais retailers stocked luxury goods that appealed to the wealthy elite and upper middle classes. Stores were fitted with long glass exterior windows which allowed the emerging middle-classes to window shop and indulge in fantasies, even when they may not have been able to afford the high retail prices. Thus, the Palais-Royal became one of the first examples of a new style of shopping arcade, which adopted the trappings of a sophisticated, modern shopping complex and also changed pricing structures, for both the aristocracy and the middle classes.


title: Barter

text: The Owenite socialists in Britain and the United States in the 1830s were the first to attempt to organize barter exchanges. Owenism developed a "theory of equitable exchange" as a critique of the exploitative wage relationship between capitalist and labourer, by which all profit accrued to the capitalist. To counteract the uneven playing field between employers and employed, they proposed "schemes of labour notes based on labour time, thus institutionalizing Owen's demand that human labour, not money, be made the standard of value." This alternate currency eliminated price variability between markets, as well as the role of merchants who bought low and sold high. The system arose in a period where paper currency was an innovation. Paper currency was an IOU circulated by a bank (a promise to pay, not a payment in itself). Both merchants and an unstable paper currency created difficulties for direct producers.


title: Barter

text: An alternate currency, denominated in labour time, would prevent profit taking by middlemen; all goods exchanged would be priced only in terms of the amount of labour that went into them as expressed in the maxim 'Cost the limit of price'. It became the basis of exchanges in London, and in America, where the idea was implemented at the New Harmony communal settlement by Josiah Warren in 1826, and in his Cincinnati 'Time store' in 1827. Warren ideas were adopted by other Owenites and currency reformers, even though the labour exchanges were relatively short lived.


title: Barter

text: In England, about 30 to 40 cooperative societies sent their surplus goods to an "exchange bazaar" for direct barter in London, which later adopted a similar labour note. The British Association for Promoting Cooperative Knowledge established an "equitable labour exchange" in 1830. This was expanded as the National Equitable Labour Exchange in 1832 on Grays Inn Road in London. These efforts became the basis of the British cooperative movement of the 1840s. In 1848, the socialist and first self-designated anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon postulated a system of "time chits". In 1875, Karl Marx wrote of "Labour Certificates" ("Arbeitszertifikaten") in his Critique of the Gotha Program of a "certificate from society that [the labourer] has furnished such and such an amount of labour", which can be used to draw "from the social stock of means of consumption as much as costs the same amount of labour."


title: Barter

text: Michael Linton this originated the term "local exchange trading system" (LETS) in 1983 and for a time ran the Comox Valley LETSystems in Courtenay, British Columbia. LETS networks use interest-free local credit so direct swaps do not need to be made. For instance, a member may earn credit by doing childcare for one person and spend it later on carpentry with another person in the same network. In LETS, unlike other local currencies, no scrip is issued, but rather transactions are recorded in a central location open to all members. As credit is issued by the network members, for the benefit of the members themselves, LETS are considered mutual credit systems.


title: Barter

text: The first exchange system was the Swiss WIR Bank. It was founded in 1934 as a result of currency shortages after the stock market crash of 1929. "WIR" is both an abbreviation of Wirtschaftsring (economic circle) and the word for "we" in German, reminding participants that the economic circle is also a community.


title: Barter

text: In Australia and New Zealand, the largest barter exchange is Bartercard, founded in 1991, with offices in the United Kingdom, United States, Cyprus, UAE, Thailand, and most recently, South Africa. Other than its name suggests, it uses an electronic local currency, the trade dollar. Since its inception, Bartercard has amassed a trading value of over US$10 billion, and increased its customer network to 35,000 cardholders.


title: Barter

text: In business, barter has the benefit that one gets to know each other, one discourages investments for rent (which is inefficient) and one can impose trade sanctions on dishonest partners.


title: Barter

text: According to the International Reciprocal Trade Association, the industry trade body, more than 450,000 businesses transacted $10 billion globally in 2008 – and officials expect trade volume to grow by 15% in 2009.


title: Barter

text: It is estimated that over 450,000 businesses in the United States were involved in barter exchange activities in 2010. There are approximately 400 commercial and corporate barter companies serving all parts of the world. There are many opportunities for entrepreneurs to start a barter exchange. Several major cities in the U.S. and Canada do not currently have a local barter exchange. There are two industry groups in the United States, the National Association of Trade Exchanges (NATE) and the International Reciprocal Trade Association (IRTA). Both offer training and promote high ethical standards among their members. Moreover, each has created its own currency through which its member barter companies can trade. NATE's currency is known as the BANC and IRTA's currency is called Universal Currency (UC).


title: Barter

text: In Canada, barter continues to thrive. The largest b2b barter exchange is International Monetary Systems (IMS Barter), founded in 1985. P2P bartering has seen a renaissance in major Canadian cities through Bunz - built as a network of Facebook groups that went on to become a stand-alone bartering based app in January 2016. Within the first year, Bunz accumulated over 75,000 users in over 200 cities worldwide.


title: Barter

text: Corporate barter focuses on larger transactions, which is different from a traditional, retail oriented barter exchange. Corporate barter exchanges typically use media and advertising as leverage for their larger transactions. It entails the use of a currency unit called a "trade-credit". The trade-credit must not only be known and guaranteed but also be valued in an amount the media and advertising could have been purchased for had the "client" bought it themselves (contract to eliminate ambiguity and risk).


title: Barter

text: Soviet bilateral trade is occasionally called "barter trade", because although the purchases were denominated in U.S. dollars, the transactions were credited to an international clearing account, avoiding the use of hard cash.


title: Barter

text: In the United States, Karl Hess used bartering to make it harder for the IRS to seize his wages and as a form of tax resistance. Hess explained how he turned to barter in an op-ed for "The New York Times" in 1975. However the IRS now requires barter exchanges to be reported as per the Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982. Barter exchanges are considered taxable revenue by the IRS and must be reported on a 1099-B form. According to the IRS, "The fair market value of goods and services exchanged must be included in the income of both parties."


title: Barter

text: Other countries, though, do not have the reporting requirement that the U.S. does concerning proceeds from barter transactions, but taxation is handled the same way as a cash transaction. If one barters for a profit, one pays the appropriate tax; if one generates a loss in the transaction, they have a loss. Bartering for business is also taxed accordingly as business income or business expense. Many barter exchanges require that one register as a business.


title: Barter

text: In countries like Australia and New Zealand, barter transactions require the appropriate tax invoices declaring the value of the transaction and its reciprocal GST component. All records of barter transactions must also be kept for a minimum of five years after the transaction is made.


title: Barter

text: In Spain (particularly the Catalonia region) there is a growing number of exchange markets. These barter markets or swap meets work without money. Participants bring things they do not need and exchange them for the unwanted goods of another participant. Swapping among three parties often helps satisfy tastes when trying to get around the rule that money is not allowed.


title: Barter

text: Other examples are El Cambalache in San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas, Mexico and post-Soviet societies.


title: Barter

text: The recent blockchain technologies are making it possible to implement decentralized and autonomous barter exchanges that can be used by crowds on a massive scale. BarterMachine is an Ethereum smart contract based system that allows direct exchange of multiple types and quantities of tokens with others. It also provides a solution miner that allows users to compute direct bartering solutions in their browsers. Bartering solutions can be submitted to BarterMachine which will perform collective transfer of tokens among the blockchain addresses that belong to the users. If there are excess tokens left after the requirements of the users are satisfied, the leftover tokens will be given as reward to the solution miner.


title: The Campaign (film)

text: The Campaign is a 2012 American political satire comedy film directed by Jay Roach, written by Shawn Harwell and Chris Henchy and stars Will Ferrell and Zach Galifianakis as two North Carolinians vying for a seat in Congress. The film was released on August 10, 2012, by Warner Bros Pictures, to mixed reviews from critics.


title: The Campaign (film)

text: Democratic Congressman Camden Brady, who has run unopposed for the fictional 14th District in North Carolina is exposed when he has an affair with a supporter, damaging his upcoming campaign for a fifth term. Glenn and Wade Motch, two corrupt businessmen persuade tour guide Martin Huggins to run as Camden's opposition as a Republican nominee. The Motch Brothers ultimately intend to use Martin to forward a profitable scheme with a Chinese company.


title: The Campaign (film)

text: Campaign Manager Tim Wattley (also in the pay of the Motch Brothers) transforms Martin into a successful entrepreneur and family man, which pays off during his first debate with Camden and takes the viewers by storm with his resolve to bring back jobs to North Carolina. At a town hall debate, a fight breaks out between Camden and Huggins supporters after Huggins uses "Rainbowland", a story written by Camden as a child, to accuse him of being a Communist; Camden and Huggins also end up fighting, being unable to hear each other over the commotion but believing that they were insulting. Camden further damages his campaign when he accidentally punches a dog and a baby, on both occasions having intended to hit Huggins. In response, Camden runs a campaign portraying Martin as an Al Qaeda terrorist (based on Martin's facial hair). Camden later realizes his son intends to use his father's campaign methods against his opponent for Class President, and realizes he is setting a bad example. Camden travels to Martin's home to make peace, but ends up getting drunk and is arrested for drunk driving when Martin, encouraged by Tim, reports him. Martin then airs another TV advertisement, with Camden's son addressing him as "dad". Furious, Camden seduces Martin's wife Mitzi and records them having sex before releasing it as a campaign ad. This forces his Campaign Manager Mitch Wilson to resign on principle, and prompts his wife to leave him and take their children with her, leaving Camden despondent about the coming election. Martin leaves Mitzi as a result of the ad, but gets revenge on Camden by shooting him during a hunting trip, causing his popularity to further increase. However, Camden's popularity recovers after a mishap at a snake handling ceremony results in him being hospitalized.


title: The Campaign (film)

text: Martin meets with the Motch brothers soon afterwards, but learns of their "insourcing" plans with China; they intend to turn the 14th district into a factory complex and import Chinese workers in order to reduce shipping costs. Martin, realizing he has been used, rejects their support. The Motch brothers in turn defect to Camden's side, revitalizing his campaign and paying his wife to appear alongside him at campaign events to give the impression of reconciliation. Meanwhile, Martin reconciles with his wife and family, and desperately appeals to the voters by revealing the Motch Brothers' plans and promising to be completely honest (revealing several embarrassing secrets about himself in doing so). On election day, however, Camden wins due to the voting machines being rigged by the brothers. Camden gloats about his victory to Martin, who recalls to Camden that he was the Class President at their school, and had removed a dangerous slide that had scarred the both of them. Martin tells Camden that this greatly inspired him. Realizing what he has done and who he has become, Camden denounces his win in the election and withdraws, and Martin wins by default. Martin and Camden become friends, with Camden being appointed Martin's chief of staff.


title: The Campaign (film)

text: Six months later, the Motch brothers are called to appear before Congress after being exposed by Martin and Camden. The brothers point out that everything they have done is legal under "Citizens United v. FEC" but are arrested due to their association with Wattley, who is in fact an international fugitive.


title: The Campaign (film)

text: Principal photography for the film, originally titled "Dog Fight", began November 14, 2011, and continued through February 2012 in New Orleans, Hammond, and on the West Bank.


title: The Campaign (film)

text: The film opens with a quote from Texas businessman Ross Perot, stating he was a 1988 presidential candidate. Perot didn't run for president until 1992 and 1996.


title: The Campaign (film)

text: Musical interludes and "Takin' Care of Business" performed by a group of musicians consisting of members from the Pride of The Plains Marching Band (Pittsburg State University) and local residents of Pittsburg, Kansas under the direction of Dr. Doug Whitten.


title: The Campaign (film)

text: The film lampoons modern American elections and the influence of corporate money. It directly satirizes the Koch brothers with another pair of ultra-wealthy siblings: the Motch brothers. The film also alluded to the British Conservative Party's New Labour, New Danger campaign.


title: The Campaign (film)

text: The film was released by Warner Bros. Pictures on August 10, 2012. The Blu-ray and DVD release was on October 30, 2012.


title: The Campaign (film)

text: Despite performing better than expected on its opening day by grossing $10.3 million, and grossing $26.6 million in its opening weekend, finishing second at the box office behind "The Bourne Legacy" ($38.1 million), "The Campaign" was a financial disappointment, grossing $86.9 million in the U.S. and Canada and $18 million in other territories, for a total gross of $104.9 million against a $95 million budget.


title: The Campaign (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 66% based on 204 reviews, with an average rating of 5.94/10. The site's critical consensus states: "Its crude brand of political satire isn't quite as smart or sharp as one might hope in an election year, but "The Campaign" manages to generate a sufficient number of laughs thanks to its well-matched leads." Metacritic gives the film a weighted average score of 50 out of 100, based on 35 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: The Campaign (film)

text: Richard Roeper of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film an A- and described it as "one of the best comedies of the year" where "the material is offensively funny, but the laughs are very consistent".


title: Business ethics

text: Business ethics (also known as Corporate Ethics) is a form of applied ethics or professional ethics, that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that can arise in a business environment. It applies to all aspects of business conduct and is relevant to the conduct of individuals and entire organizations. These ethics originate from individuals, organizational statements or the legal system. These norms, values, ethical, and unethical practices are the principles that guide a business.


title: Business ethics

text: Business ethics refers to contemporary organizational standards, principles, sets of values and norms that govern the actions and behavior of an individual in the business organization. Business ethics have two dimensions, normative business ethics or descriptive business ethics. As a corporate practice and a career specialization, the field is primarily normative. Academics attempting to understand business behavior employ descriptive methods. The range and quantity of business ethical issues reflects the interaction of profit-maximizing behavior with non-economic concerns.


title: Business ethics

text: Interest in business ethics accelerated dramatically during the 1980s and 1990s, both within major corporations and within academia. For example, most major corporations today promote their commitment to non-economic values under headings such as ethics codes and social responsibility charters.


title: Business ethics

text: Adam Smith said in 1776, "People of the same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices." Governments use laws and regulations to point business behavior in what they perceive to be beneficial directions. Ethics implicitly regulates areas and details of behavior that lie beyond governmental control. The emergence of large corporations with limited relationships and sensitivity to the communities in which they operate accelerated the development of formal ethics regimes.


title: Business ethics

text: Maintaining an ethical status is the responsibility of the manager of the business. According to a 1990 article in the "Journal of Business Ethics", "Managing ethical behavior is one of the most pervasive and complex problems facing business organizations today."


title: Business ethics

text: Business ethics reflect the norms of each historical period. As time passes, norms evolve, causing accepted behaviors to become objectionable. Business ethics and the resulting behavior evolved as well. Business was involved in slavery, colonialism, and the Cold War.


title: Business ethics

text: The term 'business ethics' came into common use in the United States in the early 1970s. By the mid-1980s at least 500 courses in business ethics reached 40,000 students, using some twenty textbooks and at least ten casebooks supported by professional societies, centers and journals of business ethics. The Society for Business Ethics was founded in 1980. European business schools adopted business ethics after 1987 commencing with the European Business Ethics Network. In 1982 the first single-authored books in the field appeared.


title: Business ethics

text: Firms began highlighting their ethical stature in the late 1980s and early 1990s, possibly in an attempt to distance themselves from the business scandals of the day, such as the savings and loan crisis. The concept of business ethics caught the attention of academics, media and business firms by the end of the Cold War. However, criticism of business practices was attacked for infringing the freedom of entrepreneurs and critics were accused of supporting communists. This scuttled the discourse of business ethics both in media and academia. The Defense Industry Initiative on Business Ethics and Conduct (DII) was created to support corporate ethical conduct. This era began the belief and support of self-regulation and free trade, which lifted tariffs and barriers and allowed businesses to merge and divest in an increasing global atmosphere.


title: Business ethics

text: One of the earliest written treatments of business ethics is found in the "Tirukkuṛaḷ", a Tamil book dated variously from 300 BCE to the 7th century CE and attributed to Thiruvalluvar. Many verses discuss business ethics, in particular, verse 113, adapting to a changing environment in verses 474, 426, and 140, learning the intricacies of different tasks in verses 462 and 677.


title: Business ethics

text: Business ethics reflects the philosophy of business, of which one aim is to determine the fundamental purposes of a company. Business purpose expresses the company's reason for existing. Modern discussion on the purpose of business has been freshened by views from thinkers such as Richard R. Ellesworth, Peter Drucker, and Nikos Mourkogiannis: Traditional views held that the purpose of a business organization is to make profit for shareholders. Nevertheless, the purpose of maximizing shareholder's wealth often "fails to energize employees". In practice, many non-shareholders also benefit from a firm's economic activity, among them empolyees through contractual compensation and its broader impact, consumers by the tangible or non-tangible value derived from their purchase choices; society as a whole through taxation and/or the company's involvement in social action when it occurs. On the other hand, if a company's purpose is to maximize shareholder returns, then sacrificing profits for other concerns is a violation of its fiduciary responsibility. Corporate entities are legal persons but this does not mean they are legally entitled to all of the rights and liabilities as natural persons.


title: Business ethics

text: Ethics are the rules or standards that govern our decisions on a daily basis. Many consider "ethics" with conscience or a simplistic sense of "right" and "wrong." Others would say that ethics is an internal code that governs an individual's conduct, ingrained into each person by family, faith, tradition, community, laws, and personal mores. Corporations and professional organizations, particularly licensing boards, generally will have a written code of ethics that governs standards of professional conduct expected of all in the field.


title: Business ethics

text: It is important to note that "law" and "ethics" are not synonymous, nor are the "legal" and "ethical" courses of action in a given situation necessarily the same. Statutes and regulations passed by legislative bodies and administrative boards set forth the "law." Slavery once was legal in the US, but one certainly wouldn't say enslaving another was an "ethical" act.