title: United Arab Emirates Air Force

text: Candidates apply to the Khalifa bin Zayed Air College, which is located at the Al Ain International Airport in Al Ain. They first go through a rigorous schedule of academics (Basic Level: Military Sciences), fitness and officer training. Those who are selected as cadets then start the second phase of academics: Flight Sciences (Aeronautical Science). Cadets who pass the assessment period of the second phase are designated aviation cadets and start flight training. The first aircraft cadets get to fly is the Grob G115 TA. Those who qualify then go on to fly the Pilatus PC-7. On this aircraft, they learn the basics of flying, take-off and landing techniques and procedures followed by a bit of aerobatics. Following the Primary Flying Course is the Basic Flight Course, piloting the Hawk 63. Graduates are graded and assigned accordingly to one of three options: the Advanced Strike course at Minhad on the Hawk 102 aircraft, transport aircraft, and helicopters. At Minhad, the new pilots learn Basic Fighters Manoeuvres, drop bombs and learn to fly cross-country to a neighbouring country, commonly Bahrain or Kuwait. Upon completion of the Advanced Strike course, officers are selected either for the F-16 (Block 60) or the Dassault Mirage 2000-9, both at Al Dhafra AB. A few pilots are selected to learn to fly the F-16 with the United States Air Force's 162d Fighter Wing in Tucson, Arizona.


title: United Arab Emirates Air Force

text: 2007 marked the culmination of the largest procurement programmes ever undertaken by the UAE Air Force, with the final deliveries of the 80 F-16E/F Block 60 "Desert Falcons" and approximately 60 upgraded Mirage 2000-9, giving the air force a considerable multirole capability. These two investments represented a total expenditure of around $10 billion, with additional money spent on infrastructure and logistics. A $6.4 billion contract with Lockheed Martin for the supply and support of the 80 F-16s was signed in March 2000, while a $3.4 billion deal for the purchase of 30 new Mirage 2000-9 and retrofitting of the 33 older UAE Mirage 2000s was signed earlier in 1998. Missiles were also purchased: 160 AGM-88 HARMs, 1,000 or more AGM-65 Mavericks, about 500 AIM-120 AMRAAMs, 270 AIM-9 Sidewinders and 52 AGM-84 Harpoons. In November 2017, the United Arab Emirates Armed Forces announced their intention to sign a contract with Dassault Aviation for the upgrade of its Mirage 2000-9 aircraft. French newspaper La Tribune reported the modernization would cost roughly €300 million.


title: United Arab Emirates Air Force

text: After a competition between the BAE Hawk, KAI T-50 Golden Eagle and Alenia Aermacchi M-346 Master, the UAEAF announced the acquisition of 48 trainer and light attack aircraft, with the first deliveries to take place in 2012. The other training types that are thought to be near replacement are the 30 Pilatus PC-7s and five Aermacchi MB-339s serving with the Air Academy at Al Ain. The MB-339 is also in use with the UAEAF flight display team, Al Fursan.


title: United Arab Emirates Air Force

text: The UAEAF has operated 20 IAR 330 Puma helicopters since the late 1970s. These have been recently upgraded to the IAR-330SM standard by IAR Ghimbav in Romania in cooperation with Eurocopter. These aircraft, supplemented by a further ten ex-South African Air Force reworked SA-330s, are expected to remain in service for at least 15 years. Although no replacement for the Puma fleet is required in the immediate future, the force will be supplemented by 26 Sikorsky UH-60M "Battlehawks", with 390 AGM-114N Hellfire II missiles. 30 AH-64A Apache helicopters were modernised as well, to the AH-64D Longbow standard, and a dozen Eurocopter Fennecs were recently acquired for special forces use.


title: United Arab Emirates Air Force

text: The most important facility of the UAEAF is the Al Dhafra Air Base, with almost the entire fighter aircraft fleet located there. However, in order to prevent all of the air defence and strike assets being located at a single base, a $1 billion, completely new facility has been constructed deep in the Abu Dhabi desert, near the border corner with Saudi Arabia and Oman, near Al Gharbia, housing at least one Mirage 2000 unit. Al-Safran is believed to have opened between around 2008. It is 3,000 m long and has aircraft parking nearly the same size as in Al Udeid Air Base, Qatar. A 4,000 m runway at Al-Safran Air Base was built around 2008.


title: United Arab Emirates Air Force

text: Previous aircraft operated by the Air Force were the Dassault Mirage 5, Boeing 707, Aeritalia G.222, CASA C-212, SF.260T, Alouette III, SA 342 Gazelle, Bölkow Bo 105, Bell 206 & Bell 214 helicopter.


title: United Arab Emirates Air Force

text: Future programs include the Next-Generation Fighter, request for proposals has been sent to Boeing F/A-18 Super Hornet, Dassault Rafale, Eurofighter Typhoon, Lockheed Martin F-35A Lightning II and Sukhoi Su-57.


title: Soba

text: Soba ( or , "buckwheat") is a thin Japanese noodle made from buckwheat. The noodles are served either chilled with a dipping sauce, or hot in a noodle soup. The variety "Nagano soba" includes wheat flour.


title: Soba

text: In Japan, soba noodles can be found in a variety of settings, from "fast food" places to expensive specialty restaurants. Markets sell dried noodles and "men-tsuyu", or instant noodle broth, to make home preparation easy. A wide variety of dishes, both hot for winter and cold for summer, uses these noodles.


title: Soba

text: The amino acid balance of the protein in buckwheat, and therefore in soba, is well matched to the needs of humans and can complement the amino acid deficiencies of other staples such as rice and wheat (see protein combining). The tradition of eating soba arose in the Edo period.


title: Soba

text: The tradition of eating soba originates from the Tokugawa period, also called the Edo period, from 1603 to 1868. In the Tokugawa period, every neighborhood had one or two soba establishments, many also serving sake, which functioned much like modern cafes where locals would stop for a casual meal. At that time, the population of Edo (Tokyo), being considerably wealthier than the rural poor, were more susceptible to beriberi due to their high consumption of white rice, which is low in thiamine. It was discovered that beriberi could be prevented by regularly eating thiamine-rich soba.


title: Soba

text: The delivery of food called "demae" was originally a service for wealthy daimyō in the 1700s. Until the late Showa period, piles of soba bowls were packed on the shoulders of bicycle couriers. In March 1961, new cycling traffic laws added restrictions. Officials of the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department said "To ride on a bicycle with piles of 'soba' bowls on your shoulder is dangerous. It must be prohibited from the viewpoint of road traffic safety. But we will not place any stricter curb as they will lose more than half their customers" and "With this police assurance to overlook the illegal traffic practice, 'soba' delivery boys will continue to race through the streets of Tokyo,". This method of soba delivery is not practiced anymore.


title: Soba

text: Some establishments, especially cheaper and more casual ones, may serve both soba and udon as they are often served in a similar manner. Soba is the traditional noodle of choice for Tokyoites.


title: Soba

text: Soba is typically eaten with chopsticks, and in Japan, it is considered acceptable to slurp the noodles noisily. This is especially common with hot noodles, as drawing up the noodles quickly into the mouth helps cool them. However, quiet consumption of noodles is no longer uncommon.


title: Soba

text: Like many Japanese noodles, soba noodles are often served drained and chilled in the summer, and hot in the winter with a soy-based dashi broth. Extra toppings can be added to both hot and cold soba. Toppings are chosen to reflect the seasons and to balance with other ingredients. Most toppings are added without much cooking, although some are deep-fried. Most of these dishes may also be prepared with udon.


title: Soba

text: Chilled soba is often served on a sieve-like bamboo tray called a zaru, sometimes garnished with bits of dried nori seaweed, with a dipping sauce known as "soba tsuyu" on the side. The "tsuyu" is made of a strong mixture of dashi, sweetened soy sauce (also called "satōjōyu") and mirin. Using chopsticks, the diner picks up a small amount of soba from the tray and dips it in the cold "tsuyu" before eating it. Wasabi and scallions are often mixed into the "tsuyu". Many people think that the best way to experience the unique texture of hand-made soba noodles is to eat them cold, since letting them soak in hot broth changes their consistency. After the noodles are eaten, many people enjoy drinking the water in which the noodles were cooked ("sobayu" ), mixed with the leftover tsuyu.


title: Soba

text: Soba is also often served as a noodle soup in a bowl of hot "tsuyu". The hot "tsuyu" in this instance is thinner than that used as a dipping sauce for chilled soba. Popular garnishes are sliced long onion and shichimi tōgarashi (mixed chili powder).


title: Soba

text: Soba is traditionally eaten on New Year's Eve in most areas of Japan, a tradition that survives to this day ("Toshikoshi soba"; ). In the Tokyo area, there is also a tradition of giving out soba to new neighbors after a house move ("Hikkoshi soba"), although this practice is now rare.


title: Soba

text: 100 grams of cooked soba yields of energy. Soba contains all nine essential amino acids, including lysine, which common wheat does not contain.


title: Soba

text: Soba contains a type of polysaccharide that is easily digested. Soba noodles also contain antioxidants, including rutin and quercetin, and essential nutrients including choline, thiamine and riboflavin.


title: Soba

text: Buckwheat is ready for harvest in three months, allowing four crops a year, mainly in spring, summer, and autumn. In Japan, buckwheat is produced mainly in Hokkaido. Soba that is made with newly harvested buckwheat is called "shin-soba". It is sweeter and more flavorful than regular soba.


title: Soba

text: Nagano Prefecture is famous for soba. The noodles are known as "shinshu soba". One of the reasons for this popularity is that Nagano has natural features well-suited to soba production. The land has plenty of volcanic ash soil because of its highland location. It also has an extreme difference in temperatures. Many famous soba production centers can be found across the prefecture, from the Kurohime and Togakushi highlands in the north to the Kaida highlands in the south, and the prefecture boasts the second-highest production of soba in Japan. Many facilities are also engaged in integrated soba manufacturing, from cultivation to milling and cutting. Many of these facilities provide soba cutting courses for customers, forming one of the major leisure activities of Nagano.


title: Soba

text: Soba noodles are produced by mixing buckwheat flour with some wheat flour (to reduce brittleness), adding water, mixing, kneading, rolling and cutting. As a general rule, only noodles containing 40% or more soba flour can carry the "shinshu" name.


title: Soba

text: Sunaba, Chōjyu-an, Ōmura-an, Shōgetsu-an, Masuda-ya, Maruka are typical soba restaurants Yagō in Japan (Kantō region), from old time.


title: Soba

text: Moreover, they are a popular inexpensive fast food at railway stations. Mainly, busy salarymen use the service.


title: Soba

text: "Soba" is also the Japanese word for buckwheat "(Fagopyrum esculentum"). Roasted buckwheat kernels may be made into a grain tea called "sobacha", which may be served hot or cold. Buckwheat hulls, or "sobakawa" (also called "sobagara"), are used to fill pillows. Sometimes, beers are made with roasted buckwheat added as a flavoring, and called "soba ale".


title: Soba

text: "Soba" is occasionally used to refer to noodles in general. In Japan, ramen is traditionally called "chūka soba "(中華そば) or, before the end of the Second World War, "shina soba" (支那そば). Both of these mean "Chinese noodles", though the word "shina "was replaced by "chūka" because the Chinese considered the former term offensive. Parboiled "chūka soba" is stir-fried to make yakisoba. The name "ramen" is the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese "lamian" (拉麺). "Mazesoba" (also called "abura soba" or "Taiwan mazesoba") is another ramen based dish. Note that these noodles do not contain buckwheat. In this context, 'soba' noodles proper are called "nihon soba" (日本蕎麦, 'Japanese soba') as opposed to "chūka soba".


title: Soba

text: In Okinawa, "soba" usually refers to Okinawa soba, a completely different dish of noodles made out of flour, not buckwheat. Okinawa soba is also quite popular in the city of Campo Grande (Brazil), due to influence of Japanese (Okinawan) immigrants. It is eaten all-year long at street markets or in special restaurants called "sobarias". , the recipe has deviated from Okinawa style to suit Brazilian local preferences.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: Céline Sciamma (; born 12 November 1978) is a French screenwriter and film director. She is especially known for her films "Girlhood" (2014), "My Life as a Courgette" (2016), and "Portrait of a Lady on Fire" (2019), winning many nominations and awards for her films.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: A common theme in Sciamma's films is the fluidity of gender and sexual identity among girls and women, and her films explore the female gaze.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: Sciamma was born on 12 November 1978 was raised in Cergy-Pontoise, a suburb outside of Paris. Her father, Dominique Sciamma, is a software designer, and her brother, Laurent Sciamma, is a stand-up performer and graphic designer.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: Before attending La Fémis, the première French film school, where she studied from 2001-2005, Sciamma earned her master's degree in French Literature at Paris Nanterre University. As a child, she was an avid reader and became interested in film as a teenager. Sciamma cites her grandmother as inspiration to her love of film, saying that she had a great interest in old Hollywood movies. Sciamma also attended Utopia, an art house cinema theater in Cergy 3 times a week as a teenager. She wrote her first original script for "Water Lilies" as part of her final evaluation at La Fémis. Sciamma has stated that she never planned on directing, and that she has thought only about screenwriting or working as a critic, because she felt that directing was too much of a ‘male only’ position. Xavier Beauvois, who was chairman of the evaluation panel, and could be considered as her mentor, persuaded her to make the film. A year after finishing school, she began shooting the film in her hometown.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: Sciamma's debut film, "Water Lilies", was released in 2007. The French title, "Naissance des Pieuvres," translates to "Birth of the Octupuses," but was altered for the international release. The film's script was Sciamma's senior project at La Férnis, although when she wrote it, Sciamma did not intend to direct it. The film, shot in Cergy, France, a Parisian suburb, explores the world of synchronized swimming. Based on Sciamma's own encounter with the sport, the film's protagonist explores her burgeoning sexuality and attraction to the team's captain. "Water Lilies" was selected for screening in the section "Un certain regard" at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival. It also won the Louis Delluc award for a first film.The film secured three nominations for the 2008 César Awards; Sciamma was nominated for the César Award for Best Debut, and actresses Adèle Haenel and Louise Blachère were both nominated for the César Award for Most Promising Actress.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: Sciamma directed her first short film, "Pauline", in 2009 as part of a government anti-homophobia campaign called ‘Five films against homophobia’.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: Her 2011 film "Tomboy" was written and shot in a matter of months. Sciamma wrote the script in three weeks, completed casting in three weeks, and shot the film in 20 days. It premiered at the 61st Berlin International Film Festival in the Panorama section of the festival, and won the Teddy award for films with queer topics. The film was shown in French schools as part of an educational program.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: Sciamma worked on TV series "Les Revenants" (2012) for a year and a half. She has said in interviews that she wants to direct serial television series.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: Her 2014 film "Girlhood" was selected to be screened as part of the Directors' Fortnight section of the 2014 Cannes Film Festival. It also played at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival and the 2015 Sundance Film Festival. In interviews, Sciamma said that "Girlhood" would be her last coming-of-age film and that she considered it, "Water Lilies" and "Tomboy" a trilogy.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: Girlhood, a coming-of-age film about a young woman who leaves school and joins a gang, received criticism for centering Black experiences and featuring a mostly Black cast but being directed and made by a mostly white crew.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: In between directing her own films, Sciamma continues to work as a screenwriter for other directors. She was sought after by André Téchiné, whose work Sciamma admired as a youth, to co-write the screenplay for his 2016 film "Being 17". She also adapted the novel "Ma Vie de Courgette" (My Life as a Courgette) into a screenplay for a stop-motion animated film.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: Sciamma's fourth feature film, "Portrait of a Lady on Fire", began shooting in autumn 2018. It premiered In Competition at the 2019 Cannes Film Festival, where it won the Queer Palm and Best Screenplay.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: Sciamma then shot her fifth feature, "Petite Maman", in the fall of 2020 and it premiered at the Berlin Film Festival in March 2021. It also screened at the 2021 San Sebastián International Film Festival, where it won the Audience Award.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: Since 2015 and Sciamma continues to serve as the co-president of the SRF (Society of Film Directors).


title: Céline Sciamma

text: Sciamma frequently collaborates with Para One, who has scored all her films and directed scripts by Sciamma in the past. She frequently collaborates with cinematographer Crystel Fournier, who worked on Sciamma's "Girlhood" trilogy, among others.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: She is noted for casting non-professional actors in her films, and also frequently casts Adèle Haenel, who appeared in "Water Lilies", "Pauline", and "Portrait of a Lady on Fire".


title: Céline Sciamma

text: Sciamma has said that fashion and style form an important part of characterisation, which is why, though uncredited, she is often the costume designer for her films.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: Sciamma has cited David Lynch as a heavy influence, along with seeing Virginia Woolf as "the greatest novelist" and Chantal Akerman as "one of the most important filmmakers".


title: Céline Sciamma

text: Sciamma has spoken about the metaphorical purpose of using synchronized swimming in Water Lillies, which she claims "reveals a lot about the job of being a girl," due to the tension between athleticism and feminine aesthetics.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: A common theme in Sciamma's films is the fluidity of gender and sexual identity among girls and women. Her films look at lesbianism and queerness, and how this represented on screen. She focuses on the idea of the body, and how touch is related to it within cinema. Sciamma’s notable in her thematic elements for female gaze, and many scholars have cited her as a pioneer for creating a new way of seeing women in media. She also likes to conceptualise the idea of ‘looking’, using Russian nesting dolls as a metaphor of "looking within looking".


title: Céline Sciamma

text: Sciamma also regularly examines themes of family including broken families, bereavement, and adoption (Wilson). By focusing on coming-of-age narratives, she examines autonomy of children and teenagers, especially in terms of gender and sexuality. Her films often capture children without their parents, and documents their metamorphosis and imagination onscreen. She is interested in their subjugation and autonomy.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: Sciamma does not believe in the idea of a muse for her pieces, and despite her personal relationship with Haenel, says that the relationships on screen are of collaboration and subversion, not fascination.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: Sciamma focuses on identity and representation in film, such as black identity in "Girlhood", and motherhood identity in "Petite Maman".


title: Céline Sciamma

text: Sciamma is a feminist. She was a founding member of the French branch of the "50/50 by 2020" movement, a group of French film industry professionals advocating for gender parity in film by the year 2020.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: She has contributed heavily to discourse with cinema regarding the female gaze. Sciamma uses her platform to speak about the restrictions of the male gaze and present movies that elevate the female gaze. She sees her work, particularly "Portrait of a Lady on Fire", as a manifesto of the female gaze. Sciamma stated in an interview: "That’s why the male gaze is obsessed with representing lesbians, for instance. It's a way to control it. Our stories are powerful because they are dangerous. We are dangerous. So it's a very good strategy to despise us — to undermine us — because it's giving us less leverage for a very powerful political dynamic".


title: Céline Sciamma

text: Sciamma has stated that "cinema is always political," and that creating films by women and about women is a political act.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: In 2018, she co-organised and participated in the women's protest against inequality at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival alongside many notable women in film, including Agnès Varda, Ava DuVernay, Cate Blanchett and Léa Seydoux. This protest campaigned for gender equality in the film industry.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: At the premiere of her film "Portrait of a Lady on Fire" at the 2019 Cannes Film Festival, both Sciamma and lead actress Haenel wore 50/50 pins in support of the movement.


title: Céline Sciamma

text: In 2020 Sciamma and the "Portrait of a Lady on Fire" team joined Haenel in walking out of the 45th César Awards after Roman Polanski won the award for Best Director. Haenel had previously spoken out about experiencing sexual harassment from director Christopher Ruggia. Sciamma stated in an interview regarding the walk-out that “...there was no plan. It’s all about the moment, a matter of seconds. It’s about moving your legs, as simple as that. And that’s hard. It’s hard to stand up, hard to move your legs. I understand why people don’t. But sometimes you have to.”


title: Céline Sciamma

text: Sciamma is a lesbian. In 2014, Adèle Haenel publicly acknowledged that she was in a relationship with Sciamma in her acceptance speech for her César Award. The two had met on the set of the 2007 film "Water Lilies" and started dating sometime after. The couple parted ways, amicably, sometime before the 2018 filming of "Portrait of a Lady on Fire", which also starred Haenel.


title: Henry Lloyd-Hughes

text: Henry Lloyd-Hughes (born 11 August 1985) is an English actor. He is known for his roles in "Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire" (2005), "Unrelated" (2007), "The Inbetweeners" (2008–2010), "Miliband of Brothers" (2010), "Weekender" (2011), "Anna Karenina" (2012), "Parade's End" (2012), and "Indian Summers" (2015). As of 2018 he voices Flynn Fairwind in "". In 2021, he appeared as Sherlock Holmes in the Netflix series, "The Irregulars".


title: Henry Lloyd-Hughes

text: Lloyd-Hughes was born in 1985 in the United Kingdom, the son of actress Lucy Appleby ("A Stitch in Time" - 1963) and Timothy Lloyd-Hughes, a long-time senior executive with Deutsche Bank. He has two younger brothers, record executive Theo Lloyd-Hughes and actor Ben Lloyd-Hughes. Both Henry and Ben acted in "Miliband of Brothers". Fred Macpherson, lead singer of the band Spector, and formerly of Les Incompétents and Ox.Eagle.Lion.Man, is his cousin.


title: Henry Lloyd-Hughes

text: Lloyd-Hughes first appeared in the TV series "Murphy's Law" in 2004 before playing Roger Davies in the 2005 film "Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire". He then appeared in Joanna Hogg's film "Unrelated" in 2007 alongside Tom Hiddleston.


title: Henry Lloyd-Hughes

text: From 2008–2010 he played school bully Mark Donovan in the British sitcom "The Inbetweeners". He reprised the role in the film "The Inbetweeners Movie" in 2011. In 2010, he portrayed former British Labour Party politician David Miliband in the TV film documentary "Miliband of Brothers".


title: Henry Lloyd-Hughes

text: In 2011, he starred in the film "Dimensions" as Stephen, a brilliant young scientist who lives in England in the 1920s. The same year, he appeared in the film "Weekender" about the 1990 Manchester rave scene.


title: Henry Lloyd-Hughes

text: In the 2012 epic romantic drama film "Anna Karenina", he played Burisov alongside Keira Knightley and Aaron Taylor-Johnson. In 2013, he starred in the film "Hello Carter" with Jodie Whittaker.


title: Henry Lloyd-Hughes

text: Lloyd-Hughes played Charles Bovary in the drama film "Madame Bovary" with Mia Wasikowska in the title role and which was released in 2014.


title: Henry Lloyd-Hughes

text: Lloyd-Hughes has appeared in numerous theatre productions, including "Rope", "The Miracle", "Punk Rock", and "The Changeling".


title: Henry Lloyd-Hughes

text: In 2012, he starred as Dimitri Mitropoulos in the play "Posh", which played at the Duke of York’s Theatre. Michael Billington of "The Guardian" said of Lloyd-Hughes's performance that he "impresses as a wealthy Greek who aims to be more English than the English".


title: Karen Dotrice

text: Karen Dotrice ( ; born 9 November 1955) is a British actress. She is known primarily for her role as Jane Banks in Walt Disney's "Mary Poppins", the feature film adaptation of the "Mary Poppins" book series. Dotrice was born in Guernsey in the Channel Islands to two stage actors. Her career began on stage, and expanded into film and television, including starring roles as a young girl whose beloved cat magically reappears in Disney's "The Three Lives of Thomasina" and with "Thomasina" co-star Matthew Garber as one of two children pining for their parents' attentions in "Poppins". She appeared in five television programmes between 1972 and 1978, when she made her only feature film as an adult. Her life as an actress concluded with a short run as Desdemona in the 1981 pre-Broadway production of "Othello".


title: Karen Dotrice

text: In 1984, Dotrice retired from show business to focus on motherhood – she has three children from two marriages – though she has provided commentary for various Disney projects and has resumed making public appearances, including a cameo in "Mary Poppins Returns" in 2018. She was named a Disney Legend in 2004.


title: Karen Dotrice

text: Born into a theatre family, Dotrice is the daughter of Kay ( Katharine Newman) and Roy Dotrice, two Shakespearean actors who met and married while performing in repertory productions in the UK. Her father also was born in the Channel Islands. She has two sisters, Michele and Yvette, both of whom are actresses. Her godfather was actor Charles Laughton, who was married to Elsa Lanchester, one of the co-stars of "Mary Poppins".


title: Karen Dotrice

text: Her father, Roy was a Wireless Operator serving with 106 Squadron of the Royal Air Force and along with his other six crew was shot down and taken prisoner of war on the night of 2/3 May 1942.


title: Karen Dotrice

text: Dotrice was a toddler when her father joined the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre (later the Royal Shakespeare Company) in 1957. By age four, she was ready to perform, making her début in an RSC production of "The Caucasian Chalk Circle" by Bertolt Brecht. There, a Disney scout saw Dotrice and brought her to Burbank, California, to meet Walt Disney.


title: Karen Dotrice

text: At age 8, Dotrice was hired in 1963 to appear in "The Three Lives of Thomasina" as a girl whose relationship with her father is mended by the magical reappearance of her cat. While Dotrice was in California, her father stayed in England – where he was portraying King Lear – and Walt Disney personally took care of her family, often hosting them in his Palm Springs home. Dotrice took quickly to Disney as a father figure, calling him "Uncle Walt". She said the admiration was mutual: "I think he really liked English kids. He was tickled pink by the accent and the etiquette. And when I was being very English and polite, he would look proudly at this little child who had such good manners."


title: Karen Dotrice

text: Film historian Leonard Maltin said Dotrice "won over everyone" with her performance in "The Three Lives of Thomasina", and she was signed to play Jane Banks (along with once and future co-star Matthew Garber as her brother, Michael Banks) in "Mary Poppins" (1964). Disney's part-live-action, part-animation musical adaptation of the "Poppins" children's books by P. L. Travers starred David Tomlinson as a workaholic father and Glynis Johns as a suffragette mother who are too busy to spend much time with their children. Instead, they hire a nanny (Julie Andrews) who takes Jane and Michael on magical adventures designed to teach them – and their parents – about the importance of family. "Poppins" was Disney's biggest commercial success at the time and won five Academy Awards, making its stars world-famous. Dotrice and Garber were praised for their natural screen presence; critic Bosley Crowther wrote, "the kids ... are just as they should be," while author Brian Sibley said, "these charming, delightful young people provided a wonderful centre for the film."


title: Karen Dotrice

text: Dotrice and Garber paired up a third time in "The Gnome-Mobile" (1967) as the grandchildren of a rich lumber mogul who stumble across a gnome forest and help to stop the gnomes from dying off. Starring Walter Brennan in a dual role, "The Gnome-Mobile" failed to perform on a par with "Poppins" at the box office, and Dotrice did not make another film appearance as a child.


title: Karen Dotrice

text: After "The Gnome-Mobile", "the kids" no longer kept in contact with each other. In an interview for the 40th Anniversary Edition DVD release of "Mary Poppins", Dotrice recalled how she learned of Garber's 1977 death:


title: Karen Dotrice

text: In 1977, credited as Karen Dotrice Nalle, she appeared with Ann-Margret in "Joseph Andrews", a British film based on the Henry Fielding novel "Joseph Andrews".


title: Karen Dotrice

text: Dotrice appeared as Alex Mackenzie in "The Thirty Nine Steps" (1978) with Robert Powell and John Mills. The third film based on the John Buchan novel, this was her only feature film as an adult. In the film, Alex accompanies Hannay (Powell) while on the run from "both the spies and the police".


title: Karen Dotrice

text: In 1974, Dotrice appeared as Désirée Clary in the Thames Television serial "Napoleon and Love". The nine-hour, dramatised account of Napoleon I of France starred Ian Holm and Tim Curry.


title: Karen Dotrice

text: Also in 1974, she appeared alongside Helen Mirren and Clive Revill in "Bellamira". The following year, Dotrice played housemaid Lily Hawkins in six episodes of "Upstairs, Downstairs" during its fifth and final season. The series, a narrative of the upper class Bellamy family and their servants in Edwardian England, early in the 20th century, was one of the most popular programmes produced by London Weekend Television for ITV. It also proved popular when shown in the United States on "Masterpiece Theatre", and was "beloved throughout much of the world."


title: Karen Dotrice

text: Dotrice took on the role of Maria Beadnell in two episodes of the serial "Dickens of London" (1976), starring her father as both Charles and John Dickens. In 1977 she appeared as Princess Ozyliza in the "Jackanory" episode "The Princess and the Hedgehog".


title: Karen Dotrice

text: In 1978, Dotrice made her final screen appearance for some years as an actress, playing Jenny in the BBC2 Play of the Week, "She Fell Among Thieves". Starring Malcolm McDowell and Eileen Atkins, "Thieves" made its U.S. début on 5 February 1980 – the first film screened as part of the PBS "Mystery!" series.


title: Karen Dotrice

text: In 1981, Dotrice took the role of Desdemona in the Warner Theatre production of "Othello" opposite James Earl Jones and Christopher Plummer. Reviewers were less than kind; calling her "the only serious let-down" in the cast, David Richards of "The Washington Post" wrote, "Dotrice is not Desdemona. She is a Desdemona doll, reciting her lines in a thin, reedy voice and moving through the tragedy with a rare somnolence." Dianne Wiest took the role in the 1982 Broadway production and received similar reviews.


title: Karen Dotrice

text: Dotrice virtually disappeared from public life following her retirement. She was married to English actor Alex Hyde-White from 1986 to 1992; they have a son, Garrick. In 1994, Dotrice married then-Universal Studios executive Edwin "Ned" Nalle and later gave birth to two children, Isabella and Griffin.


title: Karen Dotrice

text: Her voice work includes spoken-word adaptations of Disney's "The Little Mermaid", "Beauty and the Beast" and "Pocahontas"; a sing-along release of "Mary Poppins"; an interview for the ABC television special "Walt: The Man Behind the Myth"; and narration for the audiobook adaptation of "Dangerous Women" by George R. R. Martin. She appeared as herself in the 2009 film "". As for acting, however, "I'll never go back," she told "Hello!" magazine in 1995, "because you don't have to put on any make-up."


title: Karen Dotrice

text: Dotrice was coaxed back into the spotlight twice in 2004: she was named a Disney Legend at a ceremony in Burbank (at which Matthew Garber was honoured posthumously), and she was interviewed and provided audio commentary for the 40th Anniversary Edition "Mary Poppins" DVD release. Dotrice also provided audio commentary for the Acorn Media DVD release of "Upstairs, Downstairs" Series 5, discussing Episode 7 ("Disillusion"), the final episode in which she appears.


title: Karen Dotrice

text: Despite having retired from acting, Dotrice's official website announced in 2014 that she will be making public appearances "for the first time in 50 years". The list includes memorabilia shows, signings and corporate events.


title: Karen Dotrice

text: Almost a half-century after "Poppins", and just in time for its 50th anniversary Blu-ray re-release and the theatrical release of "Saving Mr. Banks", Dotrice, who had since moved to Brentwood, California, told the "Los Angeles Times" that it wasn't until seeing " Saving Mr. Banks" that she truly understood why Walt Disney was the father figure she remembered. "I didn't know P. L. Travers' history" with Disney and his many years spent trying to convince Travers to let him tell the Poppins story on film. Dotrice noted a common thread; Travers was eight years old when her father died, and Walt Disney's father put him to work when he was eight. "I was eight when I did the film. I think P. L. Travers was trying to fix families [with the "Poppins" books, and Disney] wanted to heal people through his movies. Here I am 50 years later looking at this – I was crying when I was watching the film." In 2018, she appeared on a television special of "Mary Poppins Returns: Behind the Magic -- A Special Edition of 20/20" which aired on 22 November 2018 on ABC. She makes a cameo appearance in "Mary Poppins Returns" as an elegant lady who passes by the main characters on Cherry Tree Lane and asks for directions to #19. Talking about the cameo, Dotrice said, "Now that Mary Poppins is back it feels like she was here all along. She was in our hearts all along, that's for sure. I think her timing is immaculate, the world has never needed her more and so she's done it practically perfectly."


title: Karen Dotrice

text: That experience stood in contrast to her memories of working on "Poppins". "The joy that you see on the screen is the joy we felt." Dotrice recalled having a difficult time staying in character whenever Dick Van Dyke would do one of his "goofy dances". She also thought it odd that Julie Andrews was a smoker. "Everybody smoked back then. I have memories of Mary Poppins smoking a cigarette".


title: Karen Dotrice

text: Still, in hindsight, Dotrice said she would never have done "Poppins" or any of her other films if she had it to do over again. She said children "should be learning and growing at their own pace" rather than "living in a Justin Bieber-esque-type world surrounded by a bunch of 'yes' people". Dotrice had seen so many of her peers struggling with "all sorts of demons" while growing up that she didn't want her children becoming actors. She said she gave up her own career when she was asked as a teenager to appear topless on screen.


title: KaDee Strickland

text: Katherine Dee Strickland (born December 14, 1975) is an American actress. She is best known for her role as Charlotte King on the ABC drama "Private Practice" (2007–2013).


title: KaDee Strickland

text: Strickland began acting during high school. She studied acting in Philadelphia and New York City, where she obtained mostly small roles in film, television, and stage projects, among them "The Sixth Sense" (1999). Her participation in the 2003 Hollywood films "Anything Else" and "Something's Gotta Give" led to her receiving significant parts in the 2004 horror films "" and "The Grudge". She was then referred to as "the pride of Patterson" and the horror genre's "newest scream queen", though her performances in both films received mixed critical reviews. In 2005, she garnered positive critical reviews for the romantic comedy "Fever Pitch", and she was a regular on the television show "The Wedding Bells" in 2007. She was subsequently added to the cast of "Private Practice".


title: KaDee Strickland

text: Strickland has spoken against the emphasis placed on beauty in the Los Angeles acting community, in which she says her Southern U.S. background has helped to distinguish herself from other blonde actresses. She has spoken of an affinity for her strong female characters and a desire to avoid sexualizing or sensationalizing her self-presentation as a woman. She has also worked closely with RAINN after participating in a storyline in which her "Private Practice" character was raped.


title: KaDee Strickland

text: Katherine Dee Strickland was born in Blackshear, Georgia, on December 14, 1975, to Susan, a nurse, and Dee Strickland, a high school football coach, principal, and superintendent. Her nickname comes from her parents combining the "K" in her first name with her father's name (and also her middle name) to make "KaDee". She was raised in Patterson, Georgia, which she referred to as a "one-stoplight town", and she had a job picking tobacco on a local farm for eight years. When she was a child, Strickland watched the Woody Allen film "Annie Hall" (1975) and was "wanting to be in that place, and being completely taken with the energy of those people [...] [she] wanted to be in it". During her childhood, she was well known locally as a member of the Strickland family and for her extracurricular activities and achievements; she was the Homecoming Queen in elementary, middle, and high school, as well as the student council president and a cheerleader. She never considered a career in the arts until her participation in a one-act play performed by students of her high school: "The minute I set foot on stage, that was it. Destiny took over. There were no other options. I felt like I fit my skin, I knew what I was here to do."


title: KaDee Strickland

text: After graduating from high school, Strickland wanted to study drama at college in New York City, but her parents did not want her to live in such a large city so soon. She instead applied to the University of the Arts in Philadelphia. During her studies there, she joined the Screen Actors Guild and considered using her given name as the first part of her stage name, before deciding she was "much too tomboy" for it. She took a part-time job as a waitress at a local restaurant and interned at a casting agency, where one of her tasks was to read lines at auditions for small roles in local film and television projects; the job landed Strickland her first film role. After graduating from university with a fine arts degree, she was schooled in New York City, and she moved to Los Angeles in late 2003. In 2006, she received the University of the Arts's Silver Star Alumni Award.


title: KaDee Strickland

text: Strickland's career began in 1999 with a brief appearance as a mourner at a funeral after-party in "The Sixth Sense", a two-line part that she received after impressing writer-director M. Night Shyamalan when reading lines for those auditioning for the film. According to Strickland, her role in the film helped her learn to temper her fake crying. The same year, she served as an extra in the independent film "The Sterling Chase", and appeared in a small role opposite Winona Ryder and Angelina Jolie in James Mangold's drama "Girl, Interrupted".


title: KaDee Strickland

text: When staying in Philadelphia, Strickland had opportunities to take part in other films in production in and around the city. Those included Rel Dowdell's "Train Ride", a date rape thriller filmed in 1998, but not commercially released until 2005 because of financing problems. She was also cast in the crime drama "Diamond Men" with Robert Forster and Donnie Wahlberg; it opened to sparkling reviews, with Richard Roeper of the "Chicago Sun-Times" declaring it "a fantastic film, with a good cast". After she moved to New York City, Strickland appeared in Adam Bhala Lough's filmmaking debut, "Bomb the System", which received unenthusiastic notices from critics and was not shown outside film festivals until 2005.


title: KaDee Strickland

text: Concurrent to her film work, Strickland acquired stage experience in productions such as "A Requiem for Things Past" in mid-1999, and John Patrick Shanley's "Women of Manhattan". She acted in a December 2002 episode of the television show "" and made nine guest appearances on "All My Children", which enabled her to leave her waitressing job. In 2003, Strickland was cast opposite Eddie Cibrian in the pilot episode for an uncommissioned small screen serial adaptation of John Grisham's novel "The Street Lawyer".


title: KaDee Strickland

text: Strickland appeared in two romantic comedy films in 2003. "Anything Else", written and directed by Woody Allen, featured her as the girlfriend of Jason Biggs's character (whom he snubs for Christina Ricci's Amanda Chase); she said it was a "dream come true" to work with Allen, of whom she is an "obsessive diehard" fan. The film was greeted with lukewarm reviews and dismal ticket sales, though Strickland later referred to it as her "big break". The second, "Something's Gotta Give" (starring Jack Nicholson and Diane Keaton), was a major critical and commercial success, though Strickland's part in the film was brief. She played the girlfriend of Keaton's character's ex-husband (played by Paul Michael Glaser), a relationship involving age disparity that raised the eyebrows of Keaton and her daughter (Amanda Peet). The following year, she made brief appearances in the direct-to-cable independent film "Knots" and the poorly received satirical comedy "The Stepford Wives" with Nicole Kidman, playing a partygoer and a game show contestant, respectively.


title: KaDee Strickland

text: Strickland's first lead role came when producer Doug Belgrad saw the dailies of her scene in "Something's Gotta Give". He cast her opposite Johnny Messner and Morris Chestnut in the jungle-set horror film "", the sequel to "Anaconda" (1997). Strickland played an accomplished research scientist who travels to Borneo as part of an expedition team searching for a species of plant rumored to have life-extending properties. She said she initially did not want to follow a Woody Allen film with a ""snake" movie", but that she changed her mind because the hero was a female Southerner who was not "a complete idiot" or "a chick in shorts about to get whacked". Though its box office revenue tripled its production budget, "Anacondas" did not perform as well as its predecessor, and most reviews panned the project. The cast received positive comment from "Variety" magazine and the "Chicago Sun-Times"'s Roger Ebert, but a critic for the "San Diego Union-Tribune" said the film was "so stupidly plotted and badly acted, it becomes unintentionally funny", and described Strickland and her co-stars' work as "garden-variety bad". Other reviews focussed on the attractiveness of Strickland and her castmates; "Slant Magazine" said "[the film is] populated with anonymous, attractive plastic people from the Los Angeles talent pool." During the same period, "The Florida Times-Union" referred to her as "the pride of Patterson".


title: KaDee Strickland

text: Strickland's next project, "The Grudge", was another horror film. In Japanese director Takashi Shimizu's U.S. remake of his film "" (2003), Strickland played (in a role originated by Misaki Ito) a Tokyo-based American businesswoman whose relatives emigrate from the U.S. Strickland received the role through a casting session with producer Sam Raimi, who picked her based on her work in footage for the then-unreleased "Anacondas", and her willingness to work away from home for extended periods. She said that Japan and Japanese cinema had always fascinated her, and that she wanted to be "a part of that world" in which filmmakers communicate the story via action rather than dialogue; she also highlighted the importance of being "able to explore being in the wrong place at the wrong time without being a sex object/damsel in distress." "The Grudge" was a number-one U.S. box office hit and quickly became one of the year's most profitable films, but reviews were lukewarm. "The Charlotte Observer" wrote "the cast is drab and lifeless", and earned "nothing but demerits". Strickland's presence in "The Grudge" and "Anacondas" led horror fans to name her "[their] newest scream queen", but she said that when deciding what film to do next, she did not focus as much on genre as she did on good characters, scripts, and directors, which she said "don't come around that often." For the scene in which her character hides under her bed covers, Strickland received a 2005 Teen Choice Award nomination for Choice Movie Scary Scene.


title: KaDee Strickland

text: In late 2004, Strickland embarked on what she called "the craziest job I've ever had": a role in the Farrelly brothers film "Fever Pitch", a baseball-themed romantic comedy starring Drew Barrymore and Jimmy Fallon (Strickland's "Anything Else" co-star) and based on the Nick Hornby book. Strickland said it was "a blast" to play "such a maniac", particularly after playing emotionally traumatised characters in "Anacondas" and "The Grudge". On the film's 2005 release, she received praise from "PopMatters" magazine, which described her as "irrepressible" in her role, and from MSNBC, which said she and JoBeth Williams "sometimes rescue [the picture] from its plodding moments". The film raised Strickland's profile further, though its critical response was mixed and it performed moderately at the box office. Strickland appeared as a lawyer and love interest in the film "American Gangster", which stars Russell Crowe and Denzel Washington in 2007. In 2008, she played Jillian Cartwright in the film "The Family That Preys".


title: KaDee Strickland

text: In early 2005, Strickland was cast in the pilot episode for the fact-based ABC television series "Laws of Chance". It was based on the career of Kelly Siegler, a highly successful Houston, Texas-based assistant district attorney. Strickland, whose co-stars in the pilot included Frances Fisher and Bruce McGill, said she was "really excited to have the opportunity to portray this phenomenal lady", but the series was dropped from development a few months later. Strickland was also cast in the independently financed 1950s-set film "Walker Payne" as laid-off stripminer Jason Patric's love interest; in a review of the film at the 2006 Tribeca Film Festival, "Variety" wrote that Strickland was "elegant". In late 2005, she joined the cast of "The Flock", a crime drama featuring Richard Gere, Claire Danes and singer Avril Lavigne about a federal agent assigned to track down a missing girl and a paroled sex offender (played by Strickland). Strickland said it was important to participate in such a story because she felt members of society need to consider and be responsible for their views on the sex offender counterculture, which she says "[is] actually not counter at all, it's very real, very next door to you."


title: KaDee Strickland

text: Strickland's first aired television project as a cast regular was the David E. Kelley-produced series "The Wedding Bells". According to her, she wanted to be in the series because "the subject of love and commitment is something to me that I want to walk into every day. It's a lot better than dead bodies." The show began airing on the Fox Network in March 2007, and it was canceled the following month. The "Baltimore Sun" called it "awful in ways that make the word 'awful' seem inadequate [...] [the cast is] not a bad one at all, but just terrifically ill-served by the material." She joined the cast of the "Grey's Anatomy" spin-off "Private Practice", which began airing in September 2007; and portrayed Charlotte King, chief of staff at the show's local hospital and a doctor specializing in urologic surgery, and later sexology. In 2016, she joined the series "Shut Eye" as Linda Haverford, the wife of lead character Charlie (played by Jeffrey Donovan). It was cancelled on January 30, 2018 after two seasons.


title: KaDee Strickland

text: In 1996, Strickland appeared briefly in the music video for Oasis's "Don't Look Back In Anger". In 2009, Strickland appeared in the music video for Rascal Flatts's "Here Comes Goodbye".


title: KaDee Strickland

text: Strickland has cited Jessica Lange, Holly Hunter, Diane Keaton (in "Annie Hall"), Ione Skye (her "Fever Pitch" co-star) and Jane Fonda as her inspirations and/or influences; for "The Grudge", she mimicked Fonda's performance in "Klute" (1971) and her "brilliant way in that film of creating tension and fear for the audience just by walking down a hallway and looking over her shoulder." She noted the input of her acting coach, Maggie Flanagan, who instructed Strickland to watch films with the sound turned off to gauge the quality and comprehensibility of a performance, and who Strickland credits as her "Jedi Knight".


title: KaDee Strickland

text: Strickland cites her work ethic and her "active imagination" as sources of inspiration when she is required to convey certain emotions, particularly negative ones. She said she does not practise method acting, but that actors can bring to a role elements that are, in her words, "an extension of [their] life experience". According to her, she hopes to have her experience of growing up in an emotionally warm environment incorporated into her work. Strickland has spoken of her difficulty conveying different "versions" of emotions such as fear to different members of a worldwide film-watching audience, saying "what really kept me going was trying to communicate something universal." She said she is extremely flattered when people, particularly her fans, genuinely relate to her when her "version of storytelling" and work as an actress communicates to them. She said she believed she was "here" to act, and that she could not live without it: "It's my joy, it's what I love, and there's no feeling like being able to do what you love in life, and really fully doing it", she said. Strickland called her life as an actress "a crazy existence" and "completely unstable" because of the frequency with which she has to look for new jobs, but she said she is "gonna be whole hog with it" and continue to act until her death.


title: KaDee Strickland

text: Strickland is a self-described "big fashionista" and "very concerned with looks", and has noted the need for "an element of vanity" in acting, particularly in Los Angeles, where she says she is "continually surrounded by super-human people" and has "never seen so much beauty". She says she has never had to rely on her appearance or felt pressured to be beautiful. With regard to sources such as magazines, Strickland said she is "very careful" about the way she wants to be presented as a woman, saying she strives to avoid "sensationalizing or sexualizing" herself. As she put it, she is not accustomed to being considered a "pretty girl" or "attractive by a standard that [she's] never felt that [she] was part of". She has a very noticeable Southern American accent, which she says is an advantage for her because it is "the one thing" that film and casting directors like the sound of and "really gravitate toward", particularly in Los Angeles, which she called "a town full of blondes". According to her, she learned to speak without the accent at university; because she does not want people to think she has no other skills, she uses it only when it is required or requested. She is experienced in stage combat and has said she "like[s] to do physical stuff". In an interview to discuss "Anacondas", she said, "If there was a "Braveheart" for women, I'd be all over it."


title: KaDee Strickland

text: Strickland met fellow actor Jason Behr on the set of "The Grudge" in 2004. According to her, they shared an affinity for Japanese culture and became friends almost instantly. The two began a relationship soon after filming ended. When asked about her love life in February 2005, Strickland said it was "quiet". On November 10, 2006, she married Behr in Ojai, California, in a ceremony inspired by Japanese culture. Strickland said her experience planning the wedding aided her preparation for her role in "The Wedding Bells". Her work on the wedding provided the inspiration for the wedding garden of Casa de Estrellas (House of Stars), a luxury inn and spa in Santa Fe, New Mexico. Behr proposed to her on her birthday. They have a son named Atticus Elijah Behr (born October 17, 2013).


title: KaDee Strickland

text: In 2004, before the release of "Anacondas", Strickland hosted the art debut of fellow actress Heidi Jayne Netzley at the Edgemar Center for the Arts in Santa Monica, California. She was among the actors who picketed alongside writers during the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike. She also works closely with the anti-sexual assault organization RAINN. When "Private Practice" creator Shonda Rhimes wrote a storyline in which Strickland's character was assaulted and raped, Strickland turned to RAINN to ensure that her portrayal was true to life. Through her work for this storyline, Strickland felt a personal connection with RAINN and decided to become an advocate. Since then, she has spoken out for the elimination of the backlog of untested DNA evidence and has become a vocal advocate for using DNA evidence to solve rape cases. She also worked with Gorjana to create an exclusive piece of jewelry for RAINN, in which 80% of the sale price goes directly to the organization.


title: Ethnic nationalism

text: Ethnic nationalism, also known as ethnonationalism, is a form of nationalism wherein the nation and nationality are defined in terms of ethnicity, with emphasis on an ethnocentric (and in some cases an ethnocratic) approach to various political issues related to national affirmation of a particular ethnic group.


title: Ethnic nationalism

text: The central tenet of ethnic nationalists is that "nations are defined by a shared heritage, which usually includes a common language, a common faith, and a common ethnic ancestry". Those of other ethnicities may be classified as second-class citizens.


title: Ethnic nationalism

text: The Ottoman Empire and United States are examples of polyethnic states in which the nation is defined by its geographical territory. The theorist Anthony D. Smith uses the term "ethnic nationalism" in that sense. Diaspora-studies scholars broaden the concept of "nation" to diasporic communities. The terms ethnonation and ethnonationalism are sometimes used to describe a conceptual collective of dispersed ethnics.


title: Ethnic nationalism

text: Defining an ethnos widely can lead to ethnic nationalism becoming a form of pan-nationalism or macronationalism - as in cases such as pan-Germanism or pan-Slavism.


title: Ethnic nationalism

text: The study of ethnonationalism emerged in the early 20th century in the interwar period between World War I and World War II, with the "redrawing of the political map of Europe in part along ethnic and national lines according to a proclaimed “right of peoples” to self-determination and the rise of fascist ethnocentric ideologies (including Nazism).


title: Ethnic nationalism

text: During the Cold War, the independence movement initiated in former European colonies in Asia and Africa reinvigorated research into ethnic, tribal and national identities and the "political difficulties" stemming from their interactions with territorial statehood, while the collapse of the Soviet Union in the 1980s and 1990s and the "resurgence of ethnic and national claims and conflicts in its aftermath" only further spurred ethnonationalism scholarship in the late 20th century.


title: Ethnic nationalism

text: Increased international migration as a function of contemporary globalization has also given rise to "ethno-national" movements, including reactionary "nativist" groups focused on exclusionary identity politics. In the developed world, such trends have often taken on an explicitly xenophobic and racist character, as seen in the example of "white nationalism" in the United States.


title: Ethnic nationalism

text: The central political tenet of ethnic nationalism is that ethnic groups are entitled to self-determination. The outcome of this right to self-determination may vary, from calls for self-regulated administrative bodies within an already established society, to an autonomous entity separate from that society, to the institution of ethnic federalism within a multi-ethnic society, to a establishing an independent sovereign state removed from that society. In international relations, it also leads to policies and movements for irredentism to claim a common nation based upon ethnicity, or for the establishment of an ethnocratic (mono-ethnocratic or poly-ethnocratic) political structure in which the state apparatus is controlled by a politically and militarily dominant ethnic nationalist group or a group of several ethnic nationalist groups from select ethnicities to further its interests, power and resources.


title: Ethnic nationalism

text: In scholarly literature, ethnic nationalism is usually contrasted with civic nationalism. Ethnic nationalism bases membership of the nation on descent or heredity, often articulated in terms of common blood or kinship, rather than on political membership. Hence, nation states with strong traditions of ethnic nationalism tend to define nationality or citizenship by "jus sanguinis" (the law of blood, descent from a person of that nationality), and countries with strong traditions of civic nationalism tend to define nationality or citizenship by "jus soli" (the law of soil, birth within the nation state). Ethnic nationalism is, therefore, seen as exclusive, while civic nationalism tends to be inclusive. Rather than allegiance to common civic ideals and cultural traditions, then, ethnic nationalism tends to emphasise narratives of common descent.


title: Ethnic nationalism

text: Some types of ethnic nationalism are firmly rooted in the idea of ethnicity as an inherited characteristic, for example black nationalism or white nationalism, often ethnic nationalism also manifests in the assimilation of minority ethnic groups into the dominant group, for example as with Italianisation. This assimilation may or may not be predicated on a belief in some common ancestry with assimilated groups (for example with Germanisation in the Second World war). An extreme version is racial nationalism.


title: Ethnic nationalism

text: Recent theories and empirical data suggest that people maintain dual lay beliefs about nationality, such that it can be both inherited biologically at birth and acquired culturally in life.


title: Ethnic nationalism

text: In 2018, Tendayi Achiume, a UN Special Rapporteur on racism, released a UN Human Rights Council report which states that "more than 75% of the world’s known stateless populations belong to non-white groups" and highlights the role of ethnonationalism in the international deprivation of citizenship rights. In the report, Achiume re-stated that international human rights law prohibits citizens from discriminating against non-citizens on the basis of their race, descent, national or ethnic origin and she also stated that citizenship, nationality, and immigration laws which discriminate against non-citizens are violations of international law. She also noted the role of laws restricting marriage rights with respect to certain national, religious, ethnic or racial groups, which she said were "often deployed by states to preserve notions of national, ethnic and racial "purity"." Achiume called ethnonationalist politics the "most obvious driver of racial discrimination in citizenship and immigration laws" and driven by populist leaders defining nations "in terms of assumed blood ties and ethnicity".


title: Ethnic nationalism

text: In the 19th and 20th centuries, European colonial powers used ethnonationalism to justify barring colonial subjects from citizenship, and in Europe, Jews and Roma were excluded from citizenship on the same grounds. Today, migrants are a frequent target of ethnonationalist rhetoric related to "ethnic purity and religious, cultural or linguistic preservation". Even countries with proud histories of immigration have fallen prey to the vilification of "certain racial, religious and national groups" on prejudicial grounds. Achiume called the case of the Rohingya Muslims a "chilling example", with the Burma Citizenship Act of 1982 discriminating based on ethnicity and rendering many Rohingya stateless. The violation of the rights of Afro-Caribbean British citizens from the "Windrush generation" is a pertinent example of similar prejudice in the developed world but states all over the world use misinformation to portray "certain racial, national and religious groups as inherent threats to national security" and justify stripping or denying rights.


title: Ethnic nationalism

text: Extreme forms of ethnic nationalism, as in the case of Myanmar and its government's persecution of the Rohingya, have been identified as causes of various genocides and episodes of ethnic cleansing. In his 2005 book "The Great Game of Genocide", historian Donald Bloxham argued that the Armenian genocide "represents a clear logic of ethnic nationalism when it is carried to its absolute extreme in multinational societies".


title: Ethnic nationalism

text: Ethnic nationalism is present in many states' immigration policies in the form of repatriation laws. Armenia, Bulgaria, Croatia, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Serbia and Turkey provide automatic or rapid citizenship to members of diasporas of their predominant ethnic group, if desired.


title: Ethnic nationalism

text: In Malaysia, the Bumiputera principle recognises the "special position" of the Malays provided in the Constitution of Malaysia, in particular Article 153. However, the constitution does not use the term bumiputra; it defines only "Malay" and "indigenous peoples" (Article 160(2)), "natives" of Sarawak (161A(6)(a)), and "natives" of Sabah (Article 161A(6) (b)). Some pro-Bumiputra policies exist as affirmative action for bumiputras since the Malaysian New Economic Policy is based on race, not deprivation. For instance, all Bumiputra, regardless of their financial standing, are entitled to a 7 percent discount on houses or property, including luxurious units, but low-income non-Bumiputra receives no such financial assistance. Other preferential policies include quotas for admission to government educational institutions, qualifications for public scholarships, marking of universities exam papers, special classes prior to university's end of term exams, positions in government and ownership of businesses. Most of the policies were established i1970s. Many policies focus on trying to achieve a Bumiputra share of corporate equity of at least 30% of the total. Ismail Abdul Rahman proposed that target after the government was unable to agree on a suitable policy goal.


title: Ethnic nationalism

text: Since the 2016 US presidential election, ethnonationalism has been pushed to the fore of the American political consciousness by the identity politics of Donald Trump surrounding what it means to be a "true" American, which has resulted in ethnocentric ideals becoming "a robust predictor of vote choice for Trump" among white Americans.


title: Ethnic nationalism

text: Data from the 2016 American National Election Studies (ANES) has revealed a positive associated between ethnonationalism and anti-immigrant attitudes among white Americans, whose opposition to immigration is "often grounded in fears of the threat that immigration poses to the robustness of America's national identity" that is shaped by the belief set concerning the traits of "true" Americans.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: Cats were represented in social and religious practices of ancient Egypt for more than 3,000 years. Several ancient Egyptian deities were depicted and sculptured with cat-like heads such as Mafdet, Bastet and Sekhmet, representing justice, fertility and power.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: Cats were praised for killing venomous snakes and protecting the Pharaoh since at least the First Dynasty of Egypt. Skeletal remains of cats were found among funerary goods dating to the 12th Dynasty. The protective function of cats is indicated in the "Book of the Dead", where a cat represents Ra and the benefits of the sun for life on Earth. Cat-shaped decorations used during the New Kingdom of Egypt indicate that the cat cult became more popular in daily life. Cats were depicted in association with the name of Bastet.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: Cat cemeteries at the archaeological sites Speos Artemidos, Bubastis and Saqqara were used for several centuries. They contained vast numbers of cat mummies and cat statues that are exhibited in museum collections worldwide.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: Among the mummified animals excavated in Gizeh, the African wildcat ("Felis lybica") is the most common cat followed by the jungle cat ("Felis chaus").


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: In view of the huge number of cat mummies found in Egypt, the cat cult was certainly important for the country's economy, as it required breeding of cats and a trading network for the supply of food, oils and resins for embalming them.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: Mafdet was the first known cat-headed deity in ancient Egypt. During the First Dynasty, she was regarded as protector of the pharaoh's chambers against snakes, scorpions and evil. She was often also depicted with a head of a leopard ("Panthera pardus") or a cheetah ("Acinonyx jubatus"). She was particularly prominent during the reign of Den.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: The deity Bastet is known from at least the Second Dynasty onwards. At the time, she was depicted with a lion ("Panthera leo") head. Seals and stone vessels with her name were found in the tombs of the pharaohs Khafre and Nyuserre Ini, indicating that she was regarded as protector since the mid 30th century BC during the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: A wall painting in the Fifth Dynasty's burial ground at Saqqara shows a small cat with a collar, suggesting that tamed African wildcats were kept in the pharaonic quarters by the 26th century BC.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: A mural from this period in the tomb of Baqet III depicts a cat in a hunting scene confronting a rat-like rodent.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: A tomb at the necropolis Umm El Qa'ab contained 17 cat skeletons dating to the early 20th century BC. Next to the skeletons stood small pots that are thought to have contained milk for the cats. Several tomb murals in the Theban Necropolis show cats in domestic scenes. These tombs belonged to nobles and high-ranking officials of the 18th Dynasty and were built in the 15th and 14th centuries BC. The murals show a cat sitting under a chair during a buffet, eating meat or fish; some show it in the company of a goose or a monkey. A cat in hunting and fowling scenes is another recurring motif in murals of Theban tombs.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: The first known indication for the mummification of a cat was found in an elaborately carved limestone sarcophagus dated to about 1350 BC. This cat is assumed to have been Prince Thutmose’s beloved pet.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: From the 22nd Dynasty at around the mid 950s BC onwards, the deity Bastet and her temple in the city of Bubastis grew in popularity. She is now shown only with a small cat head.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: Domestic cats ("Felis catus") were increasingly worshiped and considered sacred. When they died, they were embalmed, coffined and buried in cat cemeteries. The domestic cat was regarded as living incarnation of Bastet who protects the household against granivores, whereas the lion-headed deity Sekhmet was worshipped as protector of the pharaohs.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: During the reign of Pharaoh Osorkon II in the 9th century BC, the temple of Bastet was enlarged by a festival hall.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: Cat statues and statuettes from this period exist in diverse sizes and materials, including solid and hollow cast bronze, alabaster and faïence.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: Mummifying animals grew in popularity during the Late Period of ancient Egypt from 664 BC onwards. Mummies were used for votive offerings to the associated deity, mostly during festivals or by pilgrims. Catacombs from the New Kingdom period in the Bubastis, Saqqara and Beni Hasan necropoli were reused as cemeteries for mummies offered to Bastet.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: In the mid 5th century BC, Herodotus described the annual festival at the Bubastis temple as the largest in the country, attended by several hundred thousand pilgrims.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: During the Hellenistic period between 323 and 30 BC, the goddess Isis became associated with Bastet and cats, as indicated by an inscription at the Temple of Edfu: “Isis is the soul of Bastet”. In this period, cats were systematically bred to be killed and to be mummified as sacrifices to the gods.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: As described by Diodorus Siculus, killing a cat was regarded a serious crime. In the years between 60 and 56 BC, outraged people lynched a Roman for killing a cat, although pharaoh Ptolemy XII Auletes tried to intervene.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: Cats and religion began to be disassociated after Egypt became a Roman province in 30 BC. A series of decrees and edicts issued by Roman Emperors in the 4th and 5th centuries AD gradually curtailed the practice of paganism and pagan rituals in Egypt. Pagan temples were impounded and sacrifices prohibited by 380 AD. Three edicts issued between 391 and 392 prohibited pagan rituals and burial ceremonies at all cult sites. Death penalty for offenders was introduced in 395, and the destruction of pagan temples decreed in 399. By 415, the Christian church received all property that was formerly dedicated to paganism. Pagans were exiled by 423, and crosses replaced pagan symbols following a decree from 435.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: They were still respected in the 15th century, when Arnold von Harff travelled to Egypt and observed mamluk warriors treating cats with honour and empathy.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: In 1799, members of the French Commission des Sciences et des Arts surveyed the old city of Lycopolis near Asyut for the first time and found mummified cats and remains of other animals.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: In the 1820s, the Louvre Museum exhibited cat statues made of wood, bronze, and enameled pottery that originated mostly in Bubastis.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: In 1830, Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg accounted of having observed three different small cat forms in Egypt: the jungle cat, the African wildcat, and a sacred cat that was intermediate in size between the jungle cat and the domestic cat. He called this cat "Felis bubastis".


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: The Egypt Exploration Society funded excavations in Bubastis in the late 1880s. Édouard Naville accounted of numerous cat statues already available in Cairo shops at the time. At the city's cemetery of cats, he and colleagues emptied several large pits up to a volume of filled with cat and Egyptian mongoose ("Herpestes ichneumon") bones.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: Among the bones, some embalming material, porcelain and bronze objects, beads and ornaments, and statues of Bastet and Nefertem were also found. By 1889, the cemetery was considered exhausted.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: In the late 1880s, more than 200,000 mummified animals, most of them cats, were found in the cemetery of Beni Hasan in central Egypt. In 1890, William Martin Conway wrote about excavations in Speos Artemidos near Beni Hasan: "The plundering of the cemetery was a sight to see, but one had to stand well windward. The village children came from day to day and provided themselves with the most attractive mummies they could find. These they took down the river bank to sell for the smallest coin to passing travelers. The path became strewn with mummy cloth and bits of cats' skulls and bones and fur in horrid positions, and the wind blew the fragments about and carried the stink afar."


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: In 1890, a shipment of thousands of animal mummies reached Liverpool. Most of them were cat mummies. A large part was sold as fertiliser, a small part was purchased by the zoological museum of the city's university college.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: The Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon received hundreds of cat mummies excavated by Gaston Maspero at Beni Hasan, Sakkara and Thebes. The cats were of all ages from adult to kittens with deciduous teeth. Some of them were contained in statues and sarcophagi. The larger ones were bandaged in cloth of different colours with decorated heads and ears formed of rubberized tissue.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: The Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale funded excavations near Faiyum where Pierre Jouguet found a tomb full of cat mummies in 1901. It was located in the midst of tombs with crocodile mummies.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: In 1907, the British Museum received a collection of 192 mummified cats and 11 small carnivores excavated at Gizeh by Flinders Petrie. The mummies probably date to between 600 and 200 BC. Two of these cat mummies were radiographed in 1980. The analysis revealed that they were deliberately strangulated before they reached the age of two years. They were probably used to supply the demand for mummified cats as votive offerings.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: Remains of 23 cats were found in the early 1980s in a small mastaba tomb at the archaeological site Balat in Dakhla Oasis. The tomb was established during the Old Kingdom of Egypt in the 25th century BC and reused later. The cats were probably mummified as tissue shreds were still stuck in their bones.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: Excavations in the Bubasteum area at Saqqara in the early 1980s yielded 200 cat mummies in the tomb of the Vizier Aperel.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: Another 184 cat mummies were found in a different part of this tomb in the 1990s, comprising 11 packets with a few cat bones and 84 packets containing mud, clay and pebbles. Radiographic examination showed that mostly young cats were mummified; most cats died of skull fractures and had dislocated spinal bones, indicating that they were beaten to death. In this site, the tomb of Tutankhamun's wet nurse Maia was discovered in 1996, which contained cat mummies next to human mummies.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: In 2001, the skeleton of a male lion was found in this tomb that also showed signs of mummification. It was about nine years old, probably lived in captivity for many years and showed signs of malnutrition. It had probably lived and died in the Ptolemaic period.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: Mummified remains of 335 domestic and 29 jungle cats were excavated in the catacombs of Anubis at Saqqara during works started in 2009.


title: Cats in ancient Egypt

text: In the 2nd century, Polyaenus accounted of a stratagem allegedly deployed by the Persian king Cambyses II during the Battle of Pelusium (525 BC): Cambyses II ordered placing of cats and other animals venerated by Egyptians before the Persian front lines. Egyptians purportedly stopped their defending operations, and the Persians then conquered Pelusium.


title: The History of Middle-earth

text: The History of Middle-earth is a 12-volume series of books published between 1983 and 1996 that collect and analyse much of Tolkien's legendarium, compiled and edited by his son, Christopher Tolkien. The series shows the development over time of Tolkien's conception of Middle-earth as a fictional place with its own peoples, languages, and history, from his earliest notions of a "mythology for England" through to the development of the stories that make up "The Silmarillion" and "The Lord of the Rings". It is not a "history of Middle-earth" in the sense of being a chronicle of events in Middle-earth written from an in-universe perspective; it is instead an out-of-universe history of Tolkien's creative process. In 2000, the twelve volumes were republished in three limited edition omnibus volumes. Non-deluxe editions of the three volumes were published in 2002.


title: The History of Middle-earth

text: Some of the content consists of earlier versions of already published works, while other portions are new material. These books are extremely detailed, often analysing a scrap of paper to provide the full evolution of two or even three different versions of a passage that were rewritten over each other. Despite the great amount of material in the twelve volumes, numerous unpublished texts are still known to exist in the Bodleian and Marquette University libraries, and in other papers held by individuals or organizations, such as the Elvish Linguistic Fellowship.


title: The History of Middle-earth

text: The first five books track the early history of "The Silmarillion" and related texts. Books six to nine discuss the development of "The Lord of the Rings"; book nine also discusses the Númenor story in the form of "The Notion Club Papers". Books ten and eleven focus on material from the "Silmarillion" that Tolkien worked on after "The Lord of the Rings" was published, including the "Annals of Beleriand" and the "Annals of Aman". Book twelve discusses the development of the Appendices to "The Lord of the Rings" and examines assorted writings from the last years of Tolkien's life.


title: The History of Middle-earth

text: Christopher Tolkien made the decision not to include any material related to "The Hobbit" in "The History of Middle-earth" because it was not originally intended to form part of the mythology, but was a children's story and originally not set in Middle-earth, revised during the writing of "The Lord of the Rings". "The History of The Hobbit" was published separately, in two volumes, in 2007 and was edited by John D. Rateliff.


title: The History of Middle-earth

text: A combined index was published six years after the series was completed as "The History of Middle-earth: Index" (2002).


title: The History of Middle-earth

text: A shorter version of volume 9, omitting material not related to "The Lord of the Rings", was published as "The End of the Third Age"; this is usually sold as a boxed set along with volumes 6, 7 and 8 as "The History of the Lord of the Rings".


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) is a local computer bus for attaching hardware devices in a computer and is part of the PCI Local Bus standard. The PCI bus supports the functions found on a processor bus but in a standardized format that is independent of any given processor's native bus. Devices connected to the PCI bus appear to a bus master to be connected directly to its own bus and are assigned addresses in the processor's address space. It is a parallel bus, synchronous to a single bus clock.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: Attached devices can take either the form of an integrated circuit fitted onto the motherboard (called a "planar device" in the PCI specification) or an expansion card that fits into a slot. The PCI Local Bus was first implemented in IBM PC compatibles, where it displaced the combination of several slow Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) slots and one fast VESA Local Bus (VLB) slot as the bus configuration. It has subsequently been adopted for other computer types. Typical PCI cards used in PCs include: network cards, sound cards, modems, extra ports such as Universal Serial Bus (USB) or serial, TV tuner cards and hard disk drive host adapters. PCI video cards replaced ISA and VLB cards until rising bandwidth needs outgrew the abilities of PCI. The preferred interface for video cards then became Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP), a superset of PCI, before giving way to PCI Express.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: The first version of PCI found in retail desktop computers was a 32-bit bus using a 33 MHz bus clock and 5 V signalling, although the PCI 1.0 standard provided for a 64-bit variant as well. These have one locating notch in the card. Version 2.0 of the PCI standard introduced 3.3 V slots, physically distinguished by a flipped physical connector to prevent accidental insertion of 5 V cards. Universal cards, which can operate on either voltage, have two notches. Version 2.1 of the PCI standard introduced optional 66 MHz operation. A server-oriented variant of PCI, PCI Extended (PCI-X) operated at frequencies up to 133 MHz for PCI-X 1.0 and up to 533 MHz for PCI-X 2.0. An internal connector for laptop cards, called Mini PCI, was introduced in version 2.2 of the PCI specification. The PCI bus was also adopted for an external laptop connector standard the CardBus. The first PCI specification was developed by Intel, but subsequent development of the standard became the responsibility of the "PCI Special Interest Group" (PCI-SIG).


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: PCI and PCI-X sometimes are referred to as either "Parallel PCI" or "Conventional PCI" to distinguish them technologically from their more recent successor PCI Express, which adopted a serial, lane-based architecture. PCI's heyday in the desktop computer market was approximately 1995 to 2005. PCI and PCI-X have become obsolete for most purposes; however in 2020 they are still common on modern desktops for the purposes of backward compatibility and the low relative cost to produce. Another common modern application of parallel PCI is in industrial PCs, where many specialized expansion cards, used here, never transitioned to PCI Express, just as with some ISA cards. Many kinds of devices formerly available on PCI expansion cards are now commonly integrated onto motherboards or available in USB and PCI Express versions.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: Work on PCI began at the Intel Architecture Labs (IAL, also Architecture Development Lab) . A team of primarily IAL engineers defined the architecture and developed a proof of concept chipset and platform (Saturn) partnering with teams in the company's desktop PC systems and core logic product organizations.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: PCI was immediately put to use in servers, replacing Micro Channel architecture (MCA) and Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) as the server expansion bus of choice. In mainstream PCs, PCI was slower to replace VLB, and did not gain significant market penetration until late 1994 in second-generation Pentium PCs. By 1996, VLB was all but extinct, and manufacturers had adopted PCI even for Intel 80486 (486) computers. EISA continued to be used alongside PCI through 2000. Apple Computer adopted PCI for professional Power Macintosh computers (replacing NuBus) in mid-1995, and the consumer Performa product line (replacing LC Processor Direct Slot (PDS)) in mid-1996.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: Outside the server market, the 64-bit version of plain PCI remained rare in practice though, although it was used for example by all (post-iMac) G3 and G4 Power Macintosh computers.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: Later revisions of PCI added new features and performance improvements, including a 66 MHz 3.3 V standard and 133 MHz PCI-X, and the adaptation of PCI signaling to other form factors. Both PCI-X 1.0b and PCI-X 2.0 are backward compatible with some PCI standards. These revisions were used on server hardware but consumer PC hardware remained nearly all 32-bit, 33 MHz and 5 volt.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: The PCI-SIG introduced the serial PCI Express in . Since then, motherboard manufacturers have included progressively fewer PCI slots in favor of the new standard. Many new motherboards do not provide PCI slots at all, as of late 2013.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: PCI provides separate memory and memory-mapped I/O port address spaces for the x86 processor family, 64 and 32 bits, respectively. Addresses in these address spaces are assigned by software. A third address space, called the PCI Configuration Space, which uses a fixed addressing scheme, allows software to determine the amount of memory and I/O address space needed by each device. Each device can request up to six areas of memory space or input/output (I/O) port space via its configuration space registers.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: In a typical system, the firmware (or operating system) queries all PCI buses at startup time (via PCI Configuration Space) to find out what devices are present and what system resources (memory space, I/O space, interrupt lines, etc.) each needs. It then allocates the resources and tells each device what its allocation is.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: The PCI configuration space also contains a small amount of device type information, which helps an operating system choose device drivers for it, or at least to have a dialogue with a user about the system configuration.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: Devices may have an on-board read-only memory (ROM) containing executable code for x86 or PA-RISC processors, an Open Firmware driver, or an Option ROM. These are typically needed for devices used during system startup, before device drivers are loaded by the operating system.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: In addition, there are "PCI Latency Timers" that are a mechanism for "PCI Bus-Mastering" devices to share the PCI bus fairly. "Fair" in this case means that devices will not use such a large portion of the available PCI bus bandwidth that other devices are not able to get needed work done. Note, this does not apply to PCI Express.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: Devices are required to follow a protocol so that the interrupt lines can be shared. The PCI bus includes four interrupt pins, later allow up to 8 PCI devices share the same interrupt line in APIC systems, all of which are available to each device. However, they are not wired in parallel as are the other PCI bus lines. The positions of the interrupt lines rotate between slots, so what appears to one device as the INTA# pin is INTB# to the next and INTC# to the one after that. Single-function devices usually use their INTA# for interrupt signaling, so the device load is spread fairly evenly across the four available interrupt pins. This alleviates a common problem with sharing interrupts.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: The mapping of PCI interrupt lines onto system interrupt lines, through the PCI host bridge, is implementation-dependent. Platform-specific Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) code is meant to know this, and set the "interrupt line" field in each device's configuration space indicating which IRQ it is connected to.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: PCI interrupt lines are level-triggered. This was chosen over edge-triggering to gain an advantage when servicing a shared interrupt line, and for robustness: edge triggered interrupts are easy to miss.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: Later revisions of the PCI specification add support for message-signaled interrupts. In this system, a device signals its need for service by performing a memory write, rather than by asserting a dedicated line. This alleviates the problem of scarcity of interrupt lines. Even if interrupt vectors are still shared, it does not suffer the sharing problems of level-triggered interrupts. It also resolves the routing problem, because the memory write is not unpredictably modified between device and host. Finally, because the message signaling is in-band, it resolves some synchronization problems that can occur with posted writes and out-of-band interrupt lines.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: PCI Express does not have physical interrupt lines at all. It uses message-signaled interrupts exclusively.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: The PCI specification also provides options for 3.3 V signaling, 64-bit bus width, and 66 MHz clocking, but these are not commonly encountered outside of PCI-X support on server motherboards.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: The PCI bus arbiter performs bus arbitration among multiple masters on the PCI bus. Any number of bus masters can reside on the PCI bus, as well as requests for the bus. One pair of request and grant signals is dedicated to each bus master.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: Typical PCI cards have either one or two key notches, depending on their signaling voltage. Cards requiring 3.3 volts have a notch 56.21 mm from the card backplate; those requiring 5 volts have a notch 104.47 mm from the backplate. This allows cards to be fitted only into slots with a voltage they support. "Universal cards" accepting either voltage have both key notches.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: The PCI connector is defined as having 62 contacts on each side of the edge connector, but two or four of them are replaced by key notches, so a card has 60 or 58 contacts on each side. Side A refers to the 'solder side' and side B refers to the 'component side': if the card is held with the connector pointing down, a view of side A will have the backplate on the right, whereas a view of side B will have the backplate on the left. The pinout of B and A sides are as follows, looking down into the motherboard connector (pins A1 and B1 are closest to backplate).


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: 64-bit PCI extends this by an additional 32 contacts on each side which provide AD[63:32], C/BE[7:4]#, the PAR64 parity signal, and a number of power and ground pins.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: Most 32-bit PCI cards will function properly in 64-bit PCI-X slots, but the bus clock rate will be limited to the clock frequency of the slowest card, an inherent limitation of PCI's shared bus topology. For example, when a PCI 2.3, 66-MHz peripheral is installed into a PCI-X bus capable of 133 MHz, the entire bus backplane will be limited to 66 MHz. To get around this limitation, many motherboards have two or more PCI/PCI-X buses, with one bus intended for use with high-speed PCI-X peripherals, and the other bus intended for general-purpose peripherals.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: Many 64-bit PCI-X cards are designed to work in 32-bit mode if inserted in shorter 32-bit connectors, with some loss of performance. An example of this is the Adaptec 29160 64-bit SCSI interface card. However, some 64-bit PCI-X cards do not work in standard 32-bit PCI slots.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: Installing a 64-bit PCI-X card in a 32-bit slot will leave the 64-bit portion of the card edge connector not connected and overhanging. This requires that there be no motherboard components positioned so as to mechanically obstruct the overhanging portion of the card edge connector.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: Mini PCI was added to PCI version 2.2 for use in laptops; it uses a 32-bit, 33 MHz bus with powered connections (3.3 V only; 5 V is limited to 100 mA) and support for bus mastering and DMA. The standard size for Mini PCI cards is approximately a quarter of their full-sized counterparts. There is no access to the card from outside the case, unlike desktop PCI cards with brackets carrying connectors. This limits the kinds of functions a Mini PCI card can perform.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: Many Mini PCI devices were developed such as Wi-Fi, Fast Ethernet, Bluetooth, modems (often Winmodems), sound cards, cryptographic accelerators, SCSI, IDE–ATA, SATA controllers and combination cards. Mini PCI cards can be used with regular PCI-equipped hardware, using Mini PCI-to-PCI "converters". Mini PCI has been superseded by the much narrower PCI Express Mini Card


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: Mini PCI cards have a 2 W maximum power consumption, which limits the functionality that can be implemented in this form factor. They also are required to support the CLKRUN# PCI signal used to start and stop the PCI clock for power management purposes.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: There are three card form factors: Type I, Type II, and Type III cards. The card connector used for each type include: Type I and II use a 100-pin stacking connector, while Type III uses a 124-pin edge connector, i.e. the connector for Types I and II differs from that for Type III, where the connector is on the edge of a card, like with a SO-DIMM. The additional 24 pins provide the extra signals required to route I/O back through the system connector (audio, AC-Link, LAN, phone-line interface). Type II cards have RJ11 and RJ45 mounted connectors. These cards must be located at the edge of the computer or docking station so that the RJ11 and RJ45 ports can be mounted for external access.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: PCI bus traffic consists of a series of PCI bus transactions. Each transaction consists of an "address phase" followed by one or more "data phases". The direction of the data phases may be from initiator to target (write transaction) or vice versa (read transaction), but all of the data phases must be in the same direction. Either party may pause or halt the data phases at any point. (One common example is a low-performance PCI device that does not support burst transactions, and always halts a transaction after the first data phase.)


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: Any PCI device may initiate a transaction. First, it must request permission from a PCI bus arbiter on the motherboard. The arbiter grants permission to one of the requesting devices. The initiator begins the address phase by broadcasting a 32-bit address plus a 4-bit command code, then waits for a target to respond. All other devices examine this address and one of them responds a few cycles later.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: 64-bit addressing is done using a two-stage address phase. The initiator broadcasts the low 32 address bits, accompanied by a special "dual address cycle" command code. Devices which do not support 64-bit addressing can simply not respond to that command code. The next cycle, the initiator transmits the high 32 address bits, plus the real command code. The transaction operates identically from that point on. To ensure compatibility with 32-bit PCI devices, it is forbidden to use a dual address cycle if not necessary, i.e. if the high-order address bits are all zero.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: While the PCI bus transfers 32 bits per data phase, the initiator transmits 4 active-low byte enable signals indicating which 8-bit bytes are to be considered significant. In particular, a write must affect only the enabled bytes in the target PCI device. They are of little importance for memory reads, but I/O reads might have side effects. The PCI standard explicitly allows a data phase with no bytes enabled, which must behave as a no-op.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: Memory addresses are 32 bits (optionally 64 bits) in size, support caching and can be burst transactions.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: I/O addresses are for compatibility with the Intel x86 architecture's I/O port address space. Although the PCI bus specification allows burst transactions in any address space, most devices only support it for memory addresses and not I/O.


title: Peripheral Component Interconnect

text: Finally, PCI configuration space provides access to 256 bytes of special configuration registers per PCI device. Each PCI slot gets its own configuration space address range. The registers are used to configure devices memory and I/O address ranges they should respond to from transaction initiators. When a computer is first turned on, all PCI devices respond only to their configuration space accesses. The computer's BIOS scans for devices and assigns Memory and I/O address ranges to them.